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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Book of Shells
-       Containing the Classes Mollusca, Conchifera, Cirrhipeda,
-       Annulata, and Crustacea
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60961]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
-    in the original text.
-  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
-  Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
-  Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.
-  Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
-    in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration: THE FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS
-
-DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME]
-
-
-
-
-                                  THE
-                            BOOK OF SHELLS;
-
-                              CONTAINING
-                   THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,
-                       CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND
-                              CRUSTACEA.
-
-                   PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
-          THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,
-                APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
-                         CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.
-
-                          THE SECOND EDITION.
-
-                                LONDON:
-                     JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.
-
-                            M.DCCC.XXXVII.
-
-
-
-
-TO THE READER.
-
-
-In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which
-embraces the VERTEBRAL ANIMALS,—namely, the Mammalia, the Birds, the
-Reptiles, and the Fishes,—the arrangement of the BARON CUVIER was
-adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in two others that
-are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the INVERTEBRAL
-ANIMALS, the method of M. LAMARCK will be adhered to. It is true, that,
-since the works of that naturalist were published, many deviations
-from certain parts of his system have taken place, some of which have
-received the sanction of the highest names; but still, _as a whole_,
-Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and the young naturalist can
-readily add to the information it contains, by reference to the works
-of more recent authors, in case he has sufficient inclination and
-industry to follow out the subject.
-
-
-
-
-           CONTENTS.
-
-
-                                     Page
-    Introductory Chapter                9
-
-    Class MOLLUSCA                     14
-
-    Order HETEROPODA                   15
-    The Glassy Carinaria               15
-
-    Order CEPHALOPODA                  16
-    The Cuttle Fish                    17
-        Argonaut                       20
-        Pearly Nautilus                22
-
-    Order TRACHELIPODA                 26
-    The Marble Cone                    27
-        Porphyry Olive Shell           28
-        Money Cowrie                   29
-        Diadem Whorl Shell             31
-        Common Columbella              31
-        Music Harp Shell               32
-        Wide-Mouthed Purpura           33
-        Spotted Scorpion Shell         37
-        Variegated Sea-Trumpet         39
-        Caniculated Pear-Shell         40
-        Babylonian Split-Mouth         40
-        Marble Turban-Shell            41
-        Imperial Top-Shell             41
-        Precious Scalaria              42
-        Iris Ear-Shell                 43
-        Dusty Neritina                 44
-        Viviparous Paludina            44
-        Lymnæa Stagnalis               45
-        Horn-shaped Planorbis          46
-        Red-mouthed Bulimus            46
-        Mummy Puppet Shell             47
-        Wood Snail                     47
-
-    Order GASTEROPODA                  51
-    The Red Slug                       51
-        Woodlike Bulla                 53
-        Nail-shaped Crepidula          54
-        Mediterranean Umbrella         54
-        Clouded Fissurella             54
-        Hungarian Bonnet Shell         55
-        Scaly Chiton                   56
-
-    Class CONCHIFERA                   57
-
-    Order UNIMUSCULOSA                 64
-    The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell          64
-        Oyster                         65
-        Great Comb Shell               68
-        Pearl Oyster                   69
-        Hammer Oyster                  77
-        Rough Pinna                    77
-        Common Mussel                  79
-        Giant Tridacna                 81
-
-    Order BIMUSCULOSA                  82
-    The Fresh-Water Mussel             83
-        Heart-shaped Isocardia         84
-        Wedge-shaped Donax             85
-        Sheath Solen                   85
-        Date-shaped Pholas             87
-        Ship-Worm                      89
-
-    Class CIRRHIPEDA                   91
-
-    Order CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA       92
-    The Smooth Barnacle                92
-
-    Order CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA        94
-    The Acorn-Shell                    94
-
-    Class ANNULATA                     97
-
-    Order ANNULATA SEDENTARIA          98
-    The Magnificent Amphitrite         98
-
-    Order ANNULATA ANTENNATA          100
-    The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen    100
-        Blood-coloured Leodice        100
-        Spinous Sea-Mouse             102
-
-    Order ANNULATA APODA              102
-    The Common Earth-Worm             103
-        Medicinal Leech               106
-
-    Class CRUSTACEA                   115
-
-    Order CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ      115
-    The Crab Tribe                    117
-        Land Crab                     124
-        Hermit Crab                   127
-        Lobster                       130
-        River Cray-Fish               131
-        Phosphorescent Shrimp         132
-        Opossum Shrimp                134
-
-    Order CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ    137
-    The Spotted Squill                137
-        Common Cloportus              138
-        Molucca Crab                  142
-        Crab-like Limulus             144
-        Water Flea                    144
-        Small Water Flea              147
-        Hairy Cypris                  148
-
-
-
-
-THE BOOK OF SHELLS.
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
-
-
-In reviewing the first DIVISION of the animal kingdom, namely, the
-vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have been delighted with the
-wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed upon each individual;
-but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of their possessors as
-these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure must be still greater
-in tracing the powers with which those creatures are endowed, which
-constitute what we have been accustomed to call the lower orders of
-animated nature.
-
-When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or
-the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the
-terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and
-metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that
-equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the
-different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the
-various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation;
-but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple
-appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to
-consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to
-look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose,
-and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How
-much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed
-of every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully
-developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the
-highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is
-their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable
-to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves
-of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even
-to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of
-the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain
-we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the _Infusoria_, those
-microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances
-in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach,
-and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned
-foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach,
-they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the
-nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their
-existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we
-have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in
-fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of
-the Creator’s works.
-
-The second DIVISION of the objects of natural history, namely, the
-INVERTEBRAL animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by
-themselves, on account of their being without an internal skeleton,
-consisting of a series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This
-distinction is explained in the introductory chapter to the Book of
-Animals. They have been separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven CLASSES,
-namely:—
-
-  1. MOLLUSCA, (_soft-bodied animals_,) in general covered
-        with a shell; as, for instance, a snail; or without a
-        shell, as a slug.
-
-  2. CONCHIFERA, (_shell-bearing animals_,) with a shell,
-        consisting of two valves, as an oyster or mussel.
-
-  3. CIRRHIPEDA, (_with feet like cirri, or hairs_.) The inhabitant
-        of the acorn-shell, found on the back of the larger kind of
-        shell-fish, &c., is an instance of this class.
-
-  4. ANNELIDA, (_with body formed of rings_;) of this class
-        the leech and the earth-worm are instances.
-
-  5. CRUSTACEA, (_covered with a hard case_,) crabs, lobsters, &c.
-
-  6. ARACHNIDÆ, _Spiders_.
-
-  7. INSECTA, _Insects_. A perfect insect has always six legs.
-
-  8. TUNICATA, (_enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence_.)
-
-  9. VERMES, _Worms_. With lengthened body without divisions;
-        for instance, worms found in the intestines.
-
-  10. RADIARIÆ, (_radiated animals_,) with the different parts
-        of which they are formed arranged like rays round one
-        common centre; as, for instance, the Star-fish.
-
-  11. POLYPI, (_many feet_.) The animal that forms the Coral
-        is a Polypus.
-
-  12. INFUSORIA, (_Infusory animals_.) These are found in
-        infusions of vegetable substances in water, and are,
-        in general, too small to be visible to the naked eye.
-
-In the present little book we shall treat of the first five of these
-Classes.
-
-The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed
-first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling,
-in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.
-
-The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered
-not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the
-anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study.
-In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of
-the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the
-animals.
-
-Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to
-be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the
-valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable
-us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of
-view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist.
-In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different
-species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the
-royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small
-univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress,
-the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of
-mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the
-well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from
-the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As
-an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel,
-scallop, &c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of
-the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro
-population in the West Indies.
-
-The _Teredo navalis_, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers,
-ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which
-many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on
-this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history
-and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of
-ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with
-the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the
-useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep.
-
-The shell with which a Molluscous animal is covered, is absolutely
-necessary to protect its delicate body from injury; this shell is, in
-general, composed of much the same substances as bone; but the bone of
-a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency of the blood, and the
-particles of which it is composed are deposited by that fluid, and
-again taken up and restored to the circulation, a circumstance which
-does not take place in the substance of a shell. The shell is formed
-by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of the growth of
-the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells, point out their
-periodical increase.
-
-[Illustration: _Fig 1. Fig 2._]
-
-It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between shells
-of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless properly
-defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The annexed
-diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent occurrence
-among the Mollusca. Fig. 1, represents a univalve shell; fig. 2,
-another shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the
-purpose of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for
-instance, the periwinkle, (_Turbo vulgaris_,) have what is called
-an operculum, (_a lid_,) which closes the opening, and protects the
-inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of
-horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell
-itself.
-
-
-
-
-CLASS MOLLUSCA.
-
-
-In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily
-attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the
-creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in
-different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and
-brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they
-are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be
-of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the
-snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.
-
-The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different
-form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of
-muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or
-drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are
-situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of
-a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from
-view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished
-with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in
-others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion
-of these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit
-that element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.
-
-The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following
-Orders:—
-
-  1. HETEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
-        not uniform in all species_.)
-
-  2. CEPHALOPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
-        attached to the head_.)
-
-  3. TRACHELIPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
-        attached to the neck, near the gills_.)
-
-  4. GASTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
-        attached to the stomach_.)
-
-  5. PTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
-        like wings_.)
-
-
-_ORDER HETEROPODA._
-
-The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered
-as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals,
-intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods;
-they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a jelly-like
-substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty when
-floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are less
-known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great difficulty
-there is in preserving them.
-
-
-THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)
-
-This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and
-perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be
-seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears
-merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material
-organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or
-organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part
-of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white
-and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance
-resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling
-it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which
-seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors
-with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas
-at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax
-model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches
-wide.
-
-[Illustration: THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)]
-
-
-_ORDER CEPHALOPODA._
-
-The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished
-with a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find
-among this class some of the most singular productions of the waters;
-they differ materially from each other, and have been separated into
-three groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia;
-secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the
-Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous
-chambers, as the Nautilus.
-
-
-THE CUTTLE FISH, (_Sepia officinalis_.)
-
-The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native
-of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of
-an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually
-covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike
-all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the
-Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard
-transparent substance.
-
-The Cuttle Fish, figured in the engraving, is furnished in front
-with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy,
-or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously
-constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in
-themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted
-by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner
-surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in
-contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar
-power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not
-cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind
-of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for
-many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching.
-
-[Illustration: THE CUTTLE FISH.]
-
-[Illustration: BEAK OF A CEPHALOPOD.]
-
-The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and,
-although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt
-that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own
-element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes,
-capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe
-are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and
-very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within
-its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the
-power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it
-escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms
-a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal,
-_Sepia_. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each
-other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour,
-and commonly known by the name of _Sea Grapes_. They are found attached
-to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.
-
-The Cuttle Fish generally remains with its body in some hole in a rock,
-while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer
-that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious,
-and it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to
-conquer.
-
-The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English
-coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found
-on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the
-manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of
-the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in
-the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though
-varying considerably in texture.
-
-
-THE ARGONAUT, (_Argonauta argo_.)
-
-    The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,
-    The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.
-
-       *       *       *       *       *
-
-    He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep
-    The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.
-    He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,
-    That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.
-
-The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest
-ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and,
-at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research
-of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with
-the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so
-that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists
-would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division
-of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along
-with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union
-between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it
-applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do
-not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the
-shell.
-
-The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its
-resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in
-full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have
-been the first fitted out for commercial adventure.
-
-[Illustration: THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.]
-
-In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in
-considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the
-waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist,
-Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal
-miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or
-Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture,
-and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube,
-all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily;
-then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a
-membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the
-remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as
-a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if
-alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”
-
-Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its
-shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly
-Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that
-such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed
-by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the
-instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation.
-The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these
-interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.
-
-
-THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, (_Nautilus pompilius_.)
-
-The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after
-with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years
-that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this
-knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while
-engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen
-containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now
-deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.
-
-The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided
-into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now
-describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to
-be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking
-in the Water at will. The body of this _Cephalopod_, it will be seen,
-only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size
-having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as
-the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they
-had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too
-cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the
-providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own
-words, the capture of this interesting object.
-
-[Illustration: THE PEARLY NAUTILUS,
-
-Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.]
-
-“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather,
-thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was
-lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island
-of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean,
-that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at
-some distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead
-tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in
-this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship
-at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the
-floating object.”
-
-“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly
-known by the name of the Pearly Nautilus: it was captured and brought
-on board; but the shell was shattered from having been struck with
-the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was sinking when the boat
-approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it would have escaped. I
-extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was firmly attached to
-each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has been stated by Dr.
-Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour, with deeper sports
-and variegations,” the colour, however, as it appeared in this recent
-specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.
-
-[Illustration: SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN, OR INTERNAL
-SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.]
-
-Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been
-brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been
-frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and
-not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An
-office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of
-rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the
-fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as
-soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I
-and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not
-notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell,
-merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the
-membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful
-prize.”
-
-Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with
-its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out
-his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the
-poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse
-position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the
-ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on
-the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but
-after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops
-floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves.
-This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken
-in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the
-bottom.”
-
-
-_ORDER TRACHELIPODA._
-
-The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve
-shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two
-numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (_Zoophagi_,) and those
-that exist on vegetable substances, (_Phytophagi_.) The animal feeders
-are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without
-jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at
-pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies
-of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known
-from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a
-_siphon_, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points
-out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of
-its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for
-the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe
-water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.
-
-  FAMILY CONVOLUTA,    (_rolled up like a scroll_.)
-  FAMILY COLUMELLARIA, (_distinguished by a plaited columella_.)
-  FAMILY PURPURIFERA,  (_yielding a purple colour_.)
-  FAMILY ALATA,        (_winged_.)
-  FAMILY CANALIFERA    (_having a canal at the base of the opening_.)
-
-
-FAMILY _CONVOLUTA_.
-
-The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich
-in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of
-this class.
-
-
-FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (ZOOPHAGI.)
-
-
-THE MARBLE CONE, (_Conus marmoreus_.)
-
-Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The
-Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and
-is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular
-white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable
-manner the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his
-works.
-
-[Illustration: _Voluta diadema. Conus marmoreus. Columbella
-mercatoria._]
-
-It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is
-much thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part;
-and this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the
-soft body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the
-animal the shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes
-internal, the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall;
-if, therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original
-thickness, its weight would become too great for its possessor. To
-guard against this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material,
-the creature possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance
-of what now becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is
-unnecessary for its present use, and of re-depositing the same on the
-outward wall of its mansion, where strength is most required[1].
-
-The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve
-shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable
-specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their
-form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but,
-above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of
-celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.
-
-[Illustration: _Oliva porphyria._]
-
-The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve
-fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two
-tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit
-salt waters.
-
-The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal
-which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the
-columella. The Porphyry Olive is found in the South American Seas, on
-the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species
-of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish
-brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with
-irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly
-four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.
-
-
-THE MONEY COWRIE, (_Cypræa moneta_.)
-
-The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African
-coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a
-circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in
-Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are
-obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for
-rice.
-
-[Illustration: _Cypræa moneta._]
-
-Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea;
-these having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to
-Bengal, and from thence sent into this country. The value of these
-shells as a circulating medium depends naturally enough on their
-greater or less abundance.
-
-In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a
-shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued at
-a shilling.
-
-The Cowrie shell is found of three different forms, according to
-its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely
-imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the
-usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then
-begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely
-slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly,
-when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in
-which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden.
-The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the
-two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult
-state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large,
-so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while
-the deposition of the new matter is taking place.
-
-Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to
-prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we
-have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to
-require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one;
-from this it happens that the same individual can form successively
-many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both
-large and small.
-
-When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand,
-at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot
-climates.
-
-
-FAMILY _COLUMELLARIA_.
-
-This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella
-plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a
-plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that
-is, without a notch.
-
-
-THE DIADEM WHORL SHELL, (_Voluta diadema_.)
-
-The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it
-is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become
-nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and
-is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has
-two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth
-is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little
-hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ,
-springing out obliquely behind the head.
-
-
-THE COMMON COLUMBELLA, (_Columbella mercatoria_.)
-
-The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island
-of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of
-an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it
-possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.
-
-
-FAMILY _PURPURIFERA_.
-
-The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove
-bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all
-the genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to
-these Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar
-reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient
-nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much
-in use before the discovery of cochineal.
-
-
-THE MUSIC HARP SHELL, (_Harpa musica_.)
-
-The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance
-also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the
-animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time
-back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either
-forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth,
-although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:—
-
-[Illustration: _Harpa musica._]
-
-The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two
-portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from
-its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and
-wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account
-it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it
-would be lost at the same time as the foot.
-
-The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were
-less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours,
-become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still
-considered rare.
-
-The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the
-regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a
-harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.
-
-
-THE WIDE-MOUTHED PURPURA, (_Purpura patula_.)
-
-This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the
-Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple
-colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in
-the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.
-
-The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was
-discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was
-thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the
-discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied
-the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient
-minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its
-discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are
-informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the
-sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized
-one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his
-teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph
-having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to
-have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less
-anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a
-method of applying it to cloth.
-
-This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either
-consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only
-for the garments of royalty.
-
-Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar
-and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The
-Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most
-of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing.
-Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings
-of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the
-republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their
-own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should
-dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and
-tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a
-few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was
-entirely lost.
-
-In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye,
-nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths
-the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and
-on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the
-accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour
-were entirely fabulous.
-
-According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter
-out of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure
-state, and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from
-the smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ
-were caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken
-out and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of
-the matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels
-over a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the
-fleshy impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor
-was tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was
-defective, the boiling was renewed.
-
-Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at
-other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among
-these Pliny enumerates _Fucus marinus_, or Archil, and the _Anchusa
-tinctoria_, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these
-and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of
-shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.
-
-In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but
-the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.
-
-In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead,
-was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made
-considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson
-colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this
-colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr.
-Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus
-excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various
-kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities
-of a species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the
-opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours,
-he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying
-transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the
-fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a
-horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous
-clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it
-may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to
-be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor
-in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if
-placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,—that is, if
-in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise,
-or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer,
-the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce
-be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep
-green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green,
-after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue,
-and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red,
-after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,)
-it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no
-more.”
-
-“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding
-water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the
-wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned,
-that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour,
-which afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the
-colour, will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in
-handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will
-be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”
-
-Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species
-of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they
-had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were
-white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of
-them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it
-stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by
-washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it
-was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of
-the sun.
-
-The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these
-shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but
-Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial
-in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little
-colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a
-substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being
-applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.
-
-
-FAMILY _ALATA_.
-
-This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at
-the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the
-shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.
-
-
-THE SPOTTED SCORPION SHELL, (_Pterocera scorpio_.)
-
-This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains
-a considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the
-projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance
-is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced
-period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and
-is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted
-and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell
-is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on
-which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or
-slightly tinged with yellow.
-
-[Illustration: _Pterocera scorpio._]
-
-
-FAMILY _CANALIFERA_.
-
-The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in
-having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening
-does not change its form through age.
-
-
-THE VARIEGATED SEA-TRUMPET, (_Triton variegatum_.)
-
-The _Triton variegatum_, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and
-beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found
-chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on
-the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell
-applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.
-
-    Already Triton, at his call, appears
-    Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,
-    And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.
-    The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,
-    And give the waves the signal to retire.
-    His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent
-    Grows by degrees into a large extent,
-    Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,
-    Runs the wide circuit of the world around.
-    The sun first heard it, in his early east,
-    And met the rattling echoes in the west;
-    The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,
-    Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.
-                                        DRYDEN.
-
-[Illustration: _Dolium perdix. Triton variegatum. Pyrula
-caniculata._]
-
-
-THE CANICULATED PEAR-SHELL, (_Pyrula caniculata_.)
-
-This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and
-attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at
-present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the
-whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many
-as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.
-
-[Illustration: _Turbo marmoratus. Pleurotoma babylonia. Trochus
-imperialis._]
-
-
-THE BABYLONIAN SPLIT-MOUTH,
-
-(_Pleurotoma babylonia_.)
-
-The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca
-Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said
-that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated
-as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from
-the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the
-shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the
-creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to
-support.
-
-
-VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (PHYTOPHAGI.)
-
-Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances
-have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws;
-they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which
-they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their
-tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in
-stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These
-last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of
-breathing,—others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist
-out of that element.
-
-
-THE MARBLE TURBAN-SHELL, (_Turbo marmoratus_.)
-
-There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell.
-The Marble Turban, _Turbo marmoratus_, is the largest, being as much
-as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour
-of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity.
-It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting
-of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells
-whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of
-mother-of-pearl.
-
-The _Turbo littoreus_ (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle,
-with which our rocky coasts abound.
-
-
-THE IMPERIAL TOP-SHELL, (_Trochus imperialis_.)
-
-These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form
-to a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their
-spire is always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called
-_flat-mouthed snails_. The greater number of these shells, (and the
-species are very numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and
-many of them are also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there
-are as many as seventy species,—the larger and more elegant are only
-found in the seas of hot climates.
-
-[Illustration: _Haliotis iris. Scalaria pretiosa. Neritina pulligera._]
-
-
-THE PRECIOUS SCALARIA, (_Scalaria pretiosa_.)
-
-This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of
-its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were
-only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the
-turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast,
-on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native
-place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and
-several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others
-consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage
-some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that
-as much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given
-for a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ
-are much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast
-of Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in
-forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches
-in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the
-empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is
-from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought
-to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with
-rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.
-
-
-THE IRIS EAR-SHELL, (_Haliotis Iris_.)
-
-The _Haliotides_, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species
-are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the
-system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many
-doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it
-continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of
-Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food,
-the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender
-tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament
-the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these
-tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the
-number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed
-at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes
-which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of
-the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of
-species very difficult and uncertain.
-
-
-THE DUSTY NERITINA, (_Neritina pulligera_.)
-
-This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and
-a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to
-inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the
-history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,—namely,
-that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good
-preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general
-natives of hot climates.
-
-
-THE VIVIPAROUS PALUDINA, (_Paludina vivipara_.)
-
-The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it
-takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within
-the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In
-nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in
-the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.
-
-[Illustration: _Planorbis corneus. Paludina vivipara. Lymnæa
-stagnalis._]
-
-These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water;
-sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the
-mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny
-substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves
-to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they
-are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.
-
-
-LYMNÆA STAGNALIS.
-
-The _Lymnæa stagnalis_ is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow
-ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for
-its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the
-water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great
-numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance
-of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into
-its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it
-instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order
-to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the
-ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts
-its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very
-little power to direct its own course.
-
-During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the
-mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind,
-they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes,
-which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not
-easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other.
-
-
-THE HORN-SHAPED PLANORBIS,
-
-(_Planorbis corneus_.)
-
-The _Planorbis_, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses
-the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like
-substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year,
-attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is
-considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the
-spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other
-inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable,
-certainly not poisonous.
-
-
-THE RED-MOUTHED BULIMUS, (_Bulimus hæmastomus_.)
-
-The _Bulimus hæmastomus_ is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of
-Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most
-singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of
-the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that
-of a moderate-sized pigeon.
-
-[Illustration: _Bulimus hæmastomus. Pupa mummia._]
-
-
-THE MUMMY PUPPET SHELL, (_Pupa mummia_.)
-
-The _Pupa mummia_ is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the
-singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy.
-
-The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones,
-and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The
-greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of
-tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and
-other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small.
-
-
-THE WOOD SNAIL, (_Helix nemoralis_.)
-
-The Snail (_Helix_) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe,
-and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells
-which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been
-placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with
-two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices
-in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn
-into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula
-is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black
-spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal,
-and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all
-the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal
-appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some
-writers suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of
-these appendages.
-
-The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger
-kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans,
-according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in
-the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening
-them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in
-great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they
-are still used as food in several parts of the Continent.
-
-[Illustration: _Helix nemoralis._]
-
-In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are
-frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but
-used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other
-diseases of the chest.
-
-It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have
-portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be
-afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished
-extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was
-not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails,
-which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head
-was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world
-became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made,
-and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one,
-however, for a length of time, could succeed;—it was then suspected
-that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length,
-it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of
-which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce
-a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others,
-the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper
-nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two
-years after the old head has been removed.
-
-M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred
-Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden,
-that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they
-could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the
-Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he
-discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain
-of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the
-end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and
-like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more
-delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot
-doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has
-been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind
-of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.”
-
-If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the
-disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very
-considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and
-kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended
-for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are
-tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed
-of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early
-rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the
-dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become
-excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander
-in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are
-great destroyers both of Snails and slugs.
-
-A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth
-recording.
-
-The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading
-into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of
-this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to
-kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road;
-but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks
-and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled
-him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails
-which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not
-in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct
-line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as
-if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is
-the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails
-aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green
-spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,—from
-the path, nothing but the wall in front,—but still, although the
-whole of their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on,
-until they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By
-what other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies
-the place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with
-so liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature?
-
-
-_ORDER GASTEROPODA._
-
-The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and
-foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which
-this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the
-creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is
-for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished
-from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral,
-and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in
-some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting
-covering of any shell whatever.
-
-
-THE RED SLUG, (_Limax rufus_.)
-
-The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order,
-entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all
-countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have
-never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact
-of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The _Limax
-rufus_, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a
-reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it
-impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly
-found in fields than in gardens.
-
-[Illustration: _Limax rufus._]
-
-There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on
-account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown
-kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is
-very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields
-of cabbages and turnips.
-
-In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head,
-contains a very small oval shell.
-
-There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under
-stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in
-length; it is called _Limax noctiluca_, the night-shining Slug. The
-buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which
-exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining
-with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm.
-
-We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact
-mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have
-laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were
-dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being
-placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched.
-
-The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by
-a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to
-entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight
-acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the
-apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing
-two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field
-of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two
-women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs,
-which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid
-on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed
-invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were
-to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they
-abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to
-be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The
-quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel.
-
-
-THE WOODLIKE BULLA, (_Bulla lignaria_.)
-
-The animal of the _Bulla_ is singular, from possessing-within its
-stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that
-organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind
-of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the
-foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches
-and a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck
-mentions as many as eleven species.
-
-[Illustration: _Bulla lignaria._]
-
-
-THE NAIL-SHAPED CREPIDULA,
-
-(_Crepidula unguiformis_.)
-
-The genus _Crepidula_ takes its name from its hearing some resemblance
-to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these
-there are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm
-climates.
-
-
-THE MEDITERRANEAN UMBRELLA,
-
-(_Umbrella Mediterranea_.)
-
-The _Umbrella Mediterranea_, as its name implies, is found in the
-Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is
-singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by
-a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself.
-
-
-THE CLOUDED FISSURELLA, (_Fissurella nimbosa_.)
-
-The _Fissurella nimbosa_ is found in various and distant parts of the
-world,—in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &c. It is
-rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in
-length.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  _Umbrella      Crepidula    Fissurella
-   Mediterranea. unguiformis. nimbosa._
-
-]
-
-The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by
-having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell,
-affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is
-discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ.
-
-
-THE HUNGARIAN BONNET SHELL,
-
-(_Pileopsis Ungarica_.)
-
-The _Pileopsis Ungarica_ is extremely elegant both in its form and
-markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with
-rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low
-water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless
-removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the
-creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches
-itself firmly to the surface.
-
-[Illustration: _Pileopsis Ungarica._]
-
-
-THE SCALY CHITON, (_Chiton squamosus_.)
-
-The _Chitons_ differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in
-the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed
-by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck,
-in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the
-Mollusca.
-
-[Illustration: _Chiton squamosus._]
-
-“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe
-the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the
-marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not
-a univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not
-to be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one
-piece, which Nature had originally broken transversely into several
-distinct moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its
-movements.”
-
-The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between
-high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements.
-Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton,
-says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is
-covered with a multitude of teeth,—some simple, and others with three
-points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows.
-
-
-
-
-CLASS CONCHIFERA.
-
-
-The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells,
-in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is
-soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a
-shell of two valves, without head or eyes,—a mouth, if it may be so
-called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole
-body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes,
-generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the
-principal distinguishing characters of this class.
-
-In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference
-to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the
-number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged
-under the heads of _univalves_, of one piece, _bivalves_, with two
-pieces, and _multivalves_, with more than two pieces. This arrangement
-was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that
-otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells,
-however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals
-belonging to the class Conchifera.
-
-The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses
-except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well
-described by Dr. Roget, in his _Bridgewater Treatise_, that we cannot
-do better than extract a portion from that interesting work.
-
-[Illustration: Valves of the _Unio Batava_, with the Connecting
-Ligament.]
-
-The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by
-a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that
-lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies
-much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great
-strength.
-
-During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell
-is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of
-the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment
-and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary
-to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell,
-and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being
-only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a
-muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even
-a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their
-fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to
-that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from
-their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the _adductor
-muscles_.
-
-[Illustration: Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the
-Hinge, L., the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its
-Fibres, with respect to the Valves.]
-
-The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of
-being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing
-to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are
-not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies.
-
-Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the Oyster has some power of
-locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling the
-contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the
-fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy
-mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to
-rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain
-within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and
-that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas,
-those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water
-never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they
-are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous
-experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left
-them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.
-
-[Illustration: _The Cardium, or Cockle._]
-
-Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a
-leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In
-the _Cardium_, or cockle, this organ is composed of a mass of muscular
-fibres, interwoven together in a very complex manner, and which may
-be compared to the muscular structure of the human tongue; the effect
-in both is the same, namely, the conferring a power of motion in
-all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded, retracted, or
-inflected at every point.
-
-The _Solen_, or razor-shell fish, has a foot of a cylindrical shape,
-tapering at the end, and much more resembling in its form a tongue
-than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of the foot is effected
-by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior of the organ is formed
-of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a considerable quantity of
-water, which the animal has the power of injecting into it, and of thus
-increasing its dimensions.
-
-The foot of the _Mytilus edulis_, or common mussel, can be advanced
-to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any
-fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body,
-and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and
-by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed
-object, continues slowly to advance.
-
-This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal
-themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly
-adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for
-this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and
-insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and
-forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it
-is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract
-it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised
-and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of
-these exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is
-moderately active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a
-minute. The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which
-was raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on
-its side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to
-be supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly
-at every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be
-perceived above the sand.
-
-By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the
-foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell
-may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before
-protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled
-quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can,
-with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place.
-
-The _Cardium_ can also advance at the bottom of the sea, along the
-surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot, as a
-boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against
-the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar
-expedient, that the Solen forces its way through the sand, expanding
-the end of its foot into the form of a club.
-
-The _Tellina_ is remarkable for the quickness and agility with which it
-can spring to considerable distances, by first folding the foot into a
-small compass, and then suddenly extending it, while the shell is, at
-the same time, closed with a loud snap.
-
-The _Pinna_, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of
-tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus
-for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from
-dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of
-its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number
-of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks,
-and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a
-convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of
-this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round
-tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to
-retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their
-power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous
-matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being
-drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the
-spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a
-certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously
-constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from
-the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this
-groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting
-it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this
-canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient
-tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied
-to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully
-attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is
-then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by
-its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is
-disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same
-operation is repeated.
-
-Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions
-around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of
-some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the
-importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its
-safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed,
-by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an
-action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once
-the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the
-power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which
-they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly
-to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that
-no Pinna is capable of forming more than four, or at most five threads,
-in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in
-haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender
-than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other
-parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into
-gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk.
-
-The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this
-Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there
-are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa,
-with only one pair.
-
-
-_ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA._
-
-The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are
-much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but
-they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as,
-for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the
-oriental pearl.
-
-
-THE HORSE-FOOT BOWL SHELL,
-
-(_Anomia ephippium_.)
-
-The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form;
-like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence
-attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger
-inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the
-same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of
-the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value.
-Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of
-the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in
-the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which,
-instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of
-shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this
-_operculum_, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of
-the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance,
-by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty.
-
-[Illustration: _Anomia ephippium._ [_Anomia_, a little bowl;
-_ephippium_, a horse’s foot.]]
-
-
-THE OYSTER, (_Ostrea edulis_.)
-
-Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become
-food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe;
-they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky
-ground, in no great depth from the surface.
-
-Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May;
-when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease,
-which the dredgers commonly call _cultch_. The growth of an Oyster is
-tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of
-the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in
-three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a
-half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size.
-
-[Illustration: _Ostrea edulis._]
-
-Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The
-Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute,
-attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which
-they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from
-England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the
-luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported
-in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were
-fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to
-those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour,
-nearly black.
-
-The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following
-places:—Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are
-generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in
-Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales.
-In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and
-at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters
-is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April
-inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome;
-it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months
-that have the letter _r_ in them.
-
-In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of
-Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St.
-Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this
-is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope
-which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is
-then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few
-minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken
-are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places,
-where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks
-are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist
-materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken
-out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in
-what we should call bad condition.
-
-Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or
-sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a
-narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks
-are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed
-on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand
-on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the
-water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may
-have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them.
-A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which
-had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change
-of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain
-a peculiar kind of green food.
-
-
-THE GREAT COMB SHELL, (_Pecten maximus_.)
-
-This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the
-largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all
-the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is
-covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into
-use among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other
-articles of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil
-species.
-
-[Illustration: _Pecten maximus. Malleus albus._]
-
-The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species
-of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water,
-and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but
-this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its
-habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it
-tolerably palatable it requires cooking.
-
-In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the
-poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the _restaurateurs_ employ
-them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of
-mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters,
-and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell.
-
-
-THE PEARL OYSTER, (_Meleagrina margaritifera_.)
-
-The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very
-different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of
-its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a _byssus_, or
-beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found.
-There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly
-found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of
-Australasia.
-
-The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other
-inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable
-dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained.
-
-The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a
-pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by
-an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the
-inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the
-mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future
-irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances
-cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval,
-sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is
-always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck,
-or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be
-traced on the pearl itself.
-
-[Illustration: _Meleagrina margaritifera._]
-
-But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;—in this case, the
-pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for
-instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid,
-this nucleus can be traced.
-
-Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre,
-consisting of the remains of a diseased _ovum_, or egg, of the animal.
-
-Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a
-valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her
-ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be
-doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it
-would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to
-drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the
-lapse of a very considerable time.
-
-At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great
-moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is
-conducted.
-
-The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of
-Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye
-but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are
-the plants that nourish the cochineal insect[2]), and here and there
-some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees. But Condatchy,
-three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to be seen but a
-few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during the period of
-the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of which extend
-upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are only intended
-as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely constructed),
-and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair on the grandest
-scale. The people most active in erecting huts and speculating in the
-various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans, Cingalese (natives
-of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast of the continent of
-India. Apparently, however, from their natural timidity, none of the
-Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them engage in the other
-active parts of the fishery; they merely resort hither for the purpose
-of supplying the markets.
-
-About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery,
-when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of
-the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English
-superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent
-diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand
-oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls
-collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a
-good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are
-scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles
-from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are
-fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is
-ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to
-fifteen fathoms.
-
-The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the
-same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but
-considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference.
-The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside
-of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more
-beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured.
-The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy
-part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several
-pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty.
-
-Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely
-at its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators:
-but, most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual,
-who sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year
-1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than
-120,000_l._
-
-At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two
-hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These,
-with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything
-necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different
-parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions
-and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of
-these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they
-reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.
-
-At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to
-emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open
-scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from
-each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended,
-with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone
-hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about
-five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of
-a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the
-stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron,
-to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a
-slip of calico round his loins,—swimming in the water, he takes hold
-of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of
-the stone.
-
-He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting
-himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden
-hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to
-him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone
-and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels
-himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils
-with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other
-gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and
-instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is
-thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached
-to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon
-as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone,
-which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting
-oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next
-diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as
-much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get
-hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk
-to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of
-it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time,
-free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above
-water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a
-distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a
-rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into
-the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is
-training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely
-experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the
-manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a
-single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has
-reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain
-under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in
-this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert
-man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket.
-There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down
-alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity
-of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a
-favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort
-after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a
-pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks
-contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for
-six hours.
-
-When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal,
-and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten
-to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and
-noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the
-oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore,
-where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for
-ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the
-oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel,
-filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their
-putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells
-broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which
-have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards
-handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from
-the shells, with pincers.
-
-When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters
-remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom
-of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured
-into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost.
-Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance
-in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are
-by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom.
-
-As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being
-conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small
-and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of
-considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with
-salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into
-classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves.
-After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then
-arranged on strings, and are fit for the market.
-
-Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest
-times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are
-often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various
-attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular
-of which,—known to have been practised early in the Christian era,
-on the banks of the Red Sea,—is still carried on in China. A hole is
-bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted,
-and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point
-of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually
-hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite
-size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land.
-
-A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced
-the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be
-formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually
-established artificial pearleries,—but these were abandoned after
-a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of
-sufficient size to be of much value.
-
-False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is
-covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white
-wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which
-adhere to the scales of the bleak, (_ablette_,) and was first applied
-to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name
-of Jacquin[3].
-
-
-THE HAMMER OYSTER, (_Malleus albus_.)
-
-The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable;
-externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other
-hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the
-most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus
-are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity
-of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like
-the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or
-beard, by which it adheres to the rocks.
-
-
-THE ROUGH PINNA, (_Pinna rudis_.)
-
-The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the
-shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the
-engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much
-as a foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a
-species found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water,
-which is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria,
-not only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard,
-or byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very
-remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the
-Pinna, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a _crampe_, with teeth a
-foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to
-be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains
-attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose
-of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried
-and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even
-garments of much larger size.
-
-[Illustration: _Pinna rudis._]
-
-The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of
-equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a
-dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent.
-
-This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but
-at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of
-the Pinna, and the number of beards necessary to make even so small an
-article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells
-were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &c., they
-would increase much more rapidly.
-
-These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British
-shores possess but one species, the _Pinna lævis_ of Donovan; this is
-of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size.
-
-
-THE COMMON MUSSEL, (_Mytilus edulis_.)
-
-The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing
-animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and
-low water marks.
-
-[Illustration: _Mytilus edulis._]
-
-They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food;
-and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish.
-
-The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of
-severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned
-for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by
-which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be
-detected,—a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance,
-partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or
-insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have
-ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of
-the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many
-experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author,
-the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding
-on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely
-a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass
-of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is
-cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of
-July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common
-observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in
-which the letter _r_ is not found. This spawn, according to our author,
-is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and
-inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the
-part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled
-up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered
-severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all
-these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been
-discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion
-occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but
-this has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten
-with vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise.
-
-When an individual is _musselled_, the effects are very alarming;
-the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few
-hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is
-attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink,
-and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which
-soon relieves the patient.
-
-The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it is
-well adapted.
-
-In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the
-multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom
-of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which
-the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August,
-when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the
-mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here
-they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and
-in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change
-from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve
-their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks,
-preserves in which the salt water remains at rest.
-
-
-THE GIANT TRIDACNA, (_Tridacna gigas_.)
-
-The _Tridacna gigas_ is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very
-thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much as
-five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells have
-been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the
-churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to
-form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given
-to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found
-in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one
-hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna
-gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere
-to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity,
-as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of
-separating them from the rock.
-
-[Illustration: _Tridacna gigas._]
-
-
-_ORDER BIMUSCULOSA,
-
-(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)_
-
-This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells,
-all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their
-structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their
-use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome with
-those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more
-pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to
-place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in
-one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable
-depth of water, they are not so easily obtained.
-
-
-THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL, (_Anodonta cygnæa_.)
-
-Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble
-it, are known by the trivial name of _Mussel_, the only resemblance
-between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which
-inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in
-habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power
-of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta
-is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of
-shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad
-muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain
-pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are
-lined with mother-of-pearl.
-
-Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl,
-very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high
-price.
-
-A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the
-collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County
-Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months,
-go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs,
-and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell,
-take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell
-in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in
-a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable
-pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those
-people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good
-advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for
-50_l._ that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40_l._ A
-miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4_l._ 10_s._ to a man that
-sold it for 10_l._, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30_l._,
-with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80_l._ for it from the
-late Dutchess of Ormond.”
-
-[Illustration: _Isocardia cor. Anodonta Cygnæa._]
-
-
-THE HEART-SHAPED ISOCARDIA,
-
-(_Isocardia cor_.)
-
-This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by
-the name of the _foolscap-shell_, and the _bullock’s heart shell_, is
-rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast;
-it is the largest British bivalve shell.
-
-
-THE WEDGE-SHAPED DONAX, (_Donax cuneata_.)
-
-There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that
-represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks:
-it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these
-species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and
-streaked with pink.
-
-[Illustration: _Donax cuneata._]
-
-In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through
-various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the
-Tellina, or _earth-shell_, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the
-Solen, or _razor-shell_.
-
-
-THE SHEATH SOLEN, (_Solen vagina_.)
-
-The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying
-themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a
-couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to
-penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell.
-Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in
-which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom.
-This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which
-forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is
-enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose
-of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal
-ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may
-possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of
-Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms
-for its retreat is always perpendicular.
-
-[Illustration: _Tellina. Solen vagina. Pandora rostrata._]
-
-One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on
-the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather
-cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the
-farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of
-the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated;
-after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular
-direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began
-to descend, and that with considerable quickness.
-
-The Solens are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places
-where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method
-of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat
-of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its
-chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of
-salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so
-irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly
-mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance,
-snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes
-good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal
-escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect;
-either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which
-is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up
-with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other
-means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it
-out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty.
-
-
-THE DATE-SHAPED PHOLAS, (_Pholas dactyloides_.)
-
-These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the
-solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in
-stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of
-much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical,
-for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an
-insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that
-the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which
-acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this
-solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered
-in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon
-stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava.
-
-Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their
-phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if
-eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the
-person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus.
-
-[Illustration: _Pholas dactyloides._]
-
-Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly
-eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are
-found.
-
-The species represented in the engraving is found on the British
-coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully
-carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the
-engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole
-from which a shell has been removed is shown.
-
-
-THE SHIP-WORM, (_Teredo navalis_.)
-
-Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully
-examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it
-employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as
-there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent
-observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed,
-are fully equal to the task.
-
-[Illustration: _Teredo navalis._]
-
-Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of
-the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The
-animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a
-tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress
-through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right
-in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of
-these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the
-excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually
-formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most
-deeply sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally
-excavates in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some
-instances it crosses this grain.
-
-In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high
-water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have
-been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of
-large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by
-means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together.
-These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this
-destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and
-had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts
-of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost.
-
-
-
-
-CLASS CIRRHIPEDA.
-
-
-The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of _Barnacles_ and
-_Acorn-shells_, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and
-pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time.
-They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca,
-and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &c. These creatures, from their
-singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of
-the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was
-unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their
-true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British
-naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any
-definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately
-after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought
-more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and
-lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case.
-
-After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea,
-Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the
-CLASS of Crustacea, I formed the _first order_ of this class, (the
-_Cirrhipeds_,) under the name of _sightless Crustacea_, but a few years
-afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of the Mollusca,
-but this was no better. If, for example, we consider those characters
-which furnish their most important organs, we shall find that the
-Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the Crustacea,
-for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws analogous to
-those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the antennæ of the
-shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was a task that
-devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq., a surgeon in
-his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery took place, we
-shall notice further on.
-
-The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or
-tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being
-derived from two Latin words,—_cirrhus_, hair, and _pes_, the foot;
-these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have,
-in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion.
-
-They have been separated into two orders; namely, _Cirrhipeda
-pedunculata_, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery
-nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,—and _Cirrhipeda sedentaria_,
-which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell.
-
-
-_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA._
-
-(_Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk._)
-
-
-THE SMOOTH BARNACLE, (_Anatifa lævis_.)
-
-The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of
-a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has
-lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the
-shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance of
-this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission
-granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days,
-because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to
-partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent
-to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following
-notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and _printed_ by
-them in their _Transactions_. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and
-convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the
-shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I
-found a perfect _sea-fowl_; the little bill like that of a _goose_, the
-eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the
-feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the
-_feet_ like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor
-did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that
-did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen
-some as big as their fist!!”
-
-[Illustration: _Anatifa lævis._]
-
-
-_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA_,
-
-(_Sedentary Cirrhipeds_.)
-
-
-THE ACORN-SHELL, (_Balanus_.)
-
-Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the
-Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author had
-devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was
-returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when,
-casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry
-at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a
-treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled
-for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.”
-After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues
-“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in
-any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the
-little animal about to be described.
-
-[Illustration: _Balanus_, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)]
-
-“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a
-somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue.
-When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel,
-and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water
-in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are
-withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves,
-united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of
-opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional
-exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a
-large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks,
-&c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members,
-so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke
-to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a
-succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  Fig. 1.  Larva of Barnacle, natural size.
-       2.    "    "    "      magnified, seen from above.
-       3.    "    "    "      highly magnified, seen from side;
-                                _a_, swimming-members;
-                                _b_, front limb, with sucker.
-       4. Eye, much magnified.
-       5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size.
-       6.    "      "      "      full grown.
-
-]
-
-“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal,
-is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the
-shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front,
-at the sides of the body.
-
-“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826;
-and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a
-glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be
-examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were
-taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the
-satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their _exuviæ_[4],
-and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the
-vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen
-intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of
-the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part
-of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with
-the _exuviæ_. On the 10th, another individual was seen _in the act of
-throwing off its shell_, and attaching itself, like the others, to the
-bottom of the glass.”
-
-
-
-
-CLASS ANNULATA.
-
-
-We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of
-Lamarck; he calls them,
-
-“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or
-inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least
-transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without
-antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number
-having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of
-being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though
-not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various
-forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this
-separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white
-blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals
-are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which
-have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated
-into three Orders, namely, _Annulata sedentaria_, which are fixed to
-other substances; _Annulata antennata_, possessing antennæ, or feelers;
-and _Annulata apoda_, without projecting members answering as feet,
-serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &c.”
-
-[Illustration: _Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals._]
-
-
-_ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA_,
-
-(_Sedentary Annulose Animals_.)
-
-The creatures which form this order are generally found attached
-to rocks, shells, &c. and are usually of small size. The engraving
-represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula
-there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell
-that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the
-species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has
-great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or
-tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always
-occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its _operculum_, the
-lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily
-formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of
-course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy.
-
-
-THE MAGNIFICENT AMPHITRITE,
-
-(_Amphitrite magnifica_.)
-
-This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as
-yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica,
-adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is
-exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into
-its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that
-of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained
-by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being
-put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health.
-That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an
-umbrella, consists of the _branchiæ_ or organs of breathing; these are
-of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite,
-although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to
-it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body.
-
-[Illustration: _Amphitrite magnifica._]
-
-
-_ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA_,
-
-(_Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ_.)
-
-
-THE SAND-WORM OF THE FISHERMEN,
-
-(_Arenicola piscatorium_.)
-
-This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much
-sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the
-European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met
-with in great abundance.
-
-[Illustration: _Arenicola piscatorium._]
-
-
-BLOOD-COLOURED LEODICE, (_Leodice sanguinea_.)
-
-The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are
-enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs
-of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four
-well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear
-a strong resemblance to the _scolopendra_, or centipede.
-
-[Illustration: _Leodice sanguinea._]
-
-The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of
-Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to
-the length of fourteen or fifteen inches.
-
-When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the
-blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body
-was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the
-animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as
-soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished.
-
-The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable
-jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the
-animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath
-the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus.
-
-
-THE SPINOUS SEA-MOUSE, OR SEA-CATERPILLAR,
-
-(_Halithæa aculeata_.)
-
-The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native
-element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially
-covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a
-peacock.
-
-[Illustration: _Halithæa aculeata._]
-
-
-_ORDER ANNULATA APODA_,
-
-
-(_Footless Annulose Animals_.)
-
-The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already
-described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides
-of their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may,
-consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those
-we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they
-are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and
-live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We
-find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the
-Earth-worm and the Leech.
-
-
-THE COMMON EARTH-WORM,
-
-(_Lumbricus terrestris_.)
-
-The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow
-rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short,
-silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like.
-These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the
-alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is
-enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so
-forming various fixed points of resistance or _fulcra_, upon which the
-animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the
-Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a
-simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind
-of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is
-supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two
-openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the dirt
-which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the other
-by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made by the
-animal would be much in this form, descending at A, and reaching the
-surface by B. It has been said, that the Earth-worm, if divided by the
-spade or otherwise, will unite again and live; the foundation for this
-appears to be the more probable fact, that, when divided, that portion
-of the animal in which the head is placed may, perhaps, survive the
-mutilation, and ultimately again become a perfect creature.
-
-Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks,
-they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round
-the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving
-the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very
-deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up
-in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of _mucus_,
-which is furnished by the pores of their body.
-
-The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with
-the author of the _Journal of a Naturalist_; among other remarks,
-he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important
-one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers,
-harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common
-Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the
-soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the
-surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer
-parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the
-more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple
-nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them
-are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and
-scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil,
-
-                 Death still producing life.
-
-“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey
-of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary
-example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction.
-The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its
-prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds;
-fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it
-unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and
-burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in
-dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the
-earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element,
-yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it
-as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and
-even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of
-the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding
-this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully
-commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of
-all.
-
-“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining
-over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become
-frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually
-consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass
-of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of
-approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground,
-than they approach the surface.
-
-“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing
-the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into
-the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service,
-penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every
-direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the
-water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we
-have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says,
-“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of
-knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and
-fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any
-vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that
-all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale
-as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that
-permitted me to obtain this knowledge.”
-
-
-THE MEDICINAL LEECH, (_Hirudo medicinalis_.)
-
-The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to
-have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed
-in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied
-to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended
-to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt
-leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any
-part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound
-occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal.
-
-At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the
-operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the
-body, for which use it is eminently adapted.
-
-There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures,
-but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the _Hirudo
-medicinalis_, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or
-striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted
-with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not
-uniformly found; and the _Hirudo troctina_, of a brownish colour,
-the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is
-surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow,
-and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots.
-
-The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout
-the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts;
-it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very
-abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture,
-and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great
-use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less
-frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are
-imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate
-calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every
-hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign
-production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat
-larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots.
-Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by
-the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were
-employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech
-appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is
-found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and
-seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears
-to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the
-sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by
-the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable
-depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated,
-and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is
-considered by the _leech-gatherers_ as a favourable time for collecting
-them.
-
-The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some
-persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a
-leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the
-following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be
-serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel
-without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the
-animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of
-fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a
-state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will
-remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless,
-and so on.
-
-This natural barometer _appears_ to answer tolerably well, if there is
-sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if
-one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are
-enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws,
-and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient
-accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use.
-
-The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood
-or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is
-not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the _larvæ_
-of aquatic insects, worms, &c., so that the common idea of the danger
-of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation.
-
-The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms,
-tadpoles, &c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five
-horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the
-number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were
-missing was to be discovered.
-
-The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of
-cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech,
-which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species,
-disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state,
-and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a
-lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more
-powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that
-period.
-
-A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a
-trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different
-parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench
-annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it
-(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of
-the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such
-pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent
-were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere
-skeleton.”
-
-From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo
-_sanguisuga_, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to
-the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name
-of Hirudo _vorax_, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its
-nature.
-
-Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in
-confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained
-slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a
-doubt.
-
-On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form
-of a horse-shoe, thus—
-
-[Illustration]
-
-These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or
-eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are
-merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in
-describing their character, says they are without eyes.
-
-The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are
-three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with
-regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these
-piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not
-by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the
-surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips);
-in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there
-remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the
-piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three
-minutes after the leech has commenced operation.
-
-Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been
-taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The
-principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels
-sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those
-which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered.
-
-Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination
-to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to
-commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &c.; but
-these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears
-to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when
-any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to
-puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the
-little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling
-to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little
-cold water.
-
-After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to
-induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt
-frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of
-Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the
-preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head
-of the leech instead of salt.
-
-The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has
-swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of
-the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the
-most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood
-remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed[5].
-The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed
-of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with
-the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal,
-the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal,
-through a distinct opening.
-
-[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2.]
-
-It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced
-from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are
-developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon
-of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its
-natural size: fig. 1, shows the perfect case or cocoon, and fig. 2, the
-same opened, with the young leeches contained within it; it is said
-that, at times, there are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case.
-This cocoon is formed by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the
-mud or clay, which composes the bed of the pool it inhabits.
-
-The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although
-only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to
-the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of
-this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of
-sale.
-
-“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly
-in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those
-leeches which were intended for the Paris market.
-
-“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the
-season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to
-the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance.
-These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are
-known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of
-water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches
-quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they
-are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the
-cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of
-allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow
-much more rapidly after having partaken of blood.
-
-There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is
-more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than
-even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the
-terrible hooded snake itself.
-
-The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in
-length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active
-animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally
-to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no
-sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to
-crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is
-shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with
-these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down
-in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping
-them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly
-than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than
-would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in
-persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers,
-and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself.
-
-Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such
-as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &c., but all to very
-little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing
-the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very
-closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate.
-
-
-
-
-CLASS CRUSTACEA.
-
-
-The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history has
-undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among the
-insects:—others considered them to have more analogy to the spiders.
-Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent CLASS
-forming two _orders_, which he has named after the arrangement of the
-branchiæ, or gills, by which they breathe, namely,—the _Crustacea
-homobranchiæ_, the distinguishing marks of which he describes in this
-manner: branchiæ hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass,
-covering the body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the
-mandibles always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks,
-the head not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist
-them in their movements. Secondly, the _Crustacea heterobranchiæ_, in
-which the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under
-the lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the
-tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in
-general fixed, _sedentary, not on footstalks_.
-
-
-_ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ_,
-
-(_Shell-Fish with concealed gills._)
-
-The first of these orders, the _homobranchial_ Crustacea, includes most
-of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters,
-and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division.
-
-Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order,
-and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last
-appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal
-kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is
-apparently less complex.
-
-The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two
-principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately
-united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a
-portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable
-supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on
-each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head.
-The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this
-spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The
-two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest.
-
-The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat
-pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather;
-they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are
-so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of
-these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base.
-
-The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the
-mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at
-their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper
-part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at
-the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two
-pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six
-other members, which Lamarck calls _foot-jaws_, from their bearing
-some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the
-parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and
-accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs
-in particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that
-may come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as
-articles of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of
-the year.
-
-
-_THE CRAB TRIBE._
-
-The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the
-knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being
-generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit
-ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful
-species.
-
-[Illustration: THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.]
-
-The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular
-species, as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless
-variety of curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most
-brilliant colours; this more particularly applies to those which are
-found in the seas of hot climates.
-
-The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was
-placed by naturalists among the _Crustacea_, and considered a perfect
-animal of a distinct species; it was named Zoea. Mr. Thomson, the
-experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to
-discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better
-than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the
-author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known
-respecting these inhabitants of the deep.
-
-“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the
-_Crustacea_) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body
-of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant
-troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a
-fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast
-expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a
-kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by
-those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts
-of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants
-with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the
-bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is
-interspersed with fields of Sargosa[6]. On due examination, however, we
-shall not fail to find it everywhere peopled by a considerable variety
-of animals, either of small size, or possessed of such a degree of
-translucency as to render them invisible, or scarcely perceptible, even
-when on or near to its surface; that it should possess its share of
-the organized beings which we see spread over every other part of the
-surface of our globe, is a conclusion we might arrive at indirectly,
-from the consideration of oceanic fishes and birds being observed in
-those parts of the ocean most distant from the land, and the provident
-care of the Deity, which we invariably witness throughout the domain of
-nature, to furnish food for all, even the meanest of his creatures; the
-more minute and invisible inmates of the sea, then, must constitute the
-food of oceanic fishes and birds.
-
-“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most
-conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of
-them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and
-a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to
-accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing
-every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or
-four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze,
-bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it
-up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to
-ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater
-rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the
-spout of one of the _sea-water_ pumps, and examined three or four times
-a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.”
-
-Although naturalists were decided in calling the Zoea a crustaceous
-animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the
-system it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike
-each other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it
-is known, that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but
-merely the larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is
-perfectly new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only
-proving their real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as
-described in most systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on
-that account to be separated from the insects, but that they do undergo
-a metamorphosis, and that of a most wonderful nature.
-
-It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ,
-in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year
-following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred;
-this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully
-supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died
-in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which
-it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a
-great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs
-and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be
-considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in
-hatching the _ova_ of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which
-presented exactly the appearance of the _Zoea taurus_.”
-
-The Common Crab, _Cancer major_, is so well-known, that any description
-of its appearance would be useless.
-
-One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that
-is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this
-power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase
-in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the
-peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed.
-
-The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about
-to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured
-retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it
-creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year
-when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time
-their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest
-perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking
-the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among
-the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the
-attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal
-discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously
-harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its
-kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in
-anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting
-its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against
-each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated,
-and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an
-unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at
-its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before
-seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach
-comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it
-disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal,
-with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a
-boot that was too big for him.
-
-Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty;
-but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several
-hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation,
-that many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such
-a weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor
-venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have
-not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of
-the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor
-oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod,
-and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness
-continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is
-seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before;
-its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first
-object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which
-it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness.
-In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength,
-the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but
-just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their
-skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this
-is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the
-shell. These stones, popularly known as _crabs’ eyes_, were long
-highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not
-superior to so much chalk.
-
-When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the
-old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found
-the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears
-wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.
-
-Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb,
-or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty
-of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it
-has also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its
-own legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury,
-by bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received
-the hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb
-from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and
-natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other
-legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part
-of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears
-to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the
-case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers.
-
-When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on
-the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural
-styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows
-callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the
-creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.
-
-Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and
-kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so
-bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking
-off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal
-bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the
-tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one
-of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly
-creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted
-its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which
-bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off
-its limb in the usual manner,—still, however, holding fast for a
-length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.
-
-The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not,
-as it is said, walk exactly backwards.
-
-
-THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)
-
-Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there
-is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands,
-whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly
-curious in themselves.
-
-[Illustration: THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)]
-
-Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near
-salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year
-in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of
-the same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the
-islands, many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these
-places their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year,
-to repair to the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn.
-They prepare for their annual migration about the month of April or
-May, and, having mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets
-forward, with all the regularity of an army, under the guidance of an
-experienced commander.
-
-Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct
-line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly
-surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a
-house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which
-they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not
-unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper.
-If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow
-its course without attempting to cross it.
-
-It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of
-which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like
-pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged
-to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment
-till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never
-leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then
-descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty
-paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover
-the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a
-straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but
-neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is
-their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a
-confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly,
-to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables;
-but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to
-proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest.
-
-After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner,
-they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately
-enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several
-times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where
-they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek
-the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of
-being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already
-repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their
-annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and,
-soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting
-the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones,
-however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and
-lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are
-obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover;
-making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves
-up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and
-continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time
-they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six
-weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may
-be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the
-sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the
-food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of
-seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers.
-
-
-THE HERMIT, OR SOLDIER CRAB,
-
-(_Pagurus bernhardus_.)
-
-This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of
-remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock,
-it may fancy.
-
-[Illustration: THE HERMIT CRAB, (_Pagurus bernhardus_.)]
-
-The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly
-secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous
-state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is
-almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their
-hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to
-maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has
-grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to
-seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into
-when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the
-additional name of the Soldier Crab.
-
-“The Soldier when about to seek a new habitation, is still seen,”
-says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears to have
-considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the
-mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell,
-therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body;
-and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer
-both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight
-inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along
-that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave;
-still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail,
-unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage,
-till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one
-shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating
-that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation,
-to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it
-quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently
-changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to
-this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the
-body of the animal, claws and all.”
-
-Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the
-Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest
-between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which
-they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike
-with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to
-yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor
-takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times
-back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist.
-
-When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring
-to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will
-sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not
-easily cured.
-
-On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell
-of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they
-not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under
-the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices
-of which they hide themselves.
-
-The ancients were well acquainted with the Soldier Crab, as is evident
-from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets:
-
-    The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left
-    Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.
-    Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish
-    For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;
-    Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,
-    Whose first and rightful owners are no more.
-    They make glad seizure of the vacant room,
-    And count the borrowed shell their native home;
-    Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,
-    And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.
-    But when they larger grow they fill the place,
-    And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,
-    Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,
-    And busy search around the pebbly shore,
-    Till a commodious roomy seat be found,
-    Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.
-    Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,
-    And long for the disputed shell engage;
-    The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,
-    Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.
-
-
-THE LOBSTER, (_Astacus europæa_.)
-
-The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great
-abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland
-is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast
-of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the
-Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth.
-The methods of taking Lobsters are various,—the most usual is by means
-of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of
-twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap,
-so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning.
-These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place
-being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a
-kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only
-carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the
-London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.
-
-Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other
-sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they
-frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor
-creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent
-clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the
-crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the
-pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while
-the other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then,
-its food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with
-the other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and
-lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable
-distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when
-in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a
-beautiful deep blue.
-
-A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems
-to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in
-Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who
-transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to
-prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by,
-they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning!
-
-
-THE RIVER CRAY-FISH, (_Potamobius fluviatilis_.)
-
-The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in
-appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is
-commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the
-banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that
-may happen to come in its way.
-
-The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which
-is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus
-described:—
-
-Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the
-thickness of the thumb,—split them at the smallest end, and by way
-of bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take
-then the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance
-of the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are
-there, they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you
-perceive them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait
-suddenly, and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the
-bait, or will fall back into the net.
-
-Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a
-hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst
-of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the
-water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained
-there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found
-partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually
-prevent their escape.
-
-
-THE PHOSPHORESCENT SHRIMP.
-
-The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known
-to all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained,
-that the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent
-properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants
-of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very
-frequently met with.
-
-[Illustration: NOCTILUCA BANKSII magnified.
-
-The line above shows the natural length.]
-
-The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue
-from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found
-by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided
-in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most
-brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there
-started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light.
-
-The author we have lately quoted, says,—
-
-“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable, that the
-Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to
-every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the
-trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet,
-has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and
-of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider
-that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,—is vivid in
-proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light
-of the moon,—and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea,
-so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the
-dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and
-the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable
-sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all
-times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken
-rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy
-appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible
-at a considerable distance.”
-
-
-THE OPOSSUM SHRIMP, (_Mysis chamæleon_.)
-
-This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward
-appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably
-smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed
-creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable
-abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally
-swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined
-to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth
-encloses myriads at a time.
-
-[Illustration: _Mysis chamæleon._]
-
-The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have
-been called fissipeds, (_split-feet_,) on account of each of their
-feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb
-being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and
-the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is
-essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped
-round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the
-element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such
-as shrimps, prawns, &c., there is a single row of five feet on each
-side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four
-rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet
-amounts to as many as thirty-two,—sixteen adapted for swimming, and
-sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization,
-the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the
-present genus frequent the surface.
-
-The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they
-are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses,
-fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this
-pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is
-destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in
-a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the
-young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened
-form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in
-this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards
-the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted
-together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily
-observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the
-large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp
-are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch
-we have described.
-
-We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the
-Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve
-as food for herrings.
-
-It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals
-that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater
-productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished
-master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still
-continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance,
-after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has
-informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one
-piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part
-appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together.
-Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs,
-which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs
-still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently
-jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the
-various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which
-actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment
-necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison
-with other creatures, they must possess!
-
-The Opossum Shrimps, we have seen, are the prey of the larger
-inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that
-are smaller than themselves,—seizing upon every animal substance they
-are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a
-vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.
-
-The species represented in the engraving has been called the _Mysis
-chamæleon_, from its colour varying according to the substances on
-which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray, black, brown, and
-pink.
-
-
-_ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ._
-
-(_Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously placed, never
-concealed._)
-
-The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other
-than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we
-find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of
-the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a
-great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the
-water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are
-very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They
-have been divided into several sections, according to their outward
-form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine
-ourselves to a description of some of the best known.
-
-
-THE SPOTTED SQUILL, (_Squilla maculata_.)
-
-The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present
-order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which
-the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct,
-appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called
-the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that
-name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its
-foot-jaws are armed.
-
-The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is
-the largest of the genus.
-
-The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little
-consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent
-the sandy bottom of the sea.
-
-[Illustration: _Squilla maculata._]
-
-There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the
-young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter
-under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered.
-
-
-THE COMMON CLOPORTUS, (_Cloportus ascellus_.)
-
-This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is
-somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a
-dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where
-the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to
-a group of small Crustacea known by the name _Oniscus_. Some, as we see
-in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion
-inhabit the water.
-
-[Illustration: _Cloportus ascellus._
-
-(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
-
-Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species
-which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for
-its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years
-timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary
-wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the
-course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little
-creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten
-inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch
-a year. Another species, _Cymothoa_, attaches itself to the backs of
-different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body.
-
-A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the
-fifth volume of the _American Philosophical Transactions_; it is
-accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is
-not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular
-species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself
-to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the
-roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.
-
-[Illustration: _Head of Alewife._
-
-Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.]
-
-[Illustration: The insect seen from above.]
-
-“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort
-to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife,
-called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and
-in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of
-the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the
-herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught
-from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for
-the table as the herring.
-
-“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect
-about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly
-holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.
-
-“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without
-injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider
-the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken
-out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable
-of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to
-preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always
-obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.
-
-“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and
-lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately
-scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his
-position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and
-unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained
-his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant
-resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he
-certainly fares sumptuously every day.
-
-“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the
-shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to
-travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As
-long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found
-fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his
-mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but
-by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself
-with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay
-Alewife without the louse.”
-
-The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies,
-many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their
-body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads.
-
-
-THE MOLUCCA CRAB, (_Polyphemus gigas_.)
-
-Why the singular creature here represented should have the name
-Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every
-schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is
-represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas,
-this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its
-being so nearly allied to many very minute species.
-
-The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but
-two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their
-buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has
-been called the Molucca Crab.
-
-The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by
-the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives
-employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of
-poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this
-circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no
-other ground for the belief.
-
-[Illustration: _Polyphemus gigas._]
-
-During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very
-easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything
-until their danger becomes imminent.
-
-It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for
-food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy.
-
-These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a
-considerable distance over the wet sands,—but if incommoded by the
-sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element.
-When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if
-this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the
-waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power
-of righting itself with the assistance of its tail.
-
-
-THE CRAB-LIKE LIMULUS, (_Limulus cancriformis_.)
-
-The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &c.; they
-are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their
-principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.
-
-[Illustration: _Limulus cancriformis._ (Natural size.)]
-
-“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in
-which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler,
-very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The
-head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They
-possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back.
-Their legs are very numerous,—the two in front, much the largest,
-spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with
-silky articulated bristles.”
-
-
-THE WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops quadricornis_.)
-
-There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That
-represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most
-interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr.
-Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature.
-
-“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution,
-as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of
-creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred
-on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision,
-more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring,
-and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the
-elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the
-mass of living matter they present to us.
-
-[Illustration: _Cyclops quadricornis._
-
-(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
-
-“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the
-year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant
-in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm
-day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an
-inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered
-with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil,
-are of a fine rich colour.
-
-“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly
-plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and
-vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but
-have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the
-organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it
-is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little
-above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark
-crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this
-organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two
-kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest
-extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some
-other positions it is square.”
-
-The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance
-similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared
-with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving,
-(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder
-portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque
-colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red.
-
-The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are
-extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has
-described them as forming two distinct genera.
-
-
-THE SMALL WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops minutus_.)
-
-This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its
-body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much
-smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form
-renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says
-Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if
-approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside,
-in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit
-opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a
-kind of vaulting leap.”
-
-[Illustration: _Cyclops minutus_, much magnified.]
-
-They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met
-with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed,
-growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April
-and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will
-not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and
-require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of
-clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the
-under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or
-cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey,
-moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the
-plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not
-bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept
-in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the
-three hundredth part of an inch.
-
-The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the
-eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of
-the animal near the tail.
-
-
-THE HAIRY CYPRIS, (_Cypris pubera_.)
-
-These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they
-are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The
-animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it
-at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell
-numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is
-enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until
-it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which
-issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and
-bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them
-great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute
-materially to the swimming powers of the creature.
-
-At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point
-is seen,—this is the eye of the animal.
-
-[Illustration: _Cypris pubera._
-
-(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
-
-The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is
-found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they
-are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are
-more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the
-year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course
-of the year.
-
-The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense
-numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in
-this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in
-the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a
-kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the
-marshes with water.
-
-A species nearly allied to this, the _Artemia Salina_, the Lymington
-shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans,
-which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other
-Crustaceous animal.
-
-Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at
-Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is
-deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a
-quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the
-liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute,
-in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm,
-or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this
-is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of
-this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms
-from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase
-astonishingly in the course of a few days.
-
-It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans,
-where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the
-Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and
-reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans,
-and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much
-diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the
-manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at
-the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers.
-
-                         THE END.
-
-                           LONDON:
-              JOHN W. PARKER, ST. MARTIN’S LANE.
-
-
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-
-                              FOOTNOTES:
-
-[1] This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to
-by nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory
-chapter.
-
-[2] The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.
-
-[3] See Book of Fishes, p. 51.
-
-[4] The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before
-transformation.
-
-[5] It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of
-its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most
-favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and
-I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves,
-if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give
-them a violent emetic.”
-
-[6] A kind of sea-weed, (_Fucus natans_.)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous
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-
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 60961 ***
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
+    in the original text.
+  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
+  Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
+  Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.
+  Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
+    in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS
+
+DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME]
+
+
+
+
+                                  THE
+                            BOOK OF SHELLS;
+
+                              CONTAINING
+                   THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,
+                       CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND
+                              CRUSTACEA.
+
+                   PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
+          THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,
+                APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
+                         CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.
+
+                          THE SECOND EDITION.
+
+                                LONDON:
+                     JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.
+
+                            M.DCCC.XXXVII.
+
+
+
+
+TO THE READER.
+
+
+In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which
+embraces the VERTEBRAL ANIMALS,—namely, the Mammalia, the Birds, the
+Reptiles, and the Fishes,—the arrangement of the BARON CUVIER was
+adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in two others that
+are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the INVERTEBRAL
+ANIMALS, the method of M. LAMARCK will be adhered to. It is true, that,
+since the works of that naturalist were published, many deviations
+from certain parts of his system have taken place, some of which have
+received the sanction of the highest names; but still, _as a whole_,
+Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and the young naturalist can
+readily add to the information it contains, by reference to the works
+of more recent authors, in case he has sufficient inclination and
+industry to follow out the subject.
+
+
+
+
+           CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                     Page
+    Introductory Chapter                9
+
+    Class MOLLUSCA                     14
+
+    Order HETEROPODA                   15
+    The Glassy Carinaria               15
+
+    Order CEPHALOPODA                  16
+    The Cuttle Fish                    17
+        Argonaut                       20
+        Pearly Nautilus                22
+
+    Order TRACHELIPODA                 26
+    The Marble Cone                    27
+        Porphyry Olive Shell           28
+        Money Cowrie                   29
+        Diadem Whorl Shell             31
+        Common Columbella              31
+        Music Harp Shell               32
+        Wide-Mouthed Purpura           33
+        Spotted Scorpion Shell         37
+        Variegated Sea-Trumpet         39
+        Caniculated Pear-Shell         40
+        Babylonian Split-Mouth         40
+        Marble Turban-Shell            41
+        Imperial Top-Shell             41
+        Precious Scalaria              42
+        Iris Ear-Shell                 43
+        Dusty Neritina                 44
+        Viviparous Paludina            44
+        Lymnæa Stagnalis               45
+        Horn-shaped Planorbis          46
+        Red-mouthed Bulimus            46
+        Mummy Puppet Shell             47
+        Wood Snail                     47
+
+    Order GASTEROPODA                  51
+    The Red Slug                       51
+        Woodlike Bulla                 53
+        Nail-shaped Crepidula          54
+        Mediterranean Umbrella         54
+        Clouded Fissurella             54
+        Hungarian Bonnet Shell         55
+        Scaly Chiton                   56
+
+    Class CONCHIFERA                   57
+
+    Order UNIMUSCULOSA                 64
+    The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell          64
+        Oyster                         65
+        Great Comb Shell               68
+        Pearl Oyster                   69
+        Hammer Oyster                  77
+        Rough Pinna                    77
+        Common Mussel                  79
+        Giant Tridacna                 81
+
+    Order BIMUSCULOSA                  82
+    The Fresh-Water Mussel             83
+        Heart-shaped Isocardia         84
+        Wedge-shaped Donax             85
+        Sheath Solen                   85
+        Date-shaped Pholas             87
+        Ship-Worm                      89
+
+    Class CIRRHIPEDA                   91
+
+    Order CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA       92
+    The Smooth Barnacle                92
+
+    Order CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA        94
+    The Acorn-Shell                    94
+
+    Class ANNULATA                     97
+
+    Order ANNULATA SEDENTARIA          98
+    The Magnificent Amphitrite         98
+
+    Order ANNULATA ANTENNATA          100
+    The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen    100
+        Blood-coloured Leodice        100
+        Spinous Sea-Mouse             102
+
+    Order ANNULATA APODA              102
+    The Common Earth-Worm             103
+        Medicinal Leech               106
+
+    Class CRUSTACEA                   115
+
+    Order CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ      115
+    The Crab Tribe                    117
+        Land Crab                     124
+        Hermit Crab                   127
+        Lobster                       130
+        River Cray-Fish               131
+        Phosphorescent Shrimp         132
+        Opossum Shrimp                134
+
+    Order CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ    137
+    The Spotted Squill                137
+        Common Cloportus              138
+        Molucca Crab                  142
+        Crab-like Limulus             144
+        Water Flea                    144
+        Small Water Flea              147
+        Hairy Cypris                  148
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOK OF SHELLS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
+
+
+In reviewing the first DIVISION of the animal kingdom, namely, the
+vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have been delighted with the
+wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed upon each individual;
+but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of their possessors as
+these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure must be still greater
+in tracing the powers with which those creatures are endowed, which
+constitute what we have been accustomed to call the lower orders of
+animated nature.
+
+When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or
+the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the
+terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and
+metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that
+equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the
+different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the
+various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation;
+but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple
+appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to
+consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to
+look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose,
+and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How
+much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed
+of every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully
+developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the
+highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is
+their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable
+to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves
+of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even
+to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of
+the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain
+we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the _Infusoria_, those
+microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances
+in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach,
+and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned
+foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach,
+they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the
+nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their
+existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we
+have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in
+fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of
+the Creator’s works.
+
+The second DIVISION of the objects of natural history, namely, the
+INVERTEBRAL animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by
+themselves, on account of their being without an internal skeleton,
+consisting of a series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This
+distinction is explained in the introductory chapter to the Book of
+Animals. They have been separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven CLASSES,
+namely:—
+
+  1. MOLLUSCA, (_soft-bodied animals_,) in general covered
+        with a shell; as, for instance, a snail; or without a
+        shell, as a slug.
+
+  2. CONCHIFERA, (_shell-bearing animals_,) with a shell,
+        consisting of two valves, as an oyster or mussel.
+
+  3. CIRRHIPEDA, (_with feet like cirri, or hairs_.) The inhabitant
+        of the acorn-shell, found on the back of the larger kind of
+        shell-fish, &c., is an instance of this class.
+
+  4. ANNELIDA, (_with body formed of rings_;) of this class
+        the leech and the earth-worm are instances.
+
+  5. CRUSTACEA, (_covered with a hard case_,) crabs, lobsters, &c.
+
+  6. ARACHNIDÆ, _Spiders_.
+
+  7. INSECTA, _Insects_. A perfect insect has always six legs.
+
+  8. TUNICATA, (_enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence_.)
+
+  9. VERMES, _Worms_. With lengthened body without divisions;
+        for instance, worms found in the intestines.
+
+  10. RADIARIÆ, (_radiated animals_,) with the different parts
+        of which they are formed arranged like rays round one
+        common centre; as, for instance, the Star-fish.
+
+  11. POLYPI, (_many feet_.) The animal that forms the Coral
+        is a Polypus.
+
+  12. INFUSORIA, (_Infusory animals_.) These are found in
+        infusions of vegetable substances in water, and are,
+        in general, too small to be visible to the naked eye.
+
+In the present little book we shall treat of the first five of these
+Classes.
+
+The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed
+first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling,
+in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.
+
+The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered
+not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the
+anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study.
+In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of
+the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the
+animals.
+
+Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to
+be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the
+valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable
+us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of
+view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist.
+In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different
+species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the
+royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small
+univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress,
+the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of
+mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the
+well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from
+the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As
+an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel,
+scallop, &c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of
+the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro
+population in the West Indies.
+
+The _Teredo navalis_, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers,
+ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which
+many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on
+this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history
+and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of
+ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with
+the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the
+useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep.
+
+The shell with which a Molluscous animal is covered, is absolutely
+necessary to protect its delicate body from injury; this shell is, in
+general, composed of much the same substances as bone; but the bone of
+a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency of the blood, and the
+particles of which it is composed are deposited by that fluid, and
+again taken up and restored to the circulation, a circumstance which
+does not take place in the substance of a shell. The shell is formed
+by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of the growth of
+the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells, point out their
+periodical increase.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig 1. Fig 2._]
+
+It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between shells
+of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless properly
+defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The annexed
+diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent occurrence
+among the Mollusca. Fig. 1, represents a univalve shell; fig. 2,
+another shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the
+purpose of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for
+instance, the periwinkle, (_Turbo vulgaris_,) have what is called
+an operculum, (_a lid_,) which closes the opening, and protects the
+inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of
+horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell
+itself.
+
+
+
+
+CLASS MOLLUSCA.
+
+
+In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily
+attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the
+creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in
+different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and
+brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they
+are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be
+of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the
+snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.
+
+The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different
+form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of
+muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or
+drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are
+situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of
+a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from
+view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished
+with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in
+others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion
+of these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit
+that element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.
+
+The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following
+Orders:—
+
+  1. HETEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
+        not uniform in all species_.)
+
+  2. CEPHALOPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
+        attached to the head_.)
+
+  3. TRACHELIPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
+        attached to the neck, near the gills_.)
+
+  4. GASTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
+        attached to the stomach_.)
+
+  5. PTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
+        like wings_.)
+
+
+_ORDER HETEROPODA._
+
+The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered
+as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals,
+intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods;
+they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a jelly-like
+substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty when
+floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are less
+known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great difficulty
+there is in preserving them.
+
+
+THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)
+
+This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and
+perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be
+seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears
+merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material
+organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or
+organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part
+of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white
+and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance
+resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling
+it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which
+seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors
+with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas
+at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax
+model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches
+wide.
+
+[Illustration: THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)]
+
+
+_ORDER CEPHALOPODA._
+
+The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished
+with a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find
+among this class some of the most singular productions of the waters;
+they differ materially from each other, and have been separated into
+three groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia;
+secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the
+Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous
+chambers, as the Nautilus.
+
+
+THE CUTTLE FISH, (_Sepia officinalis_.)
+
+The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native
+of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of
+an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually
+covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike
+all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the
+Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard
+transparent substance.
+
+The Cuttle Fish, figured in the engraving, is furnished in front
+with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy,
+or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously
+constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in
+themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted
+by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner
+surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in
+contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar
+power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not
+cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind
+of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for
+many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching.
+
+[Illustration: THE CUTTLE FISH.]
+
+[Illustration: BEAK OF A CEPHALOPOD.]
+
+The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and,
+although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt
+that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own
+element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes,
+capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe
+are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and
+very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within
+its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the
+power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it
+escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms
+a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal,
+_Sepia_. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each
+other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour,
+and commonly known by the name of _Sea Grapes_. They are found attached
+to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.
+
+The Cuttle Fish generally remains with its body in some hole in a rock,
+while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer
+that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious,
+and it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to
+conquer.
+
+The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English
+coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found
+on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the
+manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of
+the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in
+the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though
+varying considerably in texture.
+
+
+THE ARGONAUT, (_Argonauta argo_.)
+
+    The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,
+    The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep
+    The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.
+    He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,
+    That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.
+
+The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest
+ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and,
+at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research
+of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with
+the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so
+that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists
+would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division
+of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along
+with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union
+between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it
+applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do
+not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the
+shell.
+
+The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its
+resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in
+full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have
+been the first fitted out for commercial adventure.
+
+[Illustration: THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.]
+
+In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in
+considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the
+waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist,
+Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal
+miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or
+Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture,
+and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube,
+all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily;
+then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a
+membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the
+remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as
+a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if
+alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”
+
+Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its
+shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly
+Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that
+such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed
+by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the
+instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation.
+The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these
+interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.
+
+
+THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, (_Nautilus pompilius_.)
+
+The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after
+with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years
+that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this
+knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while
+engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen
+containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now
+deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.
+
+The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided
+into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now
+describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to
+be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking
+in the Water at will. The body of this _Cephalopod_, it will be seen,
+only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size
+having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as
+the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they
+had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too
+cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the
+providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own
+words, the capture of this interesting object.
+
+[Illustration: THE PEARLY NAUTILUS,
+
+Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.]
+
+“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather,
+thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was
+lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island
+of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean,
+that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at
+some distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead
+tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in
+this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship
+at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the
+floating object.”
+
+“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly
+known by the name of the Pearly Nautilus: it was captured and brought
+on board; but the shell was shattered from having been struck with
+the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was sinking when the boat
+approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it would have escaped. I
+extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was firmly attached to
+each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has been stated by Dr.
+Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour, with deeper sports
+and variegations,” the colour, however, as it appeared in this recent
+specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.
+
+[Illustration: SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN, OR INTERNAL
+SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.]
+
+Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been
+brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been
+frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and
+not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An
+office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of
+rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the
+fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as
+soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I
+and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not
+notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell,
+merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the
+membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful
+prize.”
+
+Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with
+its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out
+his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the
+poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse
+position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the
+ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on
+the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but
+after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops
+floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves.
+This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken
+in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the
+bottom.”
+
+
+_ORDER TRACHELIPODA._
+
+The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve
+shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two
+numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (_Zoophagi_,) and those
+that exist on vegetable substances, (_Phytophagi_.) The animal feeders
+are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without
+jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at
+pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies
+of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known
+from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a
+_siphon_, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points
+out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of
+its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for
+the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe
+water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.
+
+  FAMILY CONVOLUTA,    (_rolled up like a scroll_.)
+  FAMILY COLUMELLARIA, (_distinguished by a plaited columella_.)
+  FAMILY PURPURIFERA,  (_yielding a purple colour_.)
+  FAMILY ALATA,        (_winged_.)
+  FAMILY CANALIFERA    (_having a canal at the base of the opening_.)
+
+
+FAMILY _CONVOLUTA_.
+
+The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich
+in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of
+this class.
+
+
+FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (ZOOPHAGI.)
+
+
+THE MARBLE CONE, (_Conus marmoreus_.)
+
+Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The
+Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and
+is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular
+white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable
+manner the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his
+works.
+
+[Illustration: _Voluta diadema. Conus marmoreus. Columbella
+mercatoria._]
+
+It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is
+much thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part;
+and this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the
+soft body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the
+animal the shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes
+internal, the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall;
+if, therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original
+thickness, its weight would become too great for its possessor. To
+guard against this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material,
+the creature possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance
+of what now becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is
+unnecessary for its present use, and of re-depositing the same on the
+outward wall of its mansion, where strength is most required[1].
+
+The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve
+shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable
+specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their
+form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but,
+above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of
+celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.
+
+[Illustration: _Oliva porphyria._]
+
+The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve
+fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two
+tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit
+salt waters.
+
+The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal
+which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the
+columella. The Porphyry Olive is found in the South American Seas, on
+the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species
+of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish
+brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with
+irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly
+four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.
+
+
+THE MONEY COWRIE, (_Cypræa moneta_.)
+
+The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African
+coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a
+circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in
+Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are
+obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for
+rice.
+
+[Illustration: _Cypræa moneta._]
+
+Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea;
+these having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to
+Bengal, and from thence sent into this country. The value of these
+shells as a circulating medium depends naturally enough on their
+greater or less abundance.
+
+In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a
+shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued at
+a shilling.
+
+The Cowrie shell is found of three different forms, according to
+its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely
+imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the
+usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then
+begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely
+slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly,
+when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in
+which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden.
+The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the
+two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult
+state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large,
+so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while
+the deposition of the new matter is taking place.
+
+Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to
+prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we
+have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to
+require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one;
+from this it happens that the same individual can form successively
+many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both
+large and small.
+
+When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand,
+at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot
+climates.
+
+
+FAMILY _COLUMELLARIA_.
+
+This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella
+plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a
+plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that
+is, without a notch.
+
+
+THE DIADEM WHORL SHELL, (_Voluta diadema_.)
+
+The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it
+is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become
+nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and
+is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has
+two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth
+is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little
+hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ,
+springing out obliquely behind the head.
+
+
+THE COMMON COLUMBELLA, (_Columbella mercatoria_.)
+
+The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island
+of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of
+an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it
+possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.
+
+
+FAMILY _PURPURIFERA_.
+
+The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove
+bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all
+the genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to
+these Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar
+reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient
+nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much
+in use before the discovery of cochineal.
+
+
+THE MUSIC HARP SHELL, (_Harpa musica_.)
+
+The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance
+also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the
+animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time
+back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either
+forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth,
+although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:—
+
+[Illustration: _Harpa musica._]
+
+The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two
+portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from
+its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and
+wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account
+it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it
+would be lost at the same time as the foot.
+
+The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were
+less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours,
+become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still
+considered rare.
+
+The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the
+regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a
+harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.
+
+
+THE WIDE-MOUTHED PURPURA, (_Purpura patula_.)
+
+This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the
+Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple
+colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in
+the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.
+
+The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was
+discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was
+thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the
+discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied
+the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient
+minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its
+discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are
+informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the
+sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized
+one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his
+teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph
+having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to
+have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less
+anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a
+method of applying it to cloth.
+
+This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either
+consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only
+for the garments of royalty.
+
+Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar
+and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The
+Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most
+of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing.
+Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings
+of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the
+republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their
+own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should
+dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and
+tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a
+few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was
+entirely lost.
+
+In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye,
+nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths
+the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and
+on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the
+accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour
+were entirely fabulous.
+
+According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter
+out of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure
+state, and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from
+the smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ
+were caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken
+out and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of
+the matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels
+over a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the
+fleshy impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor
+was tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was
+defective, the boiling was renewed.
+
+Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at
+other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among
+these Pliny enumerates _Fucus marinus_, or Archil, and the _Anchusa
+tinctoria_, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these
+and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of
+shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.
+
+In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but
+the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.
+
+In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead,
+was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made
+considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson
+colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this
+colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr.
+Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus
+excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various
+kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities
+of a species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the
+opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours,
+he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying
+transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the
+fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a
+horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous
+clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it
+may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to
+be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor
+in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if
+placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,—that is, if
+in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise,
+or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer,
+the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce
+be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep
+green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green,
+after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue,
+and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red,
+after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,)
+it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no
+more.”
+
+“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding
+water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the
+wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned,
+that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour,
+which afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the
+colour, will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in
+handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will
+be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”
+
+Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species
+of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they
+had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were
+white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of
+them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it
+stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by
+washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it
+was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of
+the sun.
+
+The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these
+shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but
+Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial
+in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little
+colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a
+substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being
+applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.
+
+
+FAMILY _ALATA_.
+
+This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at
+the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the
+shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.
+
+
+THE SPOTTED SCORPION SHELL, (_Pterocera scorpio_.)
+
+This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains
+a considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the
+projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance
+is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced
+period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and
+is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted
+and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell
+is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on
+which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or
+slightly tinged with yellow.
+
+[Illustration: _Pterocera scorpio._]
+
+
+FAMILY _CANALIFERA_.
+
+The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in
+having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening
+does not change its form through age.
+
+
+THE VARIEGATED SEA-TRUMPET, (_Triton variegatum_.)
+
+The _Triton variegatum_, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and
+beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found
+chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on
+the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell
+applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.
+
+    Already Triton, at his call, appears
+    Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,
+    And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.
+    The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,
+    And give the waves the signal to retire.
+    His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent
+    Grows by degrees into a large extent,
+    Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,
+    Runs the wide circuit of the world around.
+    The sun first heard it, in his early east,
+    And met the rattling echoes in the west;
+    The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,
+    Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.
+                                        DRYDEN.
+
+[Illustration: _Dolium perdix. Triton variegatum. Pyrula
+caniculata._]
+
+
+THE CANICULATED PEAR-SHELL, (_Pyrula caniculata_.)
+
+This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and
+attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at
+present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the
+whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many
+as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.
+
+[Illustration: _Turbo marmoratus. Pleurotoma babylonia. Trochus
+imperialis._]
+
+
+THE BABYLONIAN SPLIT-MOUTH,
+
+(_Pleurotoma babylonia_.)
+
+The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca
+Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said
+that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated
+as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from
+the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the
+shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the
+creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to
+support.
+
+
+VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (PHYTOPHAGI.)
+
+Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances
+have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws;
+they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which
+they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their
+tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in
+stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These
+last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of
+breathing,—others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist
+out of that element.
+
+
+THE MARBLE TURBAN-SHELL, (_Turbo marmoratus_.)
+
+There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell.
+The Marble Turban, _Turbo marmoratus_, is the largest, being as much
+as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour
+of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity.
+It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting
+of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells
+whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of
+mother-of-pearl.
+
+The _Turbo littoreus_ (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle,
+with which our rocky coasts abound.
+
+
+THE IMPERIAL TOP-SHELL, (_Trochus imperialis_.)
+
+These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form
+to a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their
+spire is always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called
+_flat-mouthed snails_. The greater number of these shells, (and the
+species are very numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and
+many of them are also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there
+are as many as seventy species,—the larger and more elegant are only
+found in the seas of hot climates.
+
+[Illustration: _Haliotis iris. Scalaria pretiosa. Neritina pulligera._]
+
+
+THE PRECIOUS SCALARIA, (_Scalaria pretiosa_.)
+
+This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of
+its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were
+only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the
+turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast,
+on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native
+place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and
+several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others
+consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage
+some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that
+as much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given
+for a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ
+are much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast
+of Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in
+forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches
+in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the
+empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is
+from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought
+to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with
+rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.
+
+
+THE IRIS EAR-SHELL, (_Haliotis Iris_.)
+
+The _Haliotides_, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species
+are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the
+system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many
+doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it
+continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of
+Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food,
+the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender
+tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament
+the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these
+tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the
+number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed
+at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes
+which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of
+the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of
+species very difficult and uncertain.
+
+
+THE DUSTY NERITINA, (_Neritina pulligera_.)
+
+This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and
+a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to
+inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the
+history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,—namely,
+that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good
+preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general
+natives of hot climates.
+
+
+THE VIVIPAROUS PALUDINA, (_Paludina vivipara_.)
+
+The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it
+takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within
+the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In
+nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in
+the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.
+
+[Illustration: _Planorbis corneus. Paludina vivipara. Lymnæa
+stagnalis._]
+
+These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water;
+sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the
+mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny
+substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves
+to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they
+are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.
+
+
+LYMNÆA STAGNALIS.
+
+The _Lymnæa stagnalis_ is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow
+ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for
+its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the
+water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great
+numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance
+of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into
+its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it
+instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order
+to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the
+ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts
+its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very
+little power to direct its own course.
+
+During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the
+mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind,
+they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes,
+which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not
+easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other.
+
+
+THE HORN-SHAPED PLANORBIS,
+
+(_Planorbis corneus_.)
+
+The _Planorbis_, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses
+the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like
+substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year,
+attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is
+considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the
+spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other
+inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable,
+certainly not poisonous.
+
+
+THE RED-MOUTHED BULIMUS, (_Bulimus hæmastomus_.)
+
+The _Bulimus hæmastomus_ is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of
+Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most
+singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of
+the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that
+of a moderate-sized pigeon.
+
+[Illustration: _Bulimus hæmastomus. Pupa mummia._]
+
+
+THE MUMMY PUPPET SHELL, (_Pupa mummia_.)
+
+The _Pupa mummia_ is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the
+singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy.
+
+The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones,
+and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The
+greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of
+tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and
+other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small.
+
+
+THE WOOD SNAIL, (_Helix nemoralis_.)
+
+The Snail (_Helix_) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe,
+and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells
+which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been
+placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with
+two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices
+in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn
+into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula
+is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black
+spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal,
+and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all
+the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal
+appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some
+writers suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of
+these appendages.
+
+The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger
+kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans,
+according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in
+the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening
+them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in
+great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they
+are still used as food in several parts of the Continent.
+
+[Illustration: _Helix nemoralis._]
+
+In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are
+frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but
+used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other
+diseases of the chest.
+
+It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have
+portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be
+afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished
+extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was
+not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails,
+which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head
+was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world
+became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made,
+and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one,
+however, for a length of time, could succeed;—it was then suspected
+that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length,
+it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of
+which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce
+a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others,
+the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper
+nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two
+years after the old head has been removed.
+
+M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred
+Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden,
+that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they
+could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the
+Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he
+discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain
+of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the
+end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and
+like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more
+delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot
+doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has
+been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind
+of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.”
+
+If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the
+disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very
+considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and
+kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended
+for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are
+tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed
+of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early
+rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the
+dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become
+excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander
+in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are
+great destroyers both of Snails and slugs.
+
+A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth
+recording.
+
+The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading
+into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of
+this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to
+kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road;
+but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks
+and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled
+him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails
+which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not
+in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct
+line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as
+if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is
+the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails
+aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green
+spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,—from
+the path, nothing but the wall in front,—but still, although the
+whole of their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on,
+until they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By
+what other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies
+the place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with
+so liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature?
+
+
+_ORDER GASTEROPODA._
+
+The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and
+foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which
+this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the
+creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is
+for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished
+from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral,
+and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in
+some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting
+covering of any shell whatever.
+
+
+THE RED SLUG, (_Limax rufus_.)
+
+The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order,
+entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all
+countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have
+never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact
+of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The _Limax
+rufus_, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a
+reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it
+impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly
+found in fields than in gardens.
+
+[Illustration: _Limax rufus._]
+
+There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on
+account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown
+kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is
+very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields
+of cabbages and turnips.
+
+In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head,
+contains a very small oval shell.
+
+There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under
+stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in
+length; it is called _Limax noctiluca_, the night-shining Slug. The
+buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which
+exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining
+with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm.
+
+We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact
+mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have
+laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were
+dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being
+placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched.
+
+The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by
+a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to
+entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight
+acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the
+apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing
+two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field
+of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two
+women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs,
+which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid
+on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed
+invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were
+to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they
+abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to
+be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The
+quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel.
+
+
+THE WOODLIKE BULLA, (_Bulla lignaria_.)
+
+The animal of the _Bulla_ is singular, from possessing-within its
+stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that
+organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind
+of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the
+foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches
+and a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck
+mentions as many as eleven species.
+
+[Illustration: _Bulla lignaria._]
+
+
+THE NAIL-SHAPED CREPIDULA,
+
+(_Crepidula unguiformis_.)
+
+The genus _Crepidula_ takes its name from its hearing some resemblance
+to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these
+there are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm
+climates.
+
+
+THE MEDITERRANEAN UMBRELLA,
+
+(_Umbrella Mediterranea_.)
+
+The _Umbrella Mediterranea_, as its name implies, is found in the
+Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is
+singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by
+a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself.
+
+
+THE CLOUDED FISSURELLA, (_Fissurella nimbosa_.)
+
+The _Fissurella nimbosa_ is found in various and distant parts of the
+world,—in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &c. It is
+rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in
+length.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Umbrella      Crepidula    Fissurella
+   Mediterranea. unguiformis. nimbosa._
+
+]
+
+The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by
+having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell,
+affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is
+discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ.
+
+
+THE HUNGARIAN BONNET SHELL,
+
+(_Pileopsis Ungarica_.)
+
+The _Pileopsis Ungarica_ is extremely elegant both in its form and
+markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with
+rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low
+water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless
+removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the
+creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches
+itself firmly to the surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Pileopsis Ungarica._]
+
+
+THE SCALY CHITON, (_Chiton squamosus_.)
+
+The _Chitons_ differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in
+the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed
+by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck,
+in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the
+Mollusca.
+
+[Illustration: _Chiton squamosus._]
+
+“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe
+the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the
+marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not
+a univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not
+to be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one
+piece, which Nature had originally broken transversely into several
+distinct moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its
+movements.”
+
+The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between
+high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements.
+Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton,
+says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is
+covered with a multitude of teeth,—some simple, and others with three
+points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows.
+
+
+
+
+CLASS CONCHIFERA.
+
+
+The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells,
+in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is
+soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a
+shell of two valves, without head or eyes,—a mouth, if it may be so
+called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole
+body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes,
+generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the
+principal distinguishing characters of this class.
+
+In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference
+to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the
+number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged
+under the heads of _univalves_, of one piece, _bivalves_, with two
+pieces, and _multivalves_, with more than two pieces. This arrangement
+was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that
+otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells,
+however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals
+belonging to the class Conchifera.
+
+The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses
+except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well
+described by Dr. Roget, in his _Bridgewater Treatise_, that we cannot
+do better than extract a portion from that interesting work.
+
+[Illustration: Valves of the _Unio Batava_, with the Connecting
+Ligament.]
+
+The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by
+a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that
+lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies
+much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great
+strength.
+
+During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell
+is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of
+the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment
+and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary
+to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell,
+and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being
+only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a
+muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even
+a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their
+fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to
+that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from
+their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the _adductor
+muscles_.
+
+[Illustration: Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the
+Hinge, L., the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its
+Fibres, with respect to the Valves.]
+
+The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of
+being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing
+to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are
+not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies.
+
+Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the Oyster has some power of
+locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling the
+contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the
+fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy
+mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to
+rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain
+within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and
+that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas,
+those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water
+never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they
+are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous
+experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left
+them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.
+
+[Illustration: _The Cardium, or Cockle._]
+
+Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a
+leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In
+the _Cardium_, or cockle, this organ is composed of a mass of muscular
+fibres, interwoven together in a very complex manner, and which may
+be compared to the muscular structure of the human tongue; the effect
+in both is the same, namely, the conferring a power of motion in
+all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded, retracted, or
+inflected at every point.
+
+The _Solen_, or razor-shell fish, has a foot of a cylindrical shape,
+tapering at the end, and much more resembling in its form a tongue
+than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of the foot is effected
+by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior of the organ is formed
+of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a considerable quantity of
+water, which the animal has the power of injecting into it, and of thus
+increasing its dimensions.
+
+The foot of the _Mytilus edulis_, or common mussel, can be advanced
+to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any
+fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body,
+and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and
+by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed
+object, continues slowly to advance.
+
+This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal
+themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly
+adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for
+this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and
+insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and
+forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it
+is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract
+it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised
+and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of
+these exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is
+moderately active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a
+minute. The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which
+was raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on
+its side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to
+be supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly
+at every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be
+perceived above the sand.
+
+By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the
+foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell
+may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before
+protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled
+quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can,
+with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place.
+
+The _Cardium_ can also advance at the bottom of the sea, along the
+surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot, as a
+boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against
+the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar
+expedient, that the Solen forces its way through the sand, expanding
+the end of its foot into the form of a club.
+
+The _Tellina_ is remarkable for the quickness and agility with which it
+can spring to considerable distances, by first folding the foot into a
+small compass, and then suddenly extending it, while the shell is, at
+the same time, closed with a loud snap.
+
+The _Pinna_, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of
+tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus
+for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from
+dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of
+its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number
+of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks,
+and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a
+convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of
+this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round
+tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to
+retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their
+power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous
+matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being
+drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the
+spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a
+certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously
+constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from
+the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this
+groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting
+it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this
+canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient
+tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied
+to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully
+attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is
+then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by
+its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is
+disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same
+operation is repeated.
+
+Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions
+around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of
+some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the
+importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its
+safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed,
+by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an
+action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once
+the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the
+power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which
+they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly
+to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that
+no Pinna is capable of forming more than four, or at most five threads,
+in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in
+haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender
+than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other
+parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into
+gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk.
+
+The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this
+Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there
+are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa,
+with only one pair.
+
+
+_ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA._
+
+The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are
+much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but
+they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as,
+for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the
+oriental pearl.
+
+
+THE HORSE-FOOT BOWL SHELL,
+
+(_Anomia ephippium_.)
+
+The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form;
+like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence
+attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger
+inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the
+same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of
+the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value.
+Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of
+the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in
+the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which,
+instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of
+shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this
+_operculum_, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of
+the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance,
+by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty.
+
+[Illustration: _Anomia ephippium._ [_Anomia_, a little bowl;
+_ephippium_, a horse’s foot.]]
+
+
+THE OYSTER, (_Ostrea edulis_.)
+
+Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become
+food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe;
+they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky
+ground, in no great depth from the surface.
+
+Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May;
+when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease,
+which the dredgers commonly call _cultch_. The growth of an Oyster is
+tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of
+the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in
+three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a
+half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size.
+
+[Illustration: _Ostrea edulis._]
+
+Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The
+Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute,
+attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which
+they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from
+England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the
+luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported
+in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were
+fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to
+those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour,
+nearly black.
+
+The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following
+places:—Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are
+generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in
+Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales.
+In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and
+at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters
+is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April
+inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome;
+it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months
+that have the letter _r_ in them.
+
+In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of
+Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St.
+Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this
+is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope
+which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is
+then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few
+minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken
+are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places,
+where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks
+are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist
+materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken
+out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in
+what we should call bad condition.
+
+Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or
+sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a
+narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks
+are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed
+on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand
+on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the
+water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may
+have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them.
+A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which
+had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change
+of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain
+a peculiar kind of green food.
+
+
+THE GREAT COMB SHELL, (_Pecten maximus_.)
+
+This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the
+largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all
+the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is
+covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into
+use among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other
+articles of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil
+species.
+
+[Illustration: _Pecten maximus. Malleus albus._]
+
+The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species
+of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water,
+and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but
+this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its
+habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it
+tolerably palatable it requires cooking.
+
+In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the
+poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the _restaurateurs_ employ
+them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of
+mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters,
+and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell.
+
+
+THE PEARL OYSTER, (_Meleagrina margaritifera_.)
+
+The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very
+different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of
+its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a _byssus_, or
+beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found.
+There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly
+found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of
+Australasia.
+
+The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other
+inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable
+dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained.
+
+The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a
+pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by
+an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the
+inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the
+mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future
+irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances
+cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval,
+sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is
+always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck,
+or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be
+traced on the pearl itself.
+
+[Illustration: _Meleagrina margaritifera._]
+
+But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;—in this case, the
+pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for
+instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid,
+this nucleus can be traced.
+
+Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre,
+consisting of the remains of a diseased _ovum_, or egg, of the animal.
+
+Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a
+valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her
+ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be
+doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it
+would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to
+drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the
+lapse of a very considerable time.
+
+At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great
+moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is
+conducted.
+
+The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of
+Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye
+but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are
+the plants that nourish the cochineal insect[2]), and here and there
+some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees. But Condatchy,
+three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to be seen but a
+few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during the period of
+the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of which extend
+upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are only intended
+as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely constructed),
+and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair on the grandest
+scale. The people most active in erecting huts and speculating in the
+various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans, Cingalese (natives
+of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast of the continent of
+India. Apparently, however, from their natural timidity, none of the
+Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them engage in the other
+active parts of the fishery; they merely resort hither for the purpose
+of supplying the markets.
+
+About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery,
+when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of
+the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English
+superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent
+diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand
+oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls
+collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a
+good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are
+scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles
+from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are
+fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is
+ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to
+fifteen fathoms.
+
+The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the
+same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but
+considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference.
+The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside
+of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more
+beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured.
+The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy
+part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several
+pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty.
+
+Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely
+at its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators:
+but, most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual,
+who sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year
+1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than
+120,000_l._
+
+At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two
+hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These,
+with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything
+necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different
+parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions
+and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of
+these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they
+reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.
+
+At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to
+emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open
+scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from
+each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended,
+with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone
+hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about
+five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of
+a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the
+stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron,
+to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a
+slip of calico round his loins,—swimming in the water, he takes hold
+of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of
+the stone.
+
+He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting
+himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden
+hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to
+him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone
+and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels
+himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils
+with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other
+gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and
+instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is
+thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached
+to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon
+as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone,
+which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting
+oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next
+diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as
+much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get
+hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk
+to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of
+it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time,
+free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above
+water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a
+distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a
+rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into
+the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is
+training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely
+experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the
+manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a
+single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has
+reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain
+under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in
+this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert
+man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket.
+There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down
+alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity
+of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a
+favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort
+after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a
+pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks
+contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for
+six hours.
+
+When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal,
+and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten
+to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and
+noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the
+oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore,
+where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for
+ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the
+oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel,
+filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their
+putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells
+broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which
+have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards
+handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from
+the shells, with pincers.
+
+When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters
+remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom
+of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured
+into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost.
+Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance
+in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are
+by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom.
+
+As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being
+conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small
+and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of
+considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with
+salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into
+classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves.
+After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then
+arranged on strings, and are fit for the market.
+
+Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest
+times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are
+often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various
+attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular
+of which,—known to have been practised early in the Christian era,
+on the banks of the Red Sea,—is still carried on in China. A hole is
+bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted,
+and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point
+of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually
+hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite
+size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land.
+
+A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced
+the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be
+formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually
+established artificial pearleries,—but these were abandoned after
+a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of
+sufficient size to be of much value.
+
+False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is
+covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white
+wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which
+adhere to the scales of the bleak, (_ablette_,) and was first applied
+to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name
+of Jacquin[3].
+
+
+THE HAMMER OYSTER, (_Malleus albus_.)
+
+The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable;
+externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other
+hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the
+most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus
+are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity
+of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like
+the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or
+beard, by which it adheres to the rocks.
+
+
+THE ROUGH PINNA, (_Pinna rudis_.)
+
+The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the
+shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the
+engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much
+as a foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a
+species found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water,
+which is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria,
+not only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard,
+or byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very
+remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the
+Pinna, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a _crampe_, with teeth a
+foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to
+be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains
+attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose
+of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried
+and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even
+garments of much larger size.
+
+[Illustration: _Pinna rudis._]
+
+The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of
+equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a
+dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent.
+
+This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but
+at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of
+the Pinna, and the number of beards necessary to make even so small an
+article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells
+were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &c., they
+would increase much more rapidly.
+
+These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British
+shores possess but one species, the _Pinna lævis_ of Donovan; this is
+of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size.
+
+
+THE COMMON MUSSEL, (_Mytilus edulis_.)
+
+The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing
+animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and
+low water marks.
+
+[Illustration: _Mytilus edulis._]
+
+They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food;
+and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish.
+
+The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of
+severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned
+for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by
+which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be
+detected,—a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance,
+partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or
+insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have
+ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of
+the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many
+experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author,
+the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding
+on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely
+a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass
+of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is
+cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of
+July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common
+observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in
+which the letter _r_ is not found. This spawn, according to our author,
+is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and
+inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the
+part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled
+up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered
+severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all
+these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been
+discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion
+occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but
+this has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten
+with vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise.
+
+When an individual is _musselled_, the effects are very alarming;
+the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few
+hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is
+attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink,
+and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which
+soon relieves the patient.
+
+The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it is
+well adapted.
+
+In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the
+multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom
+of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which
+the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August,
+when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the
+mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here
+they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and
+in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change
+from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve
+their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks,
+preserves in which the salt water remains at rest.
+
+
+THE GIANT TRIDACNA, (_Tridacna gigas_.)
+
+The _Tridacna gigas_ is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very
+thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much as
+five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells have
+been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the
+churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to
+form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given
+to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found
+in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one
+hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna
+gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere
+to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity,
+as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of
+separating them from the rock.
+
+[Illustration: _Tridacna gigas._]
+
+
+_ORDER BIMUSCULOSA,
+
+(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)_
+
+This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells,
+all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their
+structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their
+use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome with
+those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more
+pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to
+place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in
+one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable
+depth of water, they are not so easily obtained.
+
+
+THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL, (_Anodonta cygnæa_.)
+
+Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble
+it, are known by the trivial name of _Mussel_, the only resemblance
+between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which
+inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in
+habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power
+of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta
+is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of
+shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad
+muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain
+pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are
+lined with mother-of-pearl.
+
+Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl,
+very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high
+price.
+
+A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the
+collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County
+Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months,
+go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs,
+and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell,
+take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell
+in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in
+a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable
+pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those
+people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good
+advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for
+50_l._ that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40_l._ A
+miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4_l._ 10_s._ to a man that
+sold it for 10_l._, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30_l._,
+with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80_l._ for it from the
+late Dutchess of Ormond.”
+
+[Illustration: _Isocardia cor. Anodonta Cygnæa._]
+
+
+THE HEART-SHAPED ISOCARDIA,
+
+(_Isocardia cor_.)
+
+This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by
+the name of the _foolscap-shell_, and the _bullock’s heart shell_, is
+rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast;
+it is the largest British bivalve shell.
+
+
+THE WEDGE-SHAPED DONAX, (_Donax cuneata_.)
+
+There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that
+represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks:
+it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these
+species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and
+streaked with pink.
+
+[Illustration: _Donax cuneata._]
+
+In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through
+various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the
+Tellina, or _earth-shell_, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the
+Solen, or _razor-shell_.
+
+
+THE SHEATH SOLEN, (_Solen vagina_.)
+
+The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying
+themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a
+couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to
+penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell.
+Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in
+which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom.
+This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which
+forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is
+enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose
+of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal
+ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may
+possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of
+Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms
+for its retreat is always perpendicular.
+
+[Illustration: _Tellina. Solen vagina. Pandora rostrata._]
+
+One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on
+the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather
+cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the
+farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of
+the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated;
+after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular
+direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began
+to descend, and that with considerable quickness.
+
+The Solens are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places
+where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method
+of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat
+of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its
+chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of
+salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so
+irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly
+mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance,
+snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes
+good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal
+escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect;
+either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which
+is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up
+with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other
+means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it
+out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty.
+
+
+THE DATE-SHAPED PHOLAS, (_Pholas dactyloides_.)
+
+These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the
+solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in
+stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of
+much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical,
+for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an
+insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that
+the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which
+acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this
+solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered
+in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon
+stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava.
+
+Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their
+phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if
+eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the
+person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus.
+
+[Illustration: _Pholas dactyloides._]
+
+Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly
+eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are
+found.
+
+The species represented in the engraving is found on the British
+coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully
+carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the
+engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole
+from which a shell has been removed is shown.
+
+
+THE SHIP-WORM, (_Teredo navalis_.)
+
+Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully
+examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it
+employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as
+there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent
+observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed,
+are fully equal to the task.
+
+[Illustration: _Teredo navalis._]
+
+Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of
+the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The
+animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a
+tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress
+through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right
+in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of
+these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the
+excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually
+formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most
+deeply sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally
+excavates in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some
+instances it crosses this grain.
+
+In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high
+water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have
+been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of
+large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by
+means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together.
+These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this
+destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and
+had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts
+of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost.
+
+
+
+
+CLASS CIRRHIPEDA.
+
+
+The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of _Barnacles_ and
+_Acorn-shells_, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and
+pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time.
+They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca,
+and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &c. These creatures, from their
+singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of
+the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was
+unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their
+true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British
+naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any
+definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately
+after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought
+more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and
+lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case.
+
+After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea,
+Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the
+CLASS of Crustacea, I formed the _first order_ of this class, (the
+_Cirrhipeds_,) under the name of _sightless Crustacea_, but a few years
+afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of the Mollusca,
+but this was no better. If, for example, we consider those characters
+which furnish their most important organs, we shall find that the
+Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the Crustacea,
+for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws analogous to
+those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the antennæ of the
+shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was a task that
+devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq., a surgeon in
+his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery took place, we
+shall notice further on.
+
+The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or
+tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being
+derived from two Latin words,—_cirrhus_, hair, and _pes_, the foot;
+these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have,
+in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion.
+
+They have been separated into two orders; namely, _Cirrhipeda
+pedunculata_, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery
+nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,—and _Cirrhipeda sedentaria_,
+which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell.
+
+
+_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA._
+
+(_Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk._)
+
+
+THE SMOOTH BARNACLE, (_Anatifa lævis_.)
+
+The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of
+a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has
+lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the
+shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance of
+this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission
+granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days,
+because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to
+partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent
+to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following
+notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and _printed_ by
+them in their _Transactions_. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and
+convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the
+shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I
+found a perfect _sea-fowl_; the little bill like that of a _goose_, the
+eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the
+feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the
+_feet_ like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor
+did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that
+did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen
+some as big as their fist!!”
+
+[Illustration: _Anatifa lævis._]
+
+
+_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA_,
+
+(_Sedentary Cirrhipeds_.)
+
+
+THE ACORN-SHELL, (_Balanus_.)
+
+Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the
+Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author had
+devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was
+returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when,
+casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry
+at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a
+treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled
+for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.”
+After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues
+“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in
+any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the
+little animal about to be described.
+
+[Illustration: _Balanus_, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)]
+
+“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a
+somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue.
+When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel,
+and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water
+in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are
+withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves,
+united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of
+opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional
+exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a
+large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks,
+&c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members,
+so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke
+to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a
+succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 1.  Larva of Barnacle, natural size.
+       2.    "    "    "      magnified, seen from above.
+       3.    "    "    "      highly magnified, seen from side;
+                                _a_, swimming-members;
+                                _b_, front limb, with sucker.
+       4. Eye, much magnified.
+       5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size.
+       6.    "      "      "      full grown.
+
+]
+
+“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal,
+is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the
+shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front,
+at the sides of the body.
+
+“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826;
+and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a
+glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be
+examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were
+taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the
+satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their _exuviæ_[4],
+and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the
+vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen
+intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of
+the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part
+of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with
+the _exuviæ_. On the 10th, another individual was seen _in the act of
+throwing off its shell_, and attaching itself, like the others, to the
+bottom of the glass.”
+
+
+
+
+CLASS ANNULATA.
+
+
+We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of
+Lamarck; he calls them,
+
+“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or
+inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least
+transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without
+antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number
+having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of
+being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though
+not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various
+forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this
+separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white
+blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals
+are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which
+have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated
+into three Orders, namely, _Annulata sedentaria_, which are fixed to
+other substances; _Annulata antennata_, possessing antennæ, or feelers;
+and _Annulata apoda_, without projecting members answering as feet,
+serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &c.”
+
+[Illustration: _Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals._]
+
+
+_ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA_,
+
+(_Sedentary Annulose Animals_.)
+
+The creatures which form this order are generally found attached
+to rocks, shells, &c. and are usually of small size. The engraving
+represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula
+there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell
+that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the
+species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has
+great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or
+tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always
+occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its _operculum_, the
+lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily
+formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of
+course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy.
+
+
+THE MAGNIFICENT AMPHITRITE,
+
+(_Amphitrite magnifica_.)
+
+This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as
+yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica,
+adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is
+exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into
+its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that
+of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained
+by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being
+put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health.
+That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an
+umbrella, consists of the _branchiæ_ or organs of breathing; these are
+of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite,
+although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to
+it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body.
+
+[Illustration: _Amphitrite magnifica._]
+
+
+_ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA_,
+
+(_Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ_.)
+
+
+THE SAND-WORM OF THE FISHERMEN,
+
+(_Arenicola piscatorium_.)
+
+This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much
+sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the
+European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met
+with in great abundance.
+
+[Illustration: _Arenicola piscatorium._]
+
+
+BLOOD-COLOURED LEODICE, (_Leodice sanguinea_.)
+
+The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are
+enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs
+of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four
+well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear
+a strong resemblance to the _scolopendra_, or centipede.
+
+[Illustration: _Leodice sanguinea._]
+
+The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of
+Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to
+the length of fourteen or fifteen inches.
+
+When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the
+blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body
+was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the
+animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as
+soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished.
+
+The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable
+jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the
+animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath
+the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus.
+
+
+THE SPINOUS SEA-MOUSE, OR SEA-CATERPILLAR,
+
+(_Halithæa aculeata_.)
+
+The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native
+element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially
+covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a
+peacock.
+
+[Illustration: _Halithæa aculeata._]
+
+
+_ORDER ANNULATA APODA_,
+
+
+(_Footless Annulose Animals_.)
+
+The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already
+described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides
+of their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may,
+consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those
+we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they
+are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and
+live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We
+find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the
+Earth-worm and the Leech.
+
+
+THE COMMON EARTH-WORM,
+
+(_Lumbricus terrestris_.)
+
+The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow
+rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short,
+silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like.
+These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the
+alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is
+enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so
+forming various fixed points of resistance or _fulcra_, upon which the
+animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the
+Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a
+simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind
+of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is
+supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two
+openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the dirt
+which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the other
+by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made by the
+animal would be much in this form, descending at A, and reaching the
+surface by B. It has been said, that the Earth-worm, if divided by the
+spade or otherwise, will unite again and live; the foundation for this
+appears to be the more probable fact, that, when divided, that portion
+of the animal in which the head is placed may, perhaps, survive the
+mutilation, and ultimately again become a perfect creature.
+
+Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks,
+they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round
+the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving
+the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very
+deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up
+in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of _mucus_,
+which is furnished by the pores of their body.
+
+The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with
+the author of the _Journal of a Naturalist_; among other remarks,
+he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important
+one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers,
+harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common
+Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the
+soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the
+surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer
+parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the
+more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple
+nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them
+are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and
+scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil,
+
+                 Death still producing life.
+
+“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey
+of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary
+example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction.
+The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its
+prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds;
+fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it
+unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and
+burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in
+dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the
+earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element,
+yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it
+as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and
+even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of
+the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding
+this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully
+commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of
+all.
+
+“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining
+over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become
+frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually
+consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass
+of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of
+approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground,
+than they approach the surface.
+
+“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing
+the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into
+the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service,
+penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every
+direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the
+water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we
+have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says,
+“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of
+knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and
+fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any
+vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that
+all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale
+as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that
+permitted me to obtain this knowledge.”
+
+
+THE MEDICINAL LEECH, (_Hirudo medicinalis_.)
+
+The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to
+have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed
+in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied
+to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended
+to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt
+leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any
+part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound
+occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal.
+
+At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the
+operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the
+body, for which use it is eminently adapted.
+
+There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures,
+but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the _Hirudo
+medicinalis_, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or
+striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted
+with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not
+uniformly found; and the _Hirudo troctina_, of a brownish colour,
+the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is
+surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow,
+and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots.
+
+The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout
+the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts;
+it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very
+abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture,
+and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great
+use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less
+frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are
+imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate
+calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every
+hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign
+production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat
+larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots.
+Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by
+the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were
+employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech
+appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is
+found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and
+seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears
+to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the
+sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by
+the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable
+depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated,
+and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is
+considered by the _leech-gatherers_ as a favourable time for collecting
+them.
+
+The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some
+persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a
+leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the
+following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be
+serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel
+without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the
+animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of
+fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a
+state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will
+remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless,
+and so on.
+
+This natural barometer _appears_ to answer tolerably well, if there is
+sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if
+one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are
+enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws,
+and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient
+accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use.
+
+The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood
+or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is
+not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the _larvæ_
+of aquatic insects, worms, &c., so that the common idea of the danger
+of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation.
+
+The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms,
+tadpoles, &c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five
+horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the
+number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were
+missing was to be discovered.
+
+The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of
+cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech,
+which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species,
+disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state,
+and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a
+lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more
+powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that
+period.
+
+A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a
+trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different
+parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench
+annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it
+(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of
+the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such
+pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent
+were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere
+skeleton.”
+
+From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo
+_sanguisuga_, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to
+the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name
+of Hirudo _vorax_, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its
+nature.
+
+Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in
+confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained
+slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a
+doubt.
+
+On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form
+of a horse-shoe, thus—
+
+[Illustration]
+
+These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or
+eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are
+merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in
+describing their character, says they are without eyes.
+
+The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are
+three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with
+regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these
+piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not
+by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the
+surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips);
+in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there
+remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the
+piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three
+minutes after the leech has commenced operation.
+
+Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been
+taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The
+principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels
+sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those
+which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered.
+
+Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination
+to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to
+commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &c.; but
+these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears
+to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when
+any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to
+puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the
+little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling
+to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little
+cold water.
+
+After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to
+induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt
+frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of
+Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the
+preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head
+of the leech instead of salt.
+
+The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has
+swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of
+the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the
+most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood
+remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed[5].
+The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed
+of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with
+the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal,
+the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal,
+through a distinct opening.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2.]
+
+It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced
+from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are
+developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon
+of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its
+natural size: fig. 1, shows the perfect case or cocoon, and fig. 2, the
+same opened, with the young leeches contained within it; it is said
+that, at times, there are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case.
+This cocoon is formed by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the
+mud or clay, which composes the bed of the pool it inhabits.
+
+The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although
+only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to
+the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of
+this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of
+sale.
+
+“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly
+in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those
+leeches which were intended for the Paris market.
+
+“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the
+season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to
+the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance.
+These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are
+known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of
+water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches
+quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they
+are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the
+cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of
+allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow
+much more rapidly after having partaken of blood.
+
+There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is
+more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than
+even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the
+terrible hooded snake itself.
+
+The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in
+length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active
+animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally
+to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no
+sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to
+crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is
+shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with
+these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down
+in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping
+them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly
+than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than
+would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in
+persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers,
+and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself.
+
+Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such
+as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &c., but all to very
+little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing
+the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very
+closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate.
+
+
+
+
+CLASS CRUSTACEA.
+
+
+The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history has
+undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among the
+insects:—others considered them to have more analogy to the spiders.
+Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent CLASS
+forming two _orders_, which he has named after the arrangement of the
+branchiæ, or gills, by which they breathe, namely,—the _Crustacea
+homobranchiæ_, the distinguishing marks of which he describes in this
+manner: branchiæ hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass,
+covering the body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the
+mandibles always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks,
+the head not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist
+them in their movements. Secondly, the _Crustacea heterobranchiæ_, in
+which the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under
+the lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the
+tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in
+general fixed, _sedentary, not on footstalks_.
+
+
+_ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ_,
+
+(_Shell-Fish with concealed gills._)
+
+The first of these orders, the _homobranchial_ Crustacea, includes most
+of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters,
+and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division.
+
+Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order,
+and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last
+appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal
+kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is
+apparently less complex.
+
+The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two
+principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately
+united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a
+portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable
+supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on
+each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head.
+The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this
+spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The
+two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest.
+
+The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat
+pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather;
+they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are
+so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of
+these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base.
+
+The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the
+mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at
+their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper
+part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at
+the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two
+pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six
+other members, which Lamarck calls _foot-jaws_, from their bearing
+some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the
+parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and
+accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs
+in particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that
+may come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as
+articles of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of
+the year.
+
+
+_THE CRAB TRIBE._
+
+The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the
+knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being
+generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit
+ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful
+species.
+
+[Illustration: THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.]
+
+The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular
+species, as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless
+variety of curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most
+brilliant colours; this more particularly applies to those which are
+found in the seas of hot climates.
+
+The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was
+placed by naturalists among the _Crustacea_, and considered a perfect
+animal of a distinct species; it was named Zoea. Mr. Thomson, the
+experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to
+discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better
+than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the
+author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known
+respecting these inhabitants of the deep.
+
+“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the
+_Crustacea_) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body
+of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant
+troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a
+fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast
+expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a
+kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by
+those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts
+of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants
+with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the
+bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is
+interspersed with fields of Sargosa[6]. On due examination, however, we
+shall not fail to find it everywhere peopled by a considerable variety
+of animals, either of small size, or possessed of such a degree of
+translucency as to render them invisible, or scarcely perceptible, even
+when on or near to its surface; that it should possess its share of
+the organized beings which we see spread over every other part of the
+surface of our globe, is a conclusion we might arrive at indirectly,
+from the consideration of oceanic fishes and birds being observed in
+those parts of the ocean most distant from the land, and the provident
+care of the Deity, which we invariably witness throughout the domain of
+nature, to furnish food for all, even the meanest of his creatures; the
+more minute and invisible inmates of the sea, then, must constitute the
+food of oceanic fishes and birds.
+
+“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most
+conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of
+them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and
+a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to
+accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing
+every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or
+four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze,
+bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it
+up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to
+ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater
+rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the
+spout of one of the _sea-water_ pumps, and examined three or four times
+a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.”
+
+Although naturalists were decided in calling the Zoea a crustaceous
+animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the
+system it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike
+each other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it
+is known, that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but
+merely the larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is
+perfectly new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only
+proving their real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as
+described in most systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on
+that account to be separated from the insects, but that they do undergo
+a metamorphosis, and that of a most wonderful nature.
+
+It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ,
+in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year
+following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred;
+this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully
+supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died
+in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which
+it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a
+great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs
+and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be
+considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in
+hatching the _ova_ of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which
+presented exactly the appearance of the _Zoea taurus_.”
+
+The Common Crab, _Cancer major_, is so well-known, that any description
+of its appearance would be useless.
+
+One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that
+is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this
+power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase
+in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the
+peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed.
+
+The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about
+to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured
+retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it
+creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year
+when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time
+their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest
+perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking
+the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among
+the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the
+attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal
+discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously
+harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its
+kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in
+anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting
+its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against
+each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated,
+and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an
+unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at
+its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before
+seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach
+comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it
+disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal,
+with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a
+boot that was too big for him.
+
+Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty;
+but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several
+hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation,
+that many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such
+a weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor
+venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have
+not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of
+the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor
+oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod,
+and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness
+continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is
+seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before;
+its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first
+object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which
+it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness.
+In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength,
+the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but
+just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their
+skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this
+is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the
+shell. These stones, popularly known as _crabs’ eyes_, were long
+highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not
+superior to so much chalk.
+
+When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the
+old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found
+the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears
+wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.
+
+Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb,
+or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty
+of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it
+has also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its
+own legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury,
+by bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received
+the hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb
+from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and
+natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other
+legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part
+of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears
+to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the
+case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers.
+
+When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on
+the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural
+styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows
+callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the
+creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.
+
+Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and
+kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so
+bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking
+off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal
+bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the
+tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one
+of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly
+creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted
+its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which
+bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off
+its limb in the usual manner,—still, however, holding fast for a
+length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.
+
+The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not,
+as it is said, walk exactly backwards.
+
+
+THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)
+
+Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there
+is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands,
+whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly
+curious in themselves.
+
+[Illustration: THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)]
+
+Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near
+salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year
+in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of
+the same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the
+islands, many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these
+places their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year,
+to repair to the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn.
+They prepare for their annual migration about the month of April or
+May, and, having mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets
+forward, with all the regularity of an army, under the guidance of an
+experienced commander.
+
+Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct
+line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly
+surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a
+house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which
+they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not
+unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper.
+If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow
+its course without attempting to cross it.
+
+It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of
+which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like
+pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged
+to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment
+till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never
+leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then
+descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty
+paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover
+the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a
+straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but
+neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is
+their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a
+confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly,
+to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables;
+but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to
+proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest.
+
+After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner,
+they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately
+enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several
+times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where
+they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek
+the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of
+being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already
+repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their
+annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and,
+soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting
+the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones,
+however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and
+lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are
+obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover;
+making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves
+up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and
+continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time
+they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six
+weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may
+be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the
+sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the
+food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of
+seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers.
+
+
+THE HERMIT, OR SOLDIER CRAB,
+
+(_Pagurus bernhardus_.)
+
+This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of
+remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock,
+it may fancy.
+
+[Illustration: THE HERMIT CRAB, (_Pagurus bernhardus_.)]
+
+The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly
+secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous
+state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is
+almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their
+hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to
+maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has
+grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to
+seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into
+when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the
+additional name of the Soldier Crab.
+
+“The Soldier when about to seek a new habitation, is still seen,”
+says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears to have
+considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the
+mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell,
+therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body;
+and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer
+both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight
+inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along
+that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave;
+still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail,
+unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage,
+till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one
+shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating
+that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation,
+to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it
+quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently
+changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to
+this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the
+body of the animal, claws and all.”
+
+Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the
+Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest
+between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which
+they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike
+with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to
+yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor
+takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times
+back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist.
+
+When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring
+to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will
+sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not
+easily cured.
+
+On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell
+of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they
+not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under
+the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices
+of which they hide themselves.
+
+The ancients were well acquainted with the Soldier Crab, as is evident
+from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets:
+
+    The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left
+    Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.
+    Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish
+    For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;
+    Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,
+    Whose first and rightful owners are no more.
+    They make glad seizure of the vacant room,
+    And count the borrowed shell their native home;
+    Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,
+    And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.
+    But when they larger grow they fill the place,
+    And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,
+    Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,
+    And busy search around the pebbly shore,
+    Till a commodious roomy seat be found,
+    Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.
+    Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,
+    And long for the disputed shell engage;
+    The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,
+    Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.
+
+
+THE LOBSTER, (_Astacus europæa_.)
+
+The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great
+abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland
+is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast
+of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the
+Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth.
+The methods of taking Lobsters are various,—the most usual is by means
+of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of
+twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap,
+so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning.
+These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place
+being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a
+kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only
+carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the
+London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.
+
+Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other
+sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they
+frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor
+creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent
+clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the
+crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the
+pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while
+the other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then,
+its food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with
+the other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and
+lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable
+distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when
+in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a
+beautiful deep blue.
+
+A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems
+to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in
+Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who
+transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to
+prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by,
+they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning!
+
+
+THE RIVER CRAY-FISH, (_Potamobius fluviatilis_.)
+
+The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in
+appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is
+commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the
+banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that
+may happen to come in its way.
+
+The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which
+is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus
+described:—
+
+Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the
+thickness of the thumb,—split them at the smallest end, and by way
+of bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take
+then the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance
+of the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are
+there, they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you
+perceive them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait
+suddenly, and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the
+bait, or will fall back into the net.
+
+Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a
+hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst
+of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the
+water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained
+there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found
+partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually
+prevent their escape.
+
+
+THE PHOSPHORESCENT SHRIMP.
+
+The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known
+to all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained,
+that the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent
+properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants
+of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very
+frequently met with.
+
+[Illustration: NOCTILUCA BANKSII magnified.
+
+The line above shows the natural length.]
+
+The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue
+from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found
+by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided
+in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most
+brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there
+started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light.
+
+The author we have lately quoted, says,—
+
+“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable, that the
+Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to
+every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the
+trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet,
+has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and
+of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider
+that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,—is vivid in
+proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light
+of the moon,—and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea,
+so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the
+dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and
+the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable
+sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all
+times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken
+rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy
+appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible
+at a considerable distance.”
+
+
+THE OPOSSUM SHRIMP, (_Mysis chamæleon_.)
+
+This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward
+appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably
+smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed
+creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable
+abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally
+swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined
+to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth
+encloses myriads at a time.
+
+[Illustration: _Mysis chamæleon._]
+
+The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have
+been called fissipeds, (_split-feet_,) on account of each of their
+feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb
+being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and
+the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is
+essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped
+round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the
+element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such
+as shrimps, prawns, &c., there is a single row of five feet on each
+side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four
+rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet
+amounts to as many as thirty-two,—sixteen adapted for swimming, and
+sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization,
+the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the
+present genus frequent the surface.
+
+The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they
+are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses,
+fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this
+pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is
+destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in
+a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the
+young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened
+form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in
+this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards
+the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted
+together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily
+observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the
+large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp
+are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch
+we have described.
+
+We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the
+Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve
+as food for herrings.
+
+It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals
+that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater
+productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished
+master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still
+continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance,
+after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has
+informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one
+piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part
+appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together.
+Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs,
+which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs
+still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently
+jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the
+various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which
+actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment
+necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison
+with other creatures, they must possess!
+
+The Opossum Shrimps, we have seen, are the prey of the larger
+inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that
+are smaller than themselves,—seizing upon every animal substance they
+are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a
+vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.
+
+The species represented in the engraving has been called the _Mysis
+chamæleon_, from its colour varying according to the substances on
+which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray, black, brown, and
+pink.
+
+
+_ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ._
+
+(_Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously placed, never
+concealed._)
+
+The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other
+than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we
+find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of
+the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a
+great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the
+water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are
+very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They
+have been divided into several sections, according to their outward
+form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine
+ourselves to a description of some of the best known.
+
+
+THE SPOTTED SQUILL, (_Squilla maculata_.)
+
+The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present
+order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which
+the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct,
+appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called
+the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that
+name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its
+foot-jaws are armed.
+
+The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is
+the largest of the genus.
+
+The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little
+consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent
+the sandy bottom of the sea.
+
+[Illustration: _Squilla maculata._]
+
+There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the
+young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter
+under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered.
+
+
+THE COMMON CLOPORTUS, (_Cloportus ascellus_.)
+
+This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is
+somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a
+dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where
+the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to
+a group of small Crustacea known by the name _Oniscus_. Some, as we see
+in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion
+inhabit the water.
+
+[Illustration: _Cloportus ascellus._
+
+(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
+
+Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species
+which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for
+its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years
+timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary
+wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the
+course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little
+creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten
+inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch
+a year. Another species, _Cymothoa_, attaches itself to the backs of
+different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body.
+
+A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the
+fifth volume of the _American Philosophical Transactions_; it is
+accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is
+not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular
+species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself
+to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the
+roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.
+
+[Illustration: _Head of Alewife._
+
+Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.]
+
+[Illustration: The insect seen from above.]
+
+“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort
+to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife,
+called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and
+in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of
+the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the
+herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught
+from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for
+the table as the herring.
+
+“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect
+about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly
+holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.
+
+“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without
+injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider
+the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken
+out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable
+of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to
+preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always
+obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.
+
+“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and
+lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately
+scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his
+position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and
+unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained
+his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant
+resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he
+certainly fares sumptuously every day.
+
+“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the
+shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to
+travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As
+long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found
+fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his
+mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but
+by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself
+with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay
+Alewife without the louse.”
+
+The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies,
+many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their
+body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads.
+
+
+THE MOLUCCA CRAB, (_Polyphemus gigas_.)
+
+Why the singular creature here represented should have the name
+Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every
+schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is
+represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas,
+this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its
+being so nearly allied to many very minute species.
+
+The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but
+two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their
+buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has
+been called the Molucca Crab.
+
+The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by
+the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives
+employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of
+poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this
+circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no
+other ground for the belief.
+
+[Illustration: _Polyphemus gigas._]
+
+During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very
+easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything
+until their danger becomes imminent.
+
+It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for
+food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy.
+
+These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a
+considerable distance over the wet sands,—but if incommoded by the
+sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element.
+When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if
+this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the
+waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power
+of righting itself with the assistance of its tail.
+
+
+THE CRAB-LIKE LIMULUS, (_Limulus cancriformis_.)
+
+The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &c.; they
+are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their
+principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.
+
+[Illustration: _Limulus cancriformis._ (Natural size.)]
+
+“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in
+which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler,
+very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The
+head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They
+possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back.
+Their legs are very numerous,—the two in front, much the largest,
+spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with
+silky articulated bristles.”
+
+
+THE WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops quadricornis_.)
+
+There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That
+represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most
+interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr.
+Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature.
+
+“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution,
+as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of
+creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred
+on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision,
+more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring,
+and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the
+elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the
+mass of living matter they present to us.
+
+[Illustration: _Cyclops quadricornis._
+
+(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
+
+“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the
+year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant
+in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm
+day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an
+inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered
+with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil,
+are of a fine rich colour.
+
+“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly
+plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and
+vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but
+have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the
+organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it
+is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little
+above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark
+crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this
+organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two
+kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest
+extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some
+other positions it is square.”
+
+The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance
+similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared
+with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving,
+(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder
+portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque
+colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red.
+
+The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are
+extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has
+described them as forming two distinct genera.
+
+
+THE SMALL WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops minutus_.)
+
+This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its
+body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much
+smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form
+renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says
+Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if
+approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside,
+in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit
+opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a
+kind of vaulting leap.”
+
+[Illustration: _Cyclops minutus_, much magnified.]
+
+They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met
+with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed,
+growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April
+and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will
+not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and
+require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of
+clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the
+under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or
+cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey,
+moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the
+plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not
+bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept
+in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the
+three hundredth part of an inch.
+
+The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the
+eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of
+the animal near the tail.
+
+
+THE HAIRY CYPRIS, (_Cypris pubera_.)
+
+These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they
+are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The
+animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it
+at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell
+numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is
+enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until
+it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which
+issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and
+bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them
+great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute
+materially to the swimming powers of the creature.
+
+At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point
+is seen,—this is the eye of the animal.
+
+[Illustration: _Cypris pubera._
+
+(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
+
+The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is
+found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they
+are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are
+more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the
+year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course
+of the year.
+
+The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense
+numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in
+this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in
+the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a
+kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the
+marshes with water.
+
+A species nearly allied to this, the _Artemia Salina_, the Lymington
+shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans,
+which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other
+Crustaceous animal.
+
+Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at
+Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is
+deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a
+quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the
+liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute,
+in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm,
+or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this
+is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of
+this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms
+from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase
+astonishingly in the course of a few days.
+
+It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans,
+where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the
+Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and
+reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans,
+and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much
+diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the
+manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at
+the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers.
+
+                         THE END.
+
+                           LONDON:
+              JOHN W. PARKER, ST. MARTIN’S LANE.
+
+
+
+
+                        [LIST NO. 1.]
+
+                    APPROVED BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS AND
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+                                                      C. B.
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+      intelligible even to such as have but the ordinary
+      advantages in point of education; and there are few
+      subjects on which it is, for all classes of people, more
+      important to inculcate correct principles, and to guard
+      against specious fallacies.
+
+  * PERSIAN STORIES; illustrative of EASTERN MANNERS and CUSTOMS. 1_s._
+
+        And,
+
+  * PERSIAN FABLES, for Young and Old. By the Rev. H. G. KEENE, M.A.
+        1_s._
+
+  FIVE HUNDRED CHARADES, from History, Geography, and Biography.
+        Third Edition, revised and improved. 1_s._ 6_d._
+
+  * INSECTS and their HABITATIONS. A Book for Children. 1_s._
+
+      We may learn many useful lessons from the History of
+      Insects; and, by observing their habits, we shall find
+      that they set us an example of various good qualities.
+
+      * The BOOK of ANIMALS.    * The BOOK of FISHES.
+      * The BOOK of BIRDS.      * The BOOK of REPTILES.
+      * The BOOK of SHELLS.       Price 1_s._ 6_d._ each.
+
+      The nature, habits, and uses of the Animals described, are
+      presented in a correct, though simple and attractive form,
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+      to works of a higher class.
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+   VOYAGES DE CYRUS. 2_s._        CHARLES XII.          2_s._
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+
+           Six Volumes, at 2_s._ each, with Wood-Cuts,
+
+                           * THE INSTRUCTOR;
+
+                                  OR,
+               PROGRESSIVE LESSONS IN GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+                              A SERIES OF
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+                         SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.
+
+      Under the general title of THE INSTRUCTOR, is
+      comprised a series of little books, by means of which children
+      may be led through a progressive course of Exercises in various
+      branches of Elementary Knowledge. These books may be put
+      into the hands of such children as can readily spell common
+      words, and read easy lessons.—The object of the work is not
+      only to furnish reading lessons, but also to carry the pupil
+      _forward_,—to impart _information_, and exercise
+      the mind.
+
+        The first Six Volumes, in Thirty-six Numbers, contain the
+      following subjects, with numerous Engravings:
+
+                   VOLUME I. (or in Nos. 1 to 6.)
+  TALES and CONVERSATIONS on Familiar Subjects.
+
+                   VOLUME II. (or in Nos. 7 to 12.)
+  The HOUSE. MATERIALS used in BUILDING. FURNITURE. FOOD and
+        CLOTHING.
+
+                   VOLUME III. (or in Nos. 13 to 18.)
+  The UNIVERSE. The THREE KINGDOMS of NATURE. THE HUMAN FORM.
+        LESSONS on HEALTH.
+
+                   VOLUME IV. (or in Nos. 19 to 24.)
+  The CALENDAR; The Year, Months, Weeks, Days. The SEASONS.
+        APPEARANCES of NATURE.
+
+                   VOLUME V. (or in Nos. 25 to 30.)
+  DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY: The various Divisions of the World;
+        their People and Productions; with MAPS.
+
+                   VOLUME VI. (or in Nos. 31 to 36.)
+  ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+       London: JOHN W. PARKER, PUBLISHER, WEST STRAND.
+
+
+                              FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to
+by nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory
+chapter.
+
+[2] The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.
+
+[3] See Book of Fishes, p. 51.
+
+[4] The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before
+transformation.
+
+[5] It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of
+its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most
+favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and
+I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves,
+if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give
+them a violent emetic.”
+
+[6] A kind of sea-weed, (_Fucus natans_.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 60961 ***
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: The Book of Shells
-       Containing the Classes Mollusca, Conchifera, Cirrhipeda,
-              Annulata, and Crustacea
-
-Author: Anonymous
-
-Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60961]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
-file was produced from images generously made available
-by The Internet Archive)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div class="transnote bbox covernote">
-<p class="no-indent">The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is placed in the public domain.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="Frontispiece" width="600" height="427" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE</small><br /><big><b>FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS</b></big><br />
-                      <small>DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME</small></p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<h1><span class="small_font">THE</span><br />BOOK OF SHELLS;</h1>
-
-<p class="f90 space-above3 space-below3">CONTAINING</p>
-<p class="f110 space-below3"><b>THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,<br />
-CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND<br />CRUSTACEA.</b></p>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<p class="f90">PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF<br />
-THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,<br />
-APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING<br />CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.</p>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<p class="f120 space-above3 space-below3">THE SECOND EDITION.</p>
-<p class="f120">LONDON:<br />JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.</p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="f90">M.DCCC.XXXVII.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="f120"><b>TO THE READER.</b></p></div>
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<p class="blockquot2 no-indent">In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which
-embraces the <span class="smcap">Vertebral Animals</span>,&mdash;namely, the Mammalia, the
-Birds, the Reptiles, and the Fishes,&mdash;the arrangement of the <span class="smcap">Baron
-Cuvier</span> was adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in
-two others that are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the
-<span class="smcap">Invertebral Animals</span>, the method of <span class="smcap">M. Lamarck</span>
-will be adhered to. It is true, that, since the works of that naturalist were
-published, many deviations from certain parts of his system have taken
-place, some of which have received the sanction of the highest names;
-but still, <i>as a whole</i>, Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and
-the young naturalist can readily add to the information it contains,
-by reference to the works of more recent authors, in case he has
-sufficient inclination and industry to follow out the subject.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="f150"><b>CONTENTS.</b></p></div>
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of contents." cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdr" colspan="3"><small>Page</small></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Introductory Chapter</big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#INTRO">&nbsp;9</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Mollusca</span></big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#MOLLUSCA">14</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Heteropoda</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HETEROPODA">15</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Glassy Carinaria</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CARINARIA">15</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CEPHALOPODA">16</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Cuttle Fish</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CUTTLE_FISH">17</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&emsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Argonaut</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ARGO">20</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Pearly Nautilus</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEARLY">22</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Trachelipoda</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#TRACHELIPODA">26</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Marble Cone</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#MARBLE">27</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Porphyry Olive Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PORPHYRY">28</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Money Cowrie</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COWRIE">29</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Diadem Whorl Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DIADEM">31</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Columbella</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COLUMBELLA">31</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Music Harp Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HARP">32</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wide-Mouthed Purpura</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PURPURA">33</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Spotted Scorpion Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCORPION">37</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Variegated Sea-Trumpet</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TRUMPET">39</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Caniculated Pear-Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEAR">40</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Babylonian Split-Mouth</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BABYLON">40</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Marble Turban-Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TURBAN">41</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Imperial Top-Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IMPERIAL">41</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Precious Scalaria</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCALARIA">42</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Iris Ear-Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IRIS">43</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Dusty Neritina</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#NERITINA">44</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Viviparous Paludina</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PALUDINA">44</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Lymnæa Stagnalis</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#STAGNALIS">45</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Horn-shaped Planorbis</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLANORBIS">46</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Red-mouthed Bulimus</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULIMUS">46</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Mummy Puppet Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUMMY">47</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wood Snail</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SNAIL">47</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#GASTEROPODA">51</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Red Slug</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SLUG">51</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Woodlike Bulla</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULLA">53</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Nail-shaped Crepidula</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CREPIDULA">54</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Mediterranean Umbrella</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#UMBRELLA">54</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Clouded Fissurella</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FISSURELLA">54</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hungarian Bonnet Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BONNET">55</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Scaly Chiton</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHITON">56</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span></big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CONCHIFERA">57</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Unimusculosa</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#UNIMUSCULOSA">64</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HORSE">64</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Oyster</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OYSTER">65</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Great Comb Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COMB">68</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Pearl Oyster</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEARL">69</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hammer Oyster</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HAMMER">77</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Rough Pinna</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PINNA">77</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Mussel</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUSSEL">79</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Giant Tridacna</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TRIDACNA">81</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Bimusculosa</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#BIMUSCULOSA">82</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Fresh-Water Mussel</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#FW_MUSSEL">83</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Heart-shaped Isocardia</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ISOCARDIA">84</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wedge-shaped Donax</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DONAX">85</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Sheath Solen</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SOLEN">85</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Date-shaped Pholas</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PHOLAS">87</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Ship-Worm</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHIP_WORM">89</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda</span></big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CIRRHIPEDA">91</a>
-                <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda Pedunculata</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#PEDUNCULATA">92</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Smooth Barnacle</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#BARNACLE">92</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda Sedentaria</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SEDENTARIA">94</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Acorn-Shell</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ACORN">94</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Annulata</span></big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANNULATA">97</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Sedentaria</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANN_SEDENTARIA">98</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Magnificent Amphitrite</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#AMPHITRITE">98</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Antennata</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANTENNATA">100</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SAND_WORM">100</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Blood-coloured Leodice</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LEODICE">100</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Spinous Sea-Mouse</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MOUSE">102</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Apoda</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#APODA">102</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Common Earth-Worm</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#EARTH_WORM">103</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Medicinal Leech</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LEECH">106</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Crustacea</span></big></b></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CRUSTACEA">115</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Crustacea Homobranchiæ</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HOMOBRANCHIAE">115</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Crab Tribe</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CRAB_TRIBE">117</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Land Crab</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LAND">124</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hermit Crab</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HERMIT">127</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Lobster</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LOBSTER">130</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">River Cray-Fish</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CRAY_FISH">131</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Phosphorescent Shrimp</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHRIMP">132</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Opossum Shrimp</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OPOSSUM">134</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Crustacea Heterobranchiæ&emsp;&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HETEROBRANCHIAE">137</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Spotted Squill</td>
-      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SQUILL">137</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Cloportus</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CLOPORTUS">138</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Molucca Crab</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MOLUCCA">142</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Crab-like Limulus</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LIMULUS">144</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Water Flea</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FLEA">144</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Small Water Flea</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SW_FLEA">147</a></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hairy Cypris</td>
-      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CYPRIS">148</a></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
-<p class="f150"><b><small>THE</small><br /><big>BOOK OF SHELLS.</big></b></p></div>
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<h2><a name="INTRO" id="INTRO"></a>Introductory Chapter.</h2>
-
-<p>In reviewing the first <span class="smcap">Division</span> of the
-animal kingdom, namely, the vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have
-been delighted with the wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed
-upon each individual; but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of
-their possessors as these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure
-must be still greater in tracing the powers with which those creatures
-are endowed, which constitute what we have been accustomed to call the
-lower orders of animated nature.</p>
-
-<p>When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or
-the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the
-terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and
-metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that
-equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the
-different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the
-various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation;
-but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple
-appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to
-consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to
-look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose,
-and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How
-much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
-every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully
-developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the
-highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is
-their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable
-to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves
-of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even
-to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of
-the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain
-we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the <i>Infusoria</i>, those
-microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances
-in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach,
-and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned
-foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach,
-they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the
-nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their
-existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we
-have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in
-fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of
-the Creator’s works.</p>
-
-<p>The second <span class="smcap">Division</span> of the objects of
-natural history, namely, the <span class="smcap">Invertebral</span>
-animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by themselves, on
-account of their being without an internal skeleton, consisting of a
-series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This distinction is explained
-in the introductory chapter to the Book of Animals. They have been
-separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven <span class="smcap">Classes</span>, namely:&mdash;
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot1">
-<p class="no-indent">1. <span class="smcap">Mollusca</span>,
-(<i>soft-bodied animals</i>,) in general covered with a shell; as, for
-instance, a snail; or without a shell, as a slug.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">2. <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span>,
-(<i>shell-bearing animals</i>,) with a shell, consisting of two valves, as
-an oyster or mussel.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">3. <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda</span>, (<i>with
-feet like cirri, or hairs</i>.) The inhabitant of the acorn-shell, found
-on the back of the larger kind of shell-fish, &amp;c., is an instance
-of this class.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">4. <span class="smcap">Annelida</span>, (<i>with
-body formed of rings</i>;) of this class the leech and the earth-worm are
-instances.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">5. <span class="smcap">Crustacea</span>,
-(<i>covered with a hard case</i>,) crabs, lobsters, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">6. <span class="smcap">Arachnidæ</span>,
-<i>Spiders</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">7. <span class="smcap">Insecta</span>, <i>Insects</i>.
-A perfect insect has always six legs.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">8. <span class="smcap">Tunicata</span>,
-(<i>enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence</i>.)</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">9. <span class="smcap">Vermes</span>, <i>Worms</i>.
-With lengthened body without divisions; for instance, worms found in
-the intestines.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">10. <span class="smcap">Radiariæ</span>,
-(<i>radiated animals</i>,) with the different parts of which they are formed
-arranged like rays round one common centre; as, for instance, the
-Star-fish.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">11. <span class="smcap">Polypi</span>, (<i>many
-feet</i>.) The animal that forms the Coral is a Polypus.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent">12. <span class="smcap">Infusoria</span>,
-(<i>Infusory animals</i>.) These are found in infusions of vegetable
-substances in water, and are, in general, too small to be visible to
-the naked eye.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="space-above2">In the present little book we shall treat of the
-first five of these Classes.</p>
-
-<p>The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed
-first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling,
-in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.</p>
-
-<p>The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered
-not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the
-anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study.
-In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of
-the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the animals.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to
-be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the
-valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable
-us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of
-view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist.
-In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different
-species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the
-royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small
-univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress,
-the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of
-mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the
-well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from
-the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As
-an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel,
-scallop, &amp;c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of
-the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro
-population in the West Indies.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_89"><i>Teredo navalis</i></a>, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers,
-ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which
-many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on
-this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history
-and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of
-ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with
-the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the
-useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="space-below2">The shell with which a Molluscous animal is
-covered, is absolutely necessary to protect its delicate body from
-injury; this shell is, in general, composed of much the same substances
-as bone; but the bone of a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency
-of the blood, and the particles of which it is composed are deposited
-by that fluid, and again taken up and restored to the circulation, a
-circumstance which does not take place in the substance of a shell. The
-shell is formed by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of
-the growth of the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells,
-point out their periodical increase.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="SHELLS" id="SHELLS"></a>
-    <p class="center"><b><big><i>Fig 1.<span class="ws18">Fig 2.</span></i></big></b></p>
-    <img src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" />
-</div>
-
-<p>It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between
-shells of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless
-properly defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The
-annexed diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent
-occurrence among the Mollusca. <a href="#SHELLS">Fig. 1</a>,
-represents a univalve shell; <a href="#SHELLS">fig. 2</a>, another
-shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the purpose
-of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
-instance, the periwinkle, (<i>Turbo vulgaris</i>,) have what is called
-an operculum, (<i>a lid</i>,) which closes the opening, and protects the
-inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of
-horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell
-itself.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="MOLLUSCA" id="MOLLUSCA"></a>CLASS MOLLUSCA.</h2></div>
-
-<p>In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily
-attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the
-creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in
-different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and
-brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they
-are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be
-of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the
-snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.</p>
-
-<p>The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different
-form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of
-muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or
-drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are
-situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of
-a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from
-view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished
-with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in
-others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
-these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit that
-element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.</p>
-
-<p>The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following
-Orders:&mdash;</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub0">1. <span class="smcap">Heteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>not uniform in all species</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0">2. <span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the head</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0">3. <span class="smcap">Trachelipoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the neck, near the gills</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0">4. <span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
-<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the stomach</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0">5. <span class="smcap">Pteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
-<li class="isub2 space-below2"><i>like wings</i>.)</li>
-</ul>
-
-<h3><a name="HETEROPODA" id="HETEROPODA"></a><i>ORDER HETEROPODA.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered
-as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals,
-intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods;
-they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a
-jelly-like substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty
-when floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are
-less known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great
-difficulty there is in preserving them.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="CARINARIA" id="CARINARIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Glassy Carinaria</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_16"><i>Carinaria vitrea</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and
-perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be
-seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
-merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material
-organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or
-organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part
-of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white
-and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance
-resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling
-it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which
-seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors
-with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas
-at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax
-model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches wide.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_16" id="FIG_16"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="249" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><small>THE GLASSY CARINARIA</small>,
-                                   (<i>Carinaria vitrea</i>.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><a name="CEPHALOPODA" id="CEPHALOPODA"></a><i>ORDER CEPHALOPODA.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished with
-a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find among
-this class some of the most singular productions of the waters; they
-differ materially from each other, and have been separated into three
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
-groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia;
-secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the
-Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous
-chambers, as the Nautilus.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="CUTTLE_FISH" id="CUTTLE_FISH"></a><span class="smcap">The Cuttle Fish</span>,
-(<a href="#CUTTLE"><i>Sepia officinalis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native
-of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of
-an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually
-covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike
-all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the
-Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard
-transparent substance.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#CUTTLE">Cuttle Fish</a>, figured in the engraving, is furnished
-in front with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy,
-or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously
-constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in
-themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted
-by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner
-surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in
-contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar
-power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not
-cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind
-of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for
-many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="CUTTLE" id="CUTTLE"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="597" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE CUTTLE FISH.</small></p>
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_019.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="128" />
-    <p class="center"><small>BEAK OF A<br />CEPHALOPOD.</small></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and,
-although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt
-that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own
-element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes,
-capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe
-are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and
-very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within
-its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the
-power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it
-escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms
-a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal,
-<i>Sepia</i>. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each
-other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour,
-and commonly known by the name of <i>Sea Grapes</i>. They are found attached
-to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#CUTTLE">Cuttle Fish</a> generally remains with its body in some hole
-in a rock, while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer
-that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious, and
-it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to conquer.</p>
-
-<p>The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English
-coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found
-on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the
-manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of
-the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
-the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though
-varying considerably in texture.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="ARGO" id="ARGO"></a><span class="smcap">The Argonaut</span>,
-(<a href="#ARGONAUTA"><i>Argonauta argo</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,<span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></span>
-<span class="i0">The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.</span>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<hr class="tb" />
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep</span>
-<span class="i0">The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.</span>
-<span class="i0">He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,</span>
-<span class="i0">That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.</span>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<p>The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest
-ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and,
-at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research
-of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with
-the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so
-that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists
-would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division
-of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along
-with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union
-between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it
-applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do
-not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the shell.</p>
-
-<p>The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its
-resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in
-full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have
-been the first fitted out for commercial adventure.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="ARGONAUTA" id="ARGONAUTA"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="498" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.</small></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in
-considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the
-waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist,
-Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal
-miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or
-Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture,
-and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube,
-all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily;
-then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a
-membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the
-remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
-a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if
-alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”</p>
-
-<p>Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its
-shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly
-Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that
-such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed
-by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the
-instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation.
-The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these
-interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PEARLY" id="PEARLY"></a><span class="smcap">The Pearly Nautilus</span>,
-(<a href="#POMPILIUS"><i>Nautilus pompilius</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after
-with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years
-that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this
-knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while
-engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen
-containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now
-deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.</p>
-
-<p>The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided
-into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now
-describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to
-be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking
-in the Water at will. The body of this <i>Cephalopod</i>, it will be seen,
-only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
-having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as
-the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they
-had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too
-cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the
-providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own
-words, the capture of this interesting object.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="POMPILIUS" id="POMPILIUS"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="489" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE PEARLY NAUTILUS,</small></p>
-    <p class="center space-below2">Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather,
-thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was
-lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island
-of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean,
-that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at some
-distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
-tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in
-this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship
-at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the
-floating object.”</p>
-
-<p>“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly
-known by the name of the <a href="#POMPILIUS">Pearly Nautilus</a>:
-it was captured and brought on board; but the shell was shattered from
-having been struck with the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was
-sinking when the boat approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it
-would have escaped. I extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was
-firmly attached to each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has
-been stated by Dr. Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour,
-with deeper sports and variegations,” the colour, however, as it
-appeared in this recent specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="344" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><small>SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN,<br />
-                                OR INTERNAL SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.</small></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
-Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been
-brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been
-frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and
-not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An
-office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of
-rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the
-fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as
-soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I
-and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not
-notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell,
-merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the
-membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful
-prize.”</p>
-
-<p>Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with
-its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out
-his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the
-poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse
-position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the
-ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on
-the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but
-after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops
-floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves.
-This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken
-in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the bottom.”
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><a name="TRACHELIPODA" id="TRACHELIPODA"></a><i>ORDER TRACHELIPODA.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve
-shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two
-numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (<i>Zoophagi</i>,) and those
-that exist on vegetable substances, (<i>Phytophagi</i>.) The animal feeders
-are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without
-jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at
-pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies
-of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known
-from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a
-<i>siphon</i>, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points
-out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of
-its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for
-the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe
-water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.</p>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Convoluta</span>, (<i>rolled up like a scroll</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Columellaria</span>, (<i>distinguished by a plaited columella</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Purpurifera</span>, (<i>yielding a purple colour</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Alata</span>, (<i>winged</i>.)</li>
-<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Canalifera</span> (<i>having a canal at the base of the opening</i>.)</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>CONVOLUTA</i>.</b></p>
-
-<p>The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich
-in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of
-this class.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="f120"><b>FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (<span class="smcap">Zoophagi</span>.)</b></p></div>
-<hr class="r5" />
-
-<h4><a name="MARBLE" id="MARBLE"></a><span class="smcap">The Marble Cone</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Conus marmoreus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The
-Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and
-is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular
-white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable manner
-the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his works.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_27" id="FIG_27"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Voluta diadema.<span class="ws4">Conus marmoreus.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws4">Columbella mercatoria.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is much
-thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part; and
-this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the soft
-body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the animal the
-shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes internal,
-the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall; if,
-therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original thickness,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
-its weight would become too great for its possessor. To guard against
-this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material, the creature
-possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance of what now
-becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is unnecessary for its
-present use, and of re-depositing the same on the outward wall of its
-mansion, where strength is most required<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>.</p>
-
-<p>The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve
-shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable
-specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their
-form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but,
-above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of
-celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="PORPHYRY" id="PORPHYRY"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="338" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Oliva porphyria.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve
-fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two
-tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit salt waters.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal
-which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the
-columella. The <a href="#PORPHYRY">Porphyry Olive</a> is found in the South American
-Seas, on the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species
-of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish
-brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with
-irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly
-four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="COWRIE" id="COWRIE"></a><span class="smcap">The Money Cowrie</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_29"><i>Cypræa moneta</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African
-coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a
-circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in
-Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are
-obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for rice.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_29" id="FIG_29"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="257" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Cypræa moneta.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea; these
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
-having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to Bengal, and
-from thence sent into this country. The value of these shells as a
-circulating medium depends naturally enough on their greater or less
-abundance.</p>
-
-<p>In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a
-shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued
-at a shilling.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_29">Cowrie shell</a> is found of three different forms,
-according to its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely
-imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the
-usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then
-begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely
-slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly,
-when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in
-which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden.
-The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the
-two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult
-state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large,
-so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while
-the deposition of the new matter is taking place.</p>
-
-<p>Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to
-prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we
-have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to
-require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one;
-from this it happens that the same individual can form successively
-many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both
-large and small.</p>
-
-<p>When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand,
-at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot climates.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>COLUMELLARIA</i>.</b></p>
-
-<p>This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella
-plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a
-plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that
-is, without a notch.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="DIADEM" id="DIADEM"></a><span class="smcap">The Diadem Whorl Shell</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Voluta diadema</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it
-is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become
-nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and
-is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has
-two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth
-is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little
-hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ,
-springing out obliquely behind the head.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="COLUMBELLA" id="COLUMBELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Common
-Columbella</span>, (<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Columbella mercatoria</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island
-of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of
-an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it
-possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.</p>
-
-<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>PURPURIFERA</i>.</b></p>
-
-<p>The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove
-bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all the
-genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to these
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
-Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar
-reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient
-nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much
-in use before the discovery of cochineal.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="HARP" id="HARP"></a><span class="smcap">The Music Harp Shell</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_32"><i>Harpa musica</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance
-also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the
-animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time
-back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either
-forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth,
-although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-     <a name="FIG_32" id="FIG_32"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Harpa musica.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two
-portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from
-its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
-wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account
-it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it
-would be lost at the same time as the foot.</p>
-
-<p>The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were
-less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours,
-become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still
-considered rare.</p>
-
-<p>The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the
-regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a
-harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PURPURA" id="PURPURA"></a><span class="smcap">The Wide-Mouthed
-Purpura</span>, (<i>Purpura patula</i>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the
-Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple
-colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in
-the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.</p>
-
-<p>The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was
-discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was
-thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the
-discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied
-the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient
-minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its
-discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are
-informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the
-sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized
-one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
-teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph
-having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to
-have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less
-anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a
-method of applying it to cloth.</p>
-
-<p>This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either
-consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only
-for the garments of royalty.</p>
-
-<p>Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar
-and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The
-Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most
-of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing.
-Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings
-of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the
-republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their
-own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should
-dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and
-tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a
-few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was
-entirely lost.</p>
-
-<p>In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye,
-nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths
-the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and
-on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the
-accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour
-were entirely fabulous.</p>
-
-<p>According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter out
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
-of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure state,
-and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from the
-smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ were
-caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken out
-and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of the
-matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels over
-a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the fleshy
-impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor was
-tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was
-defective, the boiling was renewed.</p>
-
-<p>Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at
-other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among
-these Pliny enumerates <i>Fucus marinus</i>, or Archil, and the <i>Anchusa
-tinctoria</i>, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these
-and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of
-shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.</p>
-
-<p>In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but
-the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.</p>
-
-<p>In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead,
-was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made
-considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson
-colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this
-colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr.
-Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus
-excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various
-kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities of a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
-species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the
-opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours,
-he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying
-transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the
-fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a
-horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous
-clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it
-may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to
-be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor
-in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if
-placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,&mdash;that is, if
-in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise,
-or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer,
-the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce
-be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep
-green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green,
-after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue,
-and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red,
-after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,)
-it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no
-more.”</p>
-
-<p>“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding
-water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the
-wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned,
-that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour, which
-afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the colour,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
-will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in
-handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will
-be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”</p>
-
-<p>Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species
-of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they
-had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were
-white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of
-them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it
-stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by
-washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it
-was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of
-the sun.</p>
-
-<p>The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these
-shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but
-Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial
-in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little
-colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a
-substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being
-applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.</p>
-
-<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>ALATA</i>.</b></p>
-
-<p>This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at
-the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the
-shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SCORPION" id="SCORPION"></a><span class="smcap">The Spotted
-Scorpion Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_38"><i>Pterocera scorpio</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
-considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the
-projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance
-is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced
-period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and
-is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted
-and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell
-is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on
-which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or
-slightly tinged with yellow.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-     <a name="FIG_38" id="FIG_38"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="468" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Pterocera scorpio.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>CANALIFERA</i>.</b></p>
-
-<p>The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in
-having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening
-does not change its form through age.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="TRUMPET" id="TRUMPET"></a><span class="smcap">The Variegated
-Sea-Trumpet</span>, (<a href="#FIG_39"><i>Triton variegatum</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Triton variegatum</i>, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and
-beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found
-chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on
-the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell
-applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">Already Triton, at his call, appears<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">And give the waves the signal to retire.<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Grows by degrees into a large extent,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Runs the wide circuit of the world around.<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">The sun first heard it, in his early east,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">And met the rattling echoes in the west;<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.<br /></span>
-<span class="i36"><span class="smcap">Dryden.</span><br /></span>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_39" id="FIG_39"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="326" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Dolium perdix.<span class="ws7">Triton variegatum.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws3">Pyrula caniculata.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="PEAR" id="PEAR"></a><span class="smcap">The Caniculated
-Pear-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_39"><i>Pyrula caniculata</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and
-attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at
-present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the
-whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many
-as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_40" id="FIG_40"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="303" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Turbo marmoratus.<span class="ws7">Pleurotoma babylonia.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws3">Trochus imperialis.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="BABYLON" id="BABYLON"></a><span class="smcap">The Babylonian
- Split-Mouth</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Pleurotoma babylonia</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca
-Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said
-that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated
-as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from
-the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the
-shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the
-creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to support.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="f120"><b>VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (<span class="smcap">Phytophagi</span>.)</b></p></div>
-
-<p>Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances
-have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws;
-they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which
-they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their
-tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in
-stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These
-last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of
-breathing,&mdash;others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist
-out of that element.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="TURBAN" id="TURBAN"></a><span class="smcap">The Marble
-Turban-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Turbo marmoratus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell.
-The Marble Turban, <i>Turbo marmoratus</i>, is the largest, being as much
-as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour
-of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity.
-It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting
-of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells
-whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of
-mother-of-pearl.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>Turbo littoreus</i> (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle,
-with which our rocky coasts abound.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="IMPERIAL" id="IMPERIAL"></a><span class="smcap">The Imperial
-Top-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Trochus imperialis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form to
-a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their spire is
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
-always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called <i>flat-mouthed
-snails</i>. The greater number of these shells, (and the species are very
-numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and many of them are
-also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there are as many as
-seventy species,&mdash;the larger and more elegant are only found in the
-seas of hot climates.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_42" id="FIG_42"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
-    <p class="center space-below2">&emsp;<i>Haliotis iris.<span class="ws6">Scalaria pretiosa.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws4">Neritina pulligera.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="SCALARIA" id="SCALARIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Precious
-Scalaria</span>, (<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Scalaria pretiosa</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of
-its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were
-only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the
-turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast,
-on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native
-place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and
-several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others
-consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage
-some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that as
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
-much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given for
-a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ are
-much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast of
-Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in
-forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches
-in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the
-empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is
-from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought
-to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with
-rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="IRIS" id="IRIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Iris Ear-Shell</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Haliotis Iris</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Haliotides</i>, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species
-are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the
-system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many
-doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it
-continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of
-Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food,
-the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender
-tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament
-the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these
-tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the
-number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed
-at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes
-which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of
-the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of
-species very difficult and uncertain.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="NERITINA" id="NERITINA"></a><span class="smcap">The Dusty
-Neritina</span>, (<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Neritina pulligera</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and
-a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to
-inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the
-history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,&mdash;namely,
-that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good
-preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general
-natives of hot climates.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PALUDINA" id="PALUDINA"></a><span class="smcap">The Viviparous
-Paludina</span>, (<a href="#FIG_44"><i>Paludina vivipara</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it
-takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within
-the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In
-nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in
-the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_44" id="FIG_44"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="289" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Planorbis corneus.<span class="ws4">Paludina vivipara.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws4">Lymnæa stagnalis.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
-These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water;
-sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the
-mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny
-substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves
-to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they
-are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="STAGNALIS" id="STAGNALIS"></a><span class="smcap">Lymnæa Stagnalis.</span></h4>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_44"><i>Lymnæa stagnalis</i></a> is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow
-ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for
-its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the
-water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great
-numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance
-of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into
-its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it
-instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order
-to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the
-ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts
-its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very
-little power to direct its own course.</p>
-
-<p>During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the
-mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind,
-they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes,
-which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not
-easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="PLANORBIS" id="PLANORBIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Horn-shaped
-Planorbis</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_44"><i>Planorbis corneus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Planorbis</i>, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses
-the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like
-substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year,
-attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is
-considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the
-spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other
-inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable,
-certainly not poisonous.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="BULIMUS" id="BULIMUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Red-mouthed
-Bulimus</span>, (<a href="#FIG_46"><i>Bulimus hæmastomus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Bulimus hæmastomus</i> is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of
-Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most
-singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of
-the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that
-of a moderate-sized pigeon.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_46" id="FIG_46"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="288" />
-    <p class="center"><span class="ws14"><i>Bulimus hæmastomus.</i></span>
-                                   <span class="ws3"><i>Pupa mummia.</i></span></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="MUMMY" id="MUMMY"></a><span class="smcap">The Mummy
-Puppet Shell</span>, (<i>Pupa mummia</i>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_46"><i>Pupa mummia</i></a> is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the
-singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy.</p>
-
-<p>The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones,
-and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The
-greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of
-tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and
-other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SNAIL" id="SNAIL"></a><span class="smcap">The Wood
-Snail</span>, (<a href="#FIG_48"><i>Helix nemoralis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Snail (<i>Helix</i>) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe,
-and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells
-which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been
-placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with
-two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices
-in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn
-into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula
-is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black
-spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal,
-and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all
-the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal
-appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some writers
-suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of these appendages.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger
-kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans,
-according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in
-the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening
-them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in
-great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they
-are still used as food in several parts of the Continent.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_48" id="FIG_48"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="306" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Helix nemoralis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are
-frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but
-used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other
-diseases of the chest.</p>
-
-<p>It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have
-portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be
-afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished
-extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was
-not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
-which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head
-was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world
-became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made,
-and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one,
-however, for a length of time, could succeed;&mdash;it was then suspected
-that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length,
-it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of
-which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce
-a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others,
-the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper
-nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two
-years after the old head has been removed.</p>
-
-<p>M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred
-Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden,
-that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they
-could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the
-Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he
-discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain
-of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the
-end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and
-like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more
-delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot
-doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has
-been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind
-of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.”</p>
-
-<p>If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
-disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very
-considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and
-kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended
-for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are
-tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed
-of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early
-rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the
-dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become
-excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander
-in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are
-great destroyers both of Snails and slugs.</p>
-
-<p>A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth
-recording.</p>
-
-<p>The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading
-into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of
-this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to
-kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road;
-but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks
-and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled
-him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails
-which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not
-in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct
-line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as
-if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is
-the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails
-aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green
-spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,&mdash;from the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
-path, nothing but the wall in front,&mdash;but still, although the whole of
-their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on, until
-they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By what
-other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies the
-place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with so
-liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature?</p>
-
-<h3><a name="GASTEROPODA" id="GASTEROPODA"></a><i>ORDER GASTEROPODA.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and
-foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which
-this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the
-creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is
-for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished
-from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral,
-and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in
-some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting
-covering of any shell whatever.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SLUG" id="SLUG"></a><span class="smcap">The Red Slug</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_52"><i>Limax rufus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order,
-entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all
-countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have
-never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact
-of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The <i>Limax
-rufus</i>, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
-reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it
-impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly
-found in fields than in gardens.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_52" id="FIG_52"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="352" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Limax rufus.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on
-account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown
-kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is
-very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields
-of cabbages and turnips.</p>
-
-<p>In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head,
-contains a very small oval shell.</p>
-
-<p>There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under
-stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in
-length; it is called <i>Limax noctiluca</i>, the night-shining Slug. The
-buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which
-exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining
-with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact
-mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have
-laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were
-dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being
-placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched.</p>
-
-<p>The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by
-a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to
-entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight
-acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the
-apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing
-two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field
-of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two
-women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs,
-which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid
-on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed
-invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were
-to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they
-abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to
-be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The
-quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="BULLA" id="BULLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Woodlike
-Bulla</span>, (<a href="#FIG_54"><i>Bulla lignaria</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The animal of the <i>Bulla</i> is singular, from possessing-within its
-stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that
-organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind
-of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the
-foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
-a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck mentions
-as many as eleven species.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_54" id="FIG_54"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="302" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Bulla lignaria.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="CREPIDULA" id="CREPIDULA"></a><span class="smcap">The Nail-shaped
-Crepidula</span>, (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Crepidula unguiformis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The genus <i>Crepidula</i> takes its name from its hearing some resemblance
-to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these there
-are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm climates.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="UMBRELLA" id="UMBRELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Mediterranean
-Umbrella</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Umbrella Mediterranea</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Umbrella Mediterranea</i>, as its name implies, is found in the
-Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is
-singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by
-a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="FISSURELLA" id="FISSURELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Clouded
-Fissurella</span>, (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Fissurella nimbosa</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Fissurella nimbosa</i> is found in various and distant parts of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
-world,&mdash;in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &amp;c. It is
-rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in
-length.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_55" id="FIG_55"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_055_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="252" />
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><i>Umbrella</i><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><i>Crepidula</i></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span><i>Fissurella</i></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdc"><i>Mediterranea.<span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></i></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><i>unguiformis.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span><i>nimbosa.</i></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by
-having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell,
-affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is
-discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="BONNET" id="BONNET"></a><span class="smcap">The Hungarian
-Bonnet Shell</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_56"><i>Pileopsis Ungarica</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Pileopsis Ungarica</i> is extremely elegant both in its form and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
-markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with
-rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low
-water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless
-removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the
-creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches
-itself firmly to the surface.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_56" id="FIG_56"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_055_b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="262" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Pileopsis Ungarica.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="CHITON" id="CHITON"></a><span class="smcap">The Scaly
-Chiton</span>, (<a href="#FIG_56A"><i>Chiton squamosus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Chitons</i> differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in
-the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed
-by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck,
-in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the Mollusca.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_56A" id="FIG_56A"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Chiton squamosus.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe
-the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the
-marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not a
-univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not to
-be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one piece,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
-which Nature had originally broken transversely into several distinct
-moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its
-movements.”</p>
-
-<p>The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between
-high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements.
-Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton,
-says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is
-covered with a multitude of teeth,&mdash;some simple, and others with three
-points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CONCHIFERA" id="CONCHIFERA"></a>CLASS CONCHIFERA.</h2></div>
-
-<p>The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells,
-in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is
-soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a
-shell of two valves, without head or eyes,&mdash;a mouth, if it may be so
-called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole
-body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes,
-generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the
-principal distinguishing characters of this class.</p>
-
-<p>In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference
-to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the
-number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged
-under the heads of <i>univalves</i>, of one piece, <i>bivalves</i>, with two
-pieces, and <i>multivalves</i>, with more than two pieces. This arrangement
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
-was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that
-otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells,
-however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals
-belonging to the class Conchifera.</p>
-
-<p>The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses
-except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well
-described by Dr. Roget, in his <i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, that we cannot
-do better than extract a portion from that interesting work.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="360" />
-    <p class="center">Valves of the <i>Unio Batava</i>, with the Connecting Ligament.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by
-a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that
-lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies
-much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great
-strength.</p>
-
-<p>During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell
-is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
-the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment
-and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary
-to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell,
-and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being
-only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a
-muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even
-a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their
-fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to
-that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from
-their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the <i>adductor
-muscles</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="260" />
-    <p class="center">Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the Hinge, L.,<br />
-                the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its Fibres,<br />
-                with respect to the Valves.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of
-being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing
-to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are
-not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies.</p>
-
-<p>Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the <a href="#FIG_66">Oyster</a> has
-some power of locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling
-the contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the
-fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
-mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to
-rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain
-within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and
-that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas,
-those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water
-never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they
-are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous
-experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left
-them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_60" id="FIG_60"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="294" />
-    <p class="center"><i>The Cardium, or Cockle.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a
-leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In
-the <a href="#FIG_60"><i>Cardium</i></a>, or cockle, this organ is composed
-of a mass of muscular fibres, interwoven together in a very complex
-manner, and which may be compared to the muscular structure of the
-human tongue; the effect in both is the same, namely, the conferring a
-power of motion in all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded,
-retracted, or inflected at every point.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_86"><i>Solen</i></a>, or razor-shell fish, has a foot
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
-of a cylindrical shape, tapering at the end, and much more resembling
-in its form a tongue than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of
-the foot is effected by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior
-of the organ is formed of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a
-considerable quantity of water, which the animal has the power of
-injecting into it, and of thus increasing its dimensions.</p>
-
-<p>The foot of the <a href="#FIG_79"><i>Mytilus edulis</i></a>, or common mussel,
-can be advanced to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any
-fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body,
-and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and
-by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed
-object, continues slowly to advance.</p>
-
-<p>This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal
-themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly
-adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for
-this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and
-insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and
-forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it
-is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract
-it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised
-and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of these
-exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is moderately
-active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a minute.
-The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which was
-raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on its
-side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to be
-supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly at
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
-every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be
-perceived above the sand.</p>
-
-<p>By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the
-foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell
-may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before
-protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled
-quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can,
-with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_60"><i>Cardium</i></a> can also advance at the bottom of
-the sea, along the surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot,
-as a boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against
-the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar
-expedient, that the <a href="#FIG_86">Solen</a> forces its way through the sand, expanding
-the end of its foot into the form of a club.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_86"><i>Tellina</i></a> is remarkable for the quickness
-and agility with which it can spring to considerable distances,
-by first folding the foot into a small compass, and then suddenly
-extending it, while the shell is, at the same time, closed with a loud
-snap.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_78"><i>Pinna</i></a>, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of
-tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus
-for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from
-dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of
-its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number
-of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks,
-and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a
-convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of
-this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
-tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to
-retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their
-power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous
-matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being
-drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the
-spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a
-certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously
-constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from
-the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this
-groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting
-it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this
-canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient
-tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied
-to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully
-attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is
-then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by
-its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is
-disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same
-operation is repeated.</p>
-
-<p>Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions
-around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of
-some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the
-importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its
-safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed,
-by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an
-action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once
-the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
-power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which
-they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly
-to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that
-no <a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a> is capable of forming more than four, or at most
-five threads, in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in
-haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender
-than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other
-parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into
-gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk.</p>
-
-<p>The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this
-Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there
-are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa,
-with only one pair.</p>
-
-<h3><a name="UNIMUSCULOSA" id="UNIMUSCULOSA"></a><i>ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are
-much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but
-they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as,
-for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the
-oriental pearl.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="HORSE" id="HORSE"></a><span class="smcap">The Horse-Foot
-Bowl Shell</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_65"><i>Anomia ephippium</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form;
-like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence
-attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
-inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the
-same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of
-the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value.
-Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of
-the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in
-the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which,
-instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of
-shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this
-<i>operculum</i>, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of
-the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance,
-by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_65" id="FIG_65"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="269" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Anomia ephippium.</i><br />[<i>Anomia</i>,
-             a little bowl; <i>ephippium</i>, a horse’s foot.]</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="OYSTER" id="OYSTER"></a><span class="smcap">The Oyster</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_66"><i>Ostrea edulis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become
-food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe;
-they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky
-ground, in no great depth from the surface.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May;
-when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease,
-which the dredgers commonly call <i>cultch</i>. The growth of an Oyster is
-tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of
-the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in
-three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a
-half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_66" id="FIG_66"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Ostrea edulis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The
-Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute,
-attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which
-they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from
-England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the
-luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported
-in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were
-fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to
-those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour,
-nearly black.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following
-places:&mdash;Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are
-generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in
-Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales.
-In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and
-at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters
-is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April
-inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome;
-it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months
-that have the letter <i>r</i> in them.</p>
-
-<p>In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of
-Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St.
-Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this
-is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope
-which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is
-then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few
-minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken
-are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places,
-where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks
-are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist
-materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken
-out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in
-what we should call bad condition.</p>
-
-<p>Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or
-sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a
-narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
-are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed
-on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand
-on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the
-water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may
-have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them.
-A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which
-had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change
-of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain
-a peculiar kind of green food.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="COMB" id="COMB"></a><span class="smcap">The Great Comb Shell</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_69"><i>Pecten maximus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the
-largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all
-the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is
-covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into use
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
-among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other articles
-of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil species.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_69" id="FIG_69"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="341" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Pecten maximus.<span class="ws3">Malleus albus.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species
-of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water,
-and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but
-this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its
-habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it
-tolerably palatable it requires cooking.</p>
-
-<p>In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the
-poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the <i>restaurateurs</i> employ
-them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of
-mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters,
-and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PEARL" id="PEARL"></a><span class="smcap">The Pearl Oyster</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_70"><i>Meleagrina margaritifera</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very
-different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of
-its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a <i>byssus</i>, or
-beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found.
-There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly
-found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of
-Australasia.</p>
-
-<p>The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other
-inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable
-dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a
-pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by
-an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the
-inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the
-mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future
-irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances
-cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval,
-sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is
-always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck,
-or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be
-traced on the pearl itself.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_70" id="FIG_70"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="302" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Meleagrina margaritifera.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;&mdash;in this case, the
-pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for
-instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid,
-this nucleus can be traced.</p>
-
-<p>Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre,
-consisting of the remains of a diseased <i>ovum</i>, or egg, of the animal.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a
-valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her
-ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be
-doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it
-would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to
-drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the
-lapse of a very considerable time.</p>
-
-<p>At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great
-moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is conducted.</p>
-
-<p>The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of
-Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye
-but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are
-the plants that nourish the cochineal insect<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>),
-and here and there some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees.
-But Condatchy, three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to
-be seen but a few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during
-the period of the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of
-which extend upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are
-only intended as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely
-constructed), and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair
-on the grandest scale. The people most active in erecting huts and
-speculating in the various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans,
-Cingalese (natives of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast
-of the continent of India. Apparently, however, from their natural
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
-timidity, none of the Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them
-engage in the other active parts of the fishery; they merely resort
-hither for the purpose of supplying the markets.</p>
-
-<p>About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery,
-when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of
-the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English
-superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent
-diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand
-oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls
-collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a
-good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are
-scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles
-from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are
-fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is
-ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to
-fifteen fathoms.</p>
-
-<p>The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the
-same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but
-considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference.
-The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside
-of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more
-beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured.
-The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy
-part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several
-pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty.</p>
-
-<p>Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely at
-its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators: but,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
-most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual, who
-sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year
-1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than
-120,000<i>l.</i></p>
-
-<p>At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two
-hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These,
-with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything
-necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different
-parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions
-and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of
-these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they
-reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.</p>
-
-<p>At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to
-emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open
-scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from
-each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended,
-with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone
-hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about
-five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of
-a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the
-stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron,
-to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a
-slip of calico round his loins,&mdash;swimming in the water, he takes hold
-of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of
-the stone.</p>
-
-<p>He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
-himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden
-hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to
-him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone
-and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels
-himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils
-with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other
-gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and
-instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is
-thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached
-to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon
-as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone,
-which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting
-oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next
-diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as
-much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get
-hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk
-to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of
-it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time,
-free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above
-water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a
-distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a
-rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into
-the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is
-training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely
-experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the
-manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
-single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has
-reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain
-under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in
-this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert
-man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket.
-There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down
-alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity
-of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a
-favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort
-after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a
-pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks
-contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for
-six hours.</p>
-
-<p>When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal,
-and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten
-to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and
-noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the
-oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore,
-where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for
-ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the
-oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel,
-filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their
-putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells
-broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which
-have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards
-handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from
-the shells, with pincers.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters
-remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom
-of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured
-into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost.
-Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance
-in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are
-by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom.</p>
-
-<p>As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being
-conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small
-and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of
-considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with
-salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into
-classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves.
-After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then
-arranged on strings, and are fit for the market.</p>
-
-<p>Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest
-times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are
-often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various
-attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular
-of which,&mdash;known to have been practised early in the Christian era,
-on the banks of the Red Sea,&mdash;is still carried on in China. A hole is
-bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted,
-and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point
-of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually
-hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite
-size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced
-the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be
-formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually
-established artificial pearleries,&mdash;but these were abandoned after
-a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of
-sufficient size to be of much value.</p>
-
-<p>False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is
-covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white
-wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which
-adhere to the scales of the bleak, (<i>ablette</i>,) and was first applied
-to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name
-of Jacquin<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="HAMMER" id="HAMMER"></a><span class="smcap">The Hammer Oyster</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_69"><i>Malleus albus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable;
-externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other
-hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the
-most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus
-are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity
-of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like
-the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or
-beard, by which it adheres to the rocks.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PINNA" id="PINNA"></a><span class="smcap">The Rough Pinna</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_78"><i>Pinna rudis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the
-shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the
-engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much as a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
-foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a species
-found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water, which
-is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria, not
-only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard, or
-byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very
-remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the
-<a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a>, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a <i>crampe</i>,
-with teeth a foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to
-be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains
-attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose
-of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried
-and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even
-garments of much larger size.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_78" id="FIG_78"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="342" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Pinna rudis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of
-equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a
-dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but
-at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of
-the <a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a>, and the number of beards necessary to make even
-so small an article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells
-were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &amp;c., they
-would increase much more rapidly.</p>
-
-<p>These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British
-shores possess but one species, the <i>Pinna lævis</i> of Donovan; this is
-of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="MUSSEL" id="MUSSEL"></a><span class="smcap">The Common Mussel</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_79"><i>Mytilus edulis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing
-animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and
-low water marks.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_79" id="FIG_79"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Mytilus edulis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food;
-and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of
-severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned
-for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by
-which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be
-detected,&mdash;a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance,
-partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or
-insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have
-ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of
-the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many
-experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author,
-the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding
-on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely
-a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass
-of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is
-cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of
-July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common
-observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in
-which the letter <i>r</i> is not found. This spawn, according to our author,
-is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and
-inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the
-part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled
-up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered
-severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all
-these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been
-discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion
-occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but this
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
-has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten with
-vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise.</p>
-
-<p>When an individual is <i>musselled</i>, the effects are very alarming;
-the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few
-hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is
-attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink,
-and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which
-soon relieves the patient.</p>
-
-<p>The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it
-is well adapted.</p>
-
-<p>In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the
-multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom
-of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which
-the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August,
-when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the
-mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here
-they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and
-in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change
-from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve
-their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks,
-preserves in which the salt water remains at rest.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="TRIDACNA" id="TRIDACNA"></a><span class="smcap">The Giant Tridacna</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_82"><i>Tridacna gigas</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The <i>Tridacna gigas</i> is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very
-thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much
-as five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells
-have been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
-churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to
-form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given
-to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found
-in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one
-hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna
-gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere
-to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity,
-as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of
-separating them from the rock.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_82" id="FIG_82"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_082.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="311" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Tridacna gigas.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<h3><a name="BIMUSCULOSA" id="BIMUSCULOSA"></a><i>ORDER BIMUSCULOSA,<br />
-(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)</i></h3>
-
-<p>This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells,
-all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their
-structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their
-use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
-with those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more
-pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to
-place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in
-one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable
-depth of water, they are not so easily obtained.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="FW_MUSSEL" id="FW_MUSSEL"></a><span class="smcap">The Fresh-Water Mussel</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_84"><i>Anodonta cygnæa</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble
-it, are known by the trivial name of <i>Mussel</i>, the only resemblance
-between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which
-inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in
-habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power
-of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta
-is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of
-shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad
-muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain
-pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are
-lined with mother-of-pearl.</p>
-
-<p>Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl,
-very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high price.</p>
-
-<p>A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the
-collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County
-Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months,
-go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs,
-and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell,
-take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
-in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in
-a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable
-pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those
-people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good
-advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for
-50<i>l.</i> that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40<i>l.</i> A
-miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i> to a man that
-sold it for 10<i>l.</i>, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30<i>l.</i>,
-with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80<i>l.</i> for it from the
-late Dutchess of Ormond.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_84" id="FIG_84"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="279" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><span class="ws8"><i>Isocardia cor.</i></span>
-                                   <span class="ws4"><i>Anodonta Cygnæa.</i></span></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="ISOCARDIA" id="ISOCARDIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Heart-Shaped Isocardia</span>,<br />
-(<a href="#FIG_84"><i>Isocardia cor</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by
-the name of the <i>foolscap-shell</i>, and the <i>bullock’s heart shell</i>, is
-rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast;
-it is the largest British bivalve shell.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="DONAX" id="DONAX"></a><span class="smcap">The Wedge-Shaped Donax</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_85"><i>Donax cuneata</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that
-represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks:
-it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these
-species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and
-streaked with pink.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_85" id="FIG_85"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="254" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Donax cuneata.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through
-various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the
-<a href="#FIG_86">Tellina</a>, or <i>earth-shell</i>, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the
-Solen, or <i>razor-shell</i>.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SOLEN" id="SOLEN"></a><span class="smcap">The Sheath Solen</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_86"><i>Solen vagina</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying
-themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a
-couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to
-penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell.
-Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
-which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom.
-This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which
-forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is
-enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose
-of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal
-ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may
-possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of
-Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms
-for its retreat is always perpendicular.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_86" id="FIG_86"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="255" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Tellina.<span class="ws8">Solen vagina.</span>
-                                   <span class="ws4">Pandora rostrata.</span></i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on
-the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather
-cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the
-farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of
-the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated;
-after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular
-direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began
-to descend, and that with considerable quickness.</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_86">Solens</a> are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
-where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method
-of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat
-of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its
-chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of
-salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so
-irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly
-mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance,
-snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes
-good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal
-escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect;
-either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which
-is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up
-with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other
-means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it
-out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="PHOLAS" id="PHOLAS"></a><span class="smcap">The Date-Shaped Pholas</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_88"><i>Pholas dactyloides</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the
-solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in
-stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of
-much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical,
-for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an
-insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that
-the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which
-acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this
-solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
-in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon
-stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava.</p>
-
-<p>Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their
-phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if
-eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the
-person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_88" id="FIG_88"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_088.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="384" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Pholas dactyloides.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly
-eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are
-found.</p>
-
-<p>The species represented in the engraving is found on the British
-coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully
-carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the
-engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole
-from which a shell has been removed is shown.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="SHIP_WORM" id="SHIP_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Ship-Worm,</span>
-(<a href="#FIG_89"><i>Teredo navalis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully
-examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it
-employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as
-there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent
-observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed,
-are fully equal to the task.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_89" id="FIG_89"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Teredo navalis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of
-the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The
-animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a
-tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress
-through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right
-in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of
-these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the
-excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually
-formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most deeply
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
-sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally excavates
-in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some instances it
-crosses this grain.</p>
-
-<p>In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high
-water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have
-been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of
-large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by
-means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together.
-These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this
-destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and
-had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts
-of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CIRRHIPEDA" id="CIRRHIPEDA"></a>CLASS CIRRHIPEDA.</h2></div>
-
-<p>The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of <i>Barnacles</i> and
-<i>Acorn-shells</i>, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and
-pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time.
-They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca,
-and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &amp;c. These creatures, from their
-singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of
-the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was
-unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their
-true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British
-naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any
-definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately
-after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought
-more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and
-lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case.</p>
-
-<p>After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea,
-Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the
-<span class="smcap">class</span> of Crustacea, I formed the <i>first order</i> of this class,
-(the <i>Cirrhipeds</i>,) under the name of <i>sightless Crustacea</i>, but a
-few years afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of
-the Mollusca, but this was no better. If, for example, we consider
-those characters which furnish their most important organs, we shall
-find that the Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
-Crustacea, for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws
-analogous to those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the
-antennæ of the shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was
-a task that devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq.,
-a surgeon in his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery
-took place, we shall notice further on.</p>
-
-<p>The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or
-tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being
-derived from two Latin words,&mdash;<i>cirrhus</i>, hair, and <i>pes</i>, the foot;
-these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have,
-in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion.</p>
-
-<p>They have been separated into two orders; namely, <i>Cirrhipeda
-pedunculata</i>, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery
-nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,&mdash;and <i>Cirrhipeda sedentaria</i>,
-which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell.</p>
-
-<h3><a name="PEDUNCULATA" id="PEDUNCULATA"></a><i>ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA.</i><br />
-(<i>Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk.</i>)</h3>
-
-<h4><a name="BARNACLE" id="BARNACLE"></a><span class="smcap">The Smooth Barnacle</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_93"><i>Anatifa lævis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of
-a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has
-lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the
-shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance
-of this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
-granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days,
-because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to
-partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent
-to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following
-notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and <i>printed</i> by
-them in their <i>Transactions</i>. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and
-convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the
-shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I
-found a perfect <i>sea-fowl</i>; the little bill like that of a <i>goose</i>, the
-eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the
-feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the
-<i>feet</i> like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor
-did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that
-did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen
-some as big as their fist!!”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_93" id="FIG_93"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="386" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Anatifa lævis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
-<h3><a name="SEDENTARIA" id="SEDENTARIA"></a><i>ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA</i>,<br />
-(<i>Sedentary Cirrhipeds</i>.)</h3>
-
-<h4><a name="ACORN" id="ACORN"></a><span class="smcap">The Acorn-Shell</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_94"><i>Balanus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the
-Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author
-had devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was
-returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when,
-casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry
-at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a
-treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled
-for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.”
-After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues
-“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in
-any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the
-little animal about to be described.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_94" id="FIG_94"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="266" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Balanus</i>, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
-somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue.
-When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel,
-and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water
-in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are
-withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves,
-united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of
-opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional
-exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a
-large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks,
-&amp;c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members,
-so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke
-to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a
-succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="201" />
-</div>
-
-<ul class="index">
-<li class="isub0">Fig. 1. Larva of Barnacle, natural size.</li>
-<li class="isub2">2.&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;" <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">magnified, seen from above.</span></li>
-<li class="isub2">3.&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;" <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">highly magnified, seen from side;</span></li>
-<li class="isub12"><i>a</i>, swimming-members;</li>
-<li class="isub12"><i>b</i>, front limb, with sucker.</li>
-<li class="isub2">4. Eye, much magnified.</li>
-<li class="isub2">5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size.</li>
-<li class="isub2">6.&emsp;&emsp;"<span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">"</span>&emsp;&emsp;full grown.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal,
-is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
-shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front,
-at the sides of the body.</p>
-
-<p>“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826;
-and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a
-glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be
-examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were
-taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the
-satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their <i>exuviæ</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>,
-and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the
-vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen
-intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of
-the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part
-of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with
-the <i>exuviæ</i>. On the 10th, another individual was seen <i>in the act of
-throwing off its shell</i>, and attaching itself, like the others, to the
-bottom of the glass.”</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="ANNULATA" id="ANNULATA"></a>CLASS ANNULATA.</h2></div>
-
-<p>We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of
-Lamarck; he calls them,</p>
-
-<p>“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or
-inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least
-transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without
-antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number
-having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of
-being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though
-not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various
-forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this
-separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white
-blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals
-are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
-have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated
-into three Orders, namely, <i>Annulata sedentaria</i>, which are fixed to
-other substances; <i>Annulata antennata</i>, possessing antennæ, or feelers;
-and <i>Annulata apoda</i>, without projecting members answering as feet,
-serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &amp;c.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><a name="ANN_SEDENTARIA" id="ANN_SEDENTARIA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA</i>,<br />
-(<i>Sedentary Annulose Animals</i>.)</h3>
-
-<p>The creatures which form this order are generally found attached
-to rocks, shells, &amp;c. and are usually of small size. The engraving
-represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula
-there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell
-that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the
-species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has
-great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or
-tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always
-occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its <i>operculum</i>, the
-lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily
-formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of
-course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="AMPHITRITE" id="AMPHITRITE"></a><span class="smcap">The Magnificent
-Amphitrite</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_99"><i>Amphitrite magnifica</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as
-yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
-adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is
-exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into
-its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that
-of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained
-by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being
-put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health.
-That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an
-umbrella, consists of the <i>branchiæ</i> or organs of breathing; these are
-of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite,
-although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to
-it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_99" id="FIG_99"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="458" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Amphitrite magnifica.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
-<h3><a name="ANTENNATA" id="ANTENNATA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA</i>,<br />
-(<i>Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ</i>.)</h3>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-<h4><a name="SAND_WORM" id="SAND_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Sand-Worm of
-the Fishermen</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_100"><i>Arenicola piscatorium</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much
-sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the
-European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met
-with in great abundance.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_100" id="FIG_100"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Arenicola piscatorium.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h4><a name="LEODICE" id="LEODICE"></a><span class="smcap">Blood-coloured
-Leodice</span>, (<a href="#FIG_101"><i>Leodice sanguinea</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are
-enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs
-of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
-well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear
-a strong resemblance to the <i>scolopendra</i>, or centipede.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_101" id="FIG_101"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Leodice sanguinea.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of
-Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to
-the length of fourteen or fifteen inches.</p>
-
-<p>When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the
-blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body
-was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the
-animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as
-soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished.</p>
-
-<p>The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable
-jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the
-animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath
-the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="MOUSE" id="MOUSE"></a><span class="smcap">The Spinous Sea-Mouse,
-or Sea-Caterpillar</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_102"><i>Halithæa aculeata</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native
-element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially
-covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a peacock.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_102" id="FIG_102"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" />
-    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Halithæa aculeata.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<h3><a name="APODA" id="APODA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA APODA</i>,<br />
-(<i>Footless Annulose Animals</i>.)</h3>
-
-<p>The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already
-described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides of
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
-their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may,
-consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those
-we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they
-are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and
-live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We
-find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the
-Earth-worm and the Leech.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="EARTH_WORM" id="EARTH_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Common
-Earth-Worm</span>,<br />(<i>Lumbricus terrestris</i>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow
-rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short,
-silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like.
-These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the
-alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is
-enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so
-forming various fixed points of resistance or <i>fulcra</i>, upon which the
-animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the
-Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a
-simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind
-of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is
-supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="83" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two
-openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the
-dirt which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the
-other by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made
-by the animal would be much in this form, descending at <span class="smcap">a</span>,
-and reaching the surface by <span class="smcap">b</span>. It has been said, that the
-Earth-worm, if divided by the spade or otherwise, will unite again and
-live; the foundation for this appears to be the more probable fact,
-that, when divided, that portion of the animal in which the head is
-placed may, perhaps, survive the mutilation, and ultimately again
-become a perfect creature.</p>
-
-<p>Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks,
-they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round
-the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving
-the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very
-deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up
-in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of <i>mucus</i>,
-which is furnished by the pores of their body.</p>
-
-<p>The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with
-the author of the <i>Journal of a Naturalist</i>; among other remarks,
-he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important
-one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers,
-harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common
-Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the
-soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the
-surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer
-parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the
-more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple
-nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them
-are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
-scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil,</p>
-
-<p class="center">Death still producing life.</p>
-
-<p>“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey
-of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary
-example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction.
-The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its
-prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds;
-fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it
-unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and
-burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in
-dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the
-earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element,
-yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it
-as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and
-even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of
-the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding
-this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully
-commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of all.</p>
-
-<p>“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining
-over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become
-frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually
-consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass
-of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of
-approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground,
-than they approach the surface.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing
-the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into
-the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service,
-penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every
-direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the
-water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we
-have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says,
-“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of
-knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and
-fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any
-vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that
-all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale
-as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that
-permitted me to obtain this knowledge.”</p>
-
-<h4><a name="LEECH" id="LEECH"></a><span class="smcap">The Medicinal
-Leech</span>, (<a href="#LEECHES"><i>Hirudo medicinalis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to
-have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed
-in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied
-to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended
-to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt
-leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any
-part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound
-occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal.</p>
-
-<p>At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
-operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the
-body, for which use it is eminently adapted.</p>
-
-<p>There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures,
-but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the <i>Hirudo
-medicinalis</i>, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or
-striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted
-with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not
-uniformly found; and the <i>Hirudo troctina</i>, of a brownish colour,
-the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is
-surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow,
-and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots.</p>
-
-<p>The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout
-the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts;
-it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very
-abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture,
-and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great
-use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less
-frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are
-imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate
-calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every
-hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign
-production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat
-larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots.
-Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by
-the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were
-employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
-appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is
-found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and
-seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears
-to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the
-sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by
-the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable
-depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated,
-and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is
-considered by the <i>leech-gatherers</i> as a favourable time for collecting
-them.</p>
-
-<p>The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some
-persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a
-leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the
-following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be
-serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel
-without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the
-animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of
-fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a
-state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will
-remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless,
-and so on.</p>
-
-<p>This natural barometer <i>appears</i> to answer tolerably well, if there
-is sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if
-one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are
-enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws,
-and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient
-accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood
-or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is
-not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the <i>larvæ</i>
-of aquatic insects, worms, &amp;c., so that the common idea of the danger
-of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation.</p>
-
-<p>The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms,
-tadpoles, &amp;c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five
-horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the
-number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were
-missing was to be discovered.</p>
-
-<p>The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of
-cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech,
-which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species,
-disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state,
-and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a
-lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more
-powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that
-period.</p>
-
-<p>A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a
-trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different
-parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench
-annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it
-(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of
-the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such
-pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent
-were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere
-skeleton.”</p>
-
-<p>From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
-<i>sanguisuga</i>, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to
-the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name
-of Hirudo <i>vorax</i>, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its
-nature.</p>
-
-<p>Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in
-confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained
-slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a
-doubt.</p>
-
-<p>On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form
-of a horse-shoe, thus&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-    <img src="images/i_110.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="81" />
-</div>
-
-<p>These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or
-eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are
-merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in
-describing their character, says they are without eyes.</p>
-
-<p>The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are
-three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with
-regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these
-piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not
-by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the
-surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips);
-in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there
-remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the
-piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three
-minutes after the leech has commenced operation.</p>
-
-<p>Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been
-taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The
-principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
-sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those
-which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered.</p>
-
-<p>Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination
-to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to
-commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &amp;c.; but
-these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears
-to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when
-any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to
-puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the
-little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling
-to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little
-cold water.</p>
-
-<p>After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to
-induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt
-frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of
-Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the
-preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head
-of the leech instead of salt.</p>
-
-<p>The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has
-swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of
-the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the
-most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood
-remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
-The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed
-of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with
-the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal,
-the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal,
-through a distinct opening.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="LEECHES" id="LEECHES"></a>
-    <p class="center"><b>Fig. 1. <span class="ws16">Fig. 2.</span><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></b></p>
-    <img src="images/i_112.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="237" />
-</div>
-
-<p>It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced
-from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are
-developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon
-of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its
-natural size: <a href="#LEECHES">fig. 1</a>, shows the perfect case or
-cocoon, and <a href="#LEECHES">fig. 2</a>, the same opened, with the
-young leeches contained within it; it is said that, at times, there
-are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case. This cocoon is formed
-by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the mud or clay, which
-composes the bed of the pool it inhabits.</p>
-
-<p>The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although
-only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to
-the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of
-this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of sale.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
-“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly
-in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those
-leeches which were intended for the Paris market.</p>
-
-<p>“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the
-season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to
-the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance.
-These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are
-known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of
-water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches
-quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they
-are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the
-cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of
-allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow
-much more rapidly after having partaken of blood.</p>
-
-<p>There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is
-more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than
-even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the
-terrible hooded snake itself.</p>
-
-<p>The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in
-length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active
-animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally
-to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no
-sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to
-crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is
-shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with
-these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
-in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping
-them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly
-than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than
-would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in
-persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers,
-and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself.</p>
-
-<p>Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such
-as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &amp;c., but all to very
-little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing
-the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very
-closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a name="CRUSTACEA" id="CRUSTACEA"></a>CLASS CRUSTACEA.</h2></div>
-
-<p>The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history
-has undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among
-the insects:&mdash;others considered them to have more analogy to the
-spiders. Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent
-<span class="smcap">CLASS</span> forming two <i>orders</i>, which he
-has named after the arrangement of the branchiæ, or gills, by which
-they breathe, namely,&mdash;the <i>Crustacea homobranchiæ</i>, the
-distinguishing marks of which he describes in this manner: branchiæ
-hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass, covering the
-body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the mandibles
-always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks, the head
-not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist them in
-their movements. Secondly, the <i>Crustacea heterobranchiæ</i>, in which
-the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under the
-lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the
-tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in
-general fixed, <i>sedentary, not on footstalks</i>.</p>
-
-<h3><a name="HOMOBRANCHIAE" id="HOMOBRANCHIAE"></a><i>ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ</i>,<br />
-(<i>Shell-Fish with concealed gills.</i>)</h3>
-
-<p>The first of these orders, the <i>homobranchial</i> Crustacea, includes most
-of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters,
-and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division.</p>
-
-<p>Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order,
-and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
-appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal
-kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is
-apparently less complex.</p>
-
-<p>The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two
-principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately
-united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a
-portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable
-supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on
-each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head.
-The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this
-spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The
-two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest.</p>
-
-<p>The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat
-pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather;
-they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are
-so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of
-these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base.</p>
-
-<p>The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the
-mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at
-their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper
-part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at
-the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two
-pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six
-other members, which Lamarck calls <i>foot-jaws</i>, from their bearing
-some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the
-parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and
-accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs in
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
-particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that may
-come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as articles
-of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of the year.</p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p class="f150 u"><a name="CRAB_TRIBE" id="CRAB_TRIBE"></a><b><i>THE CRAB TRIBE.</i></b></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the
-knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being
-generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit
-ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful
-species.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="ZOEA" id="ZOEA"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="474" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.</small></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular species,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
-as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless variety of
-curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most brilliant
-colours; this more particularly applies to those which are found in the
-seas of hot climates.</p>
-
-<p>The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was
-placed by naturalists among the <i>Crustacea</i>, and considered a perfect
-animal of a distinct species; it was named <a href="#ZOEA">Zoea</a>. Mr. Thomson,
-the experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to
-discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better
-than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the
-author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known
-respecting these inhabitants of the deep.</p>
-
-<p>“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the
-<i>Crustacea</i>) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body
-of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant
-troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a
-fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast
-expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a
-kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by
-those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts
-of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants
-with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the
-bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is
-interspersed with fields of Sargosa<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>.
-On due examination, however, we shall not fail to find it everywhere
-peopled by a considerable variety of animals, either of small size, or
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
-possessed of such a degree of translucency as to render them invisible,
-or scarcely perceptible, even when on or near to its surface; that it
-should possess its share of the organized beings which we see spread
-over every other part of the surface of our globe, is a conclusion we
-might arrive at indirectly, from the consideration of oceanic fishes
-and birds being observed in those parts of the ocean most distant from
-the land, and the provident care of the Deity, which we invariably
-witness throughout the domain of nature, to furnish food for all, even
-the meanest of his creatures; the more minute and invisible inmates of
-the sea, then, must constitute the food of oceanic fishes and birds.</p>
-
-<p>“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most
-conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of
-them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and
-a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to
-accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing
-every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or
-four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze,
-bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it
-up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to
-ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater
-rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the
-spout of one of the <i>sea-water</i> pumps, and examined three or four times
-a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.”</p>
-
-<p>Although naturalists were decided in calling the <a href="#ZOEA">Zoea</a> a crustaceous
-animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the system
-it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike each
-other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it is known,
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
-that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but merely the
-larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is perfectly
-new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only proving their
-real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as described in most
-systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on that account to be
-separated from the insects, but that they do undergo a metamorphosis,
-and that of a most wonderful nature.</p>
-
-<p>It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ,
-in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year
-following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred;
-this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully
-supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died
-in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which
-it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a
-great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs
-and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be
-considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in
-hatching the <i>ova</i> of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which
-presented exactly the appearance of the <i>Zoea taurus</i>.”</p>
-
-<p>The Common Crab, <i>Cancer major</i>, is so well-known, that any description
-of its appearance would be useless.</p>
-
-<p>One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that
-is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this
-power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase
-in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the
-peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about
-to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured
-retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it
-creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year
-when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time
-their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest
-perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking
-the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among
-the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the
-attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal
-discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously
-harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its
-kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in
-anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting
-its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against
-each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated,
-and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an
-unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at
-its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before
-seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach
-comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it
-disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal,
-with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a
-boot that was too big for him.</p>
-
-<p>Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty;
-but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several
-hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation, that
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
-many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such a
-weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor
-venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have
-not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of
-the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor
-oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod,
-and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness
-continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is
-seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before;
-its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first
-object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which
-it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness.
-In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength,
-the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but
-just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their
-skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this
-is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the
-shell. These stones, popularly known as <i>crabs’ eyes</i>, were long
-highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not
-superior to so much chalk.</p>
-
-<p>When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the
-old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found
-the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears
-wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.</p>
-
-<p>Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb,
-or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty
-of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it has
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
-also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its own
-legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury, by
-bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received the
-hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb
-from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and
-natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other
-legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part
-of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears
-to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the
-case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers.</p>
-
-<p>When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on
-the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural
-styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows
-callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the
-creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.</p>
-
-<p>Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and
-kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so
-bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking
-off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal
-bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the
-tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one
-of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly
-creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted
-its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which
-bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
-its limb in the usual manner,&mdash;still, however, holding fast for a
-length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.</p>
-
-<p>The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not,
-as it is said, walk exactly backwards.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="LAND" id="LAND"></a><span class="smcap">The Land Crab</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_124"><i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there
-is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands,
-whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly
-curious in themselves.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_124" id="FIG_124"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_124.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="424" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE LAND CRAB,</small> (<i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i>.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near
-salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year
-in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
-same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the islands,
-many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these places
-their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year, to repair to
-the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. They prepare for
-their annual migration about the month of April or May, and, having
-mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets forward, with all the
-regularity of an army, under the guidance of an experienced commander.</p>
-
-<p>Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct
-line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly
-surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a
-house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which
-they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not
-unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper.
-If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow
-its course without attempting to cross it.</p>
-
-<p>It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of
-which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like
-pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged
-to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment
-till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never
-leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then
-descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty
-paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover
-the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a
-straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but
-neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
-their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a
-confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly,
-to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables;
-but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to
-proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest.</p>
-
-<p>After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner,
-they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately
-enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several
-times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where
-they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek
-the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of
-being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already
-repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their
-annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and,
-soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting
-the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones,
-however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and
-lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are
-obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover;
-making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves
-up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and
-continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time
-they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six
-weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may
-be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
-sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the
-food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of
-seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="HERMIT" id="HERMIT"></a><span class="smcap">The Hermit, or Soldier Crab</span>,<br />
-(<a href="#FIG_127"><i>Pagurus bernhardus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of
-remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock,
-it may fancy.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_127" id="FIG_127"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="340" />
-    <p class="center"><small>THE HERMIT CRAB,</small> (<i>Pagurus bernhardus</i>.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly
-secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous
-state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is
-almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their
-hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to
-maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has
-grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to
-seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
-when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the
-additional name of the Soldier Crab.</p>
-
-<p>“The <a href="#FIG_127">Soldier</a> when about to seek a new habitation,
-is still seen,” says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears
-to have considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the
-mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell,
-therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body;
-and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer
-both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight
-inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along
-that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave;
-still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail,
-unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage,
-till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one
-shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating
-that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation,
-to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it
-quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently
-changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to
-this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the
-body of the animal, claws and all.”</p>
-
-<p>Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the
-Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest
-between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which
-they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike
-with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to
-yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
-takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times
-back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist.</p>
-
-<p>When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring
-to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will
-sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not
-easily cured.</p>
-
-<p>On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell
-of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they
-not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under
-the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices
-of which they hide themselves.</p>
-
-<p>The ancients were well acquainted with the <a href="#FIG_127">Soldier Crab</a>,
-as is evident from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets:</p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left</span>
-<span class="i0">Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.</span>
-<span class="i0">Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish</span>
-<span class="i0">For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;</span>
-<span class="i0">Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,</span>
-<span class="i0">Whose first and rightful owners are no more.</span>
-<span class="i0">They make glad seizure of the vacant room,</span>
-<span class="i0">And count the borrowed shell their native home;</span>
-<span class="i0">Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,</span>
-<span class="i0">And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.</span>
-<span class="i0">But when they larger grow they fill the place,</span>
-<span class="i0">And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,</span>
-<span class="i0">Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,</span>
-<span class="i0">And busy search around the pebbly shore,</span>
-<span class="i0">Till a commodious roomy seat be found,</span>
-<span class="i0">Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.</span>
-<span class="i0">Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,</span>
-<span class="i0">And long for the disputed shell engage;</span>
-<span class="i0">The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,</span>
-<span class="i0">Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.</span>
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<h4><a name="LOBSTER" id="LOBSTER"></a><span class="smcap">The Lobster</span>,
-(<i>Astacus europæa</i>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great
-abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland
-is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast
-of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the
-Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth.
-The methods of taking Lobsters are various,&mdash;the most usual is by means
-of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of
-twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap,
-so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning.
-These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place
-being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a
-kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only
-carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the
-London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.</p>
-
-<p>Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other
-sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they
-frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor
-creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent
-clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the
-crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the
-pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while the
-other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then, its
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
-food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with the
-other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and
-lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable
-distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when
-in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a
-beautiful deep blue.</p>
-
-<p>A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems
-to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in
-Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who
-transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to
-prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by,
-they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning!</p>
-
-<h4><a name="CRAY_FISH" id="CRAY_FISH"></a><span class="smcap">The River Cray-Fish</span>,
-(<i>Potamobius fluviatilis</i>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in
-appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is
-commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the
-banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that
-may happen to come in its way.</p>
-
-<p>The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which
-is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus
-described:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the
-thickness of the thumb,&mdash;split them at the smallest end, and by way of
-bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take then
-the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance of
-the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are there,
-they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you perceive
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
-them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait suddenly,
-and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the bait, or
-will fall back into the net.</p>
-
-<p>Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a
-hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst
-of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the
-water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained
-there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found
-partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually
-prevent their escape.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SHRIMP" id="SHRIMP"></a><span class="smcap">The Phosphorescent
-Shrimp.</span></h4>
-
-<p>The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known to
-all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained, that
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
-the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent
-properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants
-of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very
-frequently met with.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_132.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="356" />
-    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Noctiluca Banksii</span> magnified.</p>
-    <p class="center space-below2">The line above shows the natural length.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue
-from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found
-by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided
-in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most
-brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there
-started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light.</p>
-
-<p>The author we have lately quoted, says,&mdash;</p>
-
-<p class="blockquot2">“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable,
-that the Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to
-every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the
-trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet,
-has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and
-of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider
-that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,&mdash;is vivid in
-proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light
-of the moon,&mdash;and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea,
-so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the
-dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and
-the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable
-sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all
-times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken
-rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy
-appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible
-at a considerable distance.”</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="OPOSSUM" id="OPOSSUM"></a><span class="smcap">The Opossum Shrimp</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_134"><i>Mysis chamæleon</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward
-appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably
-smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed
-creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable
-abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally
-swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined
-to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth
-encloses myriads at a time.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_134" id="FIG_134"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_134.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="461" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Mysis chamæleon.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
-The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have
-been called fissipeds, (<i>split-feet</i>,) on account of each of their
-feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb
-being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and
-the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is
-essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped
-round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the
-element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such
-as shrimps, prawns, &amp;c., there is a single row of five feet on each
-side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four
-rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet
-amounts to as many as thirty-two,&mdash;sixteen adapted for swimming, and
-sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization,
-the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the
-present genus frequent the surface.</p>
-
-<p>The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they
-are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses,
-fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this
-pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is
-destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in
-a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the
-young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened
-form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in
-this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards
-the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted
-together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
-observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the
-large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp
-are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch
-we have described.</p>
-
-<p>We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the
-Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve
-as food for herrings.</p>
-
-<p>It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals
-that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater
-productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished
-master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still
-continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance,
-after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has
-informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one
-piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part
-appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together.
-Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs,
-which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs
-still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently
-jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the
-various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which
-actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment
-necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison
-with other creatures, they must possess!</p>
-
-<p>The <a href="#FIG_134">Opossum Shrimps</a>, we have seen, are the prey of the larger
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
-inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that
-are smaller than themselves,&mdash;seizing upon every animal substance they
-are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a
-vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.</p>
-
-<p class="space-below2">The species represented in the engraving has
-been called the <i>Mysis chamæleon</i>, from its colour varying according to
-the substances on which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray,
-black, brown, and pink.</p>
-
-<h3><a name="HETEROBRANCHIAE" id="HETEROBRANCHIAE"></a><i>ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ.</i></h3>
-
-<p class="center">(<i>Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously<br />
-placed, never concealed.</i>)</p>
-
-<p>The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other
-than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we
-find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of
-the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a
-great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the
-water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are
-very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They
-have been divided into several sections, according to their outward
-form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine
-ourselves to a description of some of the best known.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="SQUILL" id="SQUILL"></a><span class="smcap">The Spotted Squill</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_138"><i>Squilla maculata</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present
-order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
-the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct,
-appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called
-the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that
-name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its
-foot-jaws are armed.</p>
-
-<p>The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is
-the largest of the genus.</p>
-
-<p>The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little
-consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent
-the sandy bottom of the sea.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_138" id="FIG_138"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_138.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="427" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Squilla maculata.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the
-young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter
-under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="CLOPORTUS" id="CLOPORTUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Common Cloportus</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_139"><i>Cloportus ascellus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
-somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a
-dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where
-the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to
-a group of small Crustacea known by the name <i>Oniscus</i>. Some, as we see
-in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion
-inhabit the water.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_139" id="FIG_139"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_139.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="283" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Cloportus ascellus.</i></p>
-    <p class="center">(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species
-which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for
-its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years
-timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary
-wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the
-course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little
-creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten
-inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch
-a year. Another species, <i>Cymothoa</i>, attaches itself to the backs of
-different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body.</p>
-
-<p>A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
-fifth volume of the <i>American Philosophical Transactions</i>; it is
-accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is
-not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular
-species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself
-to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the
-roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_140_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Head of Alewife.</i></p>
-    <p class="center">Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <img src="images/i_140_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="195" />
-    <p class="center">The insect seen from above.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
-“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort
-to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife,
-called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and
-in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of
-the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the
-herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught
-from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for
-the table as the herring.</p>
-
-<p>“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect
-about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly
-holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.</p>
-
-<p>“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without
-injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider
-the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken
-out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable
-of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to
-preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always
-obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.</p>
-
-<p>“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and
-lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately
-scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his
-position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and
-unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained
-his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant
-resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he
-certainly fares sumptuously every day.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the
-shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to
-travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As
-long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found
-fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his
-mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but
-by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself
-with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay
-Alewife without the louse.”</p>
-
-<p>The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies,
-many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their
-body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="MOLUCCA" id="MOLUCCA"></a><span class="smcap">The Molucca Crab</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_143"><i>Polyphemus gigas</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>Why the singular creature here represented should have the name
-Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every
-schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is
-represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas,
-this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its
-being so nearly allied to many very minute species.</p>
-
-<p>The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but
-two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their
-buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has
-been called the Molucca Crab.</p>
-
-<p>The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by
-the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
-employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of
-poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this
-circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no
-other ground for the belief.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_143" id="FIG_143"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="294" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Polyphemus gigas.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very
-easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything
-until their danger becomes imminent.</p>
-
-<p>It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for
-food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy.</p>
-
-<p>These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a
-considerable distance over the wet sands,&mdash;but if incommoded by the
-sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element.
-When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if
-this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the
-waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power
-of righting itself with the assistance of its tail.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="LIMULUS" id="LIMULUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Crab-like Limulus</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_144"><i>Limulus cancriformis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &amp;c.; they
-are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their
-principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_144" id="FIG_144"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="221" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Limulus cancriformis.</i> (Natural size.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in
-which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler,
-very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The
-head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They
-possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back.
-Their legs are very numerous,&mdash;the two in front, much the largest,
-spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with
-silky articulated bristles.”</p>
-
-<h4><a name="FLEA" id="FLEA"></a><span class="smcap">The Water Flea</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_145"><i>Cyclops quadricornis</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That
-represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most
-interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr.
-Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution,
-as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of
-creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred
-on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision,
-more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring,
-and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the
-elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the
-mass of living matter they present to us.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_145" id="FIG_145"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_145.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="464" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Cyclops quadricornis.</i> (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the
-year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
-in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm
-day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an
-inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered
-with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil,
-are of a fine rich colour.</p>
-
-<p>“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly
-plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and
-vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but
-have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the
-organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it
-is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little
-above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark
-crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this
-organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two
-kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest
-extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some
-other positions it is square.”</p>
-
-<p>The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance
-similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared
-with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving,
-(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder
-portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque
-colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red.</p>
-
-<p>The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are
-extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has
-described them as forming two distinct genera.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
-
-<h4><a name="SW_FLEA" id="SW_FLEA"></a><span class="smcap">The Small Water Flea</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_147"><i>Cyclops minutus</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its
-body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much
-smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form
-renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says
-Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if
-approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside,
-in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit
-opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a
-kind of vaulting leap.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_147" id="FIG_147"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_147.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Cyclops minutus</i>, much magnified.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met
-with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed,
-growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
-and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will
-not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and
-require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of
-clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the
-under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or
-cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey,
-moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the
-plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not
-bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept
-in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the
-three hundredth part of an inch.</p>
-
-<p>The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the
-eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of
-the animal near the tail.</p>
-
-<h4><a name="CYPRIS" id="CYPRIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Hairy Cypris</span>,
-(<a href="#FIG_149"><i>Cypris pubera</i></a>.)</h4>
-
-<p>These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they
-are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The
-animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it
-at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell
-numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is
-enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until
-it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which
-issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and
-bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them
-great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute
-materially to the swimming powers of the creature.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point
-is seen,&mdash;this is the eye of the animal.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-    <a name="FIG_149" id="FIG_149"></a>
-    <img src="images/i_149.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="218" />
-    <p class="center"><i>Cypris pubera.</i> (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is
-found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they
-are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are
-more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the
-year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course
-of the year.</p>
-
-<p>The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense
-numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in
-this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in
-the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a
-kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the
-marshes with water.</p>
-
-<p>A species nearly allied to this, the <i>Artemia Salina</i>, the Lymington
-shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans,
-which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other
-Crustaceous animal.
-<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at
-Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is
-deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a
-quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the
-liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute,
-in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm,
-or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this
-is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of
-this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms
-from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase
-astonishingly in the course of a few days.</p>
-
-<p>It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans,
-where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the
-Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and
-reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans,
-and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much
-diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the
-manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at
-the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers.</p>
-
-<p class="f150 space-above2"><b>THE END.</b></p>
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London:</span></p>
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">John W. Parker, St. Martin’s Lane</span>.</p>
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-  <p class="center"><b>[<span class="smcap">List No. 1.</span>]</b></p>
-  <p class="f150"><b>APPROVED BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS<br /> AND FAMILIES.</b></p>
-</div>
-<hr class="r25" />
-<p class="neg-indent">Those to which a * is prefixed, are published
-under the Direction of the Committee of General Literature and
-Education of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</p>
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p class="neg-indent"><b><span class="larger">* ENGLISH GRAMMAR</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. Dr. RUSSELL</span></b>,
-late Head Master of Charter-House School.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">No language can be more simple and intelligible
-than that in which the Rules of this Grammar are expressed. The
-construction of Sentences, and the force of the Prepositions and
-Conjunctions, are illustrated by examples. Emphasis is treated very
-perspicuously; and the Grammar closes with most useful Questions on the Rules.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION</span></b> to
-<b><span class="larger">ENGLISH COMPOSITION</span></b>;
-adapted to the education of both sexes, by the <b><span class="larger">Rev. J. EDWARDS</span></b>,
-M.A., one of the Masters of King’s College School, London.&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In addition to other pursuits and
-studies, the cultivation of a knowledge of English Literature is daily
-gaining ground. This, it must be acknowledged, is very desirable, but
-it is assuredly of great importance, that it should be upon a plan
-which will tend to give a vigorous and healthy tone to the mind.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE CLASS READING
-BOOK</span></b>; adapted for Schools, and particularly designed to
-furnish Youth with Practical Information on a variety of Interesting
-Subjects. By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE LUDLOW</span></b>, one of
-the Masters of Christ’s Hospital.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">This work consists of nearly Two
-Hundred Reading Lessons, adapted either for classes or individuals.
-They are selected with a view to the communication of popular but
-sound information, on various branches of knowledge, and there is a
-department consisting of carefully selected Poems.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">ABBOTT’S
-READER</span></b>; a Series of Familiar Pieces, in Prose and Verse,
-calculated to produce a Moral Influence on the Hearts and Lives
-of Young Persons. By the Authors of <span class="smcap">The Young
-Christian</span>; <span class="smcap">The Corner-Stone</span>;
-<span class="smcap">The Teacher</span>, &amp;c. 3<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this <span
-class="smcap">Reader</span> is, to exert a direct and powerful moral
-influence upon the hearts of children; such an influence as shall
-make them faithful and industrious in the improvement of their time,
-obedient and affectionate to their parents, kind towards their
-playmates, and upright and honest in their intercourse with others.
-The compilers have honestly endeavoured to exclude everything which
-they supposed would be unacceptable to any of the friends of piety and
-morality, of whatever name.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* ARITHMETIC
-TAUGHT BY QUESTIONS.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The principal novelty of this
-Arithmetic consists in the <span class="smcap">Questions</span>, by
-which the learner may be enabled to examine and teach himself. At
-the same time, it is thought that many Teachers may profit by the
-facilities which the questioning affords, and learn to ground those
-whom they have been in the habit of teaching by rote.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A FIRST
-BOOK</span> on <span class="larger">GEOMETRY</span></b>, including Plane
-and Solid Geometry, and an Introduction to Trigonometry.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In this work will, it is believed, be
-found all the essential Propositions of Plane and Solid Geometry. The
-method of demonstration which has been followed is that of Euclid; but,
-throughout, an attempt has been made to give it a character of greater
-simplicity, and thus to render it more generally available.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE FIGURES OF EUCLID</span>;
-with <span class="larger">QUESTIONS</span>, and a <span class="larger">PRAXIS</span> of
-<span class="larger">GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. J. EDWARDS, M.A.</span></b>, of
-King’s College School, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of GEOGRAPHY</span></b>.
- By <b><span class="larger">G. HOGARTH</span></b>.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A comprehensive Manual of the leading
-facts in this branch of Education, carefully condensed from the best
-sources. It contains Tables of the Situations and Heights of the
-principal Mountains, and of the Lengths of the principal Rivers, a Map
-of the World, Five other Maps, and Four Plates of Costumes.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES
-of the HISTORY of ENGLAND</span></b>. By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE
-HOGARTH.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The leading events of English History
-are related with simplicity, and their connexion traced with clearness.
-The narratives are confined to the most memorable and important events;
-and those circumstances particularly marked which have led to the
-gradual formation of the British system of government. The work is
-illustrated with many Engravings of Costumes, Views, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of ROMAN HISTORY</span></b>.
-By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE HOGARTH</span></b>.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A complete and popular epitome of the
-History of the Rise, Progress, and Fall of the Roman Empire. It is
-embellished with a handsome Print of a Roman Triumph, and numerous
-Figures of Costumes, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">OUTLINES of GRECIAN HISTORY</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. BARTON BOUCHIER, M.A.</span></b>
-With <span class="smcap">Maps</span> and <span class="smcap">Views</span>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of SACRED HISTORY</span></b>;
-from the Creation of the World to the Destruction of Jerusalem.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this Work is to afford
-a condensed view of the History of both the Old and New Testaments,
-together with a brief account of the Jewish History in the interval
-between the Babylonish Captivity and the Birth of Christ, and in the
-period between Christ’s Ascension and the fulfilment of his awful
-Prophecy of the Destruction of Jerusalem and the Dispersion of the Jews.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A MANUAL of ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY</span></b>,
-in which the Modern Names of Places are attached to the Ancient, and the Words
-marked with their proper quantities. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. WILLIAM HILDYARD, M.A.</span></b>
-&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">Geography and Chronology are, as
-it has been quaintly but truly remarked, the eyes of History, and
-the Editor’s experience in teaching (which has not been small,) has
-convinced him of the great importance of making boys perfectly familiar
-with the division of countries, and the relative situation of places,
-if ever they are expected to read the classic authors, especially the
-historians, with advantage.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of ASTRONOMY</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. T. G. HALL, M.A.</span></b>, Professor of Math.,
-King’s Coll., London.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">An elementary Work, intended to
-instruct, in the sublime facts of Astronomy, those who are unacquainted
-with mathematical reasoning; and to explain to them, in familiar
-language, the principal phenomena of the Heavens. The Lessons are
-illustrated by numerous Engravings.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE ELEMENTS of BOTANY</span></b>.
-New Edition, with many Cuts.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The principles of this beautiful and
-important science are explained in a clear and simple manner, so
-as to render the acquisition of them comparatively easy. The book
-is illustrated by numerous cuts of the different parts of plants,
-&amp;c., and the examples, when possible, are selected from our own
-wild flowers, or from those cultivated in all gardens or fields, and
-they are cited by their familiar names. A Glossary of most of the terms
-usually employed is subjoined, and an alphabetical List of the most
-useful Plants, with their botanical names, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* MANUAL of INSTRUCTION
-in VOCAL MUSIC</span></b>, chiefly with a view to Psalmody.
-By <b><span class="larger">JOHN TURNER, Esq.</span></b>&emsp;4<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The author offers this work not as
-an experiment now for the first time to be tried, but as the result
-of long experience. Though chiefly designed for the use of children
-collected in large numbers, it may, with equal advantage, be adopted
-in smaller assemblages, and in the domestic circle: and may also be
-rendered serviceable to adults.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">EASY LESSONS
-IN MECHANICS</span></b>; with Familiar Illustrations, showing the
-practical Application of the various Mechanical Principles.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* ON the EDUCATION
-and TREATMENT of CHILDREN</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:&mdash;On
-the means of developing the Bodily Senses in Infancy; Early Development
-of the Affections; Early Cultivation of the Intellect; Management
-in Childhood; Amusements and Employments; Sunday; Views of Death;
-Supernatural Appearances; Politeness; Dress; Gentility; Management
-during the Teens; Views of Matrimony.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* INSTRUCTIONS for
-TEACHING ARITHMETIC to LITTLE CHILDREN</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. T. V. SHORT, B.D.</span></b>&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A LITTLE READING
-BOOK for YOUNG CHILDREN</span></b>. With many Cuts.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">SCRIPTURE HYMNS IN PROSE</span></b>.
-With Cuts.&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The experience of some persons inclines
-them to prefer compositions in prose, to those in verse, for the
-exercise of the infant memory. There is at least no disadvantage in
-having a choice of both.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A COLLIERY TALE,
-or VILLAGE DISTRESS</span></b>.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The object of this little narrative is, by God’s help, to
-draw some profit from a recent calamity, which, in its
-immediate pressure upon the limited community through
-which it extended, has been most awfully severe.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* VILLAGE ANNALS</span></b>;
-or, the Story of <span class="smcap">Hetty Jones</span>.&emsp;9<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot2">
-<p class="no-indent">I have written this story in the
-simplest style, for the use of the children in my own neighbourhood; as
-in all the little publications of this kind I have hitherto met with,
-the language and ideas are far above the comprehension of many of the
-classes for whom they are designed.</p>
-<p class="author">C. B.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">PRETTY LESSONS
-for GOOD CHILDREN</span></b>; to which are added, <b><span class="larger">EASY
-LESSONS in LATIN</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this little work is,
-by means of easy rhymes, to attract the attention of young children,
-and to impress upon their memories various elementary facts and moral
-sentiments which they would not otherwise remember; for, “What will a
-child learn sooner than a song?”</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">EASY POETRY
-FOR CHILDREN</span></b>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">SIMPLE STORIES
-FOR YOUNG CHILDREN</span></b>. By a <b><span class="larger">LADY</span></b>.
-With Cuts.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">THE CHILD’S
-VERSE-BOOK OF DEVOTION</span></b>. With Cuts.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">SONGS for
-CHILDREN</span></b>. With <span class="smcap">Engravings</span>.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">In this little book you’ll find,</span>
-<span class="i0">Lessons for the infant mind;</span>
-<span class="i0">Truth conveyed in easy verse,</span>
-<span class="i0">Which the nursling may rehearse,</span>
-<span class="i0">And thus be led, by simple lays,</span>
-<span class="i0">To walk with God, and sing his praise.</span>
-</div></div></div>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">READING LESSONS</span></b>
-from the Books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes; with Questions and Answers upon them.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">DAILY READINGS
-from the PSALMS</span></b>.&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FAMILIAR LECTURES
-to CHILDREN</span></b>; in which the <b><span class="larger">IMPORTANT TRUTHS
-of the GOSPEL</span></b> are engagingly set forth. Edited by the
-<b><span class="larger">Rev. J. HOBART CAUNTER, B.D.</span></b>&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FAITH AND PRACTICE</span></b>;
-or, The Application of Christian Principles to the Practical Duties of Life. Fourth
-Edition, improved.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">THE RITE of CONFIRMATION
-EXPLAINED</span></b>. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. D. I. EYRE, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">CONFIRMATION</span></b>.
-An <b><span class="larger">ADDRESS</span></b> from a <b><span class="larger">CLERGYMAN</span></b>
-to his <b><span class="larger">PARISHIONERS</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">A FEW WORDS ON THE SIN
-OF LYING</span></b>. By <b><span class="larger">A LAYMAN</span></b>.&emsp;3<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* EASY LESSONS on MONEY MATTERS</span></b>,
-for the Use of Young People.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In this little book, care has been
-taken to convey elementary knowledge in such simple language, that,
-it is hoped, these <span class="smcap">Lessons</span> will be found
-easily intelligible even to such as have but the ordinary advantages in
-point of education; and there are few subjects on which it is, for all
-classes of people, more important to inculcate correct principles, and
-to guard against specious fallacies.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* PERSIAN STORIES</span></b>;
-illustrative of <b><span class="larger">EASTERN MANNERS</span></b> and
-<b><span class="larger">CUSTOMS</span></b>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> And,</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent"><b><span class="larger">* PERSIAN FABLES</span></b>,
-for Young and Old. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. H. G. KEENE, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FIVE HUNDRED CHARADES</span></b>,
-from History, Geography, and Biography. Third Edition, revised and improved.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* INSECTS</span></b>
-and their <b><span class="larger">HABITATIONS</span></b>. A Book for Children.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">We may learn many useful lessons from
-the History of Insects; and, by observing their habits, we shall find
-that they set us an example of various good qualities.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent"><b><span class="larger"><br />* The BOOK of ANIMALS</span></b>.
-&emsp;<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of FISHES.</span></b><br />
-<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of BIRDS</span></b>.
-<span class="ws3"><b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of REPTILES.</span></b></span><br />
-<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of SHELLS</span></b>.
-<span class="ws3">Price 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</span></p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The nature, habits, and uses of the
-Animals described, are presented in a correct, though simple and
-attractive form, and the little volumes will be found useful additions
-to the books for young persons, and acceptable introductions to works
-of a higher class.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE STUDENT’S
-MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY</span></b>; containing Accounts of
-the <span class="smcap">Political Condition</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Geographical Situation</span>, and
-<span class="smcap">Social State</span> of the principal
-<span class="smcap">Nations Of Antiquity</span>; carefully digested from the
-Ancient Writers, and illustrated by the Discoveries of Modern Scholars
-and Travellers. By <b><span class="larger">W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S.</span></b>&emsp;10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE FAMILY HISTORY
-OF ENGLAND</span></b>, by the <b><span class="larger">Rev. GEORGE ROBERT GLEIG, M.A.</span></b>,
-with a series of <span class="smcap">Pictorial Illustrations of the
-Costumes, Architecture, Shipping</span>, &amp;c., of the successive
-periods of British History. In Eighteen Parts, at 1<i>s.</i> each,
-or in Three Volumes,&emsp;6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A POPULAR HISTORY
-OF THE REFORMATION</span></b>, in <span class="smcap">Germany</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Switzerland</span>, and <span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>;
-and of its chief Promoters, Opposers, and Victims.
-By <b><span class="larger">THOMAS FOX</span></b>.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH</span></b>;
-from <span class="smcap">the Ascension of Jesus Christ to the Conversion of Constantine</span>.
-By the late <b><span class="larger">Dr. BURTON</span></b>. Second Edition,&emsp;6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE EARLY CHRISTIANS</span></b>;
-their <b><span class="larger">MANNERS</span></b> and <b><span class="larger">CUSTOMS, TRIALS</span></b>
-and <b><span class="larger">SUFFERINGS</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. W. PRIDDEN, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;4<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF THE CRUSADERS</span></b>;
-by <b><span class="larger">THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, Esq.</span></b> Two Volumes, with Engravings.&emsp;11<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF MOHAMMEDANISM</span></b>,
-and the <b><span class="larger">PRINCIPAL MOHAMMEDAN SECTS</span></b>.
-By <b><span class="larger">W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S.</span></b>, &amp;c.&emsp;5<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">LIVES OF EMINENT CHRISTIANS</span></b>.
-By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. R. B. HONE, M.A.</span></b>, Rector of Hales Owen.
-Volumes I. and II., with Portraits,&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN ENGLISH PROSE LITERATURE</span></b>;
-containing choice Specimens of the Works of the best English Writers; with
-<span class="smcap">Essays on English Literature</span>.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN POETRY</span></b>;
-Selections from the Works of the best English Poets; with Specimens of the American Poets;
-Notices of the Writers; and Notes.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY</span></b>;
-a Selection of the Lives of the most Eminent Men of all Nations.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN SCIENCE</span></b>;
-being familiar <b><span class="larger">EXPLANATIONS</span></b> of Appearances and Principles
-in <b><span class="larger">NATURAL PHILOSOPHY</span></b>. With many Engravings.&emsp; 5<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">VENTOUILLAC’S RUDIMENTS</span></b>
-of the <b><span class="larger">FRENCH LANGUAGE</span></b>; or,
-<b><span class="larger">FIRST FRENCH READING BOOK</span></b>. New Edition, Revised and Corrected
-by <b><span class="larger">F. J. WATTEZ</span></b>, First Assistant French Master in King’s
-College, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">LIVRE DE CLASSE</span></b>;
-with <b><span class="larger">ENGLISH NOTES</span></b>, by the late <b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>,
-Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London.&emsp;5<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">FRENCH POETRY</span></b>;
-with <b><span class="larger">ENGLISH NOTES</span></b>, by the late <b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>,
-Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">LE BOUQUET LITTERAIRE</span></b>.
-Recueil de Beautés Religieuses et Morales, de divers Auteurs. Par feu
-<b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>, Professeur de Littérature Française
-au Collège Royale à Londres.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">BRASSEUR’S EXERCISES</span></b>
-on <b><span class="larger">FRENCH PHRASEOLOGY</span></b>; with a Lexicon of
-<b><span class="larger">IDIOMATIC VERBS</span></b>. By the French Professor of King’s
-College, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
-
-<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">The FRENCH SCHOOL CLASSICS</span></b>.
-Edited and Abridged by <b><span class="larger">MARIN DE LA VOYE</span></b>,
-French Master in the East India College, at Addiscombe.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">While the necessity of introducing the
-best standard French works into our schools and families is universally
-acknowledged, serious doubts are entertained as to the propriety of
-placing the writings of some among the French authors in the hands of
-Christian youth. In order to remove all difficulties on this subject,
-the Editor has been induced to undertake a careful Abridgment of such
-works as are in most general use; and he has made it his object to
-extract from the original every word and sentence relating either
-to religion, politics, or philosophical speculation, respecting
-which Christian parents or teachers can have the least difference of
-opinion.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A purified text of the best French
-Classical Works is, therefore, now offered for the use of young
-persons of both sexes, in a state which, it is trusted, will be found
-altogether unobjectionable.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" rules="cols" >
-  <tbody><tr>
-      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Telemaque.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Pierre le Grand.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Voyages de Cyrus.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
-      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Charles XII.</span> 2<i>s.</i></td>
-    </tr><tr>
-      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Belisaire.</span>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td>
-      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Gil Blas Desantillane.</span>&emsp;<i>In the Press.</i></td>
-    </tr>
- </tbody>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-<div class="chapter">
-  <p class="center">Six Volumes, at 2<i>s.</i> each, with Wood-Cuts,</p>
-</div>
-<p class="f150"><b>* THE INSTRUCTOR;</b></p>
-<p class="f90">OR,</p>
-<p class="f110"><b>PROGRESSIVE LESSONS IN GENERAL KNOWLEDGE</b></p>
-<p class="f90">A SERIES OF<br />ELEMENTARY BOOKS, ESPECIALLY ADAPTED<br />
-FOR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.</p>
-
-<p class="no-indent blockquot2">Under the general title of <span
-class="smcap">The Instructor</span>, is comprised a series of little
-books, by means of which children may be led through a progressive
-course of Exercises in various branches of Elementary Knowledge. These
-books may be put into the hands of such children as can readily spell
-common words, and read easy lessons.&mdash;The object of the work
-is not only to furnish reading lessons, but also to carry the pupil
-<i>forward</i>,&mdash;to impart <i>information</i>, and exercise the mind.</p>
-
-<p class="blockquot2">The first Six Volumes, in Thirty-six Numbers, contain the
-following subjects, with numerous Engravings:</p>
-
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME I.</b></big> (or in Nos. 1 to 6.)<br />
-<span class="larger">TALES</span> and <span class="larger">CONVERSATIONS</span> on Familiar Subjects.</p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME II.</b></big> (or in Nos. 7 to 12.)<br />
-The <span class="larger"> HOUSE</span>. <span class="larger">MATERIALS</span>
-used in <span class="larger">BUILDING</span>.<br /><span class="larger">FURNITURE</span>.
-<span class="larger">FOOD</span> and <span class="larger">CLOTHING.</span></p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME III.</b></big> (or in Nos. 13 to 18.)<br />
-The <span class="larger">UNIVERSE</span>. The <span class="larger">THREE KINGDOMS of NATURE</span>.
-<span class="larger">THE HUMAN FORM</span>. <span class="larger">LESSONS on HEALTH.</span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME IV.</b></big> (or in Nos. 19 to 24.)<br />
-The <span class="larger">CALENDAR</span>; The Year, Months, Weeks, Days.<br /> The <span class="larger">SEASONS</span>.
-<span class="larger">APPEARANCES</span> of <span class="larger">NATURE.</span></p>
-
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME V.</b></big> (or in Nos. 25 to 30.)<br />
-<span class="larger">DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY</span>: The various Divisions of the World;
-their People and Productions; with <span class="larger">MAPS</span>.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME VI.</b></big> (or in Nos. 31 to 36.)<br />
-<span class="larger">ANCIENT HISTORY.</span></p>
-
-<p class="center">London: JOHN W. PARKER, <span class="smcap">Publisher, West Strand</span>.</p>
-
-<hr class="full" />
-<p class="f150 u"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
-This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to by
-nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory
-chapter.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
- The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
-See Book of Fishes, p. 51.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
-The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before transformation.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
-It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of
-its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most
-favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and
-I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves,
-if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give
-them a violent emetic.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
-<a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
-A kind of sea-weed, (<i>Fucus natans</i>.)</p></div>
-
-<hr class="full" />
-<div class="transnote bbox">
-<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber's Notes:</p>
-<hr class="r5" />
-<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
-                  paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p>
-<p class="indent">Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.</p>
-<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
-    in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 60961 ***</div>
+
+<div class="transnote bbox covernote">
+<p class="no-indent">The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is placed in the public domain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="Frontispiece" width="600" height="427" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE</small><br /><big><b>FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS</b></big><br />
+                      <small>DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h1><span class="small_font">THE</span><br />BOOK OF SHELLS;</h1>
+
+<p class="f90 space-above3 space-below3">CONTAINING</p>
+<p class="f110 space-below3"><b>THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,<br />
+CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND<br />CRUSTACEA.</b></p>
+<hr class="r25" />
+<p class="f90">PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF<br />
+THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,<br />
+APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING<br />CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.</p>
+<hr class="r25" />
+<p class="f120 space-above3 space-below3">THE SECOND EDITION.</p>
+<p class="f120">LONDON:<br />JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p class="f90">M.DCCC.XXXVII.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="f120"><b>TO THE READER.</b></p></div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<p class="blockquot2 no-indent">In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which
+embraces the <span class="smcap">Vertebral Animals</span>,&mdash;namely, the Mammalia, the
+Birds, the Reptiles, and the Fishes,&mdash;the arrangement of the <span class="smcap">Baron
+Cuvier</span> was adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in
+two others that are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the
+<span class="smcap">Invertebral Animals</span>, the method of <span class="smcap">M. Lamarck</span>
+will be adhered to. It is true, that, since the works of that naturalist were
+published, many deviations from certain parts of his system have taken
+place, some of which have received the sanction of the highest names;
+but still, <i>as a whole</i>, Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and
+the young naturalist can readily add to the information it contains,
+by reference to the works of more recent authors, in case he has
+sufficient inclination and industry to follow out the subject.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="f150"><b>CONTENTS.</b></p></div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of contents." cellpadding="0" >
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdr" colspan="3"><small>Page</small></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Introductory Chapter</big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#INTRO">&nbsp;9</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Mollusca</span></big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#MOLLUSCA">14</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Heteropoda</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HETEROPODA">15</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Glassy Carinaria</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CARINARIA">15</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CEPHALOPODA">16</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Cuttle Fish</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CUTTLE_FISH">17</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&emsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Argonaut</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ARGO">20</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Pearly Nautilus</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEARLY">22</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Trachelipoda</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#TRACHELIPODA">26</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Marble Cone</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#MARBLE">27</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Porphyry Olive Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PORPHYRY">28</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Money Cowrie</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COWRIE">29</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Diadem Whorl Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DIADEM">31</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Columbella</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COLUMBELLA">31</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Music Harp Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HARP">32</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wide-Mouthed Purpura</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PURPURA">33</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Spotted Scorpion Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCORPION">37</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Variegated Sea-Trumpet</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TRUMPET">39</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Caniculated Pear-Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEAR">40</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Babylonian Split-Mouth</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BABYLON">40</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Marble Turban-Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TURBAN">41</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Imperial Top-Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IMPERIAL">41</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Precious Scalaria</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCALARIA">42</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Iris Ear-Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IRIS">43</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Dusty Neritina</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#NERITINA">44</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Viviparous Paludina</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PALUDINA">44</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Lymnæa Stagnalis</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#STAGNALIS">45</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Horn-shaped Planorbis</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLANORBIS">46</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Red-mouthed Bulimus</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULIMUS">46</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Mummy Puppet Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUMMY">47</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wood Snail</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SNAIL">47</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#GASTEROPODA">51</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Red Slug</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SLUG">51</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Woodlike Bulla</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULLA">53</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Nail-shaped Crepidula</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CREPIDULA">54</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Mediterranean Umbrella</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#UMBRELLA">54</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Clouded Fissurella</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FISSURELLA">54</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hungarian Bonnet Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BONNET">55</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Scaly Chiton</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHITON">56</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span></big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CONCHIFERA">57</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Unimusculosa</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#UNIMUSCULOSA">64</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HORSE">64</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Oyster</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OYSTER">65</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Great Comb Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COMB">68</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Pearl Oyster</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEARL">69</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hammer Oyster</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HAMMER">77</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Rough Pinna</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PINNA">77</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Mussel</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUSSEL">79</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Giant Tridacna</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TRIDACNA">81</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Bimusculosa</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#BIMUSCULOSA">82</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Fresh-Water Mussel</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#FW_MUSSEL">83</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Heart-shaped Isocardia</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ISOCARDIA">84</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wedge-shaped Donax</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DONAX">85</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Sheath Solen</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SOLEN">85</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Date-shaped Pholas</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PHOLAS">87</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Ship-Worm</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHIP_WORM">89</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda</span></big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CIRRHIPEDA">91</a>
+                <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda Pedunculata</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#PEDUNCULATA">92</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Smooth Barnacle</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#BARNACLE">92</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda Sedentaria</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SEDENTARIA">94</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Acorn-Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ACORN">94</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Annulata</span></big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANNULATA">97</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Sedentaria</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANN_SEDENTARIA">98</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Magnificent Amphitrite</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#AMPHITRITE">98</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Antennata</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANTENNATA">100</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SAND_WORM">100</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Blood-coloured Leodice</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LEODICE">100</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Spinous Sea-Mouse</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MOUSE">102</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Apoda</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#APODA">102</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Common Earth-Worm</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#EARTH_WORM">103</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Medicinal Leech</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LEECH">106</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Crustacea</span></big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CRUSTACEA">115</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Crustacea Homobranchiæ</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HOMOBRANCHIAE">115</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Crab Tribe</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CRAB_TRIBE">117</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Land Crab</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LAND">124</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hermit Crab</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HERMIT">127</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Lobster</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LOBSTER">130</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">River Cray-Fish</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CRAY_FISH">131</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Phosphorescent Shrimp</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHRIMP">132</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Opossum Shrimp</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OPOSSUM">134</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Crustacea Heterobranchiæ&emsp;&nbsp;</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HETEROBRANCHIAE">137</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Spotted Squill</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SQUILL">137</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Cloportus</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CLOPORTUS">138</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Molucca Crab</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MOLUCCA">142</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Crab-like Limulus</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LIMULUS">144</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Water Flea</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FLEA">144</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Small Water Flea</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SW_FLEA">147</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hairy Cypris</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CYPRIS">148</a></td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<p class="f150"><b><small>THE</small><br /><big>BOOK OF SHELLS.</big></b></p></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2><a name="INTRO" id="INTRO"></a>Introductory Chapter.</h2>
+
+<p>In reviewing the first <span class="smcap">Division</span> of the
+animal kingdom, namely, the vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have
+been delighted with the wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed
+upon each individual; but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of
+their possessors as these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure
+must be still greater in tracing the powers with which those creatures
+are endowed, which constitute what we have been accustomed to call the
+lower orders of animated nature.</p>
+
+<p>When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or
+the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the
+terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and
+metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that
+equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the
+different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the
+various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation;
+but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple
+appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to
+consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to
+look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose,
+and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How
+much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully
+developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the
+highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is
+their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable
+to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves
+of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even
+to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of
+the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain
+we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the <i>Infusoria</i>, those
+microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances
+in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach,
+and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned
+foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach,
+they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the
+nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their
+existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we
+have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in
+fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of
+the Creator’s works.</p>
+
+<p>The second <span class="smcap">Division</span> of the objects of
+natural history, namely, the <span class="smcap">Invertebral</span>
+animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by themselves, on
+account of their being without an internal skeleton, consisting of a
+series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This distinction is explained
+in the introductory chapter to the Book of Animals. They have been
+separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven <span class="smcap">Classes</span>, namely:&mdash;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot1">
+<p class="no-indent">1. <span class="smcap">Mollusca</span>,
+(<i>soft-bodied animals</i>,) in general covered with a shell; as, for
+instance, a snail; or without a shell, as a slug.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">2. <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span>,
+(<i>shell-bearing animals</i>,) with a shell, consisting of two valves, as
+an oyster or mussel.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">3. <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda</span>, (<i>with
+feet like cirri, or hairs</i>.) The inhabitant of the acorn-shell, found
+on the back of the larger kind of shell-fish, &amp;c., is an instance
+of this class.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">4. <span class="smcap">Annelida</span>, (<i>with
+body formed of rings</i>;) of this class the leech and the earth-worm are
+instances.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">5. <span class="smcap">Crustacea</span>,
+(<i>covered with a hard case</i>,) crabs, lobsters, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">6. <span class="smcap">Arachnidæ</span>,
+<i>Spiders</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">7. <span class="smcap">Insecta</span>, <i>Insects</i>.
+A perfect insect has always six legs.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">8. <span class="smcap">Tunicata</span>,
+(<i>enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence</i>.)</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">9. <span class="smcap">Vermes</span>, <i>Worms</i>.
+With lengthened body without divisions; for instance, worms found in
+the intestines.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">10. <span class="smcap">Radiariæ</span>,
+(<i>radiated animals</i>,) with the different parts of which they are formed
+arranged like rays round one common centre; as, for instance, the
+Star-fish.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">11. <span class="smcap">Polypi</span>, (<i>many
+feet</i>.) The animal that forms the Coral is a Polypus.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">12. <span class="smcap">Infusoria</span>,
+(<i>Infusory animals</i>.) These are found in infusions of vegetable
+substances in water, and are, in general, too small to be visible to
+the naked eye.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="space-above2">In the present little book we shall treat of the
+first five of these Classes.</p>
+
+<p>The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed
+first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling,
+in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.</p>
+
+<p>The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered
+not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the
+anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study.
+In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of
+the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the animals.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to
+be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the
+valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable
+us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of
+view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist.
+In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different
+species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the
+royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small
+univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress,
+the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of
+mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the
+well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from
+the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As
+an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel,
+scallop, &amp;c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of
+the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro
+population in the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_89"><i>Teredo navalis</i></a>, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers,
+ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which
+many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on
+this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history
+and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of
+ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with
+the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the
+useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="space-below2">The shell with which a Molluscous animal is
+covered, is absolutely necessary to protect its delicate body from
+injury; this shell is, in general, composed of much the same substances
+as bone; but the bone of a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency
+of the blood, and the particles of which it is composed are deposited
+by that fluid, and again taken up and restored to the circulation, a
+circumstance which does not take place in the substance of a shell. The
+shell is formed by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of
+the growth of the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells,
+point out their periodical increase.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="SHELLS" id="SHELLS"></a>
+    <p class="center"><b><big><i>Fig 1.<span class="ws18">Fig 2.</span></i></big></b></p>
+    <img src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" />
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between
+shells of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless
+properly defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The
+annexed diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent
+occurrence among the Mollusca. <a href="#SHELLS">Fig. 1</a>,
+represents a univalve shell; <a href="#SHELLS">fig. 2</a>, another
+shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the purpose
+of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+instance, the periwinkle, (<i>Turbo vulgaris</i>,) have what is called
+an operculum, (<i>a lid</i>,) which closes the opening, and protects the
+inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of
+horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell
+itself.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2><a name="MOLLUSCA" id="MOLLUSCA"></a>CLASS MOLLUSCA.</h2></div>
+
+<p>In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily
+attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the
+creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in
+different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and
+brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they
+are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be
+of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the
+snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.</p>
+
+<p>The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different
+form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of
+muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or
+drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are
+situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of
+a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from
+view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished
+with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in
+others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit that
+element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.</p>
+
+<p>The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following
+Orders:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="isub0">1. <span class="smcap">Heteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>not uniform in all species</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0">2. <span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the head</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0">3. <span class="smcap">Trachelipoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the neck, near the gills</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0">4. <span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the stomach</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0">5. <span class="smcap">Pteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
+<li class="isub2 space-below2"><i>like wings</i>.)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3><a name="HETEROPODA" id="HETEROPODA"></a><i>ORDER HETEROPODA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered
+as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals,
+intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods;
+they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a
+jelly-like substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty
+when floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are
+less known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great
+difficulty there is in preserving them.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CARINARIA" id="CARINARIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Glassy Carinaria</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_16"><i>Carinaria vitrea</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and
+perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be
+seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material
+organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or
+organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part
+of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white
+and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance
+resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling
+it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which
+seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors
+with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas
+at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax
+model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches wide.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_16" id="FIG_16"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="249" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><small>THE GLASSY CARINARIA</small>,
+                                   (<i>Carinaria vitrea</i>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="CEPHALOPODA" id="CEPHALOPODA"></a><i>ORDER CEPHALOPODA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished with
+a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find among
+this class some of the most singular productions of the waters; they
+differ materially from each other, and have been separated into three
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia;
+secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the
+Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous
+chambers, as the Nautilus.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CUTTLE_FISH" id="CUTTLE_FISH"></a><span class="smcap">The Cuttle Fish</span>,
+(<a href="#CUTTLE"><i>Sepia officinalis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native
+of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of
+an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually
+covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike
+all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the
+Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard
+transparent substance.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#CUTTLE">Cuttle Fish</a>, figured in the engraving, is furnished
+in front with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy,
+or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously
+constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in
+themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted
+by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner
+surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in
+contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar
+power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not
+cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind
+of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for
+many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CUTTLE" id="CUTTLE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="597" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE CUTTLE FISH.</small></p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+    <img src="images/i_019.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="128" />
+    <p class="center"><small>BEAK OF A<br />CEPHALOPOD.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and,
+although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt
+that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own
+element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes,
+capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe
+are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and
+very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within
+its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the
+power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it
+escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms
+a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal,
+<i>Sepia</i>. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each
+other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour,
+and commonly known by the name of <i>Sea Grapes</i>. They are found attached
+to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#CUTTLE">Cuttle Fish</a> generally remains with its body in some hole
+in a rock, while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer
+that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious, and
+it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to conquer.</p>
+
+<p>The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English
+coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found
+on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the
+manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of
+the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though
+varying considerably in texture.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="ARGO" id="ARGO"></a><span class="smcap">The Argonaut</span>,
+(<a href="#ARGONAUTA"><i>Argonauta argo</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,<span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></span>
+<span class="i0">The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.</span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep</span>
+<span class="i0">The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.</span>
+<span class="i0">He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,</span>
+<span class="i0">That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.</span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest
+ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and,
+at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research
+of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with
+the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so
+that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists
+would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division
+of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along
+with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union
+between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it
+applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do
+not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the shell.</p>
+
+<p>The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its
+resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in
+full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have
+been the first fitted out for commercial adventure.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="ARGONAUTA" id="ARGONAUTA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="498" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in
+considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the
+waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist,
+Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal
+miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or
+Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture,
+and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube,
+all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily;
+then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a
+membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the
+remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if
+alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”</p>
+
+<p>Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its
+shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly
+Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that
+such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed
+by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the
+instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation.
+The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these
+interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PEARLY" id="PEARLY"></a><span class="smcap">The Pearly Nautilus</span>,
+(<a href="#POMPILIUS"><i>Nautilus pompilius</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after
+with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years
+that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this
+knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while
+engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen
+containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now
+deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.</p>
+
+<p>The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided
+into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now
+describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to
+be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking
+in the Water at will. The body of this <i>Cephalopod</i>, it will be seen,
+only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as
+the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they
+had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too
+cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the
+providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own
+words, the capture of this interesting object.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="POMPILIUS" id="POMPILIUS"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="489" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE PEARLY NAUTILUS,</small></p>
+    <p class="center space-below2">Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather,
+thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was
+lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island
+of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean,
+that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at some
+distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in
+this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship
+at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the
+floating object.”</p>
+
+<p>“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly
+known by the name of the <a href="#POMPILIUS">Pearly Nautilus</a>:
+it was captured and brought on board; but the shell was shattered from
+having been struck with the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was
+sinking when the boat approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it
+would have escaped. I extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was
+firmly attached to each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has
+been stated by Dr. Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour,
+with deeper sports and variegations,” the colour, however, as it
+appeared in this recent specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="344" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><small>SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN,<br />
+                                OR INTERNAL SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been
+brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been
+frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and
+not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An
+office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of
+rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the
+fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as
+soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I
+and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not
+notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell,
+merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the
+membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful
+prize.”</p>
+
+<p>Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with
+its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out
+his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the
+poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse
+position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the
+ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on
+the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but
+after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops
+floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves.
+This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken
+in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the bottom.”
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="TRACHELIPODA" id="TRACHELIPODA"></a><i>ORDER TRACHELIPODA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve
+shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two
+numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (<i>Zoophagi</i>,) and those
+that exist on vegetable substances, (<i>Phytophagi</i>.) The animal feeders
+are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without
+jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at
+pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies
+of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known
+from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a
+<i>siphon</i>, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points
+out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of
+its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for
+the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe
+water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.</p>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Convoluta</span>, (<i>rolled up like a scroll</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Columellaria</span>, (<i>distinguished by a plaited columella</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Purpurifera</span>, (<i>yielding a purple colour</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Alata</span>, (<i>winged</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Canalifera</span> (<i>having a canal at the base of the opening</i>.)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>CONVOLUTA</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich
+in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of
+this class.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="f120"><b>FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (<span class="smcap">Zoophagi</span>.)</b></p></div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<h4><a name="MARBLE" id="MARBLE"></a><span class="smcap">The Marble Cone</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Conus marmoreus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The
+Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and
+is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular
+white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable manner
+the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his works.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_27" id="FIG_27"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Voluta diadema.<span class="ws4">Conus marmoreus.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws4">Columbella mercatoria.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is much
+thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part; and
+this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the soft
+body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the animal the
+shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes internal,
+the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall; if,
+therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original thickness,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+its weight would become too great for its possessor. To guard against
+this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material, the creature
+possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance of what now
+becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is unnecessary for its
+present use, and of re-depositing the same on the outward wall of its
+mansion, where strength is most required<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve
+shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable
+specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their
+form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but,
+above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of
+celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PORPHYRY" id="PORPHYRY"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="338" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Oliva porphyria.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve
+fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two
+tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit salt waters.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal
+which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the
+columella. The <a href="#PORPHYRY">Porphyry Olive</a> is found in the South American
+Seas, on the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species
+of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish
+brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with
+irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly
+four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="COWRIE" id="COWRIE"></a><span class="smcap">The Money Cowrie</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_29"><i>Cypræa moneta</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African
+coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a
+circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in
+Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are
+obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for rice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_29" id="FIG_29"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="257" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Cypræa moneta.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea; these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to Bengal, and
+from thence sent into this country. The value of these shells as a
+circulating medium depends naturally enough on their greater or less
+abundance.</p>
+
+<p>In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a
+shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued
+at a shilling.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_29">Cowrie shell</a> is found of three different forms,
+according to its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely
+imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the
+usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then
+begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely
+slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly,
+when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in
+which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden.
+The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the
+two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult
+state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large,
+so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while
+the deposition of the new matter is taking place.</p>
+
+<p>Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to
+prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we
+have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to
+require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one;
+from this it happens that the same individual can form successively
+many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both
+large and small.</p>
+
+<p>When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand,
+at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot climates.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>COLUMELLARIA</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella
+plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a
+plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that
+is, without a notch.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="DIADEM" id="DIADEM"></a><span class="smcap">The Diadem Whorl Shell</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Voluta diadema</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it
+is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become
+nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and
+is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has
+two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth
+is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little
+hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ,
+springing out obliquely behind the head.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="COLUMBELLA" id="COLUMBELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Common
+Columbella</span>, (<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Columbella mercatoria</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island
+of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of
+an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it
+possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.</p>
+
+<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>PURPURIFERA</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove
+bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all the
+genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar
+reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient
+nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much
+in use before the discovery of cochineal.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="HARP" id="HARP"></a><span class="smcap">The Music Harp Shell</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_32"><i>Harpa musica</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance
+also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the
+animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time
+back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either
+forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth,
+although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <a name="FIG_32" id="FIG_32"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Harpa musica.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two
+portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from
+its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account
+it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it
+would be lost at the same time as the foot.</p>
+
+<p>The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were
+less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours,
+become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still
+considered rare.</p>
+
+<p>The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the
+regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a
+harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PURPURA" id="PURPURA"></a><span class="smcap">The Wide-Mouthed
+Purpura</span>, (<i>Purpura patula</i>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the
+Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple
+colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in
+the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was
+discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was
+thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the
+discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied
+the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient
+minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its
+discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are
+informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the
+sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized
+one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph
+having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to
+have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less
+anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a
+method of applying it to cloth.</p>
+
+<p>This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either
+consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only
+for the garments of royalty.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar
+and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The
+Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most
+of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing.
+Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings
+of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the
+republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their
+own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should
+dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and
+tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a
+few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was
+entirely lost.</p>
+
+<p>In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye,
+nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths
+the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and
+on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the
+accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour
+were entirely fabulous.</p>
+
+<p>According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter out
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure state,
+and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from the
+smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ were
+caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken out
+and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of the
+matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels over
+a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the fleshy
+impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor was
+tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was
+defective, the boiling was renewed.</p>
+
+<p>Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at
+other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among
+these Pliny enumerates <i>Fucus marinus</i>, or Archil, and the <i>Anchusa
+tinctoria</i>, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these
+and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of
+shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but
+the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead,
+was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made
+considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson
+colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this
+colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr.
+Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus
+excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various
+kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the
+opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours,
+he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying
+transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the
+fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a
+horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous
+clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it
+may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to
+be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor
+in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if
+placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,&mdash;that is, if
+in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise,
+or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer,
+the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce
+be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep
+green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green,
+after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue,
+and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red,
+after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,)
+it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no
+more.”</p>
+
+<p>“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding
+water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the
+wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned,
+that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour, which
+afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the colour,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in
+handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will
+be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”</p>
+
+<p>Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species
+of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they
+had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were
+white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of
+them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it
+stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by
+washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it
+was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of
+the sun.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these
+shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but
+Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial
+in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little
+colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a
+substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being
+applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.</p>
+
+<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>ALATA</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at
+the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the
+shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SCORPION" id="SCORPION"></a><span class="smcap">The Spotted
+Scorpion Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_38"><i>Pterocera scorpio</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the
+projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance
+is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced
+period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and
+is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted
+and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell
+is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on
+which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or
+slightly tinged with yellow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <a name="FIG_38" id="FIG_38"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="468" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Pterocera scorpio.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>CANALIFERA</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in
+having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening
+does not change its form through age.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="TRUMPET" id="TRUMPET"></a><span class="smcap">The Variegated
+Sea-Trumpet</span>, (<a href="#FIG_39"><i>Triton variegatum</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Triton variegatum</i>, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and
+beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found
+chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on
+the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell
+applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Already Triton, at his call, appears<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And give the waves the signal to retire.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Grows by degrees into a large extent,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Runs the wide circuit of the world around.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The sun first heard it, in his early east,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And met the rattling echoes in the west;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.<br /></span>
+<span class="i36"><span class="smcap">Dryden.</span><br /></span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_39" id="FIG_39"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="326" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Dolium perdix.<span class="ws7">Triton variegatum.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws3">Pyrula caniculata.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="PEAR" id="PEAR"></a><span class="smcap">The Caniculated
+Pear-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_39"><i>Pyrula caniculata</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and
+attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at
+present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the
+whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many
+as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_40" id="FIG_40"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="303" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Turbo marmoratus.<span class="ws7">Pleurotoma babylonia.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws3">Trochus imperialis.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="BABYLON" id="BABYLON"></a><span class="smcap">The Babylonian
+ Split-Mouth</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Pleurotoma babylonia</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca
+Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said
+that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated
+as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from
+the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the
+shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the
+creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to support.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="f120"><b>VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (<span class="smcap">Phytophagi</span>.)</b></p></div>
+
+<p>Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances
+have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws;
+they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which
+they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their
+tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in
+stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These
+last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of
+breathing,&mdash;others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist
+out of that element.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="TURBAN" id="TURBAN"></a><span class="smcap">The Marble
+Turban-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Turbo marmoratus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell.
+The Marble Turban, <i>Turbo marmoratus</i>, is the largest, being as much
+as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour
+of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity.
+It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting
+of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells
+whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of
+mother-of-pearl.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Turbo littoreus</i> (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle,
+with which our rocky coasts abound.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="IMPERIAL" id="IMPERIAL"></a><span class="smcap">The Imperial
+Top-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Trochus imperialis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form to
+a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their spire is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called <i>flat-mouthed
+snails</i>. The greater number of these shells, (and the species are very
+numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and many of them are
+also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there are as many as
+seventy species,&mdash;the larger and more elegant are only found in the
+seas of hot climates.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_42" id="FIG_42"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
+    <p class="center space-below2">&emsp;<i>Haliotis iris.<span class="ws6">Scalaria pretiosa.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws4">Neritina pulligera.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="SCALARIA" id="SCALARIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Precious
+Scalaria</span>, (<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Scalaria pretiosa</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of
+its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were
+only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the
+turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast,
+on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native
+place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and
+several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others
+consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage
+some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given for
+a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ are
+much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast of
+Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in
+forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches
+in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the
+empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is
+from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought
+to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with
+rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="IRIS" id="IRIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Iris Ear-Shell</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Haliotis Iris</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Haliotides</i>, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species
+are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the
+system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many
+doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it
+continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of
+Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food,
+the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender
+tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament
+the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these
+tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the
+number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed
+at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes
+which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of
+the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of
+species very difficult and uncertain.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="NERITINA" id="NERITINA"></a><span class="smcap">The Dusty
+Neritina</span>, (<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Neritina pulligera</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and
+a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to
+inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the
+history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,&mdash;namely,
+that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good
+preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general
+natives of hot climates.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PALUDINA" id="PALUDINA"></a><span class="smcap">The Viviparous
+Paludina</span>, (<a href="#FIG_44"><i>Paludina vivipara</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it
+takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within
+the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In
+nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in
+the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_44" id="FIG_44"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="289" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Planorbis corneus.<span class="ws4">Paludina vivipara.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws4">Lymnæa stagnalis.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water;
+sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the
+mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny
+substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves
+to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they
+are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="STAGNALIS" id="STAGNALIS"></a><span class="smcap">Lymnæa Stagnalis.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_44"><i>Lymnæa stagnalis</i></a> is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow
+ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for
+its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the
+water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great
+numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance
+of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into
+its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it
+instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order
+to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the
+ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts
+its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very
+little power to direct its own course.</p>
+
+<p>During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the
+mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind,
+they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes,
+which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not
+easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="PLANORBIS" id="PLANORBIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Horn-shaped
+Planorbis</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_44"><i>Planorbis corneus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Planorbis</i>, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses
+the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like
+substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year,
+attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is
+considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the
+spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other
+inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable,
+certainly not poisonous.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="BULIMUS" id="BULIMUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Red-mouthed
+Bulimus</span>, (<a href="#FIG_46"><i>Bulimus hæmastomus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Bulimus hæmastomus</i> is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of
+Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most
+singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of
+the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that
+of a moderate-sized pigeon.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_46" id="FIG_46"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="288" />
+    <p class="center"><span class="ws14"><i>Bulimus hæmastomus.</i></span>
+                                   <span class="ws3"><i>Pupa mummia.</i></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="MUMMY" id="MUMMY"></a><span class="smcap">The Mummy
+Puppet Shell</span>, (<i>Pupa mummia</i>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_46"><i>Pupa mummia</i></a> is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the
+singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy.</p>
+
+<p>The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones,
+and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The
+greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of
+tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and
+other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SNAIL" id="SNAIL"></a><span class="smcap">The Wood
+Snail</span>, (<a href="#FIG_48"><i>Helix nemoralis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Snail (<i>Helix</i>) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe,
+and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells
+which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been
+placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with
+two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices
+in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn
+into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula
+is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black
+spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal,
+and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all
+the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal
+appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some writers
+suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of these appendages.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger
+kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans,
+according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in
+the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening
+them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in
+great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they
+are still used as food in several parts of the Continent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_48" id="FIG_48"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="306" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Helix nemoralis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are
+frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but
+used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other
+diseases of the chest.</p>
+
+<p>It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have
+portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be
+afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished
+extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was
+not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head
+was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world
+became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made,
+and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one,
+however, for a length of time, could succeed;&mdash;it was then suspected
+that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length,
+it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of
+which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce
+a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others,
+the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper
+nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two
+years after the old head has been removed.</p>
+
+<p>M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred
+Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden,
+that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they
+could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the
+Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he
+discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain
+of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the
+end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and
+like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more
+delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot
+doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has
+been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind
+of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.”</p>
+
+<p>If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very
+considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and
+kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended
+for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are
+tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed
+of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early
+rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the
+dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become
+excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander
+in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are
+great destroyers both of Snails and slugs.</p>
+
+<p>A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth
+recording.</p>
+
+<p>The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading
+into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of
+this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to
+kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road;
+but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks
+and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled
+him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails
+which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not
+in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct
+line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as
+if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is
+the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails
+aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green
+spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,&mdash;from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+path, nothing but the wall in front,&mdash;but still, although the whole of
+their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on, until
+they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By what
+other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies the
+place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with so
+liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature?</p>
+
+<h3><a name="GASTEROPODA" id="GASTEROPODA"></a><i>ORDER GASTEROPODA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and
+foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which
+this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the
+creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is
+for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished
+from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral,
+and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in
+some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting
+covering of any shell whatever.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SLUG" id="SLUG"></a><span class="smcap">The Red Slug</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_52"><i>Limax rufus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order,
+entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all
+countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have
+never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact
+of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The <i>Limax
+rufus</i>, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it
+impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly
+found in fields than in gardens.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_52" id="FIG_52"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="352" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Limax rufus.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on
+account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown
+kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is
+very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields
+of cabbages and turnips.</p>
+
+<p>In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head,
+contains a very small oval shell.</p>
+
+<p>There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under
+stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in
+length; it is called <i>Limax noctiluca</i>, the night-shining Slug. The
+buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which
+exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining
+with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact
+mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have
+laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were
+dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being
+placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched.</p>
+
+<p>The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by
+a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to
+entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight
+acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the
+apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing
+two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field
+of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two
+women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs,
+which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid
+on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed
+invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were
+to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they
+abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to
+be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The
+quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="BULLA" id="BULLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Woodlike
+Bulla</span>, (<a href="#FIG_54"><i>Bulla lignaria</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The animal of the <i>Bulla</i> is singular, from possessing-within its
+stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that
+organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind
+of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the
+foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck mentions
+as many as eleven species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_54" id="FIG_54"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="302" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Bulla lignaria.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="CREPIDULA" id="CREPIDULA"></a><span class="smcap">The Nail-shaped
+Crepidula</span>, (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Crepidula unguiformis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Crepidula</i> takes its name from its hearing some resemblance
+to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these there
+are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm climates.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="UMBRELLA" id="UMBRELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Mediterranean
+Umbrella</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Umbrella Mediterranea</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Umbrella Mediterranea</i>, as its name implies, is found in the
+Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is
+singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by
+a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="FISSURELLA" id="FISSURELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Clouded
+Fissurella</span>, (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Fissurella nimbosa</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Fissurella nimbosa</i> is found in various and distant parts of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+world,&mdash;in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &amp;c. It is
+rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in
+length.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_55" id="FIG_55"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_055_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="252" />
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdc"><i>Umbrella</i><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></td>
+      <td class="tdc"><i>Crepidula</i></td>
+      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span><i>Fissurella</i></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc"><i>Mediterranea.<span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></i></td>
+      <td class="tdc"><i>unguiformis.</i></td>
+      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span><i>nimbosa.</i></td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by
+having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell,
+affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is
+discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="BONNET" id="BONNET"></a><span class="smcap">The Hungarian
+Bonnet Shell</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_56"><i>Pileopsis Ungarica</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Pileopsis Ungarica</i> is extremely elegant both in its form and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with
+rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low
+water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless
+removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the
+creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches
+itself firmly to the surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_56" id="FIG_56"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_055_b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="262" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Pileopsis Ungarica.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="CHITON" id="CHITON"></a><span class="smcap">The Scaly
+Chiton</span>, (<a href="#FIG_56A"><i>Chiton squamosus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Chitons</i> differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in
+the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed
+by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck,
+in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the Mollusca.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_56A" id="FIG_56A"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Chiton squamosus.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe
+the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the
+marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not a
+univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not to
+be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one piece,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+which Nature had originally broken transversely into several distinct
+moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its
+movements.”</p>
+
+<p>The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between
+high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements.
+Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton,
+says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is
+covered with a multitude of teeth,&mdash;some simple, and others with three
+points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2><a name="CONCHIFERA" id="CONCHIFERA"></a>CLASS CONCHIFERA.</h2></div>
+
+<p>The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells,
+in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is
+soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a
+shell of two valves, without head or eyes,&mdash;a mouth, if it may be so
+called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole
+body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes,
+generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the
+principal distinguishing characters of this class.</p>
+
+<p>In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference
+to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the
+number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged
+under the heads of <i>univalves</i>, of one piece, <i>bivalves</i>, with two
+pieces, and <i>multivalves</i>, with more than two pieces. This arrangement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that
+otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells,
+however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals
+belonging to the class Conchifera.</p>
+
+<p>The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses
+except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well
+described by Dr. Roget, in his <i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, that we cannot
+do better than extract a portion from that interesting work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="360" />
+    <p class="center">Valves of the <i>Unio Batava</i>, with the Connecting Ligament.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by
+a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that
+lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies
+much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great
+strength.</p>
+
+<p>During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell
+is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment
+and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary
+to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell,
+and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being
+only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a
+muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even
+a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their
+fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to
+that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from
+their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the <i>adductor
+muscles</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="260" />
+    <p class="center">Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the Hinge, L.,<br />
+                the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its Fibres,<br />
+                with respect to the Valves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of
+being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing
+to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are
+not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies.</p>
+
+<p>Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the <a href="#FIG_66">Oyster</a> has
+some power of locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling
+the contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the
+fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to
+rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain
+within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and
+that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas,
+those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water
+never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they
+are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous
+experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left
+them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_60" id="FIG_60"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="294" />
+    <p class="center"><i>The Cardium, or Cockle.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a
+leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In
+the <a href="#FIG_60"><i>Cardium</i></a>, or cockle, this organ is composed
+of a mass of muscular fibres, interwoven together in a very complex
+manner, and which may be compared to the muscular structure of the
+human tongue; the effect in both is the same, namely, the conferring a
+power of motion in all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded,
+retracted, or inflected at every point.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_86"><i>Solen</i></a>, or razor-shell fish, has a foot
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+of a cylindrical shape, tapering at the end, and much more resembling
+in its form a tongue than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of
+the foot is effected by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior
+of the organ is formed of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a
+considerable quantity of water, which the animal has the power of
+injecting into it, and of thus increasing its dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>The foot of the <a href="#FIG_79"><i>Mytilus edulis</i></a>, or common mussel,
+can be advanced to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any
+fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body,
+and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and
+by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed
+object, continues slowly to advance.</p>
+
+<p>This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal
+themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly
+adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for
+this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and
+insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and
+forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it
+is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract
+it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised
+and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of these
+exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is moderately
+active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a minute.
+The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which was
+raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on its
+side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to be
+supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be
+perceived above the sand.</p>
+
+<p>By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the
+foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell
+may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before
+protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled
+quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can,
+with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_60"><i>Cardium</i></a> can also advance at the bottom of
+the sea, along the surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot,
+as a boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against
+the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar
+expedient, that the <a href="#FIG_86">Solen</a> forces its way through the sand, expanding
+the end of its foot into the form of a club.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_86"><i>Tellina</i></a> is remarkable for the quickness
+and agility with which it can spring to considerable distances,
+by first folding the foot into a small compass, and then suddenly
+extending it, while the shell is, at the same time, closed with a loud
+snap.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_78"><i>Pinna</i></a>, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of
+tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus
+for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from
+dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of
+its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number
+of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks,
+and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a
+convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of
+this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to
+retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their
+power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous
+matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being
+drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the
+spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a
+certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously
+constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from
+the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this
+groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting
+it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this
+canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient
+tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied
+to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully
+attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is
+then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by
+its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is
+disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same
+operation is repeated.</p>
+
+<p>Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions
+around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of
+some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the
+importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its
+safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed,
+by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an
+action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once
+the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which
+they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly
+to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that
+no <a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a> is capable of forming more than four, or at most
+five threads, in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in
+haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender
+than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other
+parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into
+gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk.</p>
+
+<p>The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this
+Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there
+are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa,
+with only one pair.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="UNIMUSCULOSA" id="UNIMUSCULOSA"></a><i>ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are
+much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but
+they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as,
+for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the
+oriental pearl.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="HORSE" id="HORSE"></a><span class="smcap">The Horse-Foot
+Bowl Shell</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_65"><i>Anomia ephippium</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form;
+like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence
+attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the
+same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of
+the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value.
+Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of
+the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in
+the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which,
+instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of
+shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this
+<i>operculum</i>, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of
+the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance,
+by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_65" id="FIG_65"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="269" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Anomia ephippium.</i><br />[<i>Anomia</i>,
+             a little bowl; <i>ephippium</i>, a horse’s foot.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="OYSTER" id="OYSTER"></a><span class="smcap">The Oyster</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_66"><i>Ostrea edulis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become
+food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe;
+they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky
+ground, in no great depth from the surface.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May;
+when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease,
+which the dredgers commonly call <i>cultch</i>. The growth of an Oyster is
+tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of
+the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in
+three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a
+half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_66" id="FIG_66"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Ostrea edulis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The
+Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute,
+attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which
+they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from
+England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the
+luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported
+in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were
+fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to
+those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour,
+nearly black.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following
+places:&mdash;Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are
+generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in
+Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales.
+In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and
+at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters
+is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April
+inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome;
+it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months
+that have the letter <i>r</i> in them.</p>
+
+<p>In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of
+Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St.
+Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this
+is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope
+which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is
+then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few
+minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken
+are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places,
+where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks
+are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist
+materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken
+out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in
+what we should call bad condition.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or
+sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a
+narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed
+on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand
+on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the
+water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may
+have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them.
+A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which
+had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change
+of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain
+a peculiar kind of green food.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="COMB" id="COMB"></a><span class="smcap">The Great Comb Shell</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_69"><i>Pecten maximus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the
+largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all
+the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is
+covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into use
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other articles
+of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_69" id="FIG_69"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="341" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Pecten maximus.<span class="ws3">Malleus albus.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species
+of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water,
+and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but
+this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its
+habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it
+tolerably palatable it requires cooking.</p>
+
+<p>In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the
+poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the <i>restaurateurs</i> employ
+them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of
+mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters,
+and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PEARL" id="PEARL"></a><span class="smcap">The Pearl Oyster</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_70"><i>Meleagrina margaritifera</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very
+different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of
+its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a <i>byssus</i>, or
+beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found.
+There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly
+found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of
+Australasia.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other
+inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable
+dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a
+pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by
+an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the
+inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the
+mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future
+irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances
+cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval,
+sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is
+always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck,
+or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be
+traced on the pearl itself.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_70" id="FIG_70"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="302" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Meleagrina margaritifera.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;&mdash;in this case, the
+pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for
+instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid,
+this nucleus can be traced.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre,
+consisting of the remains of a diseased <i>ovum</i>, or egg, of the animal.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a
+valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her
+ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be
+doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it
+would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to
+drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the
+lapse of a very considerable time.</p>
+
+<p>At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great
+moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is conducted.</p>
+
+<p>The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of
+Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye
+but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are
+the plants that nourish the cochineal insect<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>),
+and here and there some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees.
+But Condatchy, three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to
+be seen but a few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during
+the period of the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of
+which extend upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are
+only intended as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely
+constructed), and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair
+on the grandest scale. The people most active in erecting huts and
+speculating in the various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans,
+Cingalese (natives of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast
+of the continent of India. Apparently, however, from their natural
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+timidity, none of the Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them
+engage in the other active parts of the fishery; they merely resort
+hither for the purpose of supplying the markets.</p>
+
+<p>About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery,
+when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of
+the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English
+superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent
+diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand
+oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls
+collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a
+good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are
+scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles
+from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are
+fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is
+ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to
+fifteen fathoms.</p>
+
+<p>The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the
+same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but
+considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference.
+The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside
+of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more
+beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured.
+The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy
+part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several
+pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely at
+its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators: but,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual, who
+sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year
+1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than
+120,000<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two
+hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These,
+with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything
+necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different
+parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions
+and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of
+these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they
+reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.</p>
+
+<p>At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to
+emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open
+scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from
+each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended,
+with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone
+hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about
+five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of
+a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the
+stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron,
+to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a
+slip of calico round his loins,&mdash;swimming in the water, he takes hold
+of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of
+the stone.</p>
+
+<p>He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden
+hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to
+him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone
+and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels
+himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils
+with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other
+gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and
+instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is
+thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached
+to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon
+as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone,
+which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting
+oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next
+diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as
+much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get
+hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk
+to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of
+it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time,
+free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above
+water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a
+distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a
+rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into
+the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is
+training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely
+experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the
+manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has
+reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain
+under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in
+this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert
+man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket.
+There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down
+alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity
+of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a
+favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort
+after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a
+pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks
+contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for
+six hours.</p>
+
+<p>When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal,
+and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten
+to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and
+noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the
+oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore,
+where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for
+ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the
+oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel,
+filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their
+putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells
+broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which
+have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards
+handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from
+the shells, with pincers.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters
+remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom
+of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured
+into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost.
+Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance
+in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are
+by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being
+conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small
+and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of
+considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with
+salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into
+classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves.
+After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then
+arranged on strings, and are fit for the market.</p>
+
+<p>Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest
+times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are
+often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various
+attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular
+of which,&mdash;known to have been practised early in the Christian era,
+on the banks of the Red Sea,&mdash;is still carried on in China. A hole is
+bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted,
+and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point
+of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually
+hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite
+size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced
+the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be
+formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually
+established artificial pearleries,&mdash;but these were abandoned after
+a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of
+sufficient size to be of much value.</p>
+
+<p>False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is
+covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white
+wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which
+adhere to the scales of the bleak, (<i>ablette</i>,) and was first applied
+to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name
+of Jacquin<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="HAMMER" id="HAMMER"></a><span class="smcap">The Hammer Oyster</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_69"><i>Malleus albus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable;
+externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other
+hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the
+most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus
+are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity
+of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like
+the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or
+beard, by which it adheres to the rocks.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PINNA" id="PINNA"></a><span class="smcap">The Rough Pinna</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_78"><i>Pinna rudis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the
+shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the
+engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much as a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a species
+found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water, which
+is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria, not
+only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard, or
+byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very
+remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the
+<a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a>, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a <i>crampe</i>,
+with teeth a foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to
+be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains
+attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose
+of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried
+and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even
+garments of much larger size.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_78" id="FIG_78"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="342" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Pinna rudis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of
+equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a
+dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but
+at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of
+the <a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a>, and the number of beards necessary to make even
+so small an article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells
+were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &amp;c., they
+would increase much more rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British
+shores possess but one species, the <i>Pinna lævis</i> of Donovan; this is
+of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="MUSSEL" id="MUSSEL"></a><span class="smcap">The Common Mussel</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_79"><i>Mytilus edulis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing
+animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and
+low water marks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_79" id="FIG_79"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Mytilus edulis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food;
+and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of
+severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned
+for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by
+which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be
+detected,&mdash;a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance,
+partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or
+insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have
+ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of
+the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many
+experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author,
+the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding
+on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely
+a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass
+of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is
+cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of
+July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common
+observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in
+which the letter <i>r</i> is not found. This spawn, according to our author,
+is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and
+inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the
+part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled
+up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered
+severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all
+these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been
+discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion
+occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten with
+vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>When an individual is <i>musselled</i>, the effects are very alarming;
+the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few
+hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is
+attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink,
+and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which
+soon relieves the patient.</p>
+
+<p>The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it
+is well adapted.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the
+multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom
+of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which
+the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August,
+when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the
+mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here
+they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and
+in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change
+from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve
+their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks,
+preserves in which the salt water remains at rest.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="TRIDACNA" id="TRIDACNA"></a><span class="smcap">The Giant Tridacna</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_82"><i>Tridacna gigas</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Tridacna gigas</i> is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very
+thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much
+as five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells
+have been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to
+form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given
+to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found
+in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one
+hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna
+gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere
+to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity,
+as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of
+separating them from the rock.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_82" id="FIG_82"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_082.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="311" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Tridacna gigas.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h3><a name="BIMUSCULOSA" id="BIMUSCULOSA"></a><i>ORDER BIMUSCULOSA,<br />
+(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)</i></h3>
+
+<p>This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells,
+all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their
+structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their
+use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+with those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more
+pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to
+place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in
+one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable
+depth of water, they are not so easily obtained.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="FW_MUSSEL" id="FW_MUSSEL"></a><span class="smcap">The Fresh-Water Mussel</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_84"><i>Anodonta cygnæa</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble
+it, are known by the trivial name of <i>Mussel</i>, the only resemblance
+between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which
+inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in
+habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power
+of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta
+is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of
+shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad
+muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain
+pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are
+lined with mother-of-pearl.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl,
+very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high price.</p>
+
+<p>A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the
+collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County
+Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months,
+go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs,
+and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell,
+take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in
+a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable
+pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those
+people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good
+advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for
+50<i>l.</i> that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40<i>l.</i> A
+miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i> to a man that
+sold it for 10<i>l.</i>, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30<i>l.</i>,
+with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80<i>l.</i> for it from the
+late Dutchess of Ormond.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_84" id="FIG_84"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="279" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><span class="ws8"><i>Isocardia cor.</i></span>
+                                   <span class="ws4"><i>Anodonta Cygnæa.</i></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="ISOCARDIA" id="ISOCARDIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Heart-Shaped Isocardia</span>,<br />
+(<a href="#FIG_84"><i>Isocardia cor</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by
+the name of the <i>foolscap-shell</i>, and the <i>bullock’s heart shell</i>, is
+rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast;
+it is the largest British bivalve shell.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="DONAX" id="DONAX"></a><span class="smcap">The Wedge-Shaped Donax</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_85"><i>Donax cuneata</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that
+represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks:
+it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these
+species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and
+streaked with pink.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_85" id="FIG_85"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="254" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Donax cuneata.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through
+various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the
+<a href="#FIG_86">Tellina</a>, or <i>earth-shell</i>, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the
+Solen, or <i>razor-shell</i>.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SOLEN" id="SOLEN"></a><span class="smcap">The Sheath Solen</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_86"><i>Solen vagina</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying
+themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a
+couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to
+penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell.
+Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom.
+This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which
+forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is
+enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose
+of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal
+ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may
+possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of
+Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms
+for its retreat is always perpendicular.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_86" id="FIG_86"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="255" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Tellina.<span class="ws8">Solen vagina.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws4">Pandora rostrata.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on
+the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather
+cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the
+farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of
+the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated;
+after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular
+direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began
+to descend, and that with considerable quickness.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_86">Solens</a> are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method
+of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat
+of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its
+chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of
+salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so
+irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly
+mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance,
+snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes
+good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal
+escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect;
+either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which
+is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up
+with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other
+means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it
+out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PHOLAS" id="PHOLAS"></a><span class="smcap">The Date-Shaped Pholas</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_88"><i>Pholas dactyloides</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the
+solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in
+stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of
+much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical,
+for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an
+insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that
+the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which
+acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this
+solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon
+stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava.</p>
+
+<p>Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their
+phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if
+eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the
+person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_88" id="FIG_88"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_088.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="384" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Pholas dactyloides.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly
+eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are
+found.</p>
+
+<p>The species represented in the engraving is found on the British
+coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully
+carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the
+engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole
+from which a shell has been removed is shown.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="SHIP_WORM" id="SHIP_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Ship-Worm,</span>
+(<a href="#FIG_89"><i>Teredo navalis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully
+examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it
+employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as
+there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent
+observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed,
+are fully equal to the task.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_89" id="FIG_89"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Teredo navalis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of
+the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The
+animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a
+tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress
+through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right
+in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of
+these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the
+excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually
+formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most deeply
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally excavates
+in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some instances it
+crosses this grain.</p>
+
+<p>In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high
+water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have
+been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of
+large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by
+means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together.
+These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this
+destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and
+had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts
+of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2><a name="CIRRHIPEDA" id="CIRRHIPEDA"></a>CLASS CIRRHIPEDA.</h2></div>
+
+<p>The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of <i>Barnacles</i> and
+<i>Acorn-shells</i>, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and
+pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time.
+They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca,
+and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &amp;c. These creatures, from their
+singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of
+the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was
+unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their
+true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British
+naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any
+definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately
+after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought
+more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and
+lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case.</p>
+
+<p>After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea,
+Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the
+<span class="smcap">class</span> of Crustacea, I formed the <i>first order</i> of this class,
+(the <i>Cirrhipeds</i>,) under the name of <i>sightless Crustacea</i>, but a
+few years afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of
+the Mollusca, but this was no better. If, for example, we consider
+those characters which furnish their most important organs, we shall
+find that the Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+Crustacea, for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws
+analogous to those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the
+antennæ of the shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was
+a task that devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq.,
+a surgeon in his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery
+took place, we shall notice further on.</p>
+
+<p>The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or
+tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being
+derived from two Latin words,&mdash;<i>cirrhus</i>, hair, and <i>pes</i>, the foot;
+these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have,
+in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion.</p>
+
+<p>They have been separated into two orders; namely, <i>Cirrhipeda
+pedunculata</i>, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery
+nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,&mdash;and <i>Cirrhipeda sedentaria</i>,
+which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="PEDUNCULATA" id="PEDUNCULATA"></a><i>ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA.</i><br />
+(<i>Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk.</i>)</h3>
+
+<h4><a name="BARNACLE" id="BARNACLE"></a><span class="smcap">The Smooth Barnacle</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_93"><i>Anatifa lævis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of
+a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has
+lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the
+shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance
+of this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days,
+because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to
+partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent
+to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following
+notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and <i>printed</i> by
+them in their <i>Transactions</i>. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and
+convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the
+shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I
+found a perfect <i>sea-fowl</i>; the little bill like that of a <i>goose</i>, the
+eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the
+feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the
+<i>feet</i> like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor
+did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that
+did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen
+some as big as their fist!!”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_93" id="FIG_93"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="386" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Anatifa lævis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="SEDENTARIA" id="SEDENTARIA"></a><i>ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA</i>,<br />
+(<i>Sedentary Cirrhipeds</i>.)</h3>
+
+<h4><a name="ACORN" id="ACORN"></a><span class="smcap">The Acorn-Shell</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_94"><i>Balanus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the
+Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author
+had devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was
+returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when,
+casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry
+at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a
+treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled
+for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.”
+After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues
+“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in
+any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the
+little animal about to be described.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_94" id="FIG_94"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="266" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Balanus</i>, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue.
+When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel,
+and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water
+in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are
+withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves,
+united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of
+opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional
+exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a
+large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks,
+&amp;c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members,
+so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke
+to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a
+succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="201" />
+</div>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="isub0">Fig. 1. Larva of Barnacle, natural size.</li>
+<li class="isub2">2.&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;" <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">magnified, seen from above.</span></li>
+<li class="isub2">3.&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;" <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">highly magnified, seen from side;</span></li>
+<li class="isub12"><i>a</i>, swimming-members;</li>
+<li class="isub12"><i>b</i>, front limb, with sucker.</li>
+<li class="isub2">4. Eye, much magnified.</li>
+<li class="isub2">5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size.</li>
+<li class="isub2">6.&emsp;&emsp;"<span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">"</span>&emsp;&emsp;full grown.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal,
+is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front,
+at the sides of the body.</p>
+
+<p>“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826;
+and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a
+glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be
+examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were
+taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the
+satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their <i>exuviæ</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>,
+and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the
+vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen
+intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of
+the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part
+of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with
+the <i>exuviæ</i>. On the 10th, another individual was seen <i>in the act of
+throwing off its shell</i>, and attaching itself, like the others, to the
+bottom of the glass.”</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2><a name="ANNULATA" id="ANNULATA"></a>CLASS ANNULATA.</h2></div>
+
+<p>We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of
+Lamarck; he calls them,</p>
+
+<p>“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or
+inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least
+transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without
+antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number
+having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of
+being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though
+not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various
+forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this
+separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white
+blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals
+are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated
+into three Orders, namely, <i>Annulata sedentaria</i>, which are fixed to
+other substances; <i>Annulata antennata</i>, possessing antennæ, or feelers;
+and <i>Annulata apoda</i>, without projecting members answering as feet,
+serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &amp;c.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="ANN_SEDENTARIA" id="ANN_SEDENTARIA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA</i>,<br />
+(<i>Sedentary Annulose Animals</i>.)</h3>
+
+<p>The creatures which form this order are generally found attached
+to rocks, shells, &amp;c. and are usually of small size. The engraving
+represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula
+there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell
+that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the
+species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has
+great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or
+tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always
+occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its <i>operculum</i>, the
+lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily
+formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of
+course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="AMPHITRITE" id="AMPHITRITE"></a><span class="smcap">The Magnificent
+Amphitrite</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_99"><i>Amphitrite magnifica</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as
+yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is
+exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into
+its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that
+of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained
+by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being
+put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health.
+That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an
+umbrella, consists of the <i>branchiæ</i> or organs of breathing; these are
+of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite,
+although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to
+it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_99" id="FIG_99"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="458" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Amphitrite magnifica.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="ANTENNATA" id="ANTENNATA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA</i>,<br />
+(<i>Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ</i>.)</h3>
+
+<hr class="r25" />
+<h4><a name="SAND_WORM" id="SAND_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Sand-Worm of
+the Fishermen</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_100"><i>Arenicola piscatorium</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much
+sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the
+European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met
+with in great abundance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_100" id="FIG_100"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Arenicola piscatorium.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="LEODICE" id="LEODICE"></a><span class="smcap">Blood-coloured
+Leodice</span>, (<a href="#FIG_101"><i>Leodice sanguinea</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are
+enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs
+of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear
+a strong resemblance to the <i>scolopendra</i>, or centipede.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_101" id="FIG_101"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Leodice sanguinea.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of
+Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to
+the length of fourteen or fifteen inches.</p>
+
+<p>When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the
+blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body
+was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the
+animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as
+soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable
+jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the
+animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath
+the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="MOUSE" id="MOUSE"></a><span class="smcap">The Spinous Sea-Mouse,
+or Sea-Caterpillar</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_102"><i>Halithæa aculeata</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native
+element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially
+covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a peacock.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_102" id="FIG_102"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Halithæa aculeata.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="APODA" id="APODA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA APODA</i>,<br />
+(<i>Footless Annulose Animals</i>.)</h3>
+
+<p>The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already
+described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may,
+consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those
+we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they
+are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and
+live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We
+find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the
+Earth-worm and the Leech.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="EARTH_WORM" id="EARTH_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Common
+Earth-Worm</span>,<br />(<i>Lumbricus terrestris</i>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow
+rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short,
+silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like.
+These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the
+alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is
+enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so
+forming various fixed points of resistance or <i>fulcra</i>, upon which the
+animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the
+Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a
+simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind
+of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is
+supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+    <img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="83" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two
+openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the
+dirt which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the
+other by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made
+by the animal would be much in this form, descending at <span class="smcap">a</span>,
+and reaching the surface by <span class="smcap">b</span>. It has been said, that the
+Earth-worm, if divided by the spade or otherwise, will unite again and
+live; the foundation for this appears to be the more probable fact,
+that, when divided, that portion of the animal in which the head is
+placed may, perhaps, survive the mutilation, and ultimately again
+become a perfect creature.</p>
+
+<p>Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks,
+they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round
+the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving
+the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very
+deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up
+in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of <i>mucus</i>,
+which is furnished by the pores of their body.</p>
+
+<p>The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with
+the author of the <i>Journal of a Naturalist</i>; among other remarks,
+he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important
+one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers,
+harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common
+Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the
+soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the
+surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer
+parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the
+more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple
+nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them
+are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil,</p>
+
+<p class="center">Death still producing life.</p>
+
+<p>“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey
+of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary
+example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction.
+The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its
+prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds;
+fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it
+unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and
+burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in
+dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the
+earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element,
+yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it
+as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and
+even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of
+the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding
+this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully
+commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of all.</p>
+
+<p>“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining
+over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become
+frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually
+consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass
+of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of
+approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground,
+than they approach the surface.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing
+the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into
+the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service,
+penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every
+direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the
+water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we
+have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says,
+“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of
+knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and
+fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any
+vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that
+all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale
+as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that
+permitted me to obtain this knowledge.”</p>
+
+<h4><a name="LEECH" id="LEECH"></a><span class="smcap">The Medicinal
+Leech</span>, (<a href="#LEECHES"><i>Hirudo medicinalis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to
+have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed
+in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied
+to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended
+to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt
+leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any
+part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound
+occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal.</p>
+
+<p>At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the
+body, for which use it is eminently adapted.</p>
+
+<p>There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures,
+but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the <i>Hirudo
+medicinalis</i>, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or
+striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted
+with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not
+uniformly found; and the <i>Hirudo troctina</i>, of a brownish colour,
+the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is
+surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow,
+and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout
+the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts;
+it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very
+abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture,
+and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great
+use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less
+frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are
+imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate
+calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every
+hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign
+production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat
+larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots.
+Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by
+the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were
+employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is
+found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and
+seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears
+to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the
+sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by
+the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable
+depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated,
+and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is
+considered by the <i>leech-gatherers</i> as a favourable time for collecting
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some
+persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a
+leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the
+following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be
+serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel
+without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the
+animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of
+fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a
+state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will
+remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless,
+and so on.</p>
+
+<p>This natural barometer <i>appears</i> to answer tolerably well, if there
+is sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if
+one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are
+enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws,
+and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient
+accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood
+or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is
+not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the <i>larvæ</i>
+of aquatic insects, worms, &amp;c., so that the common idea of the danger
+of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation.</p>
+
+<p>The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms,
+tadpoles, &amp;c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five
+horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the
+number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were
+missing was to be discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of
+cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech,
+which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species,
+disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state,
+and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a
+lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more
+powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that
+period.</p>
+
+<p>A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a
+trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different
+parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench
+annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it
+(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of
+the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such
+pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent
+were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere
+skeleton.”</p>
+
+<p>From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+<i>sanguisuga</i>, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to
+the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name
+of Hirudo <i>vorax</i>, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in
+confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained
+slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a
+doubt.</p>
+
+<p>On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form
+of a horse-shoe, thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+    <img src="images/i_110.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="81" />
+</div>
+
+<p>These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or
+eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are
+merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in
+describing their character, says they are without eyes.</p>
+
+<p>The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are
+three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with
+regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these
+piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not
+by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the
+surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips);
+in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there
+remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the
+piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three
+minutes after the leech has commenced operation.</p>
+
+<p>Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been
+taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The
+principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those
+which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination
+to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to
+commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &amp;c.; but
+these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears
+to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when
+any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to
+puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the
+little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling
+to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little
+cold water.</p>
+
+<p>After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to
+induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt
+frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of
+Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the
+preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head
+of the leech instead of salt.</p>
+
+<p>The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has
+swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of
+the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the
+most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood
+remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed
+of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with
+the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal,
+the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal,
+through a distinct opening.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="LEECHES" id="LEECHES"></a>
+    <p class="center"><b>Fig. 1. <span class="ws16">Fig. 2.</span><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></b></p>
+    <img src="images/i_112.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="237" />
+</div>
+
+<p>It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced
+from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are
+developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon
+of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its
+natural size: <a href="#LEECHES">fig. 1</a>, shows the perfect case or
+cocoon, and <a href="#LEECHES">fig. 2</a>, the same opened, with the
+young leeches contained within it; it is said that, at times, there
+are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case. This cocoon is formed
+by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the mud or clay, which
+composes the bed of the pool it inhabits.</p>
+
+<p>The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although
+only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to
+the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of
+this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of sale.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly
+in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those
+leeches which were intended for the Paris market.</p>
+
+<p>“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the
+season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to
+the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance.
+These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are
+known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of
+water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches
+quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they
+are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the
+cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of
+allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow
+much more rapidly after having partaken of blood.</p>
+
+<p>There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is
+more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than
+even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the
+terrible hooded snake itself.</p>
+
+<p>The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in
+length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active
+animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally
+to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no
+sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to
+crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is
+shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with
+these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping
+them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly
+than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than
+would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in
+persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers,
+and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself.</p>
+
+<p>Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such
+as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &amp;c., but all to very
+little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing
+the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very
+closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2><a name="CRUSTACEA" id="CRUSTACEA"></a>CLASS CRUSTACEA.</h2></div>
+
+<p>The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history
+has undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among
+the insects:&mdash;others considered them to have more analogy to the
+spiders. Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent
+<span class="smcap">CLASS</span> forming two <i>orders</i>, which he
+has named after the arrangement of the branchiæ, or gills, by which
+they breathe, namely,&mdash;the <i>Crustacea homobranchiæ</i>, the
+distinguishing marks of which he describes in this manner: branchiæ
+hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass, covering the
+body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the mandibles
+always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks, the head
+not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist them in
+their movements. Secondly, the <i>Crustacea heterobranchiæ</i>, in which
+the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under the
+lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the
+tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in
+general fixed, <i>sedentary, not on footstalks</i>.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="HOMOBRANCHIAE" id="HOMOBRANCHIAE"></a><i>ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ</i>,<br />
+(<i>Shell-Fish with concealed gills.</i>)</h3>
+
+<p>The first of these orders, the <i>homobranchial</i> Crustacea, includes most
+of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters,
+and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division.</p>
+
+<p>Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order,
+and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal
+kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is
+apparently less complex.</p>
+
+<p>The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two
+principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately
+united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a
+portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable
+supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on
+each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head.
+The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this
+spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The
+two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest.</p>
+
+<p>The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat
+pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather;
+they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are
+so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of
+these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the
+mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at
+their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper
+part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at
+the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two
+pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six
+other members, which Lamarck calls <i>foot-jaws</i>, from their bearing
+some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the
+parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and
+accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that may
+come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as articles
+of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of the year.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="f150 u"><a name="CRAB_TRIBE" id="CRAB_TRIBE"></a><b><i>THE CRAB TRIBE.</i></b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the
+knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being
+generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit
+ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful
+species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="ZOEA" id="ZOEA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="474" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular species,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless variety of
+curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most brilliant
+colours; this more particularly applies to those which are found in the
+seas of hot climates.</p>
+
+<p>The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was
+placed by naturalists among the <i>Crustacea</i>, and considered a perfect
+animal of a distinct species; it was named <a href="#ZOEA">Zoea</a>. Mr. Thomson,
+the experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to
+discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better
+than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the
+author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known
+respecting these inhabitants of the deep.</p>
+
+<p>“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the
+<i>Crustacea</i>) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body
+of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant
+troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a
+fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast
+expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a
+kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by
+those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts
+of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants
+with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the
+bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is
+interspersed with fields of Sargosa<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>.
+On due examination, however, we shall not fail to find it everywhere
+peopled by a considerable variety of animals, either of small size, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+possessed of such a degree of translucency as to render them invisible,
+or scarcely perceptible, even when on or near to its surface; that it
+should possess its share of the organized beings which we see spread
+over every other part of the surface of our globe, is a conclusion we
+might arrive at indirectly, from the consideration of oceanic fishes
+and birds being observed in those parts of the ocean most distant from
+the land, and the provident care of the Deity, which we invariably
+witness throughout the domain of nature, to furnish food for all, even
+the meanest of his creatures; the more minute and invisible inmates of
+the sea, then, must constitute the food of oceanic fishes and birds.</p>
+
+<p>“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most
+conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of
+them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and
+a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to
+accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing
+every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or
+four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze,
+bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it
+up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to
+ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater
+rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the
+spout of one of the <i>sea-water</i> pumps, and examined three or four times
+a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.”</p>
+
+<p>Although naturalists were decided in calling the <a href="#ZOEA">Zoea</a> a crustaceous
+animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the system
+it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike each
+other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it is known,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but merely the
+larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is perfectly
+new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only proving their
+real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as described in most
+systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on that account to be
+separated from the insects, but that they do undergo a metamorphosis,
+and that of a most wonderful nature.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ,
+in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year
+following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred;
+this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully
+supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died
+in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which
+it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a
+great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs
+and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be
+considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in
+hatching the <i>ova</i> of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which
+presented exactly the appearance of the <i>Zoea taurus</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>The Common Crab, <i>Cancer major</i>, is so well-known, that any description
+of its appearance would be useless.</p>
+
+<p>One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that
+is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this
+power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase
+in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the
+peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about
+to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured
+retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it
+creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year
+when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time
+their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest
+perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking
+the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among
+the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the
+attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal
+discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously
+harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its
+kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in
+anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting
+its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against
+each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated,
+and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an
+unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at
+its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before
+seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach
+comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it
+disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal,
+with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a
+boot that was too big for him.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty;
+but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several
+hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such a
+weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor
+venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have
+not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of
+the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor
+oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod,
+and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness
+continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is
+seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before;
+its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first
+object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which
+it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness.
+In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength,
+the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but
+just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their
+skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this
+is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the
+shell. These stones, popularly known as <i>crabs’ eyes</i>, were long
+highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not
+superior to so much chalk.</p>
+
+<p>When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the
+old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found
+the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears
+wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb,
+or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty
+of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its own
+legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury, by
+bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received the
+hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb
+from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and
+natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other
+legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part
+of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears
+to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the
+case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers.</p>
+
+<p>When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on
+the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural
+styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows
+callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the
+creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.</p>
+
+<p>Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and
+kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so
+bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking
+off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal
+bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the
+tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one
+of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly
+creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted
+its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which
+bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+its limb in the usual manner,&mdash;still, however, holding fast for a
+length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.</p>
+
+<p>The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not,
+as it is said, walk exactly backwards.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="LAND" id="LAND"></a><span class="smcap">The Land Crab</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_124"><i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there
+is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands,
+whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly
+curious in themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_124" id="FIG_124"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_124.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="424" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE LAND CRAB,</small> (<i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near
+salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year
+in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the islands,
+many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these places
+their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year, to repair to
+the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. They prepare for
+their annual migration about the month of April or May, and, having
+mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets forward, with all the
+regularity of an army, under the guidance of an experienced commander.</p>
+
+<p>Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct
+line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly
+surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a
+house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which
+they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not
+unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper.
+If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow
+its course without attempting to cross it.</p>
+
+<p>It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of
+which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like
+pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged
+to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment
+till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never
+leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then
+descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty
+paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover
+the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a
+straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but
+neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a
+confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly,
+to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables;
+but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to
+proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest.</p>
+
+<p>After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner,
+they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately
+enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several
+times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where
+they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek
+the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of
+being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already
+repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their
+annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and,
+soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting
+the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones,
+however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and
+lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are
+obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover;
+making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves
+up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and
+continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time
+they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six
+weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may
+be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the
+food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of
+seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="HERMIT" id="HERMIT"></a><span class="smcap">The Hermit, or Soldier Crab</span>,<br />
+(<a href="#FIG_127"><i>Pagurus bernhardus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of
+remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock,
+it may fancy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_127" id="FIG_127"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="340" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE HERMIT CRAB,</small> (<i>Pagurus bernhardus</i>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly
+secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous
+state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is
+almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their
+hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to
+maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has
+grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to
+seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the
+additional name of the Soldier Crab.</p>
+
+<p>“The <a href="#FIG_127">Soldier</a> when about to seek a new habitation,
+is still seen,” says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears
+to have considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the
+mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell,
+therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body;
+and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer
+both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight
+inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along
+that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave;
+still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail,
+unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage,
+till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one
+shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating
+that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation,
+to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it
+quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently
+changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to
+this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the
+body of the animal, claws and all.”</p>
+
+<p>Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the
+Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest
+between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which
+they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike
+with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to
+yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times
+back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist.</p>
+
+<p>When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring
+to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will
+sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not
+easily cured.</p>
+
+<p>On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell
+of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they
+not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under
+the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices
+of which they hide themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients were well acquainted with the <a href="#FIG_127">Soldier Crab</a>,
+as is evident from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left</span>
+<span class="i0">Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.</span>
+<span class="i0">Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish</span>
+<span class="i0">For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;</span>
+<span class="i0">Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,</span>
+<span class="i0">Whose first and rightful owners are no more.</span>
+<span class="i0">They make glad seizure of the vacant room,</span>
+<span class="i0">And count the borrowed shell their native home;</span>
+<span class="i0">Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,</span>
+<span class="i0">And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.</span>
+<span class="i0">But when they larger grow they fill the place,</span>
+<span class="i0">And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,</span>
+<span class="i0">Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,</span>
+<span class="i0">And busy search around the pebbly shore,</span>
+<span class="i0">Till a commodious roomy seat be found,</span>
+<span class="i0">Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.</span>
+<span class="i0">Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,</span>
+<span class="i0">And long for the disputed shell engage;</span>
+<span class="i0">The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,</span>
+<span class="i0">Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<h4><a name="LOBSTER" id="LOBSTER"></a><span class="smcap">The Lobster</span>,
+(<i>Astacus europæa</i>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great
+abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland
+is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast
+of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the
+Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth.
+The methods of taking Lobsters are various,&mdash;the most usual is by means
+of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of
+twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap,
+so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning.
+These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place
+being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a
+kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only
+carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the
+London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.</p>
+
+<p>Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other
+sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they
+frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor
+creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent
+clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the
+crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the
+pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while the
+other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then, its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with the
+other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and
+lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable
+distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when
+in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a
+beautiful deep blue.</p>
+
+<p>A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems
+to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in
+Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who
+transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to
+prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by,
+they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning!</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CRAY_FISH" id="CRAY_FISH"></a><span class="smcap">The River Cray-Fish</span>,
+(<i>Potamobius fluviatilis</i>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in
+appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is
+commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the
+banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that
+may happen to come in its way.</p>
+
+<p>The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which
+is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus
+described:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the
+thickness of the thumb,&mdash;split them at the smallest end, and by way of
+bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take then
+the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance of
+the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are there,
+they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you perceive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait suddenly,
+and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the bait, or
+will fall back into the net.</p>
+
+<p>Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a
+hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst
+of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the
+water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained
+there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found
+partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually
+prevent their escape.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SHRIMP" id="SHRIMP"></a><span class="smcap">The Phosphorescent
+Shrimp.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known to
+all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent
+properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants
+of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very
+frequently met with.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_132.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="356" />
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Noctiluca Banksii</span> magnified.</p>
+    <p class="center space-below2">The line above shows the natural length.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue
+from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found
+by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided
+in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most
+brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there
+started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light.</p>
+
+<p>The author we have lately quoted, says,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot2">“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable,
+that the Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to
+every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the
+trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet,
+has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and
+of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider
+that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,&mdash;is vivid in
+proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light
+of the moon,&mdash;and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea,
+so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the
+dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and
+the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable
+sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all
+times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken
+rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy
+appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible
+at a considerable distance.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="OPOSSUM" id="OPOSSUM"></a><span class="smcap">The Opossum Shrimp</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_134"><i>Mysis chamæleon</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward
+appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably
+smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed
+creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable
+abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally
+swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined
+to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth
+encloses myriads at a time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_134" id="FIG_134"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_134.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="461" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Mysis chamæleon.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have
+been called fissipeds, (<i>split-feet</i>,) on account of each of their
+feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb
+being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and
+the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is
+essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped
+round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the
+element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such
+as shrimps, prawns, &amp;c., there is a single row of five feet on each
+side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four
+rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet
+amounts to as many as thirty-two,&mdash;sixteen adapted for swimming, and
+sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization,
+the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the
+present genus frequent the surface.</p>
+
+<p>The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they
+are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses,
+fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this
+pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is
+destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in
+a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the
+young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened
+form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in
+this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards
+the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted
+together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the
+large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp
+are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch
+we have described.</p>
+
+<p>We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the
+Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve
+as food for herrings.</p>
+
+<p>It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals
+that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater
+productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished
+master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still
+continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance,
+after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has
+informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one
+piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part
+appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together.
+Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs,
+which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs
+still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently
+jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the
+various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which
+actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment
+necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison
+with other creatures, they must possess!</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_134">Opossum Shrimps</a>, we have seen, are the prey of the larger
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that
+are smaller than themselves,&mdash;seizing upon every animal substance they
+are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a
+vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below2">The species represented in the engraving has
+been called the <i>Mysis chamæleon</i>, from its colour varying according to
+the substances on which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray,
+black, brown, and pink.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="HETEROBRANCHIAE" id="HETEROBRANCHIAE"></a><i>ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ.</i></h3>
+
+<p class="center">(<i>Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously<br />
+placed, never concealed.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other
+than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we
+find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of
+the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a
+great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the
+water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are
+very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They
+have been divided into several sections, according to their outward
+form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine
+ourselves to a description of some of the best known.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SQUILL" id="SQUILL"></a><span class="smcap">The Spotted Squill</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_138"><i>Squilla maculata</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present
+order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct,
+appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called
+the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that
+name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its
+foot-jaws are armed.</p>
+
+<p>The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is
+the largest of the genus.</p>
+
+<p>The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little
+consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent
+the sandy bottom of the sea.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_138" id="FIG_138"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_138.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="427" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Squilla maculata.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the
+young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter
+under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CLOPORTUS" id="CLOPORTUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Common Cloportus</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_139"><i>Cloportus ascellus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a
+dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where
+the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to
+a group of small Crustacea known by the name <i>Oniscus</i>. Some, as we see
+in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion
+inhabit the water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_139" id="FIG_139"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_139.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="283" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Cloportus ascellus.</i></p>
+    <p class="center">(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species
+which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for
+its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years
+timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary
+wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the
+course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little
+creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten
+inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch
+a year. Another species, <i>Cymothoa</i>, attaches itself to the backs of
+different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body.</p>
+
+<p>A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+fifth volume of the <i>American Philosophical Transactions</i>; it is
+accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is
+not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular
+species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself
+to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the
+roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_140_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Head of Alewife.</i></p>
+    <p class="center">Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_140_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="195" />
+    <p class="center">The insect seen from above.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort
+to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife,
+called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and
+in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of
+the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the
+herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught
+from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for
+the table as the herring.</p>
+
+<p>“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect
+about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly
+holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.</p>
+
+<p>“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without
+injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider
+the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken
+out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable
+of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to
+preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always
+obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.</p>
+
+<p>“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and
+lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately
+scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his
+position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and
+unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained
+his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant
+resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he
+certainly fares sumptuously every day.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the
+shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to
+travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As
+long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found
+fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his
+mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but
+by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself
+with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay
+Alewife without the louse.”</p>
+
+<p>The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies,
+many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their
+body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="MOLUCCA" id="MOLUCCA"></a><span class="smcap">The Molucca Crab</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_143"><i>Polyphemus gigas</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Why the singular creature here represented should have the name
+Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every
+schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is
+represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas,
+this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its
+being so nearly allied to many very minute species.</p>
+
+<p>The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but
+two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their
+buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has
+been called the Molucca Crab.</p>
+
+<p>The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by
+the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of
+poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this
+circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no
+other ground for the belief.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_143" id="FIG_143"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="294" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Polyphemus gigas.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very
+easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything
+until their danger becomes imminent.</p>
+
+<p>It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for
+food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy.</p>
+
+<p>These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a
+considerable distance over the wet sands,&mdash;but if incommoded by the
+sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element.
+When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if
+this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the
+waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power
+of righting itself with the assistance of its tail.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="LIMULUS" id="LIMULUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Crab-like Limulus</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_144"><i>Limulus cancriformis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &amp;c.; they
+are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their
+principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_144" id="FIG_144"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="221" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Limulus cancriformis.</i> (Natural size.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in
+which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler,
+very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The
+head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They
+possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back.
+Their legs are very numerous,&mdash;the two in front, much the largest,
+spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with
+silky articulated bristles.”</p>
+
+<h4><a name="FLEA" id="FLEA"></a><span class="smcap">The Water Flea</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_145"><i>Cyclops quadricornis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That
+represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most
+interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr.
+Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution,
+as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of
+creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred
+on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision,
+more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring,
+and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the
+elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the
+mass of living matter they present to us.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_145" id="FIG_145"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_145.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="464" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Cyclops quadricornis.</i> (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the
+year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm
+day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an
+inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered
+with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil,
+are of a fine rich colour.</p>
+
+<p>“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly
+plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and
+vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but
+have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the
+organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it
+is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little
+above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark
+crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this
+organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two
+kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest
+extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some
+other positions it is square.”</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance
+similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared
+with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving,
+(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder
+portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque
+colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red.</p>
+
+<p>The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are
+extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has
+described them as forming two distinct genera.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="SW_FLEA" id="SW_FLEA"></a><span class="smcap">The Small Water Flea</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_147"><i>Cyclops minutus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its
+body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much
+smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form
+renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says
+Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if
+approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside,
+in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit
+opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a
+kind of vaulting leap.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_147" id="FIG_147"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_147.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Cyclops minutus</i>, much magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met
+with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed,
+growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will
+not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and
+require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of
+clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the
+under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or
+cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey,
+moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the
+plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not
+bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept
+in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the
+three hundredth part of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the
+eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of
+the animal near the tail.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CYPRIS" id="CYPRIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Hairy Cypris</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_149"><i>Cypris pubera</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they
+are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The
+animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it
+at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell
+numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is
+enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until
+it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which
+issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and
+bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them
+great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute
+materially to the swimming powers of the creature.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point
+is seen,&mdash;this is the eye of the animal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_149" id="FIG_149"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_149.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="218" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Cypris pubera.</i> (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is
+found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they
+are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are
+more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the
+year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course
+of the year.</p>
+
+<p>The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense
+numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in
+this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in
+the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a
+kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the
+marshes with water.</p>
+
+<p>A species nearly allied to this, the <i>Artemia Salina</i>, the Lymington
+shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans,
+which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other
+Crustaceous animal.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at
+Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is
+deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a
+quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the
+liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute,
+in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm,
+or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this
+is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of
+this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms
+from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase
+astonishingly in the course of a few days.</p>
+
+<p>It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans,
+where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the
+Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and
+reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans,
+and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much
+diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the
+manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at
+the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers.</p>
+
+<p class="f150 space-above2"><b>THE END.</b></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London:</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">John W. Parker, St. Martin’s Lane</span>.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+  <p class="center"><b>[<span class="smcap">List No. 1.</span>]</b></p>
+  <p class="f150"><b>APPROVED BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS<br /> AND FAMILIES.</b></p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r25" />
+<p class="neg-indent">Those to which a * is prefixed, are published
+under the Direction of the Committee of General Literature and
+Education of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</p>
+<hr class="r25" />
+
+<p class="neg-indent"><b><span class="larger">* ENGLISH GRAMMAR</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. Dr. RUSSELL</span></b>,
+late Head Master of Charter-House School.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">No language can be more simple and intelligible
+than that in which the Rules of this Grammar are expressed. The
+construction of Sentences, and the force of the Prepositions and
+Conjunctions, are illustrated by examples. Emphasis is treated very
+perspicuously; and the Grammar closes with most useful Questions on the Rules.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION</span></b> to
+<b><span class="larger">ENGLISH COMPOSITION</span></b>;
+adapted to the education of both sexes, by the <b><span class="larger">Rev. J. EDWARDS</span></b>,
+M.A., one of the Masters of King’s College School, London.&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In addition to other pursuits and
+studies, the cultivation of a knowledge of English Literature is daily
+gaining ground. This, it must be acknowledged, is very desirable, but
+it is assuredly of great importance, that it should be upon a plan
+which will tend to give a vigorous and healthy tone to the mind.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE CLASS READING
+BOOK</span></b>; adapted for Schools, and particularly designed to
+furnish Youth with Practical Information on a variety of Interesting
+Subjects. By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE LUDLOW</span></b>, one of
+the Masters of Christ’s Hospital.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">This work consists of nearly Two
+Hundred Reading Lessons, adapted either for classes or individuals.
+They are selected with a view to the communication of popular but
+sound information, on various branches of knowledge, and there is a
+department consisting of carefully selected Poems.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">ABBOTT’S
+READER</span></b>; a Series of Familiar Pieces, in Prose and Verse,
+calculated to produce a Moral Influence on the Hearts and Lives
+of Young Persons. By the Authors of <span class="smcap">The Young
+Christian</span>; <span class="smcap">The Corner-Stone</span>;
+<span class="smcap">The Teacher</span>, &amp;c. 3<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this <span
+class="smcap">Reader</span> is, to exert a direct and powerful moral
+influence upon the hearts of children; such an influence as shall
+make them faithful and industrious in the improvement of their time,
+obedient and affectionate to their parents, kind towards their
+playmates, and upright and honest in their intercourse with others.
+The compilers have honestly endeavoured to exclude everything which
+they supposed would be unacceptable to any of the friends of piety and
+morality, of whatever name.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* ARITHMETIC
+TAUGHT BY QUESTIONS.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The principal novelty of this
+Arithmetic consists in the <span class="smcap">Questions</span>, by
+which the learner may be enabled to examine and teach himself. At
+the same time, it is thought that many Teachers may profit by the
+facilities which the questioning affords, and learn to ground those
+whom they have been in the habit of teaching by rote.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A FIRST
+BOOK</span> on <span class="larger">GEOMETRY</span></b>, including Plane
+and Solid Geometry, and an Introduction to Trigonometry.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In this work will, it is believed, be
+found all the essential Propositions of Plane and Solid Geometry. The
+method of demonstration which has been followed is that of Euclid; but,
+throughout, an attempt has been made to give it a character of greater
+simplicity, and thus to render it more generally available.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE FIGURES OF EUCLID</span>;
+with <span class="larger">QUESTIONS</span>, and a <span class="larger">PRAXIS</span> of
+<span class="larger">GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. J. EDWARDS, M.A.</span></b>, of
+King’s College School, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of GEOGRAPHY</span></b>.
+ By <b><span class="larger">G. HOGARTH</span></b>.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A comprehensive Manual of the leading
+facts in this branch of Education, carefully condensed from the best
+sources. It contains Tables of the Situations and Heights of the
+principal Mountains, and of the Lengths of the principal Rivers, a Map
+of the World, Five other Maps, and Four Plates of Costumes.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES
+of the HISTORY of ENGLAND</span></b>. By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE
+HOGARTH.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The leading events of English History
+are related with simplicity, and their connexion traced with clearness.
+The narratives are confined to the most memorable and important events;
+and those circumstances particularly marked which have led to the
+gradual formation of the British system of government. The work is
+illustrated with many Engravings of Costumes, Views, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of ROMAN HISTORY</span></b>.
+By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE HOGARTH</span></b>.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A complete and popular epitome of the
+History of the Rise, Progress, and Fall of the Roman Empire. It is
+embellished with a handsome Print of a Roman Triumph, and numerous
+Figures of Costumes, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">OUTLINES of GRECIAN HISTORY</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. BARTON BOUCHIER, M.A.</span></b>
+With <span class="smcap">Maps</span> and <span class="smcap">Views</span>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of SACRED HISTORY</span></b>;
+from the Creation of the World to the Destruction of Jerusalem.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this Work is to afford
+a condensed view of the History of both the Old and New Testaments,
+together with a brief account of the Jewish History in the interval
+between the Babylonish Captivity and the Birth of Christ, and in the
+period between Christ’s Ascension and the fulfilment of his awful
+Prophecy of the Destruction of Jerusalem and the Dispersion of the Jews.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A MANUAL of ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY</span></b>,
+in which the Modern Names of Places are attached to the Ancient, and the Words
+marked with their proper quantities. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. WILLIAM HILDYARD, M.A.</span></b>
+&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">Geography and Chronology are, as
+it has been quaintly but truly remarked, the eyes of History, and
+the Editor’s experience in teaching (which has not been small,) has
+convinced him of the great importance of making boys perfectly familiar
+with the division of countries, and the relative situation of places,
+if ever they are expected to read the classic authors, especially the
+historians, with advantage.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of ASTRONOMY</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. T. G. HALL, M.A.</span></b>, Professor of Math.,
+King’s Coll., London.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">An elementary Work, intended to
+instruct, in the sublime facts of Astronomy, those who are unacquainted
+with mathematical reasoning; and to explain to them, in familiar
+language, the principal phenomena of the Heavens. The Lessons are
+illustrated by numerous Engravings.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE ELEMENTS of BOTANY</span></b>.
+New Edition, with many Cuts.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The principles of this beautiful and
+important science are explained in a clear and simple manner, so
+as to render the acquisition of them comparatively easy. The book
+is illustrated by numerous cuts of the different parts of plants,
+&amp;c., and the examples, when possible, are selected from our own
+wild flowers, or from those cultivated in all gardens or fields, and
+they are cited by their familiar names. A Glossary of most of the terms
+usually employed is subjoined, and an alphabetical List of the most
+useful Plants, with their botanical names, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* MANUAL of INSTRUCTION
+in VOCAL MUSIC</span></b>, chiefly with a view to Psalmody.
+By <b><span class="larger">JOHN TURNER, Esq.</span></b>&emsp;4<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The author offers this work not as
+an experiment now for the first time to be tried, but as the result
+of long experience. Though chiefly designed for the use of children
+collected in large numbers, it may, with equal advantage, be adopted
+in smaller assemblages, and in the domestic circle: and may also be
+rendered serviceable to adults.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">EASY LESSONS
+IN MECHANICS</span></b>; with Familiar Illustrations, showing the
+practical Application of the various Mechanical Principles.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* ON the EDUCATION
+and TREATMENT of CHILDREN</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:&mdash;On
+the means of developing the Bodily Senses in Infancy; Early Development
+of the Affections; Early Cultivation of the Intellect; Management
+in Childhood; Amusements and Employments; Sunday; Views of Death;
+Supernatural Appearances; Politeness; Dress; Gentility; Management
+during the Teens; Views of Matrimony.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* INSTRUCTIONS for
+TEACHING ARITHMETIC to LITTLE CHILDREN</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. T. V. SHORT, B.D.</span></b>&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A LITTLE READING
+BOOK for YOUNG CHILDREN</span></b>. With many Cuts.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">SCRIPTURE HYMNS IN PROSE</span></b>.
+With Cuts.&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The experience of some persons inclines
+them to prefer compositions in prose, to those in verse, for the
+exercise of the infant memory. There is at least no disadvantage in
+having a choice of both.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A COLLIERY TALE,
+or VILLAGE DISTRESS</span></b>.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The object of this little narrative is, by God’s help, to
+draw some profit from a recent calamity, which, in its
+immediate pressure upon the limited community through
+which it extended, has been most awfully severe.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* VILLAGE ANNALS</span></b>;
+or, the Story of <span class="smcap">Hetty Jones</span>.&emsp;9<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2">
+<p class="no-indent">I have written this story in the
+simplest style, for the use of the children in my own neighbourhood; as
+in all the little publications of this kind I have hitherto met with,
+the language and ideas are far above the comprehension of many of the
+classes for whom they are designed.</p>
+<p class="author">C. B.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">PRETTY LESSONS
+for GOOD CHILDREN</span></b>; to which are added, <b><span class="larger">EASY
+LESSONS in LATIN</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this little work is,
+by means of easy rhymes, to attract the attention of young children,
+and to impress upon their memories various elementary facts and moral
+sentiments which they would not otherwise remember; for, “What will a
+child learn sooner than a song?”</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">EASY POETRY
+FOR CHILDREN</span></b>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">SIMPLE STORIES
+FOR YOUNG CHILDREN</span></b>. By a <b><span class="larger">LADY</span></b>.
+With Cuts.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">THE CHILD’S
+VERSE-BOOK OF DEVOTION</span></b>. With Cuts.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">SONGS for
+CHILDREN</span></b>. With <span class="smcap">Engravings</span>.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">In this little book you’ll find,</span>
+<span class="i0">Lessons for the infant mind;</span>
+<span class="i0">Truth conveyed in easy verse,</span>
+<span class="i0">Which the nursling may rehearse,</span>
+<span class="i0">And thus be led, by simple lays,</span>
+<span class="i0">To walk with God, and sing his praise.</span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">READING LESSONS</span></b>
+from the Books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes; with Questions and Answers upon them.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">DAILY READINGS
+from the PSALMS</span></b>.&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FAMILIAR LECTURES
+to CHILDREN</span></b>; in which the <b><span class="larger">IMPORTANT TRUTHS
+of the GOSPEL</span></b> are engagingly set forth. Edited by the
+<b><span class="larger">Rev. J. HOBART CAUNTER, B.D.</span></b>&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FAITH AND PRACTICE</span></b>;
+or, The Application of Christian Principles to the Practical Duties of Life. Fourth
+Edition, improved.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">THE RITE of CONFIRMATION
+EXPLAINED</span></b>. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. D. I. EYRE, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">CONFIRMATION</span></b>.
+An <b><span class="larger">ADDRESS</span></b> from a <b><span class="larger">CLERGYMAN</span></b>
+to his <b><span class="larger">PARISHIONERS</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">A FEW WORDS ON THE SIN
+OF LYING</span></b>. By <b><span class="larger">A LAYMAN</span></b>.&emsp;3<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* EASY LESSONS on MONEY MATTERS</span></b>,
+for the Use of Young People.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In this little book, care has been
+taken to convey elementary knowledge in such simple language, that,
+it is hoped, these <span class="smcap">Lessons</span> will be found
+easily intelligible even to such as have but the ordinary advantages in
+point of education; and there are few subjects on which it is, for all
+classes of people, more important to inculcate correct principles, and
+to guard against specious fallacies.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* PERSIAN STORIES</span></b>;
+illustrative of <b><span class="larger">EASTERN MANNERS</span></b> and
+<b><span class="larger">CUSTOMS</span></b>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> And,</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent"><b><span class="larger">* PERSIAN FABLES</span></b>,
+for Young and Old. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. H. G. KEENE, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FIVE HUNDRED CHARADES</span></b>,
+from History, Geography, and Biography. Third Edition, revised and improved.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* INSECTS</span></b>
+and their <b><span class="larger">HABITATIONS</span></b>. A Book for Children.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">We may learn many useful lessons from
+the History of Insects; and, by observing their habits, we shall find
+that they set us an example of various good qualities.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent"><b><span class="larger"><br />* The BOOK of ANIMALS</span></b>.
+&emsp;<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of FISHES.</span></b><br />
+<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of BIRDS</span></b>.
+<span class="ws3"><b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of REPTILES.</span></b></span><br />
+<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of SHELLS</span></b>.
+<span class="ws3">Price 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</span></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The nature, habits, and uses of the
+Animals described, are presented in a correct, though simple and
+attractive form, and the little volumes will be found useful additions
+to the books for young persons, and acceptable introductions to works
+of a higher class.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE STUDENT’S
+MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY</span></b>; containing Accounts of
+the <span class="smcap">Political Condition</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Geographical Situation</span>, and
+<span class="smcap">Social State</span> of the principal
+<span class="smcap">Nations Of Antiquity</span>; carefully digested from the
+Ancient Writers, and illustrated by the Discoveries of Modern Scholars
+and Travellers. By <b><span class="larger">W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S.</span></b>&emsp;10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE FAMILY HISTORY
+OF ENGLAND</span></b>, by the <b><span class="larger">Rev. GEORGE ROBERT GLEIG, M.A.</span></b>,
+with a series of <span class="smcap">Pictorial Illustrations of the
+Costumes, Architecture, Shipping</span>, &amp;c., of the successive
+periods of British History. In Eighteen Parts, at 1<i>s.</i> each,
+or in Three Volumes,&emsp;6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A POPULAR HISTORY
+OF THE REFORMATION</span></b>, in <span class="smcap">Germany</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Switzerland</span>, and <span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>;
+and of its chief Promoters, Opposers, and Victims.
+By <b><span class="larger">THOMAS FOX</span></b>.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH</span></b>;
+from <span class="smcap">the Ascension of Jesus Christ to the Conversion of Constantine</span>.
+By the late <b><span class="larger">Dr. BURTON</span></b>. Second Edition,&emsp;6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE EARLY CHRISTIANS</span></b>;
+their <b><span class="larger">MANNERS</span></b> and <b><span class="larger">CUSTOMS, TRIALS</span></b>
+and <b><span class="larger">SUFFERINGS</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. W. PRIDDEN, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;4<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF THE CRUSADERS</span></b>;
+by <b><span class="larger">THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, Esq.</span></b> Two Volumes, with Engravings.&emsp;11<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF MOHAMMEDANISM</span></b>,
+and the <b><span class="larger">PRINCIPAL MOHAMMEDAN SECTS</span></b>.
+By <b><span class="larger">W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S.</span></b>, &amp;c.&emsp;5<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">LIVES OF EMINENT CHRISTIANS</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. R. B. HONE, M.A.</span></b>, Rector of Hales Owen.
+Volumes I. and II., with Portraits,&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN ENGLISH PROSE LITERATURE</span></b>;
+containing choice Specimens of the Works of the best English Writers; with
+<span class="smcap">Essays on English Literature</span>.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN POETRY</span></b>;
+Selections from the Works of the best English Poets; with Specimens of the American Poets;
+Notices of the Writers; and Notes.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY</span></b>;
+a Selection of the Lives of the most Eminent Men of all Nations.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN SCIENCE</span></b>;
+being familiar <b><span class="larger">EXPLANATIONS</span></b> of Appearances and Principles
+in <b><span class="larger">NATURAL PHILOSOPHY</span></b>. With many Engravings.&emsp; 5<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">VENTOUILLAC’S RUDIMENTS</span></b>
+of the <b><span class="larger">FRENCH LANGUAGE</span></b>; or,
+<b><span class="larger">FIRST FRENCH READING BOOK</span></b>. New Edition, Revised and Corrected
+by <b><span class="larger">F. J. WATTEZ</span></b>, First Assistant French Master in King’s
+College, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">LIVRE DE CLASSE</span></b>;
+with <b><span class="larger">ENGLISH NOTES</span></b>, by the late <b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>,
+Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London.&emsp;5<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">FRENCH POETRY</span></b>;
+with <b><span class="larger">ENGLISH NOTES</span></b>, by the late <b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>,
+Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">LE BOUQUET LITTERAIRE</span></b>.
+Recueil de Beautés Religieuses et Morales, de divers Auteurs. Par feu
+<b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>, Professeur de Littérature Française
+au Collège Royale à Londres.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">BRASSEUR’S EXERCISES</span></b>
+on <b><span class="larger">FRENCH PHRASEOLOGY</span></b>; with a Lexicon of
+<b><span class="larger">IDIOMATIC VERBS</span></b>. By the French Professor of King’s
+College, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">The FRENCH SCHOOL CLASSICS</span></b>.
+Edited and Abridged by <b><span class="larger">MARIN DE LA VOYE</span></b>,
+French Master in the East India College, at Addiscombe.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">While the necessity of introducing the
+best standard French works into our schools and families is universally
+acknowledged, serious doubts are entertained as to the propriety of
+placing the writings of some among the French authors in the hands of
+Christian youth. In order to remove all difficulties on this subject,
+the Editor has been induced to undertake a careful Abridgment of such
+works as are in most general use; and he has made it his object to
+extract from the original every word and sentence relating either
+to religion, politics, or philosophical speculation, respecting
+which Christian parents or teachers can have the least difference of
+opinion.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A purified text of the best French
+Classical Works is, therefore, now offered for the use of young
+persons of both sexes, in a state which, it is trusted, will be found
+altogether unobjectionable.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" rules="cols" >
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Telemaque.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td>
+      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Pierre le Grand.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Voyages de Cyrus.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Charles XII.</span> 2<i>s.</i></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Belisaire.</span>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td>
+      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Gil Blas Desantillane.</span>&emsp;<i>In the Press.</i></td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+  <p class="center">Six Volumes, at 2<i>s.</i> each, with Wood-Cuts,</p>
+</div>
+<p class="f150"><b>* THE INSTRUCTOR;</b></p>
+<p class="f90">OR,</p>
+<p class="f110"><b>PROGRESSIVE LESSONS IN GENERAL KNOWLEDGE</b></p>
+<p class="f90">A SERIES OF<br />ELEMENTARY BOOKS, ESPECIALLY ADAPTED<br />
+FOR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">Under the general title of <span
+class="smcap">The Instructor</span>, is comprised a series of little
+books, by means of which children may be led through a progressive
+course of Exercises in various branches of Elementary Knowledge. These
+books may be put into the hands of such children as can readily spell
+common words, and read easy lessons.&mdash;The object of the work
+is not only to furnish reading lessons, but also to carry the pupil
+<i>forward</i>,&mdash;to impart <i>information</i>, and exercise the mind.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot2">The first Six Volumes, in Thirty-six Numbers, contain the
+following subjects, with numerous Engravings:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME I.</b></big> (or in Nos. 1 to 6.)<br />
+<span class="larger">TALES</span> and <span class="larger">CONVERSATIONS</span> on Familiar Subjects.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME II.</b></big> (or in Nos. 7 to 12.)<br />
+The <span class="larger"> HOUSE</span>. <span class="larger">MATERIALS</span>
+used in <span class="larger">BUILDING</span>.<br /><span class="larger">FURNITURE</span>.
+<span class="larger">FOOD</span> and <span class="larger">CLOTHING.</span></p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME III.</b></big> (or in Nos. 13 to 18.)<br />
+The <span class="larger">UNIVERSE</span>. The <span class="larger">THREE KINGDOMS of NATURE</span>.
+<span class="larger">THE HUMAN FORM</span>. <span class="larger">LESSONS on HEALTH.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME IV.</b></big> (or in Nos. 19 to 24.)<br />
+The <span class="larger">CALENDAR</span>; The Year, Months, Weeks, Days.<br /> The <span class="larger">SEASONS</span>.
+<span class="larger">APPEARANCES</span> of <span class="larger">NATURE.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME V.</b></big> (or in Nos. 25 to 30.)<br />
+<span class="larger">DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY</span>: The various Divisions of the World;
+their People and Productions; with <span class="larger">MAPS</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME VI.</b></big> (or in Nos. 31 to 36.)<br />
+<span class="larger">ANCIENT HISTORY.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">London: JOHN W. PARKER, <span class="smcap">Publisher, West Strand</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<p class="f150 u"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to by
+nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory
+chapter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
+ The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
+See Book of Fishes, p. 51.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before transformation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of
+its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most
+favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and
+I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves,
+if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give
+them a violent emetic.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
+A kind of sea-weed, (<i>Fucus natans</i>.)</p></div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<div class="transnote bbox">
+<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber's Notes:</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
+                  paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p>
+<p class="indent">Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.</p>
+<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
+    in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 60961 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: The Book of Shells
+       Containing the Classes Mollusca, Conchifera, Cirrhipeda,
+       Annulata, and Crustacea
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60961]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Notes:
+
+  Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_
+    in the original text.
+  Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals.
+  Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs.
+  Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.
+  Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
+    in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: THE FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS
+
+DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME]
+
+
+
+
+                                  THE
+                            BOOK OF SHELLS;
+
+                              CONTAINING
+                   THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,
+                       CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND
+                              CRUSTACEA.
+
+                   PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
+          THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,
+                APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
+                         CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.
+
+                          THE SECOND EDITION.
+
+                                LONDON:
+                     JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.
+
+                            M.DCCC.XXXVII.
+
+
+
+
+TO THE READER.
+
+
+In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which
+embraces the VERTEBRAL ANIMALS,—namely, the Mammalia, the Birds, the
+Reptiles, and the Fishes,—the arrangement of the BARON CUVIER was
+adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in two others that
+are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the INVERTEBRAL
+ANIMALS, the method of M. LAMARCK will be adhered to. It is true, that,
+since the works of that naturalist were published, many deviations
+from certain parts of his system have taken place, some of which have
+received the sanction of the highest names; but still, _as a whole_,
+Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and the young naturalist can
+readily add to the information it contains, by reference to the works
+of more recent authors, in case he has sufficient inclination and
+industry to follow out the subject.
+
+
+
+
+           CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                     Page
+    Introductory Chapter                9
+
+    Class MOLLUSCA                     14
+
+    Order HETEROPODA                   15
+    The Glassy Carinaria               15
+
+    Order CEPHALOPODA                  16
+    The Cuttle Fish                    17
+        Argonaut                       20
+        Pearly Nautilus                22
+
+    Order TRACHELIPODA                 26
+    The Marble Cone                    27
+        Porphyry Olive Shell           28
+        Money Cowrie                   29
+        Diadem Whorl Shell             31
+        Common Columbella              31
+        Music Harp Shell               32
+        Wide-Mouthed Purpura           33
+        Spotted Scorpion Shell         37
+        Variegated Sea-Trumpet         39
+        Caniculated Pear-Shell         40
+        Babylonian Split-Mouth         40
+        Marble Turban-Shell            41
+        Imperial Top-Shell             41
+        Precious Scalaria              42
+        Iris Ear-Shell                 43
+        Dusty Neritina                 44
+        Viviparous Paludina            44
+        Lymnæa Stagnalis               45
+        Horn-shaped Planorbis          46
+        Red-mouthed Bulimus            46
+        Mummy Puppet Shell             47
+        Wood Snail                     47
+
+    Order GASTEROPODA                  51
+    The Red Slug                       51
+        Woodlike Bulla                 53
+        Nail-shaped Crepidula          54
+        Mediterranean Umbrella         54
+        Clouded Fissurella             54
+        Hungarian Bonnet Shell         55
+        Scaly Chiton                   56
+
+    Class CONCHIFERA                   57
+
+    Order UNIMUSCULOSA                 64
+    The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell          64
+        Oyster                         65
+        Great Comb Shell               68
+        Pearl Oyster                   69
+        Hammer Oyster                  77
+        Rough Pinna                    77
+        Common Mussel                  79
+        Giant Tridacna                 81
+
+    Order BIMUSCULOSA                  82
+    The Fresh-Water Mussel             83
+        Heart-shaped Isocardia         84
+        Wedge-shaped Donax             85
+        Sheath Solen                   85
+        Date-shaped Pholas             87
+        Ship-Worm                      89
+
+    Class CIRRHIPEDA                   91
+
+    Order CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA       92
+    The Smooth Barnacle                92
+
+    Order CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA        94
+    The Acorn-Shell                    94
+
+    Class ANNULATA                     97
+
+    Order ANNULATA SEDENTARIA          98
+    The Magnificent Amphitrite         98
+
+    Order ANNULATA ANTENNATA          100
+    The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen    100
+        Blood-coloured Leodice        100
+        Spinous Sea-Mouse             102
+
+    Order ANNULATA APODA              102
+    The Common Earth-Worm             103
+        Medicinal Leech               106
+
+    Class CRUSTACEA                   115
+
+    Order CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ      115
+    The Crab Tribe                    117
+        Land Crab                     124
+        Hermit Crab                   127
+        Lobster                       130
+        River Cray-Fish               131
+        Phosphorescent Shrimp         132
+        Opossum Shrimp                134
+
+    Order CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ    137
+    The Spotted Squill                137
+        Common Cloportus              138
+        Molucca Crab                  142
+        Crab-like Limulus             144
+        Water Flea                    144
+        Small Water Flea              147
+        Hairy Cypris                  148
+
+
+
+
+THE BOOK OF SHELLS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
+
+
+In reviewing the first DIVISION of the animal kingdom, namely, the
+vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have been delighted with the
+wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed upon each individual;
+but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of their possessors as
+these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure must be still greater
+in tracing the powers with which those creatures are endowed, which
+constitute what we have been accustomed to call the lower orders of
+animated nature.
+
+When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or
+the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the
+terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and
+metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that
+equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the
+different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the
+various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation;
+but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple
+appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to
+consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to
+look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose,
+and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How
+much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed
+of every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully
+developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the
+highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is
+their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable
+to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves
+of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even
+to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of
+the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain
+we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the _Infusoria_, those
+microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances
+in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach,
+and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned
+foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach,
+they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the
+nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their
+existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we
+have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in
+fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of
+the Creator’s works.
+
+The second DIVISION of the objects of natural history, namely, the
+INVERTEBRAL animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by
+themselves, on account of their being without an internal skeleton,
+consisting of a series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This
+distinction is explained in the introductory chapter to the Book of
+Animals. They have been separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven CLASSES,
+namely:—
+
+  1. MOLLUSCA, (_soft-bodied animals_,) in general covered
+        with a shell; as, for instance, a snail; or without a
+        shell, as a slug.
+
+  2. CONCHIFERA, (_shell-bearing animals_,) with a shell,
+        consisting of two valves, as an oyster or mussel.
+
+  3. CIRRHIPEDA, (_with feet like cirri, or hairs_.) The inhabitant
+        of the acorn-shell, found on the back of the larger kind of
+        shell-fish, &c., is an instance of this class.
+
+  4. ANNELIDA, (_with body formed of rings_;) of this class
+        the leech and the earth-worm are instances.
+
+  5. CRUSTACEA, (_covered with a hard case_,) crabs, lobsters, &c.
+
+  6. ARACHNIDÆ, _Spiders_.
+
+  7. INSECTA, _Insects_. A perfect insect has always six legs.
+
+  8. TUNICATA, (_enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence_.)
+
+  9. VERMES, _Worms_. With lengthened body without divisions;
+        for instance, worms found in the intestines.
+
+  10. RADIARIÆ, (_radiated animals_,) with the different parts
+        of which they are formed arranged like rays round one
+        common centre; as, for instance, the Star-fish.
+
+  11. POLYPI, (_many feet_.) The animal that forms the Coral
+        is a Polypus.
+
+  12. INFUSORIA, (_Infusory animals_.) These are found in
+        infusions of vegetable substances in water, and are,
+        in general, too small to be visible to the naked eye.
+
+In the present little book we shall treat of the first five of these
+Classes.
+
+The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed
+first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling,
+in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.
+
+The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered
+not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the
+anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study.
+In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of
+the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the
+animals.
+
+Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to
+be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the
+valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable
+us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of
+view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist.
+In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different
+species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the
+royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small
+univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress,
+the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of
+mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the
+well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from
+the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As
+an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel,
+scallop, &c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of
+the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro
+population in the West Indies.
+
+The _Teredo navalis_, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers,
+ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which
+many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on
+this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history
+and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of
+ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with
+the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the
+useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep.
+
+The shell with which a Molluscous animal is covered, is absolutely
+necessary to protect its delicate body from injury; this shell is, in
+general, composed of much the same substances as bone; but the bone of
+a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency of the blood, and the
+particles of which it is composed are deposited by that fluid, and
+again taken up and restored to the circulation, a circumstance which
+does not take place in the substance of a shell. The shell is formed
+by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of the growth of
+the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells, point out their
+periodical increase.
+
+[Illustration: _Fig 1. Fig 2._]
+
+It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between shells
+of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless properly
+defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The annexed
+diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent occurrence
+among the Mollusca. Fig. 1, represents a univalve shell; fig. 2,
+another shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the
+purpose of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for
+instance, the periwinkle, (_Turbo vulgaris_,) have what is called
+an operculum, (_a lid_,) which closes the opening, and protects the
+inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of
+horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell
+itself.
+
+
+
+
+CLASS MOLLUSCA.
+
+
+In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily
+attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the
+creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in
+different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and
+brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they
+are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be
+of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the
+snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.
+
+The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different
+form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of
+muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or
+drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are
+situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of
+a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from
+view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished
+with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in
+others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion
+of these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit
+that element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.
+
+The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following
+Orders:—
+
+  1. HETEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
+        not uniform in all species_.)
+
+  2. CEPHALOPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
+        attached to the head_.)
+
+  3. TRACHELIPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
+        attached to the neck, near the gills_.)
+
+  4. GASTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
+        attached to the stomach_.)
+
+  5. PTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion,
+        like wings_.)
+
+
+_ORDER HETEROPODA._
+
+The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered
+as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals,
+intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods;
+they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a jelly-like
+substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty when
+floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are less
+known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great difficulty
+there is in preserving them.
+
+
+THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)
+
+This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and
+perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be
+seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears
+merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material
+organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or
+organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part
+of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white
+and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance
+resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling
+it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which
+seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors
+with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas
+at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax
+model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches
+wide.
+
+[Illustration: THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)]
+
+
+_ORDER CEPHALOPODA._
+
+The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished
+with a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find
+among this class some of the most singular productions of the waters;
+they differ materially from each other, and have been separated into
+three groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia;
+secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the
+Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous
+chambers, as the Nautilus.
+
+
+THE CUTTLE FISH, (_Sepia officinalis_.)
+
+The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native
+of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of
+an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually
+covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike
+all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the
+Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard
+transparent substance.
+
+The Cuttle Fish, figured in the engraving, is furnished in front
+with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy,
+or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously
+constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in
+themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted
+by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner
+surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in
+contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar
+power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not
+cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind
+of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for
+many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching.
+
+[Illustration: THE CUTTLE FISH.]
+
+[Illustration: BEAK OF A CEPHALOPOD.]
+
+The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and,
+although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt
+that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own
+element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes,
+capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe
+are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and
+very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within
+its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the
+power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it
+escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms
+a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal,
+_Sepia_. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each
+other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour,
+and commonly known by the name of _Sea Grapes_. They are found attached
+to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.
+
+The Cuttle Fish generally remains with its body in some hole in a rock,
+while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer
+that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious,
+and it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to
+conquer.
+
+The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English
+coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found
+on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the
+manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of
+the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in
+the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though
+varying considerably in texture.
+
+
+THE ARGONAUT, (_Argonauta argo_.)
+
+    The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,
+    The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep
+    The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.
+    He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,
+    That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.
+
+The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest
+ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and,
+at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research
+of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with
+the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so
+that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists
+would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division
+of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along
+with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union
+between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it
+applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do
+not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the
+shell.
+
+The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its
+resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in
+full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have
+been the first fitted out for commercial adventure.
+
+[Illustration: THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.]
+
+In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in
+considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the
+waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist,
+Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal
+miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or
+Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture,
+and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube,
+all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily;
+then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a
+membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the
+remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as
+a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if
+alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”
+
+Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its
+shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly
+Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that
+such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed
+by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the
+instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation.
+The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these
+interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.
+
+
+THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, (_Nautilus pompilius_.)
+
+The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after
+with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years
+that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this
+knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while
+engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen
+containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now
+deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.
+
+The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided
+into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now
+describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to
+be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking
+in the Water at will. The body of this _Cephalopod_, it will be seen,
+only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size
+having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as
+the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they
+had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too
+cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the
+providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own
+words, the capture of this interesting object.
+
+[Illustration: THE PEARLY NAUTILUS,
+
+Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.]
+
+“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather,
+thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was
+lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island
+of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean,
+that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at
+some distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead
+tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in
+this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship
+at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the
+floating object.”
+
+“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly
+known by the name of the Pearly Nautilus: it was captured and brought
+on board; but the shell was shattered from having been struck with
+the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was sinking when the boat
+approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it would have escaped. I
+extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was firmly attached to
+each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has been stated by Dr.
+Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour, with deeper sports
+and variegations,” the colour, however, as it appeared in this recent
+specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.
+
+[Illustration: SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN, OR INTERNAL
+SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.]
+
+Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been
+brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been
+frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and
+not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An
+office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of
+rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the
+fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as
+soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I
+and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not
+notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell,
+merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the
+membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful
+prize.”
+
+Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with
+its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out
+his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the
+poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse
+position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the
+ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on
+the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but
+after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops
+floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves.
+This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken
+in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the
+bottom.”
+
+
+_ORDER TRACHELIPODA._
+
+The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve
+shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two
+numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (_Zoophagi_,) and those
+that exist on vegetable substances, (_Phytophagi_.) The animal feeders
+are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without
+jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at
+pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies
+of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known
+from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a
+_siphon_, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points
+out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of
+its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for
+the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe
+water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.
+
+  FAMILY CONVOLUTA,    (_rolled up like a scroll_.)
+  FAMILY COLUMELLARIA, (_distinguished by a plaited columella_.)
+  FAMILY PURPURIFERA,  (_yielding a purple colour_.)
+  FAMILY ALATA,        (_winged_.)
+  FAMILY CANALIFERA    (_having a canal at the base of the opening_.)
+
+
+FAMILY _CONVOLUTA_.
+
+The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich
+in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of
+this class.
+
+
+FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (ZOOPHAGI.)
+
+
+THE MARBLE CONE, (_Conus marmoreus_.)
+
+Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The
+Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and
+is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular
+white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable
+manner the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his
+works.
+
+[Illustration: _Voluta diadema. Conus marmoreus. Columbella
+mercatoria._]
+
+It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is
+much thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part;
+and this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the
+soft body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the
+animal the shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes
+internal, the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall;
+if, therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original
+thickness, its weight would become too great for its possessor. To
+guard against this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material,
+the creature possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance
+of what now becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is
+unnecessary for its present use, and of re-depositing the same on the
+outward wall of its mansion, where strength is most required[1].
+
+The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve
+shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable
+specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their
+form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but,
+above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of
+celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.
+
+[Illustration: _Oliva porphyria._]
+
+The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve
+fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two
+tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit
+salt waters.
+
+The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal
+which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the
+columella. The Porphyry Olive is found in the South American Seas, on
+the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species
+of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish
+brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with
+irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly
+four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.
+
+
+THE MONEY COWRIE, (_Cypræa moneta_.)
+
+The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African
+coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a
+circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in
+Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are
+obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for
+rice.
+
+[Illustration: _Cypræa moneta._]
+
+Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea;
+these having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to
+Bengal, and from thence sent into this country. The value of these
+shells as a circulating medium depends naturally enough on their
+greater or less abundance.
+
+In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a
+shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued at
+a shilling.
+
+The Cowrie shell is found of three different forms, according to
+its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely
+imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the
+usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then
+begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely
+slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly,
+when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in
+which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden.
+The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the
+two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult
+state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large,
+so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while
+the deposition of the new matter is taking place.
+
+Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to
+prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we
+have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to
+require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one;
+from this it happens that the same individual can form successively
+many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both
+large and small.
+
+When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand,
+at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot
+climates.
+
+
+FAMILY _COLUMELLARIA_.
+
+This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella
+plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a
+plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that
+is, without a notch.
+
+
+THE DIADEM WHORL SHELL, (_Voluta diadema_.)
+
+The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it
+is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become
+nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and
+is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has
+two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth
+is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little
+hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ,
+springing out obliquely behind the head.
+
+
+THE COMMON COLUMBELLA, (_Columbella mercatoria_.)
+
+The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island
+of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of
+an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it
+possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.
+
+
+FAMILY _PURPURIFERA_.
+
+The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove
+bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all
+the genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to
+these Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar
+reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient
+nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much
+in use before the discovery of cochineal.
+
+
+THE MUSIC HARP SHELL, (_Harpa musica_.)
+
+The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance
+also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the
+animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time
+back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either
+forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth,
+although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:—
+
+[Illustration: _Harpa musica._]
+
+The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two
+portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from
+its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and
+wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account
+it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it
+would be lost at the same time as the foot.
+
+The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were
+less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours,
+become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still
+considered rare.
+
+The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the
+regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a
+harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.
+
+
+THE WIDE-MOUTHED PURPURA, (_Purpura patula_.)
+
+This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the
+Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple
+colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in
+the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.
+
+The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was
+discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was
+thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the
+discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied
+the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient
+minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its
+discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are
+informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the
+sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized
+one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his
+teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph
+having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to
+have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less
+anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a
+method of applying it to cloth.
+
+This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either
+consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only
+for the garments of royalty.
+
+Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar
+and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The
+Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most
+of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing.
+Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings
+of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the
+republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their
+own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should
+dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and
+tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a
+few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was
+entirely lost.
+
+In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye,
+nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths
+the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and
+on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the
+accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour
+were entirely fabulous.
+
+According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter
+out of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure
+state, and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from
+the smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ
+were caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken
+out and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of
+the matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels
+over a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the
+fleshy impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor
+was tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was
+defective, the boiling was renewed.
+
+Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at
+other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among
+these Pliny enumerates _Fucus marinus_, or Archil, and the _Anchusa
+tinctoria_, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these
+and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of
+shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.
+
+In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but
+the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.
+
+In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead,
+was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made
+considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson
+colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this
+colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr.
+Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus
+excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various
+kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities
+of a species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the
+opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours,
+he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying
+transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the
+fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a
+horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous
+clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it
+may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to
+be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor
+in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if
+placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,—that is, if
+in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise,
+or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer,
+the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce
+be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep
+green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green,
+after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue,
+and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red,
+after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,)
+it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no
+more.”
+
+“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding
+water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the
+wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned,
+that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour,
+which afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the
+colour, will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in
+handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will
+be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”
+
+Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species
+of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they
+had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were
+white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of
+them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it
+stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by
+washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it
+was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of
+the sun.
+
+The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these
+shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but
+Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial
+in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little
+colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a
+substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being
+applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.
+
+
+FAMILY _ALATA_.
+
+This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at
+the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the
+shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.
+
+
+THE SPOTTED SCORPION SHELL, (_Pterocera scorpio_.)
+
+This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains
+a considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the
+projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance
+is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced
+period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and
+is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted
+and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell
+is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on
+which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or
+slightly tinged with yellow.
+
+[Illustration: _Pterocera scorpio._]
+
+
+FAMILY _CANALIFERA_.
+
+The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in
+having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening
+does not change its form through age.
+
+
+THE VARIEGATED SEA-TRUMPET, (_Triton variegatum_.)
+
+The _Triton variegatum_, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and
+beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found
+chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on
+the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell
+applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.
+
+    Already Triton, at his call, appears
+    Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,
+    And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.
+    The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,
+    And give the waves the signal to retire.
+    His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent
+    Grows by degrees into a large extent,
+    Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,
+    Runs the wide circuit of the world around.
+    The sun first heard it, in his early east,
+    And met the rattling echoes in the west;
+    The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,
+    Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.
+                                        DRYDEN.
+
+[Illustration: _Dolium perdix. Triton variegatum. Pyrula
+caniculata._]
+
+
+THE CANICULATED PEAR-SHELL, (_Pyrula caniculata_.)
+
+This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and
+attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at
+present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the
+whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many
+as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.
+
+[Illustration: _Turbo marmoratus. Pleurotoma babylonia. Trochus
+imperialis._]
+
+
+THE BABYLONIAN SPLIT-MOUTH,
+
+(_Pleurotoma babylonia_.)
+
+The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca
+Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said
+that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated
+as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from
+the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the
+shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the
+creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to
+support.
+
+
+VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (PHYTOPHAGI.)
+
+Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances
+have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws;
+they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which
+they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their
+tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in
+stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These
+last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of
+breathing,—others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist
+out of that element.
+
+
+THE MARBLE TURBAN-SHELL, (_Turbo marmoratus_.)
+
+There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell.
+The Marble Turban, _Turbo marmoratus_, is the largest, being as much
+as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour
+of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity.
+It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting
+of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells
+whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of
+mother-of-pearl.
+
+The _Turbo littoreus_ (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle,
+with which our rocky coasts abound.
+
+
+THE IMPERIAL TOP-SHELL, (_Trochus imperialis_.)
+
+These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form
+to a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their
+spire is always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called
+_flat-mouthed snails_. The greater number of these shells, (and the
+species are very numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and
+many of them are also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there
+are as many as seventy species,—the larger and more elegant are only
+found in the seas of hot climates.
+
+[Illustration: _Haliotis iris. Scalaria pretiosa. Neritina pulligera._]
+
+
+THE PRECIOUS SCALARIA, (_Scalaria pretiosa_.)
+
+This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of
+its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were
+only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the
+turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast,
+on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native
+place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and
+several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others
+consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage
+some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that
+as much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given
+for a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ
+are much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast
+of Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in
+forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches
+in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the
+empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is
+from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought
+to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with
+rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.
+
+
+THE IRIS EAR-SHELL, (_Haliotis Iris_.)
+
+The _Haliotides_, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species
+are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the
+system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many
+doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it
+continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of
+Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food,
+the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender
+tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament
+the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these
+tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the
+number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed
+at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes
+which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of
+the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of
+species very difficult and uncertain.
+
+
+THE DUSTY NERITINA, (_Neritina pulligera_.)
+
+This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and
+a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to
+inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the
+history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,—namely,
+that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good
+preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general
+natives of hot climates.
+
+
+THE VIVIPAROUS PALUDINA, (_Paludina vivipara_.)
+
+The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it
+takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within
+the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In
+nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in
+the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.
+
+[Illustration: _Planorbis corneus. Paludina vivipara. Lymnæa
+stagnalis._]
+
+These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water;
+sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the
+mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny
+substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves
+to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they
+are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.
+
+
+LYMNÆA STAGNALIS.
+
+The _Lymnæa stagnalis_ is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow
+ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for
+its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the
+water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great
+numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance
+of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into
+its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it
+instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order
+to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the
+ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts
+its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very
+little power to direct its own course.
+
+During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the
+mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind,
+they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes,
+which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not
+easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other.
+
+
+THE HORN-SHAPED PLANORBIS,
+
+(_Planorbis corneus_.)
+
+The _Planorbis_, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses
+the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like
+substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year,
+attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is
+considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the
+spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other
+inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable,
+certainly not poisonous.
+
+
+THE RED-MOUTHED BULIMUS, (_Bulimus hæmastomus_.)
+
+The _Bulimus hæmastomus_ is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of
+Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most
+singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of
+the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that
+of a moderate-sized pigeon.
+
+[Illustration: _Bulimus hæmastomus. Pupa mummia._]
+
+
+THE MUMMY PUPPET SHELL, (_Pupa mummia_.)
+
+The _Pupa mummia_ is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the
+singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy.
+
+The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones,
+and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The
+greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of
+tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and
+other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small.
+
+
+THE WOOD SNAIL, (_Helix nemoralis_.)
+
+The Snail (_Helix_) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe,
+and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells
+which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been
+placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with
+two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices
+in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn
+into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula
+is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black
+spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal,
+and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all
+the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal
+appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some
+writers suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of
+these appendages.
+
+The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger
+kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans,
+according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in
+the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening
+them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in
+great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they
+are still used as food in several parts of the Continent.
+
+[Illustration: _Helix nemoralis._]
+
+In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are
+frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but
+used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other
+diseases of the chest.
+
+It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have
+portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be
+afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished
+extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was
+not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails,
+which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head
+was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world
+became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made,
+and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one,
+however, for a length of time, could succeed;—it was then suspected
+that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length,
+it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of
+which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce
+a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others,
+the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper
+nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two
+years after the old head has been removed.
+
+M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred
+Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden,
+that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they
+could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the
+Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he
+discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain
+of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the
+end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and
+like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more
+delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot
+doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has
+been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind
+of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.”
+
+If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the
+disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very
+considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and
+kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended
+for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are
+tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed
+of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early
+rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the
+dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become
+excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander
+in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are
+great destroyers both of Snails and slugs.
+
+A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth
+recording.
+
+The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading
+into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of
+this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to
+kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road;
+but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks
+and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled
+him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails
+which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not
+in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct
+line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as
+if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is
+the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails
+aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green
+spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,—from
+the path, nothing but the wall in front,—but still, although the
+whole of their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on,
+until they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By
+what other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies
+the place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with
+so liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature?
+
+
+_ORDER GASTEROPODA._
+
+The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and
+foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which
+this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the
+creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is
+for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished
+from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral,
+and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in
+some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting
+covering of any shell whatever.
+
+
+THE RED SLUG, (_Limax rufus_.)
+
+The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order,
+entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all
+countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have
+never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact
+of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The _Limax
+rufus_, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a
+reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it
+impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly
+found in fields than in gardens.
+
+[Illustration: _Limax rufus._]
+
+There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on
+account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown
+kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is
+very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields
+of cabbages and turnips.
+
+In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head,
+contains a very small oval shell.
+
+There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under
+stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in
+length; it is called _Limax noctiluca_, the night-shining Slug. The
+buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which
+exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining
+with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm.
+
+We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact
+mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have
+laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were
+dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being
+placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched.
+
+The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by
+a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to
+entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight
+acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the
+apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing
+two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field
+of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two
+women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs,
+which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid
+on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed
+invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were
+to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they
+abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to
+be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The
+quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel.
+
+
+THE WOODLIKE BULLA, (_Bulla lignaria_.)
+
+The animal of the _Bulla_ is singular, from possessing-within its
+stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that
+organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind
+of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the
+foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches
+and a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck
+mentions as many as eleven species.
+
+[Illustration: _Bulla lignaria._]
+
+
+THE NAIL-SHAPED CREPIDULA,
+
+(_Crepidula unguiformis_.)
+
+The genus _Crepidula_ takes its name from its hearing some resemblance
+to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these
+there are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm
+climates.
+
+
+THE MEDITERRANEAN UMBRELLA,
+
+(_Umbrella Mediterranea_.)
+
+The _Umbrella Mediterranea_, as its name implies, is found in the
+Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is
+singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by
+a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself.
+
+
+THE CLOUDED FISSURELLA, (_Fissurella nimbosa_.)
+
+The _Fissurella nimbosa_ is found in various and distant parts of the
+world,—in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &c. It is
+rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in
+length.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Umbrella      Crepidula    Fissurella
+   Mediterranea. unguiformis. nimbosa._
+
+]
+
+The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by
+having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell,
+affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is
+discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ.
+
+
+THE HUNGARIAN BONNET SHELL,
+
+(_Pileopsis Ungarica_.)
+
+The _Pileopsis Ungarica_ is extremely elegant both in its form and
+markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with
+rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low
+water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless
+removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the
+creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches
+itself firmly to the surface.
+
+[Illustration: _Pileopsis Ungarica._]
+
+
+THE SCALY CHITON, (_Chiton squamosus_.)
+
+The _Chitons_ differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in
+the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed
+by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck,
+in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the
+Mollusca.
+
+[Illustration: _Chiton squamosus._]
+
+“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe
+the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the
+marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not
+a univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not
+to be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one
+piece, which Nature had originally broken transversely into several
+distinct moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its
+movements.”
+
+The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between
+high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements.
+Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton,
+says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is
+covered with a multitude of teeth,—some simple, and others with three
+points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows.
+
+
+
+
+CLASS CONCHIFERA.
+
+
+The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells,
+in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is
+soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a
+shell of two valves, without head or eyes,—a mouth, if it may be so
+called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole
+body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes,
+generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the
+principal distinguishing characters of this class.
+
+In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference
+to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the
+number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged
+under the heads of _univalves_, of one piece, _bivalves_, with two
+pieces, and _multivalves_, with more than two pieces. This arrangement
+was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that
+otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells,
+however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals
+belonging to the class Conchifera.
+
+The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses
+except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well
+described by Dr. Roget, in his _Bridgewater Treatise_, that we cannot
+do better than extract a portion from that interesting work.
+
+[Illustration: Valves of the _Unio Batava_, with the Connecting
+Ligament.]
+
+The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by
+a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that
+lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies
+much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great
+strength.
+
+During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell
+is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of
+the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment
+and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary
+to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell,
+and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being
+only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a
+muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even
+a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their
+fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to
+that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from
+their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the _adductor
+muscles_.
+
+[Illustration: Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the
+Hinge, L., the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its
+Fibres, with respect to the Valves.]
+
+The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of
+being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing
+to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are
+not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies.
+
+Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the Oyster has some power of
+locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling the
+contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the
+fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy
+mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to
+rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain
+within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and
+that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas,
+those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water
+never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they
+are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous
+experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left
+them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.
+
+[Illustration: _The Cardium, or Cockle._]
+
+Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a
+leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In
+the _Cardium_, or cockle, this organ is composed of a mass of muscular
+fibres, interwoven together in a very complex manner, and which may
+be compared to the muscular structure of the human tongue; the effect
+in both is the same, namely, the conferring a power of motion in
+all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded, retracted, or
+inflected at every point.
+
+The _Solen_, or razor-shell fish, has a foot of a cylindrical shape,
+tapering at the end, and much more resembling in its form a tongue
+than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of the foot is effected
+by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior of the organ is formed
+of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a considerable quantity of
+water, which the animal has the power of injecting into it, and of thus
+increasing its dimensions.
+
+The foot of the _Mytilus edulis_, or common mussel, can be advanced
+to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any
+fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body,
+and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and
+by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed
+object, continues slowly to advance.
+
+This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal
+themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly
+adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for
+this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and
+insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and
+forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it
+is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract
+it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised
+and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of
+these exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is
+moderately active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a
+minute. The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which
+was raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on
+its side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to
+be supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly
+at every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be
+perceived above the sand.
+
+By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the
+foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell
+may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before
+protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled
+quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can,
+with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place.
+
+The _Cardium_ can also advance at the bottom of the sea, along the
+surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot, as a
+boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against
+the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar
+expedient, that the Solen forces its way through the sand, expanding
+the end of its foot into the form of a club.
+
+The _Tellina_ is remarkable for the quickness and agility with which it
+can spring to considerable distances, by first folding the foot into a
+small compass, and then suddenly extending it, while the shell is, at
+the same time, closed with a loud snap.
+
+The _Pinna_, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of
+tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus
+for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from
+dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of
+its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number
+of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks,
+and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a
+convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of
+this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round
+tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to
+retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their
+power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous
+matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being
+drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the
+spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a
+certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously
+constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from
+the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this
+groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting
+it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this
+canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient
+tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied
+to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully
+attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is
+then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by
+its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is
+disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same
+operation is repeated.
+
+Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions
+around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of
+some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the
+importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its
+safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed,
+by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an
+action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once
+the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the
+power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which
+they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly
+to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that
+no Pinna is capable of forming more than four, or at most five threads,
+in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in
+haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender
+than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other
+parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into
+gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk.
+
+The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this
+Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there
+are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa,
+with only one pair.
+
+
+_ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA._
+
+The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are
+much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but
+they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as,
+for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the
+oriental pearl.
+
+
+THE HORSE-FOOT BOWL SHELL,
+
+(_Anomia ephippium_.)
+
+The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form;
+like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence
+attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger
+inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the
+same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of
+the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value.
+Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of
+the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in
+the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which,
+instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of
+shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this
+_operculum_, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of
+the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance,
+by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty.
+
+[Illustration: _Anomia ephippium._ [_Anomia_, a little bowl;
+_ephippium_, a horse’s foot.]]
+
+
+THE OYSTER, (_Ostrea edulis_.)
+
+Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become
+food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe;
+they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky
+ground, in no great depth from the surface.
+
+Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May;
+when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease,
+which the dredgers commonly call _cultch_. The growth of an Oyster is
+tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of
+the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in
+three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a
+half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size.
+
+[Illustration: _Ostrea edulis._]
+
+Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The
+Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute,
+attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which
+they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from
+England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the
+luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported
+in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were
+fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to
+those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour,
+nearly black.
+
+The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following
+places:—Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are
+generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in
+Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales.
+In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and
+at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters
+is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April
+inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome;
+it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months
+that have the letter _r_ in them.
+
+In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of
+Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St.
+Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this
+is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope
+which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is
+then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few
+minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken
+are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places,
+where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks
+are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist
+materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken
+out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in
+what we should call bad condition.
+
+Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or
+sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a
+narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks
+are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed
+on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand
+on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the
+water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may
+have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them.
+A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which
+had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change
+of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain
+a peculiar kind of green food.
+
+
+THE GREAT COMB SHELL, (_Pecten maximus_.)
+
+This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the
+largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all
+the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is
+covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into
+use among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other
+articles of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil
+species.
+
+[Illustration: _Pecten maximus. Malleus albus._]
+
+The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species
+of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water,
+and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but
+this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its
+habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it
+tolerably palatable it requires cooking.
+
+In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the
+poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the _restaurateurs_ employ
+them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of
+mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters,
+and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell.
+
+
+THE PEARL OYSTER, (_Meleagrina margaritifera_.)
+
+The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very
+different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of
+its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a _byssus_, or
+beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found.
+There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly
+found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of
+Australasia.
+
+The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other
+inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable
+dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained.
+
+The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a
+pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by
+an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the
+inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the
+mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future
+irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances
+cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval,
+sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is
+always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck,
+or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be
+traced on the pearl itself.
+
+[Illustration: _Meleagrina margaritifera._]
+
+But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;—in this case, the
+pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for
+instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid,
+this nucleus can be traced.
+
+Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre,
+consisting of the remains of a diseased _ovum_, or egg, of the animal.
+
+Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a
+valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her
+ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be
+doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it
+would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to
+drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the
+lapse of a very considerable time.
+
+At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great
+moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is
+conducted.
+
+The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of
+Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye
+but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are
+the plants that nourish the cochineal insect[2]), and here and there
+some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees. But Condatchy,
+three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to be seen but a
+few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during the period of
+the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of which extend
+upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are only intended
+as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely constructed),
+and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair on the grandest
+scale. The people most active in erecting huts and speculating in the
+various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans, Cingalese (natives
+of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast of the continent of
+India. Apparently, however, from their natural timidity, none of the
+Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them engage in the other
+active parts of the fishery; they merely resort hither for the purpose
+of supplying the markets.
+
+About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery,
+when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of
+the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English
+superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent
+diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand
+oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls
+collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a
+good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are
+scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles
+from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are
+fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is
+ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to
+fifteen fathoms.
+
+The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the
+same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but
+considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference.
+The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside
+of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more
+beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured.
+The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy
+part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several
+pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty.
+
+Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely
+at its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators:
+but, most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual,
+who sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year
+1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than
+120,000_l._
+
+At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two
+hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These,
+with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything
+necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different
+parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions
+and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of
+these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they
+reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.
+
+At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to
+emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open
+scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from
+each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended,
+with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone
+hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about
+five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of
+a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the
+stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron,
+to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a
+slip of calico round his loins,—swimming in the water, he takes hold
+of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of
+the stone.
+
+He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting
+himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden
+hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to
+him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone
+and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels
+himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils
+with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other
+gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and
+instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is
+thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached
+to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon
+as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone,
+which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting
+oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next
+diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as
+much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get
+hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk
+to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of
+it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time,
+free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above
+water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a
+distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a
+rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into
+the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is
+training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely
+experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the
+manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a
+single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has
+reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain
+under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in
+this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert
+man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket.
+There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down
+alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity
+of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a
+favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort
+after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a
+pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks
+contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for
+six hours.
+
+When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal,
+and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten
+to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and
+noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the
+oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore,
+where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for
+ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the
+oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel,
+filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their
+putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells
+broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which
+have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards
+handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from
+the shells, with pincers.
+
+When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters
+remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom
+of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured
+into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost.
+Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance
+in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are
+by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom.
+
+As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being
+conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small
+and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of
+considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with
+salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into
+classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves.
+After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then
+arranged on strings, and are fit for the market.
+
+Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest
+times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are
+often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various
+attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular
+of which,—known to have been practised early in the Christian era,
+on the banks of the Red Sea,—is still carried on in China. A hole is
+bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted,
+and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point
+of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually
+hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite
+size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land.
+
+A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced
+the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be
+formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually
+established artificial pearleries,—but these were abandoned after
+a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of
+sufficient size to be of much value.
+
+False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is
+covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white
+wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which
+adhere to the scales of the bleak, (_ablette_,) and was first applied
+to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name
+of Jacquin[3].
+
+
+THE HAMMER OYSTER, (_Malleus albus_.)
+
+The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable;
+externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other
+hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the
+most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus
+are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity
+of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like
+the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or
+beard, by which it adheres to the rocks.
+
+
+THE ROUGH PINNA, (_Pinna rudis_.)
+
+The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the
+shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the
+engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much
+as a foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a
+species found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water,
+which is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria,
+not only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard,
+or byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very
+remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the
+Pinna, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a _crampe_, with teeth a
+foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to
+be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains
+attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose
+of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried
+and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even
+garments of much larger size.
+
+[Illustration: _Pinna rudis._]
+
+The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of
+equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a
+dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent.
+
+This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but
+at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of
+the Pinna, and the number of beards necessary to make even so small an
+article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells
+were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &c., they
+would increase much more rapidly.
+
+These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British
+shores possess but one species, the _Pinna lævis_ of Donovan; this is
+of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size.
+
+
+THE COMMON MUSSEL, (_Mytilus edulis_.)
+
+The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing
+animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and
+low water marks.
+
+[Illustration: _Mytilus edulis._]
+
+They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food;
+and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish.
+
+The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of
+severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned
+for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by
+which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be
+detected,—a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance,
+partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or
+insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have
+ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of
+the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many
+experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author,
+the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding
+on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely
+a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass
+of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is
+cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of
+July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common
+observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in
+which the letter _r_ is not found. This spawn, according to our author,
+is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and
+inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the
+part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled
+up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered
+severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all
+these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been
+discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion
+occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but
+this has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten
+with vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise.
+
+When an individual is _musselled_, the effects are very alarming;
+the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few
+hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is
+attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink,
+and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which
+soon relieves the patient.
+
+The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it is
+well adapted.
+
+In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the
+multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom
+of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which
+the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August,
+when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the
+mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here
+they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and
+in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change
+from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve
+their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks,
+preserves in which the salt water remains at rest.
+
+
+THE GIANT TRIDACNA, (_Tridacna gigas_.)
+
+The _Tridacna gigas_ is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very
+thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much as
+five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells have
+been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the
+churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to
+form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given
+to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found
+in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one
+hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna
+gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere
+to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity,
+as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of
+separating them from the rock.
+
+[Illustration: _Tridacna gigas._]
+
+
+_ORDER BIMUSCULOSA,
+
+(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)_
+
+This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells,
+all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their
+structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their
+use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome with
+those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more
+pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to
+place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in
+one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable
+depth of water, they are not so easily obtained.
+
+
+THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL, (_Anodonta cygnæa_.)
+
+Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble
+it, are known by the trivial name of _Mussel_, the only resemblance
+between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which
+inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in
+habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power
+of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta
+is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of
+shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad
+muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain
+pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are
+lined with mother-of-pearl.
+
+Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl,
+very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high
+price.
+
+A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the
+collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County
+Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months,
+go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs,
+and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell,
+take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell
+in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in
+a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable
+pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those
+people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good
+advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for
+50_l._ that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40_l._ A
+miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4_l._ 10_s._ to a man that
+sold it for 10_l._, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30_l._,
+with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80_l._ for it from the
+late Dutchess of Ormond.”
+
+[Illustration: _Isocardia cor. Anodonta Cygnæa._]
+
+
+THE HEART-SHAPED ISOCARDIA,
+
+(_Isocardia cor_.)
+
+This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by
+the name of the _foolscap-shell_, and the _bullock’s heart shell_, is
+rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast;
+it is the largest British bivalve shell.
+
+
+THE WEDGE-SHAPED DONAX, (_Donax cuneata_.)
+
+There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that
+represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks:
+it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these
+species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and
+streaked with pink.
+
+[Illustration: _Donax cuneata._]
+
+In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through
+various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the
+Tellina, or _earth-shell_, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the
+Solen, or _razor-shell_.
+
+
+THE SHEATH SOLEN, (_Solen vagina_.)
+
+The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying
+themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a
+couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to
+penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell.
+Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in
+which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom.
+This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which
+forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is
+enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose
+of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal
+ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may
+possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of
+Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms
+for its retreat is always perpendicular.
+
+[Illustration: _Tellina. Solen vagina. Pandora rostrata._]
+
+One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on
+the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather
+cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the
+farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of
+the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated;
+after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular
+direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began
+to descend, and that with considerable quickness.
+
+The Solens are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places
+where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method
+of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat
+of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its
+chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of
+salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so
+irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly
+mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance,
+snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes
+good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal
+escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect;
+either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which
+is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up
+with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other
+means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it
+out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty.
+
+
+THE DATE-SHAPED PHOLAS, (_Pholas dactyloides_.)
+
+These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the
+solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in
+stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of
+much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical,
+for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an
+insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that
+the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which
+acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this
+solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered
+in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon
+stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava.
+
+Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their
+phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if
+eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the
+person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus.
+
+[Illustration: _Pholas dactyloides._]
+
+Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly
+eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are
+found.
+
+The species represented in the engraving is found on the British
+coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully
+carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the
+engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole
+from which a shell has been removed is shown.
+
+
+THE SHIP-WORM, (_Teredo navalis_.)
+
+Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully
+examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it
+employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as
+there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent
+observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed,
+are fully equal to the task.
+
+[Illustration: _Teredo navalis._]
+
+Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of
+the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The
+animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a
+tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress
+through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right
+in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of
+these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the
+excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually
+formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most
+deeply sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally
+excavates in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some
+instances it crosses this grain.
+
+In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high
+water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have
+been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of
+large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by
+means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together.
+These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this
+destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and
+had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts
+of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost.
+
+
+
+
+CLASS CIRRHIPEDA.
+
+
+The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of _Barnacles_ and
+_Acorn-shells_, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and
+pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time.
+They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca,
+and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &c. These creatures, from their
+singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of
+the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was
+unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their
+true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British
+naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any
+definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately
+after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought
+more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and
+lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case.
+
+After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea,
+Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the
+CLASS of Crustacea, I formed the _first order_ of this class, (the
+_Cirrhipeds_,) under the name of _sightless Crustacea_, but a few years
+afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of the Mollusca,
+but this was no better. If, for example, we consider those characters
+which furnish their most important organs, we shall find that the
+Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the Crustacea,
+for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws analogous to
+those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the antennæ of the
+shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was a task that
+devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq., a surgeon in
+his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery took place, we
+shall notice further on.
+
+The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or
+tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being
+derived from two Latin words,—_cirrhus_, hair, and _pes_, the foot;
+these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have,
+in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion.
+
+They have been separated into two orders; namely, _Cirrhipeda
+pedunculata_, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery
+nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,—and _Cirrhipeda sedentaria_,
+which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell.
+
+
+_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA._
+
+(_Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk._)
+
+
+THE SMOOTH BARNACLE, (_Anatifa lævis_.)
+
+The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of
+a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has
+lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the
+shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance of
+this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission
+granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days,
+because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to
+partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent
+to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following
+notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and _printed_ by
+them in their _Transactions_. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and
+convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the
+shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I
+found a perfect _sea-fowl_; the little bill like that of a _goose_, the
+eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the
+feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the
+_feet_ like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor
+did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that
+did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen
+some as big as their fist!!”
+
+[Illustration: _Anatifa lævis._]
+
+
+_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA_,
+
+(_Sedentary Cirrhipeds_.)
+
+
+THE ACORN-SHELL, (_Balanus_.)
+
+Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the
+Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author had
+devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was
+returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when,
+casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry
+at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a
+treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled
+for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.”
+After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues
+“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in
+any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the
+little animal about to be described.
+
+[Illustration: _Balanus_, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)]
+
+“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a
+somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue.
+When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel,
+and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water
+in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are
+withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves,
+united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of
+opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional
+exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a
+large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks,
+&c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members,
+so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke
+to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a
+succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  Fig. 1.  Larva of Barnacle, natural size.
+       2.    "    "    "      magnified, seen from above.
+       3.    "    "    "      highly magnified, seen from side;
+                                _a_, swimming-members;
+                                _b_, front limb, with sucker.
+       4. Eye, much magnified.
+       5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size.
+       6.    "      "      "      full grown.
+
+]
+
+“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal,
+is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the
+shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front,
+at the sides of the body.
+
+“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826;
+and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a
+glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be
+examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were
+taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the
+satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their _exuviæ_[4],
+and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the
+vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen
+intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of
+the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part
+of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with
+the _exuviæ_. On the 10th, another individual was seen _in the act of
+throwing off its shell_, and attaching itself, like the others, to the
+bottom of the glass.”
+
+
+
+
+CLASS ANNULATA.
+
+
+We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of
+Lamarck; he calls them,
+
+“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or
+inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least
+transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without
+antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number
+having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of
+being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though
+not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various
+forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this
+separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white
+blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals
+are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which
+have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated
+into three Orders, namely, _Annulata sedentaria_, which are fixed to
+other substances; _Annulata antennata_, possessing antennæ, or feelers;
+and _Annulata apoda_, without projecting members answering as feet,
+serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &c.”
+
+[Illustration: _Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals._]
+
+
+_ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA_,
+
+(_Sedentary Annulose Animals_.)
+
+The creatures which form this order are generally found attached
+to rocks, shells, &c. and are usually of small size. The engraving
+represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula
+there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell
+that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the
+species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has
+great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or
+tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always
+occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its _operculum_, the
+lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily
+formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of
+course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy.
+
+
+THE MAGNIFICENT AMPHITRITE,
+
+(_Amphitrite magnifica_.)
+
+This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as
+yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica,
+adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is
+exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into
+its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that
+of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained
+by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being
+put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health.
+That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an
+umbrella, consists of the _branchiæ_ or organs of breathing; these are
+of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite,
+although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to
+it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body.
+
+[Illustration: _Amphitrite magnifica._]
+
+
+_ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA_,
+
+(_Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ_.)
+
+
+THE SAND-WORM OF THE FISHERMEN,
+
+(_Arenicola piscatorium_.)
+
+This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much
+sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the
+European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met
+with in great abundance.
+
+[Illustration: _Arenicola piscatorium._]
+
+
+BLOOD-COLOURED LEODICE, (_Leodice sanguinea_.)
+
+The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are
+enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs
+of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four
+well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear
+a strong resemblance to the _scolopendra_, or centipede.
+
+[Illustration: _Leodice sanguinea._]
+
+The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of
+Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to
+the length of fourteen or fifteen inches.
+
+When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the
+blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body
+was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the
+animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as
+soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished.
+
+The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable
+jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the
+animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath
+the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus.
+
+
+THE SPINOUS SEA-MOUSE, OR SEA-CATERPILLAR,
+
+(_Halithæa aculeata_.)
+
+The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native
+element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially
+covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a
+peacock.
+
+[Illustration: _Halithæa aculeata._]
+
+
+_ORDER ANNULATA APODA_,
+
+
+(_Footless Annulose Animals_.)
+
+The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already
+described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides
+of their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may,
+consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those
+we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they
+are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and
+live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We
+find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the
+Earth-worm and the Leech.
+
+
+THE COMMON EARTH-WORM,
+
+(_Lumbricus terrestris_.)
+
+The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow
+rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short,
+silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like.
+These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the
+alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is
+enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so
+forming various fixed points of resistance or _fulcra_, upon which the
+animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the
+Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a
+simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind
+of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is
+supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two
+openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the dirt
+which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the other
+by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made by the
+animal would be much in this form, descending at A, and reaching the
+surface by B. It has been said, that the Earth-worm, if divided by the
+spade or otherwise, will unite again and live; the foundation for this
+appears to be the more probable fact, that, when divided, that portion
+of the animal in which the head is placed may, perhaps, survive the
+mutilation, and ultimately again become a perfect creature.
+
+Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks,
+they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round
+the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving
+the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very
+deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up
+in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of _mucus_,
+which is furnished by the pores of their body.
+
+The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with
+the author of the _Journal of a Naturalist_; among other remarks,
+he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important
+one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers,
+harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common
+Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the
+soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the
+surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer
+parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the
+more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple
+nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them
+are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and
+scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil,
+
+                 Death still producing life.
+
+“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey
+of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary
+example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction.
+The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its
+prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds;
+fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it
+unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and
+burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in
+dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the
+earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element,
+yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it
+as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and
+even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of
+the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding
+this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully
+commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of
+all.
+
+“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining
+over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become
+frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually
+consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass
+of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of
+approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground,
+than they approach the surface.
+
+“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing
+the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into
+the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service,
+penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every
+direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the
+water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we
+have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says,
+“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of
+knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and
+fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any
+vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that
+all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale
+as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that
+permitted me to obtain this knowledge.”
+
+
+THE MEDICINAL LEECH, (_Hirudo medicinalis_.)
+
+The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to
+have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed
+in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied
+to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended
+to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt
+leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any
+part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound
+occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal.
+
+At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the
+operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the
+body, for which use it is eminently adapted.
+
+There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures,
+but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the _Hirudo
+medicinalis_, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or
+striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted
+with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not
+uniformly found; and the _Hirudo troctina_, of a brownish colour,
+the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is
+surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow,
+and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots.
+
+The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout
+the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts;
+it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very
+abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture,
+and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great
+use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less
+frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are
+imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate
+calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every
+hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign
+production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat
+larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots.
+Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by
+the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were
+employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech
+appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is
+found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and
+seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears
+to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the
+sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by
+the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable
+depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated,
+and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is
+considered by the _leech-gatherers_ as a favourable time for collecting
+them.
+
+The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some
+persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a
+leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the
+following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be
+serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel
+without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the
+animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of
+fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a
+state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will
+remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless,
+and so on.
+
+This natural barometer _appears_ to answer tolerably well, if there is
+sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if
+one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are
+enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws,
+and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient
+accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use.
+
+The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood
+or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is
+not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the _larvæ_
+of aquatic insects, worms, &c., so that the common idea of the danger
+of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation.
+
+The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms,
+tadpoles, &c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five
+horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the
+number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were
+missing was to be discovered.
+
+The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of
+cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech,
+which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species,
+disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state,
+and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a
+lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more
+powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that
+period.
+
+A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a
+trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different
+parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench
+annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it
+(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of
+the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such
+pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent
+were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere
+skeleton.”
+
+From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo
+_sanguisuga_, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to
+the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name
+of Hirudo _vorax_, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its
+nature.
+
+Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in
+confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained
+slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a
+doubt.
+
+On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form
+of a horse-shoe, thus—
+
+[Illustration]
+
+These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or
+eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are
+merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in
+describing their character, says they are without eyes.
+
+The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are
+three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with
+regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these
+piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not
+by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the
+surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips);
+in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there
+remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the
+piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three
+minutes after the leech has commenced operation.
+
+Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been
+taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The
+principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels
+sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those
+which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered.
+
+Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination
+to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to
+commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &c.; but
+these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears
+to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when
+any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to
+puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the
+little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling
+to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little
+cold water.
+
+After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to
+induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt
+frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of
+Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the
+preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head
+of the leech instead of salt.
+
+The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has
+swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of
+the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the
+most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood
+remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed[5].
+The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed
+of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with
+the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal,
+the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal,
+through a distinct opening.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2.]
+
+It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced
+from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are
+developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon
+of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its
+natural size: fig. 1, shows the perfect case or cocoon, and fig. 2, the
+same opened, with the young leeches contained within it; it is said
+that, at times, there are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case.
+This cocoon is formed by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the
+mud or clay, which composes the bed of the pool it inhabits.
+
+The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although
+only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to
+the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of
+this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of
+sale.
+
+“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly
+in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those
+leeches which were intended for the Paris market.
+
+“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the
+season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to
+the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance.
+These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are
+known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of
+water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches
+quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they
+are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the
+cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of
+allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow
+much more rapidly after having partaken of blood.
+
+There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is
+more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than
+even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the
+terrible hooded snake itself.
+
+The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in
+length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active
+animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally
+to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no
+sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to
+crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is
+shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with
+these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down
+in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping
+them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly
+than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than
+would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in
+persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers,
+and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself.
+
+Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such
+as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &c., but all to very
+little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing
+the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very
+closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate.
+
+
+
+
+CLASS CRUSTACEA.
+
+
+The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history has
+undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among the
+insects:—others considered them to have more analogy to the spiders.
+Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent CLASS
+forming two _orders_, which he has named after the arrangement of the
+branchiæ, or gills, by which they breathe, namely,—the _Crustacea
+homobranchiæ_, the distinguishing marks of which he describes in this
+manner: branchiæ hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass,
+covering the body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the
+mandibles always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks,
+the head not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist
+them in their movements. Secondly, the _Crustacea heterobranchiæ_, in
+which the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under
+the lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the
+tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in
+general fixed, _sedentary, not on footstalks_.
+
+
+_ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ_,
+
+(_Shell-Fish with concealed gills._)
+
+The first of these orders, the _homobranchial_ Crustacea, includes most
+of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters,
+and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division.
+
+Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order,
+and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last
+appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal
+kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is
+apparently less complex.
+
+The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two
+principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately
+united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a
+portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable
+supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on
+each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head.
+The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this
+spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The
+two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest.
+
+The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat
+pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather;
+they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are
+so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of
+these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base.
+
+The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the
+mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at
+their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper
+part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at
+the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two
+pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six
+other members, which Lamarck calls _foot-jaws_, from their bearing
+some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the
+parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and
+accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs
+in particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that
+may come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as
+articles of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of
+the year.
+
+
+_THE CRAB TRIBE._
+
+The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the
+knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being
+generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit
+ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful
+species.
+
+[Illustration: THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.]
+
+The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular
+species, as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless
+variety of curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most
+brilliant colours; this more particularly applies to those which are
+found in the seas of hot climates.
+
+The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was
+placed by naturalists among the _Crustacea_, and considered a perfect
+animal of a distinct species; it was named Zoea. Mr. Thomson, the
+experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to
+discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better
+than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the
+author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known
+respecting these inhabitants of the deep.
+
+“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the
+_Crustacea_) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body
+of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant
+troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a
+fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast
+expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a
+kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by
+those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts
+of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants
+with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the
+bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is
+interspersed with fields of Sargosa[6]. On due examination, however, we
+shall not fail to find it everywhere peopled by a considerable variety
+of animals, either of small size, or possessed of such a degree of
+translucency as to render them invisible, or scarcely perceptible, even
+when on or near to its surface; that it should possess its share of
+the organized beings which we see spread over every other part of the
+surface of our globe, is a conclusion we might arrive at indirectly,
+from the consideration of oceanic fishes and birds being observed in
+those parts of the ocean most distant from the land, and the provident
+care of the Deity, which we invariably witness throughout the domain of
+nature, to furnish food for all, even the meanest of his creatures; the
+more minute and invisible inmates of the sea, then, must constitute the
+food of oceanic fishes and birds.
+
+“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most
+conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of
+them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and
+a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to
+accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing
+every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or
+four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze,
+bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it
+up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to
+ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater
+rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the
+spout of one of the _sea-water_ pumps, and examined three or four times
+a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.”
+
+Although naturalists were decided in calling the Zoea a crustaceous
+animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the
+system it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike
+each other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it
+is known, that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but
+merely the larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is
+perfectly new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only
+proving their real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as
+described in most systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on
+that account to be separated from the insects, but that they do undergo
+a metamorphosis, and that of a most wonderful nature.
+
+It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ,
+in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year
+following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred;
+this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully
+supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died
+in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which
+it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a
+great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs
+and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be
+considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in
+hatching the _ova_ of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which
+presented exactly the appearance of the _Zoea taurus_.”
+
+The Common Crab, _Cancer major_, is so well-known, that any description
+of its appearance would be useless.
+
+One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that
+is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this
+power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase
+in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the
+peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed.
+
+The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about
+to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured
+retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it
+creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year
+when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time
+their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest
+perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking
+the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among
+the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the
+attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal
+discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously
+harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its
+kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in
+anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting
+its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against
+each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated,
+and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an
+unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at
+its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before
+seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach
+comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it
+disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal,
+with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a
+boot that was too big for him.
+
+Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty;
+but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several
+hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation,
+that many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such
+a weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor
+venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have
+not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of
+the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor
+oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod,
+and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness
+continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is
+seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before;
+its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first
+object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which
+it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness.
+In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength,
+the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but
+just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their
+skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this
+is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the
+shell. These stones, popularly known as _crabs’ eyes_, were long
+highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not
+superior to so much chalk.
+
+When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the
+old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found
+the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears
+wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.
+
+Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb,
+or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty
+of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it
+has also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its
+own legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury,
+by bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received
+the hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb
+from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and
+natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other
+legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part
+of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears
+to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the
+case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers.
+
+When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on
+the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural
+styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows
+callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the
+creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.
+
+Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and
+kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so
+bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking
+off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal
+bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the
+tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one
+of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly
+creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted
+its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which
+bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off
+its limb in the usual manner,—still, however, holding fast for a
+length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.
+
+The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not,
+as it is said, walk exactly backwards.
+
+
+THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)
+
+Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there
+is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands,
+whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly
+curious in themselves.
+
+[Illustration: THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)]
+
+Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near
+salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year
+in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of
+the same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the
+islands, many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these
+places their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year,
+to repair to the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn.
+They prepare for their annual migration about the month of April or
+May, and, having mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets
+forward, with all the regularity of an army, under the guidance of an
+experienced commander.
+
+Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct
+line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly
+surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a
+house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which
+they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not
+unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper.
+If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow
+its course without attempting to cross it.
+
+It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of
+which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like
+pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged
+to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment
+till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never
+leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then
+descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty
+paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover
+the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a
+straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but
+neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is
+their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a
+confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly,
+to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables;
+but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to
+proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest.
+
+After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner,
+they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately
+enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several
+times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where
+they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek
+the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of
+being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already
+repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their
+annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and,
+soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting
+the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones,
+however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and
+lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are
+obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover;
+making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves
+up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and
+continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time
+they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six
+weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may
+be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the
+sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the
+food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of
+seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers.
+
+
+THE HERMIT, OR SOLDIER CRAB,
+
+(_Pagurus bernhardus_.)
+
+This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of
+remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock,
+it may fancy.
+
+[Illustration: THE HERMIT CRAB, (_Pagurus bernhardus_.)]
+
+The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly
+secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous
+state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is
+almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their
+hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to
+maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has
+grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to
+seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into
+when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the
+additional name of the Soldier Crab.
+
+“The Soldier when about to seek a new habitation, is still seen,”
+says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears to have
+considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the
+mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell,
+therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body;
+and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer
+both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight
+inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along
+that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave;
+still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail,
+unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage,
+till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one
+shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating
+that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation,
+to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it
+quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently
+changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to
+this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the
+body of the animal, claws and all.”
+
+Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the
+Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest
+between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which
+they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike
+with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to
+yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor
+takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times
+back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist.
+
+When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring
+to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will
+sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not
+easily cured.
+
+On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell
+of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they
+not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under
+the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices
+of which they hide themselves.
+
+The ancients were well acquainted with the Soldier Crab, as is evident
+from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets:
+
+    The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left
+    Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.
+    Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish
+    For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;
+    Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,
+    Whose first and rightful owners are no more.
+    They make glad seizure of the vacant room,
+    And count the borrowed shell their native home;
+    Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,
+    And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.
+    But when they larger grow they fill the place,
+    And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,
+    Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,
+    And busy search around the pebbly shore,
+    Till a commodious roomy seat be found,
+    Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.
+    Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,
+    And long for the disputed shell engage;
+    The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,
+    Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.
+
+
+THE LOBSTER, (_Astacus europæa_.)
+
+The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great
+abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland
+is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast
+of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the
+Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth.
+The methods of taking Lobsters are various,—the most usual is by means
+of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of
+twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap,
+so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning.
+These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place
+being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a
+kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only
+carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the
+London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.
+
+Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other
+sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they
+frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor
+creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent
+clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the
+crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the
+pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while
+the other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then,
+its food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with
+the other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and
+lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable
+distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when
+in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a
+beautiful deep blue.
+
+A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems
+to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in
+Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who
+transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to
+prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by,
+they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning!
+
+
+THE RIVER CRAY-FISH, (_Potamobius fluviatilis_.)
+
+The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in
+appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is
+commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the
+banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that
+may happen to come in its way.
+
+The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which
+is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus
+described:—
+
+Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the
+thickness of the thumb,—split them at the smallest end, and by way
+of bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take
+then the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance
+of the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are
+there, they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you
+perceive them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait
+suddenly, and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the
+bait, or will fall back into the net.
+
+Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a
+hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst
+of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the
+water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained
+there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found
+partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually
+prevent their escape.
+
+
+THE PHOSPHORESCENT SHRIMP.
+
+The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known
+to all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained,
+that the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent
+properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants
+of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very
+frequently met with.
+
+[Illustration: NOCTILUCA BANKSII magnified.
+
+The line above shows the natural length.]
+
+The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue
+from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found
+by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided
+in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most
+brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there
+started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light.
+
+The author we have lately quoted, says,—
+
+“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable, that the
+Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to
+every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the
+trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet,
+has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and
+of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider
+that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,—is vivid in
+proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light
+of the moon,—and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea,
+so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the
+dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and
+the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable
+sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all
+times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken
+rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy
+appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible
+at a considerable distance.”
+
+
+THE OPOSSUM SHRIMP, (_Mysis chamæleon_.)
+
+This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward
+appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably
+smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed
+creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable
+abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally
+swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined
+to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth
+encloses myriads at a time.
+
+[Illustration: _Mysis chamæleon._]
+
+The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have
+been called fissipeds, (_split-feet_,) on account of each of their
+feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb
+being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and
+the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is
+essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped
+round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the
+element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such
+as shrimps, prawns, &c., there is a single row of five feet on each
+side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four
+rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet
+amounts to as many as thirty-two,—sixteen adapted for swimming, and
+sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization,
+the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the
+present genus frequent the surface.
+
+The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they
+are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses,
+fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this
+pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is
+destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in
+a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the
+young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened
+form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in
+this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards
+the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted
+together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily
+observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the
+large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp
+are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch
+we have described.
+
+We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the
+Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve
+as food for herrings.
+
+It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals
+that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater
+productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished
+master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still
+continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance,
+after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has
+informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one
+piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part
+appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together.
+Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs,
+which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs
+still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently
+jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the
+various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which
+actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment
+necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison
+with other creatures, they must possess!
+
+The Opossum Shrimps, we have seen, are the prey of the larger
+inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that
+are smaller than themselves,—seizing upon every animal substance they
+are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a
+vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.
+
+The species represented in the engraving has been called the _Mysis
+chamæleon_, from its colour varying according to the substances on
+which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray, black, brown, and
+pink.
+
+
+_ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ._
+
+(_Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously placed, never
+concealed._)
+
+The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other
+than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we
+find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of
+the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a
+great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the
+water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are
+very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They
+have been divided into several sections, according to their outward
+form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine
+ourselves to a description of some of the best known.
+
+
+THE SPOTTED SQUILL, (_Squilla maculata_.)
+
+The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present
+order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which
+the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct,
+appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called
+the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that
+name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its
+foot-jaws are armed.
+
+The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is
+the largest of the genus.
+
+The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little
+consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent
+the sandy bottom of the sea.
+
+[Illustration: _Squilla maculata._]
+
+There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the
+young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter
+under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered.
+
+
+THE COMMON CLOPORTUS, (_Cloportus ascellus_.)
+
+This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is
+somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a
+dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where
+the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to
+a group of small Crustacea known by the name _Oniscus_. Some, as we see
+in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion
+inhabit the water.
+
+[Illustration: _Cloportus ascellus._
+
+(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
+
+Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species
+which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for
+its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years
+timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary
+wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the
+course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little
+creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten
+inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch
+a year. Another species, _Cymothoa_, attaches itself to the backs of
+different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body.
+
+A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the
+fifth volume of the _American Philosophical Transactions_; it is
+accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is
+not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular
+species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself
+to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the
+roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.
+
+[Illustration: _Head of Alewife._
+
+Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.]
+
+[Illustration: The insect seen from above.]
+
+“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort
+to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife,
+called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and
+in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of
+the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the
+herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught
+from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for
+the table as the herring.
+
+“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect
+about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly
+holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.
+
+“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without
+injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider
+the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken
+out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable
+of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to
+preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always
+obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.
+
+“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and
+lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately
+scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his
+position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and
+unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained
+his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant
+resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he
+certainly fares sumptuously every day.
+
+“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the
+shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to
+travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As
+long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found
+fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his
+mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but
+by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself
+with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay
+Alewife without the louse.”
+
+The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies,
+many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their
+body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads.
+
+
+THE MOLUCCA CRAB, (_Polyphemus gigas_.)
+
+Why the singular creature here represented should have the name
+Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every
+schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is
+represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas,
+this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its
+being so nearly allied to many very minute species.
+
+The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but
+two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their
+buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has
+been called the Molucca Crab.
+
+The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by
+the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives
+employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of
+poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this
+circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no
+other ground for the belief.
+
+[Illustration: _Polyphemus gigas._]
+
+During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very
+easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything
+until their danger becomes imminent.
+
+It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for
+food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy.
+
+These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a
+considerable distance over the wet sands,—but if incommoded by the
+sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element.
+When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if
+this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the
+waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power
+of righting itself with the assistance of its tail.
+
+
+THE CRAB-LIKE LIMULUS, (_Limulus cancriformis_.)
+
+The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &c.; they
+are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their
+principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.
+
+[Illustration: _Limulus cancriformis._ (Natural size.)]
+
+“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in
+which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler,
+very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The
+head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They
+possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back.
+Their legs are very numerous,—the two in front, much the largest,
+spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with
+silky articulated bristles.”
+
+
+THE WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops quadricornis_.)
+
+There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That
+represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most
+interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr.
+Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature.
+
+“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution,
+as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of
+creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred
+on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision,
+more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring,
+and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the
+elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the
+mass of living matter they present to us.
+
+[Illustration: _Cyclops quadricornis._
+
+(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
+
+“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the
+year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant
+in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm
+day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an
+inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered
+with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil,
+are of a fine rich colour.
+
+“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly
+plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and
+vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but
+have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the
+organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it
+is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little
+above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark
+crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this
+organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two
+kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest
+extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some
+other positions it is square.”
+
+The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance
+similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared
+with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving,
+(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder
+portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque
+colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red.
+
+The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are
+extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has
+described them as forming two distinct genera.
+
+
+THE SMALL WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops minutus_.)
+
+This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its
+body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much
+smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form
+renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says
+Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if
+approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside,
+in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit
+opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a
+kind of vaulting leap.”
+
+[Illustration: _Cyclops minutus_, much magnified.]
+
+They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met
+with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed,
+growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April
+and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will
+not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and
+require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of
+clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the
+under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or
+cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey,
+moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the
+plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not
+bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept
+in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the
+three hundredth part of an inch.
+
+The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the
+eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of
+the animal near the tail.
+
+
+THE HAIRY CYPRIS, (_Cypris pubera_.)
+
+These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they
+are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The
+animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it
+at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell
+numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is
+enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until
+it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which
+issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and
+bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them
+great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute
+materially to the swimming powers of the creature.
+
+At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point
+is seen,—this is the eye of the animal.
+
+[Illustration: _Cypris pubera._
+
+(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)]
+
+The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is
+found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they
+are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are
+more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the
+year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course
+of the year.
+
+The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense
+numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in
+this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in
+the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a
+kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the
+marshes with water.
+
+A species nearly allied to this, the _Artemia Salina_, the Lymington
+shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans,
+which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other
+Crustaceous animal.
+
+Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at
+Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is
+deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a
+quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the
+liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute,
+in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm,
+or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this
+is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of
+this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms
+from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase
+astonishingly in the course of a few days.
+
+It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans,
+where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the
+Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and
+reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans,
+and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much
+diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the
+manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at
+the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers.
+
+                         THE END.
+
+                           LONDON:
+              JOHN W. PARKER, ST. MARTIN’S LANE.
+
+
+
+
+                        [LIST NO. 1.]
+
+                    APPROVED BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS AND
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+
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+
+  * ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By the Rev. Dr. RUSSELL, late Head
+        Master of Charter-House School. 1_s._ 6_d._
+
+      No language can be more simple and intelligible than
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+      The construction of Sentences, and the force of the
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+      Grammar closes with most useful Questions on the Rules.
+
+  A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION to ENGLISH COMPOSITION; adapted
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+      ground. This, it must be acknowledged, is very desirable,
+      but it is assuredly of great importance, that it should be
+      upon a plan which will tend to give a vigorous and healthy
+      tone to the mind.
+
+  * THE CLASS READING BOOK; adapted for Schools, and
+        particularly designed to furnish Youth with Practical
+        Information on a variety of Interesting Subjects. By
+        GEORGE LUDLOW, one of the Masters of Christ’s Hospital. 3_s._
+
+      This work consists of nearly Two Hundred Reading Lessons,
+      adapted either for classes or individuals. They are
+      selected with a view to the communication of popular but
+      sound information, on various branches of knowledge, and
+      there is a department consisting of carefully selected
+      Poems.
+
+  ABBOTT’S READER; a Series of Familiar Pieces, in Prose and
+        Verse, calculated to produce a Moral Influence on the
+        Hearts and Lives of Young Persons. By the Authors of
+        THE YOUNG CHRISTIAN; THE CORNER-STONE;
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+
+      The design of this READER is, to exert a direct
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+      with others. The compilers have honestly endeavoured
+      to exclude everything which they supposed would be
+      unacceptable to any of the friends of piety and morality,
+      of whatever name.
+
+  * ARITHMETIC TAUGHT BY QUESTIONS. 1_s._ 6_d._
+
+      The principal novelty of this Arithmetic consists in the
+      QUESTIONS, by which the learner may be enabled to
+      examine and teach himself. At the same time, it is thought
+      that many Teachers may profit by the facilities which the
+      questioning affords, and learn to ground those whom they
+      have been in the habit of teaching by rote.
+
+  * A FIRST BOOK on GEOMETRY, including Plane and Solid
+        Geometry, and an Introduction to Trigonometry. 1_s._ 6_d._
+
+      In this work will, it is believed, be found all the
+      essential Propositions of Plane and Solid Geometry. The
+      method of demonstration which has been followed is that of
+      Euclid; but, throughout, an attempt has been made to give
+      it a character of greater simplicity, and thus to render
+      it more generally available.
+
+  THE FIGURES OF EUCLID; with QUESTIONS, and a PRAXIS of
+        GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES. By the Rev. J. EDWARDS, M.A., of
+        King’s College School, London. 3_s._
+
+  * OUTLINES of GEOGRAPHY. By G. HOGARTH. 10_d._
+
+      A comprehensive Manual of the leading facts in this branch
+      of Education, carefully condensed from the best sources.
+      It contains Tables of the Situations and Heights of the
+      principal Mountains, and of the Lengths of the principal
+      Rivers, a Map of the World, Five other Maps, and Four
+      Plates of Costumes.
+
+  * OUTLINES of the HISTORY of ENGLAND. By GEORGE HOGARTH. 1_s._ 3_d._
+
+      The leading events of English History are related with
+      simplicity, and their connexion traced with clearness.
+      The narratives are confined to the most memorable and
+      important events; and those circumstances particularly
+      marked which have led to the gradual formation of the
+      British system of government. The work is illustrated with
+      many Engravings of Costumes, Views, &c.
+
+  * OUTLINES of ROMAN HISTORY. By GEORGE HOGARTH. 10_d._
+
+      A complete and popular epitome of the History of the Rise,
+      Progress, and Fall of the Roman Empire. It is embellished
+      with a handsome Print of a Roman Triumph, and numerous
+      Figures of Costumes, &c.
+
+  OUTLINES of GRECIAN HISTORY. By the Rev. BARTON BOUCHIER, M.A.
+        With MAPS and VIEWS. 1_s._
+
+  * OUTLINES of SACRED HISTORY; from the Creation of the
+        World to the Destruction of Jerusalem. 3_s._ 6_d._
+
+      The design of this Work is to afford a condensed view of
+      the History of both the Old and New Testaments, together
+      with a brief account of the Jewish History in the interval
+      between the Babylonish Captivity and the Birth of Christ,
+      and in the period between Christ’s Ascension and the
+      fulfilment of his awful Prophecy of the Destruction of
+      Jerusalem and the Dispersion of the Jews.
+
+  A MANUAL of ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY, in which the Modern Names
+        of Places are attached to the Ancient, and the Words
+        marked with their proper quantities.
+        By the Rev. WILLIAM HILDYARD, M.A. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+      Geography and Chronology are, as it has been quaintly but
+      truly remarked, the eyes of History, and the Editor’s
+      experience in teaching (which has not been small,) has
+      convinced him of the great importance of making boys
+      perfectly familiar with the division of countries, and the
+      relative situation of places, if ever they are expected to
+      read the classic authors, especially the historians, with
+      advantage.
+
+  * OUTLINES of ASTRONOMY. By the Rev. T. G. HALL, M.A.,
+        Professor of Math., King’s Coll., London. 10_d._
+
+      An elementary Work, intended to instruct, in the sublime
+      facts of Astronomy, those who are unacquainted with
+      mathematical reasoning; and to explain to them, in
+      familiar language, the principal phenomena of the Heavens.
+      The Lessons are illustrated by numerous Engravings.
+
+  * THE ELEMENTS of BOTANY. New Edition, with many Cuts. 2_s._
+
+      The principles of this beautiful and important science are
+      explained in a clear and simple manner, so as to render
+      the acquisition of them comparatively easy. The book is
+      illustrated by numerous cuts of the different parts of
+      plants, &c., and the examples, when possible, are selected
+      from our own wild flowers, or from those cultivated in all
+      gardens or fields, and they are cited by their familiar
+      names. A Glossary of most of the terms usually employed
+      is subjoined, and an alphabetical List of the most useful
+      Plants, with their botanical names, &c.
+
+  * MANUAL of INSTRUCTION in VOCAL MUSIC, chiefly with a
+        view to Psalmody. By JOHN TURNER, Esq. 4_s._
+
+      The author offers this work not as an experiment now
+      for the first time to be tried, but as the result of
+      long experience. Though chiefly designed for the use of
+      children collected in large numbers, it may, with equal
+      advantage, be adopted in smaller assemblages, and in the
+      domestic circle: and may also be rendered serviceable to
+      adults.
+
+  EASY LESSONS IN MECHANICS; with Familiar Illustrations,
+        showing the practical Application of the various
+        Mechanical Principles. 3_s._
+
+  * ON the EDUCATION and TREATMENT of CHILDREN. 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+      CONTENTS:—On the means of developing the Bodily
+      Senses in Infancy; Early Development of the Affections;
+      Early Cultivation of the Intellect; Management in
+      Childhood; Amusements and Employments; Sunday; Views
+      of Death; Supernatural Appearances; Politeness; Dress;
+      Gentility; Management during the Teens; Views of Matrimony.
+
+  * INSTRUCTIONS for TEACHING ARITHMETIC to LITTLE CHILDREN.
+        By the Rev. T. V. SHORT, B.D. 6_d._
+
+  * A LITTLE READING BOOK for YOUNG CHILDREN. With many Cuts. 4_d._
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+  SCRIPTURE HYMNS IN PROSE. With Cuts. 6_d._
+
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+
+  * A COLLIERY TALE, or VILLAGE DISTRESS. 4_d._
+
+      The object of this little narrative is, by God’s help, to
+      draw some profit from a recent calamity, which, in its
+      immediate pressure upon the limited community through
+      which it extended, has been most awfully severe.
+
+  * VILLAGE ANNALS; or, the Story of HETTY JONES. 9_d._
+
+      I have written this story in the simplest style, for the
+      use of the children in my own neighbourhood; as in all the
+      little publications of this kind I have hitherto met with,
+      the language and ideas are far above the comprehension of
+      many of the classes for whom they are designed.
+                                                      C. B.
+
+  PRETTY LESSONS for GOOD CHILDREN; to which are added, EASY
+        LESSONS in LATIN. 2_s._
+
+      The design of this little work is, by means of easy
+      rhymes, to attract the attention of young children, and to
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+      for, “What will a child learn sooner than a song?”
+
+  EASY POETRY FOR CHILDREN. 1_s._ 6_d._
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+  SIMPLE STORIES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN. By a LADY. With Cuts. 1_s._
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+  THE CHILD’S VERSE-BOOK OF DEVOTION. With Cuts. 1_s._
+
+  SONGS for CHILDREN. With ENGRAVINGS. 4_d._
+
+    In this little book you’ll find,
+    Lessons for the infant mind;
+    Truth conveyed in easy verse,
+    Which the nursling may rehearse,
+    And thus be led, by simple lays,
+    To walk with God, and sing his praise.
+
+  READING LESSONS from the Books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes;
+        with Questions and Answers upon them. 4_d._
+
+  DAILY READINGS from the PSALMS. 6_d._
+
+  FAMILIAR LECTURES to CHILDREN; in which the IMPORTANT TRUTHS
+        of the GOSPEL are engagingly set forth. Edited by the
+        Rev. J. HOBART CAUNTER, B.D. 2_s._
+
+  FAITH AND PRACTICE; or, The Application of Christian
+        Principles to the Practical Duties of Life. Fourth
+        Edition, improved. 1_s._
+
+  THE RITE of CONFIRMATION EXPLAINED. By the Rev. D. I. EYRE, M.A. 6_d._
+
+  CONFIRMATION. An ADDRESS from a CLERGYMAN to his PARISHIONERS. 2_d._
+
+  A FEW WORDS ON THE SIN OF LYING. By A LAYMAN. 3_d._
+
+  * EASY LESSONS on MONEY MATTERS, for the Use of Young
+        People. 1_s._
+
+      In this little book, care has been taken to convey
+      elementary knowledge in such simple language, that, it
+      is hoped, these LESSONS will be found easily
+      intelligible even to such as have but the ordinary
+      advantages in point of education; and there are few
+      subjects on which it is, for all classes of people, more
+      important to inculcate correct principles, and to guard
+      against specious fallacies.
+
+  * PERSIAN STORIES; illustrative of EASTERN MANNERS and CUSTOMS. 1_s._
+
+        And,
+
+  * PERSIAN FABLES, for Young and Old. By the Rev. H. G. KEENE, M.A.
+        1_s._
+
+  FIVE HUNDRED CHARADES, from History, Geography, and Biography.
+        Third Edition, revised and improved. 1_s._ 6_d._
+
+  * INSECTS and their HABITATIONS. A Book for Children. 1_s._
+
+      We may learn many useful lessons from the History of
+      Insects; and, by observing their habits, we shall find
+      that they set us an example of various good qualities.
+
+      * The BOOK of ANIMALS.    * The BOOK of FISHES.
+      * The BOOK of BIRDS.      * The BOOK of REPTILES.
+      * The BOOK of SHELLS.       Price 1_s._ 6_d._ each.
+
+      The nature, habits, and uses of the Animals described, are
+      presented in a correct, though simple and attractive form,
+      and the little volumes will be found useful additions to
+      the books for young persons, and acceptable introductions
+      to works of a higher class.
+  THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY; containing Accounts
+        of the POLITICAL CONDITION, GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION,
+        and SOCIAL STATE of the principal NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY;
+        carefully digested from the Ancient Writers, and illustrated
+        by the Discoveries of Modern Scholars and Travellers.
+        By W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S. 10_s._ 6_d._
+
+  * THE FAMILY HISTORY OF ENGLAND, by the Rev. GEORGE ROBERT GLEIG,
+        M.A., with a series of PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE
+        COSTUMES, ARCHITECTURE, SHIPPING, &c., of the successive
+        periods of British History. In Eighteen Parts, at 1_s._ each,
+       or in Three Volumes, 6_s._ 6_d._ each.
+
+  A POPULAR HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION, in GERMANY, SWITZERLAND,
+        and GREAT BRITAIN; and of its chief Promoters, Opposers,
+        and Victims. By THOMAS FOX. 3_s._ 6_d._
+
+  HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH; from THE ASCENSION OF JESUS CHRIST
+        TO THE CONVERSION OF CONSTANTINE.
+        By the late Dr. BURTON. Second Edition, 6_s._ 6_d._
+
+  THE EARLY CHRISTIANS; their MANNERS and CUSTOMS, TRIALS and
+        SUFFERINGS. By the Rev. W. PRIDDEN, M.A. 4_s._
+
+  HISTORY OF THE CRUSADERS; by THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, Esq.
+        Two Volumes, with Engravings. 11_s._
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+  HISTORY OF MOHAMMEDANISM, and the PRINCIPAL MOHAMMEDAN SECTS.
+        By W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S., &c. 5_s._ 6_d._
+
+  LIVES OF EMINENT CHRISTIANS. By the Rev. R. B. HONE, M.A.,
+        Rector of Hales Owen. Volumes I. and II., with Portraits,
+        4_s._ 6_d._ each.
+
+  * READINGS IN ENGLISH PROSE LITERATURE; containing choice
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+  * READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY; a Selection of the Lives of the
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+  VENTOUILLAC’S RUDIMENTS of the FRENCH LANGUAGE; or, FIRST
+        FRENCH READING BOOK. New Edition, Revised and Corrected
+        by F. J. WATTEZ, First Assistant French Master in King’s
+        College, London. 3_s._ 6_d._
+
+  LIVRE DE CLASSE; with ENGLISH NOTES, by the late L. T. VENTOUILLAC,
+        Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London. 5_s._
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+  FRENCH POETRY; with ENGLISH NOTES, by the late L. T. VENTOUILLAC,
+        Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London. 2_s._
+
+  LE BOUQUET LITTERAIRE. Recueil de Beautés Religieuses et Morales,
+        de divers Auteurs. Par feu L. T. VENTOUILLAC, Professeur de
+        Littérature Française au Collège Royale à Londres. 3_s._ 6_d._
+
+  BRASSEUR’S EXERCISES on FRENCH PHRASEOLOGY; with a Lexicon
+        of IDIOMATIC VERBS. By the French Professor of King’s
+        College, London. 3_s._ 6_d._
+
+  The FRENCH SCHOOL CLASSICS. Edited and Abridged by MARIN DE LA VOYE,
+        French Master in the East India College, at Addiscombe.
+
+      While the necessity of introducing the best standard
+      French works into our schools and families is universally
+      acknowledged, serious doubts are entertained as to the
+      propriety of placing the writings of some among the
+      French authors in the hands of Christian youth. In order
+      to remove all difficulties on this subject, the Editor
+      has been induced to undertake a careful Abridgment of
+      such works as are in most general use; and he has made
+      it his object to extract from the original every word
+      and sentence relating either to religion, politics, or
+      philosophical speculation, respecting which Christian
+      parents or teachers can have the least difference of
+      opinion.
+
+      A purified text of the best French Classical Works is,
+      therefore, now offered for the use of young persons of
+      both sexes, in a state which, it is trusted, will be found
+      altogether unobjectionable.
+
+   TELEMAQUE.        2_s._ 6_d._  PIERRE LE GRAND.      2_s._
+   VOYAGES DE CYRUS. 2_s._        CHARLES XII.          2_s._
+   BELISAIRE.        1_s._ 6_d._  GIL BLAS DESANTILLANE. _In the Press._
+
+           Six Volumes, at 2_s._ each, with Wood-Cuts,
+
+                           * THE INSTRUCTOR;
+
+                                  OR,
+               PROGRESSIVE LESSONS IN GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+                              A SERIES OF
+               ELEMENTARY BOOKS, ESPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR
+                         SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.
+
+      Under the general title of THE INSTRUCTOR, is
+      comprised a series of little books, by means of which children
+      may be led through a progressive course of Exercises in various
+      branches of Elementary Knowledge. These books may be put
+      into the hands of such children as can readily spell common
+      words, and read easy lessons.—The object of the work is not
+      only to furnish reading lessons, but also to carry the pupil
+      _forward_,—to impart _information_, and exercise
+      the mind.
+
+        The first Six Volumes, in Thirty-six Numbers, contain the
+      following subjects, with numerous Engravings:
+
+                   VOLUME I. (or in Nos. 1 to 6.)
+  TALES and CONVERSATIONS on Familiar Subjects.
+
+                   VOLUME II. (or in Nos. 7 to 12.)
+  The HOUSE. MATERIALS used in BUILDING. FURNITURE. FOOD and
+        CLOTHING.
+
+                   VOLUME III. (or in Nos. 13 to 18.)
+  The UNIVERSE. The THREE KINGDOMS of NATURE. THE HUMAN FORM.
+        LESSONS on HEALTH.
+
+                   VOLUME IV. (or in Nos. 19 to 24.)
+  The CALENDAR; The Year, Months, Weeks, Days. The SEASONS.
+        APPEARANCES of NATURE.
+
+                   VOLUME V. (or in Nos. 25 to 30.)
+  DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY: The various Divisions of the World;
+        their People and Productions; with MAPS.
+
+                   VOLUME VI. (or in Nos. 31 to 36.)
+  ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+       London: JOHN W. PARKER, PUBLISHER, WEST STRAND.
+
+
+                              FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to
+by nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory
+chapter.
+
+[2] The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.
+
+[3] See Book of Fishes, p. 51.
+
+[4] The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before
+transformation.
+
+[5] It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of
+its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most
+favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and
+I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves,
+if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give
+them a violent emetic.”
+
+[6] A kind of sea-weed, (_Fucus natans_.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: The Book of Shells
+       Containing the Classes Mollusca, Conchifera, Cirrhipeda,
+              Annulata, and Crustacea
+
+Author: Anonymous
+
+Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60961]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="transnote bbox covernote">
+<p class="no-indent">The cover image was created by the transcriber, and is placed in the public domain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="Frontispiece" width="600" height="427" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE</small><br /><big><b>FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS</b></big><br />
+                      <small>DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h1><span class="small_font">THE</span><br />BOOK OF SHELLS;</h1>
+
+<p class="f90 space-above3 space-below3">CONTAINING</p>
+<p class="f110 space-below3"><b>THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA,<br />
+CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND<br />CRUSTACEA.</b></p>
+<hr class="r25" />
+<p class="f90">PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF<br />
+THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION,<br />
+APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING<br />CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.</p>
+<hr class="r25" />
+<p class="f120 space-above3 space-below3">THE SECOND EDITION.</p>
+<p class="f120">LONDON:<br />JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p class="f90">M.DCCC.XXXVII.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="f120"><b>TO THE READER.</b></p></div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<p class="blockquot2 no-indent">In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which
+embraces the <span class="smcap">Vertebral Animals</span>,&mdash;namely, the Mammalia, the
+Birds, the Reptiles, and the Fishes,&mdash;the arrangement of the <span class="smcap">Baron
+Cuvier</span> was adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in
+two others that are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the
+<span class="smcap">Invertebral Animals</span>, the method of <span class="smcap">M. Lamarck</span>
+will be adhered to. It is true, that, since the works of that naturalist were
+published, many deviations from certain parts of his system have taken
+place, some of which have received the sanction of the highest names;
+but still, <i>as a whole</i>, Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and
+the young naturalist can readily add to the information it contains,
+by reference to the works of more recent authors, in case he has
+sufficient inclination and industry to follow out the subject.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="f150"><b>CONTENTS.</b></p></div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of contents." cellpadding="0" >
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdr" colspan="3"><small>Page</small></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Introductory Chapter</big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#INTRO">&nbsp;9</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Mollusca</span></big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#MOLLUSCA">14</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Heteropoda</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HETEROPODA">15</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Glassy Carinaria</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CARINARIA">15</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CEPHALOPODA">16</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Cuttle Fish</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CUTTLE_FISH">17</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;&emsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Argonaut</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ARGO">20</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Pearly Nautilus</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEARLY">22</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Trachelipoda</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#TRACHELIPODA">26</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Marble Cone</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#MARBLE">27</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Porphyry Olive Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PORPHYRY">28</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Money Cowrie</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COWRIE">29</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Diadem Whorl Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DIADEM">31</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Columbella</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COLUMBELLA">31</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Music Harp Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HARP">32</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wide-Mouthed Purpura</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PURPURA">33</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Spotted Scorpion Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCORPION">37</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Variegated Sea-Trumpet</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TRUMPET">39</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Caniculated Pear-Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEAR">40</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Babylonian Split-Mouth</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BABYLON">40</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Marble Turban-Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TURBAN">41</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Imperial Top-Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IMPERIAL">41</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Precious Scalaria</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SCALARIA">42</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Iris Ear-Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#IRIS">43</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Dusty Neritina</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#NERITINA">44</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Viviparous Paludina</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PALUDINA">44</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Lymnæa Stagnalis</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#STAGNALIS">45</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Horn-shaped Planorbis</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PLANORBIS">46</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Red-mouthed Bulimus</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULIMUS">46</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Mummy Puppet Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUMMY">47</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wood Snail</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SNAIL">47</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#GASTEROPODA">51</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Red Slug</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SLUG">51</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Woodlike Bulla</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BULLA">53</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Nail-shaped Crepidula</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CREPIDULA">54</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Mediterranean Umbrella</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#UMBRELLA">54</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Clouded Fissurella</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FISSURELLA">54</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hungarian Bonnet Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#BONNET">55</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Scaly Chiton</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHITON">56</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span></big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CONCHIFERA">57</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Unimusculosa</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#UNIMUSCULOSA">64</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HORSE">64</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Oyster</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OYSTER">65</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Great Comb Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#COMB">68</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Pearl Oyster</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PEARL">69</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hammer Oyster</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HAMMER">77</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Rough Pinna</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PINNA">77</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Mussel</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MUSSEL">79</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Giant Tridacna</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#TRIDACNA">81</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Bimusculosa</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#BIMUSCULOSA">82</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Fresh-Water Mussel</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#FW_MUSSEL">83</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Heart-shaped Isocardia</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#ISOCARDIA">84</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Wedge-shaped Donax</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#DONAX">85</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Sheath Solen</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SOLEN">85</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Date-shaped Pholas</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#PHOLAS">87</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Ship-Worm</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHIP_WORM">89</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda</span></big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CIRRHIPEDA">91</a>
+                <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda Pedunculata</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#PEDUNCULATA">92</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Smooth Barnacle</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#BARNACLE">92</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda Sedentaria</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SEDENTARIA">94</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Acorn-Shell</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ACORN">94</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Annulata</span></big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANNULATA">97</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Sedentaria</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANN_SEDENTARIA">98</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Magnificent Amphitrite</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#AMPHITRITE">98</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Antennata</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#ANTENNATA">100</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SAND_WORM">100</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Blood-coloured Leodice</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LEODICE">100</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Spinous Sea-Mouse</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MOUSE">102</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Annulata Apoda</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#APODA">102</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Common Earth-Worm</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#EARTH_WORM">103</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Medicinal Leech</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LEECH">106</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2"><b><big>Class <span class="smcap">Crustacea</span></big></b></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CRUSTACEA">115</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Crustacea Homobranchiæ</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HOMOBRANCHIAE">115</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Crab Tribe</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#CRAB_TRIBE">117</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Land Crab</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LAND">124</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hermit Crab</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#HERMIT">127</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Lobster</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LOBSTER">130</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">River Cray-Fish</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CRAY_FISH">131</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Phosphorescent Shrimp</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SHRIMP">132</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Opossum Shrimp</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#OPOSSUM">134</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl_sa1" colspan="2">Order <span class="smcap">Crustacea Heterobranchiæ&emsp;&nbsp;</span></td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#HETEROBRANCHIAE">137</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl" colspan="2">The Spotted Squill</td>
+      <td class="tdr_bott"><a href="#SQUILL">137</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Common Cloportus</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CLOPORTUS">138</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Molucca Crab</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#MOLUCCA">142</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Crab-like Limulus</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#LIMULUS">144</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Water Flea</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#FLEA">144</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Small Water Flea</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#SW_FLEA">147</a></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tdl">Hairy Cypris</td>
+      <td class="tdr"><a href="#CYPRIS">148</a></td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<p class="f150"><b><small>THE</small><br /><big>BOOK OF SHELLS.</big></b></p></div>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<h2><a name="INTRO" id="INTRO"></a>Introductory Chapter.</h2>
+
+<p>In reviewing the first <span class="smcap">Division</span> of the
+animal kingdom, namely, the vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have
+been delighted with the wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed
+upon each individual; but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of
+their possessors as these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure
+must be still greater in tracing the powers with which those creatures
+are endowed, which constitute what we have been accustomed to call the
+lower orders of animated nature.</p>
+
+<p>When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or
+the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the
+terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and
+metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that
+equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the
+different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the
+various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation;
+but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple
+appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to
+consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to
+look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose,
+and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How
+much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully
+developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the
+highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is
+their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable
+to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves
+of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even
+to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of
+the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain
+we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the <i>Infusoria</i>, those
+microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances
+in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach,
+and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned
+foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach,
+they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the
+nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their
+existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we
+have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in
+fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of
+the Creator’s works.</p>
+
+<p>The second <span class="smcap">Division</span> of the objects of
+natural history, namely, the <span class="smcap">Invertebral</span>
+animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by themselves, on
+account of their being without an internal skeleton, consisting of a
+series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This distinction is explained
+in the introductory chapter to the Book of Animals. They have been
+separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven <span class="smcap">Classes</span>, namely:&mdash;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot1">
+<p class="no-indent">1. <span class="smcap">Mollusca</span>,
+(<i>soft-bodied animals</i>,) in general covered with a shell; as, for
+instance, a snail; or without a shell, as a slug.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">2. <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span>,
+(<i>shell-bearing animals</i>,) with a shell, consisting of two valves, as
+an oyster or mussel.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">3. <span class="smcap">Cirrhipeda</span>, (<i>with
+feet like cirri, or hairs</i>.) The inhabitant of the acorn-shell, found
+on the back of the larger kind of shell-fish, &amp;c., is an instance
+of this class.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">4. <span class="smcap">Annelida</span>, (<i>with
+body formed of rings</i>;) of this class the leech and the earth-worm are
+instances.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">5. <span class="smcap">Crustacea</span>,
+(<i>covered with a hard case</i>,) crabs, lobsters, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">6. <span class="smcap">Arachnidæ</span>,
+<i>Spiders</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">7. <span class="smcap">Insecta</span>, <i>Insects</i>.
+A perfect insect has always six legs.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">8. <span class="smcap">Tunicata</span>,
+(<i>enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence</i>.)</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">9. <span class="smcap">Vermes</span>, <i>Worms</i>.
+With lengthened body without divisions; for instance, worms found in
+the intestines.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">10. <span class="smcap">Radiariæ</span>,
+(<i>radiated animals</i>,) with the different parts of which they are formed
+arranged like rays round one common centre; as, for instance, the
+Star-fish.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">11. <span class="smcap">Polypi</span>, (<i>many
+feet</i>.) The animal that forms the Coral is a Polypus.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent">12. <span class="smcap">Infusoria</span>,
+(<i>Infusory animals</i>.) These are found in infusions of vegetable
+substances in water, and are, in general, too small to be visible to
+the naked eye.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="space-above2">In the present little book we shall treat of the
+first five of these Classes.</p>
+
+<p>The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed
+first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling,
+in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes.</p>
+
+<p>The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered
+not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the
+anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study.
+In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of
+the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the animals.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to
+be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the
+valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable
+us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of
+view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist.
+In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different
+species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the
+royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small
+univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress,
+the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of
+mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the
+well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from
+the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As
+an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel,
+scallop, &amp;c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of
+the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro
+population in the West Indies.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_89"><i>Teredo navalis</i></a>, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers,
+ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which
+many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on
+this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history
+and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of
+ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with
+the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the
+useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="space-below2">The shell with which a Molluscous animal is
+covered, is absolutely necessary to protect its delicate body from
+injury; this shell is, in general, composed of much the same substances
+as bone; but the bone of a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency
+of the blood, and the particles of which it is composed are deposited
+by that fluid, and again taken up and restored to the circulation, a
+circumstance which does not take place in the substance of a shell. The
+shell is formed by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of
+the growth of the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells,
+point out their periodical increase.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="SHELLS" id="SHELLS"></a>
+    <p class="center"><b><big><i>Fig 1.<span class="ws18">Fig 2.</span></i></big></b></p>
+    <img src="images/i_013.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="396" />
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between
+shells of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless
+properly defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The
+annexed diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent
+occurrence among the Mollusca. <a href="#SHELLS">Fig. 1</a>,
+represents a univalve shell; <a href="#SHELLS">fig. 2</a>, another
+shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the purpose
+of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+instance, the periwinkle, (<i>Turbo vulgaris</i>,) have what is called
+an operculum, (<i>a lid</i>,) which closes the opening, and protects the
+inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of
+horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell
+itself.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2><a name="MOLLUSCA" id="MOLLUSCA"></a>CLASS MOLLUSCA.</h2></div>
+
+<p>In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily
+attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the
+creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in
+different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and
+brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they
+are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be
+of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the
+snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling.</p>
+
+<p>The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different
+form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of
+muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or
+drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are
+situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of
+a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from
+view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished
+with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in
+others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit that
+element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land.</p>
+
+<p>The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following
+Orders:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="isub0">1. <span class="smcap">Heteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>not uniform in all species</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0">2. <span class="smcap">Cephalopoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the head</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0">3. <span class="smcap">Trachelipoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the neck, near the gills</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0">4. <span class="smcap">Gasteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
+<li class="isub2"><i>attached to the stomach</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0">5. <span class="smcap">Pteropoda</span>, (<i>with feet, or organs of motion,</i></li>
+<li class="isub2 space-below2"><i>like wings</i>.)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<h3><a name="HETEROPODA" id="HETEROPODA"></a><i>ORDER HETEROPODA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered
+as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals,
+intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods;
+they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a
+jelly-like substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty
+when floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are
+less known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great
+difficulty there is in preserving them.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CARINARIA" id="CARINARIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Glassy Carinaria</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_16"><i>Carinaria vitrea</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and
+perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be
+seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material
+organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or
+organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part
+of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white
+and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance
+resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling
+it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which
+seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors
+with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas
+at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax
+model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches wide.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_16" id="FIG_16"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_016.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="249" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><small>THE GLASSY CARINARIA</small>,
+                                   (<i>Carinaria vitrea</i>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="CEPHALOPODA" id="CEPHALOPODA"></a><i>ORDER CEPHALOPODA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished with
+a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find among
+this class some of the most singular productions of the waters; they
+differ materially from each other, and have been separated into three
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia;
+secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the
+Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous
+chambers, as the Nautilus.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CUTTLE_FISH" id="CUTTLE_FISH"></a><span class="smcap">The Cuttle Fish</span>,
+(<a href="#CUTTLE"><i>Sepia officinalis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native
+of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of
+an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually
+covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike
+all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the
+Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard
+transparent substance.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#CUTTLE">Cuttle Fish</a>, figured in the engraving, is furnished
+in front with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy,
+or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously
+constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in
+themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted
+by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner
+surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in
+contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar
+power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not
+cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind
+of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for
+many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="CUTTLE" id="CUTTLE"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="597" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE CUTTLE FISH.</small></p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+    <img src="images/i_019.jpg" alt="" width="150" height="128" />
+    <p class="center"><small>BEAK OF A<br />CEPHALOPOD.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and,
+although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt
+that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own
+element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes,
+capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe
+are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and
+very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within
+its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the
+power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it
+escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms
+a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal,
+<i>Sepia</i>. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each
+other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour,
+and commonly known by the name of <i>Sea Grapes</i>. They are found attached
+to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#CUTTLE">Cuttle Fish</a> generally remains with its body in some hole
+in a rock, while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer
+that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious, and
+it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to conquer.</p>
+
+<p>The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English
+coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found
+on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the
+manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of
+the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though
+varying considerably in texture.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="ARGO" id="ARGO"></a><span class="smcap">The Argonaut</span>,
+(<a href="#ARGONAUTA"><i>Argonauta argo</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The tender Nautilus that steers its prow,<span class="ws3">&nbsp;</span></span>
+<span class="i0">The sea-born sailor in its light canoe.</span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<hr class="tb" />
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep</span>
+<span class="i0">The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep.</span>
+<span class="i0">He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind,</span>
+<span class="i0">That shake the world, but tremble in the wind.</span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p>The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest
+ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and,
+at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research
+of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with
+the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so
+that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists
+would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division
+of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along
+with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union
+between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it
+applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do
+not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the shell.</p>
+
+<p>The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its
+resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in
+full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have
+been the first fitted out for commercial adventure.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="ARGONAUTA" id="ARGONAUTA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="498" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in
+considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the
+waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist,
+Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal
+miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or
+Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture,
+and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube,
+all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily;
+then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a
+membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the
+remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if
+alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.”</p>
+
+<p>Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its
+shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly
+Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that
+such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed
+by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the
+instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation.
+The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these
+interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PEARLY" id="PEARLY"></a><span class="smcap">The Pearly Nautilus</span>,
+(<a href="#POMPILIUS"><i>Nautilus pompilius</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after
+with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years
+that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this
+knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while
+engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen
+containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now
+deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London.</p>
+
+<p>The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided
+into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now
+describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to
+be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking
+in the Water at will. The body of this <i>Cephalopod</i>, it will be seen,
+only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as
+the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they
+had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too
+cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the
+providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own
+words, the capture of this interesting object.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="POMPILIUS" id="POMPILIUS"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="489" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE PEARLY NAUTILUS,</small></p>
+    <p class="center space-below2">Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather,
+thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was
+lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island
+of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean,
+that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at some
+distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in
+this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship
+at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the
+floating object.”</p>
+
+<p>“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly
+known by the name of the <a href="#POMPILIUS">Pearly Nautilus</a>:
+it was captured and brought on board; but the shell was shattered from
+having been struck with the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was
+sinking when the boat approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it
+would have escaped. I extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was
+firmly attached to each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has
+been stated by Dr. Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour,
+with deeper sports and variegations,” the colour, however, as it
+appeared in this recent specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="344" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><small>SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN,<br />
+                                OR INTERNAL SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been
+brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been
+frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and
+not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An
+office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of
+rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the
+fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as
+soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I
+and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not
+notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell,
+merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the
+membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful
+prize.”</p>
+
+<p>Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with
+its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out
+his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the
+poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse
+position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the
+ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on
+the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but
+after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops
+floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves.
+This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken
+in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the bottom.”
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="TRACHELIPODA" id="TRACHELIPODA"></a><i>ORDER TRACHELIPODA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve
+shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two
+numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (<i>Zoophagi</i>,) and those
+that exist on vegetable substances, (<i>Phytophagi</i>.) The animal feeders
+are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without
+jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at
+pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies
+of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known
+from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a
+<i>siphon</i>, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points
+out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of
+its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for
+the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe
+water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families.</p>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Convoluta</span>, (<i>rolled up like a scroll</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Columellaria</span>, (<i>distinguished by a plaited columella</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Purpurifera</span>, (<i>yielding a purple colour</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Alata</span>, (<i>winged</i>.)</li>
+<li class="isub0"><span class="smcap">Family Canalifera</span> (<i>having a canal at the base of the opening</i>.)</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>CONVOLUTA</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich
+in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of
+this class.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="f120"><b>FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (<span class="smcap">Zoophagi</span>.)</b></p></div>
+<hr class="r5" />
+
+<h4><a name="MARBLE" id="MARBLE"></a><span class="smcap">The Marble Cone</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Conus marmoreus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The
+Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and
+is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular
+white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable manner
+the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his works.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_27" id="FIG_27"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Voluta diadema.<span class="ws4">Conus marmoreus.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws4">Columbella mercatoria.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is much
+thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part; and
+this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the soft
+body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the animal the
+shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes internal,
+the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall; if,
+therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original thickness,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+its weight would become too great for its possessor. To guard against
+this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material, the creature
+possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance of what now
+becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is unnecessary for its
+present use, and of re-depositing the same on the outward wall of its
+mansion, where strength is most required<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve
+shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable
+specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their
+form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but,
+above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of
+celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="PORPHYRY" id="PORPHYRY"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_028.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="338" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Oliva porphyria.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve
+fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two
+tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit salt waters.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal
+which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the
+columella. The <a href="#PORPHYRY">Porphyry Olive</a> is found in the South American
+Seas, on the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species
+of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish
+brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with
+irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly
+four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="COWRIE" id="COWRIE"></a><span class="smcap">The Money Cowrie</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_29"><i>Cypræa moneta</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African
+coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a
+circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in
+Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are
+obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for rice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_29" id="FIG_29"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="257" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Cypræa moneta.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea; these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to Bengal, and
+from thence sent into this country. The value of these shells as a
+circulating medium depends naturally enough on their greater or less
+abundance.</p>
+
+<p>In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a
+shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued
+at a shilling.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_29">Cowrie shell</a> is found of three different forms,
+according to its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely
+imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the
+usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then
+begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely
+slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly,
+when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in
+which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden.
+The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the
+two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult
+state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large,
+so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while
+the deposition of the new matter is taking place.</p>
+
+<p>Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to
+prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we
+have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to
+require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one;
+from this it happens that the same individual can form successively
+many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both
+large and small.</p>
+
+<p>When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand,
+at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot climates.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>COLUMELLARIA</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella
+plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a
+plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that
+is, without a notch.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="DIADEM" id="DIADEM"></a><span class="smcap">The Diadem Whorl Shell</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Voluta diadema</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it
+is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become
+nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and
+is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has
+two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth
+is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little
+hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ,
+springing out obliquely behind the head.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="COLUMBELLA" id="COLUMBELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Common
+Columbella</span>, (<a href="#FIG_27"><i>Columbella mercatoria</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island
+of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of
+an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it
+possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot.</p>
+
+<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>PURPURIFERA</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove
+bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all the
+genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar
+reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient
+nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much
+in use before the discovery of cochineal.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="HARP" id="HARP"></a><span class="smcap">The Music Harp Shell</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_32"><i>Harpa musica</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance
+also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the
+animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time
+back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either
+forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth,
+although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <a name="FIG_32" id="FIG_32"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_032.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="497" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Harpa musica.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two
+portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from
+its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account
+it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it
+would be lost at the same time as the foot.</p>
+
+<p>The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were
+less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours,
+become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still
+considered rare.</p>
+
+<p>The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the
+regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a
+harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PURPURA" id="PURPURA"></a><span class="smcap">The Wide-Mouthed
+Purpura</span>, (<i>Purpura patula</i>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the
+Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple
+colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in
+the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was
+discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was
+thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the
+discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied
+the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient
+minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its
+discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are
+informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the
+sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized
+one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph
+having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to
+have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less
+anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a
+method of applying it to cloth.</p>
+
+<p>This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either
+consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only
+for the garments of royalty.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar
+and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The
+Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most
+of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing.
+Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings
+of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the
+republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their
+own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should
+dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and
+tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a
+few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was
+entirely lost.</p>
+
+<p>In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye,
+nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths
+the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and
+on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the
+accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour
+were entirely fabulous.</p>
+
+<p>According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter out
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure state,
+and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from the
+smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ were
+caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken out
+and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of the
+matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels over
+a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the fleshy
+impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor was
+tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was
+defective, the boiling was renewed.</p>
+
+<p>Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at
+other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among
+these Pliny enumerates <i>Fucus marinus</i>, or Archil, and the <i>Anchusa
+tinctoria</i>, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these
+and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of
+shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but
+the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead,
+was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made
+considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson
+colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this
+colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr.
+Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus
+excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various
+kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the
+opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours,
+he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying
+transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the
+fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a
+horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous
+clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it
+may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to
+be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor
+in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if
+placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,&mdash;that is, if
+in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise,
+or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer,
+the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce
+be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep
+green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green,
+after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue,
+and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red,
+after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,)
+it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no
+more.”</p>
+
+<p>“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding
+water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the
+wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned,
+that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour, which
+afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the colour,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in
+handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will
+be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.”</p>
+
+<p>Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species
+of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they
+had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were
+white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of
+them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it
+stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by
+washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it
+was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of
+the sun.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these
+shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but
+Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial
+in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little
+colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a
+substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being
+applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition.</p>
+
+<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>ALATA</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at
+the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the
+shell changing its form during the growth of the animal.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SCORPION" id="SCORPION"></a><span class="smcap">The Spotted
+Scorpion Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_38"><i>Pterocera scorpio</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the
+projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance
+is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced
+period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and
+is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted
+and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell
+is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on
+which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or
+slightly tinged with yellow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+     <a name="FIG_38" id="FIG_38"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="468" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Pterocera scorpio.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="f120 u"><b><span class="smcap">Family</span> <i>CANALIFERA</i>.</b></p>
+
+<p>The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in
+having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening
+does not change its form through age.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="TRUMPET" id="TRUMPET"></a><span class="smcap">The Variegated
+Sea-Trumpet</span>, (<a href="#FIG_39"><i>Triton variegatum</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Triton variegatum</i>, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and
+beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found
+chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on
+the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell
+applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet.</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Already Triton, at his call, appears<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And give the waves the signal to retire.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Grows by degrees into a large extent,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Runs the wide circuit of the world around.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The sun first heard it, in his early east,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And met the rattling echoes in the west;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Obey the summons, and forsake the shore.<br /></span>
+<span class="i36"><span class="smcap">Dryden.</span><br /></span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_39" id="FIG_39"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="326" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Dolium perdix.<span class="ws7">Triton variegatum.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws3">Pyrula caniculata.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="PEAR" id="PEAR"></a><span class="smcap">The Caniculated
+Pear-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_39"><i>Pyrula caniculata</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and
+attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at
+present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the
+whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many
+as eight-and-twenty species of this shell.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_40" id="FIG_40"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_040.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="303" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Turbo marmoratus.<span class="ws7">Pleurotoma babylonia.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws3">Trochus imperialis.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="BABYLON" id="BABYLON"></a><span class="smcap">The Babylonian
+ Split-Mouth</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Pleurotoma babylonia</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca
+Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said
+that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated
+as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from
+the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the
+shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the
+creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to support.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="f120"><b>VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (<span class="smcap">Phytophagi</span>.)</b></p></div>
+
+<p>Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances
+have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws;
+they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which
+they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their
+tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in
+stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These
+last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of
+breathing,&mdash;others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist
+out of that element.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="TURBAN" id="TURBAN"></a><span class="smcap">The Marble
+Turban-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Turbo marmoratus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell.
+The Marble Turban, <i>Turbo marmoratus</i>, is the largest, being as much
+as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour
+of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity.
+It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting
+of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells
+whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of
+mother-of-pearl.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Turbo littoreus</i> (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle,
+with which our rocky coasts abound.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="IMPERIAL" id="IMPERIAL"></a><span class="smcap">The Imperial
+Top-Shell</span>, (<a href="#FIG_40"><i>Trochus imperialis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form to
+a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their spire is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called <i>flat-mouthed
+snails</i>. The greater number of these shells, (and the species are very
+numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and many of them are
+also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there are as many as
+seventy species,&mdash;the larger and more elegant are only found in the
+seas of hot climates.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_42" id="FIG_42"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_042.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
+    <p class="center space-below2">&emsp;<i>Haliotis iris.<span class="ws6">Scalaria pretiosa.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws4">Neritina pulligera.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="SCALARIA" id="SCALARIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Precious
+Scalaria</span>, (<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Scalaria pretiosa</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of
+its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were
+only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the
+turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast,
+on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native
+place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and
+several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others
+consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage
+some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given for
+a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ are
+much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast of
+Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in
+forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches
+in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the
+empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is
+from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought
+to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with
+rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="IRIS" id="IRIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Iris Ear-Shell</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Haliotis Iris</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Haliotides</i>, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species
+are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the
+system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many
+doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it
+continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of
+Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food,
+the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender
+tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament
+the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these
+tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the
+number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed
+at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes
+which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of
+the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of
+species very difficult and uncertain.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="NERITINA" id="NERITINA"></a><span class="smcap">The Dusty
+Neritina</span>, (<a href="#FIG_42"><i>Neritina pulligera</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and
+a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to
+inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the
+history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,&mdash;namely,
+that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good
+preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general
+natives of hot climates.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PALUDINA" id="PALUDINA"></a><span class="smcap">The Viviparous
+Paludina</span>, (<a href="#FIG_44"><i>Paludina vivipara</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it
+takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within
+the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In
+nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in
+the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_44" id="FIG_44"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_044.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="289" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Planorbis corneus.<span class="ws4">Paludina vivipara.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws4">Lymnæa stagnalis.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water;
+sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the
+mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny
+substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves
+to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they
+are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="STAGNALIS" id="STAGNALIS"></a><span class="smcap">Lymnæa Stagnalis.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_44"><i>Lymnæa stagnalis</i></a> is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow
+ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for
+its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the
+water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great
+numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance
+of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into
+its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it
+instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order
+to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the
+ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts
+its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very
+little power to direct its own course.</p>
+
+<p>During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the
+mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind,
+they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes,
+which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not
+easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="PLANORBIS" id="PLANORBIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Horn-shaped
+Planorbis</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_44"><i>Planorbis corneus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Planorbis</i>, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses
+the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like
+substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year,
+attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is
+considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the
+spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other
+inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable,
+certainly not poisonous.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="BULIMUS" id="BULIMUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Red-mouthed
+Bulimus</span>, (<a href="#FIG_46"><i>Bulimus hæmastomus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Bulimus hæmastomus</i> is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of
+Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most
+singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of
+the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that
+of a moderate-sized pigeon.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_46" id="FIG_46"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_046.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="288" />
+    <p class="center"><span class="ws14"><i>Bulimus hæmastomus.</i></span>
+                                   <span class="ws3"><i>Pupa mummia.</i></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="MUMMY" id="MUMMY"></a><span class="smcap">The Mummy
+Puppet Shell</span>, (<i>Pupa mummia</i>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_46"><i>Pupa mummia</i></a> is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the
+singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy.</p>
+
+<p>The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones,
+and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The
+greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of
+tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and
+other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SNAIL" id="SNAIL"></a><span class="smcap">The Wood
+Snail</span>, (<a href="#FIG_48"><i>Helix nemoralis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Snail (<i>Helix</i>) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe,
+and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells
+which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been
+placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with
+two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices
+in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn
+into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula
+is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black
+spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal,
+and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all
+the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal
+appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some writers
+suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of these appendages.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger
+kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans,
+according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in
+the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening
+them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in
+great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they
+are still used as food in several parts of the Continent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_48" id="FIG_48"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_048.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="306" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Helix nemoralis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are
+frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but
+used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other
+diseases of the chest.</p>
+
+<p>It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have
+portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be
+afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished
+extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was
+not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head
+was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world
+became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made,
+and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one,
+however, for a length of time, could succeed;&mdash;it was then suspected
+that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length,
+it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of
+which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce
+a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others,
+the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper
+nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two
+years after the old head has been removed.</p>
+
+<p>M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred
+Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden,
+that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they
+could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the
+Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he
+discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain
+of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the
+end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and
+like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more
+delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot
+doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has
+been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind
+of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.”</p>
+
+<p>If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very
+considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and
+kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended
+for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are
+tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed
+of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early
+rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the
+dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become
+excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander
+in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are
+great destroyers both of Snails and slugs.</p>
+
+<p>A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth
+recording.</p>
+
+<p>The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading
+into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of
+this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to
+kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road;
+but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks
+and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled
+him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails
+which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not
+in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct
+line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as
+if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is
+the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails
+aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green
+spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,&mdash;from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+path, nothing but the wall in front,&mdash;but still, although the whole of
+their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on, until
+they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By what
+other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies the
+place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with so
+liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature?</p>
+
+<h3><a name="GASTEROPODA" id="GASTEROPODA"></a><i>ORDER GASTEROPODA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and
+foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which
+this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the
+creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is
+for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished
+from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral,
+and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in
+some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting
+covering of any shell whatever.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SLUG" id="SLUG"></a><span class="smcap">The Red Slug</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_52"><i>Limax rufus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order,
+entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all
+countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have
+never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact
+of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The <i>Limax
+rufus</i>, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it
+impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly
+found in fields than in gardens.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_52" id="FIG_52"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_052.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="352" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Limax rufus.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on
+account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown
+kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is
+very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields
+of cabbages and turnips.</p>
+
+<p>In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head,
+contains a very small oval shell.</p>
+
+<p>There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under
+stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in
+length; it is called <i>Limax noctiluca</i>, the night-shining Slug. The
+buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which
+exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining
+with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact
+mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have
+laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were
+dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being
+placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched.</p>
+
+<p>The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by
+a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to
+entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight
+acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the
+apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing
+two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field
+of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two
+women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs,
+which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid
+on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed
+invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were
+to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they
+abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to
+be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The
+quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="BULLA" id="BULLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Woodlike
+Bulla</span>, (<a href="#FIG_54"><i>Bulla lignaria</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The animal of the <i>Bulla</i> is singular, from possessing-within its
+stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that
+organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind
+of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the
+foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck mentions
+as many as eleven species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_54" id="FIG_54"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_054.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="302" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Bulla lignaria.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="CREPIDULA" id="CREPIDULA"></a><span class="smcap">The Nail-shaped
+Crepidula</span>, (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Crepidula unguiformis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The genus <i>Crepidula</i> takes its name from its hearing some resemblance
+to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these there
+are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm climates.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="UMBRELLA" id="UMBRELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Mediterranean
+Umbrella</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Umbrella Mediterranea</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Umbrella Mediterranea</i>, as its name implies, is found in the
+Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is
+singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by
+a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="FISSURELLA" id="FISSURELLA"></a><span class="smcap">The Clouded
+Fissurella</span>, (<a href="#FIG_55"><i>Fissurella nimbosa</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Fissurella nimbosa</i> is found in various and distant parts of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+world,&mdash;in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &amp;c. It is
+rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in
+length.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_55" id="FIG_55"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_055_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="252" />
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" >
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdc"><i>Umbrella</i><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></td>
+      <td class="tdc"><i>Crepidula</i></td>
+      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span><i>Fissurella</i></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdc"><i>Mediterranea.<span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></i></td>
+      <td class="tdc"><i>unguiformis.</i></td>
+      <td class="tdc"><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span><i>nimbosa.</i></td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by
+having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell,
+affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is
+discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="BONNET" id="BONNET"></a><span class="smcap">The Hungarian
+Bonnet Shell</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_56"><i>Pileopsis Ungarica</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Pileopsis Ungarica</i> is extremely elegant both in its form and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with
+rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low
+water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless
+removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the
+creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches
+itself firmly to the surface.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_56" id="FIG_56"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_055_b.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="262" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Pileopsis Ungarica.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="CHITON" id="CHITON"></a><span class="smcap">The Scaly
+Chiton</span>, (<a href="#FIG_56A"><i>Chiton squamosus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Chitons</i> differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in
+the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed
+by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck,
+in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the Mollusca.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_56A" id="FIG_56A"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_056.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Chiton squamosus.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe
+the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the
+marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not a
+univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not to
+be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one piece,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+which Nature had originally broken transversely into several distinct
+moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its
+movements.”</p>
+
+<p>The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between
+high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements.
+Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton,
+says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is
+covered with a multitude of teeth,&mdash;some simple, and others with three
+points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2><a name="CONCHIFERA" id="CONCHIFERA"></a>CLASS CONCHIFERA.</h2></div>
+
+<p>The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells,
+in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is
+soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a
+shell of two valves, without head or eyes,&mdash;a mouth, if it may be so
+called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole
+body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes,
+generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the
+principal distinguishing characters of this class.</p>
+
+<p>In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference
+to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the
+number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged
+under the heads of <i>univalves</i>, of one piece, <i>bivalves</i>, with two
+pieces, and <i>multivalves</i>, with more than two pieces. This arrangement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that
+otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells,
+however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals
+belonging to the class Conchifera.</p>
+
+<p>The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses
+except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well
+described by Dr. Roget, in his <i>Bridgewater Treatise</i>, that we cannot
+do better than extract a portion from that interesting work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_058.jpg" alt="" width="450" height="360" />
+    <p class="center">Valves of the <i>Unio Batava</i>, with the Connecting Ligament.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by
+a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that
+lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies
+much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great
+strength.</p>
+
+<p>During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell
+is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment
+and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary
+to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell,
+and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being
+only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a
+muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even
+a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their
+fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to
+that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from
+their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the <i>adductor
+muscles</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_059.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="260" />
+    <p class="center">Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the Hinge, L.,<br />
+                the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its Fibres,<br />
+                with respect to the Valves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of
+being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing
+to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are
+not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies.</p>
+
+<p>Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the <a href="#FIG_66">Oyster</a> has
+some power of locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling
+the contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the
+fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to
+rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain
+within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and
+that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas,
+those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water
+never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they
+are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous
+experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left
+them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_60" id="FIG_60"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="" width="400" height="294" />
+    <p class="center"><i>The Cardium, or Cockle.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a
+leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In
+the <a href="#FIG_60"><i>Cardium</i></a>, or cockle, this organ is composed
+of a mass of muscular fibres, interwoven together in a very complex
+manner, and which may be compared to the muscular structure of the
+human tongue; the effect in both is the same, namely, the conferring a
+power of motion in all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded,
+retracted, or inflected at every point.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_86"><i>Solen</i></a>, or razor-shell fish, has a foot
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+of a cylindrical shape, tapering at the end, and much more resembling
+in its form a tongue than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of
+the foot is effected by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior
+of the organ is formed of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a
+considerable quantity of water, which the animal has the power of
+injecting into it, and of thus increasing its dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>The foot of the <a href="#FIG_79"><i>Mytilus edulis</i></a>, or common mussel,
+can be advanced to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any
+fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body,
+and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and
+by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed
+object, continues slowly to advance.</p>
+
+<p>This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal
+themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly
+adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for
+this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and
+insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and
+forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it
+is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract
+it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised
+and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of these
+exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is moderately
+active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a minute.
+The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which was
+raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on its
+side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to be
+supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be
+perceived above the sand.</p>
+
+<p>By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the
+foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell
+may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before
+protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled
+quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can,
+with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_60"><i>Cardium</i></a> can also advance at the bottom of
+the sea, along the surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot,
+as a boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against
+the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar
+expedient, that the <a href="#FIG_86">Solen</a> forces its way through the sand, expanding
+the end of its foot into the form of a club.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_86"><i>Tellina</i></a> is remarkable for the quickness
+and agility with which it can spring to considerable distances,
+by first folding the foot into a small compass, and then suddenly
+extending it, while the shell is, at the same time, closed with a loud
+snap.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_78"><i>Pinna</i></a>, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of
+tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus
+for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from
+dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of
+its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number
+of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks,
+and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a
+convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of
+this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to
+retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their
+power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous
+matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being
+drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the
+spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a
+certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously
+constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from
+the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this
+groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting
+it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this
+canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient
+tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied
+to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully
+attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is
+then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by
+its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is
+disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same
+operation is repeated.</p>
+
+<p>Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions
+around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of
+some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the
+importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its
+safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed,
+by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an
+action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once
+the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which
+they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly
+to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that
+no <a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a> is capable of forming more than four, or at most
+five threads, in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in
+haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender
+than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other
+parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into
+gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk.</p>
+
+<p>The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this
+Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there
+are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa,
+with only one pair.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="UNIMUSCULOSA" id="UNIMUSCULOSA"></a><i>ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are
+much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but
+they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as,
+for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the
+oriental pearl.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="HORSE" id="HORSE"></a><span class="smcap">The Horse-Foot
+Bowl Shell</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_65"><i>Anomia ephippium</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form;
+like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence
+attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the
+same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of
+the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value.
+Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of
+the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in
+the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which,
+instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of
+shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this
+<i>operculum</i>, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of
+the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance,
+by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_65" id="FIG_65"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_065.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="269" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Anomia ephippium.</i><br />[<i>Anomia</i>,
+             a little bowl; <i>ephippium</i>, a horse’s foot.]</p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="OYSTER" id="OYSTER"></a><span class="smcap">The Oyster</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_66"><i>Ostrea edulis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become
+food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe;
+they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky
+ground, in no great depth from the surface.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May;
+when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease,
+which the dredgers commonly call <i>cultch</i>. The growth of an Oyster is
+tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of
+the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in
+three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a
+half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_66" id="FIG_66"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="301" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Ostrea edulis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The
+Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute,
+attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which
+they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from
+England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the
+luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported
+in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were
+fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to
+those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour,
+nearly black.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following
+places:&mdash;Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are
+generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in
+Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales.
+In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and
+at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters
+is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April
+inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome;
+it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months
+that have the letter <i>r</i> in them.</p>
+
+<p>In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of
+Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St.
+Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this
+is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope
+which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is
+then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few
+minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken
+are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places,
+where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks
+are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist
+materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken
+out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in
+what we should call bad condition.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or
+sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a
+narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed
+on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand
+on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the
+water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may
+have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them.
+A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which
+had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change
+of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain
+a peculiar kind of green food.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="COMB" id="COMB"></a><span class="smcap">The Great Comb Shell</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_69"><i>Pecten maximus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the
+largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all
+the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is
+covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into use
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other articles
+of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_69" id="FIG_69"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_068.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="341" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Pecten maximus.<span class="ws3">Malleus albus.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species
+of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water,
+and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but
+this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its
+habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it
+tolerably palatable it requires cooking.</p>
+
+<p>In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the
+poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the <i>restaurateurs</i> employ
+them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of
+mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters,
+and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PEARL" id="PEARL"></a><span class="smcap">The Pearl Oyster</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_70"><i>Meleagrina margaritifera</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very
+different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of
+its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a <i>byssus</i>, or
+beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found.
+There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly
+found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of
+Australasia.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other
+inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable
+dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a
+pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by
+an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the
+inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the
+mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future
+irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances
+cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval,
+sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is
+always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck,
+or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be
+traced on the pearl itself.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_70" id="FIG_70"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_070.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="302" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Meleagrina margaritifera.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;&mdash;in this case, the
+pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for
+instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid,
+this nucleus can be traced.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre,
+consisting of the remains of a diseased <i>ovum</i>, or egg, of the animal.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a
+valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her
+ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be
+doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it
+would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to
+drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the
+lapse of a very considerable time.</p>
+
+<p>At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great
+moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is conducted.</p>
+
+<p>The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of
+Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye
+but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are
+the plants that nourish the cochineal insect<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>),
+and here and there some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees.
+But Condatchy, three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to
+be seen but a few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during
+the period of the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of
+which extend upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are
+only intended as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely
+constructed), and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair
+on the grandest scale. The people most active in erecting huts and
+speculating in the various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans,
+Cingalese (natives of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast
+of the continent of India. Apparently, however, from their natural
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+timidity, none of the Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them
+engage in the other active parts of the fishery; they merely resort
+hither for the purpose of supplying the markets.</p>
+
+<p>About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery,
+when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of
+the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English
+superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent
+diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand
+oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls
+collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a
+good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are
+scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles
+from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are
+fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is
+ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to
+fifteen fathoms.</p>
+
+<p>The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the
+same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but
+considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference.
+The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside
+of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more
+beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured.
+The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy
+part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several
+pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely at
+its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators: but,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual, who
+sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year
+1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than
+120,000<i>l.</i></p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two
+hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These,
+with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything
+necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different
+parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions
+and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of
+these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they
+reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day.</p>
+
+<p>At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to
+emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open
+scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from
+each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended,
+with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone
+hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about
+five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of
+a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the
+stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron,
+to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a
+slip of calico round his loins,&mdash;swimming in the water, he takes hold
+of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of
+the stone.</p>
+
+<p>He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden
+hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to
+him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone
+and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels
+himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils
+with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other
+gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and
+instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is
+thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached
+to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon
+as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone,
+which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting
+oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next
+diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as
+much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get
+hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk
+to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of
+it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time,
+free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above
+water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a
+distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a
+rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into
+the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is
+training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely
+experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the
+manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has
+reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain
+under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in
+this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert
+man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket.
+There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down
+alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity
+of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a
+favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort
+after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a
+pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks
+contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for
+six hours.</p>
+
+<p>When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal,
+and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten
+to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and
+noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the
+oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore,
+where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for
+ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the
+oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel,
+filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their
+putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells
+broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which
+have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards
+handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from
+the shells, with pincers.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters
+remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom
+of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured
+into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost.
+Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance
+in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are
+by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being
+conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small
+and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of
+considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with
+salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into
+classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves.
+After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then
+arranged on strings, and are fit for the market.</p>
+
+<p>Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest
+times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are
+often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various
+attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular
+of which,&mdash;known to have been practised early in the Christian era,
+on the banks of the Red Sea,&mdash;is still carried on in China. A hole is
+bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted,
+and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point
+of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually
+hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite
+size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced
+the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be
+formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually
+established artificial pearleries,&mdash;but these were abandoned after
+a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of
+sufficient size to be of much value.</p>
+
+<p>False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is
+covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white
+wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which
+adhere to the scales of the bleak, (<i>ablette</i>,) and was first applied
+to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name
+of Jacquin<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="HAMMER" id="HAMMER"></a><span class="smcap">The Hammer Oyster</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_69"><i>Malleus albus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable;
+externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other
+hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the
+most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus
+are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity
+of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like
+the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or
+beard, by which it adheres to the rocks.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PINNA" id="PINNA"></a><span class="smcap">The Rough Pinna</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_78"><i>Pinna rudis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the
+shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the
+engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much as a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a species
+found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water, which
+is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria, not
+only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard, or
+byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very
+remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the
+<a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a>, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a <i>crampe</i>,
+with teeth a foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to
+be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains
+attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose
+of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried
+and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even
+garments of much larger size.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_78" id="FIG_78"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_078.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="342" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Pinna rudis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of
+equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a
+dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but
+at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of
+the <a href="#FIG_78">Pinna</a>, and the number of beards necessary to make even
+so small an article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells
+were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &amp;c., they
+would increase much more rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British
+shores possess but one species, the <i>Pinna lævis</i> of Donovan; this is
+of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="MUSSEL" id="MUSSEL"></a><span class="smcap">The Common Mussel</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_79"><i>Mytilus edulis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing
+animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and
+low water marks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_79" id="FIG_79"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_079.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Mytilus edulis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food;
+and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of
+severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned
+for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by
+which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be
+detected,&mdash;a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance,
+partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or
+insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have
+ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of
+the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many
+experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author,
+the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding
+on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely
+a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass
+of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is
+cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of
+July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common
+observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in
+which the letter <i>r</i> is not found. This spawn, according to our author,
+is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and
+inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the
+part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled
+up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered
+severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all
+these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been
+discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion
+occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten with
+vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>When an individual is <i>musselled</i>, the effects are very alarming;
+the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few
+hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is
+attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink,
+and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which
+soon relieves the patient.</p>
+
+<p>The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it
+is well adapted.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the
+multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom
+of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which
+the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August,
+when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the
+mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here
+they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and
+in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change
+from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve
+their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks,
+preserves in which the salt water remains at rest.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="TRIDACNA" id="TRIDACNA"></a><span class="smcap">The Giant Tridacna</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_82"><i>Tridacna gigas</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The <i>Tridacna gigas</i> is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very
+thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much
+as five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells
+have been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to
+form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given
+to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found
+in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one
+hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna
+gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere
+to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity,
+as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of
+separating them from the rock.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_82" id="FIG_82"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_082.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="311" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Tridacna gigas.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h3><a name="BIMUSCULOSA" id="BIMUSCULOSA"></a><i>ORDER BIMUSCULOSA,<br />
+(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)</i></h3>
+
+<p>This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells,
+all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their
+structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their
+use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+with those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more
+pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to
+place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in
+one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable
+depth of water, they are not so easily obtained.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="FW_MUSSEL" id="FW_MUSSEL"></a><span class="smcap">The Fresh-Water Mussel</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_84"><i>Anodonta cygnæa</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble
+it, are known by the trivial name of <i>Mussel</i>, the only resemblance
+between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which
+inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in
+habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power
+of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta
+is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of
+shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad
+muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain
+pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are
+lined with mother-of-pearl.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl,
+very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high price.</p>
+
+<p>A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the
+collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County
+Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months,
+go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs,
+and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell,
+take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in
+a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable
+pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those
+people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good
+advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for
+50<i>l.</i> that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40<i>l.</i> A
+miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4<i>l.</i> 10<i>s.</i> to a man that
+sold it for 10<i>l.</i>, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30<i>l.</i>,
+with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80<i>l.</i> for it from the
+late Dutchess of Ormond.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_84" id="FIG_84"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_084.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="279" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><span class="ws8"><i>Isocardia cor.</i></span>
+                                   <span class="ws4"><i>Anodonta Cygnæa.</i></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="ISOCARDIA" id="ISOCARDIA"></a><span class="smcap">The Heart-Shaped Isocardia</span>,<br />
+(<a href="#FIG_84"><i>Isocardia cor</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by
+the name of the <i>foolscap-shell</i>, and the <i>bullock’s heart shell</i>, is
+rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast;
+it is the largest British bivalve shell.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="DONAX" id="DONAX"></a><span class="smcap">The Wedge-Shaped Donax</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_85"><i>Donax cuneata</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that
+represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks:
+it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these
+species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and
+streaked with pink.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_85" id="FIG_85"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_085.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="254" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Donax cuneata.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through
+various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the
+<a href="#FIG_86">Tellina</a>, or <i>earth-shell</i>, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the
+Solen, or <i>razor-shell</i>.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SOLEN" id="SOLEN"></a><span class="smcap">The Sheath Solen</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_86"><i>Solen vagina</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying
+themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a
+couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to
+penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell.
+Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom.
+This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which
+forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is
+enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose
+of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal
+ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may
+possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of
+Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms
+for its retreat is always perpendicular.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_86" id="FIG_86"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_086.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="255" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Tellina.<span class="ws8">Solen vagina.</span>
+                                   <span class="ws4">Pandora rostrata.</span></i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on
+the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather
+cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the
+farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of
+the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated;
+after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular
+direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began
+to descend, and that with considerable quickness.</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_86">Solens</a> are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method
+of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat
+of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its
+chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of
+salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so
+irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly
+mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance,
+snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes
+good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal
+escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect;
+either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which
+is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up
+with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other
+means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it
+out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="PHOLAS" id="PHOLAS"></a><span class="smcap">The Date-Shaped Pholas</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_88"><i>Pholas dactyloides</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the
+solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in
+stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of
+much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical,
+for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an
+insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that
+the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which
+acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this
+solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon
+stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava.</p>
+
+<p>Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their
+phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if
+eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the
+person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_88" id="FIG_88"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_088.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="384" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Pholas dactyloides.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly
+eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are
+found.</p>
+
+<p>The species represented in the engraving is found on the British
+coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully
+carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the
+engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole
+from which a shell has been removed is shown.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="SHIP_WORM" id="SHIP_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Ship-Worm,</span>
+(<a href="#FIG_89"><i>Teredo navalis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully
+examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it
+employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as
+there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent
+observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed,
+are fully equal to the task.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_89" id="FIG_89"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_089.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Teredo navalis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of
+the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The
+animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a
+tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress
+through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right
+in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of
+these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the
+excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually
+formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most deeply
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally excavates
+in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some instances it
+crosses this grain.</p>
+
+<p>In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high
+water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have
+been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of
+large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by
+means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together.
+These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this
+destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and
+had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts
+of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2><a name="CIRRHIPEDA" id="CIRRHIPEDA"></a>CLASS CIRRHIPEDA.</h2></div>
+
+<p>The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of <i>Barnacles</i> and
+<i>Acorn-shells</i>, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and
+pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time.
+They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca,
+and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &amp;c. These creatures, from their
+singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of
+the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was
+unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their
+true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British
+naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any
+definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately
+after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought
+more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and
+lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case.</p>
+
+<p>After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea,
+Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the
+<span class="smcap">class</span> of Crustacea, I formed the <i>first order</i> of this class,
+(the <i>Cirrhipeds</i>,) under the name of <i>sightless Crustacea</i>, but a
+few years afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of
+the Mollusca, but this was no better. If, for example, we consider
+those characters which furnish their most important organs, we shall
+find that the Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+Crustacea, for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws
+analogous to those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the
+antennæ of the shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was
+a task that devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq.,
+a surgeon in his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery
+took place, we shall notice further on.</p>
+
+<p>The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or
+tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being
+derived from two Latin words,&mdash;<i>cirrhus</i>, hair, and <i>pes</i>, the foot;
+these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have,
+in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion.</p>
+
+<p>They have been separated into two orders; namely, <i>Cirrhipeda
+pedunculata</i>, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery
+nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,&mdash;and <i>Cirrhipeda sedentaria</i>,
+which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="PEDUNCULATA" id="PEDUNCULATA"></a><i>ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA.</i><br />
+(<i>Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk.</i>)</h3>
+
+<h4><a name="BARNACLE" id="BARNACLE"></a><span class="smcap">The Smooth Barnacle</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_93"><i>Anatifa lævis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of
+a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has
+lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the
+shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance
+of this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days,
+because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to
+partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent
+to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following
+notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and <i>printed</i> by
+them in their <i>Transactions</i>. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and
+convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the
+shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I
+found a perfect <i>sea-fowl</i>; the little bill like that of a <i>goose</i>, the
+eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the
+feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the
+<i>feet</i> like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor
+did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that
+did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen
+some as big as their fist!!”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_93" id="FIG_93"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_093.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="386" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Anatifa lævis.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="SEDENTARIA" id="SEDENTARIA"></a><i>ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA</i>,<br />
+(<i>Sedentary Cirrhipeds</i>.)</h3>
+
+<h4><a name="ACORN" id="ACORN"></a><span class="smcap">The Acorn-Shell</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_94"><i>Balanus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the
+Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author
+had devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was
+returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when,
+casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry
+at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a
+treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled
+for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.”
+After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues
+“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in
+any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the
+little animal about to be described.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_94" id="FIG_94"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_094.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="266" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Balanus</i>, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue.
+When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel,
+and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water
+in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are
+withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves,
+united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of
+opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional
+exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a
+large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks,
+&amp;c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members,
+so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke
+to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a
+succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_095.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="201" />
+</div>
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="isub0">Fig. 1. Larva of Barnacle, natural size.</li>
+<li class="isub2">2.&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;" <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">magnified, seen from above.</span></li>
+<li class="isub2">3.&emsp;&nbsp;"&emsp;" <span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws2">highly magnified, seen from side;</span></li>
+<li class="isub12"><i>a</i>, swimming-members;</li>
+<li class="isub12"><i>b</i>, front limb, with sucker.</li>
+<li class="isub2">4. Eye, much magnified.</li>
+<li class="isub2">5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size.</li>
+<li class="isub2">6.&emsp;&emsp;"<span class="ws2">"</span><span class="ws3">"</span>&emsp;&emsp;full grown.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal,
+is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front,
+at the sides of the body.</p>
+
+<p>“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826;
+and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a
+glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be
+examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were
+taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the
+satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their <i>exuviæ</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a>,
+and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the
+vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen
+intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of
+the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part
+of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with
+the <i>exuviæ</i>. On the 10th, another individual was seen <i>in the act of
+throwing off its shell</i>, and attaching itself, like the others, to the
+bottom of the glass.”</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2><a name="ANNULATA" id="ANNULATA"></a>CLASS ANNULATA.</h2></div>
+
+<p>We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of
+Lamarck; he calls them,</p>
+
+<p>“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or
+inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least
+transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without
+antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number
+having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of
+being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though
+not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various
+forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this
+separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white
+blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals
+are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated
+into three Orders, namely, <i>Annulata sedentaria</i>, which are fixed to
+other substances; <i>Annulata antennata</i>, possessing antennæ, or feelers;
+and <i>Annulata apoda</i>, without projecting members answering as feet,
+serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &amp;c.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_097.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="295" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="ANN_SEDENTARIA" id="ANN_SEDENTARIA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA</i>,<br />
+(<i>Sedentary Annulose Animals</i>.)</h3>
+
+<p>The creatures which form this order are generally found attached
+to rocks, shells, &amp;c. and are usually of small size. The engraving
+represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula
+there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell
+that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the
+species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has
+great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or
+tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always
+occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its <i>operculum</i>, the
+lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily
+formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of
+course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="AMPHITRITE" id="AMPHITRITE"></a><span class="smcap">The Magnificent
+Amphitrite</span>,<br /> (<a href="#FIG_99"><i>Amphitrite magnifica</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as
+yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is
+exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into
+its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that
+of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained
+by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being
+put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health.
+That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an
+umbrella, consists of the <i>branchiæ</i> or organs of breathing; these are
+of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite,
+although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to
+it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_99" id="FIG_99"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_099.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="458" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Amphitrite magnifica.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="ANTENNATA" id="ANTENNATA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA</i>,<br />
+(<i>Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ</i>.)</h3>
+
+<hr class="r25" />
+<h4><a name="SAND_WORM" id="SAND_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Sand-Worm of
+the Fishermen</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_100"><i>Arenicola piscatorium</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much
+sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the
+European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met
+with in great abundance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_100" id="FIG_100"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_100.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="397" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Arenicola piscatorium.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h4><a name="LEODICE" id="LEODICE"></a><span class="smcap">Blood-coloured
+Leodice</span>, (<a href="#FIG_101"><i>Leodice sanguinea</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are
+enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs
+of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear
+a strong resemblance to the <i>scolopendra</i>, or centipede.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_101" id="FIG_101"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_101.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="387" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Leodice sanguinea.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of
+Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to
+the length of fourteen or fifteen inches.</p>
+
+<p>When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the
+blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body
+was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the
+animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as
+soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable
+jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the
+animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath
+the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="MOUSE" id="MOUSE"></a><span class="smcap">The Spinous Sea-Mouse,
+or Sea-Caterpillar</span>,<br />(<a href="#FIG_102"><i>Halithæa aculeata</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native
+element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially
+covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a peacock.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_102" id="FIG_102"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_102.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="406" />
+    <p class="center space-below2"><i>Halithæa aculeata.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="APODA" id="APODA"></a><i>ORDER ANNULATA APODA</i>,<br />
+(<i>Footless Annulose Animals</i>.)</h3>
+
+<p>The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already
+described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may,
+consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those
+we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they
+are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and
+live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We
+find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the
+Earth-worm and the Leech.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="EARTH_WORM" id="EARTH_WORM"></a><span class="smcap">The Common
+Earth-Worm</span>,<br />(<i>Lumbricus terrestris</i>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow
+rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short,
+silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like.
+These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the
+alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is
+enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so
+forming various fixed points of resistance or <i>fulcra</i>, upon which the
+animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the
+Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a
+simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind
+of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is
+supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+    <img src="images/i_104.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="83" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two
+openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the
+dirt which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the
+other by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made
+by the animal would be much in this form, descending at <span class="smcap">a</span>,
+and reaching the surface by <span class="smcap">b</span>. It has been said, that the
+Earth-worm, if divided by the spade or otherwise, will unite again and
+live; the foundation for this appears to be the more probable fact,
+that, when divided, that portion of the animal in which the head is
+placed may, perhaps, survive the mutilation, and ultimately again
+become a perfect creature.</p>
+
+<p>Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks,
+they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round
+the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving
+the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very
+deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up
+in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of <i>mucus</i>,
+which is furnished by the pores of their body.</p>
+
+<p>The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with
+the author of the <i>Journal of a Naturalist</i>; among other remarks,
+he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important
+one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers,
+harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common
+Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the
+soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the
+surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer
+parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the
+more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple
+nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them
+are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil,</p>
+
+<p class="center">Death still producing life.</p>
+
+<p>“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey
+of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary
+example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction.
+The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its
+prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds;
+fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it
+unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and
+burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in
+dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the
+earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element,
+yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it
+as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and
+even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of
+the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding
+this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully
+commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of all.</p>
+
+<p>“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining
+over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become
+frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually
+consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass
+of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of
+approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground,
+than they approach the surface.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing
+the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into
+the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service,
+penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every
+direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the
+water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we
+have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says,
+“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of
+knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and
+fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any
+vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that
+all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale
+as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that
+permitted me to obtain this knowledge.”</p>
+
+<h4><a name="LEECH" id="LEECH"></a><span class="smcap">The Medicinal
+Leech</span>, (<a href="#LEECHES"><i>Hirudo medicinalis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to
+have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed
+in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied
+to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended
+to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt
+leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any
+part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound
+occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal.</p>
+
+<p>At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the
+body, for which use it is eminently adapted.</p>
+
+<p>There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures,
+but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the <i>Hirudo
+medicinalis</i>, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or
+striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted
+with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not
+uniformly found; and the <i>Hirudo troctina</i>, of a brownish colour,
+the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is
+surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow,
+and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots.</p>
+
+<p>The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout
+the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts;
+it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very
+abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture,
+and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great
+use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less
+frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are
+imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate
+calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every
+hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign
+production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat
+larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots.
+Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by
+the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were
+employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is
+found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and
+seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears
+to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the
+sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by
+the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable
+depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated,
+and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is
+considered by the <i>leech-gatherers</i> as a favourable time for collecting
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some
+persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a
+leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the
+following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be
+serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel
+without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the
+animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of
+fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a
+state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will
+remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless,
+and so on.</p>
+
+<p>This natural barometer <i>appears</i> to answer tolerably well, if there
+is sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if
+one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are
+enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws,
+and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient
+accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood
+or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is
+not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the <i>larvæ</i>
+of aquatic insects, worms, &amp;c., so that the common idea of the danger
+of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation.</p>
+
+<p>The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms,
+tadpoles, &amp;c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five
+horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the
+number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were
+missing was to be discovered.</p>
+
+<p>The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of
+cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech,
+which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species,
+disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state,
+and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a
+lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more
+powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that
+period.</p>
+
+<p>A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a
+trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different
+parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench
+annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it
+(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of
+the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such
+pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent
+were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere
+skeleton.”</p>
+
+<p>From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+<i>sanguisuga</i>, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to
+the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name
+of Hirudo <i>vorax</i>, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in
+confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained
+slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a
+doubt.</p>
+
+<p>On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form
+of a horse-shoe, thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+    <img src="images/i_110.jpg" alt="" width="75" height="81" />
+</div>
+
+<p>These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or
+eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are
+merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in
+describing their character, says they are without eyes.</p>
+
+<p>The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are
+three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with
+regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these
+piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not
+by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the
+surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips);
+in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there
+remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the
+piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three
+minutes after the leech has commenced operation.</p>
+
+<p>Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been
+taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The
+principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those
+which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination
+to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to
+commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &amp;c.; but
+these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears
+to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when
+any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to
+puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the
+little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling
+to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little
+cold water.</p>
+
+<p>After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to
+induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt
+frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of
+Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the
+preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head
+of the leech instead of salt.</p>
+
+<p>The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has
+swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of
+the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the
+most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood
+remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed
+of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with
+the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal,
+the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal,
+through a distinct opening.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="LEECHES" id="LEECHES"></a>
+    <p class="center"><b>Fig. 1. <span class="ws16">Fig. 2.</span><span class="ws4">&nbsp;</span></b></p>
+    <img src="images/i_112.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="237" />
+</div>
+
+<p>It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced
+from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are
+developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon
+of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its
+natural size: <a href="#LEECHES">fig. 1</a>, shows the perfect case or
+cocoon, and <a href="#LEECHES">fig. 2</a>, the same opened, with the
+young leeches contained within it; it is said that, at times, there
+are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case. This cocoon is formed
+by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the mud or clay, which
+composes the bed of the pool it inhabits.</p>
+
+<p>The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although
+only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to
+the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of
+this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of sale.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly
+in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those
+leeches which were intended for the Paris market.</p>
+
+<p>“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the
+season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to
+the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance.
+These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are
+known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of
+water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches
+quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they
+are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the
+cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of
+allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow
+much more rapidly after having partaken of blood.</p>
+
+<p>There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is
+more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than
+even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the
+terrible hooded snake itself.</p>
+
+<p>The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in
+length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active
+animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally
+to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no
+sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to
+crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is
+shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with
+these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping
+them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly
+than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than
+would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in
+persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers,
+and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself.</p>
+
+<p>Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such
+as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &amp;c., but all to very
+little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing
+the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very
+closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2><a name="CRUSTACEA" id="CRUSTACEA"></a>CLASS CRUSTACEA.</h2></div>
+
+<p>The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history
+has undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among
+the insects:&mdash;others considered them to have more analogy to the
+spiders. Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent
+<span class="smcap">CLASS</span> forming two <i>orders</i>, which he
+has named after the arrangement of the branchiæ, or gills, by which
+they breathe, namely,&mdash;the <i>Crustacea homobranchiæ</i>, the
+distinguishing marks of which he describes in this manner: branchiæ
+hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass, covering the
+body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the mandibles
+always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks, the head
+not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist them in
+their movements. Secondly, the <i>Crustacea heterobranchiæ</i>, in which
+the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under the
+lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the
+tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in
+general fixed, <i>sedentary, not on footstalks</i>.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="HOMOBRANCHIAE" id="HOMOBRANCHIAE"></a><i>ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ</i>,<br />
+(<i>Shell-Fish with concealed gills.</i>)</h3>
+
+<p>The first of these orders, the <i>homobranchial</i> Crustacea, includes most
+of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters,
+and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division.</p>
+
+<p>Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order,
+and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal
+kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is
+apparently less complex.</p>
+
+<p>The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two
+principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately
+united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a
+portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable
+supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on
+each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head.
+The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this
+spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The
+two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest.</p>
+
+<p>The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat
+pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather;
+they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are
+so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of
+these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base.</p>
+
+<p>The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the
+mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at
+their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper
+part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at
+the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two
+pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six
+other members, which Lamarck calls <i>foot-jaws</i>, from their bearing
+some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the
+parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and
+accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that may
+come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as articles
+of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of the year.</p>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="f150 u"><a name="CRAB_TRIBE" id="CRAB_TRIBE"></a><b><i>THE CRAB TRIBE.</i></b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the
+knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being
+generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit
+ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful
+species.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="ZOEA" id="ZOEA"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_117.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="474" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular species,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless variety of
+curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most brilliant
+colours; this more particularly applies to those which are found in the
+seas of hot climates.</p>
+
+<p>The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was
+placed by naturalists among the <i>Crustacea</i>, and considered a perfect
+animal of a distinct species; it was named <a href="#ZOEA">Zoea</a>. Mr. Thomson,
+the experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to
+discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better
+than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the
+author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known
+respecting these inhabitants of the deep.</p>
+
+<p>“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the
+<i>Crustacea</i>) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body
+of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant
+troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a
+fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast
+expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a
+kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by
+those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts
+of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants
+with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the
+bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is
+interspersed with fields of Sargosa<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>.
+On due examination, however, we shall not fail to find it everywhere
+peopled by a considerable variety of animals, either of small size, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+possessed of such a degree of translucency as to render them invisible,
+or scarcely perceptible, even when on or near to its surface; that it
+should possess its share of the organized beings which we see spread
+over every other part of the surface of our globe, is a conclusion we
+might arrive at indirectly, from the consideration of oceanic fishes
+and birds being observed in those parts of the ocean most distant from
+the land, and the provident care of the Deity, which we invariably
+witness throughout the domain of nature, to furnish food for all, even
+the meanest of his creatures; the more minute and invisible inmates of
+the sea, then, must constitute the food of oceanic fishes and birds.</p>
+
+<p>“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most
+conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of
+them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and
+a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to
+accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing
+every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or
+four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze,
+bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it
+up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to
+ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater
+rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the
+spout of one of the <i>sea-water</i> pumps, and examined three or four times
+a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.”</p>
+
+<p>Although naturalists were decided in calling the <a href="#ZOEA">Zoea</a> a crustaceous
+animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the system
+it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike each
+other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it is known,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but merely the
+larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is perfectly
+new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only proving their
+real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as described in most
+systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on that account to be
+separated from the insects, but that they do undergo a metamorphosis,
+and that of a most wonderful nature.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ,
+in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year
+following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred;
+this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully
+supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died
+in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which
+it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a
+great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs
+and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be
+considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in
+hatching the <i>ova</i> of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which
+presented exactly the appearance of the <i>Zoea taurus</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>The Common Crab, <i>Cancer major</i>, is so well-known, that any description
+of its appearance would be useless.</p>
+
+<p>One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that
+is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this
+power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase
+in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the
+peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about
+to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured
+retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it
+creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year
+when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time
+their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest
+perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking
+the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among
+the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the
+attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal
+discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously
+harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its
+kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in
+anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting
+its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against
+each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated,
+and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an
+unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at
+its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before
+seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach
+comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it
+disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal,
+with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a
+boot that was too big for him.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty;
+but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several
+hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such a
+weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor
+venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have
+not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of
+the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor
+oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod,
+and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness
+continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is
+seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before;
+its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first
+object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which
+it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness.
+In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength,
+the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but
+just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their
+skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this
+is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the
+shell. These stones, popularly known as <i>crabs’ eyes</i>, were long
+highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not
+superior to so much chalk.</p>
+
+<p>When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the
+old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found
+the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears
+wonderful how the old shell could have contained it.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb,
+or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty
+of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its own
+legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury, by
+bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received the
+hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb
+from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and
+natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other
+legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part
+of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears
+to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the
+case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers.</p>
+
+<p>When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on
+the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural
+styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows
+callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the
+creature’s shell increases rapidly in size.</p>
+
+<p>Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and
+kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so
+bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking
+off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal
+bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the
+tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one
+of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly
+creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted
+its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which
+bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+its limb in the usual manner,&mdash;still, however, holding fast for a
+length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away.</p>
+
+<p>The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not,
+as it is said, walk exactly backwards.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="LAND" id="LAND"></a><span class="smcap">The Land Crab</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_124"><i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there
+is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands,
+whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly
+curious in themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_124" id="FIG_124"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_124.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="424" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE LAND CRAB,</small> (<i>Gecarcinus ruricola</i>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near
+salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year
+in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the islands,
+many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these places
+their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year, to repair to
+the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. They prepare for
+their annual migration about the month of April or May, and, having
+mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets forward, with all the
+regularity of an army, under the guidance of an experienced commander.</p>
+
+<p>Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct
+line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly
+surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a
+house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which
+they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not
+unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper.
+If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow
+its course without attempting to cross it.</p>
+
+<p>It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of
+which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like
+pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged
+to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment
+till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never
+leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then
+descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty
+paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover
+the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a
+straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but
+neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a
+confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly,
+to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables;
+but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to
+proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest.</p>
+
+<p>After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner,
+they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately
+enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several
+times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where
+they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek
+the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of
+being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already
+repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their
+annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and,
+soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting
+the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones,
+however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and
+lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are
+obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover;
+making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves
+up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and
+continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time
+they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six
+weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may
+be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the
+food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of
+seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="HERMIT" id="HERMIT"></a><span class="smcap">The Hermit, or Soldier Crab</span>,<br />
+(<a href="#FIG_127"><i>Pagurus bernhardus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of
+remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock,
+it may fancy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_127" id="FIG_127"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_127.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="340" />
+    <p class="center"><small>THE HERMIT CRAB,</small> (<i>Pagurus bernhardus</i>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly
+secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous
+state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is
+almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their
+hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to
+maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has
+grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to
+seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the
+additional name of the Soldier Crab.</p>
+
+<p>“The <a href="#FIG_127">Soldier</a> when about to seek a new habitation,
+is still seen,” says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears
+to have considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the
+mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell,
+therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body;
+and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer
+both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight
+inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along
+that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave;
+still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail,
+unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage,
+till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one
+shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating
+that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation,
+to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it
+quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently
+changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to
+this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the
+body of the animal, claws and all.”</p>
+
+<p>Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the
+Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest
+between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which
+they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike
+with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to
+yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times
+back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist.</p>
+
+<p>When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring
+to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will
+sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not
+easily cured.</p>
+
+<p>On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell
+of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they
+not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under
+the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices
+of which they hide themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients were well acquainted with the <a href="#FIG_127">Soldier Crab</a>,
+as is evident from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets:</p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left</span>
+<span class="i0">Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft.</span>
+<span class="i0">Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish</span>
+<span class="i0">For the cast crust of some new-covered fish;</span>
+<span class="i0">Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore,</span>
+<span class="i0">Whose first and rightful owners are no more.</span>
+<span class="i0">They make glad seizure of the vacant room,</span>
+<span class="i0">And count the borrowed shell their native home;</span>
+<span class="i0">Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case,</span>
+<span class="i0">And boldly herd with the crustaceous race.</span>
+<span class="i0">But when they larger grow they fill the place,</span>
+<span class="i0">And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space,</span>
+<span class="i0">Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before,</span>
+<span class="i0">And busy search around the pebbly shore,</span>
+<span class="i0">Till a commodious roomy seat be found,</span>
+<span class="i0">Such as the larger shell-fish living owned.</span>
+<span class="i0">Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage,</span>
+<span class="i0">And long for the disputed shell engage;</span>
+<span class="i0">The strongest here the doubtful prize possess,</span>
+<span class="i0">Power gives the right, and all the claim confess.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<h4><a name="LOBSTER" id="LOBSTER"></a><span class="smcap">The Lobster</span>,
+(<i>Astacus europæa</i>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great
+abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland
+is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast
+of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the
+Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth.
+The methods of taking Lobsters are various,&mdash;the most usual is by means
+of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of
+twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap,
+so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning.
+These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place
+being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a
+kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only
+carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the
+London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast.</p>
+
+<p>Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other
+sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they
+frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor
+creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent
+clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the
+crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the
+pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while the
+other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then, its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with the
+other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and
+lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable
+distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when
+in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a
+beautiful deep blue.</p>
+
+<p>A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems
+to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in
+Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who
+transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to
+prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by,
+they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning!</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CRAY_FISH" id="CRAY_FISH"></a><span class="smcap">The River Cray-Fish</span>,
+(<i>Potamobius fluviatilis</i>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in
+appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is
+commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the
+banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that
+may happen to come in its way.</p>
+
+<p>The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which
+is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus
+described:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the
+thickness of the thumb,&mdash;split them at the smallest end, and by way of
+bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take then
+the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance of
+the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are there,
+they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you perceive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait suddenly,
+and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the bait, or
+will fall back into the net.</p>
+
+<p>Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a
+hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst
+of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the
+water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained
+there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found
+partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually
+prevent their escape.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SHRIMP" id="SHRIMP"></a><span class="smcap">The Phosphorescent
+Shrimp.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known to
+all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent
+properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants
+of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very
+frequently met with.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_132.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="356" />
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Noctiluca Banksii</span> magnified.</p>
+    <p class="center space-below2">The line above shows the natural length.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue
+from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found
+by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided
+in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most
+brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there
+started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light.</p>
+
+<p>The author we have lately quoted, says,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot2">“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable,
+that the Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to
+every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the
+trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet,
+has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and
+of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider
+that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,&mdash;is vivid in
+proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light
+of the moon,&mdash;and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea,
+so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the
+dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and
+the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable
+sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all
+times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken
+rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy
+appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible
+at a considerable distance.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="OPOSSUM" id="OPOSSUM"></a><span class="smcap">The Opossum Shrimp</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_134"><i>Mysis chamæleon</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward
+appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably
+smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed
+creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable
+abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally
+swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined
+to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth
+encloses myriads at a time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_134" id="FIG_134"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_134.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="461" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Mysis chamæleon.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have
+been called fissipeds, (<i>split-feet</i>,) on account of each of their
+feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb
+being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and
+the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is
+essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped
+round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the
+element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such
+as shrimps, prawns, &amp;c., there is a single row of five feet on each
+side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four
+rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet
+amounts to as many as thirty-two,&mdash;sixteen adapted for swimming, and
+sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization,
+the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the
+present genus frequent the surface.</p>
+
+<p>The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they
+are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses,
+fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this
+pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is
+destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in
+a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the
+young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened
+form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in
+this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards
+the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted
+together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the
+large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp
+are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch
+we have described.</p>
+
+<p>We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the
+Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve
+as food for herrings.</p>
+
+<p>It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals
+that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater
+productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished
+master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still
+continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance,
+after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has
+informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one
+piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part
+appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together.
+Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs,
+which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs
+still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently
+jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the
+various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which
+actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment
+necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison
+with other creatures, they must possess!</p>
+
+<p>The <a href="#FIG_134">Opossum Shrimps</a>, we have seen, are the prey of the larger
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that
+are smaller than themselves,&mdash;seizing upon every animal substance they
+are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a
+vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other.</p>
+
+<p class="space-below2">The species represented in the engraving has
+been called the <i>Mysis chamæleon</i>, from its colour varying according to
+the substances on which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray,
+black, brown, and pink.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="HETEROBRANCHIAE" id="HETEROBRANCHIAE"></a><i>ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ.</i></h3>
+
+<p class="center">(<i>Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously<br />
+placed, never concealed.</i>)</p>
+
+<p>The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other
+than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we
+find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of
+the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a
+great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the
+water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are
+very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They
+have been divided into several sections, according to their outward
+form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine
+ourselves to a description of some of the best known.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="SQUILL" id="SQUILL"></a><span class="smcap">The Spotted Squill</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_138"><i>Squilla maculata</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present
+order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct,
+appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called
+the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that
+name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its
+foot-jaws are armed.</p>
+
+<p>The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is
+the largest of the genus.</p>
+
+<p>The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little
+consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent
+the sandy bottom of the sea.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_138" id="FIG_138"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_138.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="427" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Squilla maculata.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the
+young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter
+under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CLOPORTUS" id="CLOPORTUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Common Cloportus</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_139"><i>Cloportus ascellus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a
+dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where
+the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to
+a group of small Crustacea known by the name <i>Oniscus</i>. Some, as we see
+in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion
+inhabit the water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_139" id="FIG_139"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_139.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="283" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Cloportus ascellus.</i></p>
+    <p class="center">(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species
+which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for
+its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years
+timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary
+wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the
+course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little
+creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten
+inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch
+a year. Another species, <i>Cymothoa</i>, attaches itself to the backs of
+different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body.</p>
+
+<p>A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+fifth volume of the <i>American Philosophical Transactions</i>; it is
+accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is
+not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular
+species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself
+to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the
+roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_140_a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="411" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Head of Alewife.</i></p>
+    <p class="center">Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <img src="images/i_140_b.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="195" />
+    <p class="center">The insect seen from above.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort
+to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife,
+called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and
+in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of
+the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the
+herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught
+from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for
+the table as the herring.</p>
+
+<p>“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect
+about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly
+holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate.</p>
+
+<p>“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without
+injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider
+the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken
+out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable
+of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to
+preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always
+obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other.</p>
+
+<p>“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and
+lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately
+scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his
+position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and
+unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained
+his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant
+resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he
+certainly fares sumptuously every day.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the
+shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to
+travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As
+long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found
+fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his
+mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but
+by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself
+with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay
+Alewife without the louse.”</p>
+
+<p>The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies,
+many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their
+body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="MOLUCCA" id="MOLUCCA"></a><span class="smcap">The Molucca Crab</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_143"><i>Polyphemus gigas</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>Why the singular creature here represented should have the name
+Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every
+schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is
+represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas,
+this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its
+being so nearly allied to many very minute species.</p>
+
+<p>The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but
+two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their
+buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has
+been called the Molucca Crab.</p>
+
+<p>The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by
+the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of
+poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this
+circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no
+other ground for the belief.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_143" id="FIG_143"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_143.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="294" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Polyphemus gigas.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very
+easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything
+until their danger becomes imminent.</p>
+
+<p>It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for
+food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy.</p>
+
+<p>These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a
+considerable distance over the wet sands,&mdash;but if incommoded by the
+sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element.
+When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if
+this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the
+waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power
+of righting itself with the assistance of its tail.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="LIMULUS" id="LIMULUS"></a><span class="smcap">The Crab-like Limulus</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_144"><i>Limulus cancriformis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &amp;c.; they
+are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their
+principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_144" id="FIG_144"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="221" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Limulus cancriformis.</i> (Natural size.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in
+which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler,
+very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The
+head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They
+possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back.
+Their legs are very numerous,&mdash;the two in front, much the largest,
+spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with
+silky articulated bristles.”</p>
+
+<h4><a name="FLEA" id="FLEA"></a><span class="smcap">The Water Flea</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_145"><i>Cyclops quadricornis</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That
+represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most
+interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr.
+Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution,
+as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of
+creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred
+on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision,
+more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring,
+and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the
+elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the
+mass of living matter they present to us.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_145" id="FIG_145"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_145.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="464" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Cyclops quadricornis.</i> (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the
+year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm
+day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an
+inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered
+with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil,
+are of a fine rich colour.</p>
+
+<p>“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly
+plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and
+vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but
+have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the
+organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it
+is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little
+above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark
+crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this
+organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two
+kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest
+extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some
+other positions it is square.”</p>
+
+<p>The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance
+similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared
+with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving,
+(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder
+portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque
+colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red.</p>
+
+<p>The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are
+extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has
+described them as forming two distinct genera.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><a name="SW_FLEA" id="SW_FLEA"></a><span class="smcap">The Small Water Flea</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_147"><i>Cyclops minutus</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its
+body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much
+smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form
+renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says
+Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if
+approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside,
+in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit
+opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a
+kind of vaulting leap.”</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_147" id="FIG_147"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_147.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="379" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Cyclops minutus</i>, much magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met
+with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed,
+growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will
+not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and
+require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of
+clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the
+under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or
+cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey,
+moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the
+plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not
+bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept
+in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the
+three hundredth part of an inch.</p>
+
+<p>The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the
+eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of
+the animal near the tail.</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CYPRIS" id="CYPRIS"></a><span class="smcap">The Hairy Cypris</span>,
+(<a href="#FIG_149"><i>Cypris pubera</i></a>.)</h4>
+
+<p>These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they
+are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The
+animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it
+at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell
+numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is
+enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until
+it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which
+issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and
+bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them
+great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute
+materially to the swimming powers of the creature.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point
+is seen,&mdash;this is the eye of the animal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+    <a name="FIG_149" id="FIG_149"></a>
+    <img src="images/i_149.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="218" />
+    <p class="center"><i>Cypris pubera.</i> (Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is
+found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they
+are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are
+more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the
+year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course
+of the year.</p>
+
+<p>The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense
+numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in
+this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in
+the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a
+kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the
+marshes with water.</p>
+
+<p>A species nearly allied to this, the <i>Artemia Salina</i>, the Lymington
+shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans,
+which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other
+Crustaceous animal.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at
+Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is
+deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a
+quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the
+liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute,
+in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm,
+or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this
+is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of
+this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms
+from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase
+astonishingly in the course of a few days.</p>
+
+<p>It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans,
+where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the
+Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and
+reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans,
+and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much
+diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the
+manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at
+the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers.</p>
+
+<p class="f150 space-above2"><b>THE END.</b></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London:</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">John W. Parker, St. Martin’s Lane</span>.</p>
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+  <p class="center"><b>[<span class="smcap">List No. 1.</span>]</b></p>
+  <p class="f150"><b>APPROVED BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS<br /> AND FAMILIES.</b></p>
+</div>
+<hr class="r25" />
+<p class="neg-indent">Those to which a * is prefixed, are published
+under the Direction of the Committee of General Literature and
+Education of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</p>
+<hr class="r25" />
+
+<p class="neg-indent"><b><span class="larger">* ENGLISH GRAMMAR</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. Dr. RUSSELL</span></b>,
+late Head Master of Charter-House School.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">No language can be more simple and intelligible
+than that in which the Rules of this Grammar are expressed. The
+construction of Sentences, and the force of the Prepositions and
+Conjunctions, are illustrated by examples. Emphasis is treated very
+perspicuously; and the Grammar closes with most useful Questions on the Rules.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION</span></b> to
+<b><span class="larger">ENGLISH COMPOSITION</span></b>;
+adapted to the education of both sexes, by the <b><span class="larger">Rev. J. EDWARDS</span></b>,
+M.A., one of the Masters of King’s College School, London.&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In addition to other pursuits and
+studies, the cultivation of a knowledge of English Literature is daily
+gaining ground. This, it must be acknowledged, is very desirable, but
+it is assuredly of great importance, that it should be upon a plan
+which will tend to give a vigorous and healthy tone to the mind.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE CLASS READING
+BOOK</span></b>; adapted for Schools, and particularly designed to
+furnish Youth with Practical Information on a variety of Interesting
+Subjects. By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE LUDLOW</span></b>, one of
+the Masters of Christ’s Hospital.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">This work consists of nearly Two
+Hundred Reading Lessons, adapted either for classes or individuals.
+They are selected with a view to the communication of popular but
+sound information, on various branches of knowledge, and there is a
+department consisting of carefully selected Poems.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">ABBOTT’S
+READER</span></b>; a Series of Familiar Pieces, in Prose and Verse,
+calculated to produce a Moral Influence on the Hearts and Lives
+of Young Persons. By the Authors of <span class="smcap">The Young
+Christian</span>; <span class="smcap">The Corner-Stone</span>;
+<span class="smcap">The Teacher</span>, &amp;c. 3<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this <span
+class="smcap">Reader</span> is, to exert a direct and powerful moral
+influence upon the hearts of children; such an influence as shall
+make them faithful and industrious in the improvement of their time,
+obedient and affectionate to their parents, kind towards their
+playmates, and upright and honest in their intercourse with others.
+The compilers have honestly endeavoured to exclude everything which
+they supposed would be unacceptable to any of the friends of piety and
+morality, of whatever name.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* ARITHMETIC
+TAUGHT BY QUESTIONS.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The principal novelty of this
+Arithmetic consists in the <span class="smcap">Questions</span>, by
+which the learner may be enabled to examine and teach himself. At
+the same time, it is thought that many Teachers may profit by the
+facilities which the questioning affords, and learn to ground those
+whom they have been in the habit of teaching by rote.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A FIRST
+BOOK</span> on <span class="larger">GEOMETRY</span></b>, including Plane
+and Solid Geometry, and an Introduction to Trigonometry.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In this work will, it is believed, be
+found all the essential Propositions of Plane and Solid Geometry. The
+method of demonstration which has been followed is that of Euclid; but,
+throughout, an attempt has been made to give it a character of greater
+simplicity, and thus to render it more generally available.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE FIGURES OF EUCLID</span>;
+with <span class="larger">QUESTIONS</span>, and a <span class="larger">PRAXIS</span> of
+<span class="larger">GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. J. EDWARDS, M.A.</span></b>, of
+King’s College School, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of GEOGRAPHY</span></b>.
+ By <b><span class="larger">G. HOGARTH</span></b>.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A comprehensive Manual of the leading
+facts in this branch of Education, carefully condensed from the best
+sources. It contains Tables of the Situations and Heights of the
+principal Mountains, and of the Lengths of the principal Rivers, a Map
+of the World, Five other Maps, and Four Plates of Costumes.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES
+of the HISTORY of ENGLAND</span></b>. By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE
+HOGARTH.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 3<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The leading events of English History
+are related with simplicity, and their connexion traced with clearness.
+The narratives are confined to the most memorable and important events;
+and those circumstances particularly marked which have led to the
+gradual formation of the British system of government. The work is
+illustrated with many Engravings of Costumes, Views, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of ROMAN HISTORY</span></b>.
+By <b><span class="larger">GEORGE HOGARTH</span></b>.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A complete and popular epitome of the
+History of the Rise, Progress, and Fall of the Roman Empire. It is
+embellished with a handsome Print of a Roman Triumph, and numerous
+Figures of Costumes, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">OUTLINES of GRECIAN HISTORY</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. BARTON BOUCHIER, M.A.</span></b>
+With <span class="smcap">Maps</span> and <span class="smcap">Views</span>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of SACRED HISTORY</span></b>;
+from the Creation of the World to the Destruction of Jerusalem.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this Work is to afford
+a condensed view of the History of both the Old and New Testaments,
+together with a brief account of the Jewish History in the interval
+between the Babylonish Captivity and the Birth of Christ, and in the
+period between Christ’s Ascension and the fulfilment of his awful
+Prophecy of the Destruction of Jerusalem and the Dispersion of the Jews.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A MANUAL of ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY</span></b>,
+in which the Modern Names of Places are attached to the Ancient, and the Words
+marked with their proper quantities. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. WILLIAM HILDYARD, M.A.</span></b>
+&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">Geography and Chronology are, as
+it has been quaintly but truly remarked, the eyes of History, and
+the Editor’s experience in teaching (which has not been small,) has
+convinced him of the great importance of making boys perfectly familiar
+with the division of countries, and the relative situation of places,
+if ever they are expected to read the classic authors, especially the
+historians, with advantage.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* OUTLINES of ASTRONOMY</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. T. G. HALL, M.A.</span></b>, Professor of Math.,
+King’s Coll., London.&emsp;10<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">An elementary Work, intended to
+instruct, in the sublime facts of Astronomy, those who are unacquainted
+with mathematical reasoning; and to explain to them, in familiar
+language, the principal phenomena of the Heavens. The Lessons are
+illustrated by numerous Engravings.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE ELEMENTS of BOTANY</span></b>.
+New Edition, with many Cuts.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The principles of this beautiful and
+important science are explained in a clear and simple manner, so
+as to render the acquisition of them comparatively easy. The book
+is illustrated by numerous cuts of the different parts of plants,
+&amp;c., and the examples, when possible, are selected from our own
+wild flowers, or from those cultivated in all gardens or fields, and
+they are cited by their familiar names. A Glossary of most of the terms
+usually employed is subjoined, and an alphabetical List of the most
+useful Plants, with their botanical names, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* MANUAL of INSTRUCTION
+in VOCAL MUSIC</span></b>, chiefly with a view to Psalmody.
+By <b><span class="larger">JOHN TURNER, Esq.</span></b>&emsp;4<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The author offers this work not as
+an experiment now for the first time to be tried, but as the result
+of long experience. Though chiefly designed for the use of children
+collected in large numbers, it may, with equal advantage, be adopted
+in smaller assemblages, and in the domestic circle: and may also be
+rendered serviceable to adults.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">EASY LESSONS
+IN MECHANICS</span></b>; with Familiar Illustrations, showing the
+practical Application of the various Mechanical Principles.&emsp;3<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* ON the EDUCATION
+and TREATMENT of CHILDREN</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2"><span class="smcap">Contents</span>:&mdash;On
+the means of developing the Bodily Senses in Infancy; Early Development
+of the Affections; Early Cultivation of the Intellect; Management
+in Childhood; Amusements and Employments; Sunday; Views of Death;
+Supernatural Appearances; Politeness; Dress; Gentility; Management
+during the Teens; Views of Matrimony.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* INSTRUCTIONS for
+TEACHING ARITHMETIC to LITTLE CHILDREN</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. T. V. SHORT, B.D.</span></b>&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A LITTLE READING
+BOOK for YOUNG CHILDREN</span></b>. With many Cuts.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">SCRIPTURE HYMNS IN PROSE</span></b>.
+With Cuts.&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The experience of some persons inclines
+them to prefer compositions in prose, to those in verse, for the
+exercise of the infant memory. There is at least no disadvantage in
+having a choice of both.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* A COLLIERY TALE,
+or VILLAGE DISTRESS</span></b>.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The object of this little narrative is, by God’s help, to
+draw some profit from a recent calamity, which, in its
+immediate pressure upon the limited community through
+which it extended, has been most awfully severe.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* VILLAGE ANNALS</span></b>;
+or, the Story of <span class="smcap">Hetty Jones</span>.&emsp;9<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2">
+<p class="no-indent">I have written this story in the
+simplest style, for the use of the children in my own neighbourhood; as
+in all the little publications of this kind I have hitherto met with,
+the language and ideas are far above the comprehension of many of the
+classes for whom they are designed.</p>
+<p class="author">C. B.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">PRETTY LESSONS
+for GOOD CHILDREN</span></b>; to which are added, <b><span class="larger">EASY
+LESSONS in LATIN</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The design of this little work is,
+by means of easy rhymes, to attract the attention of young children,
+and to impress upon their memories various elementary facts and moral
+sentiments which they would not otherwise remember; for, “What will a
+child learn sooner than a song?”</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">EASY POETRY
+FOR CHILDREN</span></b>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">SIMPLE STORIES
+FOR YOUNG CHILDREN</span></b>. By a <b><span class="larger">LADY</span></b>.
+With Cuts.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">THE CHILD’S
+VERSE-BOOK OF DEVOTION</span></b>. With Cuts.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">SONGS for
+CHILDREN</span></b>. With <span class="smcap">Engravings</span>.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">In this little book you’ll find,</span>
+<span class="i0">Lessons for the infant mind;</span>
+<span class="i0">Truth conveyed in easy verse,</span>
+<span class="i0">Which the nursling may rehearse,</span>
+<span class="i0">And thus be led, by simple lays,</span>
+<span class="i0">To walk with God, and sing his praise.</span>
+</div></div></div>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">READING LESSONS</span></b>
+from the Books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes; with Questions and Answers upon them.&emsp;4<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">DAILY READINGS
+from the PSALMS</span></b>.&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FAMILIAR LECTURES
+to CHILDREN</span></b>; in which the <b><span class="larger">IMPORTANT TRUTHS
+of the GOSPEL</span></b> are engagingly set forth. Edited by the
+<b><span class="larger">Rev. J. HOBART CAUNTER, B.D.</span></b>&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FAITH AND PRACTICE</span></b>;
+or, The Application of Christian Principles to the Practical Duties of Life. Fourth
+Edition, improved.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">THE RITE of CONFIRMATION
+EXPLAINED</span></b>. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. D. I. EYRE, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">CONFIRMATION</span></b>.
+An <b><span class="larger">ADDRESS</span></b> from a <b><span class="larger">CLERGYMAN</span></b>
+to his <b><span class="larger">PARISHIONERS</span></b>.&emsp;2<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">A FEW WORDS ON THE SIN
+OF LYING</span></b>. By <b><span class="larger">A LAYMAN</span></b>.&emsp;3<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* EASY LESSONS on MONEY MATTERS</span></b>,
+for the Use of Young People.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">In this little book, care has been
+taken to convey elementary knowledge in such simple language, that,
+it is hoped, these <span class="smcap">Lessons</span> will be found
+easily intelligible even to such as have but the ordinary advantages in
+point of education; and there are few subjects on which it is, for all
+classes of people, more important to inculcate correct principles, and
+to guard against specious fallacies.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* PERSIAN STORIES</span></b>;
+illustrative of <b><span class="larger">EASTERN MANNERS</span></b> and
+<b><span class="larger">CUSTOMS</span></b>.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> And,</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent"><b><span class="larger">* PERSIAN FABLES</span></b>,
+for Young and Old. By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. H. G. KEENE, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">FIVE HUNDRED CHARADES</span></b>,
+from History, Geography, and Biography. Third Edition, revised and improved.&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* INSECTS</span></b>
+and their <b><span class="larger">HABITATIONS</span></b>. A Book for Children.&emsp;1<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">We may learn many useful lessons from
+the History of Insects; and, by observing their habits, we shall find
+that they set us an example of various good qualities.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent"><b><span class="larger"><br />* The BOOK of ANIMALS</span></b>.
+&emsp;<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of FISHES.</span></b><br />
+<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of BIRDS</span></b>.
+<span class="ws3"><b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of REPTILES.</span></b></span><br />
+<b><span class="larger">* The BOOK of SHELLS</span></b>.
+<span class="ws3">Price 1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</span></p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">The nature, habits, and uses of the
+Animals described, are presented in a correct, though simple and
+attractive form, and the little volumes will be found useful additions
+to the books for young persons, and acceptable introductions to works
+of a higher class.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE STUDENT’S
+MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY</span></b>; containing Accounts of
+the <span class="smcap">Political Condition</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Geographical Situation</span>, and
+<span class="smcap">Social State</span> of the principal
+<span class="smcap">Nations Of Antiquity</span>; carefully digested from the
+Ancient Writers, and illustrated by the Discoveries of Modern Scholars
+and Travellers. By <b><span class="larger">W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S.</span></b>&emsp;10<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* THE FAMILY HISTORY
+OF ENGLAND</span></b>, by the <b><span class="larger">Rev. GEORGE ROBERT GLEIG, M.A.</span></b>,
+with a series of <span class="smcap">Pictorial Illustrations of the
+Costumes, Architecture, Shipping</span>, &amp;c., of the successive
+periods of British History. In Eighteen Parts, at 1<i>s.</i> each,
+or in Three Volumes,&emsp;6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">A POPULAR HISTORY
+OF THE REFORMATION</span></b>, in <span class="smcap">Germany</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Switzerland</span>, and <span class="smcap">Great Britain</span>;
+and of its chief Promoters, Opposers, and Victims.
+By <b><span class="larger">THOMAS FOX</span></b>.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH</span></b>;
+from <span class="smcap">the Ascension of Jesus Christ to the Conversion of Constantine</span>.
+By the late <b><span class="larger">Dr. BURTON</span></b>. Second Edition,&emsp;6<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">THE EARLY CHRISTIANS</span></b>;
+their <b><span class="larger">MANNERS</span></b> and <b><span class="larger">CUSTOMS, TRIALS</span></b>
+and <b><span class="larger">SUFFERINGS</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. W. PRIDDEN, M.A.</span></b>&emsp;4<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF THE CRUSADERS</span></b>;
+by <b><span class="larger">THOMAS KEIGHTLEY, Esq.</span></b> Two Volumes, with Engravings.&emsp;11<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">HISTORY OF MOHAMMEDANISM</span></b>,
+and the <b><span class="larger">PRINCIPAL MOHAMMEDAN SECTS</span></b>.
+By <b><span class="larger">W. C. TAYLOR, LL.D., M.R.A.S.</span></b>, &amp;c.&emsp;5<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">LIVES OF EMINENT CHRISTIANS</span></b>.
+By the <b><span class="larger">Rev. R. B. HONE, M.A.</span></b>, Rector of Hales Owen.
+Volumes I. and II., with Portraits,&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> each.</p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN ENGLISH PROSE LITERATURE</span></b>;
+containing choice Specimens of the Works of the best English Writers; with
+<span class="smcap">Essays on English Literature</span>.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN POETRY</span></b>;
+Selections from the Works of the best English Poets; with Specimens of the American Poets;
+Notices of the Writers; and Notes.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN BIOGRAPHY</span></b>;
+a Selection of the Lives of the most Eminent Men of all Nations.&emsp;4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">* READINGS IN SCIENCE</span></b>;
+being familiar <b><span class="larger">EXPLANATIONS</span></b> of Appearances and Principles
+in <b><span class="larger">NATURAL PHILOSOPHY</span></b>. With many Engravings.&emsp; 5<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">VENTOUILLAC’S RUDIMENTS</span></b>
+of the <b><span class="larger">FRENCH LANGUAGE</span></b>; or,
+<b><span class="larger">FIRST FRENCH READING BOOK</span></b>. New Edition, Revised and Corrected
+by <b><span class="larger">F. J. WATTEZ</span></b>, First Assistant French Master in King’s
+College, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">LIVRE DE CLASSE</span></b>;
+with <b><span class="larger">ENGLISH NOTES</span></b>, by the late <b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>,
+Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London.&emsp;5<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">FRENCH POETRY</span></b>;
+with <b><span class="larger">ENGLISH NOTES</span></b>, by the late <b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>,
+Professor of French Literature in King’s College, London.&emsp;2<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above1"><b><span class="larger">LE BOUQUET LITTERAIRE</span></b>.
+Recueil de Beautés Religieuses et Morales, de divers Auteurs. Par feu
+<b><span class="larger">L. T. VENTOUILLAC</span></b>, Professeur de Littérature Française
+au Collège Royale à Londres.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">BRASSEUR’S EXERCISES</span></b>
+on <b><span class="larger">FRENCH PHRASEOLOGY</span></b>; with a Lexicon of
+<b><span class="larger">IDIOMATIC VERBS</span></b>. By the French Professor of King’s
+College, London.&emsp;3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="neg-indent space-above2"><b><span class="larger">The FRENCH SCHOOL CLASSICS</span></b>.
+Edited and Abridged by <b><span class="larger">MARIN DE LA VOYE</span></b>,
+French Master in the East India College, at Addiscombe.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">While the necessity of introducing the
+best standard French works into our schools and families is universally
+acknowledged, serious doubts are entertained as to the propriety of
+placing the writings of some among the French authors in the hands of
+Christian youth. In order to remove all difficulties on this subject,
+the Editor has been induced to undertake a careful Abridgment of such
+works as are in most general use; and he has made it his object to
+extract from the original every word and sentence relating either
+to religion, politics, or philosophical speculation, respecting
+which Christian parents or teachers can have the least difference of
+opinion.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">A purified text of the best French
+Classical Works is, therefore, now offered for the use of young
+persons of both sexes, in a state which, it is trusted, will be found
+altogether unobjectionable.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellspacing="0" summary=" " cellpadding="0" rules="cols" >
+  <tbody><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Telemaque.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td>
+      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Pierre le Grand.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Voyages de Cyrus.</span>&emsp;2<i>s.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Charles XII.</span> 2<i>s.</i></td>
+    </tr><tr>
+      <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Belisaire.</span>&emsp;1<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></td>
+      <td class="tdl">&emsp;<span class="smcap">Gil Blas Desantillane.</span>&emsp;<i>In the Press.</i></td>
+    </tr>
+ </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<div class="chapter">
+  <p class="center">Six Volumes, at 2<i>s.</i> each, with Wood-Cuts,</p>
+</div>
+<p class="f150"><b>* THE INSTRUCTOR;</b></p>
+<p class="f90">OR,</p>
+<p class="f110"><b>PROGRESSIVE LESSONS IN GENERAL KNOWLEDGE</b></p>
+<p class="f90">A SERIES OF<br />ELEMENTARY BOOKS, ESPECIALLY ADAPTED<br />
+FOR SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.</p>
+
+<p class="no-indent blockquot2">Under the general title of <span
+class="smcap">The Instructor</span>, is comprised a series of little
+books, by means of which children may be led through a progressive
+course of Exercises in various branches of Elementary Knowledge. These
+books may be put into the hands of such children as can readily spell
+common words, and read easy lessons.&mdash;The object of the work
+is not only to furnish reading lessons, but also to carry the pupil
+<i>forward</i>,&mdash;to impart <i>information</i>, and exercise the mind.</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot2">The first Six Volumes, in Thirty-six Numbers, contain the
+following subjects, with numerous Engravings:</p>
+
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME I.</b></big> (or in Nos. 1 to 6.)<br />
+<span class="larger">TALES</span> and <span class="larger">CONVERSATIONS</span> on Familiar Subjects.</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME II.</b></big> (or in Nos. 7 to 12.)<br />
+The <span class="larger"> HOUSE</span>. <span class="larger">MATERIALS</span>
+used in <span class="larger">BUILDING</span>.<br /><span class="larger">FURNITURE</span>.
+<span class="larger">FOOD</span> and <span class="larger">CLOTHING.</span></p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME III.</b></big> (or in Nos. 13 to 18.)<br />
+The <span class="larger">UNIVERSE</span>. The <span class="larger">THREE KINGDOMS of NATURE</span>.
+<span class="larger">THE HUMAN FORM</span>. <span class="larger">LESSONS on HEALTH.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME IV.</b></big> (or in Nos. 19 to 24.)<br />
+The <span class="larger">CALENDAR</span>; The Year, Months, Weeks, Days.<br /> The <span class="larger">SEASONS</span>.
+<span class="larger">APPEARANCES</span> of <span class="larger">NATURE.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME V.</b></big> (or in Nos. 25 to 30.)<br />
+<span class="larger">DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY</span>: The various Divisions of the World;
+their People and Productions; with <span class="larger">MAPS</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><big><b>VOLUME VI.</b></big> (or in Nos. 31 to 36.)<br />
+<span class="larger">ANCIENT HISTORY.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center">London: JOHN W. PARKER, <span class="smcap">Publisher, West Strand</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<p class="f150 u"><b>FOOTNOTES:</b></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to by
+nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory
+chapter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
+ The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
+See Book of Fishes, p. 51.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before transformation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of
+its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most
+favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and
+I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves,
+if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give
+them a violent emetic.”</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p class="no-indent">
+<a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
+A kind of sea-weed, (<i>Fucus natans</i>.)</p></div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<div class="transnote bbox">
+<p class="f120 space-above1">Transcriber's Notes:</p>
+<hr class="r5" />
+<p class="indent">The illustrations have been moved so that they do not break up
+                  paragraphs and so that they are next to the text they illustrate.</p>
+<p class="indent">Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved.</p>
+<p class="indent">Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations
+    in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous
+
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-27 18:41:10 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-27 18:41:10 -0800
commit	05995cacb45a48c15a1f8dd630212fc96215ae78 (patch)
tree	605483bb48a48d3f4f7ea9f1072f78435d09d925
parent	7a47a3ebae2da87ebb5e0100d4c82d1648deae6e (diff)