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diff --git a/old/60961-0.txt b/old/60961-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 99386f3..0000000 --- a/old/60961-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4751 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Book of Shells - Containing the Classes Mollusca, Conchifera, Cirrhipeda, - Annulata, and Crustacea - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60961] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - - Underscores “_” before and after a word or phrase indicate _italics_ - in the original text. - Small capitals have been converted to SOLID capitals. - Illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs. - Old or antiquated spellings have been preserved. - Typographical errors have been silently corrected but other variations - in spelling and punctuation remain unaltered. - - - - -[Illustration: THE FIVE CLASSES OF INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS - -DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME] - - - - - THE - BOOK OF SHELLS; - - CONTAINING - THE CLASSES MOLLUSCA, CONCHIFERA, - CIRRHIPEDA, ANNULATA, AND - CRUSTACEA. - - PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF - THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION, - APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING - CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. - - THE SECOND EDITION. - - LONDON: - JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND. - - M.DCCC.XXXVII. - - - - -TO THE READER. - - -In describing that portion of the system of Natural History which -embraces the VERTEBRAL ANIMALS,—namely, the Mammalia, the Birds, the -Reptiles, and the Fishes,—the arrangement of the BARON CUVIER was -adopted. In the present little volume, as well as in two others that -are to follow, and which, together, will comprise the INVERTEBRAL -ANIMALS, the method of M. LAMARCK will be adhered to. It is true, that, -since the works of that naturalist were published, many deviations -from certain parts of his system have taken place, some of which have -received the sanction of the highest names; but still, _as a whole_, -Lamarck’s System remains unrivalled, and the young naturalist can -readily add to the information it contains, by reference to the works -of more recent authors, in case he has sufficient inclination and -industry to follow out the subject. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - Page - Introductory Chapter 9 - - Class MOLLUSCA 14 - - Order HETEROPODA 15 - The Glassy Carinaria 15 - - Order CEPHALOPODA 16 - The Cuttle Fish 17 - Argonaut 20 - Pearly Nautilus 22 - - Order TRACHELIPODA 26 - The Marble Cone 27 - Porphyry Olive Shell 28 - Money Cowrie 29 - Diadem Whorl Shell 31 - Common Columbella 31 - Music Harp Shell 32 - Wide-Mouthed Purpura 33 - Spotted Scorpion Shell 37 - Variegated Sea-Trumpet 39 - Caniculated Pear-Shell 40 - Babylonian Split-Mouth 40 - Marble Turban-Shell 41 - Imperial Top-Shell 41 - Precious Scalaria 42 - Iris Ear-Shell 43 - Dusty Neritina 44 - Viviparous Paludina 44 - Lymnæa Stagnalis 45 - Horn-shaped Planorbis 46 - Red-mouthed Bulimus 46 - Mummy Puppet Shell 47 - Wood Snail 47 - - Order GASTEROPODA 51 - The Red Slug 51 - Woodlike Bulla 53 - Nail-shaped Crepidula 54 - Mediterranean Umbrella 54 - Clouded Fissurella 54 - Hungarian Bonnet Shell 55 - Scaly Chiton 56 - - Class CONCHIFERA 57 - - Order UNIMUSCULOSA 64 - The Horse-Foot Bowl Shell 64 - Oyster 65 - Great Comb Shell 68 - Pearl Oyster 69 - Hammer Oyster 77 - Rough Pinna 77 - Common Mussel 79 - Giant Tridacna 81 - - Order BIMUSCULOSA 82 - The Fresh-Water Mussel 83 - Heart-shaped Isocardia 84 - Wedge-shaped Donax 85 - Sheath Solen 85 - Date-shaped Pholas 87 - Ship-Worm 89 - - Class CIRRHIPEDA 91 - - Order CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA 92 - The Smooth Barnacle 92 - - Order CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA 94 - The Acorn-Shell 94 - - Class ANNULATA 97 - - Order ANNULATA SEDENTARIA 98 - The Magnificent Amphitrite 98 - - Order ANNULATA ANTENNATA 100 - The Sand-Worm of the Fishermen 100 - Blood-coloured Leodice 100 - Spinous Sea-Mouse 102 - - Order ANNULATA APODA 102 - The Common Earth-Worm 103 - Medicinal Leech 106 - - Class CRUSTACEA 115 - - Order CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ 115 - The Crab Tribe 117 - Land Crab 124 - Hermit Crab 127 - Lobster 130 - River Cray-Fish 131 - Phosphorescent Shrimp 132 - Opossum Shrimp 134 - - Order CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ 137 - The Spotted Squill 137 - Common Cloportus 138 - Molucca Crab 142 - Crab-like Limulus 144 - Water Flea 144 - Small Water Flea 147 - Hairy Cypris 148 - - - - -THE BOOK OF SHELLS. - - - - -INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. - - -In reviewing the first DIVISION of the animal kingdom, namely, the -vertebral animals, we cannot fail to have been delighted with the -wonderful and appropriate faculties bestowed upon each individual; -but, beautiful and well adapted to the use of their possessors as -these faculties may have appeared, our pleasure must be still greater -in tracing the powers with which those creatures are endowed, which -constitute what we have been accustomed to call the lower orders of -animated nature. - -When contemplating the graceful form of the horse or the stag, or -the beautiful plumage of the feathered tribes, or when we notice the -terrific appearance of the crocodile, or the elaborate finish and -metallic lustre of the scales of fishes, we are led to expect that -equal care has been bestowed upon the rest of the organization of the -different individuals, and that equal attention has been paid to the -various instincts and powers that are necessary to their preservation; -but when we observe a snail, or a worm, and compare their more simple -appearance, and the perfect absence of what we have been accustomed to -consider the organs of motion, namely, feet and hands, we are apt to -look on them as having been created for some very subordinate purpose, -and, therefore, less carefully formed than the vertebral animals. How -much greater then must be our delight, when we find them possessed -of every power necessary to their state of existence, as beautifully -developed, and as carefully adapted to their necessities, as the -highest instincts of other classes are to their possessors. Nor is -their organization to be considered less perfect, because we are unable -to trace it in all its ramifications; the minute branches of the nerves -of the human body are, not only invisible to the naked eye, but even -to the most acute observer when assisted by the magnifying power of -the microscope, but we are certain that they do exist, from the pain -we feel when they are injured. Until lately, the _Infusoria_, those -microscopic animals that are found in infusions of vegetable substances -in water, were supposed to be possessed of neither nerves nor stomach, -and to be fed by absorption; but the ingenious experiments of a learned -foreigner have proved, that, instead of being without a stomach, -they are provided with as many as five or six: it is true, that the -nerves have not yet been detected, but we have a right to infer their -existence from their effects; so that these minute creatures, which we -have been accustomed to consider as nearly destitute of organs, are, in -fact, beautifully formed, and as perfect in their kind as any other of -the Creator’s works. - -The second DIVISION of the objects of natural history, namely, the -INVERTEBRAL animals, which we have now to describe, are placed by -themselves, on account of their being without an internal skeleton, -consisting of a series of vertebræ, or bones of the back. This -distinction is explained in the introductory chapter to the Book of -Animals. They have been separated, by Lamarck, into Eleven CLASSES, -namely:— - - 1. MOLLUSCA, (_soft-bodied animals_,) in general covered - with a shell; as, for instance, a snail; or without a - shell, as a slug. - - 2. CONCHIFERA, (_shell-bearing animals_,) with a shell, - consisting of two valves, as an oyster or mussel. - - 3. CIRRHIPEDA, (_with feet like cirri, or hairs_.) The inhabitant - of the acorn-shell, found on the back of the larger kind of - shell-fish, &c., is an instance of this class. - - 4. ANNELIDA, (_with body formed of rings_;) of this class - the leech and the earth-worm are instances. - - 5. CRUSTACEA, (_covered with a hard case_,) crabs, lobsters, &c. - - 6. ARACHNIDÆ, _Spiders_. - - 7. INSECTA, _Insects_. A perfect insect has always six legs. - - 8. TUNICATA, (_enclosed in a case of a leathery consistence_.) - - 9. VERMES, _Worms_. With lengthened body without divisions; - for instance, worms found in the intestines. - - 10. RADIARIÆ, (_radiated animals_,) with the different parts - of which they are formed arranged like rays round one - common centre; as, for instance, the Star-fish. - - 11. POLYPI, (_many feet_.) The animal that forms the Coral - is a Polypus. - - 12. INFUSORIA, (_Infusory animals_.) These are found in - infusions of vegetable substances in water, and are, - in general, too small to be visible to the naked eye. - -In the present little book we shall treat of the first five of these -Classes. - -The Molluscous animals are, on account of their organization, placed -first among the invertebral animals, a few of the species resembling, -in some respects, the more simply-formed fishes. - -The systematic arrangement of the Molluscous animals, considered -not only as regards their shells, but having reference also to the -anatomical distinctions of the creatures themselves, is a modern study. -In ancient authors we merely find a few scattered facts, the beauty of -the shells attracting their notice more than the value or nature of the -animals. - -Although, at the first glance, the inhabitants of shells appear to -be beings of a very uninteresting nature, a due consideration of the -valuable properties of many, and the usefulness of all, will enable -us to perceive, that, regarding them merely in an interested point of -view, they are worthy of the strictest attention of the naturalist. -In the first place, the whole of them afford food for the different -species of fish, and other inhabitants of the deep. The Tyrian dye, the -royal purple of the ancients, was produced by the inhabitant of a small -univalve shell, of the genus Purpura. That beautiful ornament in dress, -the oriental pearl, is the consequence of disease in a species of -mussel, and the inner portion of the shell of the same animal, is the -well-known substance, mother-of-pearl. A kind of silk is obtained from -the beard of the pinna, which, in some places, is made into gloves. As -an article of food we may mention the well-known oyster, the mussel, -scallop, &c., and some of the larger kinds form no small portion of -the subsistence of the natives of the South-Sea Islands, and the Negro -population in the West Indies. - -The _Teredo navalis_, or ship-worm, has, by its destructive powers, -ruined the noblest vessels, and rendered useless the timbers, on which -many of the constructions in harbours mainly depend for security; on -this account great attention has been bestowed on its natural history -and habits. The barnacle, which attaches itself to the bottoms of -ships, renders the planks so foul, as to interfere materially with -the rate of sailing of the vessel itself. These are only a few of the -useful and noxious qualities of these inhabitants of the deep. - -The shell with which a Molluscous animal is covered, is absolutely -necessary to protect its delicate body from injury; this shell is, in -general, composed of much the same substances as bone; but the bone of -a bird, or quadruped, is formed by the agency of the blood, and the -particles of which it is composed are deposited by that fluid, and -again taken up and restored to the circulation, a circumstance which -does not take place in the substance of a shell. The shell is formed -by the deposition of layer upon layer, in the course of the growth of -the animal, and the ridges we perceive on many shells, point out their -periodical increase. - -[Illustration: _Fig 1. Fig 2._] - -It will be necessary, when describing the distinctions between shells -of different genera, to use several terms, which will, unless properly -defined, be, perhaps, unintelligible to young people. The annexed -diagrams will explain the meaning of those of most frequent occurrence -among the Mollusca. Fig. 1, represents a univalve shell; fig. 2, -another shell, of the same division, cut through the middle, for the -purpose of showing the columella, or pillar. Many shells, as, for -instance, the periwinkle, (_Turbo vulgaris_,) have what is called -an operculum, (_a lid_,) which closes the opening, and protects the -inhabitant from injury. In the case of the periwinkle, this lid is of -horny nature, but, in many species it is hard and solid, like the shell -itself. - - - - -CLASS MOLLUSCA. - - -In noticing the animal of a univalve shell, the part which more readily -attracts the attention is the mantle, which covers the head of the -creature, something like a hood; it varies much in form and size in -different genera. The eyes, which in the sepia are amazingly large and -brilliant, are very minute in most of the other tribes, although they -are frequently visible, and would appear, from their formation, to be -of little use as organs of sight; indeed, it is supposed, that in the -snail they are devoted to the sense of smelling. - -The organs of motion in the Mollusca, according to their different -form and position, give names to most of the orders; these consist of -muscular expansions of the body, by means of which the animal swims or -drags itself along the ground. The gills, or breathing apparatus, are -situated internally, and communicate with the air or water, by means of -a small canal opening outwardly. The mouth is usually concealed from -view when the creature is at rest; in some, this organ is furnished -with a hard substance, which supplies the place of teeth, while, in -others, it is in the form of a projecting tube. The greatest portion -of these creatures are produced in the water, the tribes that inhabit -that element, exceeding by far those that are to be found upon the land. - -The Molluscous animals have been separated into the five following -Orders:— - - 1. HETEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion, - not uniform in all species_.) - - 2. CEPHALOPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion, - attached to the head_.) - - 3. TRACHELIPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion, - attached to the neck, near the gills_.) - - 4. GASTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion, - attached to the stomach_.) - - 5. PTEROPODA, (_with feet, or organs of motion, - like wings_.) - - -_ORDER HETEROPODA._ - -The creatures belonging to this order, says Lamarck may be considered -as the first vestiges of the appearance of a series of marine animals, -intermediate in their formation between the fishes and the Cephalopods; -they are all natives of hot climates, and possess a body of a jelly-like -substance, and so transparent as to be seen with difficulty when -floating in the water. They do not all possess shells, and are less -known than they otherwise would be, on account of the great difficulty -there is in preserving them. - - -THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.) - -This singular animal is rarely taken, on account of its delicate and -perishable substance; it is found in the Southern Ocean. It will be -seen, on referring to the engraving, that the shell which it bears -merely covers a portion of its body, that in which the most material -organs of the animal are found, namely, the heart and the branchiæ, or -organs of breathing. These are most curiously placed on the upper part -of its body, projecting from it and protected by a delicately white -and transparent shell, shaped like a little cap, and of a substance -resembling glass. The creature is able to enlarge its body by filling -it with water, and in swimming the back is undermost. The shell, which -seldom exceeds an inch in length, has been sought after by collectors -with great assiduity, and has, at times, fetched as much as ten guineas -at a sale; a perfect specimen is very rarely met with. There is a wax -model of one of these shells in the British Museum, nearly two inches -wide. - -[Illustration: THE GLASSY CARINARIA, (_Carinaria vitrea_.)] - - -_ORDER CEPHALOPODA._ - -The Cephalopods have been so named by Cuvier, from being furnished -with a kind of inarticulated arms which surround the head. We find -among this class some of the most singular productions of the waters; -they differ materially from each other, and have been separated into -three groups; first, those without any external shell, as the Sepia; -secondly, the inhabitants of a shell without any divisions, as the -Argonaut; and, thirdly, those whose shell is divided into numerous -chambers, as the Nautilus. - - -THE CUTTLE FISH, (_Sepia officinalis_.) - -The Cuttle Fish, of which there are many different species, is a native -of all the temperate and tropical seas. Its body is, in general, of -an irregular oval shape, and of a jelly-like substance, and usually -covered with a coarse skin, having the appearance of leather. Unlike -all other inhabitants of the water which are without a backbone, the -Sepia possesses two large and brilliant eyes, covered with a hard -transparent substance. - -The Cuttle Fish, figured in the engraving, is furnished in front -with eight arms or feelers, with which it grapples with its enemy, -or conveys its prey to its mouth. These arms are most curiously -constructed, and afford it ample means of defence; they possess in -themselves a strong muscular power, and this is materially assisted -by numerous cups or suckers, placed along the whole of their inner -surface, with which they fasten themselves to any object they come in -contact with. These feelers appear to be also endued with some peculiar -power, of a galvanic nature; since the pain which they inflict does not -cease for a long time after the removal of the animal, leaving a kind -of stinging sensation, like that produced by nettles, which remains for -many hours, and is followed by a troublesome irritation and itching. - -[Illustration: THE CUTTLE FISH.] - -[Illustration: BEAK OF A CEPHALOPOD.] - -The size to which this creature grows has been variously stated; and, -although evidently exaggerated by some authors, there can be no doubt -that it attains a very considerable magnitude. When attacked in its own -element, it has been known, even in the seas of temperate latitudes, -capable of overcoming a powerful mastiff. The jaws of all this tribe -are, likewise, extremely strong, formed like the beak of a parrot, and -very hard. In addition to these means of defence, it possesses within -its body a bladder, containing an inky-coloured fluid, which it has the -power of throwing out at will, and, by thus discolouring the water, it -escapes the pursuit of its enemies. This inky liquid, when dried, forms -a very valuable colour, used by artists, and called, after the animal, -_Sepia_. The eggs of the female are of an oval form, and joined to each -other in clusters. They are of the size of filberts, of a black colour, -and commonly known by the name of _Sea Grapes_. They are found attached -to sea-weed, rocks, and other marine substances. - -The Cuttle Fish generally remains with its body in some hole in a rock, -while its arms are extended in every direction, to seize the wanderer -that may chance to pass its place of ambush. Its appetite is voracious, -and it seizes as its prey every living thing that it has the power to -conquer. - -The species figured in the engraving is very common on the English -coasts, and the bone which is enclosed in its body is frequently found -on the sands; it is a well-known substance, and much employed in the -manufacture of tooth-powder. This bone, which, with the exception of -the jaws, is the only solid part in the Sepia, differs in shape in -the different species, but is always somewhat oval in its form, though -varying considerably in texture. - - -THE ARGONAUT, (_Argonauta argo_.) - - The tender Nautilus that steers its prow, - The sea-born sailor in its light canoe. - - * * * * * - - He, when the lightning-winged tornadoes sweep - The surge, is safe; his home is in the deep. - He triumphs o’er the armadas of mankind, - That shake the world, but tremble in the wind. - -The curious inhabitant of this elegant shell has, from the earliest -ages, excited the admiration of the student in natural history; and, -at the same time, its real place in the system has eluded the research -of the most acute observers. The animal agrees, in many points, with -the sepia, or cuttle fish, which never possesses a shelly covering, so -that, had it been found without that beautiful addition, naturalists -would have referred it, without hesitation, to that particular division -of the dwellers in the deep; it is, however, always met with along -with the shell; and, although there appears to be no bond of union -between the tenant and its dwelling, still the purposes to which it -applies it, imply, at any rate, a long-continued occupancy, if they do -not absolutely point out the Nautilus as the original architect of the -shell. - -The name Argonaut has been applied to this sea-born navigator from its -resemblance, when floating on the surface of the waves, to a vessel in -full sail, Argo being the name of the ship, which was supposed to have -been the first fitted out for commercial adventure. - -[Illustration: THE ARGONAUT, OR PAPER NAUTILUS.] - -In calm Summer days, these beautiful little creatures may be seen, in -considerable numbers, steering their little barks on the surface of the -waters of the Mediterranean. The words of the ancient Roman naturalist, -Pliny, give a pleasing description of its habits. “Among the principal -miracles of nature,” says he, “is the animal called Nautilos, or -Pompilos: it ascends to the surface of the sea, in a supine posture, -and, gradually raising itself up, forces out, by means of its tube, -all the water from its shell, in order that it may swim more readily; -then, throwing back the two foremost arms, it displays between them a -membrane of wonderful tenuity, which acts as a sail, while, with the -remaining arms, it rows itself along, the tail in the middle acting as -a helm to direct its course, and thus it pursues its voyage; and, if -alarmed by any appearance of danger, takes in the water and descends.” - -Although the Argonaut has never yet been discovered attached to its -shell, some observations which have been recently made on the Pearly -Nautilus, which very nearly resembles it, have almost proved that -such a connexion does really exist. But whether the shell is formed -by itself, or only used to assist the creature in its movements, the -instinct displayed is not the less wonderful, or worthy of observation. -The Mediterranean, and warmer parts of the Atlantic, abound in these -interesting animals, and one species is also found in the Indian Ocean. - - -THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, (_Nautilus pompilius_.) - -The inhabitant of this singular shell had long been sought after -with eagerness by naturalists, and it is only within these few years -that its true nature has been ascertained. We are indebted for this -knowledge to the researches of the late Mr. George Bennet, who, while -engaged in a voyage among the Polynesian Islands, captured a specimen -containing a living animal, which was brought to England, and is now -deposited in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons in London. - -The shell of the Nautilus, as may be seen by the engraving, is divided -into numerous cells. The use of these cells to the animal we are now -describing, was formerly not well understood, but they were supposed to -be employed, by their inhabitant, for the purpose of rising or sinking -in the Water at will. The body of this _Cephalopod_, it will be seen, -only occupies the outer cell of its habitation, its increased size -having rendered it too large to remain in that preceding it. If, as -the animal deserted its smaller tenements, one after the other, they -had been filled, up with solid matter, the shell would have become too -cumbersome for its owner; so that we have here another proof of the -providing care of the Creator. We shall describe, in Mr. Bennet’s own -words, the capture of this interesting object. - -[Illustration: THE PEARLY NAUTILUS, - -Showing the Animal, and a Section of its Shell.] - -“It was on the twenty-fourth of August, 1829, (calm and fine weather, -thermometer at noon 79°,) in the evening, when the ship Sophia was -lying at anchor, in Marakini Bay, on the south-west side of the island -of Erromanga, one of the New Hebrides group, Southern Pacific Ocean, -that something was seen floating on the surface of the water, at -some distance from the ship; to many it appeared like a small dead -tortoise-shell cat, which would have been such an unusual object in -this part of the world, that the boat, which was alongside of the ship -at the time, was sent for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the -floating object.” - -“On approaching near, it was observed to be the shell-fish, commonly -known by the name of the Pearly Nautilus: it was captured and brought -on board; but the shell was shattered from having been struck with -the boat-hook, in taking it, as the animal was sinking when the boat -approached, and, had it not been so damaged, it would have escaped. I -extracted the fish in a perfect state, which was firmly attached to -each side of the cavity of the shell.” The hood has been stated by Dr. -Shaw, as being “of a pale, reddish-purple colour, with deeper sports -and variegations,” the colour, however, as it appeared in this recent -specimen, was of a dark reddish-brown. - -[Illustration: SHELL OF THE NAUTILUS; AND THE SEA-PEN, OR INTERNAL -SHELL OF THE LOLIGO.] - -Although this is the only instance of the animal itself having been -brought to this country, there is but little doubt of its having been -frequently taken, but as the shell was the object of the captors, and -not its inhabitant the latter has been thrown away as useless. An -office in his Majesty’s Navy found a Nautilus in a hole in a reef of -rocks, near an island on the Eastern coast of Africa; the mantle of the -fish, like a thin membrane, covered the shell, which was drawn in as -soon as it was touched, and the elegant shell was then displayed. “I -and others,” says the same informant, “when it was first seen did not -notice it, regarding the animal, as the membrane enveloped the shell, -merely as a piece of blubber; but having touched it by accident, the -membranous covering was drawn in, and we soon secured our beautiful -prize.” - -Rumphius, a German naturalist, appears to have been acquainted with -its habits; he says, “When he thus floats upon the water, he puts out -his head, and all his barbs, and spreads them on the water, with the -poop of the shell above water: but at the bottom he creeps in a reverse -position, with his boat above him, and with his head and barbs upon the -ground, making a tolerably quick progress. He keeps himself chiefly on -the ground, creeping sometimes also into the nets of the fishermen: but -after a storm, as the weather becomes calm, they are seen in troops -floating on the water, being driven up by the agitation of the waves. -This sailing, however, is not of long continuance, for having taken -in all their tentacles, they upset their boat, and so return to the -bottom.” - - -_ORDER TRACHELIPODA._ - -The Trachelipodes contain by far the largest portion of the univalve -shells, and are mostly inhabitants of the waters. They form two -numerous groups, the feeders on animal food, (_Zoophagi_,) and those -that exist on vegetable substances, (_Phytophagi_.) The animal feeders -are well distinguished from the other group, by having a mouth without -jaws, being furnished with a tube which they can retract or advance at -pleasure, for the purpose of sucking their nutriment from the bodies -of other inhabitants of the deep. The animal feeders are also known -from the other section by the possession of a projecting tube called a -_siphon_, which conveys the water to the gills. The shell also points -out to which section its possessor belonged, from the lower part of -its opening being formed either into a sort of canal, or a groove for -the reception of its siphon. They are all marine animals, and breathe -water. The flesh-eating tribes compose five families. - - FAMILY CONVOLUTA, (_rolled up like a scroll_.) - FAMILY COLUMELLARIA, (_distinguished by a plaited columella_.) - FAMILY PURPURIFERA, (_yielding a purple colour_.) - FAMILY ALATA, (_winged_.) - FAMILY CANALIFERA (_having a canal at the base of the opening_.) - - -FAMILY _CONVOLUTA_. - -The convoluted shells contain but few genera; but these are very rich -in species, and furnish us with some of the most beautiful specimens of -this class. - - -FEEDERS ON ANIMAL FOOD, (ZOOPHAGI.) - - -THE MARBLE CONE, (_Conus marmoreus_.) - -Lamarck notices no less than 181 recent species of the Cone shell. The -Marbled Cone figured below, is found in most of the Asiatic seas, and -is not uncommon; it is of a dusky colour, and covered with angular -white spots. The section of this shell points out in a remarkable -manner the economy and providence of the Creator, so visible in all his -works. - -[Illustration: _Voluta diadema. Conus marmoreus. Columbella -mercatoria._] - -It will be seen on referring to the engraving, that the shell is -much thicker in the outward part of its coat than in any other part; -and this exceeding thickness is necessary for the protection of the -soft body of its inhabitant. In the course of the growth of the -animal the shell is enlarged, and that part that was external becomes -internal, the last made portion of the shell forming the outer wall; -if, therefore, the inner part of the shell retained its original -thickness, its weight would become too great for its possessor. To -guard against this inconvenience, and this useless waste of material, -the creature possesses the power of absorbing so much of the substance -of what now becomes the internal portion of its dwelling as is -unnecessary for its present use, and of re-depositing the same on the -outward wall of its mansion, where strength is most required[1]. - -The Cones, says Lamarck, are the most beautiful of all the univalve -shells; the genus comprises the most valuable and the most remarkable -specimens of this family, whether we look at the regularity of their -form or the splendour of their colours. The beauty of many, but, -above all, the extreme rarity of others, have given them a species of -celebrity, and have caused them to be much sought after by collectors. - -[Illustration: _Oliva porphyria._] - -The Cones are found in the seas of hot climates, in from ten to twelve -fathom water. The animal of the Cones has the head furnished with two -tentaculæ, or horns, with the eyes on the summits; they only inhabit -salt waters. - -The genus Oliva is distinguished from the Cones by the groove or canal -which separates the turns of their spire, and by the wrinkles on the -columella. The Porphyry Olive is found in the South American Seas, on -the Brazilian coast, and is the most beautiful and the largest species -of the genus; it is of a flesh colour, with numerous lines of a reddish -brown, forming angular figures of various forms, and covered with -irregular-formed spots of a red or maroon colour. Its length is nearly -four inches. There are nearly seventy species of this beautiful shell. - - -THE MONEY COWRIE, (_Cypræa moneta_.) - -The Money Cowrie of Guinea is very common on the Indian and African -coasts; and is used by many of the inhabitants of Africa as a -circulating medium; it is also employed for the same purpose in -Hindoostan, particularly at Calcutta, where great quantities are -obtained from the inhabitants of the Maldive Islands in exchange for -rice. - -[Illustration: _Cypræa moneta._] - -Many tons of Cowries are annually shipped from England to Guinea; -these having been originally brought from the Maldive Islands to -Bengal, and from thence sent into this country. The value of these -shells as a circulating medium depends naturally enough on their -greater or less abundance. - -In Bengal, in general, from 2000 to 2400 are equal in value to a -shilling. But in Africa they are much dearer, about 250 being valued at -a shilling. - -The Cowrie shell is found of three different forms, according to -its age. First, in its extreme youth, when the shell is extremely -imperfect, and is like a slender one, without any appearance of the -usual characters of the genius. Secondly, when half-grown; it then -begins to assume the form of the perfect shell, but is extremely -slight, and colourless, and the point of its spire projects. Thirdly, -when perfect; it has now received a second deposit of shelly matter, in -which its specific colours appear, and its spire is completely hidden. -The second deposit with which the shell is covered, is secreted by the -two membranous wings of the creature’s mantle, which, in the adult -state of the animal, have rapidly increased and become extremely large, -so much so, as to be capable of covering the whole of the shell, while -the deposition of the new matter is taking place. - -Lamarck says the observations of the habits of this creature tend to -prove that, in addition to the power of completing its shell, as we -have already noticed, it can, when its increased size has caused it to -require a new habitation, desert its former shell and form a new one; -from this it happens that the same individual can form successively -many shells of different sizes, so that we find the same species both -large and small. - -When not in search of food, these animals are found buried in the sand, -at some distance from the sea-shore, in temperate as well as in hot -climates. - - -FAMILY _COLUMELLARIA_. - -This family is distinguished, from the next in having the columella -plaited, and a notch at its base. It does not include any shells with a -plaited columella, the opening at the base being entirely smooth, that -is, without a notch. - - -THE DIADEM WHORL SHELL, (_Voluta diadema_.) - -The Diadem Whorl Shell is a very beautiful specimen of its genus; it -is marbled with white upon a yellow ground, but the markings become -nearly obliterated by age: it is as much as seven inches in length, and -is found in the Asiatic seas. The head of the animal of this shell has -two pointed tentaculæ, with an eye at the outer base of each. Its mouth -is a lengthened cylindrical and retractile tube, furnished with little -hooked teeth; it has also a tube to conduct the water to the branchiæ, -springing out obliquely behind the head. - - -THE COMMON COLUMBELLA, (_Columbella mercatoria_.) - -The common Columbella is found in the Atlantic Ocean near the island -of Gorée, and in the West India Islands; it is about three quarters of -an inch in length. It is a sea-shell, and is found upon the coast; it -possesses a very small oval operculum attached to its foot. - - -FAMILY _PURPURIFERA_. - -The notch at the base of the shells of this family is a kind of groove -bent backwards and upwards, but not properly forming a canal, all -the genera have an operculum. The name Purpurifera has been given to -these Trachelipodes, because some of the genera contain in a peculiar -reservoir the colouring-matter with which the Romans, and other ancient -nations, dyed their beautiful and well-known purple, which was so much -in use before the discovery of cochineal. - - -THE MUSIC HARP SHELL, (_Harpa musica_.) - -The Harp shells are found in the Indian seas, and in great abundance -also in the Red Sea. A very curious fact appears in the history of the -animal of the Harp which deserves notice. It was observed a long time -back by a German naturalist named Bon, but had since then been either -forgotten or disbelieved: a recent traveller has confirmed its truth, -although he notices it as a new discovery; it is as follows:— - -[Illustration: _Harpa musica._] - -The foot of the animal has the power of dividing itself into two -portions; and one, namely, the hinder portion, can be separated from -its body by the animal, when it finds itself suddenly in danger, and -wishes to retire into the deepest recess of its shell; on this account -it is without an operculum, which would evidently be useless, as it -would be lost at the same time as the foot. - -The Harps, says Lamarck, are very beautiful shells, and if they were -less common, would, on account of their elegant forms and colours, -become valuable in a collection. Some species, however, are still -considered rare. - -The Harps take their name from the fancied resemblance between the -regularity and direction of the ribs on the shell, and the strings of a -harp. The species are not numerous, not exceeding eight in number. - - -THE WIDE-MOUTHED PURPURA, (_Purpura patula_.) - -This species of Purpura is said to be that which was employed by the -Romans in dyeing, but many others of the same family yield a purple -colouring-matter. It is nearly three inches in length, and is found in -the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean. - -The purple colour which this little Molluscous animal produces, was -discovered by the inhabitants of the ancient city of Tyre, and was -thence called the Tyrian purple. The circumstances which led to the -discovery of it are very imperfectly known, but fiction has supplied -the want of historical facts, and described its origin with sufficient -minuteness of detail. According to one account, the merit of its -discovery is due to a dog belonging to a certain Hercules. We are -informed that when this dog was accompanying his master along the -sea-shore, who was then following the nymph Tyros, the animal seized -one of the Purpuræ lying on the sand, and breaking the shell with his -teeth, his mouth soon became coloured with the purple juice. The nymph -having observed the effect, immediately expressed a strong desire to -have a dress dyed of the same beautiful colour; and her lover, no less -anxious to gratify her wishes, at last succeeded in discovering a -method of applying it to cloth. - -This colour was so highly valued by the ancients, that it was either -consecrated to the worship of the Deity, or conceived to be fit only -for the garments of royalty. - -Under the Mosaic dispensation, the stuffs for the service of the altar -and the habits of the high-priest were enjoined to be of purple. The -Babylonians devoted this colour to the dress of their idols, and most -of the other nations of antiquity appear to have done the same thing. -Pliny informs us that it was used by Romulus and the succeeding kings -of Rome, as well as by the consuls and first magistrates under the -republic. The Roman emperors at last appropriated it entirely to their -own use, and denounced the punishment of death against those who should -dare to wear it, although covered with another colour. This absurd and -tyrannical restriction confined the dyeing of the Tyrian purple to a -few individuals, and, in a short time, the knowledge of the process was -entirely lost. - -In the twelfth century, neither the creature that furnished the dye, -nor the methods which the ancients employed to communicate to cloths -the rich and beautiful purple which it afforded, were at all known; and -on the revival of learning, it was even suspected by many, that the -accounts which had come down to us respecting this celebrated colour -were entirely fabulous. - -According to Pliny, the Tyrians removed the finest colouring-matter -out of the largest shells, in order to possess it in a more pure -state, and to extract it more effectually, but obtained the colour from -the smaller by grinding them in mills. He adds, that when the Purpuræ -were caught, the receptacle which contained the dyeing-liquor was taken -out and laid in salt for three days; and that after a sufficiency of -the matter had been collected, it was boiled slowly in leaden vessels -over a gentle fire, the workman scumming off from time to time the -fleshy impurities. This process lasted ten days, after which the liquor -was tried by dipping wool into it, and if the colour produced by it was -defective, the boiling was renewed. - -Other colouring-matters were employed sometimes to economize, and at -other times to vary the effect of the liquors of the Purpuræ. Among -these Pliny enumerates _Fucus marinus_, or Archil, and the _Anchusa -tinctoria_, or Alkanet, both of which are still used as dyes. By these -and other means, the purple colour was made to assume a variety of -shades, some inclining more to the blue, and others to the crimson. - -In modern times several attempts have been made to obtain this dye; but -the discovery of cochineal has rendered it a matter of little import. - -In the year 1683, Mr. William Cole, of Bristol, being at Minehead, -was told of a person living at a seaport in Ireland, who had made -considerable gain by marking with a delicate and durable crimson -colour, fine linen that was sent to him for that purpose, and that this -colour was made from some liquid substance taken from a shell-fish. Mr. -Cole, being a lover of natural history, and having his curiosity thus -excited, went in search of these shell-fish, and, after trying various -kinds without success, he, at length, found considerable quantities -of a species of buccinum on the sea-coasts of Somersetshire, and the -opposite coasts of South Wales. After many ineffectual endeavours, -he discovered the colouring-matter, placed in a white vein, lying -transversely in a little furrow, or cleft, next to the head of the -fish, “which,” says he, “must be digged out with the stiff point of a -horse-hair pencil, made short and tapering, by reason of the viscous -clamminess of the white liquor in the vein, that so by its stiffness it -may drive in the matter into the fine linen or white silk intended to -be marked.” Letters or marks, made in this way, with the white liquor -in question, “will presently appear of a pleasant green colour, and, if -placed in the sun, will change into the following colours,—that is, if -in Winter, about noon, if in the Summer, an hour or two after sunrise, -or so much before setting, (for in the heat of the day, in Summer, -the colours will come so fast that the succession of each will scarce -be distinguishable,) next to the first light green will appear a deep -green, and in a few minutes this will change into a full sea-green, -after which, in a few minutes more, it will alter into a watchet blue, -and from that, in a little time more, it will be of a purplish red, -after which, lying an hour or two, (supposing the sun still shining,) -it will be of a very deep purple red, beyond which the sun can do no -more.” - -“But the last and most beautiful colour, after washing in scalding -water and soap, will (the matter being again exposed to the sun or the -wind to dry,) be a much different colour from all those mentioned, -that is, a fair bright crimson, or near to the prince’s colour, -which afterwards, notwithstanding there is no styptic to bind the -colour, will continue the same, if well ordered, as I have found in -handkerchiefs that have been washed more than forty times, only it will -be somewhat alloyed from what it was after the first washing.” - -Some years after this, Réaumur discovered great numbers of a species -of buccinum, on the coast of Poitou, and the stones, round which they -had collected, were covered with small oval masses, some of which were -white, and others of a yellowish colour; and, having squeezed some of -them on the sleeves of his shirt, in about half an hour he found it -stained of a fine purple colour, which he was unable to discharge by -washing. In repeating his experiment on his return home, he found it -was necessary that the cloth should be exposed to the direct rays of -the sun. - -The difficulty of procuring and preserving a sufficient number of these -shell-fish, must always render the use of this dye very limited; but -Dr. Bancroft is of opinion, that it might still be rendered beneficial -in staining or printing fine muslins, for which purpose but little -colouring-matter is required. No substance, he remarks, will afford a -substantive purple of equal beauty and durability, and capable of being -applied to linen or cotton with so much simplicity and expedition. - - -FAMILY _ALATA_. - -This family is distinguished, by having a canal of variable length at -the base of its opening, and by the fact of the right margin of the -shell changing its form during the growth of the animal. - - -THE SPOTTED SCORPION SHELL, (_Pterocera scorpio_.) - -This curious shell is found in the East Indian seas, and attains -a considerable size, as much as six inches. In an early age the -projecting claws of this shell are very small, so that its appearance -is materially different from that which it assumes at a more advanced -period of its growth. It is known as the Spotted Scorpion Shell, and -is distinguished from other species of the same genus, by the knotted -and granulated appearance of its surface; the opening of the shell -is long and narrow, and of a dull violet red, sometimes brownish, on -which numerous transverse wrinkles are seen, either of a pure white, or -slightly tinged with yellow. - -[Illustration: _Pterocera scorpio._] - - -FAMILY _CANALIFERA_. - -The shells belonging to this family agree with those of the last in -having a canal at their base; but the lip to the right of the opening -does not change its form through age. - - -THE VARIEGATED SEA-TRUMPET, (_Triton variegatum_.) - -The _Triton variegatum_, or Variegated Sea-Trumpet, a large and -beautiful shell, sometimes as much as two feet in length, is found -chiefly in the torrid zones, near the Asiatic coast. The attendants on -the sea-gods of pagan Rome are frequently represented with this shell -applied to their mouth by way of a trumpet. - - Already Triton, at his call, appears - Above the waves; a Tyrian robe he wears, - And in his hand a crooked trumpet bears. - The sovereign bids him peaceful sounds inspire, - And give the waves the signal to retire. - His writhen shell he takes, whose narrow vent - Grows by degrees into a large extent, - Then gives it breath; the blast, with doubling sound, - Runs the wide circuit of the world around. - The sun first heard it, in his early east, - And met the rattling echoes in the west; - The waters, listening to the trumpet’s roar, - Obey the summons, and forsake the shore. - DRYDEN. - -[Illustration: _Dolium perdix. Triton variegatum. Pyrula -caniculata._] - - -THE CANICULATED PEAR-SHELL, (_Pyrula caniculata_.) - -This shell is found in the Icy Sea, and on the coast of Canada, and -attains the length of seven inches. The animal of the Pyrula is at -present unknown. There is a kind of keel or ridge along the edge of the -whorls, which is obliterated in very old specimens. There are as many -as eight-and-twenty species of this shell. - -[Illustration: _Turbo marmoratus. Pleurotoma babylonia. Trochus -imperialis._] - - -THE BABYLONIAN SPLIT-MOUTH, - -(_Pleurotoma babylonia_.) - -The Babylonian Split-Mouth is found in the East Indies and the Molucca -Islands, and is about three inches and a quarter in length. It is said -that the animal of this shell, when in motion, has its foot separated -as it were from its body by a long thick footstalk, which arises from -the centre of the mantle, which is at this time turned back over the -shell. This separation of the foot has the effect of causing the -creature to tumble over frequently, from the great weight it has to -support. - - -VEGETABLE FEEDERS, (PHYTOPHAGI.) - -Those genera of the Trachelipods which live on vegetable substances -have no projecting siphon, but possess a mouth furnished with jaws; -they are in general land-shells, and consequently, the air which -they breathe is conveyed directly to their branchiæ. Some of their -tribes however, live in fresh water, either in running streams or in -stagnant pools: among these, some breathe water and others air. These -last are obliged frequently to come to the surface for the purpose of -breathing,—others again inhabit salt water, and are unable to exist -out of that element. - - -THE MARBLE TURBAN-SHELL, (_Turbo marmoratus_.) - -There are as many as thirty or forty species of the Turban-shell. -The Marble Turban, _Turbo marmoratus_, is the largest, being as much -as four inches across; it is found in the Indian Ocean. The colour -of this shell is of a brownish green, of greater or less intensity. -It is ornamented by eight or ten narrow transverse belts, consisting -of a series of white or brownish spots. This is one of those shells -whose substance, after the outer coat is removed, is of the nature of -mother-of-pearl. - -The _Turbo littoreus_ (the Shore Turban), is the well-known periwinkle, -with which our rocky coasts abound. - - -THE IMPERIAL TOP-SHELL, (_Trochus imperialis_.) - -These shells have received their name from their resemblance in form -to a boy’s top. They are all marine shells, and the apex of their -spire is always very sharp-pointed. In some places they are called -_flat-mouthed snails_. The greater number of these shells, (and the -species are very numerous,) are of a beautiful pearly substance, and -many of them are also elegantly marked with longitudinal ribs; there -are as many as seventy species,—the larger and more elegant are only -found in the seas of hot climates. - -[Illustration: _Haliotis iris. Scalaria pretiosa. Neritina pulligera._] - - -THE PRECIOUS SCALARIA, (_Scalaria pretiosa_.) - -This shell is noted for its rarity, and for the singular arrangement of -its whorls, which do not touch each other, and appear as if they were -only connected by the ribs with which the shell is adorned. Like the -turbans, the inhabitants of the Scalariæ are found on the sea-coast, -on rocks and large stones, between high and low water mark. The native -place of the Scalaria pretiosa seems to be uncertain; Lamarck, and -several others, believe it comes from the East Indies, while others -consider it an inhabitant of the Mediterranean. So great was the rage -some years back, to possess a perfect specimen of this shell, that -as much as twenty or thirty pounds, and even more, has been given -for a well-preserved specimen. Travellers relate that the Scalariæ -are much sought after and highly prized by the women on the coast -of Amboyna, and at Batavia, where they are used as earrings, and in -forming necklaces. They are, although rarely, as much as four inches -in length. It is said, that there was a specimen in the cabinet of the -empress Catherine of Russia, still larger; but the most usual size is -from one to two inches in length. A fine specimen of this shell ought -to be semi-transparent like porcelain, of a light brown, tinged with -rose-colour, and the ribs of a beautiful opaque white. - - -THE IRIS EAR-SHELL, (_Haliotis Iris_.) - -The _Haliotides_, or sea-ears, are very splendid shells; the species -are numerous, and some of them are extremely common. The place in the -system which this shell ought to occupy, appears to have caused many -doubts in the minds of modern naturalists, and consequently, we find it -continually shifted from one part to another in the different works of -Lamarck and Cuvier. When moving from place to place in search of food, -the animal and its shell present a very pleasing sight, the slender -tentacula which appear through the different holes which ornament -the margin of the shell, gracefully waving in all directions; these -tentacula are supposed to be breathing-tubes. In the young shell, the -number of perforations is not so great as in an adult, one being formed -at each progressive stage of the creature’s growth. Sometimes the holes -which were first formed become, by age, filled up. The proportions of -the shell, also, vary materially, so as to render the separation of -species very difficult and uncertain. - - -THE DUSTY NERITINA, (_Neritina pulligera_.) - -This shell is found in the rivers of India, and is about an inch and -a quarter in length. All the species of this genus are supposed to -inhabit fresh water only. There is a curious fact attached to the -history of the Neritina, and of a neighbouring genus, Nerita,—namely, -that when found in a fossil state, their colours are always in good -preservation. The species, which are tolerably numerous, are in general -natives of hot climates. - - -THE VIVIPAROUS PALUDINA, (_Paludina vivipara_.) - -The animal of the genus Paludina is an inhabitant of fresh waters: it -takes its specific name from the fact of the young being hatched within -the parent shell, and deposited in the waters perfectly formed. In -nearly the whole of this class the eggs are laid either in water or in -the earth, and afterwards hatched after a longer or shorter period. - -[Illustration: _Planorbis corneus. Paludina vivipara. Lymnæa -stagnalis._] - -These shells are found generally in running streams of fresh water; -sometimes, however, they are met with in brackish water, at the -mouths of rivers. The operculum of the Paludina is of a strong horny -substance. The young, immediately they are hatched, attach themselves -to the outside of the shell of the mother, where they remain until they -are sufficiently strong to trust themselves in the water. - - -LYMNÆA STAGNALIS. - -The _Lymnæa stagnalis_ is found in stagnant waters, particularly narrow -ditches, in great abundance. As it breathes air, it is necessary for -its existence that it should frequently resort to the surface of the -water; and consequently, we find these shells floating about in great -numbers, with the body partly out of the shell. The least appearance -of danger causes a Lymnæa to withdraw the whole of its body into -its shelly covering; and as this increases its specific gravity, it -instantly sinks to the bottom, where it remains in safety. In order -to reach the surface again, it is obliged to crawl to the side of the -ditch, and when it has reached the level of the water, it again trusts -its little bark to the mercy of the winds and stream, for it has very -little power to direct its own course. - -During the Winter, these creatures remain at the bottom, buried in the -mud, and in a state of torpor. Although apparently useless to mankind, -they form part of the subsistence of many water-birds, and of fishes, -which are extremely fond of them. The species of this shell are not -easily decided, since they bear so great a resemblance to each other. - - -THE HORN-SHAPED PLANORBIS, - -(_Planorbis corneus_.) - -The _Planorbis_, although differing in form from the Lymnæa, possesses -the same habits, and is found in the same localities. The jelly-like -substance which is frequently found, in the Spring of the year, -attached to water-cresses and other aquatic plants, and which is -considered by many to be of a poisonous nature, and looked on as the -spawn of toads, is merely the covering of the ova of this and other -inhabitants of fresh-water shells; and, although very disagreeable, -certainly not poisonous. - - -THE RED-MOUTHED BULIMUS, (_Bulimus hæmastomus_.) - -The _Bulimus hæmastomus_ is a most beautiful shell; it is a native of -Guiana, and is frequently as much as four inches in length. The most -singular part of its natural history is the large size of the egg of -the animal in comparison with its magnitude; it is said to equal that -of a moderate-sized pigeon. - -[Illustration: _Bulimus hæmastomus. Pupa mummia._] - - -THE MUMMY PUPPET SHELL, (_Pupa mummia_.) - -The _Pupa mummia_ is found in the Antilles; it takes its name from the -singularity of its form, which very much resembles that of a mummy. - -The Pupa is essentially a land-shell, living among grass, on stones, -and sometimes in places much exposed to the heat of the sun. The -greater number of the species, which are very numerous, are natives of -tropical countries; there are, however, several found in Germany, and -other parts of the Continent, but they are extremely small. - - -THE WOOD SNAIL, (_Helix nemoralis_.) - -The Snail (_Helix_) is an animal well-known in every part of the globe, -and its species are still extremely numerous, although many shells -which belonged to this tribe, under the Linnæan arrangement, have been -placed in other divisions. The head of the Snail is furnished with -two pair of tentacula, or feelers; these, unlike similar appendices -in other Mollusca, are retractile; that is, they can be withdrawn -into the body at the will of the animal. The use of these tentacula -is uncertain. At the top of each of the longest pair we find a black -spot; these spots have been supposed to be the eyes of the animal, -and a celebrated anatomist says, that he has discovered in them all -the component parts of perfect eyes. However this may be, the animal -appears to use them rather as organs of touch than of sight. Some -writers suspect that the sense of smell resides in one or both pairs of -these appendages. - -The uses to which Snails are applied are not many; some of the larger -kinds, however, are, in some countries, employed as food. The Romans, -according to Pliny, consumed large quantities, and considered them in -the light of delicacies, and considerable pains were taken in fattening -them for the table. Those from Sicily and the Balearic Islands were in -great request, and attained a very large size. Some authors say they -are still used as food in several parts of the Continent. - -[Illustration: _Helix nemoralis._] - -In Paris, London, and many large towns, great numbers of Snails are -frequently brought to market; but these are not employed as food, but -used medicinally by persons suffering under consumption, and other -diseases of the chest. - -It was already known that polypi, and some species of worms, could have -portions of their body cut off, and that the parts removed would be -afterwards reproduced; and as these animals had no well distinguished -extremities, such as heads or limbs, the fact, although singular, was -not disputed; but, when it was asserted by Spallanzani, that Snails, -which have a very well defined series of parts, could, after the head -was removed, reproduce that portion of the body, the scientific world -became naturally incredulous, and numerous experiments were made, -and thousands of Snails slaughtered, to ascertain the fact. No one, -however, for a length of time, could succeed;—it was then suspected -that Spallanzani had only removed a portion of the head. At length, -it would appear, from the experiments of M. G. Tarenne (an account of -which appeared in 1808), that these creatures could actually reproduce -a complete head. He gives as a reason of the want of success of others, -the little precaution taken to provide the mutilated Snails with proper -nourishment. The new head, according to him, is perfect in about two -years after the old head has been removed. - -M. Tarenne says, that after having cut off the heads of two hundred -Snails, he threw them all into a moist spot at the end of his garden, -that they might obtain the nourishment most fitted for them (how they -could eat without their heads he does not say); at the end of the -Summer he examined all the mutilated Snails he could find, and he -discovered that they all had a new head, about the size of a grain -of coffee; they had four small tentacula, a mouth, and lips; at the -end of the following Summer, the heads were perfectly reproduced, and -like the original head, with the exception of the skin, which was more -delicate. “After this experiment,” says a French author, “we cannot -doubt that the entire head of a Snail can be regenerated after it has -been removed; however, I cannot disguise the fact, that I have a kind -of repugnance at admitting the matter to be entirely beyond dispute.” - -If the advantages bestowed on man by Snails are not numerous, the -disadvantages, or rather inconveniences, produced by them are very -considerable; they are particularly destructive in orchards and -kitchen-gardens. On this account, many methods have been recommended -for the purpose of destroying them. Although many of these are -tolerably successful, there is no plan more likely to keep the breed -of Snails under, particularly in enclosed gardens, than that of early -rising and gathering them, if we may so express ourselves, while the -dew is yet on the grass: if the shells are then broken, they become -excellent food for poultry. Ducks may sometimes be allowed to wander -in the garden, as they do but little damage to the vegetation, and are -great destroyers both of Snails and slugs. - -A singular account of the instinct of Snails is, perhaps, worth -recording. - -The garden of a small house, by the side of one of the roads leading -into London, was much infested by a colony of Snails; the proprietor of -this house, desirous of getting rid of the pest, and yet unwilling to -kill the Snails, collected them, and threw them unharmed into the road; -but still, he every morning discovered as many Snails among his pinks -and tulips as he had removed the previous day; this somewhat puzzled -him, until once, on leaving his house early, he perceived the Snails -which he had but an hour before thrown into the dusty road, moving, not -in a body, but each from the spot on which it was thrown, in a direct -line from that spot to the low wall which encompassed the garden, as -if they comprehended the mathematical fact that, “a straight line is -the nearest way from one given point to another.” How were these Snails -aware that by moving in that direction, they should arrive at a green -spot? From the road nothing could be visible to them but dust,—from -the path, nothing but the wall in front,—but still, although the -whole of their path was covered with dust, they proceeded steadily on, -until they had surmounted the wall, and reached their old quarters. By -what other faculty were they guided but that instinct which supplies -the place of the higher powers of the mind, and which is imparted with -so liberal a hand to the meanest creature in nature? - - -_ORDER GASTEROPODA._ - -The Gasteropods are so called from two Greek words, meaning belly and -foot, because the foot, or organ of motion of the animals of which -this order consists, is attached to the whole of the under part of the -creature, or rather, the belly or under part is itself the foot, and is -for that purpose broad and flat. The Gasteropods are also distinguished -from the last order by having a straight body, in no case spiral, -and never possessing a shell capable of enclosing the whole body; in -some cases, the body is completely naked, and without the protecting -covering of any shell whatever. - - -THE RED SLUG, (_Limax rufus_.) - -The Common Slug is a good example of an individual of this order, -entirely wanting a shell. The Slugs, like the snails, are found in all -countries; they are equally destructive to vegetation, but as yet have -never been used by man for any useful purpose, if we except the fact -of their sometimes becoming the food of ducks and poultry. The _Limax -rufus_, Red, or more properly brown, Slug, for the colour is of a -reddish-brown, varying in intensity to such an extent as to render it -impossible to find two specimens of the same colour, is more commonly -found in fields than in gardens. - -[Illustration: _Limax rufus._] - -There are many species of the Slug; but they are not well defined, on -account of the variable nature of their colour; the black and the brown -kinds are, however, pretty well known: the black, in particular, is -very destructive in kitchen-gardens, and commits great havoc in fields -of cabbages and turnips. - -In one or two species, the buckler, or smooth space near the head, -contains a very small oval shell. - -There is a very singular species of Slug found in Teneriffe, under -stones in moist places, it is not more than an inch and a quarter in -length; it is called _Limax noctiluca_, the night-shining Slug. The -buckler, in this species, is very narrow, and covered with pores, which -exude a kind of viscous substance, which has the property of shining -with a phosphorescent light, like that of the glow-worm. - -We may have some idea of the rapid increase of Slugs, by a fact -mentioned by Dr. Leech, that two individuals of a small species have -laid as many as seven hundred and sixty-six eggs; and these eggs were -dried in an oven without destroying their vital powers, since, on being -placed in a damp situation, they were afterwards hatched. - -The following plan of taking and destroying Slugs was resorted to by -a gentleman near Ipswich. Having heard that turnips were employed to -entice Slugs from wheat, he caused a sufficient quantity to dress eight -acres to be got together, and then, the tops being divided and the -apples sliced, he directed the pieces to be laid separately, dressing -two rows with them, and omitting two, alternately, till the whole field -of eight acres was gone over. On the following morning, he employed two -women to examine the tops and slices, and free them from the Slugs, -which they threw into a measure: and when cleared, they were laid -on those rows that had been omitted the day before. It was observed -invariably, that in the rows dressed with the turnips, no Slugs were -to be found upon the wheat, or crawling upon the land, though they -abounded upon the turnips; while, on the undressed rows, they were to -be seen in great numbers, both 011 the wheat and on the ground. The -quantity of Slugs thus collected was nearly a bushel. - - -THE WOODLIKE BULLA, (_Bulla lignaria_.) - -The animal of the _Bulla_ is singular, from possessing-within its -stomach three pieces of a substance resembling bone; these give that -organ the power of crushing or grinding the food, forming a kind -of gizzard. The bony portion of this stomach is represented in the -foreground in the engraving. The Bulla lignaria is about two inches -and a half in length, and is found in the European seas; Lamarck -mentions as many as eleven species. - -[Illustration: _Bulla lignaria._] - - -THE NAIL-SHAPED CREPIDULA, - -(_Crepidula unguiformis_.) - -The genus _Crepidula_ takes its name from its hearing some resemblance -to a little shoe; none of the species are found in Europe. Of these -there are about six, but they are all confined to the seas of warm -climates. - - -THE MEDITERRANEAN UMBRELLA, - -(_Umbrella Mediterranea_.) - -The _Umbrella Mediterranea_, as its name implies, is found in the -Mediterranean, and in the Gulf of Tarento. The shell of the Umbrella is -singular, from the lower part of its circumference being surrounded by -a border of a substance much softer than the shell itself. - - -THE CLOUDED FISSURELLA, (_Fissurella nimbosa_.) - -The _Fissurella nimbosa_ is found in various and distant parts of the -world,—in the north of Europe, the western coast of Africa, &c. It is -rather a handsome shell, which seldom exceeds an inch and a half in -length. - -[Illustration: - - _Umbrella Crepidula Fissurella - Mediterranea. unguiformis. nimbosa._ - -] - -The Fissurella very much resembles our limpet, but differs from it by -having a small, rather oval-formed hole in the summit of the shell, -affording a passage to a small canal through which the water is -discharged, after having passed over the branchiæ. - - -THE HUNGARIAN BONNET SHELL, - -(_Pileopsis Ungarica_.) - -The _Pileopsis Ungarica_ is extremely elegant both in its form and -markings; it is of a delicate white, slightly tinged, internally, with -rose-colour. The animal attaches itself to rocks, between high and low -water mark, and very rarely, if ever, changes its situation, unless -removed by accident, when it is driven about by the waves, until the -creature, being thrown on a rock in a favourable situation, attaches -itself firmly to the surface. - -[Illustration: _Pileopsis Ungarica._] - - -THE SCALY CHITON, (_Chiton squamosus_.) - -The _Chitons_ differ so much from all other shell-bearing animals in -the arrangement of their shelly covering, that they have been placed -by different naturalists in various parts of their system. Lamarck, -in referring to these animals, has placed them near the end of the -Mollusca. - -[Illustration: _Chiton squamosus._] - -“Although,” says Lamarck, “when we examine this creature, and observe -the several pieces of which its shell is composed, attached to the -marginal membrane of the mantle which surrounds them, it appears not -a univalve, but a multivalve shell; yet these shelly pieces ought not -to be regarded in any other light than as a lengthened shell of one -piece, which Nature had originally broken transversely into several -distinct moveable pieces, to give greater freedom to the animal in its -movements.” - -The Chitons, like the neighbouring genera, frequent the rocks between -high and low water mark, but are much more active in their movements. -Poli, a learned Neapolitan, in describing the anatomy of a Chiton, -says, that the interior of the mouth or throat of this animal is -covered with a multitude of teeth,—some simple, and others with three -points, and that these teeth are disposed in numerous longitudinal rows. - - - - -CLASS CONCHIFERA. - - -The Conchifera differ from the Molluscous animals that bear shells, -in a very great degree; for, although the substance of the body is -soft, unlike the Mollusca it is inarticulate, always enclosed in a -shell of two valves, without head or eyes,—a mouth, if it may be so -called, concealed from view, and without any hard parts, and the whole -body enveloped in a large mantle, or hood, formed of two thin lobes, -generally perfectly free, but at times united in front; these are the -principal distinguishing characters of this class. - -In earlier systems, when shells were classed without much reference -to the animals that inhabited them, the only distinction made was the -number of pieces of which the shell was formed, and they were arranged -under the heads of _univalves_, of one piece, _bivalves_, with two -pieces, and _multivalves_, with more than two pieces. This arrangement -was inconvenient, as, in some cases, it separated animals that -otherwise agreed with each other. With respect to the bivalve shells, -however, this objection does not hold good, as they all contain animals -belonging to the class Conchifera. - -The individuals of this class appear to be deprived of all the senses -except that of feeling. Their powers of motion have been so well -described by Dr. Roget, in his _Bridgewater Treatise_, that we cannot -do better than extract a portion from that interesting work. - -[Illustration: Valves of the _Unio Batava_, with the Connecting -Ligament.] - -The two valves of the shell of the Conchifera are united at the back by -a hinge-joint, often very artificially constructed, having teeth that -lock into each other; and the mechanism of this articulation varies -much in different species. The hinge is secured by a substance of great -strength. - -During the life of the animal, the usual and natural state of its shell -is, that of being kept open for a little distance, so as to allow of -the ingress and egress of the water necessary for its nourishment -and respiration; but, as a security against danger, it was necessary -to furnish the animal with the means of rapidly closing the shell, -and retaining the valves in a closed state. These actions, being -only occasional, yet requiring considerable force, are effected by a -muscular power, for which purpose sometimes one, sometimes two, or even -a greater number of strong muscles are placed between the valves, their -fibres passing directly across from the inner surface of the one to -that of the other, and firmly attached to both. They are named, from -their office of bringing the valves towards each other, the _adductor -muscles_. - -[Illustration: Section of an Oyster, showing the situation of the -Hinge, L., the Adductor Muscle, A, and the transverse direction of its -Fibres, with respect to the Valves.] - -The simple actions of opening and closing the valves, are capable of -being converted into a means of retreating from danger, or of removing -to a more commodious situation, in the case of those bivalves which are -not actually attached to rocks, or other fixed bodies. - -Diquemarc long ago observed, that even the Oyster has some power of -locomotion, by suddenly closing its shell, and thereby expelling the -contained water with a degree of force, which, by the reaction of the -fluid in the opposite direction, gives a sensible impulse to the heavy -mass. He notices the singular fact, that Oysters which are attached to -rocks occasionally left dry by the retreat of the tide, always retain -within their shells a quantity of water sufficient for respiration, and -that they keep the valves closed till the return of the tide; whereas, -those Oysters which are taken from greater depths, where the water -never leaves them, and are afterwards removed to situations where they -are exposed to these vicissitudes, of which they have had no previous -experience, improvidently open their shells after the sea has left -them; and, by allowing the water to escape, soon perish. - -[Illustration: _The Cardium, or Cockle._] - -Many bivalve Mollusca are provided with an instrument shaped like a -leg and foot, which they employ extensively for progressive motion. In -the _Cardium_, or cockle, this organ is composed of a mass of muscular -fibres, interwoven together in a very complex manner, and which may -be compared to the muscular structure of the human tongue; the effect -in both is the same, namely, the conferring a power of motion in -all possible ways; thus it may be readily protruded, retracted, or -inflected at every point. - -The _Solen_, or razor-shell fish, has a foot of a cylindrical shape, -tapering at the end, and much more resembling in its form a tongue -than a foot. In some bivalves, the dilatation of the foot is effected -by a curious hydraulic mechanism; the interior of the organ is formed -of a spongy texture, capable of receiving a considerable quantity of -water, which the animal has the power of injecting into it, and of thus -increasing its dimensions. - -The foot of the _Mytilus edulis_, or common mussel, can be advanced -to the distance of two inches from the shell, and applied to any -fixed body within that range. By attaching the point to such body, -and retracting the foot, this animal drags its shell towards it, and -by repeating the operation successively on other points of the fixed -object, continues slowly to advance. - -This instrument is of great use to such shell-fish as conceal -themselves in the mud or sand, which its structure is then peculiarly -adapted for scooping out. The cockle continually employs its foot for -this purpose: first, elongating it, directing its point downwards, and -insinuating it deep into the sand, and next, turning up the end, and -forming it into a hook, by which, from the resistance of the sand, it -is fixed in its position, and then the muscles, which usually retract -it, are thrown into action, and the whole shell is alternately raised -and depressed, moving on the foot as on a fulcrum. The effect of -these exertions is to drag the shell downwards. When the animal is -moderately active, these movements are repeated two or three times in a -minute. The apparent progress is at first but small, the shell, which -was raised on its edge at the middle of the stroke, falling back on -its side at the end of it; but when the shell is buried so far as to -be supported on its edge, it advances more rapidly, sinking visibly -at every stroke, till nothing but the extremity of the tube can be -perceived above the sand. - -By a process exactly the inverse of this, that is, by doubling up the -foot, and pushing with it downwards against the sand below, the shell -may be again made to rise by the same kind of efforts which before -protruded the foot. By this process of burrowing, the animal is enabled -quickly to retreat when danger presses, and when this is past, it can, -with equal facility, emerge from its hiding-place. - -The _Cardium_ can also advance at the bottom of the sea, along the -surface of the soft earth, pressing backwards with its foot, as a -boatman impels his boat onwards by pushing with his pole against -the ground in a contrary direction. It is, likewise, by a similar -expedient, that the Solen forces its way through the sand, expanding -the end of its foot into the form of a club. - -The _Tellina_ is remarkable for the quickness and agility with which it -can spring to considerable distances, by first folding the foot into a -small compass, and then suddenly extending it, while the shell is, at -the same time, closed with a loud snap. - -The _Pinna_, or marine mussel, when inhabiting the shores of -tempestuous seas, is furnished, in addition, with a singular apparatus -for withstanding the fury of the surge, and securing itself from -dangerous collisions, which might easily destroy the brittle texture of -its shell. The object of this apparatus is, to prepare a great number -of threads, which are fastened at various points to the adjacent rocks, -and then tightly drawn by the animal, just as a ship is moored in a -convenient station, to avoid the buffeting of the storm. The foot of -this bivalve is cylindrical, and has, connected with its base, a round -tendon, of nearly the same length as itself, the office of which is to -retain all the threads in firm adhesion with it, and concentrate their -power on one point. The threads themselves are composed of a glutinous -matter, prepared by a particular organ. They are not spun by being -drawn out of the body, like the threads of the silkworm, or of the -spider, but they are cast in a mould, where they harden, and acquire a -certain consistence before they are employed. This mould is curiously -constructed; there is a deep groove which passes along the foot, from -the root of the tendon to its other extremity, and the sides of this -groove are formed so as to fold and close over it, thereby converting -it into a canal. The glutinous secretion, which is poured into this -canal, dries into a solid thread; and, when it has acquired sufficient -tenacity, the foot is protruded, and the thread it contains is applied -to the object to which it is to be fixed, its extremity being carefully -attached to the solid surface of that object. The canal of the foot is -then opened along its whole length, and the thread, which adheres by -its other extremity to the large tendon at the base of the foot, is -disengaged from the canal. Lastly, the foot is retracted, and the same -operation is repeated. - -Thread after thread is thus formed, and applied in different directions -around the shell. Sometimes the attempt fails, in consequence of -some imperfection in the thread; but the animal, as if aware of the -importance of ascertaining the strength of each thread, on which its -safety depends, tries every one of them as soon as it has been fixed, -by swinging itself round, so as to put it fully on the stretch; an -action which probably also assists in elongating the thread. When once -the threads have been fixed, the animal does not appear to have the -power of catting or breaking them off. The liquid matter, out of which -they are formed, is so exceedingly glutinous as to attach itself firmly -to the smoothest bodies. It is but slowly produced, for it appears that -no Pinna is capable of forming more than four, or at most five threads, -in the course of a day and night. The threads which are formed in -haste, when the animal is disturbed in its operations, are more slender -than those which are constructed at its leisure. In Sicily, and other -parts of the Mediterranean, these threads have been manufactured into -gloves, and other articles, which resemble silk. - -The number of muscles by which the shells are moved have caused this -Class to be divided into two orders: the Bimusculosa, in which there -are two pair of muscles to perform this office; and the Unimusculosa, -with only one pair. - - -_ORDER UNIMUSCULOSA._ - -The Conchiferous animals which possess but one pair of muscles, are -much more limited in number than those which possess two or more; but -they contain in their ranks several well-known and useful species, as, -for instance, the oyster, the mussel, and the animal which produces the -oriental pearl. - - -THE HORSE-FOOT BOWL SHELL, - -(_Anomia ephippium_.) - -The shells of the Anomiæ are exceedingly irregular in their form; -like the oysters, they remain during the whole of their existence -attached to one spot, either on a rock, or on the shell of some larger -inhabitant of the deep. These shells are more frequently found in the -same places as the oyster, and very commonly attached to the shell of -the latter; as an article of food, the Anomia is of little or no value. -Its organization and manner of living are much the same as those of -the oyster. The most singular part of its construction consists in -the use made of one of the muscles with which it is furnished, which, -instead of being attached to the shell, is fixed to a solid piece of -shelly substance, in the form of a cone with the top cut off; this -_operculum_, or lid, closes a singular opening in one of the valves of -the shell itself. The animal adheres to the rock, or other substance, -by means of this lid, and is detached with great difficulty. - -[Illustration: _Anomia ephippium._ [_Anomia_, a little bowl; -_ephippium_, a horse’s foot.]] - - -THE OYSTER, (_Ostrea edulis_.) - -Oysters, like all other creatures that have been destined to become -food for man, are found in great abundance in most parts of the globe; -they are inhabitants of salt waters only, and are always found in rocky -ground, in no great depth from the surface. - -Oysters generally cast their spat, or spawn, in the month of May; -when first shed it has the appearance of a drop of candle-grease, -which the dredgers commonly call _cultch_. The growth of an Oyster is -tolerably rapid; three days after the spawn is deposited, the shell of -the young Oyster may be seen, nearly a quarter of an inch in width; in -three months it is larger than a shilling, in six months bigger than a -half-crown, and in a year it exceeds a crown piece in size. - -[Illustration: _Ostrea edulis._] - -Oysters have been employed as food almost from time immemorial. The -Greeks, but more especially the Romans, held them in high repute, -attaching, at the same time, great importance to the places in which -they were found. Those from the Dardanelles, from Venice, and from -England, were considered the best, and the prices paid for them by the -luxurious inhabitants of Rome were enormous. They were transported -in large vessels, and deposited in the Lucrine Lake, where they were -fattened for the table. The Romans, it seems, gave a preference to -those which had the border of their mantle of a dark-brown colour, -nearly black. - -The English Oyster-fishery is principally carried on at the following -places:—Wivenhoe, near Colchester, in Essex, (the beds here are -generally supplied from Portsmouth;) at Feversham and Milton, in -Kent, the Swales of the Medway, and at Tenby, on the coast of Wales. -In Scotland, they are chiefly taken at the island of Inchkeith, and -at Preston-pans, both in the Firth of Forth. The fishing for Oysters -is permitted by law, from the 1st of September to the last of April -inclusive. During the remaining months they are considered unwholesome; -it is a common saying that Oysters are in season during all the months -that have the letter _r_ in them. - -In France, the chief fishing-station for Oysters is in the Bay of -Cançal, between the town of that name and Mount St. Michael, or St. -Malo. The fishery is effected by means of an iron net or dredge; this -is drawn over the Oyster-bed by hand-labour, or by having the rope -which is fixed to it attached to the stem of the fishing-boat, which is -then allowed to run before the wind; frequently, in the course of a few -minutes, as many as two or three hundred are taken. The Oysters taken -are sent from the ports of Granville and Cançal, to different places, -where artificial banks or preserves are established. These banks -are not only of use in the preservation of the Oysters, but assist -materially in their improvement. In fact, the Oyster, when first taken -out of the sea, has frequently a strong muddy taste, and appears in -what we should call bad condition. - -Some of these preserves are a species of tank dug in the sand, or -sometimes even in stone, near the sea-shore, and communicating by a -narrow tunnel with the sea-water; the bottom and sides of these tanks -are usually strewed with large stones. In France great care is bestowed -on the management of these preserves; the Oysters are placed by hand -on the stones, with the largest shell downwards, and at times the -water is let off, and they are freed from all mud and dirt that may -have collected, by having large quantities of water poured over them. -A fashion existed formerly in France of preferring those Oysters which -had a tinge of green, and great pains were taken to cause this change -of colour to take place, by placing the animals where they could obtain -a peculiar kind of green food. - - -THE GREAT COMB SHELL, (_Pecten maximus_.) - -This shell, although it has the name of the Great Pecten, is not the -largest of the numerous tribe to which it belongs; it is found in all -the European seas. The regular nature of the fluting with which it is -covered, and the elegance of its markings, have brought it much into -use among ladies, who employ it in making pin-cushions and other -articles of fancy-work; there are about sixty recent, and thirty fossil -species. - -[Illustration: _Pecten maximus. Malleus albus._] - -The power of locomotion appears to be very considerable in some species -of the Pectens; it is said the animal can raise itself up in the water, -and even reach the surface, by moving the two valves of its shell; but -this is a fact not quite established, as but little is known of its -habits. It is sometimes used as an article of food; but to render it -tolerably palatable it requires cooking. - -In some countries, the shells of the larger species are used by the -poorer classes instead of plates. In Paris, the _restaurateurs_ employ -them for the same purpose when serving up a certain preparation of -mushrooms; in England, they are employed in cooking scalloped oysters, -and the shell is consequently known as the Scallop Shell. - - -THE PEARL OYSTER, (_Meleagrina margaritifera_.) - -The animal of this shell, although popularly called an oyster, is very -different in structure, bearing greater resemblance, in some parts of -its formation, to the mussel, particularly in possessing a _byssus_, or -beard; it is the shell in which the famous oriental pearls are found. -There are but two known species of the Meleagrina, which are chiefly -found in the Persian Gulf, and at Ceylon, or in some of the seas of -Australasia. - -The cause of the formation of pearl in the shells of this and other -inhabitants of the water, has been the occasion of considerable -dispute, but it is now pretty well ascertained. - -The inner portion of the shell of the Meleagrina is lined with a -pearly substance, which is called mother-of-pearl; this is formed by -an animal deposit, and is in thin layers. If, by any accident, the -inner surface of the shell is injured, so as to cause a fracture of the -mother-of-pearl, the deposit, in that place, becomes for the future -irregular, and a bump is gradually formed. Accidental circumstances -cause this bump to assume various shapes; sometimes it is oval, -sometimes globular, and at others pear-shaped. This kind of pearl is -always originally found attached to the shell by means of a small neck, -or footstalk, and the spot at which this neck was placed can always be -traced on the pearl itself. - -[Illustration: _Meleagrina margaritifera._] - -But pearls are at times found loose in the shell;—in this case, the -pearly matter is deposited on some extraneous substance, such, for -instance, as a grain of sand, and by dissolving the pearl in an acid, -this nucleus can be traced. - -Some of these round pearls are supposed to be formed on a centre, -consisting of the remains of a diseased _ovum_, or egg, of the animal. - -Every schoolboy knows the story of Cleopatra having dissolved a -valuable pearl in vinegar, and afterwards drunk it off, to show her -ridiculous disregard of expense. But the account may reasonably be -doubted; for had the acid been strong enough to dissolve the pearl, it -would have been impossible to drink it, and if it was weak enough to -drink, it would not have dissolved the pearl, at least not until the -lapse of a very considerable time. - -At the island of Ceylon the fishery for pearls is a matter of great -moment. The following is an account of the mode in which it is -conducted. - -The country round Aripo, on the north-western coast of the island of -Ceylon, is flat, sandy, and barren, presenting nothing to the eye -but low brushwood, chiefly of thorns and prickly pears (which are -the plants that nourish the cochineal insect[2]), and here and there -some straggling villages with a few cocoa-nut trees. But Condatchy, -three miles distant, where, in general, nothing is to be seen but a -few miserable huts, and a sandy desert, becomes, during the period of -the pearl-fishery, a populous town, several streets of which extend -upwards of a mile in length (though, as the houses are only intended -as a shelter from the sun and rain, they are very rudely constructed), -and the scene, altogether, resembles a crowded fair on the grandest -scale. The people most active in erecting huts and speculating in the -various branches of merchandise, are Mohammedans, Cingalese (natives -of Ceylon), and Hindoos from the opposite coast of the continent of -India. Apparently, however, from their natural timidity, none of the -Cingalese are divers, and scarcely any of them engage in the other -active parts of the fishery; they merely resort hither for the purpose -of supplying the markets. - -About the end of October, in the year preceding a pearl-fishery, -when a short interval of fine weather prevails, an examination of -the banks takes place. A certain number of boats, under an English -superintendent, repair in a body to each bank, and having, by frequent -diving, ascertained its situation, they take from one to two thousand -oysters as a specimen. The shells are opened, and if the pearls -collected from a thousand oysters be worth three pounds sterling, a -good fishery may be expected. The “banks,” or beds of oysters, are -scattered over a space in the Gulf of Manaar, extending thirty miles -from north to south, and twenty-four from east to west. There are -fourteen beds (not all, however, productive), of which the largest is -ten miles long, and two broad. The depth of water is from three to -fifteen fathoms. - -The pearl oysters in these banks are all of one species, and of the -same form: in shape not very unlike our common English oyster, but -considerably larger, being from eight to ten inches in circumference. -The body of the animal is white, fleshy, and glutinous: the inside -of the shell (the real “mother-of-pearl,”) is even brighter and more -beautiful than the pearl itself: the outside smooth and dark-coloured. -The pearls are most commonly contained in the thickest and most fleshy -part of the oyster. A single oyster will frequently contain several -pearls, and one is on record, as having produced one hundred and fifty. - -Sometimes the English government of Ceylon fishes the banks entirely -at its own risk; sometimes, the boats are let to many speculators: -but, most frequently, the light of fishing is sold to one individual, -who sub-lets boats to others. The fishery for the season of the year -1804 was let by government to an individual for no less a sum than -120,000_l._ - -At the beginning of March, the fishery commenced, and upwards of two -hundred and fifty boats were employed in the fishery alone. These, -with their crews, and divers, and completely equipped with everything -necessary to conduct the business of the fishing, come from different -parts of the coast of Coromandel. After going through various ablutions -and incantations, and other superstitious ceremonies, the occupants of -these boats embark at midnight, guided by pilots, and as soon as they -reach the banks, they cast anchor, and wait the dawn of day. - -At about seven in the morning, when the rays of the sun begin to -emit some degree of warmth, the diving commences. A kind of open -scaffolding, formed of oars and other pieces of wood, is projected from -each side of the boat, and from it the diving-tackle is suspended, -with three stones on one side, and two on the other. The diving-stone -hangs from an oar by a light rope and slip-knot, and descends about -five feet into the water. It is a stone of fifty-six pounds’ weight, of -a sugar-loaf shape. The rope passes through a hole in the top of the -stone, above which a strong loop is formed, resembling a stirrup-iron, -to receive the foot of the diver. The diver wears no clothes, except a -slip of calico round his loins,—swimming in the water, he takes hold -of the rope, and puts one foot into the loop or stirrup, on the top of -the stone. - -He remains in this upright position for a little while, supporting -himself by the motion of one arm. Then a basket, formed of a wooden -hoop and net-work, suspended by a rope, is thrown into the water to -him, and in it he places his other foot. Both the ropes of the stone -and the basket he holds for a little while in one hand. When he feels -himself properly prepared and ready to go down, he grasps his nostrils -with one hand, to prevent the water from rushing in; with the other -gives a sudden pull to the running-knot suspending the stone, and -instantly descends: the remainder of the rope fixed to the basket is -thrown into the water after him, at the same moment: the rope attached -to the stone is in such a position as to follow him of itself. As soon -as he touches the bottom, he disentangles his foot from the stone, -which is immediately drawn up, and suspended again to the projecting -oar in the same manner as before, to be in readiness for the next -diver. The diver, arrived at the bottom of the sea, throws himself as -much as possible upon his face, and collects everything he can get -hold of into the basket. When he is ready to ascend, he gives a jerk -to the rope, and the persons in the boat, who hold the other end of -it, haul it up as speedily as possible. The diver, at the same time, -free of every incumbrance, warps up by the rope, and always gets above -water a considerable time before the basket. He generally comes up at a -distance from the boat, and swims about, or takes hold of an oar or a -rope, until his turn comes to descend again; but he seldom comes into -the boat, until the labour of the day is over. When a young diver is -training to the business, he descends in the arms of a man completely -experienced in the art, who takes great care of him, and shows him the -manner of proceeding, and the pupil at first brings up in his hand a -single oyster, a stone, or a little sand, merely to show that he has -reached the bottom. The length of time during which the divers remain -under water, is rarely much more than a minute and a half; yet, in -this short period, in a ground richly clothed with oysters, an expert -man will often put as many as one hundred and fifty into his basket. -There are two divers attached to each stone, so that they go down -alternately. The men, after diving, generally find a small quantity -of blood issue from their nose and ears, which they consider as a -favourable symptom, and perform the operation with greater comfort -after the bleeding has commenced. They seem to enjoy the labour as a -pleasant pastime, and never murmur or complain, unless when the banks -contain a scarcity of oysters, though their labours are continued for -six hours. - -When the day is sufficiently advanced, the head pilot makes a signal, -and the fleet set sail for the shore. All descriptions of people hasten -to the water’s edge to welcome their return, and the crowd, stir, and -noise, are then immense. Every boat comes to its own station, and the -oysters are carried into certain paved enclosures on the sea-shore, -where they are allowed to remain in heaps (of course, well guarded) for -ten days, that time being necessary to render them putrid. When the -oysters are sufficiently decayed, they are thrown into a large vessel, -filled with salt water, and left there for twelve hours to soften their -putrid substance. The oysters are then taken up, one by one, the shells -broken from one another, and washed in the water. Those shells, which -have pearls adhering to them, are thrown on one side, and afterwards -handed to clippers, whose business it is to disengage the pearls from -the shells, with pincers. - -When all the shells are thrown out, the slimy substance of the oysters -remains, mixed with sand and broken fragments of shells, at the bottom -of the vessel. The dirty water is lifted out in buckets, and poured -into a sack, made like a jelly-bag, so that no pearls can be lost. -Fresh water being then added from time to time, and the whole substance -in the vessel continually agitated, the sand and pearls together, are -by degrees allowed to sink to the bottom. - -As soon as the sand is dry it is sifted; the large pearls, being -conspicuous, are easily gathered; but the separating the small -and diminutive (“seed pearls,” as they are called,) is a work of -considerable labour. When once separated from the sand, washed with -salt water, dried, and rendered perfectly clean, they are sorted into -classes, according to their sizes, by being passed through sieves. -After this, a hole is drilled through each pearl; they are then -arranged on strings, and are fit for the market. - -Pearls have been considered as valuable ornaments from the earliest -times: they are mentioned in the book of Job (xxviii. 18,) and are -often alluded to by the classical writers. There have been various -attempts made to imitate them successfully, one of the most singular -of which,—known to have been practised early in the Christian era, -on the banks of the Red Sea,—is still carried on in China. A hole is -bored in the shell of the pearl oyster, a piece of iron-wire inserted, -and the oyster restored to its place: the animal, wounded by the point -of the wire, deposits a coat of pearly matter round it: this gradually -hardens, successive layers are added, till a pearl of the requisite -size is formed, and the shell is once more brought to land. - -A plan, somewhat similar to this, was employed by Linnæus, who pierced -the shells of the fresh-water mussel, causing thereby a pearl to be -formed at the punctured spot; and the Swedish government actually -established artificial pearleries,—but these were abandoned after -a few years; for, although pearls were formed, they were seldom of -sufficient size to be of much value. - -False pearls are made of hollow glass globules, the inside of which is -covered with a liquid, called pearl-essence, and then filled with white -wax. This liquid is composed of the silver-coloured particles which -adhere to the scales of the bleak, (_ablette_,) and was first applied -to this purpose, early in the last century, by a Frenchman of the name -of Jacquin[3]. - - -THE HAMMER OYSTER, (_Malleus albus_.) - -The singular figure of this shell renders it very remarkable; -externally its appearance is very rude and irregular, but, on the other -hand, the inner surface is equally beautiful, being covered with the -most brilliant mother-of-pearl. The different species of the Malleus -are all marine, and found in the seas of hot climates, and the rarity -of some causes them to be very valuable, and much sought after. Like -the neighbouring genera, the animal is furnished with a byssus, or -beard, by which it adheres to the rocks. - - -THE ROUGH PINNA, (_Pinna rudis_.) - -The Pinna is a marine shell; most of the species are large, and the -shells very thin in proportion to their size. That represented in the -engraving is found in the American seas, and is sometimes as much -as a foot and a half in length; it is by no means rare. There is a -species found in the Mediterranean, in about five or six fathoms water, -which is much sought after by the inhabitants of Sicily and Calabria, -not only as an article of food, but also for the sake of its beard, -or byssus, of which, in many places, a kind of cloth is made, very -remarkable for its softness and warmth. The fishermen, to obtain the -Pinna, make use of a kind of iron rake, called a _crampe_, with teeth a -foot in length; when the shells are drawn up, the beards are found to -be torn in some part of their substance. If a sufficient length remains -attached to the animal, to render the fibres available for the purpose -of spinning, they are cut off close to the shell: they are then dried -and spun, and afterwards woven into gloves, stockings, caps, and even -garments of much larger size. - -[Illustration: _Pinna rudis._] - -The threads of which the byssus is formed are extremely fine, and of -equal thickness throughout their whole length, very strong, and of a -dark morone colour, which is exceedingly permanent. - -This curious kind of cloth was long since known to the ancients; but -at present its manufacture is very limited, from the great scarcity of -the Pinna, and the number of beards necessary to make even so small an -article as a pair of gloves. But it is supposed, that if the shells -were placed in more favourable circumstances, in preserves, &c., they -would increase much more rapidly. - -These shells are found in the seas of all hot climates, but the British -shores possess but one species, the _Pinna lævis_ of Donovan; this is -of a horny colour, clouded with brown, and attains a considerable size. - - -THE COMMON MUSSEL, (_Mytilus edulis_.) - -The Mussels are a well-known and very useful genus of the shell-bearing -animals: they are generally found attached to rocks between high and -low water marks. - -[Illustration: _Mytilus edulis._] - -They are sought after in most parts of the world as an article of food; -and, although not equal to the oyster, make a very palatable dish. - -The Mussel, although usually wholesome, is at times the cause of -severe, though temporary illness. Different reasons have been assigned -for this poisonous property, and many signs have been noted, by -which it is said the unwholesome state of this shell-fish can be -detected,—a yellowness of colour, an extremely meagre appearance, -partial corruption, a diseased state of the animal, a small crab or -insect found between the valves of its shell. Other observers have -ridiculously attributed the effects to the change in the phases of -the moon; but, if we are to believe a French physician, who made many -experiments, all these guesses are wrong; according to this author, -the ill effects are caused only after the Mussels have been feeding -on the spawn of the star-fish; this spawn appears to the eye merely -a shapeless lump of jelly, but after a few days it is a living mass -of infant star-fish. The time of the year during which this spawn is -cast, is from the end of April, or beginning of May, to the end of -July, or beginning of August; from this, he says, arises the common -observation, that Mussels are only poisonous during those months in -which the letter _r_ is not found. This spawn, according to our author, -is so venomous and caustic, that it causes great pain, swelling, and -inflammation, even to the hand, if handled at this season; rubbing the -part with vinegar is recommended as a cure. Small star-fish were rolled -up in other food, and given to dogs and cats, when the animals suffered -severely, and in the end generally died. In spite, however, of all -these experiments, it is still doubtful whether the true cause has been -discovered. Thus much appears to be certain, that whenever indigestion -occurs after eating Mussels, some ill effects are experienced, but -this has seldom, or very rarely, taken place when they have been eaten -with vinegar, and they are much more wholesome cooked than otherwise. - -When an individual is _musselled_, the effects are very alarming; -the body, head, and face swell to a frightful extent; and, in a few -hours, the skin is covered with a bright scarlet eruption; the cure is -attempted by means of an emetic, and afterwards some aromatic drink, -and vinegar and water; this brings on a profuse perspiration, which -soon relieves the patient. - -The Mussel is taken by our fishermen for bait, for which purpose it is -well adapted. - -In some parts of the Mediterranean great attention is paid to the -multiplication of this animal. At the port of Tarento, in the kingdom -of Naples, they drive into the sand a number of long poles, to which -the spawn of the Muscle becomes attached. In the following August, -when they have attained the size of almonds, they are taken to the -mouth of the brooks and small streams which fall into the gulf; here -they are left until October, when they are taken back to the sea, and -in the following Spring they are considered fit to eat. This change -from the salt to the fresh water and back again, is said to improve -their flavour and colour. Near Rochelle they are preserved in tanks, -preserves in which the salt water remains at rest. - - -THE GIANT TRIDACNA, (_Tridacna gigas_.) - -The _Tridacna gigas_ is the largest of the bivalve shells; it is very -thick and close in texture, and is said to have been found as much as -five hundred pounds in weight. In Catholic countries the shells have -been sometimes used as the receptacles for the holy water in the -churches, and formerly they were considered sufficiently valuable to -form a present to a king; those in St. Sulpice, at Paris, were given -to Francis the First by the Republic of Venice. They have been found -in India, as it is related, of so extreme a size, that more than one -hundred persons have made a meal on the flesh of a single Tridacna -gigas, but this, no doubt, is an exaggeration. These shells adhere -to the rocks by their short and strong byssus with so much tenacity, -as to require the assistance of a mallet and chisels, in the task of -separating them from the rock. - -[Illustration: _Tridacna gigas._] - - -_ORDER BIMUSCULOSA, - -(Shells with Two Pairs of Muscles.)_ - -This Order contains by far the greatest portion of the bivalve shells, -all interesting to the naturalist, from the variety and beauty of their -structure, but few possessing a claim to notice on account of their -use as food for mankind, not but that many are equally wholesome with -those belonging to the last order, but as they possess two or more -pairs of muscles, they are much more capable of moving from place to -place, and, consequently, are seldom found in any great quantities in -one spot, and being found, as they generally are, in a considerable -depth of water, they are not so easily obtained. - - -THE FRESH-WATER MUSSEL, (_Anodonta cygnæa_.) - -Although this shell, and several other species which nearly resemble -it, are known by the trivial name of _Mussel_, the only resemblance -between them consists in their outward appearance, the animals which -inhabit the shells being very distinct, both in organization and in -habits. The Mussels, as we have already said, have very little power -of moving from place to place, while, on the other hand, the Anodonta -is at times far from being a sluggish animal, and, for the purpose of -shifting its position, it avails itself of a very strong and broad -muscular foot. The shell of the Anodonta is sometimes found to contain -pearls, a circumstance which frequently occurs in all shells which are -lined with mother-of-pearl. - -Some of the Scotch rivers have produced numerous specimens of pearl, -very large and beautiful, and which used to bear an extremely high -price. - -A paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1693, mentions the -collection of pearls from this shell, in the river Omagh, County -Tyrone, in Ireland. “The poor people,” he says, “in the Summer months, -go into the water, and some with their toes, some with wooden tongs, -and some by putting a sharpened stick into the opening of the shell, -take them up; and, although, by a common estimate, not above one shell -in a hundred may have a pearl, and of these pearls not above one in -a hundred be tolerably clear, yet a vast number of fair merchantable -pearls, and too good for the apothecary, are offered for sale by those -people every Summer assizes. Some gentlemen of the country make good -advantage thereof, and myself, whilst there, saw one pearl bought for -50_l._ that weighed thirty-six carats, and was valued at 40_l._ A -miller took out a pearl, which he sold for 4_l._ 10_s._ to a man that -sold it for 10_l._, who sold it to the late Lady Glenanly for 30_l._, -with whom I saw it in a necklace; she refused 80_l._ for it from the -late Dutchess of Ormond.” - -[Illustration: _Isocardia cor. Anodonta Cygnæa._] - - -THE HEART-SHAPED ISOCARDIA, - -(_Isocardia cor_.) - -This shell, which is very common in the Mediterranean, where it goes by -the name of the _foolscap-shell_, and the _bullock’s heart shell_, is -rare in the British seas, but it is sometimes found on the Irish coast; -it is the largest British bivalve shell. - - -THE WEDGE-SHAPED DONAX, (_Donax cuneata_.) - -There are nearly thirty species of Donax, all extremely beautiful; that -represented in the engraving is of a whitish colour with red streaks: -it is often met with in collections of Indian shells. One of these -species is found on the English coasts, of a delicate white colour, and -streaked with pink. - -[Illustration: _Donax cuneata._] - -In following the system of Lamarck, we are gradually led through -various genera to two species figured on the next page, namely, the -Tellina, or _earth-shell_, and the Pandora, and, ultimately, to the -Solen, or _razor-shell_. - - -THE SHEATH SOLEN, (_Solen vagina_.) - -The Solens are singular from the power they possess of burying -themselves in the sands on the coast, sometimes even to the depth of a -couple of feet. The foot of the Solen, by means of which it is able to -penetrate the sand, is equal to one-half of the length of the shell. -Their movements are confined to rising to the surface of the sand in -which they have formed their hole, and in again sinking to the bottom. -This movement is, no doubt, produced by the action of the foot, which -forms itself into a sharp point in its descent, and when it remounts is -enlarged as much as possible, to form a resting-point, for the purpose -of raising the shell to the surface. It is not supposed that the animal -ever entirely leaves its hole of its own accord, although it may -possess the power; but it is certain, according to the observations of -Réaumur, that if forcibly removed it can re-enter it. The hole it forms -for its retreat is always perpendicular. - -[Illustration: _Tellina. Solen vagina. Pandora rostrata._] - -One of these creatures, being taken out of its retreat, was laid on -the sand; it first extended its foot in the form of a wedge, or rather -cone, and, applying it to the surface of the sand, slightly raised the -farthest end of its shell; at the next effort the projecting part of -the foot was buried in the sand, and the shell became more elevated; -after two or three more attempts the hole had attained a perpendicular -direction, and the shell was partly buried in it; the shell then began -to descend, and that with considerable quickness. - -The Solens are used sometimes, but rarely, for food; but in places -where they abound, they are sought after as bait for fishes: the method -of taking them is very singular. Having discovered the place of retreat -of the creature, by observing the hole in the sand which leads to its -chamber, the fisherman throws into its entrance a small quantity of -salt. Although an inhabitant of salt water, the pure salt produces so -irritating an effect on the extremity of its body, that it quickly -mounts to the surface; the fisherman, waiting for its appearance, -snatches hastily at it, and if he succeeds in seizing it firmly, makes -good his capture; but if not sufficiently active, and the animal -escapes, the application of fresh salt produces no further effect; -either it is not sensible to the additional infusion of salt, or, which -is most likely, the instinct of self-preservation causes it to put up -with the inconvenience rather than be taken. In this case, no other -means are left of securing it, than using an iron instrument to dig it -out with. The number of species is upwards of twenty. - - -THE DATE-SHAPED PHOLAS, (_Pholas dactyloides_.) - -These creatures have much more powerful means of boring than the -solens, for not only do they imbed themselves in hard clay, but even in -stone and lava. In what manner this is effected has been the subject of -much dispute; it is almost certain that the process is not mechanical, -for their soft body, and the fragile nature of their shells, seem an -insuperable bar to such a proceeding. Some authors have asserted that -the hole is formed by means of an acid secreted by the animal, which -acts chemically on the stone; but there are two reasons against this -solution of the difficulty; first, no acid liquid has been discovered -in the living animal, and, secondly, although acid would act upon -stone, it would have no effect whatever on lava. - -Another curious part of the history of these shell-fish is their -phosphorescence, which is so bright, that it has been asserted, if -eaten in the dark without their being cooked, it appears as if the -person devouring them was swallowing phosphorus. - -[Illustration: _Pholas dactyloides._] - -Although not used as food in this country, they are not uncommonly -eaten on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some large species are -found. - -The species represented in the engraving is found on the British -coasts, imbedded in clay; its shell is of a delicate white, beautifully -carved. The projecting piece at the lower part of the shell in the -engraving is the long foot of the animal; on the right hand, the hole -from which a shell has been removed is shown. - - -THE SHIP-WORM, (_Teredo navalis_.) - -Before the anatomy of this destructive creature had been carefully -examined, there was as much difficulty in guessing at the means it -employed in penetrating the solid timbers in which it is found, as -there is with regard to the operations of the Pholas; but subsequent -observation shows that the hard parts, of which the mouth is formed, -are fully equal to the task. - -[Illustration: _Teredo navalis._] - -Perhaps we may say, with propriety, that this is the only species of -the shell-bearing tribes that is decidedly injurious to mankind. The -animal of the Teredo is a long worm-shaped creature, dwelling in a -tube of a shelly substance, which it forms for itself in its progress -through the wood; the small pointed shell-like pieces, to the right -in the engraving, form the jaws of the animal. With the assistance of -these it cuts its way into the timber, and, at the same time, lines the -excavation it is making with a shelly substance, which is gradually -formed into a tube, the animal occupying that part which is most -deeply sunken in the timber; in directing its course it generally -excavates in the direction of the grain of the wood, but in some -instances it crosses this grain. - -In Holland a great part of the country is below the level of high -water, and, to prevent the irruption of the sea, immense dykes have -been formed along the coast; these are framed, on the sea-side, of -large masses of sand, while to the landward they are strengthened by -means of strong piles driven into the ground and wattled together. -These piles were once discovered pierced in all directions by this -destructive worm, to such an extent as to endanger their safety, and -had it not been for a timely discovery of the mischief, immense tracts -of country would have been laid under water, and irretrievably lost. - - - - -CLASS CIRRHIPEDA. - - -The Cirrhipeds are well known under the names of _Barnacles_ and -_Acorn-shells_, being found attached to rocks, ships’ bottoms, and -pieces of timber which have been under the water for a length of time. -They also at times fix themselves on the shells of the larger Mollusca, -and on the backs of whales, tortoises, &c. These creatures, from their -singular formation, have often proved a stumbling-block in the way of -the systematic naturalist, who, from their anomalous characters, was -unable to refer them to any part of his system; and although their -true nature, which has more recently been discovered by a British -naturalist, was partially suspected by Lamarck, (without, however, any -definite idea on the subject,) we have still placed them immediately -after the Conchifera, although, as we shall presently show, they ought -more properly to be ranged with the Crustacea, that is, the crab and -lobster tribes, and in future systems this no doubt will be the case. - -After noticing their resemblance in many respects to the Crustacea, -Lamarck thus expresses himself. “In fact, when I established the -CLASS of Crustacea, I formed the _first order_ of this class, (the -_Cirrhipeds_,) under the name of _sightless Crustacea_, but a few years -afterwards I separated them and placed them at the end of the Mollusca, -but this was no better. If, for example, we consider those characters -which furnish their most important organs, we shall find that the -Cirrhipeds, without any doubt, most nearly resemble the Crustacea, -for they have the same system of nerves, they have jaws analogous to -those of the Crustacea, and their tentacula resemble the antennæ of the -shrimps.” To prove that they really were Crustacea, was a task that -devolved upon a British naturalist, I. V. Thomson, Esq., a surgeon in -his Majesty’s forces. The manner in which this discovery took place, we -shall notice further on. - -The Cirrhipeds have obtained their name from the hairy feelers, or -tentacula, with which they are provided; the name Cirrhipeda being -derived from two Latin words,—_cirrhus_, hair, and _pes_, the foot; -these appendages, being figuratively called feet, although they have, -in reality, but little relation to that organ of motion. - -They have been separated into two orders; namely, _Cirrhipeda -pedunculata_, which are attached to any object by a tube of a leathery -nature, as, for instance, the Barnacle,—and _Cirrhipeda sedentaria_, -which are fixed directly to the rock, like the Acorn-shell. - - -_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA PEDUNCULATA._ - -(_Cirrhipeda with a Footstalk._) - - -THE SMOOTH BARNACLE, (_Anatifa lævis_.) - -The curious popular error, that the Barnacle contained the young of -a species of goose, which was thence called the Barnacle Goose, has -lasted for many ages, and still prevails among the uneducated, on the -shores of many of the European seas. One reason of the continuance of -this error in several Roman Catholic countries, is the permission -granted by the priest to its members, to eat this goose on fish-days, -because it is considered, on account of its supposed watery origin, to -partake more of the character of a fish than a fowl. To show the extent -to which an erroneous belief may be carried, we may quote the following -notice sent by Sir Robert Moray to the Royal Society, and _printed_ by -them in their _Transactions_. He says, “The pedicle seems to draw and -convey the matter which serves for the growth and vegetation of the -shell and the little bird within it.” “In every shell that I opened, I -found a perfect _sea-fowl_; the little bill like that of a _goose_, the -eyes marked; the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the -feathers everywhere perfectly shaped, and blackish-coloured; and the -_feet_ like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance!” “Nor -did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with anybody that -did; only some credible persons have assured me that they have seen -some as big as their fist!!” - -[Illustration: _Anatifa lævis._] - - -_ORDER CIRRHIPEDA SEDENTARIA_, - -(_Sedentary Cirrhipeds_.) - - -THE ACORN-SHELL, (_Balanus_.) - -Mr. Thomson describes his discovery of the real nature of the -Cirrhipeds in these words. “On April 28, 1823, which the author had -devoted to the investigation of some marine productions, he was -returning home without any addition to his stock of knowledge, when, -casually throwing out a small muslin towing-net, on crossing the ferry -at Passage, such a capture of marine animals was made, as furnished a -treat which few can ever expect to meet, and could hardly be excelled -for the variety, rarity, and interesting nature of the animals taken.” -After mentioning the names of several very rare species, he continues -“and others perfectly nondescript, and incapable of being associated in -any of our classifications of the Crustacea; of this description is the -little animal about to be described. - -[Illustration: _Balanus_, (The Acorn-Shell Barnacle.)] - -“There is a small translucent animal one-tenth of an inch long, of a -somewhat elliptic form, moderately compressed, and of a brownish hue. -When in a state of perfect repose, it resembles a very minute mussel, -and lies upon one of its sides at the bottom of the vessel of sea-water -in which it is placed. At this time all the members of the animal are -withdrawn within the shell, which appears to be composed of two valves, -united by a hinge along the upper part of the back, and capable of -opening from one end to the other along the front, to give occasional -exit to the legs. The limbs are of two descriptions; namely, in front a -large and very strong pair, provided with a cup-like sucker and hooks, -&c., and at the hinder part of the body, six pair of swimming-members, -so articulated as to act in concert, and to give a very forcible stroke -to the water, so as to cause the animal, when swimming, to advance by a -succession of bounds, after the manner of the water flea. - -[Illustration: - - Fig. 1. Larva of Barnacle, natural size. - 2. " " " magnified, seen from above. - 3. " " " highly magnified, seen from side; - _a_, swimming-members; - _b_, front limb, with sucker. - 4. Eye, much magnified. - 5. Perfect Young Barnacle, natural size. - 6. " " " full grown. - -] - -“The greatest peculiarity, however, in the structure of this animal, -is the eyes; which, although constantly shielded by the valves of the -shell, are placed on footstalks, as in the crab and lobster, in front, -at the sides of the body. - -“Some of these curious creatures were collected in the Spring of 1826; -and, in order to see what changes they might undergo, were kept in a -glass vessel, covered by such a depth of sea-water, that they could be -examined at any time by means of a common magnifying glass; they were -taken on May the 1st, and on the night of the 8th, the author had the -satisfaction to find that two of them had thrown off their _exuviæ_[4], -and, wonderful to say, were firmly adhering to the bottom of the -vessel, and changed into young Barnacles! such as are usually seen -intermixed with grown specimens, on rocks and stones, at this season of -the year. The eyes were still perceptible, although the principal part -of the black colouring-matter appeared to have been thrown off with -the _exuviæ_. On the 10th, another individual was seen _in the act of -throwing off its shell_, and attaching itself, like the others, to the -bottom of the glass.” - - - - -CLASS ANNULATA. - - -We cannot better describe the Annulose animals than in the words of -Lamarck; he calls them, - -“Animals with soft bodies, lengthened, worm-shaped, naked, or -inhabiting tubes, with the body divided into segments, or at least -transverse wrinkles, often without head, without eyes, and without -antennæ, unfurnished with articulated limbs, but the greater number -having, instead, small protuberances, bearing spines, and capable of -being retracted at pleasure, disposed in rows along the sides, though -not continued quite to the extremity of the body, and assuming various -forms. They have also red blood circulating by veins and arteries; this -separates them from the Worms, properly so called, which have white -blood. This colour of the blood is a singular fact, since the animals -are much less complex in their organization than the Mollusca, which -have colourless blood. The Class of Annulose animals has been separated -into three Orders, namely, _Annulata sedentaria_, which are fixed to -other substances; _Annulata antennata_, possessing antennæ, or feelers; -and _Annulata apoda_, without projecting members answering as feet, -serving solely to attach the animal to rocks, stones, &c.” - -[Illustration: _Shells of various sedentary Annulose Animals._] - - -_ORDER ANNULATA SEDENTARIA_, - -(_Sedentary Annulose Animals_.) - -The creatures which form this order are generally found attached -to rocks, shells, &c. and are usually of small size. The engraving -represents a variety of species of these animals. Of the genus Serpula -there are many species, but as it is in general merely the shell -that is found in collections, they are but ill defined; some of the -species are found in almost all climates. The animal of the Serpula has -great power of contracting its body, but it never leaves its shell or -tube; this tube is gradually lengthened by the inhabitant, who always -occupies the most recently-formed portion of it; its _operculum_, the -lid with which it closes the opening of its tube, is very prettily -formed; it is something like the mouth-piece of a trumpet, but of -course not perforated, and it closes the opening with great accuracy. - - -THE MAGNIFICENT AMPHITRITE, - -(_Amphitrite magnifica_.) - -This beautiful species is perhaps the largest of the whole tribe as -yet discovered. It is found in various parts of the coast of Jamaica, -adhering to, or rather embedded in, the rocks. Its irritability is -exceedingly great, and on being approached it instantly retreats into -its elastic tube; this tube is of a leathery consistence, unlike that -of the Serpula. Specimens of this elegant species can only be obtained -by breaking off such parts of the stone as contain them. These, being -put into tubs of sea-water, may be kept for months in perfect health. -That part of the body which is so beautifully spread out like an -umbrella, consists of the _branchiæ_ or organs of breathing; these are -of a yellowish colour, beautifully marked with pink. The Amphitrite, -although perhaps it never entirely leaves its tube, is not attached to -it, and frequently draws out nearly the whole of its body. - -[Illustration: _Amphitrite magnifica._] - - -_ORDER ANNULATA ANTENNATA_, - -(_Annulose Animals possessing Antennæ_.) - - -THE SAND-WORM OF THE FISHERMEN, - -(_Arenicola piscatorium_.) - -This Worm forms its nest in the sand on the sea-shore, and is much -sought after by fishermen as bait for fishes. It is found in all the -European seas. There appears to be but one species, but that is met -with in great abundance. - -[Illustration: _Arenicola piscatorium._] - - -BLOOD-COLOURED LEODICE, (_Leodice sanguinea_.) - -The antennated Annulata differ materially from those which are -enclosed in a case; they possess, in addition to their antennæ, organs -of motion, like the false legs of a caterpillar, and two or four -well-formed eyes; they are all marine animals, and altogether they bear -a strong resemblance to the _scolopendra_, or centipede. - -[Illustration: _Leodice sanguinea._] - -The species represented above was taken on the southern coast of -Devonshire; it is the largest English species, extending sometimes to -the length of fourteen or fifteen inches. - -When the animal was in a glass of sea-water, the circulation of the -blood through the bristle-like appendages on each side of the body -was a curious object, and appeared to be effected at the will of the -animal, but when it became sickly, the circulation was slower, and as -soon as it expired all the colour from those parts vanished. - -The mouth is large, and placed beneath, concealing most formidable -jaws, or complicated fangs, which were put forward occasionally as the -animal became sickly, or in the agonies of death. The figure beneath -the worm shows the shape of this singular apparatus. - - -THE SPINOUS SEA-MOUSE, OR SEA-CATERPILLAR, - -(_Halithæa aculeata_.) - -The Sea-Mouse is found in the European seas, and when in its native -element is singularly beautiful, the hair with which it is partially -covered being equal in splendour to the colours on the tail of a -peacock. - -[Illustration: _Halithæa aculeata._] - - -_ORDER ANNULATA APODA_, - - -(_Footless Annulose Animals_.) - -The greater portion of the Annulose animals, namely those already -described, are furnished with small projecting points on the sides -of their body, which assist them in their motions, and which may, -consequently, be considered as supplying the place of feet; but those -we have yet to notice have no similar appendages, and, therefore, they -are called footless. They are all very lively in their movements, and -live either in moist earth, or the mud at the bottom of ponds. We -find among the footless Annulata two well-known genera, namely, the -Earth-worm and the Leech. - - -THE COMMON EARTH-WORM, - -(_Lumbricus terrestris_.) - -The body of the Earth-worm is composed of a great number of narrow -rings, and along each side are four rows of very small, short, -silk-like bristles, of a substance partly horny and partly shell-like. -These bristles are placed on the edges of the rings, and it is by the -alternate contraction and expansion of these rings that the worm is -enabled to move along, the little bristles acting like hooks, and so -forming various fixed points of resistance or _fulcra_, upon which the -animal can rest at each movement forwards. The organization of the -Earth-worm is very simple, the intestinal canal for the food being a -simple straight tube, except in one part of its length, where a kind -of gizzard is found, which answers the purpose of a stomach. It is -supposed to feed upon the vegetable substances it finds in the earth. - -[Illustration] - -The hole, or burrow, formed in the earth by the worm, always has two -openings, one by which it enters, and by which it throws out the dirt -which is removed during the progress of its excavation, and the other -by which it sometimes leaves its burrow, so that the hole made by the -animal would be much in this form, descending at A, and reaching the -surface by B. It has been said, that the Earth-worm, if divided by the -spade or otherwise, will unite again and live; the foundation for this -appears to be the more probable fact, that, when divided, that portion -of the animal in which the head is placed may, perhaps, survive the -mutilation, and ultimately again become a perfect creature. - -Although worms, after wet weather, sadly disfigure our gravel walks, -they are, at the same time, useful gardeners, loosening the earth round -the roots of plants, and thus rendering it more capable of receiving -the small fibres of the roots. During the Winter they penetrate very -deeply into the ground, and remain, according to Latreille, rolled up -in a kind of nest, protected from injury by the discharge of _mucus_, -which is furnished by the pores of their body. - -The Earth-worm appears to have been a considerable favourite with -the author of the _Journal of a Naturalist_; among other remarks, -he observes, “There is another creature, and that a very important -one in the operations of nature, that is surrounded by dangers, -harassed, pursued incessantly, and becomes the prey of all; the common -Earth-worm. This animal, destined to be the natural manurer of the -soil, and the ready indicator of an approved staple, consumes on the -surface of the ground, where they soon would be injurious, the softer -parts of decayed vegetable matter, and conveys into the soil the -more woody fibres, where they moulder and become reduced to a simple -nutriment, fitting for living vegetation. The parts consumed by them -are soon returned to the surface, whence dissolved by frosts, and -scattered by rains, they circulate again in the plants of the soil, - - Death still producing life. - -“Thus eminently serviceable as the Worm is, it yet becomes the prey -of various orders of the animal creation, and perhaps is a solitary -example of an individual race being subjected to universal destruction. -The very emmet seizes it when disabled, and bears it away as its -prize. It constitutes throughout the year the food of many birds; -fishes devour it greedily; the hedgehog eats it; the mole pursues it -unceasingly in the pastures, along the moist bottoms of ditches, and -burrows after it through the banks of hedges, to which it retires in -dry seasons. Secured as the Worm appears to be by its residence in the -earth, from the capture of creatures inhabiting a different element, -yet many aquatic animals seem well acquainted with it, and prey on it -as a natural food, whenever it falls in their way: frogs eat it, and -even the great water-beetle I have known to seize it, when the bait of -the angler, and it has been drawn up by the hook. Yet notwithstanding -this prodigious destruction of the animal, its increase is fully -commensurate to its consumption, as if ordained the appointed food of -all. - -“Worms, generally speaking, are tender creatures, and water remaining -over their haunts for a few days, drowns them. They easily become -frozen, when a mortification commences at some part, which gradually -consumes the whole substance, and we find them on the surface a mass -of jelly. Their retiring deeper into the soil is no bad indication of -approaching cold weather; but no sooner is the frost out of the ground, -than they approach the surface. - -“Earth-worms do considerable mischief to the floriculturist by drawing -the young plants, immediately after they are transplanted, into -the earth. In the drainage of lands they are of essential service, -penetrating the clay that lies beneath the vegetable mould in every -direction, and thus forming numerous small canals to carry off the -water into the deep trenches dug by the agriculturist.” The author we -have already quoted, after concluding this account of the Worm, says, -“I would advocate the cause of all creatures, had I the privilege of -knowing the excellency of them; not willingly assigning vague and -fanciful claims to excite wonder, or manifesting a base pride by any -vaunt of superior observation; but when we see, blind as we are, that -all things are formed in justice, mercy, truth, I would tell my tale -as a man, glory as a Christian, and bless the gracious Power that -permitted me to obtain this knowledge.” - - -THE MEDICINAL LEECH, (_Hirudo medicinalis_.) - -The medicinal utility of the Leech seems, even in very remote times, to -have been acknowledged by mankind, and accordingly we find it noticed -in the writings of many ancient physicians. It was not simply applied -to the cases in which it is at present employed, but was recommended -to be used in many singular ways: a paste made of the ashes of a burnt -leech was said to have the property of removing the hair from any -part of the body. It was also employed to suck the blood from a wound -occasioned by a mad dog, or any other rabid animal. - -At present the employment of this useful creature is confined to the -operation of drawing blood from inflamed parts of the surface of the -body, for which use it is eminently adapted. - -There are as many as twelve or fifteen species of these creatures, -but only two have been employed in medicine, namely, the _Hirudo -medicinalis_, which may be known by having six yellowish lines, or -striæ, on its back, while the under part is of a grayish hue spotted -with black, but, as we shall presently see, these markings are not -uniformly found; and the _Hirudo troctina_, of a brownish colour, -the upper part of the body marked with black spots, each of which is -surrounded with a golden-coloured ring, the sides of a dingy yellow, -and the under part of a yellowish green with black spots. - -The first of these species, the medicinal leech, is common throughout -the whole of Europe, but is much more abundant in the Southern parts; -it is generally about three inches in length. Formerly it was very -abundant in Great Britain, but the improvements in agriculture, -and the consequent drainage of the land, together with the great -use made of it in medicine, have of late years rendered it of less -frequent occurrence. On this account great quantities of leeches are -imported; these chiefly come from Bourdeaux and Lisbon. On a moderate -calculation, it appears that, in England, on an average, out of every -hundred leeches employed, ninety-nine may be considered of foreign -production; these differ from the English leech in being somewhat -larger, and having the under part of a uniform colour, without spots. -Some idea may be formed of the number of leeches used in medicine by -the statement, that in the hospitals of Paris alone, 300,000 were -employed in one year. The prevailing colour of the medicinal leech -appears to vary according to the nature of the soil on which it is -found. In Winter the leech retires to waters of considerable depth, and -seeks shelter in the mud at the bottom; but in the Summer it appears -to delight in shallow pools, basking, as it were, in the warmth of the -sun: but if the water it frequents is in danger of being dried up by -the Summer-heat, the leech buries itself in the mud at a considerable -depth. Just before a thunder-storm, leeches appear much agitated, -and rise frequently to the surface of the water; this, therefore, is -considered by the _leech-gatherers_ as a favourable time for collecting -them. - -The property by which a leech anticipates thunder, has induced some -persons to employ it as a species of barometer; for this purpose a -leech is enclosed in a glass vessel half-filled with water, and the -following is supposed to be the result. When the weather is about to be -serene and pleasant, the leech will remain at the bottom of the vessel -without the least movement; secondly, if it is about to rain, the -animal will rise to the surface, and there remain until the approach of -fine weather; thirdly, before boisterous weather, it will appear in a -state of great agitation; fourthly, on the approach of thunder, it will -remain out of water for several days, appearing agitated and restless, -and so on. - -This natural barometer _appears_ to answer tolerably well, if there is -sufficient belief in its virtues on the part of the possessor, and if -one leech only is employed; but when several of these creatures are -enclosed in the same vessel, they do not appear to obey the same laws, -and, consequently, their movements do not correspond with sufficient -accuracy to render their indications of the weather of much use. - -The medicinal leech appears during its whole life to exist on the blood -or other juices of the creatures on whose body it fixes itself; this is -not the case with the horse-leech, which lives entirely on the _larvæ_ -of aquatic insects, worms, &c., so that the common idea of the danger -of the bite of the horse-leech is without foundation. - -The horse-leech is exceedingly voracious, not only swallowing worms, -tadpoles, &c., but even preying upon its own species. Sixty-five -horse-leeches were placed in a glass vessel, and in five days the -number was reduced to fifty-two, and not a vestige of those that were -missing was to be discovered. - -The usual slowness of action of the digestive powers in all animals of -cold blood, was curiously illustrated in the case of a horse-leech, -which, after swallowing two small leeches of a different species, -disgorged one of the two at the end of three days, in a living state, -and apparently not much injured from its sojourn in so unusual a -lodging; but it enjoyed its liberty only for a few hours, its more -powerful companion swallowing it a second time at the end of that -period. - -A number of this species of leech, inhabiting the water that supplied a -trough in which a tench had been placed, fixed themselves to different -parts of the body of the fish, and so effectually was the poor tench -annoyed, that it was soon deprived of life. “The leeches then tore it -(previously breaking the line of connexion between the various parts of -the body, by inflicting a vast number of bites or wounds,) into such -pieces as they could readily receive into the stomach, and so diligent -were they, that in a few days nothing remained of the fish but the mere -skeleton.” - -From these habits it would appear, that the name of Hirudo -_sanguisuga_, (the blood-sucking leech,) has been improperly applied to -the horse-leech; on this account a recent author has suggested the name -of Hirudo _vorax_, (the voracious leech,) as being more suitable to its -nature. - -Leeches are supposed to be very long-lived; two were preserved in -confinement for eight years before they died, and the well-ascertained -slowness of their growth seems to place their length of life beyond a -doubt. - -On the head of the medicinal leech ten points are arranged in the form -of a horse-shoe, thus— - -[Illustration] - -These are considered, by some authors, to be organs of sight, or -eyes, while, on the other hand, it is stated by others, that they are -merely tubercles. Lamarck was of this opinion, and, consequently, in -describing their character, says they are without eyes. - -The teeth, or rather piercers, with which the leech is furnished, are -three in number, of a hard gristly substance, and so placed, with -regard to each other, as to meet in the centre at equal angles; these -piercers are thrust into the skin when the animal attaches itself; not -by one plunging effort, but by constantly scratching or sawing upon the -surface (assisted at the same time by the sucking action of the lips); -in this manner they gradually become buried in the skin, and there -remain as long as the creature retains its hold; this movement of the -piercers occasions the gnawing pain felt for the first two or three -minutes after the leech has commenced operation. - -Leeches are at times so scarce and valuable, that great care has been -taken in preserving them in a healthy state and fit for use. The -principal art in managing them consists in placing them in vessels -sufficiently large, keeping the water clear, and in removing those -which are unhealthy as soon as they are discovered. - -Leeches, when applied to the skin, frequently show little inclination -to bite, and many plans have been resorted to, to induce them to -commence operations, such as bathing the part with milk, &c.; but -these methods may be considered useless, and the best plan appears -to be, to wash the part clean, and this is the more necessary when -any embrocation has been previously applied; but the surest way is to -puncture the place slightly, so as to cause the blood to appear. If the -little surgeon, before it is fully gorged, appears lazy and unwilling -to proceed, it can be usually roused by being sprinkled with a little -cold water. - -After a leech has fallen off, it is usual to sprinkle salt on it to -induce it to disgorge the blood it has swallowed; but as the salt -frequently blisters its body, it has been recommended by Dr. Johnson of -Edinburgh, from whose work on the Leech, we have obtained most of the -preceding information, to apply a small portion of vinegar to the head -of the leech instead of salt. - -The necessity for obliging the leech to dislodge the blood it has -swallowed, arises from the fact that it would remain in the body of -the animal for some months before it could be all digested; but the -most singular thing is, that, during the whole of this time, the blood -remains in nearly as fluid a state as when it was newly swallowed[5]. -The stomach of this creature is very curiously formed, being composed -of a number of chambers, each chamber having a separate connexion with -the intestinal canal, in such a manner that, at the will of the animal, -the contents of each chamber can be emptied singly into that canal, -through a distinct opening. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1. Fig. 2.] - -It was long a matter of dispute as to whether leeches were produced -from eggs or born alive, but it is now ascertained that the ova are -developed in a singular case, having some resemblance to the cocoon -of a silkworm. The following engraving represents this case, of its -natural size: fig. 1, shows the perfect case or cocoon, and fig. 2, the -same opened, with the young leeches contained within it; it is said -that, at times, there are as many as thirteen or fourteen in one case. -This cocoon is formed by the parent animal, and by it deposited in the -mud or clay, which composes the bed of the pool it inhabits. - -The fact of the young leech being produced from these cocoons, although -only latterly ascertained by naturalists, was long since well-known to -the dealers in leeches on the French coast, who avail themselves of -this knowledge of their habits, to multiply them for the purpose of -sale. - -“It was by these means the leech-dealers of Bretagne, and particularly -in Finisterre, replenished the ponds in which they preserved those -leeches which were intended for the Paris market. - -“About the month of April or May, according to the nature of the -season, they send out labourers, provided with spades and baskets, to -the little muddy marshes, where they are known to exist in abundance. -These workmen then set about removing those portions of mud that are -known to contain cocoons, which are afterwards deposited in sheets of -water previously prepared for their reception; here the young leeches -quit the cocoons, and are allowed to remain for six months, when they -are removed to larger ponds.” While they remain in these ponds, the -cattle and other animals are driven to the water, for the purpose of -allowing the young to feed upon them, as it is supposed that they grow -much more rapidly after having partaken of blood. - -There is a small species of leech in the island of Ceylon, which is -more dreaded, and, from its great numbers, produces more evil, than -even the venomous reptiles which are found in the island, including the -terrible hooded snake itself. - -The largest of these leeches are seldom more than half an inch in -length, and the smallest are minute indeed. This leech is a very active -animal; it moves with great rapidity, and is even said occasionally -to spring. It is supposed to have an acute sense of smelling, for no -sooner does a person stop where leeches abound, that they appear to -crowd eagerly to the spot from all quarters. In rainy weather, it is -shocking to see the legs of men on a long march thickly beset with -these creatures, gorged with blood, and the blood itself trickling down -in streams. It might be supposed there be little difficulty in keeping -them off; but they crowd to the attack, and fasten on more quickly -than they can be removed. Their bites are much more troublesome than -would be imagined, being very apt to fester and become sores, and, in -persons of a bad habit of body, to degenerate into extensive ulcers, -and ultimately cause the loss of a limb, if not that of life itself. - -Many plans have, of course, been resorted to, to avoid this pest, such -as anointing the legs with tobacco-water, grease, &c., but all to very -little purpose, the only successful mode appearing to be, the enclosing -the lower part of the legs in boots and pantaloons, fitting very -closely to the limb, a very unpleasant dress in so sultry a climate. - - - - -CLASS CRUSTACEA. - - -The arrangement of the Crustacea in systems of natural history has -undergone numerous changes; they were placed by Linnæus among the -insects:—others considered them to have more analogy to the spiders. -Lamarck was the first who made the Crustacea an independent CLASS -forming two _orders_, which he has named after the arrangement of the -branchiæ, or gills, by which they breathe, namely,—the _Crustacea -homobranchiæ_, the distinguishing marks of which he describes in this -manner: branchiæ hidden under the lateral margins of a kind of cuirass, -covering the body of the animal, with the exception of the tail; the -mandibles always furnished with feelers, the eyes placed on footstalks, -the head not distinct from the trunk, and possessing ten feet to assist -them in their movements. Secondly, the _Crustacea heterobranchiæ_, in -which the branchiæ are external, in various situations, but never under -the lateral margin of a cuirass; they are either under the belly or the -tail, adhering to the feet, or confounded with them: the eyes are in -general fixed, _sedentary, not on footstalks_. - - -_ORDER CRUSTACEA HOMOBRANCHIÆ_, - -(_Shell-Fish with concealed gills._) - -The first of these orders, the _homobranchial_ Crustacea, includes most -of the larger kinds of shell-fish, as, for instance, crabs, lobsters, -and cray-fish; shrimps and prawns are also in this division. - -Their organization is much more perfect than that of the other order, -and, according to Lamarck, it is among these animals that the last -appearance of the organ of hearing is seen, in tracing the animal -kingdom from the most perfect animals to those whose formation is -apparently less complex. - -The body of these creatures appears to be composed of only two -principal parts, the body and the tail; for the head is so intimately -united and confounded with the trunk, as to appear to be merely a -portion of it. The two eyes are fixed at the top of two moveable -supports, and are placed in a hollow prepared for their reception, on -each side of a projecting portion of the shell that covers the head. -The antennæ, which are usually four in number, are placed about this -spot; they are inserted beneath the stems that support the eyes. The -two outermost of these antennæ are generally the longest. - -The branchiæ, or organs by which they breathe, assume a form somewhat -pyramidical, arranged like a series of leaves, or the web of a feather; -they are placed in the interior of the shell along each side, and are -so arranged as to adhere to the roots of the feet, so that each of -these feet has a hidden branchia attached to its base. - -The mouth is composed of a fleshy lip, projecting between the -mandibles; of two hard triangular mandibles, more or less notched at -their extremity, and each having a kind of feeler inserted on the upper -part; they also possess a little tongue between these mandibles, at -the root of which is the opening to the stomach: they have besides two -pair of jaws, like leaves, the borders of which are fringed, and six -other members, which Lamarck calls _foot-jaws_, from their bearing -some resemblance to legs, or feet. From this it appears that the -parts of the mouth in the Crustacea form a complicated apparatus, and -accordingly we find the whole tribe exceedingly voracious, the Crabs -in particular, feeding upon any animal substance, putrid or not, that -may come within their reach. Some of the species are well known as -articles of food, but they are not equally wholesome at all seasons of -the year. - - -_THE CRAB TRIBE._ - -The genera of the Crustacea are so extremely numerous, and the -knowledge we possess of their natural history is so scanty, being -generally confined to their form and colour, that we shall limit -ourselves to a description of some of the best known and most useful -species. - -[Illustration: THE ZOEA OF THE COMMON CRAB.] - -The Crabs are a very numerous tribe, and contain many singular -species, as far as regards their form, which assumes an endless -variety of curious shapes, sometimes elegantly decorated with the most -brilliant colours; this more particularly applies to those which are -found in the seas of hot climates. - -The singular little animal represented in the preceding page, was -placed by naturalists among the _Crustacea_, and considered a perfect -animal of a distinct species; it was named Zoea. Mr. Thomson, the -experienced naturalist we have already noticed, was the first to -discover the real nature of this little creature. We cannot do better -than to introduce the subject by the following observations of the -author of this discovery, showing the reason so little is known -respecting these inhabitants of the deep. - -“The sea (which is the habitation of the greater part of the -_Crustacea_) to the casual observer offers nothing but an immense body -of water, here and there presenting a solitary whale, or a vagrant -troop of some of the smaller cetaceous animals; the appearance of a -fish of almost any other kind in the track of a vessel over a vast -expanse of the open ocean, is regarded, even by the mariner, as a -kind of phenomenon, and creates an interest not to be appreciated by -those who have not engaged in distant voyages. The fathomless parts -of the ocean certainly do not offer the same profusion of inhabitants -with the shores of islands and continents, or those parts where the -bottom is within reach of the sounding-line, or where the surface is -interspersed with fields of Sargosa[6]. On due examination, however, we -shall not fail to find it everywhere peopled by a considerable variety -of animals, either of small size, or possessed of such a degree of -translucency as to render them invisible, or scarcely perceptible, even -when on or near to its surface; that it should possess its share of -the organized beings which we see spread over every other part of the -surface of our globe, is a conclusion we might arrive at indirectly, -from the consideration of oceanic fishes and birds being observed in -those parts of the ocean most distant from the land, and the provident -care of the Deity, which we invariably witness throughout the domain of -nature, to furnish food for all, even the meanest of his creatures; the -more minute and invisible inmates of the sea, then, must constitute the -food of oceanic fishes and birds. - -“Few of these marine animals, except some of the larger and most -conspicuous, have as yet been observed, so that the investigation of -them holds out a promise of a rich harvest to the naturalist, and -a vast field of exploration, replete with novelty and interest; to -accomplish this, however, he must use the greatest diligence, seizing -every opportunity, when the way of a ship does not exceed three or -four miles per hour, to throw out astern a small towing-net of gauze, -bunting, or other tolerably close material, occasionally drawing it -up, and turning it inside out into a glass vessel of sea-water, to -ascertain what captures have been made. When a ship goes at a greater -rate, and in stormy weather, a net of this kind may be appended to the -spout of one of the _sea-water_ pumps, and examined three or four times -a day, or oftener, according to circumstances.” - -Although naturalists were decided in calling the Zoea a crustaceous -animal, they were still far from agreeing as to the place in the -system it ought to occupy, for the different species were so unlike -each other: but it will be no longer a matter of surprise, when it -is known, that this singular creature is not a perfect animal, but -merely the larva, or imperfect state of the Common Crab. This fact is -perfectly new, and interesting in a double point of view, not only -proving their real nature, but also that the Crustacea are not, as -described in most systems, animals undergoing no metamorphosis, and on -that account to be separated from the insects, but that they do undergo -a metamorphosis, and that of a most wonderful nature. - -It was in the Spring of 1822 that Mr. Thomson first met with Zoeæ, -in the harbour of Cove, and that in considerable abundance; the year -following, at the same season, one of considerable size occurred; -this was considered a fit object for experiment, and was carefully -supplied with fresh sea-water, from May 14th to June 15th, when it died -in the act of changing its skin. That portion of its new form which -it had been able to disengage was sufficient to show that it bore a -great resemblance to the division of the Crustacea, in which the crabs -and lobsters are placed. “This proof,” says the author, “might be -considered incomplete, if I had not had the good fortune to succeed in -hatching the _ova_ of the Common Crab, during the month of June, which -presented exactly the appearance of the _Zoea taurus_.” - -The Common Crab, _Cancer major_, is so well-known, that any description -of its appearance would be useless. - -One singular part of the history of these creatures is, the power that -is possessed by them, of changing their shell once in every year; this -power is providentially bestowed upon them, to enable them to increase -in size, a thing that would otherwise be utterly impossible, from the -peculiar nature of the hard coat in which they are enclosed. - -The Crab, in order to prepare for the extraordinary change it is about -to undergo, when shifting its shell, chooses a close and well-secured -retreat, in the cavities of rocks, or under great stones, where it -creeps in and remains during the operation. The time of the year -when this occurs is about the beginning of the Summer, at which time -their food is in plenty, and their strength and vigour in the highest -perfection. But soon all their activity ceases; they are seen forsaking -the open parts of the deep, and seeking some retired situation among -the rocks, or some outlet where they may remain in safety from the -attacks of their enemies. For some days before their change, the animal -discontinues its usual voraciousness; it is no longer seen laboriously -harrowing up the sand at the bottom, or fighting with others of its -kind, or hunting its prey; it lies torpid and motionless, as if in -anxious expectation of the approaching change. Just before casting -its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws against -each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated, -and the whole body is in violent motion; it then swells itself in an -unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at -its junctures, particularly at those of the belly, where it was before -seemingly united. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach -comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it -disengages itself of its claws, which burst at the joints; the animal, -with a tremulous motion, casting them off, as a man would kick off a -boot that was too big for him. - -Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty; -but in so weak and enfeebled a state that it continues for several -hours motionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation, -that many of them die under it; and those which survive, are in such -a weakly condition for some time, that they neither take food, nor -venture from their retreats. Immediately after this change, they have -not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of -the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they can neither escape nor -oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog-fish, the cod, -and the ray, devour them by thousands. But this state of weakness -continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is -seen to have the skin that covers its body almost as hard as before; -its appetite appears to increase; and, strange to behold! the first -object, it is said, that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which -it was lately disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness. -In about forty-eight hours, in proportion to the animal’s strength, -the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but -just thrown aside. Previous to the time of moulting or changing their -skin, a flat chalky stone is found on each side of the stomach; this -is believed to form a store of earthy matter for the renewal of the -shell. These stones, popularly known as _crabs’ eyes_, were long -highly esteemed for their medicinal properties, but in reality are not -superior to so much chalk. - -When completely equipped in its new dress, the dimensions of the -old shell being compared with those of the new, it will be found -the creature has increased in size nearly one-third, and it appears -wonderful how the old shell could have contained it. - -Many of the cold-blooded animals have the power of reproducing a limb, -or a portion of one, if by any accident it has been lost. This faculty -of reproduction is possessed by the Crab in great perfection; but it -has also a surprising power in itself, voluntarily to break off its -own legs and claws. It seems this takes place when any serious injury, -by bruising, has happened to any of its members. After it has received -the hurt it bleeds, and gives signs of pain, by moving the wounded limb -from side to side, but afterwards holds it quite still, in a direct and -natural position, without touching any part of its body or its other -legs with it. Then, on a sudden, with a gentle crack, the wounded part -of the leg drops off at the next joint to the one injured; this appears -to be more easily done with respect to the smaller legs, than in the -case of an injury occurring to those which bear the pincers. - -When the leg has dropped off, a mucus, or jelly, is discharged on -the remaining part of the joint next the body, which, as a natural -styptic, instantly stops the bleeding; this gradually hardens and grows -callous, becoming a new leg in miniature, which at every change of the -creature’s shell increases rapidly in size. - -Crabs are naturally very quarrelsome, and with their claws fight and -kill each other; and if by chance any of their limbs should be so -bruised, as to have taken away from the creature the power of breaking -off its claws, the protecting jelly is not produced, and the animal -bleeds to death. An experiment was made to give some idea of the -tenacious disposition of this creature, by obliging a Crab, with one -of its great claws, to lay hold of one of its smaller ones; the silly -creature did not distinguish that itself was the aggressor, but exerted -its strength, and soon cracked the shell of its own small leg, which -bled freely; but feeling itself wounded it succeeded in breaking off -its limb in the usual manner,—still, however, holding fast for a -length of time the part of the wounded leg which had come away. - -The curious shuffling walk of the Crab is well known, but it does not, -as it is said, walk exactly backwards. - - -THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.) - -Although nearly all the Crab tribe are inhabitants of the water, there -is a species found in the West Indies, a native of the Bahama Islands, -whose habits are unlike those of the rest of its class, and highly -curious in themselves. - -[Illustration: THE LAND CRAB, (_Gecarcinus ruricola_.)] - -Land Crabs do not, like most other crustaceous animals, live near -salt water, but take up their abode for the greatest part of the year -in holes in the ground, hollow trunks of trees, and other places of -the same description, and inhabit the mountainous districts of the -islands, many miles from the sea-shore; but, although they make these -places their usual haunt, it is necessary for them, once a year, -to repair to the sea, for the purpose of depositing their spawn. -They prepare for their annual migration about the month of April or -May, and, having mustered in immense numbers, the procession sets -forward, with all the regularity of an army, under the guidance of an -experienced commander. - -Their destination being the sea, they instinctively move in a direct -line to the nearest coast; no obstacle which they can possibly -surmount will induce them to turn from their course; for if even a -house stands in their way, they endeavour to scale its walls, in which -they sometimes succeed; and should a window remain open, they are not -unlikely to direct their march over the bed of some heedless sleeper. -If, however, a large river crosses their track, they continue to follow -its course without attempting to cross it. - -It is said, that they are commonly divided into three battalions, of -which the first consists of the strongest and boldest males, who, like -pioneers, march forward to clear the route. They are often obliged -to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment -till the weather changes. The main body consists of females, who never -leave the mountains till the rain has set in for some time; they then -descend in regular order, formed into columns of the breadth of fifty -paces, and three miles in length, and so close that they almost cover -the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a -straggling undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but -neither so robust nor vigorous as the former parties. The night is -their chief time of proceeding. When terrified, they march back in a -confused manner, holding up their nippers and clattering them loudly, -to intimidate their enemies. Their general food consists of vegetables; -but if any of their companions should become maimed, and unable to -proceed, they are greedily devoured by the rest. - -After a march of two, and sometimes three months, in this manner, -they arrive at their destined spot on the sea-coast; they immediately -enter the water, and after the waves have washed over them several -times, retire to holes in the rocks, and other hiding-places, where -they remain until the period of spawning. They then once more seek -the water, and, shaking off their eggs, leave them to the chance of -being hatched, or devoured by tribes of hungry fish, who have already -repaired to the spot in countless shoals, in expectation of their -annual treat. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and, -soon after, millions at a time of the little Crabs are seen quitting -the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones, -however, are not so active to return: they have become so feeble and -lean, that they can hardly crawl about. Most of them, therefore, are -obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover; -making holes in the earth, into which they creep, and cover themselves -up with leaves and dirt; here they throw off their old shells, and -continue almost without motion for about six days, during which time -they become so fat, as to be considered delicious food. In about six -weeks, the new shell has become tolerably hard, and the creatures may -be seen slowly returning to their mountain-haunts. In some of the -sugar-islands, it is said they form no inconsiderable portion of the -food of the negroes, who are extremely dexterous in their mode of -seizing them, so as to avoid their nippers. - - -THE HERMIT, OR SOLDIER CRAB, - -(_Pagurus bernhardus_.) - -This singular species of Crab has obtained its name from its habit of -remaining, as it were, secluded, in any empty shell, or hole of a rock, -it may fancy. - -[Illustration: THE HERMIT CRAB, (_Pagurus bernhardus_.)] - -The hinder part of its body, particularly the tail, being constantly -secure from injury, has its covering reduced to almost a membranous -state, while the tail, which assists the other species in swimming, is -almost obliterated; but in those which have chosen a shell for their -hermitage, some hook-like appendages are observed, which enable them to -maintain a secure hold of their borrowed dwelling. When the body has -grown too large for the shell occupied by the animal, it is obliged to -seek another of a larger size. The numerous combats they enter into -when seeking a new dwelling, have caused this animal to receive the -additional name of the Soldier Crab. - -“The Soldier when about to seek a new habitation, is still seen,” -says an amusing writer, “in its own shell, which it appears to have -considerably outgrown; for a part of the naked body is seen at the -mouth of it, which the habitation is too small to hide. A shell, -therefore, is to be found, large enough to cover the whole body; -and yet not so large as to be unmanageable and unwieldy. To answer -both these ends is no easy matter, nor the attainment of a slight -inquiry. The little Soldier is seen busily parading the shore, along -that line of pebbles and shells that is formed by the extremest wave; -still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail, -unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage, -till it can find another more convenient. It is seen stopping at one -shell, turning it and passing it by, going on to another, contemplating -that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation, -to try on a new. This, also, is found to be inconvenient; and it -quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently -changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious: to -this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the -body of the animal, claws and all.” - -Yet it is not till after many trials, and many combats also, that the -Soldier is thus completely equipped; for there is often a contest -between two of them for some well-looking favourite shell, for which -they are rivals. They both endeavour to take possession; they strike -with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to -yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor -takes possession, and parades in his new conquest three or four times -back and forward, upon the strand, before his envious antagonist. - -When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavouring -to seize the enemy with its nippers; which if it fasten upon, it will -sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not -easily cured. - -On the English coasts the Hermit Crab is generally found in the shell -of the whelk, or when of a small size in that of the periwinkle; they -not unfrequently, however, remain in some cranny of a rock, or under -the protecting cover formed by a group of pebbles, in the interstices -of which they hide themselves. - -The ancients were well acquainted with the Soldier Crab, as is evident -from the following translation of the lines of one of their poets: - - The Soldier Crabs unarmed by nature, left - Helpless, and weak, grow strong by harmless theft. - Fearful they crawl, and look with panting wish - For the cast crust of some new-covered fish; - Or such as empty lie, and deck the shore, - Whose first and rightful owners are no more. - They make glad seizure of the vacant room, - And count the borrowed shell their native home; - Screw their soft limbs to fit the winding case, - And boldly herd with the crustaceous race. - But when they larger grow they fill the place, - And find themselves hard-pinched in scanty space, - Compelled, they quit the roof they loved before, - And busy search around the pebbly shore, - Till a commodious roomy seat be found, - Such as the larger shell-fish living owned. - Oft cruel wars contending soldiers wage, - And long for the disputed shell engage; - The strongest here the doubtful prize possess, - Power gives the right, and all the claim confess. - - -THE LOBSTER, (_Astacus europæa_.) - -The well-known and delicious shell-fish, the Lobster, is found in great -abundance in all the northern parts of Europe. The north of Scotland -is famous for the Lobster, but it is still more plentiful on the coast -of Norway. The crab is more frequently found in shallow water, but the -Lobster prefers those spots where the water is of considerable depth. -The methods of taking Lobsters are various,—the most usual is by means -of what are called Lobster-pots; these are a sort of trap, formed of -twigs, and baited with garbage; they are made like a wire mouse-trap, -so that when the Lobsters get in there is no possibility of returning. -These pots are fastened to a cord, and sunk in the sea, their place -being marked by a buoy. Another method of taking them is by means of a -kind of bag-net, baited with animal substances. This fishery is only -carried on in the night. They are brought in vast quantities to the -London market from the Orkneys and from the Norway coast. - -Lobsters are much alarmed at the noise of thunder, or any other -sudden shock; the consequence of which is, that in their fright, they -frequently cast their claws. This also often happens when the poor -creatures are thrown into the boiling-pot. As these animals frequent -clear water, their habits have been more noticed than those of the -crab. Their mode of feeding is sufficiently curious. In general, the -pincers of one of the large claws are furnished with knobs, while -the other large claw is more like a saw on its edge; holding, then, -its food in the knobbed claw, it dexterously pulls it to pieces with -the other. Their movements in the water are exceedingly graceful and -lively, and they are capable of darting forward to a considerable -distance with the rapidity of the flight of a bird. Their colour, when -in their native element, is not black as might be imagined, but a -beautiful deep blue. - -A whimsical idea of the horror Lobsters are said to have of pigs, seems -to have prevailed in some parts of the Continent. It is said that in -Brandenburgh, where the fishery is very abundant, the wagoners who -transport them by land are obliged to keep watch during the night, to -prevent swine from passing the wagon, for if one only was to go by, -they say, not a single Lobster would be alive in the morning! - - -THE RIVER CRAY-FISH, (_Potamobius fluviatilis_.) - -The fresh-water Cray-fish very much resembles the lobster in -appearance, but is considerably broader in its proportions. It is -commonly found in the tributary streams of large rivers, inhabiting the -banks, in which it burrows, and feeding on any animal substance that -may happen to come in its way. - -The Cray-fish is taken in various ways, sometimes by the hand, which -is thrust into the holes in which they burrow. Another method is thus -described:— - -Procure a dozen little rods, about five feet in length, and the -thickness of the thumb,—split them at the smallest end, and by way -of bait, place a frog, or a piece of putrid flesh in the cleft; take -then the rods by their thickest end, and hold the bait at the entrance -of the little holes where you suspect your prey to be; if they are -there, they will generally come out to seize the bait. As soon as you -perceive them, hold a small landing-net underneath, and raise the bait -suddenly, and the Cray-fish will either be brought up along with the -bait, or will fall back into the net. - -Another method noticed, consists in first burying a dead cat, or a -hare, in a dunghill, for eight days, and then placing it in the midst -of a bush of tangled thorns and brambles, which is thrown into the -water, in the place frequented by the Cray-fish. After it has remained -there a few hours it may be drawn up, when the shell-fish will be found -partaking of their delicate fare, and the tangled bush will effectually -prevent their escape. - - -THE PHOSPHORESCENT SHRIMP. - -The luminous appearance of the ocean at night is a fact well-known -to all who have been a voyage by sea; and it has been ascertained, -that the causes of this beautiful phenomenon are the phosphorescent -properties which are possessed by many of the smaller inhabitants -of the deep. Among these, the little animal, figured above, is very -frequently met with. - -[Illustration: NOCTILUCA BANKSII magnified. - -The line above shows the natural length.] - -The light of this creature, which is very brilliant, appears to issue -from every part of the body; but in another crustaceous animal, found -by Captain Tuckey, in the Gulf of Guinea, the luminous property resided -in the brain, which, when the animal was at rest, resembled a most -brilliant amethyst, about the size of a large pinhead; from this there -started, when it moved, flashes of a brilliant silvery light. - -The author we have lately quoted, says,— - -“Meditating upon this subject, I think it not improbable, that the -Deity, who has done nothing in vain, and whose omniscience extends to -every epoch, foreseeing that man would invent the means of tempting the -trackless ocean, and explore the most distant regions of our planet, -has given it as one means of rendering his nights less gloomy, and -of diminishing the number of his dangers; especially, if we consider -that this luminosity is seen only in the night-season,—is vivid in -proportion to the darkness, disappearing even before the feeble light -of the moon,—and also that it increases with the agitation of the sea, -so that, during the prevalence of storms, it greatly diminishes the -dense gloom which at such times is often impenetrable to the moon, and -the stars, throws such a light upon the ship and rigging as to enable -sailors to execute their allotted tasks with certainty, and at all -times points out to the cautious mariner the lurking danger of sunken -rocks, shoals, and unknown coasts, by the phosphorescent, or snowy -appearance which it gives to the breakers, so as to render them visible -at a considerable distance.” - - -THE OPOSSUM SHRIMP, (_Mysis chamæleon_.) - -This small species of Shrimp, although it has much the same outward -appearance as the common shrimp, except that it is considerably -smaller, is, when duly examined, one of the most singularly-formed -creatures of the class to which it belongs. It is found in tolerable -abundance along the British coasts, but the northern seas literally -swarm with them; there, in spite of their small size, they are destined -to become the food of the stupendous whale, whose enormous mouth -encloses myriads at a time. - -[Illustration: _Mysis chamæleon._] - -The Opossum Shrimp belongs to a group of crustaceous animals which have -been called fissipeds, (_split-feet_,) on account of each of their -feet being divided nearly throughout its whole length; the inner limb -being constructed for progression and the seizing of their prey, and -the outer for swimming and giving that motion to the water which is -essential to the organs of breathing, which are, as it were, wrapped -round the base of each limb, and fully exposed to the action of the -element. In the other Crustacea, which they most nearly approach, such -as shrimps, prawns, &c., there is a single row of five feet on each -side: but the genus we are now describing possesses as many as four -rows of feet, each containing eight, so that in all, the number of feet -amounts to as many as thirty-two,—sixteen adapted for swimming, and -sixteen for seizing their prey. In consequence of this organization, -the Shrimps seek their food in the sands at the bottom, while the -present genus frequent the surface. - -The most singular portion of their formation, and that to which they -are indebted for a name, is a kind of pouch which the female possesses, -fixed beneath the body, and formed of two concave pieces of shell; this -pouch, which is very capacious, considering the size of the animal, is -destined to receive the eggs, which are deposited in it, enveloped in -a kind of jelly-like substance, most probably forming the food of the -young when first hatched. As fast as the young assume the lengthened -form of the perfect animals, they are found to arrange themselves in -this pouch closely and regularly side by side, with their heads towards -the breast of the mother. After this manner they lie closely compacted -together, and present a perfectly symmetrical arrangement, easily -observed from the translucency of the valves of the pouch, and the -large size and blackness of their eyes. The males of the Opossum Shrimp -are not so numerous as the females, and are without the singular pouch -we have described. - -We have already noticed the fact of these Shrimps being the food of the -Greenland whale, in the northern seas, but in these climates they serve -as food for herrings. - -It is in looking closely into the structure of these little animals -that we see the perfection of the Divine Artist. Nature’s greater -productions appear coarse indeed to these elaborate and highly-finished -master-pieces, and in using more and more powerful magnifiers we still -continue to bring new parts and touches into view. If, for instance, -after observing one of their members with the naked eye, which has -informed us that the part we have been examining is composed but of one -piece, we employ a magnifying glass with a low power, the same part -appears jointed, or composed of several pieces articulated together. -Employing a higher magnifier, it appears fringed with long hairs, -which, on further scrutiny, seem to be themselves fringed with hairs -still more minute; many of these minute parts also, are evidently -jointed, and perform sensible motions. But what idea can we form of the -various muscles which put these parts in movement, of the nerves which -actuate them, and the vessels which supply them with the nourishment -necessary for growth and support, and which we know, from comparison -with other creatures, they must possess! - -The Opossum Shrimps, we have seen, are the prey of the larger -inhabitants of the deep; but they, in their turn, destroy others that -are smaller than themselves,—seizing upon every animal substance they -are able to manage that comes within their reach, and, if placed in a -vessel of sea-water by themselves, devouring each other. - -The species represented in the engraving has been called the _Mysis -chamæleon_, from its colour varying according to the substances on -which it feeds, through all the gradations of gray, black, brown, and -pink. - - -_ORDER CRUSTACEA HETEROBRANCHIÆ._ - -(_Crustacea with Organs of Breathing variously placed, never -concealed._) - -The Crustacea which form this order differ much more from each other -than those which are arranged in the last order, and consequently we -find among them some very singular in their outward formation. Few of -the species appear to be used as food by mankind, but they constitute a -great portion of the nourishment of fishes and other inhabitants of the -water. They are at times used by fishermen as bait. Many of them are -very minute, and form most excellent objects for the microscope. They -have been divided into several sections, according to their outward -form; but as so little is known of their habits, we shall confine -ourselves to a description of some of the best known. - - -THE SPOTTED SQUILL, (_Squilla maculata_.) - -The Squill seems to form a connecting link between the last and present -order. It is the only genus of the heterobranchial Crustacea in which -the eyes are placed on footstalks; the head, instead of being distinct, -appears in a great measure drawn into the corslet. It has been called -the Sea Mantis, from its bearing some resemblance to an insect of that -name, on account of the singularly-formed hooks with which two of its -foot-jaws are armed. - -The species shown in the engraving is found in the Indian Seas; it is -the largest of the genus. - -The shell with which these creatures are covered has very little -consistence, more resembling hardened skin than shell. They frequent -the sandy bottom of the sea. - -[Illustration: _Squilla maculata._] - -There is a small species which is found in fresh water, in which the -young, after the eggs are hatched, remain for some time in shelter -under the plates with which the body of the mother is covered. - - -THE COMMON CLOPORTUS, (_Cloportus ascellus_.) - -This animal is very common upon old walls and under stones. It is -somewhat like the wood-louse, but more flat; it is essentially a -dweller on the land, but it cannot exist except in damp places, where -the moisture is sufficient to keep its branchiæ pliable; it belongs to -a group of small Crustacea known by the name _Oniscus_. Some, as we see -in the present instance, frequent the land, but the greater portion -inhabit the water. - -[Illustration: _Cloportus ascellus._ - -(Fig. 1, much magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)] - -Among those which inhabit the latter element, there is a minute species -which is very injurious to timber. It excavates a cylindrical hole for -its dwelling, and increases in number so rapidly, that in a few years -timber which is covered with water is rendered useless. The temporary -wood-work used during the time the Bell-Rock Lighthouse was in the -course of erection, was destroyed, to a great extent, by this little -creature. When the wood had been under water for three years, beams ten -inches square were reduced to seven inches; at the rate of one inch -a year. Another species, _Cymothoa_, attaches itself to the backs of -different species of fishes, living upon the juices of their body. - -A crustaceous animal nearly allied to this last is described in the -fifth volume of the _American Philosophical Transactions_; it is -accompanied by engravings which we have copied, but the animal is -not drawn with sufficient accuracy to be referable to any particular -species; by this account it appears that, instead of attaching itself -to the body of the fish, the parasite makes safe its lodgement on the -roof of the mouth. The author thus describes it. - -[Illustration: _Head of Alewife._ - -Part of lower jaw removed to show the insect.] - -[Illustration: The insect seen from above.] - -“Among the fish that at this early season of the year (February) resort -to the waters of York River, in Virginia, the Alewife, the Oldwife, -called also the Bay Alewife, arrives in very considerable shoals, and -in some seasons their number is almost incredible. They are fully of -the size of a large herring, and are principally distinguished from the -herring by a bay or red spot, above the gill-fin. They are, when caught -from March to May, full-roed and fat, and at least as good a fish for -the table as the herring. - -“In this season, each of these Alewifes carries in her mouth an insect -about two inches long, hanging with its back downwards, and firmly -holding itself by its fourteen legs to the palate. - -“It is with difficulty it can be separated, and never, perhaps, without -injury to the jaws of the fish. The fishermen, therefore, consider -the insect as essential to the life of the fish; for when it is taken -out, and the fish is again thrown into the water, he is incapable -of swimming, and soon dies. I endeavoured in numerous instances to -preserve both the insect and the fish from injury, but was always -obliged, either to destroy the one or injure the other. - -“I have sometimes succeeded in taking out the insect in a brisk and -lively state. As soon as he was set free from my grasp, he immediately -scrambled nimbly back into the mouth of the fish and resumed his -position. In every instance he was disgustingly corpulent and -unpleasant to handle, and it seemed that, whether he had obtained -his post by force or favour; whether he be a traveller or constant -resident, or what else may be his business where he is found, he -certainly fares sumptuously every day. - -“The fish whose mouth he inhabits, comes about the same time with the -shad into the rivers of Virginia from the ocean, and continues to -travel upwards from the beginning of March to the middle of May. As -long as they are caught on their passage up the river, they are found -fat and fall of roe. Every fish which I saw had the Oniscus in his -mouth, and I was assured, not only by the more ignorant fishermen, but -by a very intelligent man who came down now and then to divert himself -with fishing, that in forty years’ observation he had never seen a Bay -Alewife without the louse.” - -The Oniscus itself, as the author states, is not without its enemies, -many of them being caught with two or three leeches attached to their -body, and adhering so closely that their removal cost them their heads. - - -THE MOLUCCA CRAB, (_Polyphemus gigas_.) - -Why the singular creature here represented should have the name -Polyphemus given to it, is hard to guess. Polyphemus, as every -schoolboy knows, was the fabled giant overcome by Ulysses, who is -represented as having one eye in the centre of his forehead; whereas, -this creature has two eyes and one horn. It is interesting from its -being so nearly allied to many very minute species. - -The Polyphemus sometimes reaches the length of two feet; there are but -two species, which only differ from each other in the shape of their -buckler. That we have represented is found in the Indian Ocean, and has -been called the Molucca Crab. - -The tail, or rather the horn, of the Polyphemus, is greatly dreaded by -the fishermen, from the idea that its wound is venomous. The natives -employ it to point their arrows, and as they are in the habit of -poisoning the points of these weapons, it is most likely from this -circumstance that the idea we have noticed originated, for there is no -other ground for the belief. - -[Illustration: _Polyphemus gigas._] - -During the night-time they lie half out of the water, and are then very -easily taken, as they appear to take but little notice of anything -until their danger becomes imminent. - -It is but a small portion of their flesh that is considered good for -food, but the eggs, which are very numerous, are reckoned a delicacy. - -These Crabs are in the habit of leaving the water and walking to a -considerable distance over the wet sands,—but if incommoded by the -sun, they hurry back as fast as they are able to their native element. -When walking, none of their legs are visible. Most authors say that, if -this Crab is laid on its back, it must inevitably perish, unless the -waters return in time, but one observer asserts that it has the power -of righting itself with the assistance of its tail. - - -THE CRAB-LIKE LIMULUS, (_Limulus cancriformis_.) - -The Limuli are found in deep ditches of fresh water, marshes, &c.; they -are frequently met with congregated together in great numbers; their -principal food in the Spring appears to be tadpoles. - -[Illustration: _Limulus cancriformis._ (Natural size.)] - -“This genus,” says Lamarck, “is almost isolated among the group in -which it is placed. Its body is covered with a great horny buckler, -very thin, and made of a single piece, of a roundish oval form. The -head is confounded with the trunk, and the antennæ are very short. They -possess three eyes, two in front, and one, very small, further back. -Their legs are very numerous,—the two in front, much the largest, -spread out in the form of oars, and furnished at their extremity with -silky articulated bristles.” - - -THE WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops quadricornis_.) - -There are as many as twelve known species of the Water Flea. That -represented in the engraving is extremely common, and forms a most -interesting object for the microscope. We have availed ourselves of Mr. -Pritchard’s popular description of this curious creature. - -“The Author of Nature, to whom all things are alike easy of execution, -as if intending to teach man a lesson of humility, and that no part of -creation, however minute, is beneath his consideration, has conferred -on these animals, that are barely perceptible to our unassisted vision, -more elegance and variety of form, more richness in their colouring, -and more beauty and exquisite finishing, than on the whale or the -elephant, which mainly excite our admiration, by the magnitude of the -mass of living matter they present to us. - -[Illustration: _Cyclops quadricornis._ - -(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)] - -“These little crustaceous animals may be found at all seasons of the -year, near the surface of the water; they are, however, most abundant -in July and August. I have collected great numbers of them on a warm -day in the latter month, with a small cloth net, immersing it about an -inch below the surface. They are mostly colourless in ponds covered -with herbage, but in small collections of rain water, on a loamy soil, -are of a fine rich colour. - -“The body of this creature is covered with crustaceous or shelly -plates, which overlap each other, and admit both of a lateral and -vertical motion between them. Their ends do not meet on the side, but -have sufficient space between them for the insertion and play of the -organs of respiration. The rostrum, or beak, is short and pointed: it -is a prolongation of the first segment which forms the head. A little -above the beak, a single eye is imbedded beneath the shell, of a dark -crimson colour, nearly approaching to blackness. The true form of this -organ it is difficult to determine. Mr. Baker gives it the shape of two -kidney-beans placed parallel to each other, and united at their lowest -extremities. When viewed laterally, it appears round, while in some -other positions it is square.” - -The eggs are curiously placed in two bags, presenting an appearance -similar to clusters of grapes, and of considerable magnitude, compared -with the size of the animal. These egg-bags are seen in the engraving, -(which represents a female,) projecting from each side of the hinder -portion of the shell. The centre of each egg is of a deep opaque -colour, which in some specimens is green, in others red. - -The young of the Cyclops, when first excluded from the egg, are -extremely minute, and so different from the mother, that Müller has -described them as forming two distinct genera. - - -THE SMALL WATER FLEA, (_Cyclops minutus_.) - -This species of the Water Flea differs from the last, in having its -body divided into a greater number of segments; it is also much -smaller; it is equally active with that last described, but its form -renders it more graceful in its motions. “These little creatures,” says -Mr. Pritchard, “seem to possess great discernment and cunning; for, if -approached, they remain motionless on the plant on which they reside, -in the apparent hope that they may be overlooked; but when a fit -opportunity occurs, they suddenly bend the body, and spring away with a -kind of vaulting leap.” - -[Illustration: _Cyclops minutus_, much magnified.] - -They inhabit the various species of confervæ, and may often be met -with in great numbers on the stalks and underside of healthy duckweed, -growing on the surface of the water. They are most numerous in April -and May, and disappear as the heat of the season increases. They will -not live in stagnant water containing much decomposed vegetation, and -require, therefore, to be kept for observation in a large vessel of -clean water. They are easily caught after a shower of rain, on the -under surface of the duckweed, by taking out a little with a basin or -cloth net. When found, they appear busily engaged in search of prey, -moving about with great activity, and examining every portion of the -plant in the most scrutinizing manner. In this pursuit the body is not -bent as in the magnified representation in the engraving, but is kept -in a straight crawling position. Their natural length is about the -three hundredth part of an inch. - -The female of the last species has two outward receptacles for the -eggs; in this there is but one, and that is placed on the under part of -the animal near the tail. - - -THE HAIRY CYPRIS, (_Cypris pubera_.) - -These singular little creatures are found in stagnant fresh water: they -are very small, and, at first sight, appear like a bivalve shell. The -animal which is enclosed in this two-valved case, opens and shuts it -at will; when it does this, it throws out from one end of the shell -numerous whitish hair-like members; it is by moving these that it is -enabled to swim with considerable celerity, and it never stops until -it meets with some object on which it can rest. Its two antennæ, which -issue from the fore part of the shell, are long, very flexible, and -bent backwards; their articulations are numerous, which gives them -great freedom of motion. The movements of these antennæ contribute -materially to the swimming powers of the creature. - -At the place where the head is united to the body, a small black point -is seen,—this is the eye of the animal. - -[Illustration: _Cypris pubera._ - -(Fig. 1, highly magnified; fig. 2, natural size.)] - -The Cypris changes its shell like the rest of the Crustacea; it is -found in marshes where vegetable substances are growing. Sometimes they -are so numerous, that the water appears covered with them; they are -more usually found in Spring and Autumn than at any other part of the -year; from this it is inferred that there are two broods in the course -of the year. - -The drying up of marshes during the Summer heats, destroys immense -numbers every season. It appears, however, from observation, that in -this case, some of these tiny creatures manage to bury themselves in -the mud, where they hermetically close their shells, and remain in a -kind of dormant state, until rain or other causes have again filled the -marshes with water. - -A species nearly allied to this, the _Artemia Salina_, the Lymington -shrimp, or brine-worm, is able to live in the brine of the salt-pans, -which is so strongly impregnated with salt, as to destroy any other -Crustaceous animal. - -Myriads of these animalculæ are to be found in the salterns at -Lymington, in the open tanks or reservoirs, where the brine is -deposited previous to boiling. A pint of this brine contains about a -quarter of a pound of salt. These tanks are called clearers, as the -liquor becomes clear in them, an effect which the workmen attribute, -in some degree, to the rapid and continual motion of the brine-worm, -or the particles which cloud the liquor serving for its food; but this -is mere conjecture. So strongly persuaded, however, are the workmen of -this fact, that they are accustomed to transport a few of the worms -from another saltern if they do not appear at their own. They increase -astonishingly in the course of a few days. - -It is observable that the brine-worm is never seen in the sun-pans, -where the brine is made by the admission of sea-water during the -Summer, and which are emptied every fortnight; but only in the pits and -reservoirs, where it is deposited after it is taken out of the pans, -and where some of the liquor constantly remains, when it becomes much -diluted with rain water. From October till May, (during which time the -manufacture is at a stand,) a few only of the worms are visible; but at -the approach of Summer, young ones appear in great numbers. - - THE END. - - LONDON: - JOHN W. PARKER, ST. MARTIN’S LANE. - - - - - [LIST NO. 1.] - - APPROVED BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS AND - FAMILIES. - - Those to which a * is prefixed, are published under the - Direction of the Committee of General Literature and - Education of the Society for Promoting Christian - Knowledge. - - - * ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By the Rev. Dr. RUSSELL, late Head - Master of Charter-House School. 1_s._ 6_d._ - - No language can be more simple and intelligible than - that in which the Rules of this Grammar are expressed. - The construction of Sentences, and the force of the - Prepositions and Conjunctions, are illustrated by - examples. 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(or in Nos. 31 to 36.) - ANCIENT HISTORY. - - London: JOHN W. PARKER, PUBLISHER, WEST STRAND. - - - FOOTNOTES: - -[1] This is one of the rare exceptions to the usual plan resorted to -by nature in the formation of a shell, as noticed in the introductory -chapter. - -[2] The insect from which our most beautiful scarlet dyes are prepared. - -[3] See Book of Fishes, p. 51. - -[4] The skin or shell with which the animal is covered before -transformation. - -[5] It has been quaintly said on the subject of depriving the leech of -its food, that “Those persons do not consider that blood is the most -favourite and salutary nourishment of this extraordinary creature; and -I would ask such inconsiderate persons how they would feel themselves, -if, immediately after eating a hearty dinner, any person was to give -them a violent emetic.” - -[6] A kind of sea-weed, (_Fucus natans_.) - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Book of Shells, by Anonymous - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF SHELLS *** - -***** This file should be named 60961-0.txt or 60961-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/9/6/60961/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Paul Marshall and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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