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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..abd27aa --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #60068 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60068) diff --git a/old/60068-0.txt b/old/60068-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1a20773..0000000 --- a/old/60068-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,11207 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of An ethical philosophy of life presented in -its main outlines, by Felix Adler - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: An ethical philosophy of life presented in its main outlines - -Author: Felix Adler - -Release Date: August 6, 2019 [EBook #60068] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Les Galloway and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other -spelling and punctuation remains unchanged. - -Footnotes are located at the end of the chapters. - -Italics are represented thus _italic_. - - - - - AN ETHICAL - PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE - - PRESENTED IN ITS MAIN OUTLINES - - BY - FELIX ADLER - - - - - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - NEW YORK LONDON - 1920 - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY - D. APPLETON AND COMPANY - - - Printed in the United States of America - - - - -PREFACE - - -This book records a philosophy of life growing out of the experience -of a lifetime. The convictions put in it are not dogmatic, for dogma -is the conviction of one man imposed authoritatively upon others. The -convictions herein expounded are submitted to those who search, as the -writer has searched, for light on the problems of life, in order that -they may compare their experience with his, and their interpretations -of their experience with his interpretation.[1] - -It is a great hope that some of the readers of this book may find the -general world-view expounded congenial, and for them also real and -true. It is believed that others may find the practical suggestions as -to the conduct of life in which the theory issues helpful in part, if -not in whole, as many of us accept from the teachings of the Stoics, or -of other thinkers, practical precepts, without on that account adopting -the philosophy from which these precepts are derived. - -The book is divided into four parts: the first an autobiographical -introduction describing the various stations on the road by which -the author arrived at his present position, and offering incidental -appreciations and appraisements of the Hebrew religion, of Emerson, -of the ethics of the Gospels, of Socialism and of other social reform -movements. - -The second part expounds the philosophical theory. - -The third part contains the applications of the theory to the more -strictly personal life, under the captions of the Three Shadows of -Sickness, Sorrow and Sin, and also to the principal so-called Rights to -Life, Property, Reputation. - -The fourth part applies the theory to the social institutions, to the -Family, the Vocation, the State, the International Society, and the -Church, these institutions being considered as an expanding series -through which the individual is to pass on his pilgrimage in the -direction of the supreme spiritual end. - -The principal problems considered are: - -1. How to establish the fundamental ethical dictum that every human -being ought to count, and is intrinsically worth while. This dictum has -been denied by many of the greatest thinkers, who assert the intrinsic -inferiority of some men, the intrinsic superiority of others. The -practice of the world also runs most distinctly contrary to it. How -then is it to be validated? - -2. The problem of how to attach a precise meaning to the term -“spiritual,” thereby divesting it of the flavor of sentimentality and -vagueness that attaches to it. - -3. How to link up the world’s activities in science, art, politics, -business, to the supreme ethical end. - -4. How to lay foundations whereon to erect the conviction that there -verily is a supersensible reality. - -For the repetitions that occur throughout the volume indulgence is -requested. In presenting an unfamiliar system of thought they may -sometimes assist the reader in retaining the thread. - -The work is conceived as a whole, and should be read through before any -part of it is more minutely examined. The theory of Part II especially -should be read in the light of the applications submitted in Parts III -and IV. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - BOOK I - - AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. PRELUDE 3 - - II. THE HEBREW RELIGION 14 - - III. EMERSON 27 - - IV. THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS 30 - - V. SOCIAL REFORM 43 - - VI. THE INFLUENCE OF MY VOCATION ON INNER DEVELOPMENT 58 - - - BOOK II - - PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY - - I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS: CRITIQUE OF KANT 73 - - II. CRITIQUE OF KANT (_Continued_) 82 - - III. PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON WORTH, AND ON THE REASONS - WHY THE METHOD EMPLOYED BY ETHICS - MUST BE THE OPPOSITE OF THAT EMPLOYED BY - THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES 91 - - IV. THE IDEAL OF THE WHOLE 100 - - V. THE IDEAL OF THE WHOLE AND THE ETHICAL MANIFOLD 114 - - VI. THE IDEAL OF THE SPIRITUAL UNIVERSE AND THE GOD-IDEAL 125 - - - BOOK III - - APPLICATIONS: THE THREE SHADOWS, SICKNESS, - SORROW AND SIN, AND THE RIGHT TO LIFE, - PROPERTY AND REPUTATION - - I. INTRODUCTION 147 - - II. THE THREE SHADOWS: SICKNESS, SORROW, SIN 154 - - III. BEREAVEMENT 162 - - IV. THE SHADOW OF SIN 171 - - V. THE SPIRITUAL ATTITUDE TO BE OBSERVED TOWARDS - FELLOW-MEN IN GENERAL, IRRESPECTIVE OF THE - SPECIAL RELATIONS WHICH CONNECT US MORE - CLOSELY WITH SOME THAN OTHERS 179 - - VI. THE MEANING OF FORGIVENESS 202 - - VII. THE SUPREME ETHICAL RULE: ACT SO AS TO ELICIT - THE BEST IN OTHERS AND THEREBY IN THYSELF 208 - - VIII. THE SUPREME ETHICAL RULE (_Continued_) 220 - - IX. HOW TO LEARN TO SEE THE SPIRITUAL _Numen_ IN - OTHERS 223 - - - BOOK IV - - APPLICATIONS: THE ETHICS OF THE FAMILY, THE - STATE, THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, ETC. - - I. THE COLLECTIVE TASK OF MANKIND AND THE THREE-FOLD - REVERENCE 241 - - II. THE FAMILY 249 - - III. THE VOCATIONS 260 - - IV. THE PRACTICAL VOCATIONS 270 - - V. THE VOCATION OF THE ARTIST: OUTLINE OF A THEORY - OF THE RELATION OF ART TO ETHICS 277 - - VI. EDUCATIONAL VOCATIONS, OR VOCATIONS CONNECTED - WITH THE STATE 289 - - VII. THE STATE 305 - - VIII. THE NATIONAL CHARACTER SPIRITUALLY TRANSFORMED: - THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY, OR THE - ORGANIZATION OF MANKIND 324 - - IX. RELIGIOUS FELLOWSHIP AS THE CULMINATING SOCIAL - INSTITUTION 341 - - X. THE LAST OUTLOOK ON LIFE 354 - - - APPENDIX - - APPENDIX I: SPIRITUAL SELF-DISCIPLINE 365 - - APPENDIX II: THE EXERCISE OF FORCE IN THE INTEREST OF - FREEDOM 369 - - INDEX 375 - - - - - BOOK I - - AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION - - - - -CHAPTER I - -PRELUDE - - -What this book offers is a system of thought and of points of view as -to conduct, as these have jointly grown out of personal experience. It -will be useful to introduce them with an autobiographical statement. -The ideas which follow are such as have been found by me, the author, -to be fruitful. Certainly I claim for them objectivity; but I do so -because of what I have found them to mean in my own life. He who has -been scorched by lightning knows that the effects of the lightning will -be felt by all who are exposed to the same experience. I narrate my -experience; let others compare with it theirs. - -There is, however, a serious, and most embarrassing difficulty in -the way of discussing the phases and vicissitudes of one’s ethical -development. Self-appraisement is necessarily involved in the -narration. The outstanding subject of ethics is the self and its -relations. The physicist, the chemist, the biologist, however the -methods they use may differ in other respects, agree in the endeavor -to eliminate the personal equation. The psychologist likewise does his -best to see the procession that moves across the inner stage like an -interested but detached spectator. In the case of ethics, however, the -personal factor cannot be eliminated, because the personal factor is -just the Alpha and the Omega of the whole matter; and if this be left -out of account, the very object to be studied disappears. - -Ethical standards are exacting, separated often from performance by the -widest interval. To set up a standard, therefore, is to reflect upon -oneself, to expose oneself to the backstroke of one’s own deliverances, -to be plunged perhaps into deep pits of self-humiliation. How shall -anyone have the courage to face so searching a test, or the hardihood -to discuss with a lofty air, and to recommend to others ideals of -conduct against which he knows that he daily offends? How can anyone -teach ethics or write about it? The words of the Sermon on the Mount, -“Judge not that ye be not judged,” seem to apply very closely. Do not -judge others, do not lay down the law for others, because in so doing -you will be judged in the inner forum, becoming a repulsive object in -your own eyes, or standing forth a whited sepulcher. In brief, to touch -the subject of ethics is to handle a knife that cuts both ways, to cast -a weapon which returns upon him who sends it. - -The difficulty then which confronts the ethical writer is that the -attitude of detachment possible in other branches of investigation is -found to be impossible when one attempts to sound the profundities -of that kind of inner experience which is called ethical. The self -obtrudes itself at every point, and it instinctively refuses to be -humbled. What may be denominated the struggle for self-esteem has -indeed played a leading rôle both in the outer and inner history of -mankind. This struggle, whose immense importance is often overlooked, -accounts for even more interesting facts than the biological struggle -for existence. The desire to exercise power over others, often ruthless -in the means adopted, is frequently nothing more than a miserable -attempt to save self-esteem by covering up the inner sense of the -weakness of the self. But the same struggle penetrates also into the -realm of theoretical ethics with which we are concerned. Here it -tampers with the standards which mortify self-esteem, by inventing -such ethical theories as seem to make the problems of personality easy -of solution, and by blinking the tragic facts of guilt, remorse, etc. -Various ethical systems that are in vogue at the present time are, at -least in part, exemplars of this process—the theory for instance that -ethics is nothing more than a calculus of self-interest, or a matter -of sympathetic feeling, or a balancing of the more refined against the -grosser pleasures. The instinct of self-preservation, in the shape of -the preservation of self-esteem, is quite incorrigible, and against its -insidious suggestion we have reason to be particularly on our guard in -the discussion which we are entering. - -Are we then to refrain, out of sheer regard for decency, from touching -on this subject at all? Is everyone who writes on ethics, or attempts -to teach it, either a pedant or a hypocrite? But we cannot avoid -discussing it, nor resist the impulse to teach and write about it, for -it is the subject on which more than any other we and others sorely -need help and enlightenment. And we shall get help in the endeavor -to afford it to others. This, then, is my position: I do not presume -to lay down the law for anyone. I find that I can set forth the -better standards which in the course of trial and error I have come to -recognize. I would not shamelessly expose mere private failures and -failings after the manner of Rousseau in the “Confessions”; for there -is a tract of the inner life which ought to be kept from publicity and -prying intrusion. I shall then deal with deflections only in so far as -they can be traced to false standards or principles, and as they tend -to illustrate the flaw in those standards and principles. - -What I state as certain is certain for me. It has approved itself as -such in my experience. Let others consult their experience, and see -how far it tallies with that which is here set forth. A distinction, -however, I wish to call attention to between the theory as expounded -in the second part of this volume, and the practical applications to -be found in the third and fourth parts. Persons who are not trained -in metaphysical thinking or interested in it, may do well to omit the -reading of the second part. To those who are competent in philosophical -thinking, and who disagree with the positions there taken, I may -perhaps be permitted to suggest that one can dissent from a philosophy -and yet find help in the applications to which it leads. And, after -all, it is the practice that counts. - -With these preliminaries, I now proceed to delineate briefly the stages -of inner development which have led me slowly and with much labor to -the system of thought described in the following pages. - -One of the leading principles to which I early gave assent, and to -which I have ever since adhered as a correct fundamental insight, is -expressed in the statement that every human being is an end _per se_, -worth while on his own account.[2] - -Every human personality is to be safe against infringement and is, -in this sense, sacred. There is a certain precinct which may not be -invaded. The experience which served me especially as the matrix of -this idea was the adolescent experience of sex-life,—the necessity -felt of inhibiting, out of reverence for the personality of women, the -powerful instincts then awakened.[3] - -The fact that I had lived abroad for three years in frequent contact -with young men, especially students, who derided my scruples, and in -the impure atmosphere of three capital cities of Europe, Berlin, -Paris and Vienna, where the “primrose path” is easy, tended to make -the retention of my point of view more difficult, and at the same time -to give it greater fixity, also to drive me into a kind of inward -solitude. I felt myself in opposition to my surroundings, and acquired -a confidence, perhaps exaggerated, to persevere along my own lines -against prevailing tendencies. - -I ought next to mention the decay of theism which took place in my mind -in consequence of philosophic reading. Already at an early age I had -stumbled over the doctrine of Creation. I remember asking my Sunday -School teacher—How is creation possible? How can something originate -out of nothing? The answer I received was evasive, and left me uneasy -and unsatisfied. On another occasion I ventured to suggest to the same -authority—a revered and beloved authority—that the conception of God -seemed to me too much like that of a man, too much fashioned on the -human model; and he amazed me beyond words by replying that he himself -sympathized more or less with the ideas of Spinoza. This chance remark -set me thinking, and seemed to open wide spaces in which my mind felt -free to travel—though I never tended in the direction of Spinoza.[4] - -My thoughts were driven still further by reaction against the narrow -theology of the lectures on Christian Evidences as taught at that time -in Columbia College, where I was a student. And all these influences -came to a head in the atmosphere of the German university at Berlin. -There I heard Zeller, Duhring, Steinthal, Bonitz. Above all I came into -contact with Herman Cohen, subsequently and for many years professor -of philosophy at the University of Marburg, and undertook to grapple -in grim earnest with the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. The net outcome -was not atheism in the moral sense,—I have never been what is called -an atheist,—but the definite and permanent disappearance of the -individualistic conception of Deity. I was attracted by the rigor, -the sublimity, of Kant’s system, and especially by his transcendental -derivation of the moral law. The individualistic basis of his ethics, -which is quite uncongenial to me, I ignored, and for a time simply -accounted myself a follower of Kant. Very often since then I have -discovered that men, unbeknown to themselves, are apt to sail under -false flags, ranking themselves Kantians, Socialists, or what not, -because the system to which they give their adherence attracts them -at some one outstanding point, the point namely, where it sharply -conflicts with views which they themselves strongly reprobate; and they -are thus led to overlook other features no less important in which the -system is really uncongenial to them. Thus a person who recognizes the -evils of the present wage system may label himself a Socialist, simply -because Socialism is most in evidence as an adversary of the wage -system, while he may by no means agree with the positive principles -that underlie Socialism, when he comes to examine them dispassionately. - -I thought at that time of the Moral Law as that which answers to -or should replace the individualistic God-idea. I believed in an -unknown principle or power in things of which the Moral Law is -the manifestation, and I found the evidence of the moral law in -man’s consciousness. Matthew Arnold’s “the power that makes for -righteousness” is a phrase which at that time would have suited -me,—though perhaps not entirely even at that time. I have since come -to see that “making for righteousness” is a conception inapplicable to -the ultimate reality, and is properly applied only to human effort; -since purpose implies that the end sought has not as yet been realized, -and non-realization and ultimate reality are contradictory ideas. The -power that only makes for righteousness cannot be the ultimate truth in -things. The utmost we can say is that the ultimate reality expresses -itself in the human world as the power that inspires in men moral -purpose. - -To return to my personal experiences, there fell into my hands, while -still a student abroad, a book by Friedrich Albert Lange entitled -_Die Arbeiterfrage_ (The Labor Question), which proved epoch-making -in my life. Bacon says in his essay _Of Studies_: “Some books are -to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and -digested.” He might have added that there are books that make a man -over, changing the current of his existence, or at least opening -channels which previously had been blocked.[5] - -_Die Arbeiterfrage_ is not a great book. In the literature of the -subject it has long since been superseded. Yet it opened for me a -wide and tragic prospect, an outlook of which I had been until then -in great measure oblivious, an outlook on all the moral as well as -economic issues involved in what is called the Labor Question. My -teacher in philosophy, Cohen, once said to me sharply, that if there -is to be anything like religion in the world hereafter, Socialism -must be the expression of it. I did not agree with his statement that -Socialism spells religion, and have not seen my way to this day toward -identifying the two. But I realized that there was a measure of truth -in what he said,—and that I must square myself with the issues that -Socialism raises. Lange helped me to do this. - -He aided me in other respects as well. His _History of Materialism_ -dispelled some of the fictitious glamor that still hung about the -materialistic hypothesis at that time,—though the last chapter on the -ultimate philosophy of life, in which he identifies religion with -poetry, is distinctly weak. I read his book on the Labor Question with -burning cheeks; no work of fiction ever excited me as did this little -treatise. It was ethical in spirit, if not in its ruling ideas. It -favored productive co-operation, and seemed to point a way to immediate -action, as Socialism did not. - -The upshot of it was that I now possessed a second object, namely, the -laborer, to whom I could apply my non-violation ethics. I had always -felt an instinctive, idealizing reverence for women, and this had its -influence in the first practical outcome of the philosophy of life with -which I started on my career. I would go out as the minister of a new -religious evangel. Instead of preaching the individual God, I was to -stir men up to enact the Moral Law; and to enact the Moral Law meant at -that time primarily to influence the young men with whom I came into -contact to reverence womanhood, and to keep inviolate the sacred thing, -woman’s honor. And now I had a second arrow in my quiver. I was to go -out to help to arouse the conscience of the wealthy, the advantaged, -the educated classes, to a sense of their guilt in violating the human -personality of the laborer. My mother had often sent me as a child -on errands of charity, and had always impressed upon me the duty of -respecting the dignity of the poor while ministering sympathetically -to their needs. I was prepared by this youthful training to resent the -indignity offered to the personality of the laborer, as well as the -suffering endured by him in consequence of existing conditions. - -Accordingly, on returning from abroad, my first action consisted in -founding among men of my own or nearly my own age a little society -which we ambitiously called a Union for the Higher Life, based on -three tacit assumptions: sex purity, the principle of devoting the -surplus of one’s income beyond that required for one’s own genuine -needs to the elevation of the working class, and thirdly, continued -intellectual development. A second practical enterprise attempted was -the establishment of a co-operative printing shop. This having failed -because of the selfishness actuating the members, the Workingman’s -School was founded, with the avowed object of creating a truly -co-operative spirit among workingmen. - -I must, however, pause at this point to explain how the development -described led me to separation from the Hebrew religion, the religion -in which I was born, and to the service of which as a Jewish minister -it was expected that I should devote my life. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] In view of the writer’s connection with the Ethical Culture -Societies it is fitting to state expressly that the philosophical -positions herein set forth are not to be taken as an official -pronouncement on behalf of the Ethical Culture Movement. The Ethical -Societies as such have no official philosophy. _See_ Book IV, Chapter 9. - -[2] Though I must at once mention the first great error which -accompanied the true insight, the shadow which went alongside of the -light, namely, my understanding of the above principle mainly in a -negative sense. My ethics was largely what may be called non-violation -ethics. - -[3] The relation of chastity to the birth of the idea of personality -among the Hebrews I have touched upon elsewhere. The Hebrew people -abhorred promiscuity, or the dishonoring of oneself by indiscriminate -mingling. It is instructive that this did not stand in the way of -polygamy. Those persons whom the Hebrew received, so to speak, into -the sphere of his personality, did not imperil his sense of personal -intactness. And personal intactness seems to have been the determining -motive in the severe attitude taken toward prostitution. The fact -that the worship of other gods, the worst of crimes in the eyes of -the Hebrew legislator, was described as “whoring after other gods” is -particularly significant. The sacred, sensitive self, the holy thing -whatever it might be, which the Hebrew discovered within his own sex -experience, was thereafter attributed also to others, and especially to -those who had the same aversion to promiscuity as he. Hence perhaps the -limited ascription of holiness to members of the Hebrew people. - -[4] Pantheism has always seemed to me the least satisfactory of -theological or ethical solutions. The system of thought which will -be found later on in this volume may have a certain superficial -resemblance to Pantheism, but in reality is as far from it in origin -and purpose as pole from pole. - -[5] There are also passages in books that have the same revolutionizing -effect (Cf. the passage quoted from St. Paul in St. Augustine’s -“Confessions”). However, it is curious to observe that the effect -brought about may be quite out of proportion to the cause. The book or -the passage may prove to be of inferior value, so far as its subject -is concerned, and may yet serve suddenly to call attention to the -subject itself, and give rise to trains of thought that eventually -go far beyond the impetus that set them in motion. “Ripeness,” says -Shakespeare, “is everything,”—ripeness to receive the impetus. -Relatedness to the state of mind of the recipient is the decisive -factor, and this accounts for the astounding changes that result. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE HEBREW RELIGION - - -The separation was not violent. There was no sudden wrenching off. -There were none of those painful struggles which many others have had -to undergo when breaking away from the faith of their fathers. It was -all a gradual, smooth transition, the unfolding of a seed that had long -been planted. I have never felt the bitterness often characteristic of -the radical, nor his vengeful impulse to retaliate upon those who had -imposed the yoke of dogmas upon his soul. I had never worn the yoke. I -had never been in bondage. I had been gently guided. And consequently -the wine did not turn into vinegar, the love into hate. The truth is, I -was hardly aware of the change that had taken place until it was fairly -consummated. One day I awoke, and found that I had traveled into a new -country. The landscape was different; the faces I encountered were -different; and looking casually into a mental mirror, as it were, I -perceived that I too had become different. And I was sure also that I -had gained, not lost, that into my new spiritual home I had taken with -me, not indeed the images of my gods, like Æneas, fleeing from Troy, -but something for which those images had stood, and which in other ways -would remain for me a permanent possession. - -It has been said that the science of today lives only in so far -as it supersedes the science of yesterday. Whatever may be true -of science (and the statement is certainly not true without large -qualifications—the science of Newton and Darwin has not been -“superseded”—and it may even come to pass that outreachings of a more -ancient science frustrated at the time will hereafter be taken up anew -with fairer results than formerly were attainable), in religion at -all events there is no such thing as the bare substitution of the new -for the old. The religions of the past, at least the more advanced -religions, are not simply to be cast on the scrap heap, or treated as -exploded superstitions. There is in all of them a certain fund of truth -which may not be allowed to perish, but should be rescued out of the -wreck. - -On the other hand, even the most advanced religions contain a large -admixture of error, survivals of primitive taboos, mythological -elements having their root in polytheism, while the very truths which I -have just admitted to be infinitely precious require to be restated so -as to fit them into a larger synthesis. - -It is not easy to define my attitude toward the Old Masters, I mean -the Old Masters in religion, the incomparably great religious teachers -of the past, who tower above us like giants. My attitude is one of -profoundest reverence—toward the Hebrew prophets and Jesus especially. -The Hebrew religion first sounded the distinctively spiritual note. -Zoroaster had emphasized the struggle of the powers of Light and -the powers of Darkness, but the conception of light in his system -remained to a considerable extent materialistic. Buddha emphasized -Enlightenment in the sense of escape from Illusion, and in conjunction -with it sympathy for all who remain under the spell of illusion. -Confucius endeavored to walk, and taught his followers to walk, with -equipoise in the Middle Path; he emphasized what he thought to be the -cosmic principle of balance or equilibrium. Plato, taking his stand on -the highest terrestrial platform, caught, or believed himself to have -caught, sight of transcendental beauty as the ultimate principle in -things. But the prophets of Israel assigned to the ethical principle -the highest rank in man’s life and in the world at large. The best -thing in man, they declared, is his moral personality; and the best -thing in the world, the supreme and controlling principle, is the moral -power that pervades it. - -The predominance of the ethical principle in religion dates from the -prophets of Israel. The religious development of the human race took -a new turn in their sublime predications, and I for one am certainly -conscious of having drawn my first draught of moral inspiration from -their writings.[6] - -But nevertheless I found myself compelled to separate from the religion -of Israel. Now why was it necessary for me to take this step? Why not -continue along the path first blazed by the Hebrew prophets—smoothing -it perhaps and widening it? Why not separate the dross from the -gold, the error from the truth, explicating what is implicit in that -truth, and adapting it to the needs and conditions of the modern -age? The answer is that the truth contained in the Hebrew, and as I -shall presently show, in the Christian religion, is not capable of -such adaptation. It claims finality. I have mentioned that there is -an element of permanent value in both the Hebrew and the Christian -religion, and that it should be restated and fitted into a larger -synthesis. But this is impossible unless the Hebrew or Christian -setting be broken, unless the element to be preserved is taken out of -its context, and treated freshly and with perfect freedom. A religion -like the two I am concerned with is a determinate thing. It is a closed -circle of thoughts and beliefs. It is capable of a certain degree -of change but not of indefinite change. The limits of change are -determined by its leading conceptions—the monotheistic idea in the one -case, and the centrality of the figure of Christ in the other. Abandon -these, and the boundaries by which the religion is circumscribed are -passed. - -The great religious teachers are men who see the spiritual landscape -from a certain point of view, including whatever is visible from their -station, excluding whatever is not. The religion which they originate -is thus both inclusive and sharply exclusive. What they see with -their rapt eyes they describe with a trenchancy and fitness never -thereafter to be equaled.[7] But in order to progress in religion it is -necessary to advance toward a different station, to reach a different, -a higher eminence, and from that to look forth anew upon the spiritual -landscape, comprehending the outlook of one’s predecessors in a new -perspective, seeing what they saw and much besides. - -Religious growth may also be compared to the growth of a tree. To -expect that development shall continue along the Hebrew or Christian -lines is like expecting that a tree will continue to develop along -one of its branches. There is a limit beyond which the extension of a -branch cannot go. Then growth must show itself in the putting forth of -a new branch. - -But let me now state with somewhat greater particularity the reasons -that compelled me to depart from the faith of Israel, and to leave my -early religious home, cherishing pious memories of it, but nevertheless -firmly set in my course towards new horizons.[8] - -1. The difficulty created by the claim that Israel is an elect people, -that it stands in a peculiar relation to the Deity. This claim, at -the time when it was put forth, was neither arrogant nor unfounded. -It was not arrogant because the mission was understood to be a heavy -burden not a privilege: or if a privilege at all, then the tragic -privilege of martyrdom, a martyrdom continued through generations. -And the claim was not unfounded or preposterous at the time when it -was put forth because the Hebrews were in reality the only people who -conceived of morality in terms of holiness. It was not absurd for them -to assert their mission to be the teachers of mankind in respect to -the spiritual interpretation of morality, since there was something, -and that something infinitely important, which they actually had to -teach. Moral thinking and moral practices of course had existed from -immemorial times everywhere, but the conception of morality as divine -in its source, as spiritual in its inmost essence,—this immense idea -was the offspring of the Hebrew mind. On the other hand, I asked -myself, has not the task of Israel in this respect been accomplished? -Have not its Scriptures become the common property of the civilized -nations? And does not that teacher mistake his office who attempts to -maintain his magisterial authority after his pupils have come to man’s -estate, and are capable of original contributions? The “nations” are -not to be looked upon in the light of mere pupils. The ethical message -of Israel so far as it is sane is universalistic. It is founded on -the conviction that there is a moral nature in every human being, and -that the moral nature is a spiritual nature. And if this be so, then -the utterances, the insights, the new visions with which the spiritual -nature is pregnant, cannot be supposed to be restricted to members of -the Jewish people. If the teaching function is to be maintained it -must be exercised by all who have the gift. If there is to be an elect -body (a dangerous conception, the meaning of which is to be carefully -defined), it must consist of gentiles and Jews, of men of every race -and condition in whom the spiritual nature is more awakened than in -others, peculiarly vivid, pressing towards utterance. - -2. Aside from the spiritual interpretation of morality, the mission -of the Jewish people has been said to consist in holding aloft the -standard of pure monotheism as against trinitarianism. But pure -monotheism is a philosophy rather than a religion. Taken by itself it -is too pure, too empty of content to serve the purposes of a living -faith. The attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, etc., ascribed to -Deity are highly abstract, too abstruse to be even thinkable, save -indirectly, and they certainly fail to touch the heart. As a matter -of fact it was the image of the Father projected upon the background -of these abstractions, that made the object of Jewish piety. Jahweh -is the heavenly spouse; Israel is to be his faithful earthly spouse. -The Children of Israel are pre-eminently his children. Other nations -likewise are his children,—some children of wrath to be cast out -and destroyed like the rebellious son in Deuteronomy, others to be -eventually gathered into the patriarchal household. But this view comes -back to the same general conception of the relations of Israel to other -nations which has just been discussed. Moreover, the Father image, as -representing the divine life in the world, even when extended so as to -include all mankind on equal terms, is open to a serious objection.[9] - -3. If, nevertheless, the Jews have a mission, is it perhaps this: to -rehabilitate the prophetic ideal of social justice? Is it not social -justice that the world is crying for today? Were not the prophets of -Israel the great preachers of righteousness in the sense of social -justice? Did they not affirm that religion consists in justice and in -its concomitant mercifulness, but above all in justice? Did not Isaiah -say: “When ye come to tread my courts, who has demanded this of you? -Go wash you, make you clean. Put away the evil that is in your hands. -Cease to do evil; learn to do good.” And later on, “That ye let the -oppressed go free, and that ye break every yoke.” These are solemn, -marvelous words assuredly! They have been ringing down through the -ages, and still find their echo in our hearts. And yet the justice -idea of the prophets is inadequate to serve the purpose of social -reconstruction today. To go back to it would mean repristination, not -renovation. It is sound as far as it goes, but it does not go far -enough. It is negative, rather than positive; it is based on the idea -of non-violation. What we require today is a positive conception, and -this implies a positive definition of that holy thing in man that -is to be treated as inviolable. To the mind of the prophets justice -meant chiefly resistance to oppression, since oppression is the most -palpable exemplification of the forbidden violation. The prophets in -their outlook on the external relations of their people stood for the -weak, the oppressed, against the strong, the oppressor. They stood for -their own weak little nation, the Belgium of those days, against the -two over-mighty empires, Egypt and Assyria, that bordered it on either -side. In the internal affairs of Israel they espoused the cause of -the weak against the rich and strong: “Woe unto them that add house -to house and field to field, that grind the faces of the poor.” Ever -and ever again the same note resounds, the same intense, passionately -indignant feeling against violation in the form of oppression. But this -aspect of justice, as I have said, is the negative aspect,—inestimably -important, but insufficient. Where oppression does not occur, have the -claims of justice ceased? Is there not something even greater than -mere non-infringement, greater than mercifulness or kindness, which in -justice we owe to the personality of our fellows, namely, to aid in the -development of their personality? Righteousness, yes, by all means,—but -does the righteousness of the prophets of Israel exhaust or begin to -exhaust the content of that vast idea? - -The universalistic ethical idea in the Hebrew religion is bound up with -and bound down by racial restrictions. The issue between monotheism -and trinitarianism is no longer a vital issue of our day. The Father -image as the symbol of Deity raises expectations which experience does -not confirm. The ideal of social justice as conceived by the prophets -of Israel is a valid but incomplete expression of what is implied in -social justice. These are weighty considerations that make it difficult -to retain the belief in the elect character attributed to the people of -Israel. There is one other, of very deep-reaching importance, that must -be noticed. An elect people is supposed to be an exemplary people, one -that sets a moral example which other nations are expected to copy. But -it has become more and more clear to me that the value of example in -the moral life has been overestimated and misunderstood. No individual, -for instance, can really serve as an example to others so as to be -copied by them. The circumstances are always somewhat different, the -natures are different, and the obligations, finely examined, are never -quite the same. In fact, the best that anyone can do for another by his -example is to stimulate him to express with consummate fidelity his -different nature in his own different way. I do not of course deny that -there are certain uniformities, chiefly negative, in moral conduct, but -I have come to think that the ethical quality of moral acts consists -in the points in which they differ rather than in those in which they -agree. The ideally ethical act, to my mind, is the most completely -individualized act. - -And what is true of individuals is no less true of peoples. No people -can really be exemplary for other peoples, and in this sense elect. -Every people possesses a character of its own to which it is to give -expression in ways which I shall indicate in the last part of this -work. But the way rightly adopted by one nation cannot be a law or a -model for its sister nations. If the ideal of the modern Zionists were -realized, if the Jews were to return to Palestine, to speak once more -the language of the Bible, to cultivate their distinctive gifts, they -would not therefore produce a pattern which could be copied in Japan, -or among the 400 millions of China, or in the United States, or among -the Slavic or Latin peoples. - -In concluding these reflections, I may not conceal from myself or -from others that the objection to the function of exemplariness, if -sustained, affects at the root both the theology and the ethics of the -past. If no individual can be in the strict sense an example to others, -neither can an individual Deity be an example to be copied by men, -neither can Christ be the perfect exemplar to be imitated. There can -be no single perfect exemplar. Virtues that bear the same name are not -therefore the same virtues. Often it is only the name that is the same, -not the substance; and where they are in a broad way the same, yet -there remains a difference of accent. The natures of men are unlike. -Their moral destiny is to work out the unlikeness of each in harmony -with that of the others. The moral equivalence of men, rather than -their moral equality, is for me the expression of the fundamental moral -relation.[10] - -At the early stage of my career to which I am still adverting it was -urgently put to me that with all the changes that had taken place in -my inner life, I need not separate myself from the religion of the -Fathers, nay, that I might remain a servant and teacher of religion -within the Jewish fold, gradually weaning away from the beliefs which -they held those whom I might contrive to influence, and drawing them -up—such was the phrase used—to my own “higher level.” But this advice -was repelled by every inmost fibre of my being, and could not but be -utterly rejected. I was to publicly represent a certain belief with -the purpose of undermining it. I was to trade upon the simplicity of -my hearers in order to rob them of what they, crudely and mistakenly -perhaps, considered their most sacred truth, by feigning provisionally, -until I could alter their views, to be in agreement with them. Would -this be fair to them or to myself? Was I to act a lie in order to teach -the truth? There was especially one passage in the Sabbath service -which brought me to the point of resolution: I mean the words spoken -by the officiating minister as he holds up the Pentateuch scroll, “And -this is the Law which Moses set before the people of Israel.” I had -lately returned from abroad where I had had a fairly thorough course in -Biblical exegesis, and had become convinced that the Mosaic religion is -so to speak a religious mosaic, and that there is hardly a single stone -in it which can with certainty be traced to the authorship of Moses. -Was I to repeat these words? It was impossible. I was certain that they -would stick in my throat. On these grounds the separation was decided -on by me, and became irremediable. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[6] I still go back to that fountain-head for refreshment and -inspiration, much as a modern poet may go back to Homer, without -attempting to copy him, or as a modern sculptor or architect may go -back to the Greek artists without relinquishing his right and his duty -to help in producing a different kind of art, which perchance may one -day culminate in masterpieces like theirs, though his own performance -be but the poor beginning. - -[7] Compare the ejaculatory deliverance of Isaiah, the Sermon on the -Mount, and the Parables of Jesus. Who can attempt in language to -express what they saw as they did? - -[8] No seriously religious person will attempt to strike out into a -new path unless he be under inward coercion to do so. The advantages -of what is commonly called historic continuity (I have just shown -wherein real continuity consists, that of growth along the trunk, and -not of growth along the branch) are great. There is for one thing -the support derived from leaning on an ancient tradition, the proud -humility felt in passing on the torch that had been held by mighty -predecessors, the self-dedication to that which is larger than self, -_i.e._, to an institution and ideas that existed in the world before -one was born, and will exist after one is gone. There is the strength -drawn from contact with a large and powerful organization, powerful -both in sustaining one’s efforts, and in restraining and correcting -them when need be. There are, on the other side, the perils of -innovation, the errors into which one is led for lack of restraint and -correction, the too great dependence on self, the spiritual loneliness -and the lack of many gracious and useful aids to the religious life -such as a noble ritual, majestic music, the fit emotional expressions -of religious feeling, which are not to be had for the asking, the -fine embellishments that are precious in their way, and that, like -the fruits in the Gardens of the Gods, ripen slowly, and may not be -extemporized or anticipated. - -[9] See Chapter IX on the Religious Society in Part IV of this volume. -It gives rise to the belief that men as individuals or collectively -are the objects of a special Providence, and that the universe is -so arranged as to be adapted to man’s needs, not to say his wishes; -whereas the facts show that man must adapt himself to the universe, -and find his physical safety and his ethical salvation in so doing. -The belief in the Father who allows not one hair of our heads to fall -unnoticed raises expectations to which actual experience fails to -correspond. - -As to the issue between monotheism and trinitarianism, it has long -since become obsolescent, if not obsolete. The forward-looking men and -women of our time are absorbed in far other issues—Is the mechanical -theory propounded by science the ultimate account of things? Is the -world in which we live a blind machine? Is man a chance product of -nature, like the beasts that perish? Not is God one in unity or is He -a Triune God, but, is there a God at all? Is there a supersensible -reality? Is religion capable of a new lease of life, and of giving a -new lease of life to us who now are spiritually dead? - -[10] Of many ethical types of behavior no examples whatever as yet -exist, for instance, of the ethically-minded employer or merchant, -ethically-minded in thought and in practice. The standard of ethical -behavior which we apply is at present higher and more exacting. The -standard itself indeed is in process of being defined, and there are -no illustrations of it, or none but very imperfect ones, on which to -dwell with satisfaction. But the same is true of other vocations. We -are very thankful for any examples that can be found. They seem to -prove that that which ought to be can be. But we may not lean on them -too hard. They are never quite adequate, even in their limited sphere; -and there is ever an Ought-to-be beyond that which has been even -partially realized, beyond that which has even as yet been conceived. -To make too much of example is to check moral progress. Along with a -due appreciation of past moral achievements, there should be encouraged -a spirit of brave adventure, a certain intrepidity of soul to venture -forth on voyages of discovery into unknown ethical regions, taking the -risks but bent upon the prize. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -EMERSON - - -I find on looking backward that my development proceeded with the help -of a series of definitions fixing my attitude toward teachers who made -a special appeal to me, and toward great historic tendencies past and -present. I was helped both by what I was able to appreciate in them, -and, where I diverged, by what they forced me to think out for myself. -Here let me acknowledge a passing debt to Emerson. As in the case -of Kant, a strong attraction drew me toward Emerson with temporary -disregard of radical differences,—although the spell was never so -potent or so persistent in the latter instance as in the former. I made -Emerson’s acquaintance in 1875. I came into touch with the Emerson -circle and read and re-read the _Essays_. The value of Emerson’s -teaching to me at that time consisted in the exalted view he takes -of the self. Divinity as an object of extraneous worship for me had -vanished. Emerson taught that immediate experience of the divine power -in self may take the place of worship. His doctrine of self-reliance -also was bracing to a youth just setting out to challenge prevailing -opinions and to urge plans of transformation upon the community in -which he worked. But I soon discovered that Emerson overstresses -self-affirmation at the expense of service. For a time indeed I -reconciled in my own fashion the two contrary tendencies. The divine -power, I argued, flows through me as a channel—hence the grandeur -which attaches to my spiritual nature. But the divine power manifests -itself in redressing the wrongs that exist in the world, and in putting -an end to such violations of personality as the sexual and economic -exploitations which disgrace human society. So for a time I continued -to walk on air with Emerson, and had my head in the clouds,—the clouds -in which Emerson enveloped me. - -Out of this false sense of security, this quasi-pantheistic -self-affirmation, the experiences of the next few years effectually -roused me. I came to see that Emerson’s pantheism in effect spoils his -ethics. Be thyself, he says, not a counterfeit or imitation of someone -else. Be different. But why! Because the One manifests itself in -endless variety. Penetrating below the surface, however, one finds that -in this kind of philosophy the value of difference, to which I attach -essential importance on ethical grounds, is nothing more than that of -a foil. According to Emerson life is a universal masquerade, and the -interest of the whole business of living consists in the ever-renewed -discovery that the face behind the different masks is still the same. -Difference is not cherished on its own account. And here, as in the -case of the uniformity principle of Hebraism, I found myself dissenting. - -Emerson is a kind of eagle, circling high up in the ether—_non soli -cedit_. - -Emerson with his oracular sayings might have served as a priest at -Dodona or led the mysteries at Eleusis. Yet, withal, he is genuinely -American,—a rare blend of ancient mystic and modern Yankee,—a valued -poet too, but as an ethical guide to be accepted only with large -reservations. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS - - -At about this time I began to occupy myself more seriously than I -had done before, with the study of the New Testament. I had, I think -a great advantage in my approach to it, for the very reason that I -had not been brought up in the Christian tradition. I came from the -outside, with a mind fresh to receive first-hand impressions. I had -not had instilled into me from childhood the kind of hesitant awe -that prevents impartial appraisement of excellences and of possible -deficiencies. On the other hand, as a searcher I was deeply interested -to ascertain what Christianity could give me, and to what extent it -could further my spiritual development. I had not the enforcedly -apologetic attitude; I did not come prepared to accept without question -nor yet to find fault; I came to test for my own use. Here am I, with -life and its problem before me—how can the teachings of Jesus help me -in my search, in my dire perplexities? - -I must say to begin with that I was particularly struck with the -originality of Jesus’ teachings, a quality in them which to my -amazement I had found disputed, not only by Jews, but by representative -Christians. In Jewish circles it is not uncommon to speak almost -condescendingly of Christianity as of a daughter religion commissioned -to spread abroad the truths of Judaism, with such alloy as may be -needed to suit them to the apprehension of the gentiles. But Christian -teachers likewise—I remember particularly a recent sermon to that -effect—have taken the ground that Jesus added nothing new to the -ethical insight of mankind. His work, it is said, consisted merely in -supplying a sufficient motive for performing the duties which everyone -knows, but which, lacking this motive, we are supposedly impotent to -practice. This strange misapprehension of the intimate nature of Jesus’ -contribution to ethical progress is largely due, I take it, to the -poverty of our moral vocabulary. Language puts at our disposal only -a few terms, such as Justice, Righteousness, Love,—which must needs -stand for a great variety of moral ideas. Thus Justice in Plato’s use -of the word, implies that “a shoemaker shall stick to his last,” that -those who perform the humble functions shall be content to perform -them in due subservience to their superiors. A very different meaning -was attached to justice by the Hebrew prophets as I have explained -in the last chapter. Again, a quite different conception of justice -is framed and stressed by modern social reformers. Now it is this -ambiguity of the moral vocabulary that conceals the novelty of Jesus’ -precepts. Thus, to mention only a single capital instance, it has been -asserted that the Golden Rule as taught by Jesus is not original, but -substantially the same rule that had been laid down by Confucius 500 -years before the time of Jesus. But on closer scrutiny it will be seen -that the two Golden Rules are by no means the same. As propounded -by the Chinese sage the rule appears to mean: Keep the balance true -between thyself and thy neighbor; illustrate in thy conduct the -principle of equilibrium. As impressed upon his disciples by Jesus it -means: Look upon thy neighbor as thy other self; act towards him as if -thou wert he. - -To return to my point, the impression of novelty which I received -in reading the Gospels was definite and striking. The mythological -idealization of Jesus, indeed, I put aside as a thing that did not -concern me. On the other hand, to say with certain modern liberals -that he was just a man, an infinitely gracious personality, one who -exemplified in his life the virtues of forgiveness and self-sacrifice, -did not satisfy me either. Buddha too had taught forgiveness: “For -hatred is not conquered by hatred at any time; hatred is conquered by -love.” It could not then be the bare precept of forgiveness that lets -light on the secret of Jesus. And self-sacrifice—“Greater love hath no -man than this, that he should lay down his life for his friend”—had -been practiced within and without the pale of Hebraism. - -That he continued the work of his Hebrew predecessors I made no doubt. -On the Hebrew side he was a prophet, or rather, a saint in Israel. But -I had just as little doubt that he took a step beyond his predecessors, -that his teachings bear upon them the signature of originality. - -To put my thought briefly, I came to conclude that the ethical -originality of Jesus consists in a new way of dealing with the problem -of evil, that is, of evil in the guise of oppression. The prophets, his -predecessors, as we have seen, identified injustice with oppression; -and in the first flush of their moral enthusiasm the more optimistic -among them believed that justice as they conceived of it would -presently triumph and that oppression would cease altogether—“Arise, -shine, for thy light is come.” God would miraculously interfere, and -bring about on earth a state of righteousness. But years and centuries -passed by, and oppression, far from ceasing, became under the ruthless -administration of Rome ever more grinding and terrible. The yoke of -Rome weighed upon the Jews as it did upon other peoples; but perhaps, -because they were more independent in spirit, it galled them more -sorely. The fiery zealots among the Jews persisted in hoping that -by supreme desperate efforts, God coming to their aid, they might -yet succeed in shaking off this yoke—efforts which culminated in the -horrors of the last siege of Jerusalem. Jesus was not of their way of -thinking. He seems indeed to have believed that the end of the existing -order was near. It was too incredibly bad to last. The world would -be consumed by fire. A new earth and a new heaven would appear. But -in the meantime how accommodate oneself to the intolerable fact of -oppression? Jesus said, Resist not evil in the guise of oppression, it -is irresistible. He mentions in particular three forms of intolerable -oppression: a blow in the face, the stripping of a man of his garment, -and the coercing him to do the arbitrary bidding of another. He says, -Resist not evil, resist not oppression. Shall then evil triumph? Is the -victim helplessly at the mercy of the injurer? Shall he even be told -that in a servile spirit he must accept the indignities that are put -upon him? No; this is not the meaning. Quite a different meaning is -implied. And here the teaching of Jesus takes its novel turn. There is -a way, he says to the victim, in which you can spiritually triumph over -the evildoer, and make your peace with irresistible oppression. Use -it as a means of self-purification; pause to consider what the inner -motives are that lead your enemy, and others like him, to do such acts -as they are guilty of, and to so violate your personality and that -of others. The motives _in them_ are lust, greed, anger, wilfulness, -pride. Now turn your gaze inward upon yourself, look into your own -heart and learn, perhaps to your amazement, that the same evil streams -trickle through you; that you, too, are subject, even if it be only -subconsciously and incipiently, to the same appetites, passions, and -pride, that animate your injurers. Therefore let the sufferings you -endure at the hands of those who allow these bad impulses free rein in -their treatment of you lead you to expel the same bad impulses that -stir potentially in your breast; let this experience fill you with a -deeper horror of the evil, and prove the incentive to secure your own -emancipation from its control. In this way you will achieve a real -triumph over your enemy, and will be able to make your peace with -oppression. There are other intolerable evils in the world besides -oppression which nevertheless must be tolerated. The method of Jesus -can be applied to these also. This method I regard as a permanent -contribution to the ethical progress of humanity. - -A second original trait in Jesus’ teaching I found in his conception -of the spiritual nature, and of his doctrine of love as dependent on -that conception. The conception or definition is still negative as -in the non-violation ethics of the Hebrew prophets. The spiritual -element in man is hidden. It cannot be apprehended as to what it -is substantively. The attributes ascribed to it are the effects in -which it manifests itself; this goes without saying. To define the -spiritual nature means to describe these effects, these manifestations. -According to the Hebrew predecessors of Jesus the spiritual power is -to be conceived of as that which prompts a man to respect the holy -precinct of personality in others and in himself. What the holy thing -is remains unknown. This view leads to acts of justice and mercy, as -above explained. According to Jesus the spiritual essence in man bids -him expel the inner, impure impulses that lead to external violations. -In brief, the spiritual power is conceived of in terms of purity. It -is the pure thing in man that thrusts out as alien to itself whatever -is impure—whatever is of the world, the flesh, and, in mythological -language, whatever is Satanic. In this sense I say that the definition -is negative. It marks out, indeed, a definite line of conduct; and it -even leads, as we shall presently see, to active efforts in a specific -direction. A negative principle may have certain positive results. -But in the main, nevertheless, the teaching of Jesus enlightens us as -to what shall not be rather than as to what shall be. From the Hebrew -prophets we learn that there shall not be violation of personality or -injustice, the positive concomitant being mercy; from Jesus’ teachings -we learn that there shall not be impurity in the inner forum, the -positive by-product being the doctrine of love. - -Taking over the Hebrew heritage, Jesus affirmed that the spiritual -nature exists in all human beings. In every man there is presumed to -be this inner power to reject the unclean admixtures, to ward off and -repel the carnal solicitations, to withdraw from the “world,” and to -move upward toward the source of purity, which is God. The spirituality -of man consisting of purity, the Father-God, the Father of Lights, -is likewise conceived as the absolutely pure, in this sense as the -most holy. In every man there is a ray of the eternal light emanating -from the eternal luminary, and all men are one in so far as their -rays converge at the focus of Godhead. To love men is to be conscious -of one’s unity with them in the central life, and to give effect to -this consciousness. Hence Christian love, the love that Jesus taught, -is no earthly love, no mere sentiment, or outreaching of the human -affections. On the contrary, the natural human ties are repeatedly set -aside in the _logia_. To love another is to love him in God. Later the -current phrase became, to love him in Christ; that is, to think of him, -and act towards him, as if he possessed the same capacity for purity -with oneself. - -The love of others in God or Christ encouraged a particular kind of -earthly beneficence, and it especially inspired the followers of -Jesus with an unparalleled zeal in works of remedial (though never of -preventive) charity. This may at first sight seem paradoxical. The -young man is advised to dispossess himself of all he has, and in the -same breath is told to distribute his possessions among the poor. -Why not rather scatter them to the winds? Why should not the poor too -cease to toil and spin and take heed for the morrow? For their simple -necessities God would provide. The two-fold attitude, however, is easy -to understand if we remember that certain acts of helpfulness have a -symbolic significance, as attesting the value we set upon the person to -whose needs we minister, much as a flower offered to a beloved person -emblematically intimates our sense of the beauty and worth of the one -to whom the tribute is offered. Christian charity, on its earthly -side, has a similar meaning and purpose. It is intended to efface the -indignity to which human beings are subjected when reduced to extreme -indigence or allowed to suffer without relief, for it is the disdain -of the spiritual personality thus evinced which Jesus disallows. He -bids his followers intimate by earthly tokens their consciousness of -the super-earthly worth of their fellow-beings. But the pursuit of -riches as such he nowhere encourages—quite the contrary. And it is -certainly a mistake to represent Jesus, as has recently been done, as -a kind of precursor of modern Socialism, and to think of him as one -who, if he had lived in our time, would have laid stress on equality -of opportunity for all to gain earthly possessions. He who advocated -wealth for none could not be supposed to have sympathized with a social -movement whose first object it is to secure wealth for all. - -It is this interpretation of love that helped me to understand the -interior meaning of the doctrine of the forgiveness of enemies -as taught by Jesus, and to perceive wherein it differs from the -apparently identical mode of behavior enjoined by Buddha and the Stoic -Seneca. It plays a capital rôle in Jesus’ teaching. As illustrated -by the proto-martyr Stephen it probably effected the conversion of -Paul. Jesus says: “Bless them that curse you.” But how is it possible -to bless those that curse us? How, for instance, was it possible for -Stephen to bless the men of blood at the very moment when they were -crushing him under stones? To bless them that curse you, to bless them -that despitefully use you, means to distinguish between the spiritual -possibilities latent in them and their overt conduct, to see the human, -the potentially divine face behind the horrible mask, and to invoke the -influence of the divine power upon them in order that it may change -them into their purer, better selves. - -With complete and eager appreciation of the points of excellence -contained in these teachings, with a reverence which it is impossible -to express in words for their incomparable Author, and with a large -sense of the beneficent influence which they have exercised on human -history, I still could not avoid the question, so vital for me, Have -these ethical teachings of the great Master the stamp of finality upon -them? Has Jesus really spoken the last word in ethics? Is nothing left -for us but further to expand and apply the truth which he laid down -once and for all? When theology goes, the last stand of apologetic -writers is apt to be made on the ethics. The instinct to claim finality -for the religion in which one has been brought up asserts itself in the -claim that the moral teachings at least are unexceptionable and valid -for all time to come. The searcher who is in great moral perplexities -and who seeks help for others and himself, is bound to ask and will ask -in no captious spirit, is this so? - -The decisive point is whether the ethical teachings of Jesus supply -a principle which enables us to work with zest in the world, to take -the keenest interest in all the manifold activities of human society, -to embrace the world with the view of penetrating it with a spiritual -purpose and of thus transforming it. Do these teachings exhibit a -way of making the world and the flesh instrumental to the spirit, or -do they serve to turn us away from the world and its interests, to -abandon the world in despair? Is the conception of spirituality as -purity adequate? Purity is certainly one aspect of morality; is it -the sole or the principal factor in it? The other-worldly attitude -in the Gospels is certainly clearly marked. It is the background on -which the ethical precepts stand forth. Tyrrel has argued as against -Harnack for the close connection between the thought of Jesus and the -apocalyptic vision. I asked myself, Can the apocalyptic vision, that -is to say the other-worldliness, be dissociated from the ethics, or -is the relation between them necessary?[11] If the world is speedily, -almost immediately, coming to an end, then it is justifiable to prefer -celibacy to marriage, to ignore the state, to counsel disregard of the -toiling and the spinning. All of this is warranted on the assumption -that the order of things in which these institutions and activities -have their place is about to disappear. - -But if this expectation is deceived, if things continue in their -ancient course, if the world and the flesh persist, taking on ever new -and more baffling shapes, how is a system of ethics which is based on -the assumption of one state of things to be reconciled with a state -of things exactly the opposite? How shall an ethical person conduct -himself in a world which his philosophy of life teaches him to reject, -but with which the necessities of his existence compel him to come to -terms day by day and hour by hour? There must then be compromise. And -the history of Christianity up to the present moment is the record of -such compromises. Monasticism was one of the earliest. A distinction -was made, so to speak, between perfect and imperfect Christians, -between a class of men and women who lived in ascetic seclusion, as if -the world did not exist, and another class, the greater number, who -managed ethically as best they could, dependent on the supererogatory -merits of the real Christians or saints to eke out their unholiness. -Another species of compromise is illustrated, especially in Protestant -countries. It appears as a division between the contracted sphere -of holiness and the circumambient sphere of the practical life, in -both of which, however, the same individual has his place. Chastity, -forgiveness of personal enemies, and the like virtues are to be -practiced in the contracted sphere of private life, the ability to -practice these virtues being derived from mystical identification -with Jesus. In the Christian’s public life no such identification is -possible, and he is left to be consciously or unconsciously unholy. As -a politician, as a competitor in the struggle for wealth, he remains -without ethical direction. The ethical ideal of the Gospels requires -for its setting the apocalyptic vision. It derives its cogency from the -belief that the world is about to perish. Can it serve as a sufficient -guide to those who must live in the world, and affirm their ethical -personality in dealing with it? In politics, in business, in science, -in art, must we not somehow see our way to the conception that these -great interests are not alien to the spiritual nature, introducing -perchance impure admixtures into it, but rather can be made subservient -or instrumental to it? Yes; but instrumental in what way? At this -point, not only the Christian system, but every one of the systems of -ethics that have arisen since then has failed. And it is, moreover, -perfectly evident that the instrumental function of the sex relation -or of the pursuit of knowledge or of patriotism cannot be determined -unless we first answer the one question which the ethical writers are -in the habit of evading—Instrumental to what end? What is the ethical -end? Instruments are means to ends—how can the means be rightly -appraised without a definite conception of the end? And if the end be -the affirmation of our ethical personality, of our spiritual nature, of -that holy thing in us without which man loses his worth (and without -which the rule of non-violation itself falls to the ground, since where -there is nothing inviolable there can be no infringement), it is plain -that we must seek a positive definition of the spiritual nature which -shall serve as a principle of regulation where the empty concept of -purity has manifestly failed. - -Christian ethics has promoted the moral development of mankind in a -thousand ways. It has helped even by its mythological embodiment of a -transcendental idea to place the individual more firmly on his feet. It -has emphasized the inner springs of conduct; it has given prominence to -certain principal virtues of the private life; but, like every product -of the mind and aspirations of man, it exhibits the limitations of the -time and of the social conditions under which it arose. The conditions -have since changed. Society has become infinitely more complex, and -in consequence new moral problems have forced themselves upon men’s -attention; and with the help of Christianity itself the human race has -advanced beyond the point of view for which Christianity stands.[12] - -Speaking again only for myself I could not assent to the position -that finality appertains to the ethical teachings of the Gospel, that -they or their Author have spoken the last word in ethics. I could not -persuade myself that this is so because I failed to get from these -teachings, inestimably precious as they are, an answer to the question -that most pressed upon me—Instrumental in what sense, instrumental to -what end? - -FOOTNOTES: - -[11] I am aware that a highly esteemed school of modern theologians -maintain that the apocalyptic element is a secondary and even an -embarrassing feature for Jesus. But I am unable to convince myself of -the justice of this view. - -[12] See the similes used in the previous chapter on the growth of the -tree as manifested in the putting forth of a new branch, and the ascent -of an eminence which includes the part of the spiritual landscape -previously seen, but also that part which from the previous station was -excluded. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -SOCIAL REFORM - - -My position at that time may be summarized as follows: There is a -divine power in the world, not individual, manifest in the moral law -as revealed in human experience. The moral law involves recognition -of the presence of a something holy in each human being. Since the -world presents innumerable examples of the grossest violation of human -personality (e.g., prostitution and exploitation of laborers), the -business immediately in hand is to make an end of these violations. -There was as yet in my mind no positive definition of personality. -Clarification and further development were promoted by the necessity of -grappling with the problems of poverty and with the attempted solutions -of the Socialists and of other social reformers. At this period, the -notion of personality in my mind being still without determinate -content, empirical matter intruded, and a species of millennialism for -a time vitiated my thinking. In order to set up a goal for humanity, I -dallied with Utopias, and flattered my imagination with the vision of -something like a state of ultimate earthly felicity. The cheap cry of -“Let us have heaven on earth” was also on my lips, though the delusion -did not last long and perhaps never penetrated very deeply. - -The problem of poverty, as mentioned above, engrossed me early. I -acted as chairman of the meeting at which Henry George was first -introduced to the public in New York City. But Henry George’s -remedy,—a single draught of Socialism with unstinted individualism -thereafter—never attracted me, while his descriptions of the misery -of the poor, eloquent as they were, and fitted to awaken persons -unacquainted with actual conditions, conveyed to me no novel message. I -had before then been profoundly stirred by the chapters in Karl Marx’s -_Kapital_ in which he collects from the English Blue Books frightful -evidence of the mistreatment of laborers and especially of children in -the early part of the nineteenth century. My errands in the tenement -slums of New York had also made me fairly familiar with the bitter -facts, and throughout my life I have been in touch in a practical way -with the appalling complexus of misery and wrong which we abstractly -designate as the Labor Question. I shall not here take time to discuss -Socialism or other social reform movements in detail. My intention is -to sketch a certain philosophy of life, and to trace the steps by which -I reached it. My reaction against Socialism and related movements, -however, was a prime factor in this inner development; and it is of -this reaction and the causes of it that I must speak. - -The evils inherent in poverty are, in the first place, obviously, the -privations entailed by it; secondly, the fact that the greater part -of the life of the poor is consumed in efforts to provide the bare -necessaries, the mind being thus kept in bondage to bodily needs and -prevented from rising to other interests more appropriate to rational -beings; thirdly, the fact that the first two wrongs are caused, -not wholly it is true, but yet in a large measure, by fellow human -beings.[13] The sting in poverty is not so much the hardships suffered, -as the contempt for the manhood of the poor, exhibited by their -exploiters,—the inequity being thus turned into iniquity. - -Now my reaction against Socialism was and is that it neglects the -third, the moral evil, and stresses only the first and second. I -am now speaking of Marxian Socialism, with which in its rigid form -I early acquainted myself. The Marxian Socialist does not deny the -pain felt in consequence of the inequity, nor the desire of those who -suffer to become the equals of their masters; but he regards this -desire as a fact of nature explicable on deterministic grounds, a -consequence of improvement in the technique or tools of industry. He -does not deny that there are so-called moral ideas, but he considers -them epiphenomena or by-products of economic development. The tendency -toward equilibrium of power in human society, termed democracy, is to -him just a fact and nothing more. The mere desire for it apart from -the rightness of the desire is the efficient cause which leads to -social readjustments. But evidently this account of the matter will -be persuasive only in case the efficient cause proves to be really -efficient, that is to say, in case the desire for equilibration is -on the point of effectuating itself. If it is not, if the desire -of the masses for power is thwarted, if the realization of their -hopes is indefinitely postponed, then the foundations of the theory -are undermined. Hence Marxian Socialism has been coupled with and -depends on a belief which is a kind of materialistic parallel of the -apocalyptic vision of Jesus,—the belief that the end of the present -world (the world of the wage system) is close at hand, only with -the difference that the end is to be brought about not by divine -interference but automatically by the acquisition of power on the part -of the masses. - -To me neither hunger nor the bondage of the mind to physical -necessities nor the bare fact of inequity seem sufficient to justify -the demand for social reconstruction, apart from moral right. If there -be no such thing as morality, or if morality be but an epiphenomenon of -economic conditions, what warrant have the hungry or the disadvantaged -for complaining? Animals, too, hunger and sicken. If man be like them -a mere chance product of nature, why should he not share their fate? -Let the weak succumb! Surely the bald fact that the democratic masses -today chafe under the yoke of their masters and demand a better state -of things, is no more a ground of obligation for the former than the -tendency toward an ultimate equilibrium in nature of which scientists -speak can be a ground of obligation. The tendency will effectuate -itself or not as the acting forces determine. There is in truth no such -thing as obligation from this point of view. Then why not fold our arms -and wait for what will happen? The notion of democracy currently held -is obnoxious to the same criticism. Leave out the moral basis in the -claim to equity, and nothing remains but the brute fact that men, being -egotists, fret under the exercise of superior power by their fellow -egotists. But let Nietzsche or some one else demonstrate that certain -higher values, higher merely because subjectively relished as higher, -are incompatible with equilibrium of power, and he will be justified -at least in his own eyes in scoffing at equality and scourging the -democratic dogs back to their kennels. No one denies that the masses -have the desire to be treated as the equals of their masters (very -inconveniently for the latter), but it is quite another matter whether -their desire ought to be gratified. Social reconstruction, in other -words, must be motivated by other considerations than those by which -according to Marx the great change is to come about. - -I have not stopped to consider whether the Socialistic scheme is -workable, whether the run of mankind are capable of coöperative effort -on a large scale without the preëminent leadership of master minds; -whether Socialism, if carried out, would really breed, as it is -expected to, the sentiment of ideal brotherhood; whether the sentiment -of brotherhood itself, unless it be rooted in the closer family and -national ties, is morally sound, whether the emotional forces that -sweep through and overwhelm large aggregations of men, can be bridled -and sufficiently enlightened to promote the ends of Socialism. All such -questions as these touch the feasibility of the ideal proposed; my own -reaction was and is against the ideal _itself_. Instead of pronouncing -as some do that mankind are not yet ripe to carry out so high an -ideal, I found myself seriously challenging and finally rejecting the -very ideal on the ground that it is not a genuine moral ideal at all. -It is ethically spurious, because it omits the notion of right and -substitutes for it that of power. - -A different objection lies against certain modifications of Socialism -and against many of the social reform movements of our time. In -these movements the idea of personality is not absent as in Marx’s -theory. The inherent dignity of every human being is deeply felt, and -_per contra_ the indignity of the present condition of the greater -number. Man is worth while; and for the sake of the worth in him, the -unfavorable circumstances which stifle the promise of his nature are -to be changed. My objection in this case is that the higher spiritual -nature of man, or the notion of personality, is left indefinite and -remains vaguely in the background. It supplies indeed the initial -motive for practical efforts; but the instrumental relation of the -goods of life to the supreme good is not apprehended positively. And -thus the door is left open, as we shall presently see, for corrupting -influences to enter in. - -There seems, it is true, at first sight, considerable warrant for -demanding certain instant reforms without troubling about ulterior -spiritual ends. We are confronted in modern society with evils which -seem to require immediate abolition. Exploitation is palpably one of -them. It is the clearest possible case of trespass on personality. Why -not then demand respect simply for personality in general, without -inquiring into the nature of personality? Is it not beyond all -question dishonoring to human nature that some should be on the verge -of starvation while others are even themselves injured by excessive -possessions; that the energies of children should be exhausted by -premature toil; that adults should be worked like beasts of burden? -Why not leave in abeyance the definition of the supreme end, and -concentrate effort on the removal of these incontestable evils? - -My answer to this is, in the first place, that we cannot gain the -best leverage even for these initial reforms without a high and -defined conception of man as a spiritual being. Efforts directed -toward improving even material conditions are apt to be fluctuating, -spasmodic, and are ever in danger of dying down, unless material -improvement is seen in its relation towards something else that -commands the highest respect—implicit respect. Sympathy alone is -altogether inadequate. It often works grave harm; it is notoriously -intermittent, at one time broadly expansive and then again contracting -upon the nearest objects. Furthermore, we can at best sympathize -genuinely with only a very limited number of persons. If anyone were -to open his heart to the sufferings of all the millions of human -beings at present engaged in conflict on the battlefields of Europe; -if he were to try to realize the indirect consequences of this war; if -he were to take a still wider sweep and embrace in his imagination -the populations of India, China, and the races of Africa, the effect -upon him would be simply paralyzing. The possible effect of one’s -sympathetic action upon this huge volume of human suffering would -appear so insignificant as to make exertion on his part seem quite -irrational. We are assisted by sympathy in the matter of social reform -by the narrowness of our horizons; and even within these narrow -boundaries the efficiency of the motive depends largely upon the -transciency of the sympathetic mood. Sympathy as a permanent attitude -would disintegrate the self.[14] - -The second answer is that by ignoring the ultimate end we _install -proximate ends in its place_. The reform movements of our day abstain -from attempting to set up an ultimate good. They are content, as they -say, “to evaluate the tangible goods ready at hand.” In consequence -these tangible goods inevitably usurp the place of the supreme good. -Begin as we may with the high notion of personality, we become -materialists before we have proceeded very far, and we infect the -laboring masses with our materialism if we omit to define the relation -of proximate ends to the ultimate aim. For remember that the ultimate -end is that which prescribes the limits within which the nearer aims -are to be sanctioned,—the limit for each being the degree in which it -conduces toward the highest end. Without a goal set up, without an -explicit conception of its regulative function, the proximate ends -abound, and are likely to expand _ad indefinitum_. This is evident, -for instance, in the case of wealth-getting. The poor have not enough -wealth, the rich have too much. “Let us then redress the balance by -at least securing enough for the poor. The necessary limitations -we can discuss after they shall have at least reached the limit of -sufficiency.” But we are thus kindling the desire for wealth; and this -desire and its possible gratifications are boundless. It is in the -nature of desire to be prolific of new desire, and to aim unceasingly -at new satisfactions. First, a decent dwelling, sufficient food, -education for the children, are wanted, then luxury, then millions, -then multi-millions. Secondary motives take the place of primary ones. -Wealth becomes a token; the satisfactions it gives are no longer -related to actual wants or needs, but solely to a fantastic desire for -preëminence. Has not this been the actual history of many of those -who have risen from poverty to great riches? But the same desires are -present, though suppressed, unsatisfied, in the masses, who look up to -the few with admiration or envy. And suppressed desires are often even -more insidiously poisoning, more contaminating in their effects than -satisfied desires. - -The psychological fact is that human volition as expressed in action -is always determined by some end. A means is never adopted without -there being some object or purpose in view. Leave out the ultimate aim -and the means become themselves the ends. A decent subsistence should -be treated as related to the ultimate end,— a decent living, for -example, as a means to fit the worker for the duties of fatherhood and -citizenship. - -It may again be urged that what has been said is true only of the -ambitious minority, and that the masses would be quite content with a -decent subsistence if only that much could be assured them. But the -prevalence of cheap imitations of luxury among the poor points in the -opposite direction. At least in a democratic community, the ambitions -of the few are apt to be contagious. And where this is not the case, as -in some of the older countries of Europe, a certain sordid Philistinism -is apt to manifest itself. The life of the middle class in Europe is -without the restless brilliance that characterizes the upward-striving -class in America,—is not daringly but meanly materialistic. Redeeming -features are, of course, not wanting, yet how anyone can conceive the -social ideal as a state of things in which the laboring people shall -be raised to the level at present occupied by the “middle class” is -difficult for me to understand. Nor is it a sufficient rejoinder to -say that the present complexion of the middle class, its narrowness -and Philistinism, are due to isolation from the social classes -beneath them, and that the broad sentiment of universal fellowship -and fraternity, when it shall have come to prevail, will purify the -atmosphere on the middle level. I have sufficiently indicated my doubts -as to the efficiency and soundness of what is called fraternalism. - -In brief, if we are to preserve a man’s respect for himself as a moral -being, we must find a ground on which he can maintain his self-esteem -apart from the material conditions in which he is placed, and in -the interval before the desirable material changes can possibly be -accomplished. This interval is certain to be long. The betterment of -social conditions is sure to be gradual. The slum ought to be abolished -immediately, but until it goes we must find a reason to respect the man -in the slums even now, and a reason why he should respect himself even -now. This reason can only be derived from the spiritual nature of man, -from the spiritual end for which he exists; and on this account, above -all others, it is indispensable that the spiritual end be defined. How -painfully social reformers may be led into error by slighting this -consideration is seen in the readiness with which some have subscribed -to the amazing opinion that the issue between chastity and dishonor for -the working-girl depends ultimately on the amount of her wages. - -There are two fallacies that affect the social reform movements of -today. The substitution of power for right is one. What I venture to -call the fallacy of provisionalism is the second. This is the fallacy -of the opportunist movements. “Lead the laboring classes provisionally -up to the level of sufficiency, or of decent existence, and then we -shall see.” But man does not act without ends, and unless we define the -ultimate end, we give license to the proximate ends. In other words, we -simply cannot act provisionally. We cannot ignore our spiritual nature -without offending against it. We may start with the idea of serving it, -but without explicit definition of it we shall presently find ourselves -disgraced in all sorts of idolatries. - -What I am trying to show is how I came to perceive the inadequacy -of the non-violation ethics. Its formula is: “Admit the existence of -personality; do not infringe upon it. In your actions for the good of -others, try to abolish the manifest infringements or violations. Since -there must be some positive content to the idea of good, accept the -material or empirical goods as the provisional content with the general -understanding that they are to be instrumental to the higher life but -without troubling to define exactly how.” - -The aberrations to which this view leads on the side of action toward -others I have pointed out. A word now as to the injurious effect on -self. Of these the following are the most important: - -1. The leader in social reform is apt to be regarded by his followers -and to think of himself as a kind of savior. It is his sincere -intention to save society from some of the glaring evils with which it -is afflicted. But if salvation is sought in the betterment of external -conditions, the social savior is apt to become the victim of a false -sense of moral security. He is likely to be off his guard at the weak -points of his own character, and to fall abruptly from high levels into -the ditch. - -2. The social reformer who adopts the fallacy of provisionalism is apt -to be absorbed in the _mechanical_ details of his work,—the settlement -or the municipal reform society, or the charitable association tend -to become highly organized and efficient pieces of machinery. But -moral idealism declines in proportion as this kind of efficiency -increases,—the salt loses its savor. - -3. The social reformer who sets his heart on external changes is apt to -become _impatient_ to bring about those changes. For since he attempts -to work from without inwardly, and not at the same time from within -outwardly, he has nothing to show for his pains unless the desired -outward changes are actually effected. In this way may be explained a -certain dictatorial manner, a certain arbitrariness sometimes observed -in social workers of whose earnestness and devotion there can be no -question, the preposterous outcome being that in attempting to carry -out plans of reform in a democratic community such reformers offend -against the very principle of democracy by over-riding the personality -of others. - -4. The Social reformer who concentrates his attention on external -changes is apt to be ambitious of large results, to measure betterment -by statistical standards. Though quality be not overlooked, _quantity_ -is likely to be over-emphasized. - -5. The painful spectacle is sometimes presented of a leader in social -movements who _goes to pieces morally in his private relations_ -(becomes a bad father, a worthless husband, an unscrupulous sponge on -his friends, etc.). Absorption in extensive public movements has this -danger in it that it often tends to make men neglectful of the nearer -duties. - -Facts of this kind, which came repeatedly under my observation in -the course of years, drove home to my mind the conviction that the -provisional method in social reform (the method of working for external -changes without definition of the end) is morally perilous, both in its -effects on those who are to be benefited, and in its reaction on the -character of the reformer himself. I parted company with opportunism in -every one of its forms; I became more and more imbued with the belief -that no one can really help others who in the effort to do so is not -himself morally helped, i.e., whose character is not improved in every -respect, who does not become a _better_ father, husband, citizen, a -more upright man in all his relations in and because of his endeavors -to benefit society. I became convinced that the ethical principle must -run like a golden thread through the whole of a man’s life, in a word, -that social reform unless inspired by the spiritual view of it, that -is, unless it is made tributary to the spiritual, the total end of -life, is not social reform in any true sense at all.[15] - -The fundamental question, therefore, echoed and re-echoed with ever -intenser insistence: “What then is the holy thing in others? What -is the supreme end or good to which all the lesser goods should be -subordinate and subservient? And what is the holy thing in me?—for -I may not spiritually sacrifice myself. My own highest good must be -achievable in agreement with that of others. What definition of the -essential end is possible that shall reconcile egoism and altruism by -transforming and transcending them? And if there be such end thinkable -and definable, how establish the applicability of this end to empirical -man, either in the person of others or in my own?” - -I shall have to dwell on this subject at length in the sequel. Here at -the outset I cannot forbear expressing my sense of the obliquities, the -folly, the meanness, the cruelties which human nature often exhibits -on the empirical side when dispassionately contemplated. That there -are also finer traits in people, gleams of gold in the quartz, I do -not deny. But even in the best exemplars of the race the alloy is -not wanting. And it is an open question how far any human being, if -his whole make-up and all the circumstances that influenced him be -considered, can be called predominantly good, assuming that goodness -is a matter of desert and not of chance. How, therefore, a being that -to actual, impartial observation reveals himself as so dubiously worth -while, can be regarded as possessing the quality of transcendent worth -(which seems to be implied in the idea of personality as inviolable -and precious) will be the starting-point of my inquiry into the -philosophical first principle in the second part of this volume. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[13] I say _caused_, but perhaps not deliberately intended, although -there are instances of the latter. An act is diabolical when -maliciously designed to inflict a wrong on another; as rape for the -purpose of dishonoring a family. It is cruelly selfish but not fiendish -when it springs from scorn of others as if they were only fractional -human beings. The Brahmin’s attitude towards the lower castes, the -attitude of the feudal lord toward the serf, of Shakespeare’s nobility -toward the common citizens, and of some modern theorists toward the -democratic multitude, are instances in point. In such cases the moral -sense itself is astray, but there is perhaps no deliberate sinning -against the light. - -[14] I have not touched upon the further question to what extent we can -really compass the happiness, except at rare moments, even of a single -human being. The altruistic philosophy is apt to confound the removal -of manifest evils with positive benefaction. But the removal of one -kind of evil lets in new kinds; and wherein then consists the gain so -far as happiness is concerned? - -[15] To ward off the most serious misunderstanding, I must remind -every reader of the chapter on Social Reform, as well as on the Hebrew -religion and on the ethics of the Gospels, that I am narrating the -phases of my own development. I am not attempting to do justice to -all that is excellent in those great religions and in these great -social movements; I am trying to show at what points, despite those -excellences, I myself felt compelled to diverge from them, to push -beyond them. In regard to Socialism I recognize the immense service -it has performed in awakening the conscience of modern society to the -sufferings of the working class. And in pointing out the dangers of -opportunism, the fallacy of provisionalism, I am speaking of dangers -from which I felt that I must escape, not casting a slur on the noble -personalities that have appeared in the field of social reform during -my own time and among my friends and acquaintances. Such personalities, -because of their inbred fineness, may be immune against tendencies -which yet undeniably exist, and which therefore require to be -explicitly apprehended. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE INFLUENCE OF MY VOCATION ON INNER DEVELOPMENT - - -The present chapter deals with my inner development as I believe it -to have been furthered by my connection with the Society for Ethical -Culture. The functions intrusted to me in this connection were, first, -various forms of so-called philanthropic activity. The effects of the -experience gathered in them has been described in a preceding chapter; -they may be summed up in the formula: littleness in the external -results achieved, consciousness of moral danger to self. - -Secondly, the ministerial function of offering “edification” in public -addresses to Sunday assemblies, the solemnizing of marriages, and -the conducting of funeral services,—while in addition a large part -of my vocational life consisted in the building up of an educational -institution.[16] - -_The Public Addresses._ Edification, or building up, as I understood -it, involved the profoundly difficult task of supplying a working -philosophy of life without traveling into the field of metaphysics, -teaching the practicable counterpart of a connected system of thought -concerning the problems of life,—the system being so firmly knit as to -make the appropriate feelings and impulses more or less natural to its -exponent. In my case, not having fallen heir to such a system, the task -of edification became doubly difficult. It meant from the beginning -unceasing self-edification, with a view to edifying others.[17] Setting -out with a general scheme along Kantian lines, I proceeded to fill in -the outline in the course of my public teachings, with the result that -the content filled in eventually disrupted the scheme, and compelled -a thoroughgoing reconstruction. The Holiness conception had been my -starting point. I never gave it up. I was attracted to Kant because -he affirmed it. I broke with him because he does not make good his -affirmation. - -I began with Kantianism, which is predominantly individualistic, and I -found that in dealing with the problems of the family, with the labor -question, and in the attempt to reach an ideal of democracy beyond -the materialistic conception of it which is at present current—I -was introducing into my initial sketch elements incompatible with -individualism, and necessitating formulation in social terms. And since -I retained and stressed the notion of personality, I had to seek a way -of interpreting the term Social spiritually, as Kant had undertaken to -interpret the term individual spiritually. I certainly could not fall -in with Darwinism or other evolutionary interpretations of sociality, -inasmuch as they all leave out the concept of inviolable personality, -the indefeasible factor in my ethical thinking. - -These things are here alluded to in order to emphasize the influence -of the public Sunday addresses delivered by me regularly for more than -forty years in stimulating, I had almost said forcing, my ethical -growth. To care for anyone else enough to make his problem one’s own -is ever the beginning of one’s real ethical development. To care for -a group of people in the sense of being challenged to suggest to -them ideas and ways of behavior that shall really be of use to them -in the storm and stress of life, is the most searching incentive to -self-development imaginable. It is more powerful than the desire to -get truth for one’s own sake. The closet philosopher may be serious -enough in his search for truth, and he may succeed in constructing a -symmetrical system which at the time seems complete. Will it stand wear -and tear? Will it in the bitter moments of his life hold together? If -not, he has failed; but then he only is the loser, it is only his ship -that has gone down. But the situation is different when a company of -people venture with you on the same voyage, and trust to you as in a -way their pilot. - -The challenge that comes from the expectant eyes of those who are in -trouble, of those whose relations to their friends or the members of -their family have become tangled, the challenge that comes from the -larger public towards which every public speaker has a certain ethical -duty—all these challenges press home the question: are the things that -you believe true, so true that you may confidently expect them to be -confirmed by the experience of those who in some measure depend upon -you? Are they genuinely of use? - -There is also another kind of challenge that in a way is even more -taxing and searching: the silent appeal that comes from those who are -spiritually dead, from those who are sunk in sloth or sensuality, or -who waste their precious days in the pursuit of trivial, frivolous -ends, and from the insensitive consciences of the self-righteous and -the self-complacent. In the Bible we read that the prophet Elisha -once threw himself on the body of a dead child, in order with his own -life to kindle there the life that seemed extinct. In some such way -in public addresses, in which it is not the word but the personality -behind the word that counts, the speaker is bound to throw himself -body and soul, as it were, upon those who are spiritually numbed, and -to _enhance the life within himself_ in order to stir up life in them. -All of which means that the task of edifying others involves continuous -efforts at self-edification. - -_The Solemnizing of Marriages._ In solemnizing marriages I had -the experience that some of those at which I had officiated ended -disastrously,—there had been no real marriage at all. Though such -instances were not numerous in my own experience, yet the statistics -of divorce prove that the number of unfortunate marriages in this -and other countries is very large, and is increasing. What are -the foundations of a permanent relation such as would tend to the -development of personality in and through marriage? was the question -urged upon me. Here is a social tie in which two individuals, and later -the offspring, are combined in the closest propinquity. How can an -ethical theory of marriage be reached, that is, a theory dependent -on the idea of the joint realization of the highest end of life by -the members of the family group? This ethical theory of marriage will -be set forth in a subsequent part of this volume. Here I wish again -to mark the retroactive effect of the function I was called upon to -exercise in the Ethical Society on the development of theory. The most -incisive effect of my practical experience, however, was the being -compelled to encounter the effect of _frustration_. How reluctant is -the natural man to face this fact! How he shrinks, and puts up screens -between his face and the head of Medusa! In my earliest marriage -addresses I remember how I used to describe the relation as one in -which each of the partners receives the cup of happiness at the hands -of the other. The second time I performed the ceremony, the bride -was the only child of excellent friends, whose life was completely -wrapped up in their one daughter. She was a charming young girl, and -the bridegroom was a fine-grained person entirely devoted to her. That -marriage feast I shall never forget. A little less than a year after, -the young wife having died in child-birth, I was called in to speak -at her bier. Where, then, was the exchange of happiness? How suddenly -had the house of bliss fallen into ruins! A similar experience that -touched me even more deeply was that of a friend, the first one among -my associates who believed with me in the possibility of a religious -society without a dogmatic creed. The course of love in his case had -not run smooth. The marriage between himself and the lovely young -woman he wedded was the happy culmination of many trials, a haven -of peace after storms. Hardly more than two years elapsed when he -suddenly developed a fatal form of mental disease, and lingered for -ten years in a long, slow, degrading decline. I thus became acquainted -with frustration in one of its most woeful shapes. I remember how the -poor young wife, during those ten years, widow in all but name, sought -alleviation in various directions for her intolerable grief. Work to -occupy her mind was one; caring for the needs of the poor another. I -remember also how futile these devices seemed. She had lived “on the -heights”; she must now descend to lower levels; she had had first best, -she must now put up with second or third best. Gladly indeed would she -have exchanged places with some of the poor women whom she assisted, -could she have kept her husband at her side as they had theirs. It was -well enough for her to try to alleviate the troubles of these people, -but what were their sorrows compared to hers? And to keep the mind -occupied by work, what was it at best but a temporary anodyne? When -the work was over, in the still, lonely hours of the night, the storm -of grief would break with all the greater violence. I had not taught -these my friends a really valid spiritual conception of the purpose -of marriage: I had failed in that: and when they were in need of it -they did not have it to support them. They had looked on marriage as a -scene of felicity; they had not been taught to make allowance for the -frustration. - -I had not made preparation for the palpable frustrations just -mentioned, nor yet for others, for the discovery that the beloved -person is faulty, that the nimbus of divine personality does not -coincide with the character. And especially did the lack of any -explicit idea of personality prove fatal in those cases where the -frustration is most serious, where real or apparent incompatibilities -appear, or where actual degeneration occurs, and the hope of -regeneration becomes remote. - -_Bereavement_ was the second shape in which the fact of frustration -most often came home to me. Hundreds of times I have spoken to people -in the moment of the last leave-taking. The usual consolations, aside -from those that depend on mythological beliefs, are: Submit to the -inevitable; clinch your teeth and face the storms of fate. Remember -the debt you owe to the living. There is work that remains for you -to do. See to it that you do not by excessive grieving destroy your -capacity for work. Instead of indulging in sorrow for your own loss, -take upon yourself the sorrows of others. In particular it is uplifting -for one who has been more severely afflicted to take upon himself the -sorrow of those whose burden is lighter. Be grateful for what you have -possessed. Think not so much of what you have lost, as of what you were -privileged for a season to call your own. Make the virtues of those -who are no longer living a force for good in your own life. Paint the -portrait of your friend incessantly. Retouch it. Eliminate what was of -merely transient value in him. Remember him in the light of his best -qualities, and live so as to be able to endure his purified glance. -Or, in the case of those whose lives were stained, seek to expiate -their faults in your life. Purify and perpetuate them in this way -in yourself. Memory is not a mere passive receptacle, it is rather -a creative faculty. Let it play upon the lives that are no longer -sensibly present, and thus maintain the connection with them. A friend -living across the sea, whom you will never see again, may yet be a -living presence for you if you continue by the aid of memory to be in -communication with him. In the case of the departed, likewise, their -effectual influence may remain none the less real. - -These various modes of consolation have each a certain value. To -the one last mentioned I attach the greatest value. Bereavement is -a challenge for a fresh start in spiritual development. It should -not mean putting up with the second best, but reaching out toward -first best. The object to be achieved by the ethical teacher on such -occasions is to help the bereaved to tie anew the threads that have -been sundered, or rather to substitute a more ethereal but firmer tie -for the contacts mediated by the senses. But this task of the reweaving -of ties, spiritually, not sensibly, depends entirely for its success -upon a spiritual conception of personality. And if this be lacking, the -attempt is hopeless. Frustration itself must be recognized as partial -if it is to lead beyond itself. There must be found in man that which -cannot be defeated if the defeat is not to be accepted as final. - -A third kind of frustration was brought home to me by the problem of -specialization, as it presented itself in the course of my efforts to -work out an ethical theory true to the facts of life. To discharge -competently my own special function, I saw that I ought to be -acquainted with the best ethical thought of the past. This meant an -exhaustive study of the philosophical systems of which the ethical -thought of the philosophers is the fruit. I ought further to be -familiar with the great religions, in which so much of the ethical -insight of mankind is incorporated. I ought to acquaint myself with -the moral history of mankind in so far as it is accessible, including -that of the primitive races. I ought to gain a survey of the variations -of moral opinion that have so staggered belief in the possibility of -ethical truth. I ought to master at least the general principles of the -physical and biological sciences, since it is impossible that the first -principles of ethics should not be related to the governing principles -that obtain in other departments of knowledge. I ought in addition to -master in their ethical aspect the economic and political problems of -the present day, as well as the psychology of individual and social -life, in order to be able to apply with some degree of competence the -directives of ethics to actual conduct. There are in addition other -subjects, such as jurisprudence, poetry and the fine arts, that have -ultimate relation to ethics, and that may not safely be neglected. -Behold, then, the problem of specialism in one of its most appalling -forms. For how can any one individual hope to adequately fill out such -a programme? And what I have said is but my own personal illustration -of a general problem that more and more besets every reflective person -in our time. And it is a problem that has direct bearings upon the -question of human personality. The personality is not a detached and -isolated thing. It is a center that radiates out in every possible -direction, and depends for the release of its energy on the influences -received in turn from all directions. On the one hand, to have a -footing at all in reality one must be a specialist, and the fields of -specialism are becoming more and more restricted. To know one thing -well is the indispensable condition of the sense of mastery, yes, of -self-respect. And yet it seems to be becoming increasingly clear that -one cannot really master a single specialty without knowing of other -specialties whatsoever is related to one’s own. Narrowness, and loss -of power, and consequent decay of the special function itself, seems -the one alternative. Dilettantism, the other. But again I ask, who can -actually fill out such a programme? The frustration of effort thus -appears, in its intellectual guise, as one more manifestation of that -general fact of frustration which we meet with wherever we turn.[18] - -On the side of character the same reflections occur. Unity in the -direction of distinctiveness or uniqueness is the end and aim. -But instead of unity of character, conflict of inner tendencies, -ever-recurrent rupture of provisional harmonies, a duality of self -or multiplicity of selves, are the facts attested by one’s inner -experience. And frustration here, at the core of a man’s being, is -perhaps more painful and more seemingly contradictory of the very ideal -and purpose of ethical development than in any of the forms previously -recorded. - -The last instance of frustration that I will mention appears in -connection with the cosmic relation of our race. The thought of the -death of the individual may be overcome by the idea of perpetuity in -the lives of successors. The death of the human race, its eventual -extinction, is capable of no such assured compensation. We are ethical -beings, committed to the pursuit of an ideal end, yet the cosmic -conditions are such as to make the end unattainable within the limits -of a finite world. This unattainableness of the end it is true is the -very ground and foundation of the supersensible interpretation of -ethical experience. Yet this thought itself can only be made good by a -positive interpretation of personality (of the spiritual nature), which -we are yet to seek. As viewed empirically, the human generations are -but accidents of nature, waves on the sea of life, passing shadows. And -viewing ourselves in this manner our self-respect goes to pieces. The -idea of obligation vanishes. Man’s claim to infinite worth is bitterly -mocked. Unless we can reach the spiritual view of life, the frustration -of purpose in the large, that is, of humanity as a whole, is final. - -These then, summarily stated, are the problems with which an ethical -philosophy of life has to deal. - -1. How to remedy the belittlement of man, the infinitesimal -insignificance of him as a creature of time and space, when compared -with the immensities of the world around him—its spatial and temporal -immensities. What is man in the presence of these myriads of worlds, of -this unending procession of time that he should attribute to himself -significance, nay, worth? Is he perhaps an infinitesimal member of an -Infinite?—preserving in this way the sense of his littleness, and of -the vastness that bears down upon him, and yet maintaining himself -irrefragably at his station, as indispensable to the perfection of the -whole. - -2. How to discover a way of retaining the connection between man and -the lower forms of life that preceded him, not doing violence to the -facts which the evolutionists have brought out, and yet at the same -time assuring man’s spiritual distinction? Does he perhaps possess in -his ethical nature a window, so to speak, through which he can catch at -least a glimpse of the ultimate reality, of the infinite life which is -the real life, behind the picture screen of sea and mountain, plants -and animals? - -3. How to overcome the various types of frustration mentioned above: -frustration on its intellectual side, or the reconciliation of -specialist efficiency with breadth and relatedness; frustration on the -character side. - -Frustration in the social relations, as in marriage, or as in the case -of defective children. - -Frustration through bereavement, or the privation suffered by the going -out of our life of lives with which we are inseparably connected by -ethical as well as affectional ties. - -Frustration in the attempt to carry out projects of social betterment; -on what moral ground to assert the possible moral value of life in the -slums today, and at the same time to put forth and to stimulate the -most assiduous efforts to abolish the slum; on what grounds to affirm -that the best life is possible under the worst conditions, and yet not -to cease or for an instant relax the effort to change the conditions. - -The problem of how to support and console the wretched multitudes -of mankind in the interval that must elapse before the reform of -conditions can take real effect; the problem of support and consolation -in fatal sickness, on the deathbed, and in the harrowing recollection -of irremediable and irrevocable wrong done to others; the problem -raised by the prospective extinction, or the possible old age and -degeneration before extinction of mankind—all these problems should be -taken together, not one, for instance the so-called social problem, -accentuated, leaving the rest out of sight. From one peg they all -hang, on one cardinal idea they all depend—the idea of personality -as positively defined, of the holy thing as not merely inviolable -without regard to its content, but inviolable because of a certain -positive content. The ascription of worth to man, in this sense, is the -fundamental problem of all, and to the full discussion of this we shall -turn in the constructive part of the volume which is now to follow. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[16] See the published accounts of the Ethical Culture School. - -[17] The word “edification” as commonly used has a sentimental flavor. -It does not as a rule convey the idea of constructiveness at all. It -frequently suggests a kind of warm, moist, semi-tropical atmosphere for -the emotions of the hearer to simmer in. But in its genuine meaning of -“building up” it is too valuable a word to lose. - -[18] A new conception of culture is needed, based neither on exclusive -specialism, nor on the ambition to know everything after the manner of -Goethe in his early days, and such a conception of culture must supply -the foundation of an educational philosophy. - - - - - BOOK II - - PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTORY REMARKS: CRITIQUE OF KANT - - -I begin my statement of the ethical ideal with a critique of Kant. -The reason for this is that Kant stands forth preëminent among all -philosophers as the one who emphatically asserts that the attribute -of inviolability attaches to every human being, in his formula that -_every_ man is to be treated as an end _per se_, and never to be -used as a mere tool by others. The formula as thus worded by him is -subject to grave objections which will be dealt with later on. But the -grand conception of the moral worthwhileness of all men is specially -connected with the name of Kant. Did he succeed, on the basis of his -system, in establishing this conception? He seems to make it the -corner-stone of his ethics. Is the corner-stone secure? - -Referring again to my individual development, I should find it -difficult to express how much Kant’s _Metaphysik der Sitten_ and -_Kritik der praktischen Vernunft_ at one time meant to me. - -The one ethical fact of which I was so to speak perfectly assured, -the “inviolability” so often mentioned in previous chapters, is -extremely hard to justify to the thinking mind. The empirical school -of philosophers scoff at the very notion of it. The practice of the -world is a perpetual, painful evidence of the small attention paid -to it, and even idealistic philosophers from Plato down have found it -quite possible to construct quasi-ethical systems based on the idea, -not of human equality, but of the inferiority of the greater number. -In Kant, however, one encounters an epoch-making philosopher who not -only accepts as a fact the idea of inviolability, and of the kind of -equality that goes with it, but who undertakes to set it forth in such -a manner as to command the assent of the reason. For a long time I -believed that he had succeeded in his great enterprise; and it was only -after years of discipleship, not indeed without suppressed misgivings, -that I began to see that I had been mistaken. - -My eyes were opened when I realized certain extremely questionable -moral consequences to which his doctrine led him: for instance, his -unspeakable theory of marriage, his defense of capital punishment, -the stiff individualism of his system, and his failure to establish -an instrumental connection between the empirical goods, of wealth, -culture, and the like, and the supreme good or supreme end as defined -by him. I was forced by these unsound conclusions to ask myself whether -the foundations of the system are sound. Surely if it is true of any -system of thought, it is true of an ethical system that it must be -judged by its fruits. The Kantian system is indeed vastly impressive, -and even sublime in some of its aspects. We travel on the road along -which Kant leads with a certain sense of exaltation, but when at the -end of our journey we find that we have reached a goal at which we -cannot consent to abide, it is imperative to inquire whether the point -of departure was well taken. - -The point of departure in Kant’s exposition is the existence in all men -of a sense of duty. Moral relations subsist only between moral beings. -All men possess a sense of duty,—therefore all men are moral beings, -therefore all are morally equal,—therefore no one may be used as a mere -tool for the benefit of others, but is to be treated as worth while on -his own account. Thus runs the argument. - -The sense of duty is the consciousness of being bound to render -implicit obedience to a categorical imperative. Our rational nature -tells us categorically what is right to do. Our rational nature issues -absolute commands. The sense of duty is man’s response to them. Kant -does not for a moment imply that either he or anyone else has ever -adequately obeyed. The moral dignity, the moral equality of men, does -not depend on the obedience but on the consciousness of the obligation -to obey—on acknowledged subjection to the command. The actual moral -performances of some men are certainly better than those of others; but -of no one, not even of the best of men, can it be shown that the moral -principle in its purity, that is, unadulterated by baser incentives, -was ever the actuating motive of his conduct. The different members of -the human species differ morally in degree, but are of the same moral -kind, being distinguished from the lower animals not because they obey -the moral law, but because they recognize the obligation to obey it. -This sort of consciousness may be dim in some, but it exists in all. -The most brutal murderer is dimly aware of the holy law which he has -transgressed. - -The great dictum of the universal moral equality of mankind is thus -made to depend on an assumed fact. If this fact can be successfully -disputed, the dictum itself is imperilled. It has been disputed, not -flippantly, but most seriously, and it is in my opinion obnoxious to -fatal objections. I do not indeed believe it possible to establish the -negative, to wit, that the sense of duty does not lurk somewhere, is -not latent somewhere in the consciousness of persons morally the most -obtuse; but I hold it to be impossible to prove the affirmative, to -wit, that a sense of duty does exist in all human beings, even in the -most degraded. Kant’s dictum of equality depends on making good the -affirmative proposition, but this he has failed to do. - -One circumstance especially which at first sight seems favorable to -Kant’s contention turns against him. He has been assailed on the -ground that his categorical imperative is a fiction, that no such -an imperative plays a rôle in the actual experience of men. On the -contrary, the actual experience of men is replete with categorical -imperatives. Nothing in the life of man plays a greater rôle than these -imperatives. The danger that threatens Kant’s demonstration is due -to the number of rival categoricals that compete with his, and from -which the one he sets up is not with certainty distinguishable. To put -the matter simply, what is called in technical language a categorical -imperative is nothing else than a way of acting somehow felt by the -individual to be obligatory upon him, whether he likes it or dislikes -it. It is a constraint in which he is bound to acquiesce, a public rule -of some sort which overrides his private propensities. - -Constraints of this sort are numerous. Many of them no one would think -of designating as moral. Some are distinctly antimoral. I will mention -a few:—for instance, the rules of behavior derived from the _tabu_ -notion. Certain kinds of food may not be eaten; certain objects like -the Ark of the Covenant in David’s time may not be touched.[19] Strict -_tabus_ obtain in regard to marriage such as the rules of endogamy and -exogamy. Certain persons may not even be looked at. A feeling of horror -is felt toward those who transgress these rules; and the transgression -of them is often considered far more reprehensible than a moral sin. -It would evidently be absurd to characterize a Hottentot or a Fiji -Islander as the moral equal of a civilized man on the ground that, like -the latter, he possesses the sense of duty, consisting in his case -of an unquestioning acknowledgment of the categorical imperative of -_tabus_. - -Gang loyalty is another instance in point. In one of our prisons a -certain convict is at present paying the penalty of a crime which was -really committed by one of his pals. He could have got off scot free -if he had “squealed.” But “squealing” is contrary to the honor code of -the gang and he preferred to sacrifice his liberty rather than prove -recreant to the claims of gang loyalty. There are some writers who hold -that this is an instance of morality, genuine as far as it goes, but -restricted within too narrow a circle. The fact that it is restricted -within too narrow a circle, that fidelity to a few is compatible with -violent hostility against the community at large, seems to me to -prove that the moral quality is absent. Morality is either universal -or nothing. Gang loyalty is a social phenomenon, but not an ethical -phenomenon. The distinction between the two terms will be enforced -later on. In any event the sense of constraint is manifest. The moral -character of the constraint I deny. - -Another example of an imperative which is categorical enough but -at the same time non-ethical is furnished by Darwin’s well-known -explanation of the original of conscience. He assumes that certain -ways of behaving which our ancestors found to be socially useful, have -become registered as it were in our organisms, and constitute a kind -of race-consciousness which persists in each individual. This latent -consciousness is potent as a tendency, though often not masterful -enough to repress the recalcitrant egoistic impulses. A conflict -ensues. The deep ingrained tendency makes itself felt. And as social -beings we are aware that we ought to side with it. But the egoistic -impulses break out on the surface of consciousness and vehemently -urge us in the opposite direction. The feeling of obligation, and -thereafter of remorse, are the record of the inner struggle. I do not -here undertake to discuss at length the truth of Darwin’s theory. -There are a number of weak spots in it, to which I shall merely allude -in passing. First, he speaks of acts found to be socially useful in -primitive communities. Is it possible to show that the same or similar -acts retain their utility in a developed industrial society like that -of the present day? Is not the term “socially useful” extremely vague, -and can the notion implied in it be expanded without the assistance -of a truly ethical principle?[20] Then again, why should the thing -called social utility overawe the individual mind and thwart individual -purpose? Why should not the daring egotist affirm his right to be and -flourish in the present hour, in the teeth of social utility? It will -be said that the claims are insistent, that the tendency is ingrained, -that it has become instinctive in him, and that he cannot release -himself from the control it exercises over him. But instincts can be -weakened and in time extinguished, like the fear of the dark, when -the absence of an objective cause is recognized. Why should not the -altruistic impulse likewise, by the method of Freudian analysis, if you -please, be exposed to the light, and the egotist thereby be enabled to -disembarrass himself of the interference of dead ancestors in his life -purposes, and to proceed on his way undisturbed by any inward qualms? - -These examples serve to illustrate the point with which we are here -concerned, namely, that the presence and operation of undoubted -constraints does not establish the existence in all men of the sense -of duty on which Kant founds universal moral equality. Kant would -indeed object that all these so-called constraints or imperatives are -hypothetical, and not really categorical. By an hypothetical imperative -he understands one in which the command depends upon an “if”—_if_ there -be invisible spirits such as primitive men imagined, then the rules of -_tabu_ follow. _If_ the safety of the gang is an object of commanding -interest, then gang loyalty is obligatory. _If_ the preservation and -prosperity of human society in general (a society superior to that -of ants and of bees indeed but like them a product of nature and not -radically distinct from them) be regarded as the supreme end of desire -and endeavor, then the rules of social behavior are to be obeyed. But, -he would say, none of these objects are fit to rank so high. They all -are optional ends. An hypothetical imperative is one in which the end -pursued is optional, the imperative extending only to the means. If the -end be desired, then it is reasonable, and in so far imperative, that -we adopt the means that lead to its attainment. An imperative truly -categorical, however, is one in which the obligation extends to the end -proposed as well as to the means. It is not left to our inclination to -embrace or to refuse the end, it being of such a kind as absolutely to -constrain us to accept it. - -But if this be so, then in this first part of our criticism we turn -upon Kant and declare that he has nowhere given us reason to believe -that the acceptance of an absolute end is implied in the kind of -constraints to which the generality of men submit. And again if such -acceptance cannot be proved, then the universal moral equality of men -based by him on the presence in all of the sense of duty disappears, -and his lofty ethical structure breaks down at this point. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[19] See II Samuel, VI, 6, 7. - -[20] Primitive communities valued coöperation because it was socially -useful. But there are different kinds of coöperation. Which kind shall -we of today adopt? The mere idea of coöperation affords no clue. The -self-sacrifice of the individual to the whole of which he is a part is -socially useful. But on what occasions and to what degree is it useful? -Altruism is socially useful. We are to serve others. But what in them -shall we serve? Their physical needs, their intellectual needs, all -their needs together? Is that humanly possible? Here again an ethical -principle is required to define the quality and the limits of the -service. The latent race-consciousness of which Darwin speaks affords -no light on the ethical problems proper. The concept of social utility, -if not valueless, is at best only of subsidiary value in any attempt to -solve these problems. So far from reading once and for all the riddle -of conscience, Darwin has not read aright the terms of the riddle. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -CRITIQUE OF KANT (_Continued_) - - -I now proceed to the second point of criticism, which strikes at the -heart of Kant’s ethics. Man according to Kant is worth while on his -own account (an end _per se_), never to be used as a mere tool or -thing. He is a person, an object towards whom we are bound to evince -absolute respect. Yet Kant immediately goes on to say that there is -no object in all the world, neither man nor any other, that is worth -while on its own account, that deserves such respect. Kant’s views -of actual human nature are tinged with somber pessimism. (Compare -the chapter on Radical Evil in his _Religion Within the Limits of -Pure Reason_.) A strange paradox is thus presented to us. Man is -to be accepted as a worth while object, and yet there is no worth -while object. How does Kant seek to escape from this predicament? He -says, not the man primarily, but something that happens in the man, -is supremely significant: certain acts are worth while on their own -account,—the agent only in so far as he performs such acts (or, let -us add with a sigh, as he tries to perform them)—namely, acts which -have as their sole motive respect for universal law. Then he informs -us that similar processes occur in other agents, in fellow human -beings, or, more precisely, that these others are capable of trying to -act as I myself feel bound to try to act. Consider how far fetched -is the argument, on what wavering foundations has been placed the -ethical pronouncement of human worth and human equality in which our -interest is so profoundly engaged. We do wish to be assured of this -cardinal truth. No other truth is practically and theoretically of -greater importance. As against the iniquitous practices of the world, -as against the exploitation of labor, as against the degradation of -woman, as against political tyranny whether exercised by kings or by -mobs, we raise up for our shield the indefeasible worth of men—not of -some men but of all men. And now, behold! the thinker to whom we owe -the forcible expression of this truth seems to have left it in the air. -I scrutinize my neighbors, and find in their behavior no sure sign of -real worth. I fall back on myself and I discover what? The idea of an -act which, if I could perform it, would stand on its own merits (would -be self-justified). I then find that I am bound to try to perform such -acts. I cannot affirm that in a single instance I have ever performed -such an act. I next infer—on what tenuous ground has been shown in -the last chapter—that my fellow-beings have the same inner experience -as mine. And it is for this reason that by a circuitous inference I -declare them to be worth while objects. - -That Kant has formulated a truth of the utmost importance for -mankind (that no man is to be treated as a mere tool), seems to me -incontestable. That he has not made good his own proposition is my -contention, and that the whole problem must therefore be taken up -_de novo_. It will assist us in doing so to expose the flaw in his -categorical imperative, or the formal principle of universality and -necessity applied to human actions, which in his view imprints upon -them the character of absolute rightness. - -Note that Kant approaches the problems of ethics from the side of -physical science, and with the bias of the physical scientist. The -ethical principle he sets up, the bare idea of universal necessity or -of law in general, is derived by way of abstraction from the particular -laws of nature. It is a physical principle in disguise. To understand -Kant’s system, it is simply indispensable to keep this point in mind. -He was pre-occupied during the major portion of his life with profound -speculations on scientific subjects. The title of the _Critique of -Pure Reason_ might not be inappropriately changed into “A treatise on -the fundamental assumptions of science, as handled by Newton and his -successors.” He was undeniably interested in ethics. His ultimate aim -was to clear the way for the confident holding of ethical principles. -(See the Preface to the _Critique of Pure Reason_.) But he could not -divest himself of the prejudice of his temperament and of his lifelong -pursuit. He is not singular in this respect. To borrow the first -principle of ethics from some other field is a common and apparently -ineradicable error. Mechanics, æsthetics, and recently biology, have -been laid under contribution for this purpose. A consistent attempt to -study ethical phenomena on their own ground, to mark off what is really -distinctive in the data of ethical experience, and then to search for -some principle which shall serve to give a coherent account of them, -has to my knowledge never yet been undertaken. Always ethics has been -treated as an annex to some other discipline. Always we behold the -attempt to assimilate before the distinctive traits and characteristics -have been carefully investigated. Never yet has the independence of -this wonderful aspect of human nature been truly acknowledged. Kant -indeed freed ethics from its long tutelage to theology; but he left -it still in subjection, subject to his own favorite study, physical -science. - -But though the notion of necessity, together with that of universality, -which he derived from physics was employed by him as a fundamental -principle of rightness in conduct, the principle itself insensibly, and -as it would seem unbeknown to himself, underwent a remarkable change -in the course of his undertaking to give it a new application. The -following brief comments will serve to elucidate this point. - -In physics, whenever an antecedent phenomenon has been exactly -described, and a sequent phenomenon is defined in the same fashion, -the connection is pronounced to be necessary—as for instance the -transformation of mechanical energy into heat, and conversely. A -single carefully guarded experiment may suffice to establish the -necessary nexus between two phenomena. And after having established -the necessity, we are confident of the universality. If exceptions -should occur and contravene the supposed law, the calculations or the -observations are to be corrected. But never in physical science do -we start from universality and predict necessity therefrom. Kant in -his ethics invariably couples together the two terms Universal and -Necessary. But he reverses the procedure of science, he _begins with -the universality and thereupon affirms the necessity_. - -Universality is for him the test of moral necessity. If an act can be -universalized, the performance of it, according to him, is morally -necessary. For instance, the question is asked, Is it right to kill? -Look at the act of killing, says Kant, and see whether it can be -universalized, that is to say, whether if everybody felt at liberty to -kill, the act of the murderer would or would not be self-defeating? He -kills in order to affirm his life at the expense of another’s. If his -action were to be generally imitated, his own life would be forfeit, -or at least in danger, and he would be annulling what he intends to -affirm. Hence murder is morally wrong: to sacredly respect the life of -others is right. - -But not only is the order reversed, so that necessity follows on the -heels of universality, but the very meaning of the term necessity is -altered. _A logical necessity is substituted for a physical necessity._ -The idea of necessity as handled by physical science denotes the -connection between one thing and something else. It is not the thing -itself but its relation to some other thing that is necessary. It is -not the phenomenon A nor the phenomenon B, in the case of a cause -and its effect, that is declared to be necessary, but the sequence -of B on A, the circumstance that B is tied up to A, must follow in -its wake. But the term Necessity as used by Kant in his _Ethics_, -denotes a relation of a thing to itself. It is in fact equivalent to -self-consistency, which is a logical notion derived from the principle -of self-identity. A is A, and it is not thinkable that it should -be non-A. Similarly Kant says: If a man desires to affirm his life, -that is, to be self-preserving, it is not thinkable, it would not be -rational or logical on his part, to perform an act which would be -self-defeating. Kant does not say that a man might not irrationally -take another man’s life, regardless of the consequences to himself; he -says that as a rational intelligence acting on purely logical motives -he could not do so.[21] To repeat, then, physical necessity is a -relation of one thing to another thing: the logical necessity involved -in self-consistency is a relation of a thing to itself. - -My next contention, and this touches the root of the matter, is -that the notion of end is incompatible with self-consistency as the -paramount principle in ethics. For a self-consistent rational being -is a being in harmony with himself, one who if this harmony should in -some unaccountable way ever be broken would by his own endeavor seek -to return to himself. (Kant declares that the morality of any one man -cannot be affected by his fellows, by any influence from the outside; -it must be his own act.) But an end presupposes some outside object -as a means: means and ends are inseparable correlatives. On the other -hand, an entity which merely affirms itself, or if somehow alienated -from self endeavors without assistance from beyond its sphere to -return to itself, is no true end at all, and cannot be designated as -such. It is no end because it employs no means. - -What warrant then has Kant for introducing the foreign notion of end -into a world of pure self-consistency? When we use the term Necessity -in relation to physical phenomena, as of cause and effect, we assert -unalterable sequence, unity of temporal and spatial differentiæ. -When we use the same term as Kant uses it, we assert the unity of a -thing with itself. But this in the nature of the case does not admit -the intrusion of the alien concept of the outside. The spiritual -society or pattern to which human society ought to be conformed, is -according to Kant a society of ends, of ends _per se_. This is his -great pronouncement. But the very idea on which he lays so much stress, -the idea of end, on closer scrutiny of his premises disappears. The -entities composing that society are self-sufficing, and moreover -intrinsically unrelated to each other. Rational self-preservation is -the only character that can be predicated of any of them. - -I have laid stress on the fact that Kant derived his ethical principle -from his physics. The passage in which he speaks of the ethical order -as a universal and necessary order like that of nature is to my mind -conclusive. I now urge in addition that this sort of second nature -superimposed upon existing nature would not have to our contemplating -minds a dignity superior to that of physical nature. The moral order -as thus exhibited would not possess the worth we attribute to it as -exalted above what is called the natural order. The falling stone is -a perfect illustration of physical necessity. Necessity passed through -human consciousness, or bathed in human consciousness, is not on that -account a more eligible principle. Nay, since human consciousness -interferes and causes contingent actions, due to passion, appetite, -etc., the moral order constructed by men should be even less worth -while than the physical order of nature, if indeed necessity be the -touchstone of worth.[22] - -To summarize: according to Kant man as an object is unfit to warrant -the claim of unconditional obligation on the part of others toward -himself. An abstract principle must be sought. This principle is -universality, and necessity based on universality. Respect for this -purely abstract notion is that which alone imparts a moral quality to -so-called moral acts. We start, according to Kant, with the declaration -that man is an end _per se_. But we reject him as an object, and take -refuge in a formal principle. We then assume that every human being is -conscious of the working within himself of this formal principle and -acknowledges his subjection to it, whether he is able to analyze it out -or not. And thus indirectly we derive out of emptiness a ray of glory -which we allow to fall upon each and every man. - -The question now is, since this approach to the ethical problem -manifestly fails, must we not begin at the opposite end, and take the -attribution of worth to men, however unworthy they may actually be, as -our starting-point? - -FOOTNOTES: - -[21] He also assumes a society not only of rational intelligences -determined by the same rational motives, but equal in ability to carry -out their motives. (See my article in _Mind_ [new series, Vol. XI, No. -42, p. 162], reprinted in the volume dedicated to William James, by the -Philosophical Faculty of Columbia University.) - -[22] Surefootedness, or certainty in thinking and in acting seems -to have been the chief desideratum at which Kant aimed. As against -scepticism or mere empirical groping this element of the inner life is -obviously of exceeding value. But it is far from being the only element -to be taken into account. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON WORTH, AND ON THE REASONS WHY THE METHOD -EMPLOYED BY ETHICS MUST BE THE OPPOSITE OF THAT EMPLOYED BY THE -PHYSICAL SCIENCES - - -The moral equality of men is a corollary of the attribution of worth -to all men. Did we not ascribe worth to them, there is no reason why -we should not make servile use of them. But there are admittedly -formidable difficulties in the way of attributing worth to human nature. - -The first and most obvious of these is the existence of repulsive -traits in human beings, such as sly cunning, deceit, falsehood, -grossness, cruelty: _homo homini lupus_! Secondly, there is the -prevalent error of employing ethical terms, like good and bad, to -denote the merely attractive and repellent traits.[23] Attractive -traits, such as gentleness, sweetness, kindness, a sympathetic -disposition, are, in those fortunate enough to possess them, pleasing -accidents of nature. We delight in them, but have no reason to ascribe -the superlative quality of worth to those who possess them. If the evil -that men do revolts us, the so-called good in them does not give us the -right to surround their heads with the nimbus of worth. Thirdly, and -perhaps even more deterrent than the ever-present spectacle of evil -and the inadequacy of so-called goodness, is the commonplaceness, the -cheapness of men. - -It must be admitted that, with rare exceptions, our estimates of others -are apt to be low rather than lofty. Can we ascribe worth to those -whom we hold cheap? The reason of our habitual under-estimation of -fellowmen I think is that we regard them from the standpoint of the -use to which we can put them, and do not see them from the inside, -as it were, in the light of the marvelous energies of which human -nature is the scene. The grossest matter, the most ordinary physical -happenings, reveal to the instructed eye of the scientist the play of -forces which it taxes the most powerful intellects in some measure to -apprehend and describe. Yet these miracles escape the dull senses of -those of us who deal with the forces of nature from the point of view -of their immediate use. We turn on the electric light, but have little -more than a crude surmise of the things that the word electricity -meant to Faraday, Clerk Maxwell, or Hertz. And as we turn on the -electric light, so we turn on our fellowmen, as it were, to use them. -The thought of the poet—“What a piece of work is man, how infinite -in faculty!” occurs to us only at scattered moments. And yet things -transpire in the inner life of human beings far more marvelous than the -chemical processes or the flux of electric waves, did we but attend to -them. There is in particular one kind of energy to which the quality -of worth may well attach itself. It is unlike the physical forces; it -is not a transformed mode of mechanical energy. It is _sui generis_, -underivative, unique; it is synonymous with highest freedom; it is -power raised to the Nth degree. It is ethical energy. To release it -in oneself is to achieve unbounded expansion. Morality, as commonly -understood, is a system of rules, chiefly repressive. Ethical energy, -on the contrary, is determined by the very opposite tendency; a -tendency, it is true, never more than tentatively effectuated under -finite conditions. And because the energy is unique, it points toward -a unique, irreducible, hence substantive entity in man, from which it -springs. This entity is itself incognizable, yet the effect it produces -requires that it be postulated. The category of substance, which is -almost disappearing from science, is to be reinstalled in ethics. -Ethics cannot dispense with it. This, as a prelude, may suffice to -indicate the path along which we shall proceed. - - -_The Reason Why the Method of Ethics Must Be the Opposite of the Method -Employed by the Physical Sciences_ - -Physical science begins from the bottom and builds upwards. It analyzes -phenomena into their elements, and thereupon seeks to combine these -elements into structures that shall correspond to experience. In this -business it never comes to a finish. Its analysis of the elements is -provisional. Every element is hypothetical. Indeed it is plain in the -nature of the case that no element can be ultimate. An element is a -unit, and every empirical unit necessarily conceals in its bosom a -plexus of which it is the unification. The very idea of unit requires -for its complement a manifold of some kind. In hypothetical units, or -ideal constructs that have for their purpose to lead to the discovery -and arrangement of real phenomena, science abounds. Atoms, electrons, -energy conceived as a substance by Ostwald, Spencer’s physiological -units, are examples. - -The results achieved by science are never more than approximations in -the sense that the units, the bricks with which the house is built, are -liable to be rejected, and the constructions achieved are subject to -revision. - -The point however which I wish to emphasize is that the scientist is -satisfied of the truth, the reality of its partial results. Newton, -for instance, in formulating the law of gravitation has, so to speak, -marked off a strip of reality. The ground covered cannot be lost; when -some natural law is enunciated, the proper conditions for its discovery -and verification having been observed, a sure footing in reality has -been gained, science standing to this extent on _terra firma_, though -beyond the domain within which the law applies the phenomena may be -heaving and billowing like the sea. - -Now the question I am intent upon is, Why is it possible for science -to be content with partial acquisition? Why does it profess to know -positively a part without knowing the whole? And why can ethics not -take a step without an ideal of the whole? - -Kant’s chief purpose in the _Critique of Pure Reason_ was to vindicate -the certainty of the physical knowledge of a part as being compatible -with total ignorance of the whole. The older metaphysics was engaged -in the attempt to supply the whole, to sketch it out in order to -give certainty to the part that is within the reach of science. The -older metaphysics said to science: You have in hand the conditioned, -but remember the conditioned depends on the unconditioned. Unless, -therefore, you round out what you possess, with the help of the -unconditioned, the certainty you seem to have within the field of the -conditioned disappears. Again, science traces causes, and the older -metaphysicians insisted that the whole chain of causes hangs in air -unless it be attached to a first cause. Now Kant’s _Critique of Pure -Reason_ really amounts _in nuce_ to this: you do not require the whole -in order to explain the part. Link the partial phenomena together in a -certain way, a way dependent on the joint action of the space and time -intuitions and the categories, and you will gain the desired certainty. -The certainty is in the linkage. We may add link to link of the chain -of reality without troubling to consider by what piers it is supported -or on what shore the piers rest—if indeed there be piers and shores at -all. The bridge hangs over the River of Time and we can safely travel -on it. How we get on to this bridge we do not know, and where we shall -leave it we cannot know either. - -It is a mistake to speak of Kant as a rationalist pure and simple. When -he expelled the older metaphysics he antagonized pure rationalism. -The older metaphysics held that the mere existence of the conditioned -proves the existence of the unconditioned, requires the unconditioned. -In Kant’s answer to this lies the gist of his enterprise in philosophy: -You are quite right, he says, that the _idea_ of the conditioned -requires the idea of the unconditioned, logically, rationally. But -observe well, nature is not just logical or rational. There is an -irrational element in it, namely, extended manifold and temporal -sequence. Juxtaposition and sequence are irrational, because, if I -interpret him rightly, in the case of each the relation presented to -the mind is that of parts outside each other—in the one case alongside, -in the other before and after; while in the logical or rational -relation the parts are implicit in the whole as in the case of the -premises of a syllogism and the conclusion, the relation of a genus to -the species, the universal to the particular. - -We have in nature, according to Kant, a partnership between the -irrational and the rational factors. And thereupon he proceeds to -argue that we impose laws on nature, understanding thereby that we get -hold of reality or objectivity in so far as we are able to imprint -the rational element upon the irrational. The positing of the thing -_per se_, which has proved a stumbling-block to many, is no more than -a confession that we shall never succeed entirely in this business of -subjecting the irrational to the rational factor. The thing _per se_ is -the X that remains over when the rational function has done its utmost. -A thing, a real object, is that which is imprinted with, penetrated -with, rationality. The manifolds of space and time, of juxtaposition -and sequence are incapable of completely receiving this imprint, that -is, of completely responding to our quest for reality, and this their -incompetency is expressed in the notion of the thing _per se_. - -To return to the main question as to the difference between the method -by which science proceeds and the reverse method prescribed to ethics, -I ask, Why is absolute knowledge of nature impossible? The answer -is, Because absolute knowledge would mean the completely rational -construction of nature, and this is prevented by the irrational element -existing in it. But why has the relative knowledge we possess the -character of certainty? Why are we sure of the law of gravitation? Why -are we justified in saying that science within certain limits plants -her foot on _terra solida_? Because at certain points the sense data do -coincide with the rational requirements. There are recurrent phenomena -of such a kind, coupled together in such a way, that each is capable of -mathematical measurement, and that the sequence of the one after the -other can therefore be predicted. - -Nature might have been arranged quite otherwise. The time spans might -have been so long, as to prevent our observing the recurrences. A -day-fly cannot observe the periodicity of the earth’s revolution around -its axis. The fact however that there is this partial correspondence -between human rationality and the unknown nature of things is a bare -fact, incapable of explanation.[24] The answer, then, I take it, is: -our knowledge of nature is relative, which means incompletely rational, -because of the foreign element in nature unamenable to the operation -of the rational, the synthetic, function. This relative knowledge is -none the less certain, that is, in some sense absolute, because of -the partial coincidence of the phenomena of nature and the synthetic -processes of the mind. - -With this degree of certainty we must perforce content ourselves, in -dealing with outside nature. In trying to understand and interpret -that which is not ourselves, we hit upon barriers which cannot be -transcended, upon a foreign factor which opposes itself to our -endeavors. But it is otherwise in the sphere of conduct. Here, if there -is to be certainty at all, in regard to right as distinguished from -wrong, if there is to be such a thing as right in the strict sense, -we cannot content ourselves with the paradoxical, relative-absolute -just described. For here we not merely interpret but act, and we must -possess an ideal plan of the whole if we are to be certain of our -rightness in any particular part of conduct. _For in conduct there is -no such partial coincidence between the rational and the irrational as -in the case of physical law._ There is not a single partial rule of -conduct, neither “Thou shalt not kill” nor “Thou shalt not lie,” nor -any other that, taken by itself, is of itself ethically right. It may -be right, it may be wrong. It takes its ethical quality from the plan -of conduct as a whole, and without reference to the whole it is devoid -of rightness.[25] - -I have thus indicated the ground of the distinction between the method -of science and the method of ethics, a distinction, it is true, to -which Kant himself did not adhere. Partial coincidence of the rational -with the irrational is expressed in physical law; absence of such -concurrence destroys any attempt to build up an ethical theory on the -empirical method. We cannot plant our feet on the part, gaining there -the sense of certainty: we must creatively conceive the ideal of the -whole and educe every partial mode of ethical conduct from that. - -But how shall we proceed in the construction of such an ideal, for it -is obvious that knowledge, in the scientific sense of the word, is -entirely out of the question? - -FOOTNOTES: - -[23] See the more extended remarks on this subject in Book III. - -[24] In Kant’s view the rational element is projected on the -irrational. In this way spatial juxtaposition is ideally transformed -into a spatial continuum. In the same manner temporal sequence is -ideally changed into a uniform temporal flux. Without the former, -geometry could not have established its propositions; without the -latter Galileo could not have measured the fall of the stone. - -[25] The ethical character of acts depends on the worth of the agent -and the object. Is it right to kill or to enslave a fellowman? We do -not hesitate to kill an animal, or to harness horses to vehicles, or to -use them as beasts of burden. Why not kill men, or use them as beasts -of burden in like manner?—Only because they possess a worth which gives -them a different standing. - -Is it on grounds of sympathy that I should observe the so-called moral -rules? But if I am not sympathetic by nature, why should I be subject -to censure in case I refrain from displaying a tenderness which I do -not feel? Why should I sympathize with the pleasures and pains of -fellow human beings any more than with the pleasures and pains of -inferior sentient creatures, unless men have worth? And worth, as will -appear in the subsequent chapters, signifies indispensableness in a -perfect whole. No detached thing has worth. No part of an incomplete -system has worth. Worth belongs to those to whom it is attributed in -so far as they are conceived of as not to be spared, as representing a -distinctive indispensable preciousness, a mode of being without which -perfection would be less than perfect. - -So that morality depends on the attribution of worth to men, and -worth depends on the formation in the mind of an ideal plan of the -whole—or instead of a complete plan let me say more precisely a rule of -relations whereby the plan is itself progressively developed. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE IDEAL OF THE WHOLE - - -To recapitulate and at the same time to enlarge somewhat the points -thus far covered in Book II: Kant proclaims man an end _per se_. This -promises a philosophic basis for an ethical world-view. The promise is -not kept. Kant takes as his point of departure absolute obligation, and -attempts to deduce out of an empty formula a worthwhile object. Kant’s -formula is: Treat man never merely as a means, but also as an end _per -se_. But how far man may be treated as a means, and what the relation -of the means to the end may be is left undetermined. An upper crust of -morality is formed, as it were, upon the empirical flood of passions, -desires, etc. A straight line is drawn beyond which the under world in -every man may not emerge. But a truly instrumental view of the means as -related to the end is not established. This is one of the great gaps -in Kant’s system. Note the almost puerile reason given for culture: we -should cultivate our talents _weil sie zu allerhand Zwecken nützlich -sein mögen_. - -Kant’s ethical order is a duplicate of the physical order. The notion -of law is taken from physics, and expanded into the concept of law -in general. Ethical behavior is represented as behavior motivated by -the notion of lawfulness. Law is characterized by universality and -necessity. Chapter II, however, shows that in physics universality is -predicated on the ground of an ascertained necessary connection. In -physics, necessity has its true meaning as pertaining to a relation -between one thing and another. If the linkage can be established, the -universality follows. In Kant’s ethics, on the contrary, necessity is -taken as the consequence of the universality and the proper meaning of -necessity is lost. Self-consistency takes the place of the relation -to something else. The ideal society, as described, would therefore -be a society of self-preserving rational intelligences, ethically -solipsistic. - -Next we began the investigation into the idea of worth. Why do men -hold themselves and others cheap? They regard each other from the -point of view of the _use_ to be made of others and of their own life, -and not from the point of view of the energies deployed. The turning -on of electric power was used as an illustration. Nevertheless, even -exceptional men, men regarded as illustrating in the highest degree the -mental energies implicit in human nature, would not possess the quality -of worth, that is, of being ends _per se_, merely on the score of their -scientific or their artistic activities. We cannot say that the world -would be less perfect if there were no scientists to discover its laws. -There is a supreme, a unique energy and it is to this that the quality -of worth belongs.[26] - -The ethical quality called worth is the supreme good, and must be -accessible to all, even to those to whom the lesser goods are denied. -Ethics is a system of thought which stands or falls with the contention -that while the better may be within reach only of the exceptional few, -the best is within reach of all. - -In attempting to approach the task of building up a world-view based -on ethical experience, it became unavoidable to consider the method -by which the approach might be made, and for this purpose to contrast -the methods of science and the methods of ethics. Science, as we have -seen, collects its bricks and builds its house by composition. Science -analyzes phenomena into units, which it then combines. The mystery is -how science can achieve certainty in respect to certain phenomena of -nature without previous knowledge of the whole of nature. Kant’s answer -is that there is partial congruity between the mental functions and the -data that come to us from the unknown. Kant’s _Critique of Pure Reason_ -faces in two directions. It expels the older metaphysics which assumed -that the empirical world is rational throughout, or rationalizable, and -which thence argued the existence of the unconditioned as necessarily -implied in the existence of the conditioned, and of a first cause as -actually implied in the chain of causes and effects. Kant contends -that there is an irrational element, namely, bare juxtaposition -(part outside part), and bare sequence (part before and after part), -while the logical or rational relation implies that the part is to -be conceived as implicit in the whole. Juxtaposition and sequence, -therefore, can never be completely rationalized. On the other hand, -Kant undertakes to prove that whatever of reality we know is traceable -to the projection of the rational factor upon the irrational. One -might even say that, according to Kant, the mind itself produces the -irrational factor, since the intuitions of space and time are according -to him, functions of the mind itself—the mind setting up a manifold so -constituted as to receive sense impressions. At any rate the capital -point to which we were led up was that science puts her foot on _terra -firma_ in a restricted area, without reference to what lies beyond, -while if we are to proceed in ethics at all, we must begin with some -ideal plan of the whole, since in ethics we are not interpreting a -foreign nature, but act upon natures similar to our own; and since, -in the case of conduct, there is no such partial concurrence of -the rational and irrational as in physics, no one of the so-called -moral modes of behavior being moral when taken separately. Hence the -conclusion that there is no possibility of establishing the conception -of worth unless we have some ideal of the whole in which and in -relation to which the incomparable worthwhileness of a human being can -be made good. - -We need hardly again remind ourselves that this conception of worth, -or of man as end _per se_, is not a mere abstraction, and that our -interest in it is not academic. Every outcry against the oppression -of man by man, or against whatsoever is morally hideous, is but the -affirmation of the cardinal principle that a human being as such is -not to be violated, is not to be handled like a tool, but is to be -respected and revered as an end _per se_. But what do we mean by end -_per se_, and how account for this notion? Does it come into our mind -like a bolt from the blue, or is it revealed as prefigured in the human -mind when we follow it into its intimate constitution? - -Our knowledge of the world we live in is extremely limited—in its -details it is confined to the planet we live on, extending to -the myriads of celestial bodies beyond us only by means of scant -generalizations. If we have knowledge of only so small a portion, how -can we frame an ideal of the whole? At the same time we must remember -that the world we actually know, this earth and yonder starry myriads, -is in very truth _our_ world, the world as it exists for us, a world -which with the help of data coming to us from the unknown, we ourselves -have built up on certain constructive principles; and that these -principles have been found, within certain limits, availing.[27] I -say availing within certain limits. The defeat they meet with beyond -those limits is due to the intractable elements of juxtaposition and -sequence, of the time and space manifolds, which in themselves are -incapable of being completely rationalized. - -Now the ideal of the whole is a plan or scheme in which the -constructive principles of the mind are conceived as having untrammeled -course and unhindered application, and the task of world-building, or -rather universe-building, is in idea carried out to completion. - -The attempt to present an ideal forecast, or outline of the whole of -reality, as it would satisfy a mind constituted like ours, an ideal -landscape of this sort, is not at all to be confounded with the -arrogation of _a priori_ knowledge. _A priori_ knowledge is supposed -to be a kind of knowledge, and _knowledge_ of the whole is utterly -and confessedly beyond our reach. The phrase _a priori_, too, is -objectionable and unfortunate for two reasons. First, as just said, -because it has been supposed to be a kind of knowledge. By some -theologians men were supposed to possess _a priori_ knowledge of -God.[28] Secondly, because the word _a priori_ suggests precedence -in time, and our knowledge of the human mind and of its irreducible -capacities comes out only in the course of experience. Much that has -been called _a priori_, that is implicit in experience, did not become -explicit until after prolonged experience. The Greek thinkers before -Aristotle doubtless thought in terms of syllogism, but it was not until -Greek science had attained a certain ripeness that Aristotle was able -to dissect out the logic which had previously been employed more or -less unconsciously. - -Instead, therefore, of using the term _a priori_, which gives rise to -the two-fold misapprehension of an _a priori_ knowledge and of temporal -precedence, and instead of throwing out the child with the bath, that -is, of ignoring the independent part played by our mental constitution -in building up experience, and in affording us the conviction of -certainty, and of reality, it is highly desirable that a new term be -found to take the place of _a priori_. The term “functional finality” -suggests itself to me for this purpose.[29] - -My field is ethics. I am entirely desirous of sticking to my own last, -that is, dealing with such concepts as the data of my subject force -upon me. I do not wish to trespass, or to seem to trespass, on the -domain of my neighbors. Hence in dealing with functional finalities I -must deal with them primarily as they appear in the field of ethics, -that is, in the domain of the actions and reactions of human beings -upon one another. Irreducible _principia_ of ethics are the functional -finalities, which prescribe rules for such intercourse, or better which -create a scheme of ideal intercourse whereby the conduct of men shall -be measured and determined. - -I must, however, glance for a moment at fields outside my own, for the -purpose not of controversy but of elucidation; not to deal with the -subject matter of my neighbors, but to mark off my own more definitely. -What then, I ask, is the most general expression by which to designate -the singularities of the human mind, the principles on which it acts, -its immutable modes of behavior, the invariants that recur amid all -the complex varieties of its processes? The principal invariants are -the positing of a manifold of some kind, and the apprehending of -that manifold as coherent. The manifold is not given, but is posited -by the mind. The positing is a mental function, just as much as the -apprehending of the plurality as coherent is a mental function. The -particular manifolds of space and time experience are said to be given, -but they would not be received by the mind were not the function of -manifold-positing prepared to apprehend them. - -In recent physical science the notion of the manifold plays a -conspicuous rôle. Subtle speculations are employed to define the -kinds of manifold which the physicist finds opportune, and the kind -of unity of which these manifolds are respectively capable. The two -terms mentioned are themselves the most abstract conceivable, and -naturally, that which is here taken to underlie all the constructive, -world-building activity of the mind in every possible direction can -only be expressed in the most sublimated language. But the notions -themselves, or rather the acts of the mind, the functions designated, -are rich and replete with concrete utility when applied to subject -matter in the different fields. - -Wherever we turn we find that the assurance of reality depends on the -joint use of the two principles mentioned, the joint operation of -the two kinds of mental action; that is to say—on the positing of a -manifold and on the simultaneous apprehension of the subject matter to -which it relates as coherent, as unified. - -The simultaneity, the inseparableness of the two mental acts or -functions in regard to the same subject-matter is the essential point -on which hangs the web of the argument here submitted. Thus in geometry -space must be regarded as a continuum, unbroken, uninterrupted at any -point, and at the same time the same space must be treated as capable -of puncture, of linear and superficial delimitations; that is to say, -of division. That which is one must yet be apprehended as divided; -that which is divided, or delimitated, must yet be apprehended as one. -The difficulties that arise spring from the vain endeavor to separate -the two inseparable acts—the act of apprehending the manifold of space -_sub specie pluralitatis_, and the act of apprehending it _sub specie -unitatis_. Hence arises the puzzling question: How can that which is -continuous be divided, how can chasms between the parts of space, -however infinitesimal, be bridged? Witness the problem of Zeno, and -the pragmatist solution of it by a demonstration that satisfies us -indeed as to the fact (which no one doubts), but leaves the mental -puzzle as before; and also Bergson’s Method of accounting for division -by a comparison of the inner and the outer flux, wherein he seems to -overlook the difficulty that for the purpose of comparison two points -must be fixed, one in each flux, that is to say, the division in the -flux must be regarded as already existing. - -In the physical sciences we are compelled to assume on the one hand -the atomic or granular constitution of matter, in other words, -manifoldness. On the other hand, if “action at a distance” is to be -escaped, we are bound to assume a continuum of some sort like the -ether. Again, in the organic world there is the manifold of structures -and functions, and the unity of organism. To whatever object of -inquiry we give our attention, we find ourselves not only restricted -fundamentally to the two functions described, but we discover that to -their insunderable co-operation we owe whatever of truth we possess. - -Now the business of ethics is to define its own subject-matter, that -is to say the particular kind of manifold with which it deals, and the -kind of unity of which that manifold is susceptible. But as I approach -this first goal of my enterprise, there is one obstacle which I must -try to remove out of the way of the reader, before I can hope to win -him to a hospitable consideration of my conclusions. The jointness -or inseparableness of the two acts out of which certainty or reality -issues has created all the difficulties. The fact that the manifold -must be regarded as remaining a manifold, unaltered in its character -as such, not derivative from the One (there is no such One), and that -the unity does not contrariwise result from the manifold in the sense -of springing from or being derived from it;—in other words that we -must see the same landscape of things and events both _sub specie -pluralitatis_ and _sub specie unitatis_—has been the stumbling-block. -The history of philosophy might be written under the two headings: 1, -monistic systems that undertake, collapsing in their futile effort, to -derive the world and its plurality from the One, as if there were such -an One, out of whose bosom philosophy might evoke the many (creational -systems, pantheistic systems, emanation systems, evolution systems); 2, -pluralistic systems that essay, with equal lack of success, to explain -the unity as somehow the offspring of the plurality. - -Why then have these systems flourished? Why are these vain undertakings -still renewed? The reason is that we cannot understand the joint action -of the two functions, and the very point where enlightenment is needed -is for us to recognize that no fundamental truths can be understood -by us, that we can only look at them, contemplate and accept them. -The point, I say, where enlightenment is needed is that the habit of -trying to understand is due to a prejudice, to what may be called the -_superstition of causality_. - -I shall have to explain this hardy assertion with some care to prevent -misconception. Causality, it will be objected, is the one thread that -leads us through the labyrinth of nature. The search for causes enables -us to become at home in our world by foreseeing events. In what sense -then can it be permissible to speak of the prejudice of causality, -nay, of the superstition of it? With what warrant prescribe a limit to -the aspirations of the human intellect to push its inquiries to the -farthest limit, even so far as to understand the functional finalities -themselves, if such there be? - -The answer, succinctly put, is this: explaining or understanding things -means tracing effects to their causes, and this is only one mode, a -somewhat _disguised_ mode, of the joint functional activity of which -I have spoken. The manifold in this case is that of the temporal -sequence of phenomena, of differences due to change of position in -time; and the unity established between them (as for instance energy, -of which the sequent phenomena represent the transformations) is an -ideal, fictive unity, mentally superimposed (real despite its ideal -or imaginary character, because of the necessity we are under to view -the sequent phenomena _sub specie unitatis_). That there is nothing -in the antecedent to compel the sequent to follow has been since the -days of Hume a commonplace in philosophy. That nevertheless there is -such a thing as the prediction of eclipses was made by Kant the basis -of his doctrine of synthesis _a priori_. Be the terms used what they -may, what counts is the fact that the _joint action of two functions, -which itself is inexplicable_, not to be understood, that is, not to be -referred back to a preceding cause (as if there could be such a thing -as a cause why we think in terms of causality) is the foundation of all -so-called understanding. - -Moreover causality is an incomplete example of the fundamental -functional process. We never do thoroughly understand; we gain a -certain relief, a certain increased ease of mind by pushing the problem -back a step. And what I have called the prejudice of causality, is the -unwillingness on our part to acknowledge the fact that we are face to -face, in the case of causality, with the inexplicable; that that which -helps us partially to understand (and serves for practical purposes -well enough) is in its nature not to be understood, one of the modes in -which the joint action of the functional finalities manifests itself. - -An ultimate principle has been defined as one which is presupposed in -every attempt to account for it. The functional finalities of which I -speak bear the test of this definition. The upshot of it all is that -the constitutive principles of the human mind cannot be explained or -understood, but can nevertheless be verified. And verification, in the -last analysis, means exemplification. If we look at these ultimate -truths, whether in geometry, in physics, or, as we shall later see, in -ethics and æsthetics, as enunciated abstractly, baldly, we confront -them blankly, we are as it were dumbfounded in their presence. They -seem arbitrarily imposed upon us. And why? Because we are endeavoring -to understand them. We have acquired the habit of trying to get hold of -truth by referring back to some antecedent. And therefore we are uneasy -and disconcerted. But the moment we see them exemplified, as in the -constructions of the geometer, in the laws or uniformities established -by the physicist, etc., we are convinced. The subject-matter of ethics -is different. The kind of exemplification is likewise different. But -verification is exemplification in ethics as elsewhere; and this will -be found to mean that the life, the ethical experience, must lead to -the certainty. - -And now we have reached the point where a brief discussion of the -ethical manifold and its mode of unification comes up in proper order. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[26] To rate anyone as an end _per se_ means that in a world conceived -as perfect his existence would be indispensable. The world we know may -not be perfect, is not perfect, but we do conceive of an ideal world -that is. And to ascribe to anyone the quality of worth, to denominate -him an end _per se_, is to place him into that world, to regard him as -potentially a member of it. - -[27] For a creature endowed with different senses, and having a mind -unlike our own, the world would be a totally different world. - -[28] To deny such _a priori_ knowledge of the object called God is -not to deny that the production of this object is due to constructive -principles of human thinking; while, in turn, to assert the functional -derivation of the God-idea is not to validate that idea itself as -permanent and inexpugnable. It may have owed its origin to a permanent -disposition of the mind, and yet be fallible because of the historical -conditions under which it arose and the defective data in which it was -expressed. By way of illustration we might apply the same reflection -to the Ptolemaic astronomy. The mathematical processes by which this -astronomy was constructed may be traced to permanent singularities of -human thinking, yet the astronomical theory of Ptolemy is not on that -account _a priori_ true. - -[29] It must, however, be understood that the formula in which a -finality is expressed is not itself a final formula. The business of -definition is precarious, liable to error and dogmatic abuse, and -the formulas of finality are to be constantly subjected to revision. -Possible and even probable abuse, however, does not warrant the -negative attitude at present taken; it does not justify the revulsion -of feeling against _A Priorism_ which is just now general. Exasperation -with absolutism does not of itself justify recourse to the opposite -extreme of pragmatism. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE IDEAL OF THE WHOLE AND THE ETHICAL MANIFOLD - - -The ethical manifold, conceived of as unified, furnishes, or rather is, -the ideal of the whole. The ethical manifold is the true universe, not -“Universe” in the sense in which the word is too laxly used at present -to designate those fragmentary and in many respects unconnected lines -of experience which might better by way of discrimination be called -World. - -The ideal of the whole, as the terms imply, must fulfill two -conditions: it must be a whole, that is, include all manifoldness -whatsoever; and it must be ideal, or perfectly unified. In such an -ideal whole the two reality-producing functions of the human mind would -find their complete fruition. - - Point 1.—The totality of manifoldness must be comprised. - - Point 2.—The connectedness must be without flaw. - -From point one it follows that the ethical manifold cannot be -spatial or temporal, since juxtaposition and sequence lapse into -indefiniteness, abounding without ceasing, but never attaining or -promising the attainment of totality. Our first conclusion then is that -the ethical manifold is non-temporal and non-spatial. - -Furthermore it is necessary and decisive for the theoretical -construction here attempted to keep sharply in view, that the -manifoldness may not be derived from the unity, or conversely. The -manifold remains forever manifold. This means that in the ethical -manifold each member[30] will differ uniquely from all the rest, -and preserve his irreducible singularity. The member of the ethical -manifold was not created by _the_ One or any One. He is not derived -as effect from any cause. Causality does not apply to the ethical -manifold, being a category of spatial sequence. The member of the -ethical manifold, or the ethical unit, as we may now call him (I say -him metaphorically and provisionally) is unbegotten, induplicable, -unique. In the ethical manifold each infinitesimal member is -indispensable, inasmuch as he is one of the totality of intrinsically -unlike differentiæ. A duplicate would be superfluous. Inclusion implies -indispensableness; no member acquires a place within the ethical -universe save on the score of his title, as one of the possible modes -of being that are required to complete the totality of manifoldness. - -But the reality-producing functions of the mind are two, and they -act jointly. The same manifold that is regarded as the scene of -irreducible manifoldness, is also regarded _sub specie unitatis_. -The immense practical importance of holding fast to diversity as -indefeasible, and at the same time stressing the unity, will amply -appear in the course of the third Book. It is this insistence on the -two aspects _jointly_, that distinguishes the theory here worked out -from preceding ethical philosophies, and will be found to open new -ethical applications to conduct. It is this insistence on the joint -action of the two reality-producing functions that will enable us to -see in the ideal of the whole _a pattern traced_, and to derive from -this pattern of relations a supreme rule of conduct. If the differences -that exist among the members of the manifold be slurred over, if the -indefeasible singularity of each member be overlooked, if the many be -derived from the One, since the One is an empty concept, we shall gain -no light upon the conduct to be followed by each of the many. It is -true that our notion of the distinctive difference or the uniqueness of -each ethical unit is also empty as far as knowledge goes. The unique -is incognizable. Yet we are able to apprehend, and do apprehend, a -determinate relation as subsisting between the ethical units, and this -relation supplies us with an ideal plan of the ethical universe and a -first principle and rule of ethics. The relation is that of reciprocal -universal interdependence. - -Consider that an infinite number of ethical entities is presented to -our minds—each of them radically different from the rest. In what -then possibly can the unity of this infinite assemblage consist? In -this—_that the unique difference of each shall be such as to render -possible the correlated unique differences of all the rest_. It is in -this formula that we find the key to a new ethical system, in this -conception we get our hand firmly on the notion of right, and by means -of it we discover the object which Kant failed to find, the object to -which worth attaches, the object which is so indispensable to the ideal -of the whole as to authenticate unconditional obligation or rightness -in conduct with respect to it. It is as an ethical unit, as a member of -the infinite ethical manifold, that man has worth.[31] - -In accordance with the above, the first principle of ethics may be -expressed in the following formulas: - -A. Act as a member of the ethical manifold (the infinite spiritual -universe). - -B. Act so as to achieve uniqueness (complete individualization—the most -completely individualized act is the most ethical). - -C. Act so as to elicit in another the distinctive, unique quality -characteristic of him as a fellow-member of the infinite whole. - -A and B are comprised in C. I am taking three steps toward a fuller -exposition of the meaning of the principle. To act as a member -according to A is to strive to achieve uniqueness as declared in -B. To achieve uniqueness as declared in C is to seek to elicit the -diverse uniqueness in others. The actual unique quality in myself -is incognizable, and only appears, so far as it does appear, in the -effect produced by myself upon my fellows. Hence, to advance towards -uniqueness I must project dynamically my most distinctive mode of -energy upon my fellow-members. - -Since the finite nature of man is a clog and screen, clouding and -checking the action of man viewed as an ethical unit, it follows that -no man will ever succeed in carrying out completely the rule which is -derived from the ideal pattern. He will invariably meet with partial -frustration in his efforts to do so, and yet in virtue of his ethical -character he will always renew the effort. While in physical science -the recurrence of phenomena supplies the occasion for exemplification -or verification, in conduct, or the sphere of volition, not recurrence -but the persistence of the effort after defeat is at least a help to -verification, arguing in one’s self a consciousness, however obscured, -of the relation of reciprocal interdependence and of subjection to the -urge or pressure thence derived.[32] It is our own reality-producing -functions, exerted to their utmost, to which we are delivered over. -Hence the final formulation: So act as to raise up in others the ideal -of the relation of give and take, of universal interdependence in -which they stand with an infinity of beings like themselves, members of -the infinite universe, irreducible, like and unlike themselves in their -respective uniqueness. - -The simile that may be used is that of a ray of light which has the -effect of kindling other rays, unlike but complementary to itself. -Each ethical unit, each member of the infinite universe, is to be -regarded as a center from which such a ray emanates, touching other -centers, and awakening there the light intrinsic in them. Or we may -think of a fountain from which stream forth jets of indescribable -life-power—playing out of it, playing into other life, and evoking -there kindred and yet unkindred life-waves, waves effluent and -refluent. Whatever the symbolism may be, inadequate in any case, the -idea of the enmeshing of one’s life in universal life without loss of -distinctness—the everlasting selfhood to be achieved on the contrary, -by means of the cross-relation—is the cardinal point. - -I have here to answer one question. By what warrant do I ascribe worth -to any human being? Where is the head deserving that this ray that -streams out from me shall light upon it? What man or woman merits that -he be invested with this glory? Does not the same objection opposed -to Kant hold with respect to my own view? It is true that he found no -object at all, and sought indirectly to draw from the empty notion -of obligation the inference that man is an end _per se_. Perhaps -it will be admitted that the supremely worthwhile object has now -been found, the holy thing (holy in two ways, as being inviolable, -reverence-inspiring, holding at a distance those who would encroach: -and intrinsically priceless as a component of the ethical manifold, as -indispensable in a perfect whole). But this object, you will say, is -in the air, or in the heavens, and how shall it be made to descend on -empirical man? - -My answer is that certainly I do not discover the quality of worth -in people as an empirical fact. In many people I do not even -discover value. Judging from the point of view of bare fact, many -of us could very well be spared. Many are even in the way of what -is called “progress.” And the suggestion of some extreme disciples -of Darwin that the degenerate and defective should be removed, or -the opinion of others that pestilence and war should be allowed to -take the unpleasant business off our hands, is, from the empirical -point of view, not easily to be refuted. I can also enter into, if -I do not wholly share, the pessimistic mood with regard to actual -human nature expressed by Schopenhauer and others. To the list of -repulsive human creatures mentioned by Marcus Aurelius in one of his -morning meditations,—the back-biter, the scandal-monger, the informer, -etc.—might be added in modern times, the white-slaver, the exploiter of -child-labor, the fawning politician, and many another revolting type. -And even more discouraging in a way, than these examples of deepest -human debasement—the copper natures, as Plato calls them, or the -leaden natures, as we might call them—is the disillusionment we often -experience with regard to the so-called gold natures, the discovery of -the large admixture of baser metal which is often combined with their -gold. - -It is imperative to acquaint oneself, nay, to impregnate one’s mind -thoroughly with these contrary facts, if the doctrine of worth, the -sanest and to my mind the most real of all conceptions, is to be saved -from the appearance of an optimistic illusion. - -The answer to the objection is that I do not _find_ worth in others -or in myself, I _attribute_ it to them and to myself. And why do I -attribute it? In virtue of the reality-producing functions of my own -mind. I create the ethical manifold. The pressure of the essential -rationality within me, seeking to complete itself in the perfect -fruition of these functions, _i.e._, in the positing of a total -manifold and its total unification, drives me forward. I need an idea -of the whole in order to act rightly, in such a way as to satisfy the -dual functions within me. My own nature as a spiritual being urges me -to seek this satisfaction. This ideal whole, as I have shown, is a -complexus of uniquely differentiated units. In order to advance toward -uniqueness, in order to achieve what in a word may be called my own -truth, to build myself into the truth, to become essentially real, -I must seek to elicit the consciousness of the uniqueness and the -interrelation in others. I must help others in order to save myself; -I must look upon the other as an ethical unit or moral being in order -to become a moral being myself. And wherever I find consciousness of -relation, of connectedness, even incipient, I project myself upon -that consciousness, with a view to awaking in it the consciousness -of universal connectedness. Wherever I can hope to get a response -I test my power. Fields and trees do not speak to me, as Socrates -said, but human beings do. I should attribute worth to stones and to -animals could they respond, were the power of forming ideas, without -which the idea of relation or connectedness is impossible, apparent in -them. Doubtless stones and trees and animals, and the physical world -itself, are but the screen behind which lies the infinite universe. -But the light of that universe does not break through the screen where -it is made up of stones and trees and the lower animals. It breaks -through, however faintly, where there is consciousness of relation: and -wherever I discover that consciousness I find my opportunity. It is -quite possible that the men and women upon whom I try my power will not -actually respond. The complaint is often heard from moral persons, or -persons who think themselves such, that what they call the moral plan -of rousing the moral consciousness in others will not work. Perhaps the -plan they follow is not the moral plan at all, but the plan of sympathy -or of some other empirically derived rule. But be that as it may, -the question is not whether we get the response but whether we shall -achieve reality or truth ourselves; in theological terms, save our own -life, by trying to elicit the response. - -And here one profoundly important practical consideration will come to -our aid, namely, the sense of our own imperfection, coupled indeed with -the consciousness of inextinguishable power of moral renewal. Instead -of attributing the lack of response to the hopeless dullness of the -person upon whom we labor, a sense of humility, based on the knowledge -of our own exceeding spiritual variability—best moments followed by -worst moments, imperfect grasp on our own ideals, most imperfect -fidelity in executing them—will lead us to turn upon ourselves, and -far from permitting us to despair of others, will impel us rather to -make ourselves more fitting instruments of spiritual influence than -obviously as yet we are.[33] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[30] Say not _part_ or _element_, but _member_, to distinguish the -components of the ethical manifold from such concepts as are used in -mathematics and physical science. - -[31] The distinction between value and worth must be stressed for -it is capital. Value is subjective. The worth notion is the most -objective conceivable. Value depends on the wants or needs of our -empirical nature. That has value which satisfies our needs or wants. -We possess value for one another, for the reason that each of us has -wants which the others alone are capable of satisfying, as in the case -of sex, of coöperation, in the vocation, etc. But value ceases when -the want or need is gratified. The value which one human being has for -another is transient. There are, in the strict sense, no permanent -values. The value which the majority have for the more advanced and -developed members of a community is small; from the standpoint of value -most persons are duplicable and dispensable. Consider only the ease -with which factory labor is replaced, in consequence of the prolific -fertility of the human race. The custom of speaking of ethics as a -theory of values is regrettable. It evidences the despair into which -many writers on ethics have fallen as to the possibility of discovering -an objective basis for rightness. - -[32] But the verification itself is the clearer and more explicit -vision of the ethical relation, as it ought to be. - -[33] The term “ethical unit” used above should be found useful. The -chemists have found the concept of the atom useful, though no one -has ever seen an atom. And all the sciences have recourse to similar -inventions,—such as the electron, or the ion, or energy regarded as -a substance, and in mathematics the sublimated, space-transcending -concepts. Looking through the eyes of science, we are taught to see, -underlying the grossest forms of matter, imaginary entities which are -well-nigh metaphysical in nature. Science starts from the realm of -the sensible, and constructs its super-rarefied devices on mechanical -models. Then it leaves the field of the intuitively perceptible, and -rises by the path of analogy into realms where the notions with which -it operates are no longer imaginable. I do not wish, in speaking of an -ethical, invisible, and unimaginable entity, to derive the postulation -of this conception from science. The ethical concept transcends wholly -the field of sensible experience. It is not discovered by way of -analogy. It is frankly and overtly supersensible. It is not exemplified -in the effects it produces in the world of volition as the most -nearly metaphysical concepts of science are exemplified in the field -of phenomena by the recurrences or uniformities which they serve to -account for. The ethical concepts are not verified by their results -at all, not by recurrences of phenomena, but by the persistence of -the effort to attain that which is finitely never attained, and _by -the more explicit perception of the ideal itself_ which follows the -persistent effort; for as has been shown above, when face to face with -fundamental truth, _seeing is believing_. But I allude to these matters -in order to show that the movement in ethical thinking represented -by the system which I propose is not contrary to the present-day -movement in science, but in line with it, though beyond it. It does -not ask leave of science; it does not base its certainty on scientific -precedent; but neither does it expect a veto from the lips of science. -The worthwhileness of scientific endeavor itself depends at bottom -on the sanction which the ideal of the complete carrying out of the -reality-producing functions lends to their incomplete execution in the -world of the space and time manifold. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE IDEAL OF THE SPIRITUAL UNIVERSE AND THE GOD-IDEAL - - -We have seen whence the ideal of a spiritual universe arises. It is -unnecessary to prove that the universe is moral. What it is necessary -to verify is that a universe exists; for “universe” is an ethical -ideal, it is the ethical manifold, or, if we distinguish ethical as -concerning relations between man and man, then we may use the term -“spiritual” to designate that infinite system of interdependence -in which men as ethical units have their place. We begin with the -affirmation—Man is an end _per se_. This wonderful affirmation, -which the democracies are darkly and confusedly trying to express in -political and social arrangements, constitutes the problem of all -problems. It is the great datum of ethics, of which ethical theory -must give an account. All other data or problems that have been thrust -into the foreground—freedom of the will, responsibility, altruistic -self-sacrifice—are secondary, in the sense that they depend for their -solution on a right conception of man as end _per se_. As possessing -worth on his own account he is an ethical unit. Only as a member -of the infinite spiritual universe does he possess the two-fold -attributes implied in worth—inviolability with respect to outsiders -and indefeasible, intrinsic preciousness. Therefore I say that around -the individual, the ethical unit, we build up as a necessary postulate -the spiritual universe. Man ethically considered carries with him this -infinite environment. - -Does this universe exist or is it a mere figment? It is the product of -the reality-producing functions in their ideal completion. It is the -necessary postulate required if the idea of right is to have validity, -and the idea of right is required by man in so far as he is an agent -and not merely a spectator of life. The ethical manifold, the spiritual -universe, exists in so far as there is a right. - -Have we then reinstated the idea of God as existent? Not the idea of -God as an individual. We have on the contrary set aside that idea by -affirming that manifoldness cannot be derived from unity, that the -positing of plurality is just as much a primary function of the mind as -the positing of unity. We have discarded the God-idea as the _locus_ of -unity, since the unity subsists in the relation of the units. Strictly -speaking, we have replaced the God-idea by that of a universe of -spiritual beings interacting in infinite harmony. - -But at this point I must go back for a moment to Kant, using his ideas -once more as a foil to make my own more explicit. Wilhelm von Humboldt -said of Kant that some of the things he had destroyed would never -be rebuilt, and that some of the things he had built would never be -destroyed. - -For more than a hundred years the impression has prevailed that among -the things forever destroyed by Kant are the proofs of the existence -of God. He is represented as an intellectual giant whose blows have -forever shattered the proofs on which the existence of a supersensible -reality rested. Kant’s mind was preëminently scientific. He was the -philosopher who made explicit the principles underlying Newtonian -science as Aristotle had made explicit the logic underlying the Greek -science. His philosophy is essentially agnostic. The use that he -continues to make of the God-idea can be dissociated from his system -with advantage to the latter.[34] - -But did Kant indeed destroy the idea of a supersensible reality -as existent, or are we warranted in undertaking to build anew the -supersensible world.[35] “_Du hast sie zerstörrt, die schöne Welt, -In deinem Busen baue sie wieder_”—not indeed in the realm of mere -feelings, but in the sphere of will. The spell of Kant’s shattering -attack still rests upon the intellectual world today. The notion of a -supersensible reality, if held at all, is held timidly, apologetically -and is apt to be based on subjective emotional need. The wish is more -or less admitted to be father to the faith—the will to believe is -defiantly asserted in despair of sound foundations. A scientist like -Dubois-Reymond enumerates seven world riddles, or mysteries that cannot -be explained, and after saying that they cannot be explained, he seems -to see that no alternative remains but to take refuge in resignation: -“Ignoramus, ignorabimus!” - -That “explanation” is not the only avenue to truth, that the referring -of effects to their causes is not the highest operation of the -reality-producing functions, I have pointed out in a previous chapter. -But Kant, as has been said, is supposed to have utterly annihilated -the arguments intended to demonstrate the existence of God, and it -will clear up the matter at issue if we consider wherein he actually -succeeded and wherein he quite failed. As he himself declares, his -method is regressive; he does not attempt the progressive method path. -He seeks to ascertain whether by going backward along the chain of -effects and causes, or of conditions, he can somewhere find God as -first cause or as unconditioned. He does not look forward looking to -the ideals of the will. He does not enter into the realm of ends, where -the necessity of determining action in obedience to some universal plan -or scheme of relations might have forced itself on his attention. His -approach, like his habit of mind, is scientific. He is not primarily -an ethicist. Proceeding in this manner he shows that the notion of a -first cause is untenable, and he attacks in particular the ontological -argument by which every other argument supplements itself at the point -where it breaks down. - -Did Kant, however, annihilate the Ontological Argument? Yes, in the -scholastic form in which it was held. No, in a form, based on the idea -of the ethical manifold, in which it can be restated. In the scholastic -form it runs: “There is such a thing as the idea of a perfect being. -Existence is an element of perfection. If the perfect being did not -exist it would be less than perfect. But the _ens realissimum_, the -perfect being, is present as an idea in the mind. Therefore it exists.” -The disproof of this amounts to the curt statement that what exists in -the mind does not necessarily exist outside of it, or, as Kant put it: -“The idea of 100 thalers in the head of a man is one thing, lacking no -element of conceptual integrity; while the existence of the 100 thalers -in the man’s purse is an entirely different matter.” The evidence of -existence, in other words, depends on the synthesis of the data of -sense as arranged in the space and time manifold in accordance with the -categories of the understanding. Existence is temporal and spatial. To -prove that God exists we should have to prove that he exists in the -world of the senses. Of any other kind of existence we are agnostic. -Kant’s disproof of the Ontological Argument thus depends on his -agnosticism. - -But suppose that on ethical grounds we find ourselves compelled to -affirm that there is an object which has worth, and that to account for -the inviolableness, indispensableness and preciousness of this object -we are compelled to give free rein to the reality-producing functions, -and to place this object having worth as a member in a manifold -not spatial and temporal but infinite: and suppose we say that the -existence of this worth-endowed object, of this ethical unit with its -compeers, is as certain as the notion of rightness is certain, have we -not then without blame widened the conception of existence, and placed -the Ontological Argument where Kant’s disproof does not even touch -it?[36] - -One more important remark is here in place, suggested by Kant’s -designation of God as the ideal of reason, and by his designation of -our highest nature as the rational nature. - -Is “rational” equivalent to intellectual? If it be so, then feeling -must be classed as irrational, and impulse likewise, since neither -feeling nor impulse is subject to logical rules. And then the war will -be on between the intellectualists or rationalists and the champions of -irrational conceptions of life, since feeling and impulse actually make -up the major part of life, and can neither be left out of account nor -compressed into intellectualist formulas.[37] - -Plainly, there is a deep misunderstanding between the two parties. An -error is involved somewhere. It appears to consist in assuming that -objectivity can be supplied only by the intellect, in overlooking the -fact that the feelings and still more the volition possess intrinsic -controls and norms of their own, that Science, the work of the -intellect, and art and ethics, spring from a common root, namely, -the reality-producing functions. The manifolds with which each of -the three respectively deals are different, the methods of synthesis -are different, but the root principle, synthesis of the manifold, is -identical in all. - -To describe our highest nature, therefore, as the rational nature is -perilous, since the word rational suggests intellectual. Either we must -strain the signification of reason to include feeling and will, which -is contrary to common usage, or we should select some other term, such -as _spiritual_, to designate that nature within us which operates in -science and art and achieves its highest manifestation in producing the -ethical ideal. - -Finally, if what has been said regarding the ethical manifold holds -good, then a genuine philosophy of life can only be reached by the -ethical approach to the problems of life. This has never yet been -consistently attempted. The approach has been made from the scientific -or the logical side, or as in the case of Plato from the æsthetic, -or as in modern times from the biological. Yet the ethical approach -is full of promise. A philosophy of physical nature may be feasible -without it, a philosophy of art may be possible without it, but not so -a philosophy of life. It has not been tried because ethics has lain -in the lap of theology, which was itself corrupted by the attempt to -apply to ethical problems the inadequate principle of causality in the -form of creation theories, while again in recent times, by way of -reaction against theology, the solution of ethical questions is sought -for in the empirical disciplines where a measure at least of objective -certainty has rewarded the investigators. Even Kant, who asserted -the independence of ethics, actually made it dependent on Newtonian -science. The great task now is, strictly to carry out the idea of the -independence of ethics, not indeed as if its principles were unrelated -to those of science and art, but in the sense of independently -investigating the problems _peculiar_ to ethical consciousness. I am -well aware that the attempt made in this volume to take the ethical -line of approach to a general philosophy of life, is tentative and -defective in a hundred ways, nevertheless it is an attempt in a new -direction. - -In the next book I shall take up the practical consequences that -follow from the theory here advanced. Having delineated the ethical -ideal, and discovered the invaluable fact that there is a structural -plan contained in it, we shall see that our actual human duties -may be derived by applying this ideal scheme to the quasi-organic -groups already existing in human society. There are provocative -correspondences to the ethical ideal in the social life of men; -otherwise it would be impossible to apply it. There are human groups -in which a quasi-correlative membership in a common life already -exists. In the case of each of these groups we find some sort of -empirical multiplicity which must be studied scientifically, and also -an empirical motive which may be utilized in the interest of developing -the ethical relation. The family is the first of these groups which -offers a footing in the world of experience for the ideal. In the -family natural affection is the motive; in the vocational group, the -desire to express a talent or special gift; in the state, patriotism; -in the church, the need felt to integrate all human ideals. - -Thus the things of earth are to be used as instrumentalities by -which we are to become aware of the spiritual reality. Only that the -disparateness of the physical world and the ethical universe should -ever be kept in the foreground. Every effort to solve the riddle by -somehow identifying the two has failed. To account for the existence of -a finite world of indefinite extensibility side by side with a universe -_ex hypothesi_ infinite is impossible. Instead of seeking to explain -let effort go toward utilizing. Let the _world_ be used instrumentally -for the purpose of verifying the existence of _universe_. - -For the average man, and indeed for all men, the test of the truth of -a theory is in the practice to which it leads. Abstract metaphysical -arguments appeal only to a few, and even for them the formula in its -abstract guise is unconvincing. Look at the mathematical figure, and -see whether the axioms hold good. Look at the sequent phenomena and see -whether the so-called law of nature is exemplified. And so with respect -to conduct: look at the ways of human behavior traced out in accordance -with the plan of the ethical manifold, and see whether such behavior -wins the approval of the spiritual nature implicit within you.[38] - - - NOTE I - - There are various points at which the system sketched in the text - deviates from current opinion, but in regard to the underlying - proposition the reader’s particular attention is called to the remarks - on the “prejudice of causality” and to the statement that verification - is exemplification. - - How can ethical truth be verified? How can we be sure that ethical - ideals are more than fine wishes, expressing subjective aspiration, - but having no counterpart in the ultimate constitution of things? This - is the dark doubt that haunts the minds of ethical writers, as well - as of the average man. We ask to have the things we believe in, the - objects of our supreme aspiration, verified. How can they be verified? - - I think that we shall see light in this matter once we have grasped - the thought that verification, both in science and in ethics, is - nothing more than exemplification. In the case of causality, in - science, verification does not consist in mere recurrence. For if - we find, even by a single carefully guarded experiment, that a - given phenomenon A is the true antecedent of B, then we take leave - to predict that B will always follow A, without regard to the - repetition of the sequence in our experience.[39] Indeed, no amount - of repetition would justify prediction. The problem in the case of - causality is to determine the true antecedent and the true consequent. - For at any moment there are innumerable phenomena that might possibly - be antecedents of B. How obtain certainty that A is the causal - antecedent? By the synthetic process. We assume a unity, say energy. - We assume that there are differentiæ, say a certain mathematically - determined quantum of mechanical energy in A, and a determined - quantum of thermal energy in B. No sooner have these differentiæ - been mathematically determined, than in virtue of the assumed unity - of energy underlying the differences, we pronounce the nexus to be - necessary. We predict that B will always follow A. - - Causality, therefore, is an example of a synthesis which over-arches - sequences. The fact that the phenomena are sequent does not affect the - principle involved. Whenever we contemplate an example of synthesis, - that is, defined differentiæ of some sort, and a defined underlying - unity of some sort, the mind affirms that reality exists. There - are degrees of reality. The degree of completeness with which the - synthetic function is carried out in any instance determines the - degree. - - Ethical verification is likewise exemplification, though in another - sense. When the ideal plan of ethical relations is presented, the - ideal plan being a synthesis not of sequences but of all co-existent - entities whatsoever, the mind assents to this ideal plan as - representing the complete synthesis or the complete reality. The - more explicitly and definitely the relation between the ethical - units is conceived, the greater the conviction of reality resulting. - Now frustration after partial achievement has the effect of making - more explicit the idea of the plan of relations as it ought to be - carried out in human life. And in this sense I would have the reader - understand the main practical argument of the book—that frustration - is the condition of our intensified conviction as to the reality of - the supersensible universe. - - In virtue of the constitution of our minds we cannot help - acknowledging as real that which is synthesized. Synthesized and - real are synonymous terms. Hence the idea of the completed synthesis - necessarily is the idea of the ultimate reality. - - - NOTE II - - The three principal respects wherein Kant has failed to justify his - affirmation that every human being is to be regarded as an end _per - se_, and not to be used as a tool, are: - - 1. Out of the bare experience of oughtness, absolute constraint, he - seeks to derive personality. Out of the empty categorical imperative - he seeks to draw a substantive entity—a being possessed of worth. - - 2. The society of ends _per se_ described by him is not a true - society, but a collection of atomic individuals juxtaposed. The - capital flaw in his ethics is here. He begins by detaching the - individual. He studies the individual, and discovers, or believes - himself to have discovered, that something happens in him (the - consciousness of absolute constraint) which entitles him to be - considered worth while on his own account. - - Next, since the formula of university proposes imitability by others - as the test of a moral act, all others are called in as concomitants - of the detached atom first considered. Each of the concomitants in - turn is an atomic entity. It is in this mechanical way that the - conception of a kingdom of ends, or a holy community, is supposed - to be validated. Kant’s mistake is to assume that an individual - regarded as an isolated being can be worth while, can be an end _per - se_. The notion of end involves relation to others, not mechanical - juxtaposition, but intrinsic connection. No one is worth while by - himself. He has worth only as an organic member of a spiritual whole. - The unique quality which lends him incomparable distinction is the - creative life which emanates from him and quickens cognate but - diversely modified life in his associates. - - 3. Kant’s version of the ethical rule is strong on the side of - interdiction, but quite inadequate on the positive side. He tells us - that we are to look on others not merely as means to our own ends, but - also ends _per se_. The vagueness is in the formula “not merely ... - but also.” Where the dividing line is to be drawn he does not tell. I - am at liberty to use the services of others in the prosecution of my - own interests, as they may use mine, since we are social beings and - dependent on one another. But how far may I go in this direction? On - this point we are left wholly in the dark. Kant admits into his system - the so-called natural ends,[40] such as wealth, culture and the like, - gives them leave to abound, only with the proviso that they may not - overpass a certain limit,—the limit beyond which they would interfere - with the rights of fellowmen. An instrumental view of wealth, science, - culture, as positively promoting the ethical end of man, he does not - and cannot establish.[41] But the instrumental view is precisely that - in which modern society has most at stake, on the working out of - which the solution of our most pressing problems,—such as the labor - problem, the problem of the family, the problem of patriotism and - international relations—is entirely dependent. If Kant has failed at - this point, as I believe he has, his usefulness as a guide in the - reconstruction of modern life is seriously diminished. What he had - set out to demonstrate, the inalienable worth of man, remains; but - foundations other than his must be found. For the formula “not merely - as a means but also as an end” I would substitute: Treat every man - as a spiritual means to thine own spiritual end and conversely ... - treat the extent and the manner in which we are to use one another as - means being determined by the criterion that our exchange of services - shall conduce to the attainment of each other’s ends as ethical beings - conjointly. - - - NOTE III - - I would also ask the reader to consider well the effect upon the - philosophy of life of the position taken throughout this volume that - there is no intellectual bridge between the finite order and the - infinite order. This involves dropping creation at the beginning and - immortality in its usual sense at the end. Creation is an attempt to - show how the world, including man, proceeded out of the infinite. - Immortality is an attempt to express how man returns to the infinite. - In this volume man’s dealings with the finite order are represented - as having for their purpose the achievement of the conviction that - there verily is an infinite life, a supersensible universe. Creation - systems, pantheistic systems, certain evolutionary systems, also - the Hegelian system, are futile attempts to explain the How. But - explanation is impossible; for to explain means to understand, and to - understand means to trace an effect to its cause. And causality is not - the kind of synthesis applicable to a co-existent totality. - - Among practical consequences note the difference between the theistic - attitude in fatal sickness and the spiritual attitude.[42] The theist - presupposes that there is a God to whose will he must patiently - submit. But theism is a principle of explanation, the God-idea being - employed to account for the finite order. God is thus made responsible - for the suffering of the sick as well as for all other evils in the - world. Hence the very idea which is presupposed in order to produce - patience raises up doubts and perplexities, which imperil patience. - If God made the world why does he permit pain and evil? The spiritual - attitude, on the contrary, ethically interpreted, does not presuppose - the idea of a divine order as a dogma, but offers it as the product - of the experience of suffering itself. The conviction that there is - in man an essential spiritual self, a holy thing, and a spiritual - universe, a holy community, are not gifts to which we fall heir at - birth, or by some sort of revelation borrow from the experience of - ancient teachers; they are a supreme good to be arduously worked out - by ourselves. And the interpretation given to the facts of suffering - and frustration is that they can be used as the means of bringing to - birth in us that supreme conviction. - - In general it may be said that the purpose of existence, both of the - individual and of the race, is so to work in the finite world as to - become possessed with ever greater distinctness of the conviction - of the reality of the wholly real world, the infinite supersensible - universe. - - The attitude of the Christian is other-worldly. He shuns intimacy - with the finite world and turns his face toward his “true home.” The - attitude herein described is that of hearty attack upon the business - of life, and close embrace of all the partial reality which finite - experience contains, with a view of thus acquiring in some measure an - appreciation of the utter reality of which these partial realities are - hints and glimmerings. - - - NOTE IV - - In the case of any new theory, it is true that one must live with it - for a considerable time before acquiring the habit of thinking in - accordance with it. The older habits constantly crop up and interfere - with the correct understanding of any new point of view. This is - especially so of a new attitude towards reality. The world seems - topsy-turvy to one who learns for the first time that grass and the - leaves of trees are not really green apart from the eye that sees - them, that beings with different organs might interpret differently - that which stimulates the human eye to its specific color reactions. - The heliocentric theory, when first announced by Copernicus, outraged - naïve commonsense. It exacted a new habit of thinking in regard to - the relation of the sun to the earth,—the real relation, apprehended - by intercalated mental processes being the direct opposite of the - apparent relation. The sun evidently revolves around the earth, - nevertheless the truth is that the earth revolves around the sun. - - Modern science reveals behind the palpable world around us - unimaginable fluids, speeds, and physical units which are so - sublimated in thought as to be barely distinguishable from - metaphysical entities. The habit of penetrating with radium-like - glance the concrete screen of things, and of seeing behind the screen - the company of atoms, ions, etc., may be gradually acquired; but the - older habit of regarding the palpable and visible as the truly real - continues to assert itself in conflict with the new habit. - - The ethical unit in an ethical manifold postulated in the text as the - closest, though still symbolic, reading of the ultimate reality, makes - a similar demand upon the reader, and requires of him in like manner - the formation of a new habit of thinking, against which the older - habits will doubtless continue to protest. - - The most obstinate of the older habits that stand in the way has - been dealt with in the note on causality, namely,—the unscientific - habit of ignoring the boundaries of science, and of taking the method - employed in the physical sciences as the sole method that leads to - certainty. The prejudice of causality is probably ineradicable, just - as the illusion that the sun revolves about the earth persists. But - we can at least reach the point of realizing that it is a prejudice, - and to this extent overcome it. If it be synthesis, or the employment - in inseparable conjunction of the two functions mentioned, that for - the human mind spells reality, then one kind of synthesis called - causality, that of sequent phenomena, does not exclude the ampler, - though ideal synthesis, which is carried out in the mental production - of the ethical manifold. So much I wish to add to the statements - contained in the text in regard to the theory. - - But there is also a new habit to be acquired in regard to the - practical ethical consequences of the theory. The chief of these is - the prizing of distinctive difference above uniformity or sameness. - The ethical quality is that quality in which a man is intrinsically - unique. The ethical act is the most completely individualized act (I - ought perhaps to say personalized, but the completely individualized - act _is_ that of a unique personality). In brief, the emphasis is - here put on that in which a man differs from all others, and not on - the common nature which he shares with the rest; or rather, since the - common nature is not denied, the stress is put on the intrinsically - different mode in which the common nature is expressed in him.[43] - - The accentuation in current ethical discussion of the common nature of - man, and the fallacious assumption that the common interests are the - pre-eminently moral interests, that uniformity is the test of ethical - quality, is easy to understand. It is the reaction of the modern world - against feudalism, a social system not yet entirely outgrown, in - which the empirical differences of rank and birth were made the basis - of intolerably oppressive discriminations, and in which it was an - accepted axiom that some men are baked of better clay than others. It - is also a reaction against the capitalistic system that has taken the - place of the feudal, in which wealth is to a considerable extent made - the standard of social appraisement. - - It is against these false discriminations that the voice of humanity - is now indignantly raised, affirming the moral equality of all men. - But equality is mistakenly taken to mean likeness in the sense of - sameness, not in the sense of that fundamental likeness on the - background of which the desirable unlikenesses stand forth. And this - notion of equality as identical with sameness leads to great practical - aberrations. Thus, for instance, women are not only to be recognized - as the equals of men, but are to be the same as men,—their education - patterned on that of men, their specific functions, as far as - possible, ignored. For unlikeness is supposed to connote inferiority, - and inferiority is justly repelled as morally intolerable. But aside - from this one example, the stressing of the common nature, or of the - basis of likeness at the expense of the outstanding unlikenesses, - leads to other leveling tendencies of which modern democracies - furnish many unpleasing illustrations. Thus uniform popular opinion, - encompassing the individual on every side, penetrates into his inmost - thinking, so that he hardly ventures to hold to his own judgment - against the judgments of the majority. And the impulses of the mass - tend also to threaten his independence in action. There is indeed a - certain intoxication in the very sense of being submerged in a large - whole, a certain glad loss of self in great impersonal movements, a - certain strain of democratic pantheism, as it were, that takes the - place with some of mystic absorption in Deity. But whatever the value - that may attach to these upswellings of feeling, it is counterbalanced - by the circumstance that in proportion as indiscriminate devotion to - society as a whole becomes the paramount motive, the sub-organisms of - society, the family, the vocation and the state, in which the ethical - personality is ripened, are threatened with effacement. Instead of - moral equality it were better to use the term “moral equivalence.” The - differences are to be stressed; they are the coruscating points in the - spiritual life of mankind. That every man is the equal of his fellows - means that he has the same right as each of the others to become - unlike the others, to acquire a distinct personality, to contribute - his one peculiar ray to the white light of the spiritual life. - - FOOTNOTES: - - [34] I do not however agree with those who regard the shreds of - theology remaining in his system as a concession, not wholly - ingenuous, to orthodoxy. He was brought up in the pietistic faith, - and had probably not entirely outgrown the emotional impressions - of those early teachings. The noumena, however, play a part in the - system itself distinct from the theology, and are not to be taken as - supersensible realities. They are limiting concepts intended to serve - as incentives or lures, winning the mind to continue without cessation - its advance along certain paths within the field of experience; - but they are not supposed to give any clue as to what is beyond - experience. That which is beyond the field of experience is simply - unknowable. Thus the noumenon called “thing _per se_” is notice given - to the mind not to be deterred in its proper business of unifying the - space and time manifold by the difficulties which arise when the time - and space manifold is taken as an ultimate account of reality. The - thing _per se_ is a welcome to science and not a bar set up in its - path. - - The noumenon of freedom is an incentive to man urging him to act - as if he were capable of practicing the law of universality and - necessity. In fact the phrase “as if” plays a leading rôle in the - Kantian philosophy. The noumenon of God, as will presently be shown, - is afflicted with this conditional “as if” character to even a higher - degree. We are to assume God in order to look upon the vast field of - possible experience as if it were unified, as if a being who himself - stands for unity had been its creator. This assumption is supposed to - be necessary in order to encourage the scientist in his search for - the thread of unity, lest he flag by the way. As a matter of fact - scientists have contented themselves with the simple assumption of - the uniformity of nature as necessary to the prosecution of their - investigations, and have as a rule troubled themselves little to - hypostasize the notion of unity. Nor has recent progress in science - been associated with and influenced by the belief in an individual - Deity. The noumenon of God is unnecessary for science while in Kant’s - ethical application of it it is positively harmful. He introduces the - God notion as an artificial device for linking together happiness and - virtue, a device quite inconsistent with the noble austerity of his - ethical system, whatever its other defects may be. - - The noumena, then, are apparitions that appear at the end of certain - paths in the field of experience, far off where the sky and the ground - seem to meet. These paths run off in different directions. At the - end of each is one of these limiting apparitions, and the society of - noumena is disconnected internally: there is no relation of unity - between the unifiers. - - [35] The difference between “supersensible” and “supernatural” - is capital. I do not encourage relapse into supernaturalism. The - supernatural is the opposite of the supersensible. It is an attempt to - represent in natural or _sensible_ guise what is supposed to be beyond - the senses; and the naturalistic representation of the supersensible - is then taken not metaphorically but literally. - - [36] He allows indeed the _Ens Realissimum_ to remain, and calls it - the ideal of the reason, the ideal of unity hypostasized, centralized - in an individual, and somehow harboring within itself all real - properties whatsoever. But it is quite impossible to conceive how all - real properties can belong to a single individual. For the properties - as we know them are incompatible with each other. Surely an individual - cannot be both great and small, beautiful and ugly, of all colors and - sounds, etc., etc. Or again if all properties were somehow assembled - in one individual, since that individual is conceived of as an - hypostasized unity, it would be impossible to speak of a relation - between them, and yet upon the relation of the differentiæ depends the - ethical utility of the idea of a supreme reality. - - [37] Compare, for instance, the anti-intellectualistic philosophy - of Bergson, with its emphasis on planless spurts of energy, the - irrationalist philosophy of Schopenhauer, etc. - - [38] The above exposition is not a transcendental derivation of - ethics. The ideal of the infinite society is a fulguration _out - of_ ethical experience, to be ever renewed _in it_. We build not - only our world, but our universe. The ethical principle is not a - working hypothesis, like those provisionally used in science. It is - the outgrowth of the functional finalities. It is a postulate. The - specific moral laws, or expressions of the ethical principle indeed, - are changeable, being the product of the principle with the varying - empirical conditions of human society. The fundamental principle is - unchangeable. - - The consciousness of universal interrelation is not to be described as - mystical consciousness. The identity of the self remains intact; it is - never lost in the One or the All. The ethical consciousness includes - indeed the consciousness of other selves related to our own, in a kind - of superindividual consciousness. But this is reached along the sunlit - path of action (So _act_, etc.), and not along the dreamy flux of - emotionalism or in the silent depths of quietism. - - [39] The frequent recurrence gives us a sense of safety in expecting - the consequent on the appearance of the antecedent. But the sense of - safety should not be confounded with the sense of the certainty. We - expect that day will follow night, because it has followed innumerable - times. But no amount of repetition can warrant the assertion that it - will and must do so. The Pragmatist view explains the sense of safety - in expectation, but does not appear to account for the certainty in - prediction, as for instance in the astronomer’s prediction of an - eclipse. - - [40] A hybrid conception, since in nature there are only happenings, - but no ends. - - [41] His efforts in some measure to remedy this defect in the Doctrine - of Virtue are artificial and unconvincing. - - [42] See Book III for a fuller development of this point. - - [43] Difference in the ethical meaning is not to be confounded with - mere idiosyncrasy, or originality, not to say eccentricity. It is - the kind of difference which elicits correlated difference in all - spiritual associates. - - - - - BOOK III - - APPLICATIONS: THE THREE SHADOWS, SICKNESS, SORROW AND SIN, AND THE - RIGHT TO LIFE, PROPERTY AND REPUTATION - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTION - - -Three main thoughts should be kept clear: the end to be realized, the -incongruity of the finite and the infinite order, and hence, thirdly, -the indispensable ministry of frustration in the realization of the -purpose of life. - -In regard to the so-called moral end of life, there has been much -variety and contrarity of teaching. I shall touch only upon that -aspect of the doctrine expounded in the previous book wherein it seems -to resemble other doctrines, and where a distinct statement of the -difference is therefore imperative. “So act as to develop the faculties -of thy fellowman” is not the rule proposed. “So act as to develop -the so-called good qualities in the man” is not the rule proposed. -The rule reads, “Act so as to bring out the spiritual personality, -the unique nature of the other.” Now, in putting the matter in this -way, we incurred the danger of seeming to concentrate attention on -the individual as a detached being, we seemed to have him only in -mind, though it is true, in respect to what is intrinsic in him, the -irreducible ethical unit which he essentially is. We must, therefore, -constantly remind ourselves that the ethical unit, while unique, is -at the same time an inseparable member of a society of differentiated -units; that its very distinctiveness consists in injecting, as it -were, streams of dynamic energy into its fellow-beings. Or, as I have -elsewhere figuratively put it, the distinctiveness of any ethical -being consists, so to speak, in emitting a ray the color of which is -nowhere else to be found, the miraculous quality of which consists in -acquiring this color at the very instant in which it causes counter or -complementary colors to appear in its fellow-being. (I am using the -words “instant,” “miraculous,” “ray of light,” etc., of course, in a -wholly figurative sense.) - -We have at last, this is my belief, achieved a positive definition of -the spiritual nature. The spiritual nature is that which forever is -social in a supra-social sense, as embracing not only human society, -but a universal society of spirits. The spiritual nature is that -of which the very life consists in starting up unlike but equally -worthwhile life elsewhere, everywhere. The spiritual experience to get -hold of, therefore, is the consciousness of this interrelation. - -The moral end to be realized, in accordance with the deductions -of Book II, is “So to act upon another as to evoke in him, and -conjointly in oneself, in the same movement and counter-movement the -consciousness of the interlacedness of life with life, the reciprocal, -universal, infinite interrelatedness.” - -Now, as a fact, we never realize this end. If we did we should possess -what alone is properly called freedom,—freedom in the positive sense -being the exercise of power peculiar to ourselves, welling up out of -our veriest self, and executing the totality of its effects. Freedom is -marked by these two signs: energy coming unborrowed out of self, and -producing the totality of its effects. I am free when the thing I do -is verily my own, when the power released is the power of my essential -self; and when that power is nowhere checked, inhibited or interrupted, -so that it produces its due, that is, its universal effects. - -An ethical being in an ethical universe would be free. The dynamic -energy proceeding from it would be aboriginal. And since it would -radiate upon every other member of the infinite society, it would also -produce the unstinted plenitude of its effects. Each ethical unit, at -its station, would be at once the _producer and the recipient of the -totality of life_.[44] - -It is apparent from what has been said that the superlative, sublime -thing, freedom, is not realizable except in an infinite world. And -hence that the supreme end to be realized by man as a finite being -cannot be the full release of unique power in himself. But neither can -the end be approximation. In so serious a business as a philosophy of -life we ought not to play with words, nor delude ourselves with the -implication of proximity seemingly contained in the word approximation. -For it being admitted that we cannot reach the ideal, approximation -seems to suggest that we come into its neighborhood. But the truth -is that the more we advance the less do we arrive in the immediate -neighborhood of the ideal, the distance at which it lies becoming ever -more remote. The moral end, therefore, for a finite nature, like that -of man, is just to realize the unattainableness of the end. There must -be no heaven-on-earth illusions, no resting in the development of our -inadequate human faculties, and no illusions as to approximation. The -unattainableness of the infinite end in the finite world by the finite -nature is the Alpha and Omega of the doctrine, as I propound it. Only -after this truth has been fully faced and recognized, shall we be in -a position to take in the vast significance of the fact that we are -nevertheless under a certain coercion to persist in our efforts to -attain the unattainable, and in inquiring into the source from which -this pressure comes, we shall be led to infer the influence in us of -an infinite nature enshrined in this finite nature of ours. In other -words, to admit the unattainableness of the end in a finite world by -a finite being is the very condition of our acquiring the conviction -that there is an infinite world, and that we, as possessing an infinite -nature, are included in it.[45] - -I have now covered the points mentioned: the end to be realized, -the incongruity of the two orders, and the cardinal importance of -frustration as a spiritual experience, as a means of spiritual -education. - -From this point of view the whole question of how to deal with the -frustrations of life assumes a new aspect. Lessing published his -well-known essay on the Education of the Race towards the close of the -eighteenth century.[46] Interest in the subject has since been obscured -by the scientific movement, and especially by the evolutionary -philosophy. The latter excludes the idea of education in the proper -sense, and substitutes for it a natural process, a genetic unfolding. -The education of the human race, and of the human individual from the -spiritual point of view consists in a series of efforts never to be -intermitted, but not necessarily following each other in an orderly -series, aiming to embody the infinite in the finite. - -Both partial success and failure in these efforts are instrumental -to the achievement of the task of mankind. Both serve to make more -explicit the character and extent of the ideal, while the ultimate -inevitable failure painfully instructs man in the fact of the -incongruity of the two orders. The only outcome of human history that -we can view with satisfaction on a large scale, is the same as that -which we should regard as the best outcome of an individual life, -namely, the growing conviction and the clearer vision of the eternal -spiritual universe as real. We might say that that man had lived best -who on his deathbed could declare with perfect truth: “I have achieved -the certainty, and in through the vicissitudes of my life, that there -is a universe.” I here emphasize again the distinction between universe -and world. To say that the universe is “good” is equivocal. The term -“good,” as commonly used, describes the moral striving of a finite -nature, and not the quality that belongs to the spiritual universe -and its members, thinking of them as ideally we must, as freed from -finite limitation. Of the spiritual universe, we might use the term -“supra-good,” only we should then be careful to add that the “beyond -good” is to be conceived as lying in the direction of the good, while -transcending it. Thereby we avoid the pitfall of Nietzsche and of -others who speak in a totally different sense of the “beyond good and -evil.” We read of a man blessing his children on his deathbed. The -highest type of man is the one who _in articulo mortis_ can bless the -universe. - -The discrepancy of the finite and the infinite order appears on the -physical and moral sides. On the physical side it thrusts itself upon -our attention in the circumstance that juxtaposition and sequence are -incapable of being unified, or totalized. Space and time and that -which fills them, matter, are by nature incongruous with spirit. On -the moral side the incongruity appears in the deflecting forces of -appetite and passion which hinder us in the attainment of the spiritual -end and in the fact that our so-called higher faculties are in -irreconcilable conflict with one another. The harmonious union of all -of them in any individual is a fiction. It is impossible to be fully -developed on all sides. And in addition the social substrata in which -the spiritual relation has to be worked out, are themselves too deeply -beset with internal contrarieties to serve their purpose adequately. -The sex relation, for instance, is to a certain extent favorable to the -achievement of spirituality, that is, of living in the life of another; -yet on the other hand there are elements in it that defeat this very -object. - -I write, therefore, at the head of such words of counsel as I can hope -to give in respect to the conduct of life, the word _Frustration_. -It is understood that this word is not used in the pathetic sense. -First because there is partial achievement, moments in life at which -the rainbow actually seems to touch the earth. Love and marriage, the -completing of a beautiful work of art, the discovery of a new law of -nature, the emancipation of an oppressed class, are examples. But these -partial successes are presently seen to be partial; they are followed, -or even in the moment of triumph, permeated, with the sense of -incompleteness and the foreboding of new obscurities and perplexities -advancing upon the mind. Yet essentially the doctrine is not a -melancholy doctrine, because frustration, though a painful instrument, -is yet a necessary instrument of spiritual development. We are not open -to the reproach of dampening the zest and relish for life of those who -are setting out to try the hazard of their fortunes. They shall put -forth their best effort to succeed, but let them be so guided herein -that they may meet in the right attitude of mind the disillusionment -which is the condition of the revelation. The shadows will and must -descend before they can be parted, disclosing the landscape of the -spiritual universe. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[44] Incidentally it may be remarked that in introducing the category -of interrelation we remove the objection against freedom which remains -unmitigable so long as freedom is supposed to be a kind of causality, -competing with natural causality. Causality is the unity of a temporal -manifold of sequent phenomena. The concept of interrelation is the -concept of the unity of co-existent entities. - -[45] See some fine remarks on the unattainableness in Tyrrel’s -_Christianity at the Cross-roads_. - -[46] _Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts._ - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE THREE GREAT SHADOWS: SICKNESS, SORROW, SIN - - -Having concentrated attention upon the point that the end is not the -development of any particular faculty or assemblage of faculties, -but the awakening in man, in and through his development, of the -consciousness of interrelation, of life in life, we shall now turn to -the three great shadows: sickness, sorrow, sin. In the case of sickness -the suffering, however acute, must be made to pass over into action. -There is a certain work to be done, something to be accomplished on the -sick bed. What is it? I shall briefly review a few of the answers that -have been given. - -First, the Stoic says: A man in pain is to resist the pain by an act -of will, thereby demonstrating that his essential self is inaccessible -to bodily suffering. “If there is a pain in thy limb, remember that -the pain is in thy limb, and not in thyself.” Now the fortitude of the -Stoic is admirable as far as it goes; his counsels are bracing and -manly. But, because he is a materialistic pantheist, the reason he -gives for his defiance of pain is not convincing. In effect his appeal -is rather to the empirical than to the spiritual nature of man. The -spiritual nature is characterized by humility; the appeal of the Stoic -is to pride. Fate with all its sledgehammer blows shall not crush him. -Yet the Stoic’s pride when put to the supreme test does not avail, and -the proof of it is that at the last it breaks down in suicide. - -We come to a second answer. There is business in hand for the sufferer -on the sick bed. What is the business? To hide the expression of his -suffering, so that the cloud which rests on him may not cast its shadow -upon others, obscuring their sunshine. But, we are bound to ask, are -others always worthy of such consideration? Is not our sympathetic -regard for their pleasures, their sunshine, often misplaced? Are not -their pleasures often selfish and frivolous? The Greeks believed that -outcries in situations of great distress are perfectly legitimate, -since they seem to afford a kind of relief. Is it not cruel to forbid -such outcries? In our age the view prevails that it is a proof of moral -grandeur to suppress the signs of suffering. But the cynical question -obtrudes itself whether it may not be the collective selfishness of the -multitude that imposes this rule. The common run of men desire to go -on their way undisturbed by cries that emanate from the sick chamber, -and perhaps it is on this account that they impose a rule of behavior -based, not on the principle of human worth, but on its opposite. The -individual forsooth is not to count; the unhappiness of one is not to -interfere with the happiness of the greater number! - -There is, however, another view of the matter possible. Everyone -carries his own particular burden. When tortured by some painful -malady, we are apt to think that others, because they wear a smiling -exterior, are therefore free from pain. But often those who seem in -sound health are in fact as great sufferers as we, or even greater. And -physical pain is not the only kind of suffering. Why, then, should I, -for one, add to the troubles of others by imposing my own upon them? -Put in this way, it is plain that there is an ethical element in the -kind of behavior that is expected of a manly person. But the reason -assigned, sympathy with the pleasures of others, is unconvincing. -Unless there be some good to which grievous suffering can be made -instrumental, there is no warrant for enduring it. As for the Stoics, -so for the philosopher of sympathy, the logical end would be suicide, -at least when the pain is exceptionally intense. - -There is a third answer. Something is to be worked out on the sick bed. -What is it? To be purified in the furnace, to learn patience and humble -submission to the inscrutable will of God. Patience is the supreme -virtue. “Be patient, Oh, be patient,” I once heard a dying man repeat -with touching accents. But patience for the sake of what? There must be -some object to be gained by the patience to make it commendable. I can -be patient in a storm at sea if I may entertain the hope of reaching -port. I can be patient in conducting a difficult scientific experiment -if I may hope that it will issue in an important discovery, or prepare -the way for such discovery by others. I can be patient in sickness if -I have any reason to expect a return to health. But patience for mere -patience’s sake is absurd. Well, then, the third answer is,—patience -for the sake of manifesting your faith and trust in a wise and -beneficent Deity. Why he has sent this suffering, why he has so made -the world that it is replete with the agony of sentient creatures we do -not know. We cannot know. But he knows. Trust him, have faith in him: -“Though he slay me yet will I trust him.” - -Here a genuine characteristic of the spiritual attitude has been -expressed, but the ground on which it is put is once more unconvincing. -How do I know that there is such a being as this wise and loving Deity -of whom you tell me? By the evidence of his works, by the testimony -of the world he has created, by the life for which I am indebted to -him. But the world is the playground of good and evil forces. There -is a semblance of design; there is on the other hand apparently the -wildest disorder. The stars in their courses travel with incredible -celerity in every direction, but no astronomer has ever yet been -able to discern a plan in their journeyings. Human life is full of -sorrow as well as joy; and whether there be more sorrow or more joy -in the lives of most persons, who will venture to say? There is -kindness, but there is also cruelty. There is coöperation, and there -is merciless competition. There is health and bloom, and there is -miserable physical decay. At present, in my case, suffering and sorrow -are in the ascendant. The picture of the Deity as fashioned from the -evidence of experience is dark and bright, cruel and kind. If he be -omnipotent, why did he introduce the elements of discord and trouble -into his creation? Why, in particular, does he at present torture me -so cruelly? In order that I may believe in him despite the evidence! -But how can I believe, seeing that in my own case the evidence on the -bad side preponderates? Thus the mind of the sufferer on his couch -of pain gropes in the labyrinth of argument and counter-argument—for -the intellectual processes are often preternaturally acute in times of -physical suffering—and there is no outlet. In a fine spiritual nature -there is something which pleads that the counter-arguments ought not -to prevail. Desperately, by an act of faith, a man lays hold on his -God. But presently his faith again relaxes, his state of mind becomes -confused, and unless supported by strong impressions received in and -retained from childhood on, the third answer will not avail him. - -There is business in hand on the sick bed. What is it? The fourth -answer, the answer as it appeals to me, depends on the very incongruity -of the finite and the infinite order. Every attempt to explain this -incongruity breaks down, every theodicy is a fiction. To explain is to -find the cause of effects. But the notion of cause does not apply to -the relation between the finite and the infinite. And of the infinite -order itself we possess only the plan or scheme of relations. The -members of this ideal world are related to one another in such a manner -that the essential uniqueness of the one is to be provocative of the -diverse distinctiveness of the others. This, as I think, is a very -fruitful formula, furnishing a rule of conduct to be applied to our -finite relations. But it sheds no light on the uniqueness itself, which -is forever ideal. What in its ultimate constitution our spiritual being -may be, remains unknown. Did we know, were we capable of comprehending -the infinite order, and seeing things in that supersolar light, we -might then be able to solve the insoluble riddle, the coexistence -side by side of the finite and the infinite. As it is, the problem of -finiteness especially in its human aspect of suffering and evil is -impenetrable, inexplicable. _But if we cannot explain suffering and -evil, we can utilize them for a definite spiritual end._ And that end -is to achieve through the ministry of frustration and the persistence -of the effort toward the unattainable, the consciousness of the reality -of the spiritual universe and of our membership in it. - -The answer, therefore, which I should offer, is based on this pivotal -distinction between explaining and using. And thus the business in -hand, the end to be gained, is the intensified realization of our -spiritual interconnectedness with others, the life in life. To this end -we accept from the Stoic, though for a reason which he does not give, -resistance to pain, and from the philosopher of sympathy the obligation -of not clouding the life of others with our shadow, and from the -theologian the law of patience—and we take a step beyond all three. - -Let me carry this out somewhat more in detail. To gain the -consciousness of interrelation, there must be an object outside of -myself of supreme interest to me, enabling me to transcend the ego. -Now, pain has the opposite effect, that of concentrating attention -on the ego. Pain builds a prison around us, raises up high walls -which shut us in. Anyone in great pain is incessantly reminded of his -physical state. In order that the mind may pass out of the prison -cell and over the encompassing wall, there needs to be some object -beyond the wall appealing enough to solicit the outward movement. -This object is the spiritual self of my fellowmen. It is my concern -for their spiritual self which is their highest good, it is my eager -wish to reinforce what is best in them that works the transcendence of -the ego and of its pains. In such supreme moments the lesser values -dwindle into relative insignificance. And what is best in others is -the same consciousness on their part of the interrelation. It is this -that I am to awaken in them, to strengthen in them by the intensity -with which I myself realize it. In the case of loving kin and friends, -they, too, suffer with me. In vain I try to hide my sufferings. They -divine what I try to suppress; and the more I try to suppress it, the -more they suffer with me. They suffer not only with the suffering, but -with the attempt to conceal the suffering. I have seen this in the -case of a mother at the bedside of her dying daughter. They go with me -to the brink of life. They enter into the anxieties and forebodings -that haunt my mind as I face death. There may be young children that -still need fostering care. Dangers to the family may arise after I am -gone. The more my life is implicated in the lives around me, the more -as I stand on the edge of life will my thoughts be occupied, not with -the obliteration of my empirical self, but with the future of those -that survive—that best future of theirs which I long to assure. And -they, in turn, if they are fine natures, will pass through this inward -experience with me. Thus I descend into the darkness and the depths, -and they descend with me; and I am also to rise out of the darkness and -the depths, and am to gain the force to do this in order that I may -lift them with me. - -This is the business in hand. I am to draw myself out of the depths, -to overcome the centralizing, egotizing effects of physical and mental -pain, in order by my effort to make those around me realize the -intensity with which I feel my interrelatedness with them, and thereby -to reveal to them the same spiritual power in themselves. Plans for -the future education of the children, counsels of peace, by way of -anticipation for the too lonely hours that await the most loving and -the most beloved,—these things have value chiefly in so far as they are -insignificant of the indissoluble interlacing of life with life.[47] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[47] I have spoken of the sick bed as surrounded by loving friends -and near of kin. There are sick beds where the situation is quite -different,—in the poor wards of hospitals for instance. Nevertheless, -the loneliest person is never without certain human relations. It may -be the pauper in the next bed, the nurse, or the physician, to whom his -behavior will be of lasting meaning. - -I would add a word as to the attitude of a person who is threatened -with insanity, and who is aware that the disease is approaching. His -last conscious act should be to honor the community to which he belongs -by voluntarily putting himself out of the way of harming them. Not that -the physical harm is itself the principal thing, but that the wish not -to harm physically is the sign of his sense of the ethical relation in -which he stands to his fellows. Also a person threatened in this way -ought to be willing to put himself in the keeping of others, even of -strangers, as being no longer himself competent to judge rightly of -what shall be done to him. It is true that in accepting the judgment of -strangers as a substitute for his own he is taking the risk of being -treated with insufficient consideration, and possibly even mistreated. -Yet the jeopardy in which he thus puts his future, the sacrificial act -he performs, is evidence of mental nobility at the very moment when -mental night is about to set in for him. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -BEREAVEMENT - - -When we reflect on what actually happens in cases of bereavement, we -shall find great diversity in different situations. It may be that the -deceased person has led a worthless life, and that the grave is allowed -to close over him without much regret. Nevertheless, the honor due to -worth that _never appeared in him_ ought to be shown. In the worst -cases we may not treat human beings like animals. Besides, there are -generally one or more persons who seem to have an unreasoning natural -affection for the wretched being, and so he does not go wholly without -the tribute of tears. Others, like sufferers from cancer, pass through -days, weeks, months of acute pain before they die. In their case it is -said that death comes as a relief, and often the final relief from the -suffering obscures the loss. - -Again, in most men’s lives there is an upper and an under side. Though -the public career of statesmen, poets, artists may be dazzling, yet -their faults or obliquities are probably well enough known to those -who have seen them at close range. Obituaries are seldom truthful. -Sometimes, however, the reverse happens; men whose names are held up -to public obloquy are not always as black as they are painted. Their -worst side becomes known to the public, yet they sometimes possess -wonderfully fine traits. - -Very pathetic is the mourning for a baby, and its unfulfilled promise, -or for a defective child, long a burden, yet strangely grieved for when -its feeble little flame of life is extinguished. - -The most poignant sorrow is that which cannot be communicated to others -or shared by others, because the tie severed by bereavement, like -that of husband and wife, is between two only. The loss by death of -a beloved life companion is apt to lead to an inconsolable state of -mind, because in this relation, when finely interpreted, the empirical -and the spiritual appear almost to coincide. The ethical rule, Live -in the life of another, live so as to enhance to the highest degree -the possibilities of another, seems almost no longer a counsel of -perfection but an actual experience. Hence the utter grief into which -the sundering of the tie is apt to plunge the survivor. On the other -hand, Jonathan Edwards said on his deathbed to his wife: “Our relation -has been spiritual, and therefore is eternal.” And there is indeed an -element of eternality in marriage, only it is not the sex relation as -such that is or can be conceived of as eternal. It is not man and woman -in their empirical form to which this attribute belongs. Marriage is -the sign; the spiritual relation that which is signified.[48] - -It may be objected that marriage being a tie strictly between two, one -can hardly think without repugnance of an equally intimate, nay, far -more intimate, relation with all spiritual beings whatsoever. Yet the -spiritual relation is one in which the ethical being is conceived to be -in touch with each of the infinite beings that comprise the spiritual -universe, pouring its essential life into them, and receiving theirs in -return. Is not then the sign incompatible with and contradictory to the -thing signified? But it is not of the multitude of mortal men and women -surrounding us that we think when we speak of the eternal hosts. From -this surrounding swarm of mortals, we retreat, taking refuge in the -inmost privacy which we share with one other only. Yet this very inmost -intimacy, so far as it is pure, is the emblem of that pure intercourse -of essential being with essential being in which we are related to -all.[49] - -Following up the subject of bereavement, we find the following -consolations employed: - -The first to be mentioned is, “Bow to the inevitable.” I include -this because frustration is inevitable, on account of the discrepancy -between the finite and the infinite order, and because we are to use -inevitable frustration for the purpose of experiencing the reality -of the ideal. But without this use in mind, the inevitable presents -itself as a mere blind necessity, in which we can see neither right nor -reason, a hostile doom that simply crushes us. The psychological effect -of the thought of an event as inevitable, it is true, is in any case -calming, but the tranquillity thus induced is a heavy and hopeless one. -And those who accept the inevitable in this stupefying manner often -become meaner in their way of living. The light of life is for them -extinguished. They put up perhaps with creature comforts, or with work -that merely keeps the mind occupied, and prevents it from fretting the -wound, thus allowing slow time to cicatrize it. - -There is, however, a larger way in which a materialist may regard the -inevitable. The world in his view being a vast machine, he may, as it -were, identify himself with the machine, and thereby rise in thought -superior to the injury it inflicts on him. But though we can imagine -someone thus deadening his feelings when he himself is the victim, we -cannot well conceive of the same remedy applying when a beloved person, -say an only child, is being crushed under the Juggernaut car of the -world-machine. _The great test of one’s philosophy of life is whether -it helps us in the case of those whom we love, rather than in the case -of the sufferings we experience in our own person._ - -A second consolation is: Remember the universality of sorrow. Look -around you, behold the vast multitude who are suffering like you; -remember the countless generations who have suffered in the past, -think of the generations to come that will suffer in like manner. Such -are some of the consolations of the choruses in the Greek tragedies. -Latent perhaps in this mournful view of the facts of existence is -another aspect of the matter, namely, the uprising from frustration -toward ideal realization. And in so far as this other uplifting view is -indeed latent or suggested, the thought of the universality of sorrow -has an ennobling effect. On the other hand, without the explication of -what may be regarded as implicit in them the consolations of the Greek -choruses are inexpressibly saddening. - -A third and active variant of the former consolation is: Seek to -mitigate the sorrow and trouble of thy fellow-sufferers. Appease the -passion of thine own grief by compassion and the works to which it -leads. And by as much as activity of any kind is better than passivity, -or mere feeling, by so much is this third kind of consolation better -than the ones above mentioned. But at bottom the same criticism applies -to it. It leaves still unanswered the question, To what end this -suffering both of others and of oneself? Not Why? is the question, -but To what end? How bereavement may be used so as to bring it into -relation with the final end of life? - -A fourth consolation is the popular belief in immortality. This -is a resort to supernaturalism, and the supernatural should ever -be distinguished from the supersensible. Immortality as popularly -held involves the continued existence in some empirical form of the -essential, central entity in man. For the suggestion that new organs -may replace the wornout terrestrial body does not alter the empirical -character of the conception. The new organs are still conceived in some -vague fashion as similar to those with which we are acquainted. - -Finally, my own interpretation of consolation may be set forth in -contrast to all these. Again I say that for the bereaved, as for the -sick, there is business in hand, there is a task to be performed, a -work to be done. What is it? Let me endeavor to explain. The spiritual -nature of man is incognizable, only the plan of the relations between -spirit and spirit being given. Yet to think of a relation at all -we must think of entities or objects between which it subsists. Of -the spiritual part of our fellow-beings, therefore, we are bound to -fashion mentally a symbolic image, one that shall stand for the real -object, the spiritual nature, though we are well aware that it does not -adequately express it. - -When the beloved person is no longer visibly present, the work we do -upon the symbolic image of him is not to cease. We are to review, to -summarize the whole existence of a departed friend, as we have probably -never done while he was with us. We are to get the total perspective of -his life, to see the fine qualities standing out more distinctly; to -seize the net result of his existence so far as those character traits -are concerned which in him were most analogous to spiritual traits. -This image we can now ideally contemplate with the advantage that none -of the actual infirmities of his nature can mar it, and that no future -events can henceforth alter our impression. The work of clarifying -the image of our friend goes on unimpeded. And our own activity in -the process of purifying his image of all that was merely fallible in -him benefits us in return. The effect of this activity of ours on the -datum of his life is our permanent gain. Thus both what he was and what -he was not is stimulative. While he lived we performed the function -of elimination and concentration with a view of producing progress in -him and in ourselves jointly. Progress, induced by us, so far as he -is concerned, for all we know is at an end. Progress so far as we are -concerned is assured by the activity we continue to expend as long as -we live on his memory. And the memory, or the image, stands for the -beloved person. There is real mental intercourse wherever there is a -movement of one mind towards the outgoings of another, even though the -retroactive relation be suspended. The beloved person benefits me, -though I no longer benefit him, except indirectly so far as in my own -life I possibly expiate his shortcomings and in so far as I bestow on -other living persons the advantage I receive from my mental intercourse -with him.[50] - -What, then, is the business in hand? What is the work to be done? -Plainly to tie anew the threads that were broken, to bring it about -that the loss, infinitely painful though it be, shall lead to gain, -to substitute for the mixed relation of touch and sight the purely -spiritual relation. - -One more remark must be made in connection with the above. There is -at present a tendency to dishonor the past in comparison with the -future. Interest seems to lie in what lies ahead. Hence a breathless, -forward-urging mood. One consequence of this is that the dead are less -honored than of old. Within a single generation, for instance, I have -seen not a few eminent persons in the city of New York pass away who -up to the time of their death and in their obituaries were greatly and -justly praised. I have hardly ever seen their names publicly mentioned -since. Already they seem practically forgotten. In our national history -likewise only a few of the most eminent are remembered. In like manner -in families, the names even of father and mother are seldom mentioned -by their surviving adult children, and ancestors at second remove -are barely remembered. Now excessive reverence for the past, as in -China, is a mark of stationariness. A retrospective point of view -is inconsistent with progress. Our face must necessarily be turned -toward the future. And yet forgetfulness of those human beings whom -we have known, and who represented to us while they lived much of the -best that life had to give, seems inhuman and incredible. It is true -that I have drawn a sharp distinction between the empirical selves -and those spiritual selves which the former for a time enshrined. The -empirical selves have now disappeared. The gleam of love in the eye, -the luster of beauty, whether of form or of expression, that touched -for a season the sacred features, have vanished. On the other hand, the -spiritual self as a member of the spiritual universe is confessedly -past knowing and past imagining. On what object then shall memory -dwell? It may dwell on the empirical self in so far as it was the sign -of the thing signified, in so far as the being we knew and loved was -to us convincing of the reality of that spiritual world which itself -is incognizable by sense or mind. The greatest boon any human being -can confer on another is to serve him in attaining the end for which -he exists; and the supreme end for us all is the realization of our -interrelation with the infinite community of spirits. The woman whom -we say we loved, we loved precisely because she revealed to us that -spiritual galaxy—because she was a Beatrice, ascending with us, and -opening to our sight the eternal expanses. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[48] In the New Testament, despite the preference expressed for -celibacy, the relation of the bridegroom to the bride is used -metaphorically to represent that of Christ with the church, and among -the mystics the same figure represents the union of Christ with the -believing soul. - -[49] I call attention to the difference between the view here expressed -and that of Emerson in the last paragraphs of his _Essay on Love_, -where he says: “Our affections are tents of a night. Our warm loves -are clouds that pass over the firmament of mind with its overarching -vault, its galaxies of immutable lights. In the personal relations -we are put in training for impersonal submergence and absorption in -God.” In my own view the infinite community of spiritual beings that -takes the place of God consists altogether of personalities. Godhead, -if you choose to apply that name to this infinite society, is not a -person but a community of personalities. Personality is not drowned in -the impersonal. On the contrary, the individual becomes a personality -through his relation to his associates in the eternal life. - -[50] I have real intercourse with Aristotle and Kant, as the outgoings -of their minds are still effectual in me—more vital intercourse than -with many of those who surround me. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE SHADOW OF SIN - - -If any term in the moral vocabulary stands in need of strict -redefinition, it is sin. Three elements combine to complete the idea -of sin: first, that the deed was one that ought not to have been done, -not so much because of its painful consequences to others or to self, -or to both, or, by repercussion on society as a whole; but because it -was opposed to what is intrinsically right: in other words, because it -contravened the kind of interrelation which would exist in its purity -in the ethical manifold. - -Secondly, the idea of sin implies that the sinner himself is the doer -of the deed, or that there is to this extent freedom of the will. I do -not say that he is the cause of which the deed is the effect. Causality -appertains to sequent phenomena. As regards freedom of the will, -the distinction between the category of interdependence and that of -causality is vital. A long series of causes, such as bad heredity, bad -environment, etc., may have led A to determine to murder B.[51] - -The notion of the freedom of the will as here viewed signifies that -no matter what the causal series may have been which leads up to the -act, when the act itself is about to be performed, when B is about to -experience the effect of A as cause, in that moment the relation of -interdependence between A and B ought to arise before the mind of A and -withhold him from completing his evil purpose. - -Thirdly, it is characteristic of sin that the fuller knowledge that the -harmful deed is sinful _comes after the act_,—that it is the Fruit of -the Tree, the enlightenment of the eyes. As the serpent said: “If ye -eat of the fruit ye shall be as gods.” - -Many a man has done what is called evil, and done it most deliberately, -knowing evil as evil. Remember the career of a Cæsar Borgia, the -extermination of the Caribbean Indians by the Spaniards, the outrages -on women perpetrated during the present war, the exploitation of human -labor practiced on a large scale among the civilized nations. That the -blackest crimes may be committed with a full knowledge of the horrible -consequences to the victims seems hardly to admit of doubt. Evil is -known as evil. - -But evil in its character as sin cannot be fully recognized prior -to the act. In this respect the Greeks had a certain prescience of -the truth when they asserted that no one can knowingly commit evil; -only they failed to distinguish between evil and sin. A man _can_ -knowingly commit evil, but cannot with full consciousness commit sin. -The knowledge of the sin is the divine elixir which may be distilled -from the evil deed (“Ye shall be as gods”), and the object of every -kind of punishment should be to extract that pain-giving but ultimately -peace-giving elixir. - -Above I mentioned the criminal as the extreme type. But evils in -less formidable guise, though not on that account less evil, refined -invasions of the personality of others, spiritual oppressions, -sometimes deliberate, often unwitting, are included in everyone’s -experience. And the process of expiation, by which evil is transcended -through the recognition of sin (with its prostrating effect at first, -its strangely elevating effect later on) is alike applicable to all. -The best of men have to go through this ordeal as well as the worst. -Especially is unwitting transgression inevitable. Sophocles makes it -the text of his philosophy in the _Œdipus_, though the solution offered -is that of Greek enlightenment and not that of the more profound -ethical consciousness. - -We have next, in close connection with sin, to consider the tremendous -question of responsibility, interpreted from the point of view of our -ethical principle. Responsible means answerable. Answerable to whom, -and in what sense? As commonly understood, it means answerable to God -the Law-giver, to God regarded as the Author of the moral law. God is -likened to a sovereign. Any infraction of his law is an offense against -the sovereign. Answerable means subject to the pains and penalties -which it suits the sovereign to annex to moral offences. There is no -intrinsic connection implied between pain and redemption. The pain is -supposed to break the will of the offender, or to mellow him, so that -he will in future obey the mandates of the sovereign without a murmur. - -Again, responsibility may mean responsibility to society. Crime is -infectious. A fissure opening at any one point in the dykes erected -against crime may let in a flood. The social order as a whole is -threatened in every single violation of law. The offender must answer -for his defiance of the public will by being subjected to the pains or -penalties which society annexes to his crime. The object is the same -as before, to break him into submission, to fit or force him into the -social mould, to make him harmless, or if possible what is called a -“useful citizen.” No internal redemptive change in the nature of the -evildoer is contemplated, except as it may be necessary to lead him to -a useful or at least a harmless life. The antisocial attitude is to be -replaced by the social attitude. Appeals to enlightened self-interest, -and to the sympathies are commonly thought sufficient for this purpose. - -Thirdly, responsibility means responsible to oneself. There is an -inner forum, a tribunal in which the spiritual self sits in judgment -on the empirical self. Conscience, the voice of this spiritual self, -pronounces the verdict. (Cf. the passages in Kant in which this figure -of speech is used.) These are metaphorical expressions. - -To grasp the meaning of responsibility from the ethical standpoint, we -must lift into view the concept of _the task of mankind as a whole_, -and of the individual as a factor in the fulfilment of that task. This -introduces a momentous turn into the discussion of the subject. - -The task of mankind is to arrive through its commerce with the finite -world, through its unremitting efforts to incorporate the infinite -plan within the sphere of human relations, at an increasingly explicit -conception of the ideal of the infinite universe; and through partial -success and frustration to seize the reality of that universe. -Responsibility means _participation in this task_, sharing its doom, -and attaining in oneself, in part, its sublime compensation. The -evildoer is to achieve the knowledge that his evil deed is sin, that is -to say, that it not only carries with it harm to others and indirectly -to himself, but that it is _the defeat in him_ of the task which is -set for the human race as a whole on earth. Instead of doing his share -in fulfilling this task, in gaining a footing in the finite world for -the spiritual relation of living so as to enhance the life of others -and thereby his own, he has miserably sought to enhance his life at -the expense of other life. The knowledge that he has so acted sears -his awakened soul like fire, but it is also the beginning of healing. -The transgressor, now sees what he did not see before. He sees by way -of contrast the holy pattern of relations which in his act he has -travestied, the holy laws which he has infringed, and in imputing -sin to himself for transgressing them, he at the same time proclaims -himself in his essential being holy, that is, capable of executing -them, or at least of striving unceasingly to do so. It is thus that -he opens within himself the sources of redemption, unseals the deeper -fountains of spiritual energy. - -That man is responsible means that he is answerable to do his share in -discharging the task of mankind. And when he is inwardly transformed -by the consciousness of the holy laws, and of himself as intrinsically -committed to holiness, he does thereby advance the business of his kind -on earth. In him humanity does take a step forward on the spiritual -road. In him one other member of our race has been lifted out of evil, -becoming perhaps, from the spiritual point of view, a more advanced -member of the forward-pressing host than those who have never passed -through an experience like his, who have not been overtly tempted, who -have remained conventionally moral, who have not realized the evil -that remains unexpurgated within them, and have not passed through the -cleansing process of self-condemnation and rebirth. - -The incongruity between the finite and the infinite order is the basis -of this doctrine of responsibility. Mankind is responsible for seeking -to embody the infinite in the finite. It fails to do so, but gains -its compensation. The individual shares this responsibility, but both -mankind and the individual jointly take a step forward whenever an -evil deed is recognized, branded and expiated as sinful. The object -of punishment, whether inflicted by society or self-inflicted, is to -promote this regeneration which is the expiation.[52] - - - NOTE - - - Evil in its ethical meaning presupposes worth as attaching to human - beings. To do evil is to offend against worth. To assert the worth of - man is to view him as one of an infinite number of beings, united in - an infinite universe, each induplicable in its kind. Of this spiritual - multitude ideally projected by us as enveloping human society only our - fellow human beings are known to us. _The moral law is the law which - reigns throughout the infinite spiritual universe applied within, the - narrow confines of human society. It is applied within those confines, - it is spiritual, universal in its jurisdiction._ - - The task of humanity as a whole is to embody more and more the - universal spiritual law in human relationships, and thus to transform - and transfigure human society. In the New Testament we read the - expression: “the light of God reflected in the face of Christ.” The - ideal here indicated may be expressed in the phrase, The spiritual - universe with its endless lights reflected on the face of human - society! The task of humanity is one which can never be completed, one - from which mankind may never desist. To see evil as sin is to see it - as contravening the collective task of mankind, the task of weaving - the human groups more and more into the fabric of the spiritual - relations. - - To see evil as sin is to see any single act or series of acts ideally - in their infinite connections. This is what I mean when I say that the - knowledge of sin comes after the act. I do not mean that there may not - be before the act a vague consciousness of the ramified consequences - of evil, but that the fuller knowledge of it as sin is the fruit - of the act. Nor do I mean that evil in its deeper significance is - revealed to every guilty person. The opposite is obviously true. What - I mean is that it is possible after having eaten of the Fruit of the - Tree to gain the enlightenment, in other words, to become aware of - the intrinsic holiness of our nature in consequence of our offense - against the holy laws. If anyone should ask “Must I then do evil in - order to gain the enlightenment?” the answer is that this question - is an idle one. No one can escape doing evil. If not in its grosser - forms, then in ways subtler and more complex, but not therefore less - evil, every one is bound to make acquaintance with guilt. He need not - go out of his way to seek occasion, let him see to it that he improves - the occasion when it comes, as inevitably it will, to his spiritual - advantage. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[51] The category of interdependence implies that the lines of energy -between A and B cross, so that A is subject to B’s influence, B subject -to A’s influence, simultaneously. The simultaneity of the relation -distinguishes the category of interdependence from that of causality. - -[52] This implies that the evil deed shall not be lost sight of, simply -forgotten. Compare the inadequate account of repentance as given by -Goethe in _Faust_ and elsewhere. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE SPIRITUAL ATTITUDE TO BE OBSERVED TOWARDS FELLOW-MEN IN GENERAL, -IRRESPECTIVE OF THE SPECIAL RELATIONS WHICH CONNECT US MORE CLOSELY -WITH SOME THAN OTHERS - - -_The Right to Life_ - -The thoughts presented above on the subject of sin naturally lead over -to the next topic, the obligations we are under regarding the life, -the property and the reputation of others. The ancient moral laws -unquestionably remain: “Thou shalt not kill”; “Thou shalt not steal”; -“Thou shalt not bear false witness.” But their application is extended -and their significance intensified by the positive definition which has -been given to the term _Spiritual_. - -So long as the mere inviolateness of the human personality is -emphasized, without any defined conception of what it is that is -inviolate (the inviolateness without the infinite preciousness), -there is danger that the physical part of man will be invested with -the sacred character that belongs to the spiritual, that the two, the -spiritual and the physical parts, will be identified. - -The result will be mischievous in two ways: First, while the act -of killing will be reprobated, a kind of tabu being attached to -bloodshed, the taking of the life of fellow-beings in more indirect -ways, or what may be called constructive murder, will be lightly -regarded. The following case is mentioned by a recent writer. The -directors of a railroad refused to vote the sum of five thousand -dollars to provide a certain safety appliance for their cars. Soon -after an accident occurred, in which a number of men were killed. -The accident might have been prevented had the five thousand dollars -required for the installation of the safety appliance been voted. -Now the men were undoubtedly killed by the directors of the company. -As to the difference in the degree of guilt in the case of direct -and indirect murder, there is room for casuistical debate. The -consequences it is true were not present to the directors’ minds. But -are they not responsible for the very fact that the consequences were -excluded from their view? They were intent on their dividends, and -ignored the endangered lives. But is not this the substance of their -guilt? Does not moral progress lie in the direction of extending the -sense of responsibility so as to cover the indirect taking of life? -Similarly the use of poisonous substances in industry, bad sanitation, -inadequate fire protection, must be stigmatized as indirect murder. The -Commandment “Thou shalt not kill” must extend over a far wider area -than it has covered in the past.[53] - -Secondly, the positive definition of the spiritual nature enables us -to perceive more distinctly that the physical part is the means and -the spiritual part the end, and to draw the necessary consequences. -That which is means is not to be cherished if to do so would defeat -the end itself; hence the physical life is _not_ to be preserved if by -preserving it we deny or defeat the very purpose which the physical -part is to serve. So long as men have the tabu feeling about bloodshed, -the fact that life ought of right to be taken in certain instances will -seem a hopeless contradiction of the general rule against killing. -Keeping in mind the spiritual end of existence on the other hand, we -affirm unhesitatingly that it is better that a man should die than -commit a heinous crime. It was better for the young girl mentioned -in a well-known tale, threatened with outrage, and seeing no other -possible way of escape, to strangle herself with her own hair rather -than submit. According to the opinion of certain scholastic writers on -ethics, dishonor resides solely in the consent of the soul, and where -this is absent the mere physical infringement cannot leave a moral -stain. This is a helpful point of view in regard to the victims of the -atrocities of war, the inmates of certain Belgian nunneries, and the -hapless objects of unspeakable brutality in certain Polish villages. -The anguish of a pure-minded woman who becomes a mother under such -circumstances is hardly conceivable. And to discriminate between the -infamy done to her and her own unpolluted soul is a plain duty, as well -as to relieve the innocent offspring of outrage from any participation -in the guilt to which it owes its existence. But the case to which -I refer is different. It is one in which the choice remains between -voluntary death and submission to intended violation. Submission in -such a situation argues a kind of consent, or at least the absence of a -sufficient revulsion. - -It is right to kill an intending murderer supposing that there is no -other way of preventing him from committing his crime, whether the -intended victim be oneself or someone else. It is not only the life -thus protected from attack that is saved, but the murderer in a sense -is saved as well, so far as he can be saved, by the intervention. Also -the members of his family are saved, humanity is saved from moral -disgrace in his person. The same reasoning applies to the position -of the extreme non-resistants. They will not, they tell us, do a -wrong to prevent a wrong. In their eyes to take the physical life of -another is in every possible instance an absolute wrong. They fail to -take account of the instrumental relation between the physical and -the spiritual parts. And on the same grounds, a defensive war, a war -to ward off aggression, may be theoretically justified. But here the -application of the theory is dubious as well as dangerous. Exceptional -cases of high-handed aggression that ought to be resisted occur, but -aggression is rarely, if ever, one-sided. As a rule, there is more or -less wrong on both sides, and the tangle of accusations and mutual -recriminations is almost impossible to unravel. Very rarely, indeed, if -ever, is right altogether on one side, and wrong on the other, though -predominant right may be on one side and predominant wrong on the -other. And aside from this, the instruments of destruction in modern -warfare have become so monstrous, the efficiency notion applied to war -has led to such ruthlessness, the attempt to distinguish between the -civilian population and the armed forces has so nearly broken down, -that right-thinking persons everywhere are now eagerly intent on how to -prevent aggression before it can take effect, rather than to resist it -after it has occurred. - - NOTE - - The casuistical question may be raised whether from this point of - view we are not all murderers. The amount I spend on my house, food, - recreation, might if divided prolong the life of many a child in the - slums. Am I not then actually a parasite, that is, a murderer? It is - this shocking scruple that has led fine people to live among the poor, - and to try to equalize their mode of living with that prevailing in - the environment. The motive is noble, though as a matter of fact they - may never succeed in doing what they set out to do because they never - actually touch bottom. There are always depths of poverty to which - they can not descend. They may spend comparatively little, yet that - little is far in excess of the spending of the most indigent. And had - they stripped themselves of everything they would have been face to - face with the _reductio ad absurdum_ of their method, for they would - have abandoned civilization and degraded their human life to the level - of the wayside tramp. - - What is inspiring in their example is just the immense compassion, - the willingness to give up so much. But the method itself is not a - solution. - - Are we then murderers, all of us? Perhaps a distinction may be drawn - between acts which in themselves are hostile to the life of fellowmen, - like overtaxing the worker, and acts which tend positively to maintain - the higher values of life,—such as the providing of decent shelter, - support and education, for the members of one’s family. It is true - that, as Tolstoy warns us, we easily slip into indefensible luxury - under the pretence of maintaining the higher values. But this does not - affect the validity of the distinction itself. - - And yet the distinction does not relieve us of what may be called our - share of the social or collective guilt. The exploiter is chargeable - with individual guilt. I who am trying to keep up the standard of - civilized living within my little sphere am nevertheless conscious of - participating in the social guilt, the guilt of a society that has - permitted and still permits such misery to exist. Well, it does exist, - and I can do but a very little to change it. Can I then endure the - contrast between my own lot and that of the greater number. Is it not - true after all that if I give up the comforts, or let me say the helps - to the maintenance of the higher values, I should be saving the lives - of many children? Those children are dying because I am not dividing - my possessions among the poor. Can I stand up and look at that fact, - at those deaths? - - The only answer which it is possible to give at the point we have thus - far reached in our exposition is: push on, perfect civilization, a way - will eventually be found to uplift the masses and make them partakers - of the future civilization. The other alternative, that of Tolstoy, - is stagnation. Yet I cannot disguise from myself the fact that in the - meanwhile, while we are trying to push on, millions are perishing. - This is the true “burden of world pain,” not the sentimental world - pain due to the fact that one is not having oneself the best kind of a - time in the world, but the pain caused by the fact that while we are - reaching forward to help the suffering masses, those masses, though - composed of individuals morally as worth while as ourselves, and many - of them doubtless better, if we only knew it, are perishing before - our very eyes, and that we stand by and cannot save them. I have said - that in the meanwhile while we are trying to push on, millions are - perishing. The actual moral problem so often overlooked is underlined - in the words “in the meanwhile.” - - There is one pathetic consolation. Envy is not the widespread vice - which it is sometimes represented to be. Those who are in trouble take - the will very largely for the deed. People in the worst conditions are - grateful to anyone who shows a real desire to help, even if his actual - performance does not go very far. And there is a still finer trait - in ordinary human nature, namely, the tendency to find a certain - vicarious relief in the joy of the few, provided that their joy be - pure. - - -_The Right to Property_[54] - -“Property,” according to Blackstone, “is the sole and despotic dominion -which one man claims and exercises over the external things of the -world in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the -universe.” - -Orthodox jurisprudence, like orthodox religion, is characterized by the -absoluteness of its formula. It ignores the genesis of its concepts in -the long line of antecedent historical development, and it disdains to -entertain the demand for modification, though the circumstances of the -time loudly call for it. - -“The sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises,” -etc., may be a fact, but it is not a right. Property can only be -regarded as a right if shown to be subservient to the ethical end,—the -maintenance and development of personality. Orthodox jurisprudence -effaces the end, and treats that which is or has been at one time a -means as if it possessed a sanctity of its own. On the other hand, the -empirical treatment of jurisprudence, in dismissing the supposedly -absolute means, tends to leave out of sight the ethical end, and to -treat the social institutions as subservient to mere convenience. - -The following propositions will indicate the changes in the conception -of the right of property required by our ethical theory. - -1. Property is a relation between a person or persons and things. There -can be no property right in persons, but only in things.[55] - -2. The right of property faces in two directions: Toward outside nature -and toward fellow human beings. We have a right over the external -things of nature. We have a right to the services, though not to the -personality, of fellow human beings. These two aspects of the right of -property must be kept apart and defined. - -It is sometimes held that the human race as a whole, as over against -nature, has the right of dominion. Nature, it is said, is our quarry, -we can take out of it the stones we need to construct the edifice -of civilization. Nature is our tool. The laws of nature, as science -discovers them, become our servants. Nature offers the raw material -which we consume. Nature has no rights as against man. But I hold -that neither has man rights as against nature, except in so far as -he rightly defines the end in the interest of which he makes use of -nature—the maintenance and development of personality. - -To suppose that the right of property as the extension of personality -over things is tenable without regard to its instrumental use, to -suppose that bare appropriation of nature as of “treasure trove” is -a prerogative of man, is to lend countenance to the false notion of -occupation, or first appropriation, which has confused the ethics of -the subject in the literature of jurisprudence, and prevented a right -understanding of it. If bare appropriation be the foundation, then the -first comer has a right against his successors, since the extension -of personality over the thing has been actually accomplished by him, -and that is all there is to be said about it. Again, on this view, a -case may be made out for vested interests, that is to say, for those -who have successfully appropriated the earth, yes, and the fullness -thereof, and who having thus effectually extended their personality -over things without regard to the uses they make of their possessions, -are then to be entitled to remain indefinitely in secure ownership of -them. - -Without an ethical standard, without the notion of an end to be -subserved, stubborn possession will always be able to resist -modification, and on the other hand attempts at modification will be -haphazard. Neither the human species collectively nor the individual -has a right simply to appropriate the things of the external world. -Neither the first occupier nor the last is entitled to his goods unless -he can make out a greater good in the interest of which he should be -allowed to possess them. - -But the case of primary occupation is academic. It occurs on Robinson -Crusoe’s island and in legal fiction. Even when the white race invades -Africa, it does not commonly take possession of unoccupied land, but -dispossesses the natives. On what ground does it dispossess them? -Is there an ethical standard by which the dealings of the civilized -nations with the populations of Africa can be measured? Is the -introduction of the appliances of modern civilization, the opening up -to trade, a sufficient ground for the subjection or the extermination -of the inhabitants? In this connection it becomes clear how urgent a -more clarified conception of property rights is. False ideas of this -so-called right are to no small extent responsible for the massacre -of the inferior races, and the mutual slaughter of those who covet -their lands. A proclamation of the Queen of England or of the Emperor -of Germany, or the signature of an irresponsible chief to a treaty -the meaning of which he scarcely understands, transfers millions of -subjects and their territory to one or other of the European powers. -What right of property have these European powers in the territory and -the peoples acquired by them in this fashion? - -The last example shows that the right of ownership, except in very -rare instances, is not in question in respect to the dealings of man -with nature, but comes into play chiefly in the relation of man to his -fellows. There are competitors to be outstripped, thwarted. There are -weaker fellow-beings to be subdued. The use of force and cunning in -acquiring property is well nigh the general rule. Are there any ethical -ideals which, if they could be realized, might disclose a better way, -might bring order into this frightful chaos, and abate the conflicts? -From the ethical ideal as outlined in previous chapters this follows: - -The extension of personality over things is a right in so far as things -are employed to maintain and develop potential personality. The use of -the services of a fellowman is a right in so far as his services are -used in such a manner as to preserve and develop his personality as -well as that of the user. - -In speaking of the use of the services of others we touch upon the -social aspect of the property relation, and here is the crux of the -whole matter. It is coming to be affirmed more and more that property -is a “social” concept, that it cannot be explained either as implying -a relation of the individual to outside nature, save exceptionally, -nor as a relation of the individual considered atomistically to other -atomic individuals. The social tie, it is held, is intrinsic. The -nature of man as such is social, but the word “social” in current -discussion is very ill-defined, and is commonly understood to denote -merely the fact of the interdependence of men upon one another, without -conveying the idea of a rule or standard by which the system of -interdependence may be regulated. Vague notions, such as that of social -happiness, are believed sufficient to take the place of such a standard. - -Let me then consider first the bare fact of interdependence, and see -what follows from it, and how far it will take us. - -Every man has manifold wants for the satisfaction of which he depends -on others. His wants are legion; his ability and opportunity to satisfy -them exceedingly limited. It is this cross relation that expresses -the so-called social nature of man. But the reciprocal dependence -of men upon one another for the satisfaction of their wants by no -means constitutes an ethical tie. The tie between the Greek master -and the Greek slave, as described by Aristotle, was social, but not -ethical. The same is true of the tie that united the Southern planter -to his negro slaves. The relation was indeed far more social than that -between the modern mill-owner and the operatives in his factory, but -still it was not ethical. The reason is clearly stated by Aristotle -himself. According to him the slave is a living tool: the purpose of -his existence is not realized in himself but in his master. He fulfils -the end of his being by setting free the higher functions exercised by -his master. But from the ethical point of view no man may be regarded -as the tool of another. Each human being is an end _per se_, and the -highest object of his existence is to be fulfilled, not in others, but -jointly in them and in himself. - -I have just said that the social and the ethical views are not -synonymous or coincident, as the loose use of language in current -literature would imply. I go farther and say that the social and the -ethical point of view are even on their face contradictory. It cannot -be denied that the natural system of interdependence resembles that of -the body and its members. A hierarchy of organs and of functions is -apparent in the human body, and likewise in the social body. Some men -do the lowest kind of work. Their function appears to be to produce -food, clothing and shelter, to satisfy the mere physical wants. -Some are the hands, so to speak, of society, while only a very few -effectually represent the brain. The simile has been carried out in -detail by well-known writers, in both ancient and modern times. It -is quite true that the artist and the scientist are dependent on the -manual laborer, just as he in turn is dependent on them. But then, -consider the difference in the dignity of the services they render one -another. Was not the Greek, who saw things dispassionately as they are, -right in asserting that, taking society in the large, the purpose of -human life is fulfilled in the few, and that the greater number exist -in order that by their inferior services they may enable these few to -express humanity in its highest terms? - -It seems to me that the kind of social arrangement contemplated by the -great Greek philosophers, and by some of the mediæval publicists, as -well as by certain modern thinkers, is unquestionably social. The fact -of interdependence is stressed by them. The ethical note of equality, -or, as I should prefer to put it, equivalence, is left out. - -I have endeavored in a recent book to indicate how the ethical system -may be superinduced over the social system.[56] Here I am concerned -chiefly to mark as strictly as possible the distinction between the -two terms social and ethical. And I must, therefore, at once amend my -previous statement that property is a social concept by saying that it -is the concept of a social relation considered as the substratum in -which is to be worked out the ethical relation. - -The general consequences of the property concept as defined are these: - -1. He who will not work, neither shall he eat; or better, he who will -not work if able-bodied shall be disciplined and trained in such a -manner that he will work. The fruits of nature do not fall into the lap -of mankind. We are not living in a state of Paradise. The human race -is engaged in the arduous labor of constantly renewing the capital on -which it subsists. As a member of the race, everyone is bound to do his -part. - -2. No one has a property right in harmful or superfluous luxuries, -since property is the control of external things for the maintenance -and development of personality; and luxury, so far from maintaining, -undermines personality, and hinders its development. - -No one has ethically a right of property in great fortunes like those -accumulated under the modern system of industry. Whatever is in excess -of one’s needs, rightly estimated, is not appropriate to one, not -proper to one, not his property. Since the present system of ownership -cannot be changed abruptly, the idea of the stewardship of wealth has -been suggested to quiet the consciences of those who have come to -realize that they have no moral right to excessive wealth. But the idea -of stewardship should be held with fear and trembling. It is at best -a makeshift, a bridge leading over to something more sound. It may be -so taught and received as to seem to justify by philanthropic use the -possession of great fortunes. But the power to dispose of vast funds -for philanthropic uses may come to be itself a badge of superiority. -And even if this be not so, if surplus wealth be used modestly, and -with a sincere intention to apply it in the best possible way, there -is yet no surety that any individual owner will have the breadth of -vision, the experience, the insight, to discharge adequately the -function of distributor. The defects of his early education, habits -ingrained in him in the course of his business career, may lead him to -bestow lavishly in one direction while turning a deaf ear to the appeal -of other needs even more urgent and fundamental. Nothing short of the -collective wisdom of the community, the collaboration of the best, can -safely direct the surplus wealth available for social benefaction. - -3. Everyone is ethically entitled to a share of the products furnished -by nature and worked up into usable shape by his fellows, and also to -the direct services of fellow human beings, in so far as that share -and those services are necessary in order to enable him to perform in -the best possible way the specific service which he in turn is capable -of rendering. Our ethical theory here supplies us with a principle -which takes the place of remuneration. There is no such thing as a just -remuneration of labor, there is no such thing as a fair wage, if the -wage be considered as the equivalent of, or the reward for the work -done. It is not possible by any process of calculation to construct -an equation between labor and reward. The laborer is assuredly -not entitled to the product of his labor, as the current formula -awkwardly puts it, for it is an entirely hopeless undertaking to try -to ascertain what the product of any man’s labor is. In the modern -forms of industry, the contributions of the different factors engaged -in production are intimately intermingled, play into one another, and -are inseparable. Neither the so-called workers alone are the producers -of wealth, nor the employers and capitalists, nor yet both together -irrespective of the labors of past generations of which they enjoy the -usufruct. The question, what is a fair wage, or a fair profit, is badly -posed. There is no such thing as a fair wage or profit in the sense of -a fair compensation for the work performed. - -The proper payment of the human factors engaged in production is -unascertainable genetically, _i.e._, if one goes back to the origin -of the product. It can only be approximately determined by fixing -attention on the end to be served. And the end in each case is the -maintenance and development of personality. In other words, that is -a fair wage which suffices to enable the different functionaries -coöperating in production each to perform his function, or render -his service, in the most efficient possible manner. The solution of -the labor question must be along teleological not genetic lines. -Adequate nourishment as to quantity and quality, suitable dwellings, -educational opportunities, etc., are all indispensable to the rendering -of service, even by “common laborers.” Specific requirements come up -for consideration with respect to the different special functions, and -those who perform them. - -My intention in this chapter is to indicate the bearings of the ethical -theory on living questions of the day. Nothing is more emphatic in the -programmes of the working-class than this demand for social justice. -Nothing is more discouraging than to see the futile efforts made to -define social justice by extemporizing a notion of fair adjustment -which goes to pieces in every serious labor controversy. - -One more remark should be made in regard to what is meant by property -as a relation between persons and things considered as a means of -developing personality. A convenient illustration is the use of a block -of stone by a sculptor. The sculptor’s attempt at self-expression is -an effort to combine two things in themselves uncongenial, an ideal -image, and an external tangible thing, the block of stone. The mental -image does not leap from the mind upon the stone and transform it -magically into its own likeness. The external thing, the stone, offers -resistance, and the resistance limits the artist’s effort. But the -limitation itself becomes in time an indispensable aid. For the ideal -image as at first it started up in the artist’s mind was vague, and the -limitations imposed by the intractable nature of the material compel -him to articulate the image, to grasp more firmly its complex details, -and thus to become more surely possessed of it. The same is true of the -mental thing which we call the relation of cause and effect in the mind -of the scientist, and of his endeavor to impose this mental relation -on the sequence of phenomena observed by him. And the same is again -true of that supreme thing which we call the ethical ideal, and of the -effort to embody it in the social relations. The attempt to express -the ethical ideal in human society inevitably hits on limitations, and -leads to frustrations. We have in our heads fine schemes of universal -regeneration. We find elements in human nature that resent and resist -our Socialisms, our communisms. We desire to enlarge men’s moral -horizon, the field of their moral interest, to lead out from the family -to the nation, to fraternity in general. We presently discover that -we are losing the benefit of the closer ties. In the very process of -building we seem to be in danger of destroying the foundations, and to -be building in the air. In this way our formulations of the ethical -ideal are tested. We are compelled to recast them, and the frustrations -which we meet with become the means of clarifying and articulating -the ideal itself, and of enabling us to experience more vividly the -coercive impulses that go out from it. - - -_The Right to Reputation_ - -The ethical rule is to show a sacred respect for the reputation of -others. In the present discussion intellectual and moral reputation may -be considered separately. - -Under the first head of intellectual reputation, certain points suggest -themselves, one of them in regard to controversies concerning priority -of scientific discovery. What is the sense of such controversies? What -difference does it make whether the law of the conservation of energy -was first enunciated by Helmholtz or by Robert Mayer, or whether the -method of fluxions was invented by Newton or Leibnitz,—not to mention -lesser contrarieties of claims? Would it not argue, on the part of -the scientists and their friends, a more entire devotion to objective -truth if they showed themselves indifferent to personal credit? The -discovery, the invention, it may be said, is important, not the -reputation of the discoverer or the inventor. Nevertheless, such -controversies are carried on in a lively spirit. And it is usually felt -that something more than vanity is at stake, that a man is entitled to -be named in connection with the productions of his mind. - -Such controversies resemble a suit at law undertaken to determine a -disputed title to some valuable property. Plagiarism is different. It -is barefaced intellectual theft. The title to the property in this case -is not disputed. The plagiarist just steals an idea or a form of words -in which an idea has been happily expressed, and palms it off as his -own, hoping to escape with his stolen goods undetected. In this case -too, it seems, one might say the idea is important, not the authorship. -Nevertheless, a profound resentment is felt, not only by the author, -but by the general public, against a plagiarist. - -A rule is ethical when the conduct prescribed is instrumental to the -development of personality. Respect for reputation is ethical because -reputation is a help to the development of personality. A man projects -his mind outward, so to speak, into the productions of his mind. As -a thinking being he anchors himself in outside reality. He transfers -himself, as it were, into an external thing,—a discovery, an invention, -the expression of an idea in apt language,—each a thing that goes on -existing independently of himself. To deny his connection with it is to -infringe upon his personality, to efface his personality in so far as -his personality is enshrined in his mental product. - -Again, a man’s reputation as a scientist or scholar is a prop to his -personality as a thinker. A man can never be quite certain of the -validity of his thinking until it is approved by the consensus of the -competent. To win that approbation is to know that as far as he has -gone he is on sure ground. He can thence proceed, can turn toward new -problems with a sense of power and a measure of self-confidence not -previously attained. To rob him of his reputation is to deprive him of -this invaluable aid to further mental development.[57] - -Coming next to moral reputation, we find that the ethical rule -requiring respect for the moral character of others is even more -exacting, and that any contravention of it deserves an even more -strenuous reprobation. The Decalogue prohibits the bearing of false -witness and this rule is extensible from courts of law to ordinary -conversation, since the principle involved is the same. The Sermon on -the Mount menacingly warns against judging others: “Judge not that ye -be not judged.” Buddha enjoins his followers to refrain from malicious -gossip, and includes a prohibition to this effect among the principal -pronouncements of his religion. All the great teachers of ethics and -religion insist on this point, perhaps because the natural propensities -of men constantly tend in the opposite direction, and are so hard -to restrain. To stab one’s neighbor in the back, morally speaking, -to insinuate base motives, to spread damaging reports about him, to -suggest as possibly and then as probably true rumors which one does not -positively know to be untrue, to allow private repugnance to take the -place of evidence,—are infringements of the moral reputation of others -with some of which notoriously many even of the so-called best people -are chargeable. I do not here speak of the grosser attacks, attacks on -character inspired by envy, rivalry, and greed. The soundness of the -rule is generally admitted, though its violations are past belief and -without number. - -But is the rule itself as to moral reputation tenable? There is a -difference between intellectual and moral reputation at which we must -at least cast a glance. Intellectual reputation is a fairly safe index -of merit; moral reputation is not. A man’s mind is reflected in his -intellectual performances. Is the same true of his moral character? -Is not the moral character an interior, elusive thing? The real -character escapes the eye of the outside spectator and judge; and if -this be so, why should it be so important a matter to safeguard a man’s -moral reputation, seeing that the reputation he deserves is past -finding out? A public official, for instance, is accused of corrupt -practices. He is innocent, and his friends and he are indignant at the -damaging accusations brought against him. But if not guilty of the -palpable derelictions with which he is charged, yet, in view of his -opportunities and education, he may not be less blameworthy for other -acts with which he has not been charged, and in his heart of hearts he -knows that this is so. Why then, this outcry? - -Other examples might be adduced. The honor of a young woman is attacked -by the circulation of atrocious rumors, and the reaction at this most -sensitive point is certain to be extreme when the falseness of the -accusation is exposed. But is outward decorum, correct behavior, always -a sure sign of inward purity? - -There is this difference then between the intellectual and the moral -character. The one can be measured, the other cannot. But the reply -to these sophistical objections is still the same as before. The -purpose of the ethical rule is to furnish aids in the development -of personality. The aim in view is not genetic, but teleological, -not to determine how far in analyzing a man’s character down to the -bottom he may be found to be already admirable, but to help him in -attaining excellence, by progressively advancing toward strength and -virtue. And moral reputation is a great help to this end. It is a prop -on which he can lean. He who does right acts and has the credit for -them, is thereby encouraged to do other right acts. And if the inner -voice whispers, as it is sure to do in the finer natures, that the -good opinion of his fellows, founded on his correct deportment, is -undeserved, the shame of it may lead him to more determined efforts -to merit the character which, on however insufficient evidence, is -attributed to him. - -Reputation is sacred because it is an almost indispensable means to -further mental and moral progress. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[53] _Vide_ note at the end of the Chapter. - -[54] A right is a claim of one person upon another or others, and the -justification consists in its relation to personality. Rights exist -between persons for the sake of the maintenance and development of -personality. - -[55] Animals, for the purpose now in hand, may be regarded as things, -being devoid of personality, though certain modifications in the -treatment of animals are prescribed by the fact that they are sentient -creatures. But there is no moral interdiction of the involuntary -servitude of animals. - -[56] See Chapter VII on “An Ethical Programme of Social Reform” in _The -World Crisis_, published by D. Appleton and Company, 1915. - -[57] A remark may here be in place regarding the erudition expended in -determining which of the writings attributed to some great philosopher -like Plato are spurious, and which genuine. Is the time and labor spent -on such researches worth while? The object in this case is not so much -to clear or vindicate the reputation of the philosopher, or to give him -his due, as to rescue for posterity, free from corruptions, a living -and quickening thing to which he has given birth, and which the world -cannot afford to lose. For the work of a great philosopher like Plato -is alive, and is valuable because it is still quickening. And it is -quickening, not because of any positive formulation of truth (like a -scientific law), but because of the élan of the human spirit with which -it is vibrant in attacking the eternal problems of life and destiny. -The same applies to the industry of modern critics in collecting -material wherewith to facilitate the deeper understanding of some great -poet like Dante or Goethe. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE MEANING OF FORGIVENESS - - -In the last chapter we treated the imputation of evil to the innocent. -We must now consider the right attitude toward actual evildoers. - -In discussing sin, one of the points emphasized was that of the moral -solidarity between the individual and society. The moral interest of -the individual is always identical with the moral interest of society; -and, on the other hand, the failure of the individual is a social -failure. The human race sags morally at the point of some particular -member of it. - -Again, we defined the task of humanity as the incessant endeavor -to embody the ideal spiritual order in the finite sphere of human -relations. This effort meets both with partial success and with -failure. The gain derived by the human race from its experiences, -its labors, its sufferings, is that the spiritual universe in its -unattainable elevation and sublimity is more and more revealed to -the inner eye; in other words, that by way of effort and recoil, and -renewed effort and renewed recoil from the finite, the infiniteness of -the infinite world is realized. The essential point is that the boon of -realization must be gained both through partial success and failure. -Now sin is failure; everyone fails, everyone is convicted of sin. There -is no exception. In insisting on this point the Christian account -is exact. Only it should be remembered that sin or failure itself is -one of the instrumentalities by which the end of human existence is -achieved. These preliminaries being understood, certain propositions -may be brought forward as to the treatment of sin, and in particular as -to repentance, punishment and forgiveness. - -Repentance is recoil, recoil not from the bad act and its painful -consequences, but from the principle underlying the act. Every kind of -sin is an attempt in some fashion to live at the expense of other life. -The spiritual principle is: live in the life of others, in the energy -expended to promote the essential life in others. Moral badness is -self-isolation, detachment. Spirituality is consciousness of infinite -interrelatedness. - -Punishment, rightly regarded, is a name for the steps taken to lead the -unrepentant up to the point of repentance, _i.e._, up to the recoil. -Punishment is itself criminal when undertaken for any other object. -Punishment on the vindictive _lex talionis_ theory, or on the bare -deterrent theory, is excluded. Reformatory punishment as commonly -understood is no less inadequate, because it restricts the idea of -reformation as a rule to the externals of conduct.[58] - -The steps taken to lead the evildoer up to the point of repentance -are to be criticised from this point of view. Transient or prolonged -separation from ordinary society may be necessary. Severe discipline -may be indispensable. Capital punishment, however, is wholly out of -the question, since the prevention of the crime now being impossible, -the achievement of the spiritual gain is the point to be aimed at. But -the most effectual aid in promoting repentance is faith in the better -nature of the wrongdoer, in that spiritual principle resident within -him which no crime committed by him can wholly crush, and which in -the most apparently hopeless cases is still to be presumed. But faith -in the good that persists in those whom we call bad must go hand in -hand with the acknowledgment of the bad that remains unexpurgated in -those whom we call good. The prison reformer who poses as impeccable -and righteous himself can never win the confidence of the poor human -derelicts with whom he has to deal nor effect in them the desired -change. He must share with them the conviction of sin if he would -impart to them the power of the resilience which he experiences within -himself. - -Faith in the potential power of goodness resident in the evildoer is -often confounded with forgiveness. The distinction between the two, -however, should not be obliterated. Faith is help proffered from the -outside to effectuate the inner change. Forgiveness is a record of the -fact that the change has actually taken place, and belief that it is -likely to be permanent. Forgiveness, in the mind of spiritually-minded -persons, takes place almost automatically when the conditions on which -it depends are fulfilled. So long as he remains unrepentant a man -cannot be forgiven, although we may have the conviction that it is in -his power to repent and the earnest desire to bring about the change -in him. Jesus on the Cross says: “Forgive them, for they know not what -they do.” Perhaps “open their eyes so that they may see the Light” may -be the more just interpretation of the meaning—not “forgive” in the -strict sense, for forgiveness is not feasible while the heart of the -offender remains closed.[59] - -Both faith and forgiveness are factors in regeneration: the one to -assist in accomplishing the change, the other to assist in making it -permanent. But both the faith and the forgiveness are exceptionally -difficult in the case of our personal enemies. _Enemies in the -spiritual sense there are and can be none._ Every human being, even -one who has done me the most cruel harm, is yet, from another point of -view, a fellow member of the spiritual society. But to discriminate -between the two relations in which the man stands to me—that in which -he is my foe, and the other in which he is my fellow—to be able to put -aside as less important the harm he has done, the suffering he has -forced me to endure, and to desire with perfect sincerity that the -recoil, the transformation, may take place in him, that is the most -searching test of one’s own ethical character.[60] - -The forgiveness of personal foes, when complete, establishes a -strangely tender spiritual fellowship between the pardoner and the -pardoned. Both have transcended their normal empirical selves, both -have become partners in a sublime transaction: the one delivered from -the clinging of his baser desires, the other released from his first -crude reaction against evil. They will never forget what they thus owe -to one another. They will continue to walk hand in hand, the one still -leaning, the other supporting and himself unspeakably strengthened by -the support he gives. - -Finally, to forgive is not to forget—quite the contrary. To forgive is -to remember the past action, but to remember it as belonging to the -past, as the act of one who has since undergone the great change. The -miracle of the change of water into wine at the feast of Cana would -not have seemed so wonderful to the guests had they not remembered -that what was turned into wine had before been water. To forgive is to -remember that what was water has become wine. And he, too, who has -been forgiven may not forget. The remembrance of the past he will need -as a warning and a safeguard.[61] Not to see the essentially divine -nature in others, and thus also in one’s self is the essence of the -wrong. To teach the guilty to see it is the object of punishment. To -forgive is to declare that what before was ignored is now seen and -known. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[58] I mean that it is usually considered sufficient, for purposes -of reformation, to bring the wrongdoer up to the average standard of -law-abiding citizenship, to restore him to the bosom of society as a -safe and industrious member. Whereas a person who has had the searching -experience of deep guilt is a candidate for a higher station in the -moral scale. Humanity having fallen in him, he should be helped to rise -to a higher than the average altitude. This at least should be the -aim. Consider the fact that Jesus selected some of his most spiritual -companions from among publicans and harlots. - -[59] Compare the words addressed by Sir Thomas More to his judges -when sentence of death had been pronounced upon him—“For though you -have been my judges to condemnation, may we meet merrily hereafter in -everlasting salvation.” - -[60] Everyone admires a disinterested prison reformer, one who is able -to see and to call out the good in a so-called bad man; but it is one -thing to be disinterested and generous towards men who have acted badly -towards others, and quite another thing to take the ethical attitude -towards those who have acted wickedly towards oneself. Hence the -touchstone of the character of the prison-reformer is to be found in -the way in which he behaves and feels towards his personal enemies, for -instance, towards those who malignantly attack him and interfere with -the business of prison reform on which he has set his heart. - -[61] Perhaps I may add a word as to the forgiveness of those who, -by an extension of meaning, may be called our intellectual enemies. -By intellectual enemies I understand those whose point of view is -radically opposed to our own, whose principles and premises, if -accepted, would render the entire theory of life on which we act, -and on which we found our convictions, untenable. We are apt to be -exasperated in listening to them, or in reading the works in which -they express their opinions. We are apt to feel that there is no room -in the world in which we live for such ideas as theirs, that we and -they cannot exist side by side. The bitter feuds of rival religious -factions, the notorious _odium theologicum_, and in more recent times -the thinly veiled animus shown in the controversies of philosophical -schools are all alike traceable to this source. Racial antagonisms, -too, are partly to be accounted for on the same ground. There are -certain primary attitudes of mind, modes of feeling and directions of -impulse, the correctness of which we cannot demonstrate just because -they are primary, and which we all the more vehemently assert when we -find them disputed. Love your intellectual enemies, may usefully be -added to the stock of moral commandments; keep an open and hospitable -mind to opinions and ways of acting, thinking and feeling which -naturally repel you. And it will help us to discipline ourselves in -this difficult behavior if we reflect that the views most contrary to -our own are nevertheless sure to contain some element of truth which -we cannot afford to disregard, and which will serve the purpose of -correcting and supplementing such truth as we may ourselves possess. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE SUPREME ETHICAL RULE: ACT SO AS TO ELICIT THE BEST IN OTHERS AND -THEREBY IN THYSELF[62] - - -It is difficult to see the potentially divine nature in men when masked -by the forbidding traits which human beings so often exhibit. - -A number of vital considerations will now have to be emphasized as -pertinent to the subject we are dealing with. - -The first point is that the character of every person contains contrary -elements.[63] Let the two kinds of qualities be called the fair and -foul, or more simply still the plus and minus traits. The bright -qualities, the plus traits, are undoubtedly more predominant in some, -the dark or minus traits in others. But potential plus qualities exist -in the worst characters, and potential minus traits may be surmised, -and on scrutiny will be found, in those whom the world most admires. - -A second point is mentioned as an hypothesis not indeed as yet -verified, but I believe verifiable, namely, that certain defined minus -traits will be found to go with certain plus traits. Wherever bright -qualities stand out we are likely to meet with _corresponding_ dark -qualities or dispositions, and conversely. There are, I am persuaded, -uniformities of correspondence between the plus and minus traits, and -it would be of greatest practical help in judging others and ourselves -if these uniformities could be worked out. A kind of chart might then -be made, a description of the principal types of human character, -with the salient defects and qualities that belong to each. Extensive -statistical treatment of a multitude of biographies would lay the -foundation for such an undertaking; also sketches of the prominent -characteristics of nations, like those furnished by Fouillée, would be -utilized. Also the study of the character traits of primitive races as -partially carried out by Waitz in his _Anthropology_ and the character -types of animals, so far as accessible to observation, might be used -for comparison. Instructed in this manner, we should, on coming into -contact with others, either on their attractive or repellent side, -be prepared to expect and to allow for the opposite traits. And we -should learn to see ourselves in the same manner; we should see our -empirical character as it really is, the dark traits side by side with -the bright. The courage to wish to know the truth about one’s self is -rare, and when the revelation comes or is forced upon us, it often -breeds a kind of sick self-disgust and despair. The saint at such times -in moral agony declares himself to be the worst of sinners. He has -striven to attain a higher than the average moral level, and behold -he has slipped into only deeper depths. The minister of religion, the -revered teacher, the political and social leader, when abruptly shocked -into self-examination by some evidence of grossness or deviousness -in themselves, no longer to be glossed over or explained away, are -fated to go through the same ordeal. A profound despondency is the -consequence. It is not only the badness now exposed, but the previous -state of hypocrisy that seems in the retrospect intolerable. Some -persons live what is called a double life in the face of the world. -But who is quite free from living a double life in his own estimate? -Achilles said of himself ἄχθος ἀροῦρας (“cumberer of the ground”). Many -a man has echoed that cry with a bitterness of soul more poignant than -that which Achilles felt when he uttered the words. - -Now the principle of the duality[64] of character traits, or as we may -also designate it, the principle of the polarity of character, applies -to our natural or empirical character, and our empirical character is -not our moral character. The distinction between the two will serve, as -we shall presently see, to rescue us from the state of moral dejection -just described. But first it is indispensable to fix attention on the -natural character, to recognize that we are composite, each and every -one of us, and that the all-important thing to know is which of our -plus qualities go with which of the minus. Here the psychologist -can help us. Here a great field is open for a practical science of -ethology. This would give us a more adequate knowledge of the empirical -character, the substratum in which ethical character is to be worked -out. - -Point three opens up a great enlightenment in regard to the whole -subject. It is that the distinction must be drawn, and ever be kept in -mind, between the bright and dark qualities and the virtues and vices. -The bright qualities are not of themselves virtues. The dark qualities -are not of themselves vices. To suppose that they are, to confuse the -bright with virtue and the dark with viciousness, is the most prevalent -of moral fallacies.[65] - -A person is found to be kind, sympathetic, gentle, and on this score is -said to be virtuous or good. But gentleness, kindness, a sympathetic -disposition, while they lend themselves to the process of being -transformed into virtues, are not of themselves moral qualities at all, -but gifts of nature, happy endowments for which the possessor can claim -no merit. And sullenness, irascibility, the hot, fierce cravings and -passions with which some men are cursed, are not vices, though it is -obvious how readily they turn into vices as soon as the will consents -to them. - -The question becomes urgent: What then is a virtue? The fair qualities -are the basis, the natural substratum of the virtues, the material -susceptible of transformation into virtues. In what does the -transformation consist? When does it take place? The answer is, when -the plus quality has been raised to the Nth degree, and in consequence -the minus qualities are expelled. This result, of course, is never -actually achieved. The concept here presented is a concept of limits. -But in the direction defined lies growth and continuous development -not of but toward ethical personality. In public addresses I have -often said: Look to your virtues, and your vices will take care of -themselves. I can put this thought more exactly by saying: Change your -so-called virtues into real virtues: raise your plus qualities to the -Nth degree. And the degree to which you succeed in so doing you can -judge of by the extent to which the minus qualities are in process of -disappearing. - -One or two examples will illustrate the pivotal thought thus reached -in the exposition of our ethical system with respect to its practical -consequences. To raise to the Nth degree is to infinitize a finite -quality, or to enhance it in the direction of infinity. I shall take -two examples, one _self-sacrifice_, the other _justice_, both viewed -in their finite aspect as plus traits requiring to be subjected to the -process of transformation. - -The empirical motive of self-sacrifice may be egocentric or altruistic. -In egocentric self-sacrifice, doing for others is a means of exalting -the idea of self to the mind of the doer. He uses others, not as sacred -personalities, worth while on their own account, but subtly exploits -them by benefiting them. He uses them as objects by means of which to -achieve a finer self-aggrandizement. He may indeed go to the utmost -lengths of devotion for his friends. He may perform for them the most -repulsive offices. He may give freely of his means, denying himself -meanwhile comforts and even necessaries in order perhaps to extricate -them from pecuniary difficulties. He may contribute in refined ways -to their pleasure. As a physician he may watch night after night -at the bedside of the sick, foregoing sleep though fatigued to the -point of exhaustion in order to be at hand to mitigate the pains of -the sufferer, jeopardizing his own health in order to assist others -in recovering theirs. Yes, he may even give of his own blood to -renew their ebbing life. In all this he will look for no material -compensation. Gratitude, especially gratitude expressed in words, is -repugnant to him. The lofty image of self which he strives to create -would be marred if any such coarsely selfish motive were allowed to -intrude. All that he requires, but this he does inexorably require, -is that his beneficiaries shall silently confess their dependence on -him, that he shall see the exalted image of himself mirrored in their -attitude, and that they shall move in their orbits as satellites -around his sun. The egocentrism is veiled and easily confounded with -the purest moral disposition. But it is there all the same, and the -proof of it is that the very same person who is thus friendly to his -friends, and an unstinting benefactor to those who pay him the kind -of homage he exacts, is capable of behaving with almost inconceivable -hardness and even cruelty toward others who will not stand in this -subordinate relation to him, or who in any way wound his self-esteem. -Sister Dora, serving enthusiastically in a small-pox hospital, while -neglecting the nearer duties at home, intent on dramatic, histrionic -self-representation, is likewise a palpable instance of egocentric -self-sacrifice. - -The self is precious on its own account. The non-self, the other, -equally so. A virtuous act is one in which the ends of self and of -the other are respected and promoted jointly. It is an act which has -for its result the more vivid consciousness of this very jointness. -Egocentric self-sacrifice errs on the one side, the personality of -another being made tributary to the empirical self, despite the actual -benefits conferred. Altruistic self-sacrifice errs in the opposite way. -In it the personality of the self is effaced or made servile to the -interests or supposed interests of another. Not, let me add, to the -real interests, for the spiritual interests are never achievable at the -expense of other spiritual natures. The wife or mother is an instance, -who slaves for husband or children, obliterating herself, never -requiring the services due to her in return and the respect for her -which such services imply, degrading herself and thereby injuring the -moral character of those whom she pampers. An historic instance of the -altruistic error on a larger scale is afforded by the Platonic scheme -of scientific breeding under state supervision, a suggestion revived -in modern times, in which freedom of choice between the sexes, and the -integrity of the personality of those concerned, is sacrificed to the -supposed interests of the community. Nietzsche’s doctrine may possibly -be regarded as a compound of the two errors described, the Superman -representing the egocentrism, while altruistic self-sacrifice, entire -annulment of their personalities is expected of the multitude. - -It is easy to distinguish the plus and minus qualities in the -characters of the egocentrist and the altruist: in the one case, -beneficence combined with hardness; in the other, service of others -combined with absence of self-respect. - -The second example to be briefly considered is the finite trait -commonly mistaken for justice. A typical illustration of this is -presented by the merchant who ascribes to himself a just character on -the ground that he is punctual in the payment of his debts, that his -word is as good as his bond; or by the manufacturer who entertains -the same opinion of himself because he pays scrupulously the wages -on which he has agreed with his employees.[66] One wonders that so -great and profound a notion as that of justice should be understood -so superficially, restricted to such narrow limits, and that rational -human beings should claim to possess so lofty a virtue on the score of -credentials so inadequate. The reason is that the empirical substratum -of justice is mistaken for the ethical virtue itself. This substratum -may be described as an inborn propensity toward order in things -and in relations, a natural impatience of loose fringes, a certain -mental neatness. Hence insistence on explicitly defined arrangements -and on simple, over-simple formulas. These are favored because they -keep out of sight the complex elements which if considered might -introduce uncertainty and possibly disorder into the situation. Thus -a manufacturer, impatient of looseness, over-rating explicitness, -will be led to grasp at a formula of justice which reduces it to the -bare literal performance of a fixed agreement, no matter with what -unfreedom, owing to the pressure of want, it was entered into by -the wage-earners, and no matter how deteriorating the effect of the -insufficient wage may prove to be on their standard of living. - -But it is a far cry from this empirical predisposition to the sublime -ethical idea itself. The idea of “the just” as exemplified in any act -performed by me includes the totality of all those conditions which -make for the development of the ethical personality of others in so far -as it can be affected by my action. To do a just act is to act with the -totality of these conditions in view, in order to promote the end in -view, which is the liberation of personality or at least the idea of -personality in others and in myself. - -It is thus evident that a just act—an ideally, perfectly just act,—can -be performed by no man. First because the right conditions of human -development are but very imperfectly known, and are only brought -to light by slow degrees. Secondly because even as to the known -conditions of justice, for instance the abolition of the evils of the -present industrial wage system, a single employer, or even a group of -well-intentioned employers can bring about the desired changes only to -a very limited extent. - -Raising the finite quality underlying justice to the Nth degree -therefore means opening an illimitable prospect. The ethical effort -in this, as in all other instances, is destined to be thwarted. It is -an effort in the direction of the finitely unattainable; the effort -itself, with the conviction it fosters as to the reality of that -which is finitely unattainable, being the ethically valuable outcome. -The just man, therefore, in any proper sense of the word, is one who -is convinced of the fact that he is _essentially not a just man_, -and a deep humility as to both his actual and possible achievements -will distinguish him from the “just man” so-called, who arrogates to -himself that sublime attribute on the ground of the scrupulous payment -of debts, or the fulfilment of contracts. Humility in fact will be -found to be the characteristic mark of those who have attained ethical -enlightenment in any direction. It is the outward sign from which we -may infer that the finite quality in them is in process of being raised -to the Nth degree. - -I have given these few specific illustrations of my meaning, but what -has been said applies equally to any of the plus qualities. The plus -qualities are the ones which are favorable for transformation into -the infinitized ethical quality. The ethical principle itself is one -and indivisible. Any one of the plus qualities, when ethicized, will -conduce to the same result. From whatever point of the periphery of the -ethical sphere we advance toward the center we shall meet with the same -experience. Thus self-affirmation or egoism when in idea raised to the -Nth degree will reveal that the highest selfhood can be achieved only -when the unique power of a spiritual being is deployed in such a way as -to challenge the unique, distinctive power that is lodged in each of -the infinite multitude of spiritual beings that are partners with us in -the eternal life. - -And altruism, or care for others, at its spiritual climax, will -conversely involve the recognition that true service to others can -only be perfectly performed when the power that is resident in -ourselves is exercised in its most vigorous, most spontaneous, and most -self-affirming mode. And as the diverse empirical qualities which we -observe in one another all appear to be modes of or cognate with these -two principal tendencies—the self-affirming and the altruistic—the -method of transfiguring empirical qualities which has been set forth -may be found to apply in every instance. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[62] Or more exactly act so as to elicit the sense of unique -distinctive selfhood, as interconnected with all other distinctive -spiritual beings in the infinite universe. - -[63] The conception underlying Robert L. Stevenson’s sketch of Jekyl -and Hyde is to be taken seriously, and applied without exception -_mutatis mutandis_ to every human being whatsoever (but see footnote p. -76). It is not original with Stevenson. The French, who are perhaps the -keenest psychologists, long ago invented the _apercu_ that everyone has -the defects of his qualities. - -[64] The use of the term duality is not intended to exclude the -possibility of multiplicity, but only to call attention to one striking -bifurcation of human character. - -[65] Stevenson falls into this error. He confounds Jekyl with the -virtuous and Hyde with the vicious side of character. In reality the -one should stand for the empirical plus traits, the other for the -empirical minus traits. - -[66] Contract-keeping is peculiarly the moral rule applicable to -mercantile transactions. To apply it without modification to the -dealings of employers and wage-earners is to intrude the mercantile -standard into the industrial sphere. This is what we are now -witnessing. The industrial standard is only in process of development -and clarification, and the accepted mercantile standard is really in -conflict with it. Among merchants it is of the very essence of their -transactions that a contract shall not be invalidated, despite the -injurious consequences to one or the other party which it may turn -out later on to involve. The security of commercial transactions -would be gone if revision of the contract should be permitted -whenever consequent loss appears. Again, and this is particularly -important, merchants are assumed to be on a footing of equality in -dealing with one another, equally free in accepting or rejecting a -proposed contract, equally competent to take care of their respective -interests. The relation of employers to wage-earners however is not -that of economic equals, but of the economically stronger with the -economically weaker. And this difference is of cardinal importance in -determining the rule of justice as it should obtain in the industrial -sphere. I do not of course intend to imply that an agreement between -employer and wage-earners once made should not as a rule be kept as -scrupulously as that between merchant and merchant. What I affirm is -that in view of the greatness of the injury possibly inflicted upon -the weaker, the economically stronger party is bound at least to share -the responsibility with the weaker for the essential fairness of the -terms of the agreement before it is finally completed. Nay, I would go -a step farther, and say that despite the indispensable condemnation of -contract-breaking, provision should be made for possible revision in -cases where it can be shown that exceptional hardships have appeared, -unforeseen and unforeseeable at the time when the agreement was made. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE SUPREME ETHICAL RULE (_Continued_) - - -Whatever the steps that have thus far been taken, they are preliminary -to the final step. And the _method_ of “salvation,” the distinctive -feature wherein this ethical system differs from others, may now be -briefly stated. So act as to elicit the unique personality in others, -and _thereby_ in thyself. Salvation is found in the effort to save -others! The difference in method consists in the joint pursuit of the -two ends, that of the other and that of the self. The controlling -idea is that the _numen_ in the self is raised out of potentiality -into actuality by the energy put forth to raise the _numen_ in the -other,—the two divinities greeting each other as simultaneously they -rise into the light. - -It is thus that both egoism and altruism are transcended. To be -egoistic is to assert one’s empirical self at the expense of other -empirical selves. To be altruistic is to prefer the empirical selves -of others to one’s own. It is not true that self-realization, keeping -to the empirical signification of self, leads insensibly to altruistic -conduct. The life of the great “self-realizer,” Goethe, may be cited -in evidence of this. Nor is it true that preference for the empirical -self of another necessarily involves maintaining the integrity of one’s -own empirical self. In the empirical field egoism and altruism are -conflicting and mutually contradictory. It is in the spiritual field -that they cease to be so, because both disappear in an object of the -will which includes them both and transcends them both. If this be so, -it may be asked why does the formula we have adopted read: So act as to -elicit the unique personality in others, and thereby in thyself? Why -not conversely:—So act as to realize the unique personality in thyself, -and thereby in others?—since in any case the ends in view are to be -achieved conjointly. The answer is that in the pure spiritual field, -in the world of ideal ethical units, it would make no difference from -which point of view the relation were regarded. But when the spiritual -formula is applied as a regulative rule to the mutual relations -of empirical beings there is a difference. Thus applied, it must -necessarily be couched in such terms as will make the spiritual birth -of the other the prime object, and the spiritual birth of the self its -incidental though inseparable concomitant. This is so because ethics -is a science of energetics, which has to do with the potencies of our -nature in their most affirmative efferent expression. All our higher -faculties are active, and touch for good or ill the lives of those who -surround us. Even the secret thoughts which seem only to affect our own -individuality, inevitably project their influence upon our associates. - -Now ethics is a science of _right_ energizing. And since as a matter of -fact we do inevitably energize in such a manner as to affect others, -the fundamental question in ethics is: how are we to regulate the -incidences of our natures that fall upon other lives so that they shall -be right? Since we cannot help acting upon them and influencing them, -how can we act rightly toward them and rightly influence them? And the -rule supplied by the ethical principle is: Act upon their empirical -selves in such a manner as to draw from their empirical natures the -hidden personality, or at least the consciousness of it. And the -repercussion of the rule is: in the attempt to do so you will convert -your own empirical self into a spiritual personality, or at least evoke -in yourself the idea of yourself as a spiritual personality. - -Incontestably, in the attempt to change others we are compelled to try -to change ourselves. The transformation undergone by a parent in the -attempt to educate his child is an obvious instance. No parent is a -true parent at the outset. As his perception deepens of the real needs -of the child, which is so entirely dependent on his self-control, on -his wisdom as well as his love, he will realize more and more his -own deficiencies, and seek to remedy them. The same is true of the -professor in relation to his students, of a leader and his followers, -of a religious teacher and those who look to him for advice and help. -In all such relations when rightly understood there is simultaneous -growth on both sides. In the ethical sphere there is a law of -levitation, the contrary of the law of gravitation that obtains in the -realm of matter. We actually tend to rise from a lower to a higher -level in proportion as we bend downward to lift those still lower than -ourselves. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -HOW TO LEARN TO SEE THE SPIRITUAL _NUMEN_ IN OTHERS - - -We now have to consider how to acquire the faculty of seeing the light -that in our fellowmen is often so deeply hidden. We can love only that -which is lovable. If we could see holiness, beauty concealed within our -fellow-beings, we should be drawn towards them by the most powerful -attraction, willingly living in their life, and permitting them to live -in ours. We should then love all men, for we should see in all what is -unspeakably lovable. But the empirical man stands between us and the -spiritual man, and the empirical woman between us and the spiritual -woman; and very often the former are most repulsive, even when their -ugly traits do not affect us personally, even when as spectators merely -we observe how they behave. - -Much more is it well-nigh insuperably difficult to worship, in the -sense of holding worthy, those whose characteristic traits directly -offend us, or are perpetual thorns in our side. We must somehow learn -to regard the empirical traits, odious, harmful or merely commonplace -and vulgar as they may be, as the mask, the screen interposed between -our eyes and the real self of others. We must acquire the faculty of -second sight, of seeing the lovable self as the true self. And how -without self deception we can possibly succeed in doing so is the -question. - -In the first place, it is my own craving for resurrection out of that -death in life to which I seem doomed that must impel me to penetrate to -the essential life in others. My own spiritual nature is in fetters, -and to burst the fetters, to escape from the prison, there is but one -way. The unique personality, which is the real life in me, I cannot -gain, nor even approximate to, unless I search and go on searching for -the spiritual _numen_ in others.[67] The force which incites me to -penetrate beyond the empirical traits of others, to surmount the walls -which surround the shrine in them, is the consciousness that unless I -do so I am myself spiritually lost, I remain myself spiritually dead. -For it is only face to face with the god enthroned in the innermost -shrine of the other that the god hidden in me will consent to appear. - -The expression “death in life” means living, even living passionately -and in a way efficiently, with a sense, nevertheless, underneath of the -hollowness, the futility of the objects of pursuit. The death in life -is the state of discontent that slowly gathers and augments in a man’s -mind as he pursues his customary ends, as he reviews his intellectual -achievement, the books he has written, the pictures he has painted, -the meager outcome of his schemes of social reform, the uncertain -result of his efforts at moral self-development. It is the ensuing -distaste for what he has actually accomplished, the disallowance of -it as in any way ultimately satisfying. And yet this death in life is -itself the well-spring of resurrection, out of which is engendered -an irrepressible yearning of the mind to attach itself to something -greater than all ephemeral interests, to something that has eternal -worth, and is of such a kind as to communicate of its eternal nature to -him who touches it. The god in the other, the eternal personality in -the inner sanctuary of the other, is that object which must be sought -and touched. The cry of my own soul for salvation is the impulse that -leads me on to search for that object. Without the previous discontent, -I shall not seek; without the appraisement of the temporal ends and -interests of man as in the last analysis unsatisfying, I shall not set -out on my quest. Enmeshed in the jungle of the empirical world, I shall -find no exit. I shall remain the victim of the illusion that the peace -I need can be found in the realm of temporal desire. I shall commit -what the theologians called Original Sin, that is, the preferring of -“the works of the Creator to the Creator himself.” - -But there is a second force that must act in conjunction with this keen -desire for personal liberation or highest personal self-affirmation. -It is the sense of the _dependence of others_ upon what I can do for -them. Notoriously it is the dependence of the child that evokes in the -parent the noblest qualities of which he is capable, the self-denial, -the incessant willingness to labor for the good of the offspring. It is -the dependence of the student on the teacher, of the disciple on the -master that elicits the latter’s best thought. It is the dependence of -the multitude on the religious teacher that puts him on his mettle. But -if the dependence of others upon oneself is to produce its appropriate -results, that dependence will have to be interpreted in a spiritual -sense. We shall have to think of others as dependent on us not only for -the necessary empirical services we are bound to render them, but those -empirical services themselves will have to be regarded as instruments -by means of which we may render them the highest spiritual service. - -This leads to a more _rigorous scrutiny of the notion of service_ than -has hitherto been customary. - -The question we must answer, and it is one that has never been -adequately met, is: What is it in the other that we are to serve, -what is the true object of our service? Man is worth while on his own -account. Now no one can pretend that the welfare of the animal part of -man is an object worth while on its own account. To satisfy the hunger -or the thirst of another, or to promote his health is to serve his -body. But the body is the servant of a master. And I am not bound to -serve a servant. If I am to serve the servant at all it must be for the -sake of the master. Who then is the master? - -The same argument applies also to the intellect. Human science is after -all but a narrow littoral along the illimitable continent of nescience. -No one who compares the intellectual achievements of mankind with the -problems that remain unsolved will pretend that the accomplishments -of the intellect are worth while on their own account. The mental no -less than the physical part of us has a master. There is an object -higher than the acquisition of knowledge to be attained in the course -of the mind’s endeavors to acquire knowledge, namely the growth of the -scientist towards unique personality, as will be shown in the chapter -on the Vocations in the last Book. Analogous considerations apply to -art and its achievements. - -And if someone should say that neither the satisfaction of the body -alone, nor of the intellect, nor of the æsthetic sense, nor of the -affections, but of all of them taken together, is to be the object -of our service, the answer is that this would be merely serving a -whole household of servants, and still not serving the master. This -quite aside from the fact that the ideal of happiness as consisting -in the harmonious gratification of the various elements enumerated is -chimerical. Since some of the most indispensable elements of happiness, -such as freedom from disease and from bereavement, are beyond our -control. While even the higher faculties are far from harmoniously -coöperating, the one-sidedness of human nature being such that a marked -development in one direction is actually incompatible with complete -development in other directions. - -Unless, then, there be some master end in everyone’s life, one -paramount to all others, to which all others are subordinate (the -subordination and the renunciation involved being themselves means -of spiritualizing one’s nature) there is no point to the notion of -service. That master end I have defined as the attainment of the -conviction of one’s infinite interrelatedness, the consciousness of -oneself as a member of the spiritual universe, a ἄπαξ λεγόμενον[68] -in the eternal life, a source of energy induplicable in its kind, -which radiates out and touches at the center each one of the infinite -multitude of spiritual associates, and receives from them the effect of -their aboriginally diverse modes of energizing in return. - -I have mentioned two motives that impel me to search for the _numen_ -in others. The one, the craving for my own liberation from the death -in life, my own desperate outreaching toward salvation; the other, the -sense of the dependence of others upon me. Yes, but this dependence -of theirs I must now interpret as spiritual dependence. I must look -for them also beyond the death in life to life itself. I must have -the courage and the truthfulness to look upon neighbor, friend, wife, -husband, son, daughter _sub specie æternitatis_, that is, as primarily -spiritual beings, and estimate any physical, intellectual or emotional -help I can give them by the consideration whether it does or does not -advance them toward the master end of their being. - -Courage of this sort is rare, because precisely the physical, mental -and emotional wants of those who depend on us are the most obvious -and clamorous. I do not of course mean that we should not attend -effectually to their immediate wants. How could we avoid doing so? How -could we neglect the health, the education, etc., of our children? What -I say is that we should acquire the habit of looking upon the immediate -ends as instrumental, and keep in view the supreme end which they in -turn are to serve, and that we should beware of what I have called the -fallacy of provisionalism—that of supposing that we are at liberty to -provide for the lower immediate necessities first, leaving the higher -and the highest needs to be attended to later on. - -The manner in which parents commonly plan for the future of their sons -and daughters is perhaps the fittest illustration of the idea I am -here seeking to exclude. During the period of infancy they pilot the -child through the dangers that beset its physical existence. Later on, -what is called education, the preliminary mental training required to -fit the young for the business of life, is felt to be imperative. Then -comes the selection of a vocation with a view of assuring the material -basis of subsistence. Still later, the advancement of the sons or -daughters in their chosen vocations, or their social success occupies -perhaps the parent’s mind. Thoughts of a happy marriage flatter the -parent’s imagination. If the moral side receives attention, the -utmost that as a rule is demanded is that the young person shall not -fall below the average moral standard that happens to prevail in the -community. And it is in such ways as these that we are apt to respond -to the claims of those spiritual beings for whose essential future -welfare we are to so large an extent responsible. - -To widen this all too narrow conception of our responsibilities, the -following reflections may be found useful. A father in the last decade -of his life realizes acutely the brevity of his own past existence. -The curve of his life is now rapidly descending. Supposing him to be -nearing seventy, his adult sons and daughters may by this time have -reached the age of thirty or forty. Looking back on the thirty or -more years that separate him from them, and remembering how like a -dream the intervening years have glided by, it may come home to him -with sudden force how soon these, his sons and daughters too, though -now in their prime, will reach the point at which he has arrived. The -error of parents is to think of their grown sons and daughters only -as moving on the upward curve of life. They stop short in imagination -there. They look forward to marriage, vocational success and the like, -as finalities for those who are still young. We ought to remember -that the upward curve in the lives of our children will presently -descend just as ours has descended, that the few decades which separate -them from old age will pass as quickly for them as they have passed -for us,—almost in the twinkling of an eye,—and we ought to ask on -their behalf as we must on ours,—What is to be the result of it all? -What does it all profit? And it is this thought that will turn our -attention for them as for ourselves to the spiritual end which should -be dominant at all times,—in the morning, at noon, and in the evening -twilight of a human existence. - -All that has been said has to do with the arousing in us of the desire -to see in others the god, the _numen_, the master end. The wish to -escape from our own death in life, the sense of the dependence of -others on us as interpreted,—these two are the means of stirring us up -to go forth upon the quest, and the seeking is already more than half -the journey. Seek, and ye shall find. But what exactly is it that we -are to seek? What are we to see in the other?—The spiritual nature. But -what is the spiritual nature? I have frequently urged that the lack of -a definite description of the spiritual nature is the chief defect in -ethics up to the present time. This defect I endeavor to supply. The -spiritual nature is the unique nature conceived as interrelated with an -infinity of natures unique like itself. The spiritual nature in another -is the fair quality distinctive of the other raised toward the Nth -degree. We are to paint ideal portraits of our spiritual associates. We -are to see them in the light of what is better in them as it would be -if it were transfigured into the best. We are to go on as long as we -live painting these ideal portraits of them. We are to retouch their -portraits constantly. We are not indeed to obtrude or impose upon -others these sketches, these mental creations of ours, but to propose -them diffidently, reverently, to hold them up as glasses in which our -associates may possibly see themselves mirrored. It is for them to -accept in whole or in part our rendering of their inner selves or to -reject it. But we are not to desist from our labor in creating the -ideal portraits, for in this consists the spiritual artistry of human -intercourse. - -Our friends we are to see in the light of these glorified sketches,—our -friends and our enemies too. For only thus can we win them, and be -essentially their benefactors. There is no power so irresistible, -it has been said, as love. I do not quite accept the word Love. It -signifies the feeling that goes with the ideal appreciation of others; -and mere feeling supplies no directive rule of conduct. But it is -true that the power of ideally appreciating others, of seeing them in -the light of their possible best, and the feeling of love consequent -on this vision, is the mightiest lever for transforming evil into -good, and for sweetening the embittered lives of men. No greater boon -can anyone receive from another than to be helped to think well of -himself. Flattery is the base counterfeit of appreciation. Spiritual -appreciation, appreciation of the inner self despite the mask, is -the greatest of gifts, to manifest it is the greatest of arts. In -its supreme form it is the art of going down to the lowest of human -beings—the man in the ditch, the woman on the street—and making them -think well of themselves because of possibilities in their nature -they themselves hardly surmise. It is also the art of making the most -developed and advanced human beings realize in themselves something -still higher and better than they have ever reached. It is this art -by which the supreme human benefactors have worked their spiritual -miracles, and it is an art which to the extent of our ability we must -each acquire and practice, if human society is to be redeemed. - -There are specially two points to be remembered: the one, that of -seeing the unattained excellence in those who are already in the way of -excellence; the other, where there is or seems to be a complete absence -of fine qualities or of the promise of development, as in the case of -backward children, that we should still not abate one jot of hope or -effort, seeking to win even the smallest improvement, in the conviction -that the best possible under the circumstances is incalculably worth -while. For, compared with the infinite ideal even the achievements of -the most advanced and most developed fall infinitely short, and what -are they more than the best possible under the circumstances. The best -possible under the circumstances represents for us the absolute best. - -Now a word in regard to those who resist the better influence which we -may seek to exercise over them, for instance, the so-called black sheep -in families. Our chief concern should here be to prevent the resistance -from infecting ourselves and provoking unethical reactions. Ethics is -a system of relations. The ethical point of view consists in seeing -the relation between the offending person and ourselves as it ought -to be, in seeing with perfect objectivity the kind of conduct ideally -required by the relation on both sides, seeing it and thereby assisting -the other to see it. But we shall never succeed in doing this until we -purge from our thoughts and speech every trace of private irritation. -If we can point out to the one who has gone wrong how he has hurt -another, and has spiritually hurt himself; if while we do this we see -the fineness that is possible to him and make him realize that we see -it, we shall not utterly fail. I am aware that other methods should -accompany the spiritual appeal. In some cases, a temporary separation -is indicated, in other cases, a prolonged change of environment, or -the gradual formation of new habits of industry and application, the -awakening of interest in some pursuit that leads the mind away from -egocentric pre-occupation. Psychology and experience crystallized, -into commonsense have valuable counsels to give. But, along with the -technical aids, the spiritual influence should never be lost sight of -or relegated to the second place. - -And finally two ideas should be mentioned which are pertinent to broken -relations, as for instance to the unhappy marriage relation and to -interrupted friendships: One that the break is never complete. There -remain certain threads unsundered, which should be most sedulously -preserved intact. They may serve as points of attachment to weave the -tie anew. Again, and this is still more important, thought that the -break would never have occurred if the relation had been as finely -conceived as it ought to have been on my side as well as on the others. -Take friendship as an example. A friendship of many years’ standing -is suddenly wrecked. Why? What were the terms on which the friendship -had been based? What had friendship meant to me?—A certain personal -attraction, mutual aid and comfort, taking counsel together, sympathy -in joy and sorrow. These are valuable elements of friendship, but -they do not even touch the essential point. They do not describe the -principal function which a friend has to fulfil. The friend ideally -is one who stands alongside another as the spectator of his spiritual -development, as one who appraises his friend’s advance toward the -master end of life disinterestedly, and yet with deepest personal -concern. He is the mirror in which his friend may see the stages of -his spiritual progress reflected. Now I have lost my friend. Why have -I lost him? Because he was never a true friend to me, and, I must add, -because I was never a real friend to him. I have not really lost him, -because I never really possessed him. And on making this discovery I -shall have a new light shed on what friendship might mean. I may never -be so fortunate as to find the actual friend, but I shall know what he -ought to be, and what it is in me to be to him. And when I say, “what -it is in me to be to him,” I think of resources of my inner being which -have never been called out; I think of the worth that belongs to me -as a spiritual being capable of giving forth and receiving highest -spiritual influence, and I am thereby immeasurably aggrandized in my -own esteem, the self in me is lifted nearer as it were to its infinite -counterpart in the eternal life. I walk henceforth on a higher level, I -dwell amid serener presences. And this aggrandizement of the self, not -on the ground of what I am but what I may be, and of others too, not on -the ground of what they are, but what they may be, is the compensation -derived from the bitter experience of broken relations. And what has -been said of friendship by way of example is true of frustration in -marriage as well, and of frustrations of every kind. - - - NOTE TO BOOK III - - I may mention a certain test case for trying out the proposed rule, - namely, to idealize the fair quality in others, and thereby achieve - the concomitant transformation of the self. I mean the case of the - victims of a cruel race prejudice, such as is entertained against the - colored people of the South by the more brutal whites. I remember a - long evening which I once spent in the company of a leader among the - colored people, and one of the best men I have ever known. I looked - that night deep into a suffering, sensitive human soul, and I tried - to put myself in his place. I realized the hardships of his lot, the - anguish that I myself should suffer if I were in his position. But - would there be the spiritual equivalent? Would the way I had found - in trials less poignant be the way of release? To make the situation - clear, I selected two points in which the white man, my supposed - oppressor, has the advantage, two fair qualities of which he can - boast. His family life is purer on the average than that of a large - number of the colored people. And he has also learned in the case - of white men to distinguish between the criminal and the innocent. - He will protect the latter, and give up the former to justice. Now - my own people, putting myself in the place of the colored man, are - backward in both these respects. In consequence of the long centuries - of slavery their family relations are often unstable, while they are - apt to shield the colored criminal from the arm of the law. In both - respects I want to represent to myself the white man as he ought to - act. He ought to help me lift up my race, first, by making their - family life purer and more stable. But instead, many of the whites - debauch the women of my race, while perhaps respecting those of their - own race; moreover, by refusing decent accommodation on railroads they - compel educated and refined colored women to travel in cars in which - the coarsest men are herded together. - - Again, how can I, as a leader among my people, teach them to - distinguish between the criminal and the innocent of their race so - long as mobs of white men indiscriminately lynch the innocent and - the criminal of my race alike on the barest suspicion? Against their - actual behavior I set up in my mind a picture of how the superior - race, superior in point of civilization, but still morally backward, - ought to act. I can but suggest this picture, keep it in view as a - constant protest, or still better as an imperative model. - - But I can do more. I can turn upon myself, and upon others of my own - people who are in advance of the majority of them, and presently - I shall be compelled to admit that amongst ourselves something - of the same pride of superiority exists, something of the same - prejudice against those who are lower in the scale. For there is - also a stratification and a hierarchy of higher and lower among the - oppressed. And the relatively higher are apt to behave toward the - lower in the same fashion as their common oppressors behave toward - them all. We find the same tendency among other oppressed races, as - for instance in the attitude of certain of the Spanish and the German - Jews toward the Polish and the Russian. Purge thyself, therefore, is - the incisive monition; purify thine own nature of that pride which - hurts so cruelly when it is directed upon thee from without. Let the - sin committed against thee be the means of purifying thee from the - like sin. This is the spiritual compensation, this the thought that - leads to inward peace! - -FOOTNOTES: - -[67] In a previous chapter I remarked that the cheap estimate of others -and of oneself is due to the habit of regarding human beings from the -point of view of the use they can be put to, ignoring the wonderful -and mysterious energies and potencies which are exhibited day by day -in every human being. If the force stored in an infinitesimal particle -of radium is calculated to excite admiration, how much more the forces -exhibited in man, looking at him merely as the stage on which the -spectacle of these forces is displayed. Consider the occurrence of such -a thing as thought, the sheer miracle of mentality, the working of the -constructive imagination in the artist, etc. If we sufficiently dwell -on these inward facts about men, instead of merely emphasizing their -external utility to one another, we shall thereby be put in tune, as -it were, for the higher spiritual view of man. The difference I have -said is like that between understanding the theory of electricity and -merely turning on electric power in the workshop or the home. And yet -the scientific contemplation of the miracles of human nature as seen -from within, while it serves as a propædeutic, cannot actually bring -us up to the ethical point of view. For this sort of contemplation -reveals only the working of impersonal forces or powers, thought, -feeling, impulse in their endless actions and reactions, similar, in -so far as they are impersonal, to the forces observed in nature. The -ethical point of view alone discloses a centrality, an underivative, -irreducible core, a substantive being, personality. - -[68] An expression occurring once only. - - - - - BOOK IV - - APPLICATIONS: THE ETHICS OF THE FAMILY, THE STATE, THE INTERNATIONAL - RELATIONS, ETC. - - - - -CHAPTER I - -THE COLLECTIVE TASK OF MANKIND AND THE THREE-FOLD REVERENCE - - -The social institutions, the family, the organs of education, the -vocation, the political organization, the organization of mankind, the -ideal religious society are to be treated as a progressive series. The -individual is to pass successively through them, advancing from station -to station toward ethical personality. - -In designating the social institutions as an ethical series, care -must be taken not to confound the terms of the series as now existent -with the terms as they would be did they conform to their ethical -functions. For instance, even the monogamic family is as yet only in -part ethically organized. School and university are adrift as to their -ethical purpose. The majority of mankind are engaged in occupations -which it would be absurd to call vocations, and the international group -exists as yet barely in embryo. Hence when we speak of the social -institutions as a progressive series through which the individual is -to advance towards personality, we are describing the aim of social -reconstruction, not the present state of things. The spiritual nature -of man must create for itself appropriate social organs. It has been -painfully engaged in the attempt to do so since the existence of our -race on earth. - -In each of the social institutions we are to distinguish between the -empirical substratum and the spiritual imprint which it is to receive. -We find in each ready to hand some natural non-moral motive or set of -motives of which we are to avail ourselves in the endeavor to evoke the -spiritual result. Thus in the family the non-moral motive is affection -due to consanguinity; in the school sociality, the school society being -the first society into which the child enters; in the vocation there -is the craving for mental self-expression, in the state, patriotism, -or the feeling we have for the larger whole in which we are included -on the basis of similarity of language, historic tradition, etc. The -natural basis of the international group of society is the empirical, -and as yet in no way ethical, fact of the commercial and industrial -interdependence of the different countries, a fact used by M. Bloch and -his more recent followers as an argument against war. - -In popular literature the empirical substratum and the spiritual -relation to be produced by means of it are constantly confused. In any -genuinely ethical system they must be carefully discriminated.[69] - -In each of the social institutions, or, as we may now call them, the -phases of life experience through which the individual must pass on the -way toward personality, the winning of the ethical result depends on -observance of _the three-fold reverence_. What I mean by the three-fold -reverence must be explained in some detail, especially as the reader -might otherwise be led into identifying my view with that expressed by -Goethe in _Wilhelm Meister_. The three modes of reverence mentioned -by Goethe in his sketch of the “pedagogical province” have for their -background the poet’s pantheism. The view here set forth is based on -ethical idealism. - -In order to introduce my thought let me go back to the phrase -repeatedly used in Book III—“the task of humanity.” Mankind as a whole, -the generations past, present and to come, have a certain work to do, a -task to accomplish. A collective obligation rests on our race, spanning -the generations. - -The spiritual conception of the collective task is the basis of the -three-fold reverence. The spiritual result, as was said above, is in -every instance to be superinduced upon an empirical substratum. The -empirical substratum in this case is mankind considered as a developing -entity, which partially reproduces in the present the mental and moral -acquisitions of ancestors, partially increases the heritage and passes -it on to the newcomers. I, as an individual, am also inextricably -linked up backward and forward with those who come before and those who -are to come after. I cannot take myself out of this web. The task laid -upon human society as a whole is also laid upon me. I am a conscious -thread in the fabric that is weaving, conscious in a general way of the -pattern to be woven. - -But viewed empirically the development of humanity is haphazard. Much -is preserved from the past that ought to be cast aside. Many traces -of past error remain unexpunged in the life of the present. A mixed -stream, compounded of good and evil, passes through our veins into -our successors’. The empirical fact is simply the fact of partial -reproduction, partial augmentation and partial transmission. The -ethical conception of progress depends on the view that there is an -ideal pattern of the spiritual relation in the mind of man, destined -to become more explicit as it is tested out and that the present -generation ought to appraise the heritage of the past according to this -pattern, preserving and rejecting and adding its own quota in such a -way as to enable the succeeding generations to sift the worthful from -the worthless more successfully, and to see the ideal pattern more -explicitly. - -The three-fold reverence has been described as reverence towards -superiors, equals and inferiors. For this inadequate description -I would substitute the following: In place of reverence towards -superiors, reverence for the valid work of ethicizing human relations -already accomplished in the past, reverence for the precious permanent -achievements and for those who achieved them,—the “Old Masters.” The -human race has gained a certain ethical footing in the empirical -sphere. The general task has not to be begun _ab initio_. In the act -of separating what is worth while from what is worthless, in the very -process of revision and reinterpretation, we manifest our reverence for -the past. It is thus that true historicity is distinguished from blind -conservatism. And besides, by studying the old masters, we acquire -a certain standard of excellence. Since those who have contributed -epoch-making advances in philosophy, in religion, in science, inspire -us by the grandeur of their attack on the great problems; and the -spirit of their attack, is unspeakably stimulating to us, even when we -reject their solutions. We cannot too humbly sit as disciples at the -feet of the great masters if discipleship has this meaning. - -Reverence of the first type prescribes the same attitude towards -preëminent personalities among our contemporaries. They rank with the -great predecessors inasmuch as they are in a way for us predecessors. -They are in advance of us. To revere them is to endeavor to come -abreast of them, to obtain the advantage of the forward movement which -their superior capacity enabled them to initiate, and to start where -they leave off, adding our small quota. - -The second kind of reverence is directed toward those who are, in -respect to their gifts and opportunities, approximately on the same -level with us, but whose gifts differ from and are supplementary -to ours. In our relation to them we may learn the great lesson of -appreciating unlikeness, and working out our own correlative unlikeness -by way of reaction. - -The third kind of reverence is directed toward the undeveloped, -among whom I include the young, the backward groups among civilized -peoples, and the uncivilized peoples. We are to reverence that which -is potential in all of these individuals and groups, and we do so by -fitting ourselves to help them actualize their spiritual possibilities. -Reverence of the third kind takes the highest rank among the three. -The spiritual life of the world is a deep mine as yet explored only -near the surface. The unrealized possibilities of mankind are the chief -asset. But in order to effectuate our purpose with respect to the -undeveloped, we must have reverence toward the great Old Masters, to -gain a certain standard of excellence; and reverence towards unlikeness -in others to become ourselves differentiated individualities, and in -order to respect the unlikeness which we shall presently likewise find -in the backward and the young. So that the three reverences play into -one another and are inseparable from one another, the first two being -indispensable to the third. They are in truth a “trinity in unity.” -But the third reverence is the supreme one. The chief objective must -be the undeveloped, because our face must be turned toward the future, -because the task of mankind is as yet in its early stages. The third -reverence is supreme. Now it is only when we have grasped the meaning -of the triple reverence that we can fully appreciate the significance -of the family as the first matrix in which the reverential attitudes -are to be acquired. It is only then that we can rightly conceive of -the organs of education, and of the end upon which the activities of -school and university should converge. And similarly we shall find -our interpretation of the vocation, the state, and the international -society illuminated by this conception of the three-fold reverence. - -In popular religious teaching the individual is thrust into the -foreground. His salvation as a detached entity is the principal object. -In positivism and evolutionalism society in its empirical aspect is -exalted, and the individual tends to be regarded as a stepping-stone. -In the spiritual interpretation of the collective task as outlined, -the individual remains integral and sacrosanct. The spiritual society -of which the image is to be imprinted on human society is a society -of indefeasible ethical personalities.[70] The individual even now at -his station in the present attributes to himself this lofty character -and the various obligations which he already recognizes, and which he -endeavors to fulfil, afford him ample opportunity to vindicate his -spiritual selfhood. If in addition he looks forward longingly to the -future, and to the greater spiritual fulfilment that may be expected -among posterity, this expectation is founded on the belief that what he -already possesses in germ will then be more unfolded, that the ideal -of the indefeasible worth of man of which he is already conscious -in himself will then be more completely recognized and its infinite -implications be more fully understood.[71] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[69] Thus the interdependence of nations in respect to their material -interests is often erroneously expatiated on as if it constituted an -actually ethical bond between them. - -[70] While at the same time the ethical personality, unlike -the “windowless monads” of Leibnitz is effectuated only in the -cross-relations which subsist between each one and his spiritual -associates. - -[71] I may here point out the bearings of this general point of view -on the much-mooted and confused question of the value of the study -of history. Ranke holds that the aim of the historian should be to -reproduce factually the occurrences of the past. Robinson insists on -the uses of history. But uses to what end? The history of the past is -fragmentary and full of gaps. The data with respect to some of the -most important periods are irrecoverable. The attitude of the human -race towards its own history, I take it, should be like that of an -individual towards his past. I cannot really resuscitate my past. -Memory is treacherous. Much has been forgotten. The events of my youth -are discolored when seen in the perspective of later years. I should -try to know myself as far as I can, but with a view of pressing on and -realizing with such light upon myself as I have, the ethical aim. The -same applies to mankind. And the important point is in the review to -disengage the ideas that controlled the principal social institutions -in the past, and to appraise these ideas from the standpoint of our -present ethical insight. Thus, in treating the history of the family, -we should single out the ideas that controlled the family relation, the -idea of the _patria potestas_, the feudal idea, or the connection of -the family with landed property. In writing the history of the organs -of education, we should bring into view priestly education as among the -Brahmins, musical or æsthetic education as among the Greeks, the idea -of princely education, the idea of preparation for the government of -an empire, which accounts for the system of the English universities, -the controlling idea of the German universities. And then at the end of -our survey we shall be in a better position to discern what is to be -the ideal of school and university education in an ethical democracy. -The same applies to the controlling ideas of the state, and of the -remaining social institutions. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE FAMILY - - -The family is in process of change. We should fix attention on the kind -of change that is desirable. The change desirable is the more perfect -expression of the ethical ideal in the life of the family. One striking -fact is that in the past the family was never supposed to exist merely -for the “benefit” of its individual members. The latter view is an -individualistic novelty of our age, and, as commonly understood, it is -radically false. - -Under the caste system the family subordinates the welfare of its -members to the function of the caste. Society being stationary -and stratified, the family is the organ for the reproduction of a -stratified social system. - -A similar view prevails under feudalism. We of today resent the idea -underlying primogeniture. From the modern point of view we ask why the -eldest born should be preferred to his brothers. Primogeniture appears -to us to assert the inequality of individual men; but from the feudal -point of view the eldest born was preferred, not as an individual, but -as the steward of the family property. The family had a fixed place -in the social hierarchy, and to maintain this place the estate was to -remain undivided in the hands of one person. - -Now what is amiss with the modern family? This is profoundly amiss—that -the idea of the family as serving a larger purpose is disappearing, -and that the family is supposed to exist for the benefit of its -individual members, benefit meaning happiness. Frequent divorce and -disintegration are the natural consequences of this view, for if the -tie exists solely for the happiness of those bound by it, then it ought -indeed to be dissolved when the relation entails suffering. - -Society has passed from status to contract, and many seem to hold -that contract is the last word, the true expression of freedom. We -have passed from status to contract, we must pass on from contract to -organization, and thus to true freedom. - -Status is based on the analogy of the animal organism. The caste -society and the feudal society, ethically regarded, are spurious -organisms. This spurious type of organization is no longer viable, -and now bald individualism is taking its place. The malady with which -the family is afflicted is individualism. The desirable change is -genuine organization on the basis of the spiritual equivalence of all -functions.[72] The relation of the family to the general social task of -organization is two-fold. The family is the seminary in which shall be -implanted the germinal principle of organization, that principle which -is destined to transform all the subsequent terms of the social series, -the instrumentality to be employed being the three-fold reverence. -Again, the family will reach its more perfect form in proportion as the -succeeding social institutions, the school, vocation, state, shall -themselves be essentially organized, the influence of the later terms -retroacting on the first term. - -The family, in the spiritual view of it which I am sketching, differs -from the family of other days, and also from the modern family, in two -particulars. It does not recruit some one social class or stratum. -It does not direct the offspring into a single specific vocation. It -is the vestibule that leads into all the different professions and -vocations. And secondly, the family does not prepare the young to enter -into a vocation for the purpose of securing happiness. It does not -regard the vocation as servile to the empirical ends of the individual, -but as a phase through which he is to pass on the road toward ethical -personality, the fulfilment of the objective aims of the vocation being -the means of acquiring the ethical development which the vocation is -competent to furnish. Thus we regain, but on a much higher plane, what -the family possessed before it began to break down under the influence -of modern individualism, namely, an ulterior greater purpose imbedded -within itself and yet extending beyond itself. - -When we have grasped this relation of the family to the subsequent -terms of the social series, and bear constantly in mind as we should -that the three-fold reverence is the instrument by which _organization_ -is to be effected, we shall then be able to give adequate reasons why -the monogamic ideal alone is the true ethical ideal, why the marriage -relation, if it is to be ethical, must be permanent between two and -exclusive of all others. - -Let me briefly point out the relation of the monogamic family to -the three types of reverence. The third type ranks highest. The -tie of consanguinity between parents and offspring supplies the -empirical substratum. To be interested in the undeveloped, to surmise -possibilities as yet wholly unapparent, to go to infinite pains to -nurture and educate an immature being like a child, for all this -natural affection is almost indispensable. As a rule no one can so -love a child as its own parents do. The plan of state education for -infants to replace home education is advocated by some on the ground -that professional kindergartners and teachers are more competent to -train the budding human mind than unpedagogical fathers and mothers. -The function to be performed by the scientific educator in co-operation -with the home is doubtless not to be missed; but taking children away -from under the care of their parents, assembling them in what would be -equivalent to state orphan asylums, is a procedure which precisely for -pedagogical reasons would be preposterous. For the parent supplies that -concentrated love for the individual child, that intimate cherishing -which the most generous teacher, whose affections are necessarily -distributed over many, can never give. And the child needs this -selective affection. The love of the parent is the warm nest for the -fledgling spirit of the child. To be at home in this strange world -the young being with no claims as yet on the score of usefulness to -society or of merit of any kind, must find somewhere a place where it -is welcomed without regard to usefulness or merit. And it is the love -of the parents that makes the home, and it is his own home that makes -the child at home in the world. - -It does not follow that parents in general do reverence the spiritual -possibilities latent in their children. The natural affection is there, -but the empirical substratum and the spiritual relation are not to be -confounded. The kind of reverence of which I speak is an ideal thing to -be worked towards, not something that as yet actually exists, save in -exceptional cases. In the caste family and the feudal family the father -incarnated, as it were, the social system so far as that stratum or -class was concerned to which he belonged. He inspired awe. He demanded -implicit obedience. It was the existing social system that spoke from -his lips. But this system itself had an arbitrary character, and the -worship of the father was hardly ethical. The modern family goes to -the opposite extreme. In it the relations between parents and children -are loose, and tend to become more and more so. Reverence is scarcely -looked for by the parent, and is not likely to be accorded. On the -individualistic theory the child at a very early age is treated as an -equal, and whether encouraged to do so or not is apt to assert its -independence. The members of the family are not joined in an organic -connection, but resemble a collection of atomic units that easily -fall apart. The ethical relation, the real reverence must spring from -the service the parent renders in bringing to light the specific -individuality of the child with an eye to the transmutation which it is -to receive in the later terms of the social series. Not only highest -gratitude but genuine reverence are due to the parent who performs -this office. “You have given me physical birth, you are now giving me -spiritual birth,” will be the child’s response to the parent’s efforts. - -Thus much may be said as to the reason why the marriage relation should -be exclusive. The principal reason why it should be lifelong, is that -the office of the parent in furthering the spiritual development of -the children does not end when they reach the threshold of manhood or -womanhood. On the contrary, the finest touches are often added to the -work of education when the sons and daughters have become established -in a business or profession, and have founded families of their -own. The wisdom gathered from the experience of their elders, the -disinterested counsel inspired by love, will then be of the greatest -use to them. The young mother, especially, confronted with the problems -of child-rearing, will naturally turn to her own mother for advice. -The son, who comes to close quarters with the difficulties of life, -will find in the father, who is detached from life and has the tranquil -vision of old age, his best friend. - -In speaking of the third type of reverence I have already included all -that need here be said of the first type. The reverential relation -is mutual. The child will truly reverence the parent who on his side -reverences the child’s spiritual possibilities. The child does not -understand the word Spiritual, but is unconsciously affected by the -thing itself which I am here describing. A person who has the vision, -who has the gift of divining what is as yet unmanifested, will convey -to others the illumination of his vision. The child will realize in his -parent the presence of something higher, and will revere it, worship -it. Certain looks, certain expressions of the countenance, certain -gestures, though not understood in their meaning at the time, will be -imprinted on memory to be recalled in later life and then understood. -But it is essential, in order to evoke reverence in the young, to have -it oneself. He who does not steadfastly revere something, yes, someone -greater than himself, will never elicit reverence in others. - -The second type of reverence, towards those who are unlike ourselves -but none the less our equals, can be inculcated in an elementary way -in the family through the relations of brothers and sisters. Fraternal -feeling is an empirical means whereby to produce or at least prepare -the way for a very notable spiritual result—the willingness not only to -respect difference in others, but to welcome it. In current teaching -the emphasis in fraternity is placed on likeness. It should rather be -placed on the unlikeness. These exist, and are sometimes very marked -between brothers, and often cause discord and separation. The novices -in life should therefore be taught betimes to overcome their repugnance -to those who are unlike themselves, and the common relation of the -brothers to their parents will be helpful to this end. Naturally we -dislike the unlike. Alienness is ever productive of disharmony. The -fact, however, that the unlike person in the case of a brother is the -child of the same parents draws us powerfully toward him despite the -tendency to recoil. - -I must not omit to mention that the triple reverence is most naturally -and easily learned in the family, because of the simplicity of the -relations, and the limited number of persons involved. - -The question may be raised whether the single family should remain the -primary social unit, or whether a group of families united in close -coöperation would better fulfil the purposes for which the family -exists. The privacy and separateness of each family would not need -to be disturbed, coöperation might be limited to specific objects, -such as simplifying the work of the household, providing kindergarten -education for the young children, better play facilities, separate -study rooms for adolescents, common entertainments for all, and a -service of song at the beginning or close of the day. One obvious -difficulty in constituting such a group would be: the diversities of -tastes and opinions, particularly such as are not perceived at the -outset, but emerge on nearer acquaintance, and as the younger members -grow up and develop their idiosyncrasies. One great advantage, however, -would result if care were taken to include in the group persons -belonging to different vocations—scientist, scholar, architect, lawyer, -artist. Young persons as they mature would then have the benefit of -contact with those who are intimately familiar with different lines of -vocational activity, and would be helped to know their own mind as to -their future career better than they commonly do now. Personal contact -with one who is engaged in a certain line of work is a far better -instruction as to the nature of the work than reading about it or -observation from a distance. - -The ethical theory of marriage has been developed in my published -addresses.[73] But certain topics not there treated I would at least -allude to here in passing, and among them the need of a more careful -study of the causes that lead to infelicity in marriage. Kant mentions, -as an instance of the discrepancy between the natural and the moral -order, the fact that the sex passion is often at its height before -the period when marriage may be wisely entered into. There are other -seemingly radical incongruities, for instance, that between the -face, the features of a person and his real character. The one may -be borrowed so to speak from some ancestor, while the real nature is -quite at variance with the impression created by the face, so that -one who thinks he marries A really marries B. There are diversities -also between partners in marriage that only show themselves in the -latter part of life, when the outlines of character are apt to stand -forth bare. Besides, there is assumed to be, by some modern writers, a -certain fundamental sex antagonism. - -The whole question of the characteristics of sex requires to be far -more carefully investigated than it has been. And here let me take the -opportunity to express my positive appreciation of empirical science in -connection with ethical theory. The chief object of this volume is to -work out the general plan of the ethical relations, or the regulative -principle in ethics, and this I am deeply convinced is supersensible -and non-empirical. Applied ethics, however, is dependent not only on -the regulative principle but on empirical science, that is, on an -extended and ever-increasing knowledge of physiology, psychology, -and of the environmental conditions that influence human beings, and -I am keenly desirous to ward off the possible misunderstanding that -the ethical theory here proposed is intended to replace the empirical -science of man, individual or social - - Without the way there is no going. - Without the truth there is no knowing; - -says Thomas à Kempis. The way is the empirical knowledge, the truth is -the regulative principle. The way itself, as we proceed along it, will -shed additional light on the truth. Nevertheless, without the outlines -of the truth, without a goal in view, we should but be wandering -blindly. - -It is likely that the relations between persons in marriage will in -future become more complex, and the difficulties of adjustment more -serious, in proportion as under the influence of the new education -the individualities of men and women become more developed. Problems -hardly as yet envisaged will then become pressing. But whatever the -difficulties, they can be overcome if the ideal purpose of marriage be -kept in view, namely, that two beings of opposite sexes shall spend -their lives in the spiritual reproduction of offspring. The relation is -triangular. Husband and wife are each to elicit the distinctive best -in the other, incited, impelled to do so in order jointly to evoke -the distinctive best in the young. And the young represent posterity. -What the parents do for their own children they do for posterity, -since children are that portion of posterity which comes under their -immediate influence. And in this sense it may be said that marriage is -an organ for the spiritual reproduction and advancement of the human -race. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[72] Spurious or bastard organization was based on the empirical -preëminence of some function like that of the priest or the warrior. - -[73] See _Marriage and Divorce_, D. Appleton & Co. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE VOCATIONS - - -The next term in the series of social institutions is the school, -inclusive of its higher departments. But for reasons which will -sufficiently appear to anyone who carefully reads this chapter, it is -advisable to treat the vocations first. - -A more ludicrous mistake cannot be conceived than that of taking the -ideal for the fact, the wish for the deed, in matters touching the -social institutions. Thus the term “vocational guidance” is often used, -as if the occupations of the majority of men already answered to what -is implied in the idea of a vocation as if, for instance, industrial -labor in a factory were a “vocation” into which the young only needed -to be guided, whereas guidance means, in this case, being directed into -some mechanical _occupation_ not already overcrowded, or turned into -other unvocational occupations when they happen not to be over-filled. -But what is true of monotonous, mechanical labor in factories is true -in a greater or less degree of all human occupations. None of them at -least are as yet vocations in the highest sense. - -I dwell on this because, in describing the vocation as the third term -in the series, I would not have the reader imagine that this third -term exists in any adequate manner. Rather is it to be the task of -what is often loosely called “social reform” _to create the ethical -series_,—not only the third term (the vocation), but the whole -series from beginning to end, the family, the school, the state, the -international society, the ideal religious society. The phrase “social -reform” is strictly correct only when used comprehensively in this -way. To confine its usage to the more equable repartition of wealth, -or to changes in economic conditions is unwarrantably to narrow its -signification. Social reform is the _reformation of all the social -institutions in such a way that they may become successive phases -through which the individual shall advance towards the acquisition of -an ethical personality_. - -In sketching the ideals of the different vocations, I have to -consider in what way each contributes to the formation of an ethical -personality. There is an empirical side to each vocation. Every -vocation satisfies some one or more of the empirical human needs; but -in the very act or process of doing so, it ought, in order to deserve -the name of a vocation, to satisfy also a spiritual need, to contribute -in a specific way toward the formation of a spiritual personality.[74] -Agriculture furnishes food. The different trades minister to a great -variety of wants. The scientist extends our knowledge of nature. -With this empirical aspect of the vocations, however, I am not here -concerned. A scientific classification of the vocations is not a task -to which I need address myself. _My task is an ethical classification -of the vocations._ As this has never been undertaken, the first -attempt is difficult and perforce provisional. - -I outline my topics as follows: - -1. The theoretical physical sciences (including mathematics) considered -from the point of view of the specific way in which the ethical -personality may be developed by those who pursue them. - -2. The practical counterparts of the theoretical sciences, _e.g._, -engineering, and the industrial arts in so far as they depend on and -illustrate and use principles and methods furnished by science. Work -in factories, mines, and also in the fields, is to be regarded as the -executive side of theoretical science. - -3. The historical sciences, those which have to do with mentally -reproducing the life of the human race in the past, including history -proper, philology, archæology, etc. - -4. The vocation of the artist. - -5. The vocation of the lawyer and the judge. - - The vocation of the statesman. - - The vocation of the religious teacher. - -The three last mentioned are classed together as educational vocations, -that is, as vocations which, in respect to their highest significance, -are branches of the _pedagogy of mankind_, having for their object -to educate the human race; the ethical object of the lawyer being to -educate society in the idea of justice; of the statesman to educate -society in the idea of the state; of the religious teacher to educate -society in the idea of the spiritual universe. - -This conception of the lawyer, the politician, etc., as primarily -educators, is a point to which particular attention is directed. The -significance of it will appear further on. I shall now indicate in -bare outline what I conceive to be the specific contribution of the -vocations mentioned to the formation of a spiritual personality. - - -_Science_ - -Conspicuously important in this connection is the question whether -and by what means the pursuit of the physical sciences can be linked -up to the supreme spiritual end of man. The scientist may develop -into a great thinker in the course of comprehensive and intricate -investigations, but he does not thereby necessarily develop into a -personality. His mind will become in this way a mirror of the orderly -procession of nature’s phenomena. He will be the accurate recorder of -what happens, the knowing spectator of the play, whose eye recognizes -the actors, the forces, beneath their disguises. The pursuit of -knowledge of this kind for the sake of knowledge, or it may be for the -sake of exercising the faculty of cognition, represents the purely -scientific conception of the aim of science. Whatever moral qualities -are exacted of the scientist, such as accuracy or intellectual -veracity, self-abnegation, scorn of mere vulgar pecuniary reward or -celebrity, and at least a provisional disregard of the practical -benefits to be derived by mankind from scientific discovery—all these -fine traits of character are prized as subordinate to the strictly -scientific object. The ethical character of the man himself is -not regarded as the supreme end to be fostered by his scientific -occupation, but as instrumental to his occupation the aims of which are -said to be purely _impersonal_. - -There is thus a scientific conception of the aim of science; on the -other hand, there is an ethical conception of it. The former points -in the direction of the indefinite extension of knowledge which never -embraces a totality of the knowable, never reaches a limit, even in -idea. The latter points to the _infinite_, not to the _indefinite_, -sets up an ideal of the infinite as the goal, takes the man out of the -flux, centralizes his individuality into a personality by relating him -to the infinite, not as the mere spectator and scribe of nature, but -through his action or other potential spiritual beings like himself. - -The scientist, in brief, like every one else, becomes a personality -by eliciting the potential spiritual nature in other human beings. -But be it noted that he is to perform this task _as a scientist_. His -particular occupation is to be the means of producing a particular -spiritual result in others as well as in himself, and by this means his -occupation is to be converted into a vocation. - -How? Through partial success and frustration. Partial success in the -case of a scientist means for one thing, increased mental grasp, the -power to hold before the mind ever more and more complex relations,—a -faculty supremely serviceable in mastering complexities of relation in -the economic, in the political spheres, in the sphere of international -intercourse, in the sphere of the social relations in general, and -wherever the ethical principle has to be applied. The scientific -occupation trains powers which are to be exercised so as to illuminate -obscurities in the ethical field. - -The frustration which the scientist meets with when he reflects in -thoroughgoing fashion on the business he has in hand is the inevitable -realization that _Alles Vergängliche ist nur ein Gleichniss_, that the -sphere of the finite in which he labors, though capable of indefinite -extension, is forever incapable of being rounded out to a true -infinity, and hence that the complete unification of the manifold (in -which alone the reality-producing functions of the mind can find repose -and ultimate satisfaction), can never be carried out in the manifold -of juxtaposition and sequence with which, as a physical scientist, he -deals. He will thus be led to face in thought the limits of what is -finitely attainable, not only by him as an individual scientist, but -by physical science in general. And in proportion as his spiritual -nature is energetic it will then assert itself all the more resiliently -after this defeat, and turn in a new direction, and towards another -kind of truth, the truth which is discovered in the realm of _will_, -in the sphere of intercourse with fellow human beings. The propædeutic -result of science with respect to ethical personality is the training -of the more complex mental faculties. The positive result following the -frustration is the new turn toward the spiritual, the escape from the -spell wherewith the physical world enchains the mind, the dissipating -of the widespread illusion that the truths of physical science are the -only kind of truth, the more determined setting of the face towards a -different kind of truth. The scientist, in brief, is to travel along -the paths of the finite in order to arrive and stand at the gate of the -infinite. - -I have said that the boon of personality is gained in intercourse with -others, through the influence which we exert on others. How does the -scientist as a scientist spiritually affect others? The great specific -service, as I have just said, which he is to render is to destroy the -illusion that the material world is a finality. And it is just he, the -scientist, who works most successfully in the field of physical truth -who must assist the rest of us in escaping from the spell to which we -are all subject. He is the one, he who more than others succeeds in -unifying the manifold of juxtaposition and sequence, to whom we look to -liberate others as well as himself from the deceptive belief that the -reality-producing functions of the human mind can be satisfied in the -temporal and spatial manifold. Not from the tyro, not from the purveyor -of “popular science” can we hope to learn the profoundest lessons as to -the incapacity of physical nature to appease the spirit of man. It is -from the familiar friend of nature, from one more deeply read than we -are in her secrets, that we are to obtain this great instruction, to -receive this boon. - -Ethics is a science of reactions. Each vocation reacts upon the others. -The general reaction of science I have mentioned. In addition the work -of the scientist reacts upon agriculture, industry, etc. The industrial -arts, as has been stated, are to be regarded as the executive -auxiliaries of science, receiving from it the knowledge of the -uniformities of nature, and in turn setting for science new problems by -attention to which scientific theory is advanced. - -The relations of science to art also need to be considered at greater -length than is possible here. I have in mind inquiries into the -scientific basis of music like those of Helmholtz, the scientific -theory of color and the like, and also detailed studies of the return -gift which art confers on science, especially the value to the -scientist of that cultivation of the imagination which is gained by -the contemplation and study of works of art. There are different kinds -of imagination: the purely artistic, the scientific, the mechanical -imagination, the ethical imagination. The function of the imagination -in advancing science has been discussed by Tyndall and others, but the -subject is far indeed from being exhausted. - -The scientist then may be defined as one who stands in reciprocal -relations to all other departments of human interest and activity, who -gives to each from his specific standpoint as a scientist, and receives -from each, from religion,[75] from art, from the practical vocations, -etc. Ideally speaking, every man participates in all the principal -interests and activities of the human mind. Every man is something of -an artist, something of a practical or executive worker, scientist, -religious being. But in each individual the different interests are -colored by his special pursuit, and the influence he wields in return -is modified in the same fashion.[76] - -There are three great tasks that occupy human life: - -1. To build our finite world (science and its adjuncts). - -2. To create in the finite the semblance of the infinite, or spiritual -relation (art). - -3. To strive to realize the spiritual relation in human intercourse -(ethics and religion). - -This discussion of science affords me the opportunity to give an -exact definition of the word “instrumental” as I use it. And the word -“instrumental” is of decisive importance as to the entire ethical -conception of life. Instrumental in what sense? The finite ends of man -are to be the means used in the pursuit of the infinite end. But in -what manner are they to be the means? To be a _cheerful world-builder_, -to take an active and whole-hearted interest in the improvement of -material conditions, in political reforms, in the embellishment of -earthly life—how is it possible to do this and at the same time keep -the spiritual end in view as the supreme end? - -Christianity in its pristine form,[77] abandons the task in dismay. -Instead of seeking action in the finite world as a means, it counsels -renunciation and withdrawal. Modern social reform movements, on the -other hand, are devoted to finite ends, more or less ignoring the -spiritual. How is it possible to work in the world, in the finite -sphere, for an end beyond the finite? The answer, as I have shown in -the case of science (and the same applies to all other vocations), is -to be found in the words “partial success and frustration.” The finite, -lesser ends, are means to the highest end in so far as we are partially -able to embody the spiritual relation in the finite world, and in so -far as the inevitable defeat of our effort to do so serves to implant -in us the conviction of the reality of the infinite ethical ideal. - -The points contained in this chapter may be briefly summarized as -follows: - -What is the relation of science to the ethical end? We are seeking to -link up the world to spirit. Along what line can the connection be -marked out in the case of science? Science is instrumental in founding -more securely the empirical basis of self-respect, inasmuch as it -gives to man to a certain extent a sense of mastery over nature. With -the help of science he feels himself no longer the helpless sport of -nature’s forces. - -The training in complex thinking afforded by science is favorable to -the ethical reformer. Science also incidentally encourages the virtues -of veracity, and the like. - -Knowledge for knowledge’s sake cannot be the final end of the pursuit -of science, since the world of space and time with which science -deals is not only not as yet rationalized but is not ultimately -rationalizable. - -While in all the respects just mentioned the pursuit of science is -indirectly instrumental to the spiritual end—instrumental to the -instrument—it is directly instrumental to it in so far as, at the hand -of the supreme scientist, man is conducted through the finite as far as -the gate of the infinite. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[74] Just as the family is the organ of physical reproduction, but -in that very capacity is ethically required to bring to birth the -spiritual nature of its members. - -[75] All that I have said in the beginning as to the relation of the -finite and the infinite belongs under this head. - -[76] There is one point too obvious to be overlooked, but perhaps it -had better be expressly mentioned. The scientist helps us to build our -world, the physical nest in which we live, first by mastering nature’s -procedures, then by making possible inventions, which increase the -security of our footing in the physical world; dispense us from the -brute task of pitting our merely physical strength against the forces -of nature; render communication between distant peoples feasible, and -thereby lay the first foundation for an international society. - -[77] _Vide_ Introduction to the First Book. - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE PRACTICAL VOCATIONS - - -Medicine is the executive of the science of physiology, and the others, -on which it depends. The physician has a certain work to do, a certain -need to satisfy—the need of health, the alleviation of pain. In -endeavoring to satisfy this need he uses the sciences that underlie his -vocation and in turn promotes those sciences. - -On the lower levels of agriculture and the industrial arts the same -holds true. Our physical necessities vociferously demand satisfaction. -They cannot wait. Men must have food or they perish. The agriculturist -supplies the food they need. But the spiritual view of life declares -that man, _while_ engaged in satisfying his material wants, shall in so -doing assert his spiritual nature. He is to hammer out his personality -on the anvil of his empirical necessities. Even as human beings do not -partake of food like animals, but indicate by the manner in which they -take it the superior worth of the being who is dependent on food, so -the agriculturist who raises the food should testify to his spiritual -character. He does so in part at least by his reaction on the sciences -which he applies, biology, chemistry, etc. The same holds good of the -industrial occupations. The work a man does should be the means of -promoting the development of his mental and æsthetic nature, and of his -will. The mental and æsthetic development is acquired by mastering -and reacting on the science and the art that enter into the trade. The -development of the will, the most important of all, depends on the -organic relations of the industrial workers among themselves and to -their chiefs. - -This raises the problem of the right organization of “industrial -vocationalists” from the ethical point of view, and the following -questions present themselves: Shall the present division into the two -hostile camps of trade-unionists and employers continue? Or is it to be -regarded as a makeshift, perhaps necessary during the present period -of transition, but certainly untenable in the long run? Is the uniform -arrangement contemplated by Socialism desirable, the government of -every industry and indeed of every vocation by the representatives -of the community as a whole? Shall what is called coöperation be -adopted, that is, the formation of independent groups of workers on the -voluntary principle, associated for the purpose of equably dividing the -profits? - -The three alternatives mentioned may be examined from various points of -view. Here we consider them from the ethical point of view. Assuming -that the ethical end of life is to be supreme, what kind of industrial -re-organization of society will be most in harmony with it? All three -plans are open to the ethical objection that they concentrate attention -on the material gain to be derived from the industry instead of on the -specific service which those who follow the industry as a vocation are -to render. Collective bargaining between unions and employers is after -all just bargaining. Socialism differs from trade-unionism not in the -object so much as in the means. Instead of securing for the workers a -larger share it would secure for them at once an approximately equal -share. Coöperation aims at the same result as Socialism by voluntary -association instead of by collective compulsion. - -None of the three plans is ethically satisfying, and a fourth -arrangement should be contemplated. Its characteristics are the -following: - -1. The idea of service to be pre-eminent instead of the gain, the wage -or salary to be apportioned as the means of sustaining the worker in -the best possible performance of the service. - -2. The work done by the workers to be the means of developing them -mentally, æsthetically and volitionally, the educational features -therefore to be pre-eminent. - -3. The industrial group to be transformed into a social sub-organism -(in the ethical sense a sub-organ of the larger organism of the -nation). By this is meant that the employers cease to be employers and -become functionaries, while each worker in his place and in his degree -likewise becomes a functionary. A common social service group will thus -be formed embracing the chiefs and the humbler workers. The chiefs -will be the executive and administrative functionaries, and will be -safeguarded in the due discharge of their proper functions. The workers -will not attempt to wrest from their chiefs as they do at present the -directive functions which properly belong to the latter (subject, -however, to due control). To each of the lesser functionaries in turn -will be assigned a sphere within which a relative independence would be -his. - -The industry as a whole will be an _organ_ of the _corpus sociale_, and -this its character will be expressed in its government. The workers, -not required to render implicit obedience to rules imposed upon them -by masters and superintendents, will have a voice in the legislation -of the industry, in framing the policy of the industry, in electing -the chiefs, and in this way the development of the will, upon which -I lay the greatest stress, will be attained. The will of the worker, -at present fettered, will be liberated by the opportunity given it to -become enlightened and effectual. - -I am not here describing a scheme which is to be immediately launched -in its completeness. I am illustrating the ethical principle as I see -it as applied to this particular vocation. I am endeavoring to show -how an occupation can be changed into a vocation. The constitutional -government of industries would be an intermediate stage between the -present autocratic form, in which more or less absolute power is vested -in the employer, and that organic constitution of industry which is -ethically desirable. - -Thus far the following plans have been before the minds of social -reformers: - -A. Competition, or life and death struggle. - -B. Modified competition, or raising the plane of competition, as it is -called, that is, doing away with the more ferocious and unscrupulous -methods of competition. - -C. Socialism. - -D. Coöperation. - -I propose to add (E) organization in the ethical sense. The word -“organization” is deplorably misused at present. It is commonly -employed as a synonym for aggregation, which is the very reverse of -organization. Thus “organized labor” really means aggregate labor, -labor acting _en masse_. - -A further remark on the difference between industrial vocationalism as -outlined and Socialism may be of use in clarifying the main idea. The -relative independence of the social sub-organism is the salient point. -This kind of independence is based on the general conception underlying -my entire ethical philosophy, that the ethical quality resides in -uniqueness in distinctiveness, that ethical progress consists in -driving towards individualization in the sense of personalization. -This as opposed to those philosophies of life that see the ethical -quality in uniformity. Socialism is on the side of uniformity. It is -indeed an extreme expression of it. If sometimes it is urged that the -relative independence of the vocational groups might be recognized in -the socialistic state, the answer is that the tendency would be in the -opposite direction. And besides, the all-important question is to what -end the relative independence is to be used. Under socialism it would -be used for the purpose of increasing the quantity of valuable products -at the disposal of the community as a whole. From the ethical point of -view, the independence of the organic group would be used to insure -reciprocal relations, and by means of these the development mentally, -æsthetically and volitionally of _the producers_. The distinction -certainly is clear enough to its members, whichever way the reader may -incline.[78] - - -_The Historical Sciences_ - -I refer now briefly to historical science. The ethical aim of history -and its adjunct sciences is to redeem from oblivion as far as is -possible the past of the human race, its documents, its monuments, -the knowledge of its political adventures, its customs, laws and -institutions, its religious beliefs. In view of the lacunae in our -knowledge a complete revival of the past is impossible. We must -therefore principally seek to understand the ruling ideas that have -governed our ancestors, in the family, in the state, etc. The task of -the historian is to present these ideas as seen in the light of their -consequences, so as to help us revalue them from the point of view of -present experience and insight. The historian will thus enable us to -carry over from the past what is truly valuable, for the business we -have in hand. - -There is just now a strong reaction against the kind of historical -science which deals principally with wars and the actions of princes or -of great leaders. Detailed attention is being given to the more obscure -life of the people. But it must be remembered that mere penetration -into the lower strata of bygone societies, the mere heaping up of facts -concerning mass movements, is as unprofitable as the more picturesque -recitals with which works on history were formerly adorned. The mass -movements and _the ideas_ which gave rise to them should be set clear -as far as possible; but without the evaluation and the revaluation, or -the ethical appraisement, the voluminous knowledge of details is merely -stupefying, and leaves us as much at sea as ever.[79] - -Many men have read many books on history, and filled their minds with -information on subjects like the Protestant Reformation or the French -Revolution, without being in the least wiser themselves, or more fitted -to enlighten others in respect to the religious and ethical problems -which were involved in these great movements, and which still touch us -so closely today. As to the ordinary high school or college student, -what as a rule does he carry away from his study of past “history”? - -FOOTNOTES: - -[78] The vocational group must be independent because the expert -familiar with the conditions under which a service is performed is -specially competent to decide on the improvements required to render -the conditions more favorable to the development of human nature, the -service more adequate. The representatives of the collective community, -that is of the inexpert, outside mass (inexpert in respect to this -particular service) can never perform the same office. - -With regard to the present state of industry the gigantic obstacle in -the way of improvement is obviously the subjection of the man to the -machine. The great hardship which the millions of factory operatives -suffer is not only the insufficient wage, it is the depersonalizing -effect produced by the substitution of the machine for the hand and the -blind subjection of adult workers to the arbitrary will of superiors. -(Compare what I have said on this subject in the chapter on “An Ethical -Programme of Social Reform” in _The World Crisis_.) - -[79] Think of Mommsen, the author of a thousand treatises, whose -knowledge of the facts of Roman history was unsurpassed and probably -unequalled. Yet is his judgment on Cæsar or Cæsarism helpful as an -ethical appraisement? - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE VOCATION OF THE ARTIST: OUTLINE OF A THEORY OF THE RELATION OF ART -TO ETHICS - - -The three great directions of effort are: to work in the finite; to -create in the finite the semblance of the infinite; to realize through -effort the reality of the infinite. The vocation of the artist is to -create the semblance of the spiritual relation between the parts of -an empirical object. The object may be a vase or a lamp; it may be a -human figure, it may be a group of _dramatis personae_. By introducing -into the discussion of art the idea that a semblance of the spiritual -relation is to be produced by the artist, we get rid at the outset of -the barren formula of unity in variety. - -Let me endeavor to elucidate the main ideas that flow from this -definition of the spiritual aim of art. - -1. The two points to be discussed are: What is meant by semblance? and -What is meant by the quasi-spiritual relation as subsisting between the -parts of a work of Art? - -First, then, there is the semblance of _totality_. The spiritual -relation is characterized by the totality of the parts related. That -totality is realized only in the universal manifold. But a semblance of -totality is furnished in the case of colors by the circumstance that -the chromatic scale is cut off at the bottom and top in consequence -of our inability to perceive the colors below and above; the musical -scale likewise presents a quasi-totality, and the human figure in its -contours presents a thing cut off from its surroundings, and in so far -relatively complete in itself. - -Because the spiritual relation involves the idea of the perfect -totality, a relative totality, due to the accidental limitations of our -sensory organs and power of attention, may become a semblance of the -spiritual totality. I say, _may become_. A certain relation must be -established between the parts of the relative totality in order that -the semblance shall result. - -One thing is clear; the subject of the work of art must possess -relative completeness, and be capable of being contemplated as -circumscribed and separated off. It must stand out like a tree, or like -an oasis encircled by the desert, or like an island. The subject of art -cannot be a mere length of cloth cut off from the fabric of things as -they reel unceasingly from the loom of time—the mistake of Realism. - -The point, emphasized in our third Book, namely, that an empirical -substratum is to be spiritualized, and that ethics consists in -spiritualizing this physical and psychical substratum, applies to -art, but with the difference, that in the case of art the physical or -psychical substratum cannot be spiritualized, but is to be made to take -on the semblance of spirituality. - -Now what is meant by this kind of transformation? I can perhaps -explain by using as an illustration the color scheme of a picture. -The transformation appears in the difference between the colors on -the palette and the colors on the canvas. The colors on the palette -represent the empirical substratum, the natural colors; the colors seen -on the canvas show the same natural tints after they have taken on a -new or second nature. - -The second nature,—in what does it consist? In the circumstance that -each color on the canvas, by its juxtaposition and its relation to the -rest, is altered in tone and value, and that all the rest are altered -by it. The spiritual relation is a give and take relation actually -carried out. The semblance produced in art is the illusive appearance -of such a relation as seen by the beholder. - -We have thus set down two points—the apparent totality, and the -apparent give and take relation between the parts (the second nature -assumed by the parts, the illusory transformation of the substratum). - -A third point involved in the second is that each part of a work of -art shall remain invincibly individualized, despite the closeness -of the relation which connects it with the rest. The individual -member of a work of art may never be submerged in the whole, may -never merely convey the abstract idea of unity amid variation. The -“unity in variety” formula is not only empty but misleading, based -on the same misconception which we have noted in dealing with Kant -and with the Pantheists. The unity of a work of art consists in the -reciprocal effect produced by the members on each other. Hence the more -accentuated, the more distinctive the members are, always provided that -the reciprocal relation is maintained, the more artistically satisfying -will be the result. In this manner the work of art will be true to its -essential character as a semblance of the spiritual relation. - -I have thus far spoken of the form. In regard to content I have -only remarked that it must be capable of relative detachment. It -must also be capable of interior articulation. The idea that an -empirical substratum is to be transformed will here be found helpful -in determining what is and what is not a fit subject for art. A vase -or a pitcher is a utensil. As such it is a detached thing. Is it -capable of articulation _without destroying_ its utility? If it is, as -the beautiful vases show, it is a fit subject for art to treat. The -embellishment of utensils, of tables, chairs, etc., that is to say, -the giving of artistic form to objects with which we bodily come into -contact, is a means of casting the appearance of the spiritual relation -over these objects, and thus in a fine sense making them congenial to -ourselves as spiritual personalities. This justifies the time spent by -artist artisans on their handiwork, and also justifies our availing -ourselves of their products (provided that the store set by these -symbolic reminders of the spiritual relation do not divert us from the -main business of life, which is to attempt to _realize_ that relation -in human intercourse). The war song sung by a primitive tribe is a -detachable, empirical thing, and possesses natural articulation. It has -its slow beginning, its gradual rise, its paroxysmic culminations, its -wild ecstasy, its final dying down. - -The love passion expressed in lyric form has for its basis the natural -ups and downs, dejections and transports characteristic of that passion. - -The theme of a tragedy, as Aristotle says, must have a beginning, a -middle, and an end. Repetition (always with a difference), contrast, -apparent triumph, defeat, and somehow a triumph in defeat—whatever -may be the elements with which the tragic poet deals, the crude -substance of them is furnished by the theme itself. And the result -becomes artistic when the articulation is such that each part becomes -a member of an organized whole, that is, when each part exchanges its -first nature for the second nature mentioned above in connection with -painting.[80] - -The next point of interest to consider is whether beauty is to -be regarded as the invariable object of art. Relative detachment -and susceptibility to articulation in the manner described are -indispensable. But if tragedy is to be included, beauty cannot be the -exclusive object. Lear, on the heath, the harpy daughters, Lear and -Cordelia perishing together, are not beautiful objects. The task of -the artist is to produce the semblance of the spiritual relation in -any material which is capable of bearing that imprint. In the great -tragedies we are lifted into an exalted mood by the form of the work -even though the subject treated evokes horror—perhaps because of the -very contrast between the form and the subject-matter. Beauty, on -the other hand, is produced when both subject-matter and form are -satisfying to our needs or aspirations. A vase is beautiful when -perfectly adapted to its use and at the same time perfect in form. For -this reason any kind of embellishment, for instance, in architecture -not structurally in place is offensive, while on the other hand mere -structural utility without the formal touch is mechanical. It is not -true that utility itself inevitably flowers into beauty. - -It should be added, however, that the artistic expression even of -unsatisfied desires may come within the scope of beauty. The “Lycidas” -is beautiful, Wordsworth’s “Laodamia” is beautiful, the Gothic form of -architecture is beautiful, and so is Keats’ “Ode to the Nightingale,” -and Shelley’s “Ode to the West Wind.” In such productions the adequate -expression of the need itself affords relief and induces tranquillity. -The mind ceases to strive toward a beyond longed for, and rests -tranquillized in the longing itself. That it should thus aspire and -long, in consequence of its higher nature, and the assurance of the -existence of this higher nature, as evidenced by the longing, is -peace-giving. - -But it is hardly possible to discuss even in the most cursory manner -the subject matter or content of a work of art without drawing -attention to the ideals which at various times have been expressed in -art, and to the function of art in respect to these ideals. For here -the _grandeur_ of the great art as connected with the ultimate aim and -purpose of life appears. - -Art in its fictions has endeavored to present to men the solution of -the problem of life, the things most worth striving for. The ideals, of -course, have varied. In the Greek epic the heroes contend around the -walls of wind-swept Ilion. They themselves are wind-swept apparitions. -Life is short; presently they too will pass out of sight, yet their -names and deeds will live after them. Fate is inscrutable. There is no -ulterior meaning in things. To glitter for a time in shining armor, and -then to be remembered in the song of the rhapsodists is alone worth -while. It is this ideal of life that Homer records. - -The romantic ideal of feudalism is reflected in the poems of chivalry. -The ideal of the English Renascence is found in Shakespeare. The -religious ideals are expressed in the Hindu temples, in the Parthenon, -in the mediæval cathedrals, and in the poems of Dante and Milton. The -ideals of the oriental monarchs are visibly embodied in the Assyrian -and Babylonian palaces; the ideal of the merchant class in the stones -of Venice, in the architecture of the German and Flemish cities, etc. -The plastic arts especially owe their rise and prosperity to the -princely and religious ideals—to the demand for temples, churches and -palaces suitable for monarchs or merchant princes to dwell and worship -in. The aim of the artificer is to furnish a splendid setting for -princes and divinities. - -Mankind at different periods is in labor to give birth to ideals -representing the purpose for which man exists, or the things that make -life worth while, and art _assists in bringing to the birth these -ideals_. It seeks to express them, and in the effort to do so it helps -to develop and clarify them. This, and not merely to give pleasure, is -its _grand_ function. - -In an age like the present, in which a new ideal is in the early stages -of formation, art is likely to become, as in fact it has become, -uncertain of its function, and hence apt to lose its direction, either -turning back to the servile reproduction of past art forms, or seeking -to achieve progress in the perfection of technical detail, or in the -ways of subjective impressionism.[81] - -The efforts of a serious artist today, in so far as he undertakes to -assist in bringing to the birth a new ideal by his endeavor to express -it, must necessarily be tentative, if not crude. But such as they are -their worth, if wholly sincere, can hardly be overestimated. - -In the vocation of the artist, as everywhere, the three-fold reverence -is the capital point. Reverence for the great masters, as shown not in -slavishly copying them, but in understanding the qualities that made -them great, and in delivering from past art the things that are to be -reincorporated and to live on; reverence for those who in different -fields are intent on the problem of art today—all this to prepare the -way for future artists, for the greater art that is to come. - -The relation of art to ethics, or to the spiritual life, is now -sufficiently clear. In general it is to produce the semblance of the -spiritual relation, and thereby to rejuvenate the world’s workers, to -give them the joy of relative perfection, and thus to stimulate them to -persevere in the real business of life, which is to approximate toward -actual perfection. The specific task of the artist _at its height_ -is to enshrine in his creation the ideals of the age with respect to -the ultimate purpose of human existence, and in the endeavor so to -incorporate them as to assist in defining them. - -The dangers of pre-occupation with art, however, must not be passed -over. Just because it creates the illusion of perfection it is apt to -encourage the indolence of our nature, which ever prefers to content -itself with illusion, and to desist from effort. It is on this account -that periods in which art greatly flourishes are apt to lead to the -halting of progress and eventually to decay. A second danger is that -the artist, in applying the ideal of present perfection, is in danger -of selfishly subordinating other persons to himself (cf. Goethe as -a notable example), or of setting up a special kind of morality for -artists.[82] - -In a full account of the matter, the different so-called fine arts -should be specifically treated from the point of view of this chapter. -The particular contribution of each to the general purpose of art -should be noted, the distinctions marked between painting, sculpture, -poetry, etc., and in each case the kind of art which is favorable to -the spiritual development of man be discriminated from that which is -hostile to it. Plato attempted to do this in the case of music. - -To summarize: What has been attempted in this chapter is a theory -not of art but of the relation of art to ethics. The dominating -thought is this: in a work of art each line, color, sound, word, -must be irreplaceable, and on that account convincing. Each member -must be indispensable in its place and the connection with the rest -inevitable. Substitute for line, color, sound, etc., a life—an ethical -being,—conceive the members to be not a few but in number infinite, and -you have the spiritual ideal, which is the reality whereof the art work -is a semblance. This is the relation of art to ethics—the quality which -we call in art “convincing,” in ethics we call “worth.” - - -NOTES - - As one example architecture may be mentioned. Architecture furnishes - _the envelope for the social life_, the dwelling, the nest of the - family, the workshops that house the vocational life, the public - buildings that provide a habitation for the political life, the - temples, the churches that enshrine the religious life. The relation - of the enshrining dwelling to the inner social life should be the - same as that of the body to the soul in sculpture. That which goes on - within should be significantly indicated externally. The progress - of architecture will depend on its holding fast to this idea, and - changing the outside as the inner life changes. Thus, we have, or - are beginning to have, a conception of the family very different - from that which prevailed at the time when the princely mansions of - the Renaissance were built. To reproduce these princely mansions - because they beautifully expressed the princely idea is a mistake. To - provide a proper dwelling-place for the modern family the architect - should clearly apprehend what functions go on in the family, what the - distribution of functions should be, and the rank to be assigned to - the different functions. There is to be, for instance, in addition - to the ordinary requirements, provision for separate study rooms, - places of retirement, refuges of intellectual solitude for the adult - members; a playroom for children, a place of reunion for the household - religion. The formation of a number of families into a larger group - (_vid. supra_) would help in the solution of this problem. - - In like manner the conception of what a religious society should be is - changing. The church-building, the Mosque, the Synagogue, certainly - no longer declare the spirit and the purpose that animate the new - religious fellowships that are forming among us today. The progress of - architecture will thus depend, not on the out of hand invention of new - styles, but on a thorough understanding of _the new kind of life which - is to be domiciled within buildings_, accepting this as the empirical - substratum, and articulating it in accordance with the spiritual - relation of give and take between the parts; and the architect will - assist in clarifying the ideal of the new kind of life that is to - be lived within the buildings by endeavoring to give it outward - expression. - - One more remark: The limitations opposed to the artist, for instance - to the sculptor, by the material in which he works, are a helpful - illustration of one of the most important ethical truths. The material - is found to be intractable to the idea. The hardness of the stone, - the veins that run through the marble, the unpropitious qualities of - the wood, are so many hindrances to execution. The value of these - hindrances is that they compel the artist to achieve a more definite - grasp of the ideal itself. Before the attempt to carry it out into - stone, the idea is apt to be vague in the mind of the artist. The same - is true of every ideal conception—that of the author before he writes - a book, that of the social reformer before he attempts to carry his - scheme into practice. And it applies no less to the ethical ideal of - life in general. The empirical analogue or substratum is ductile to a - certain degree, else we could never achieve even partial success. But - it is also hostile and mutinous in many ways, and the fact that it is - so compels us to adapt our ideal to existing empirical requirements, - and to make it more explicit in the process of adapting it. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[80] Aristotle regards the _Œdipus Rex_ as the most perfect example -of tragedy; let it serve the purpose of illustrating the idea here -proposed. Read the play and get the total impression of it. Analyze it -into its parts. Synthesize after the analysis. You will not fail to -realize how every character, every speech and act, contributes to the -total effect, and how in turn every single factor in the play receives -a new significance from its relation to the rest, while still retaining -its obvious meaning (the meaning it would have when taken out of the -context of the play). Take the first speech of Œdipus as an example. -He is the king solicitous for the welfare of his subjects, to whom -they look up with admiration and gratitude. He is the father of his -people. Read this speech again after you have taken in the entire play, -and note how its color is changed. How the firmness, the fatherly, -protective attitude is now seen to be the outward mask of a fugitive -soul, unsure of itself, haunted by hideous fears. - -[81] The use made of pageantry, the revival of English and other -folk-songs, the morris-dances and the like, the attempt to ennoble the -leisure of the industrial workers by leading them back to forms of art -which sprang up centuries ago in foreign countries, is evidence of the -keen desire for art rather than a step in a new direction. - -[82] Art, like science, is to be subordinate. The relation between -persons and persons is mankind’s supreme concern. The views above -expressed differ radically from those of Schiller. See his _Æsthetic -Education of Man_. - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -EDUCATIONAL VOCATIONS, OR VOCATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE STATE - - -Every vocation on its ethical side is educational. The reason for -accentuating the educational aspect of the vocations connected with the -state is that this educational significance is generally overlooked. -The vocations referred to are those of the lawyer, the judge, the -statesman, the teacher in the narrower sense of the word (the teacher -in schools and universities). - - -_The Vocation of the Lawyer_ - -Vocation, as I use the term, invariably means related to the spiritual -end of life. A profession or occupation becomes a vocation when he -who follows it seeks to respond to the _call_ of the latent spiritual -possibilities in his fellowmen. If this be not the common definition -of calling or vocation, yet I think it will bear scrutiny. It is the -vocation of the lawyer to be the _teacher of justice_ to his clients,—I -mean of justice in so far as it is already embodied in law,—and at the -same time to promote a desire for and a preliminary understanding of -the justice which is not yet embodied in law. - -The lawyer is commonly regarded as the learned _alter ego_ of his -client. The lawyer is the client as he would be if he were versed -in the law, and skilled to employ it in his interest. The client is -supposed to be an egotist, intent solely on securing his advantage -to the fullest extent possible under the existing system of social -regulations. The lawyer is his expert substitute. The judge appears on -the scene as the impartial representative of the law. - -From the vocational point of view the lawyer is an assistant to the -judge, the agent not so much of his client as of justice. He is as much -interested in the just issue of the suit as is his legal opponent. His -educational function is to teach his client to take the same point -of view. Another point, no less important, is the following: Law is -a system of general rules, at best a rude social mechanics. And even -as such it is constantly deflected from its ostensible purpose by -selfishness and prejudice. The discriminations against women, the -conspiracy laws against combinations of laborers, the laws enacted in -the interests of landed aristocracies, are ample evidence in point. -In every country the law as it stands is still largely infected with -unfair discriminations, and it is the special duty of those who follow -the legal vocation to open the eyes of their clients and of the public -to these defects and to suggest remedies. - -Every vocation has its special vice, that is, a kind of behavior -the very opposite of that prescribed by the particular ethical -function with which it is charged. The vice of the lawyer is -_blind_ conservatism (unless he is at the same time progressive and -conservative he fails to fulfil his ethical function). - -The judge, too, is a teacher, especially in criminal cases. The -voice of the judge, when he pronounces sentence on a criminal, should -reverberate throughout the whole of society, awakening all men to the -fact that society as such shares the guilt. - - -_The Vocation of the Statesman_ - -What I have to say on this subject will find its proper setting in the -next chapter. In general, it is the vocation of the statesman to teach -the citizens a sublime conception of the state. He is neither to be the -obedient tool of the mass—the docile “public servant” in that sense—nor -yet to impose his arbitrary will upon the people, consulting only his -own genius. The one type is seen in the average American politician, -who is or affects to be a mere instrument executing the public will; -the other type is exemplified by the supermen statesmen of ancient and -modern times. The ethically-minded statesman is to evoke the spiritual -conception of the State in the minds of his constituents, and in the -process of doing so to become more essentially a citizen himself. - - -_The Vocation of the Educator_ - -It was unavoidable to discuss the vocations and their aims before -considering the school, college and university; for these institutions -are orientated towards the vocations, are preparatory to the latter, -and the true aim of school and university cannot possibly be defined -unless the vocational outlook be first distinctly spread before our -eyes. - -In dealing with the vocation of the teacher, I shall necessarily be -led to define the purpose of the social institution in which he labors -and I shall for the sake of brevity use the word school to designate -the social organs of education, which cover the period of childhood, -adolescence and the beginning of manhood and womanhood. - -The school is like the hundred-gated Thebes. It leads out into a -hundred vocational avenues. But note the following: its aim is far -greater than merely to prepare the student for that future vocation to -which he is best suited. It should no less supply the incentive for -creating new vocations, and for changing what are at present still -occupations into vocations. The school searches out the individuality -of its pupils. It undertakes to differentiate and to personalize -individualities. But when it has done its part, it sends the pupils -into a world where little account is taken of the finer differences -of aptitude, where occupations predominate and vocations are few, and -where most things, ethically speaking, are still in the rough. The -school cannot indeed transform society by merely raising its indignant -voice and asking society to pay heed to the finer things which it has -fostered, and which often are subsequently crushed. But it can at least -contribute to the vocational evolution of society by reiterating its -unsatisfied demands. - -Taking the three-fold reverence for my guide, I lay it down in the -first place that the school is an organ of tradition. True conservatism -has its place in the school. In it are preserved the knowledges -and the skills of the past. The heir of today comes to his own by -appropriating the products of past thinking and past labor, and the -school superintends the process of appropriation and assimilation. At -the same time it sifts in tradition what is clean from what is unclean, -what is true from what is false, what is usable from what is dead. -Reverence is shown in this very sifting process. To revere the past is -to make the past live again; but only what is vital can go on living. - -The teaching should be reverential in spirit. The business spirit, -the drive towards mere efficiency, cannot in the long run satisfy. -Efficiency as commonly understood has in view the utilities of the -moment. It merely exploits the past for the sake of present interests, -and as a rule is unmindful of the future. Industrial efficiency, -in particular, reverses the right ethical relation between work -and personality; instead of work being so contrived as to liberate -personality, it is mechanized so as to sacrifice personality. - -The teacher should be reverent towards the great masters of his own -craft, his own art. No one is reverenced by others who does not himself -habitually revere someone. The teachers should be acquainted at first -hand with the master educators, such as Plato, Comenius, Pestalozzi and -the others. - -I pass on to speak of the second type of reverence. This involves -cordial reciprocally stimulating relations between the members of the -teaching staff. It is generally agreed that no other factor counts for -more in shaping the character of the young than personal influence. The -best personal influence, however, is not unilateral, like that which -radiates from a single teacher upon his class. The best is that which -proceeds from cross-relations between a number of teachers. Just as in -the home it is not the father singly, nor the mother singly, but the -reciprocal relations between the two that touch child life to finer -issues and create a spiritual atmosphere in the learner, so also in -the school the best spirit is created by the relations of reciprocal -furtherance between the teachers, each doing his work in such a way as -to make easier and more successful the work of his colleagues, with a -strong sense of partnership in the common work of man-building. - -The teachers as an organized body should also relate themselves to an -organized body of parents. Home and school should not merely coöperate -but interpenetrate. The interests and efforts of both are centered on -the same young lives. The home is supremely concerned in what goes on -in the school, and the school in the kind of influence that prevails in -the home. An organized conference of parents is in a position to render -signal service to a school by appraising its ideals, by keeping tally -on the extent to which acknowledged standards are carried out, and by -joining in the unceasing endeavor to advance the standards. Schools -must be backed by the interest and appreciation of the community. -Parents whose children are pupils of a school are for that particular -school the best representatives of the community. - -The school is to prepare its charges, not only for vocational life, but -for citizenship. Teachers must be good citizens. They cannot give what -they do not possess. They must keep in living contact with the civic -and social movements of the time. - -The first and second types are instrumental to the third. Now here, -if anywhere, a new departure in educational philosophy is called -for. For when we discuss this third kind of reverence, the question -of all questions is raised: To what end do we educate? What is to be -the aim and outcome of all our effort? And our answer to this question -will depend on our philosophy, and if our philosophy is ethical our -answer must be distinctively ethical. Froebel was a pantheist, and his -pantheism colored his conception of the educational end. Pestalozzi was -an eighteenth century humanitarian. Many modern writers on education -are biological evolutionists. Others even expressly disclaim any -general outlook, and appear to be exclusively interested in perfecting -the technique of schoolmastering. Reverence of the third type is -reverence for the undeveloped human being,—for the new generation, -for our successors. What is it that we are to revere in a child? Its -spiritual possibilities, its latent personality. To bring to birth its -personality is the supreme educational end. We show our reverence for -the child in the effort to personalize it. Let us consider in brief -some of the practical consequences of this idea. - -To personalize the individual the first step is to discover the -empirical substratum in his nature. There is ever an empirical -substratum subject to ethical transformations. The empirical substratum -of personality is individuality! Individuality manifests itself in a -leading interest of some kind, a predominant bias which indicates the -thing which the individual is fit to be and do. To discover the bent or -bias is the first step, and the difficulties in the way of taking even -this first step are admittedly great. Children and even adolescents -often show no marked intellectual preferences whatever. Many adults -too appear to be neutral so far as their mental life is concerned. -Circumstances ran them perhaps into a certain mould—they might have -been run into some other just as well. It is the task of the educator -to discover the predominant interest where it exists, and to try to -produce such an interest where it does not. What nature has not done in -such cases art must attempt. - -When the leading interest is found it should next be made the means -of creating interest in subjects to which the pupil is naturally -indifferent or even averse. I have illustrated the process here implied -in a paper on the prevocational art school which is connected with -the Ethical Culture School. Young persons devoted to art are often -unwilling to take up subjects which seem to them unrelated to what -they really care for, like science and history. They are obsessed by a -single passionate ambition. They are all eagerness to become artists—to -draw, paint, model, etc. Time spent on any other subject seems to them -misspent. If indulged in this one-sided activity, the chances are -that they will not even become competent artists. In any case they -will lack breadth and vision. They will lack a cultural background. -They will be inferior as human beings. They will not be personalized. -For personality, on its mental as well as on its social side, depends -on relatedness,—depends not so much on what one does, as on the -interrelation between what one does and what other people do. - -In order to expand the interest of the young art student, the method -employed in the school just mentioned is to present those subjects -which appear to be alien in such a way as to bring out the art aspects -of them, the contact points between them and art. Thus in history -special prominence is given to the age of Pericles, the age of -Rembrandt. In science special attention is paid to the theory of color, -the chemistry of etching. And all other branches of knowledge are -treated similarly. The aim is not indeed to exploit the other subjects -in the interest of art, but so to utilize the artistic interest as to -lead the mind out to a larger comprehensive interest in other related -branches on their own account. Or rather, to put my thought precisely, -and thus to connect it with the underlying ethical theory, the aim is -to prepare the future artist for the give and take relation between his -own pursuit and the activities of men in other vocations. He should be -helped to enrich his own life as an artist by drawing upon all that the -sciences and the humanities can give him, with a view to eventually -returning with interest the profit he has derived. What the artist can -do for the scientist, the religious teacher, etc., I have indicated in -the previous chapter. - -Precisely the same cultural idea should be worked out in prevocational -schools of commerce, of technology, of science, etc. In each case the -paramount interest should be the starting-point, the center from which -lines of interest are to be made to radiate out into the correlated -branches. - -If this ethical idea is carried out the whole educational system -will be remodeled. The cæsura in education will then fall about the -sixteenth year. Before that the task will be to lay the general -foundations and to reconnoiter the individuality of the pupil. After -that there will be a system of _prevocational schools_. The college, a -legacy which has come to us from a type of society unlike our own, will -disappear, and the university will become an organism of vocational -schools succeeding the prevocational.[83] - -I mentioned at the end of Book I the problem of specialization, the -increased necessity of restricting oneself to a limited field in -order to achieve anything like the consciousness of mastery, and the -inevitable fractionalizing of men which is the consequence of this very -tendency toward specialization. In the idea of outreaching radiations -of interest and of the give and take relation there is the promise of -liberation from the narrowness of specialism without the calamity of -dilettantism. That this idea cannot be fully realized, that no one -can actually extend his web of interest so far, that his reactions -at best will be feeble, is perhaps a palmary instance of that law of -frustration which fatally besets all human effort. But the effort will -be in the right direction, and the effort counts. - - -_The University_ - -In sketching the ethical or spiritual side of the University, initial -stress is to be laid on the meaning of the word _universitas_. The term -as at present used hardly suggests more than all-inclusiveness. A -modern university is an institution in which all the different schools, -the school of engineering, the school of science, the school of -philosophy, etc., _exist side by side_, under a single governing body, -and in which the various branches of knowledge are pursued without any -visible systematic connection between them! The spiritual ideal of a -university is that of system, of organic connection, for this is what -spiritual means. - -In looking back on the history of the higher institutions of learning -one cannot but be struck by the close correspondence of those -institutions to the general ideals of life of the people among whom -they flourished. I call to mind the Hindu education with its Brahmanic -background; the Mandarin education, with Confucianism as its inspiring -principle; the musical education of the Greeks; the theological -education of Jews and Mohammedans; then among the Western nations, the -English university a seminary for training rulers of the Empire; the -German university, a training institution for the higher bureaucracy; -the French university, visibly reflecting the logical tendency of the -French mind. - -We in America, instructed by the survey of the past, are bound to face -the question: In what way shall the American university differ from -universities elsewhere? What characteristic shape shall the American -university take on? _How can the American university correspond to -the American ideal of life?_ At present our notions in this respect -are in a formative, not to say in a chaotic, condition. The college -still survives—an institution designed for the education of gentlemen. -Practical tendencies, looking toward materialistic success, prevail -in many of our Western universities. The German research idea has come -in as a third factor, penetrating deeply in some of our institutions, -less deeply in others, but inharmonious everywhere with the rival -conceptions that still persist. - -The principal circumstance that retards our university development -doubtless is that the ideal of American life itself, which the -university is to express and to promote, is as yet undefined in the -minds of the American people. But without presuming to anticipate what -must be the outcome of gradual and prolonged growth, it may still be -serviceable to clear our minds as to the goal towards which we desire -that the development shall tend. The fundamental ideal of the American -people is that of freedom! The notion of freedom is crude as yet, but -is capable of being ennobled and refined. To be free is to express -power. To be free in the highest sense is to express the highest kind -of power. The highest kind is that which is exercised in such wise as -to elicit unlike yet cognate power in others. A people is to be called -free when all the different social or vocational groups of which it is -the integrated whole spontaneously react upon one another, and when in -each group each member of it realizes some mental gift of his own. A -free people is not one which is merely released from the authority of -autocrats. That is only a condition of freedom, not freedom itself. A -free people is not one in which strong individuals are permitted to -thrive parasitically at the expense of the weak. Nor yet one in which -merely equal opportunity is afforded to all in the race for material -well-being. A free people is one in which the essential energies of -all effectuate themselves unhindered, the life of each swelling the -surrounding tide of life, and being enriched in turn by the returning -tide. This to my mind is liberty,—the liberation of what is best in -each. This is freedom,—the free flow of life into life. The ideal -American University is one which expresses and promotes this ideal of -freedom. - -A university is a group of vocational schools. A truly democratic -university is an organic system of vocational schools, one which in -the relations that subsist between its schools affords a shining, -stimulating example of the kind of relations that ought to subsist -between the vocational groups in the state. - -The aim of an American university should be to furnish leaders for -all the various groups who will undertake the great business of truly -organizing democracy. - - -_Education for Adults_ - -Education should be continuous through life. The University Extension -movement is endeavoring to meet this demand. It has already to its -credit a considerable extension of knowledge, as well as the stirring -up of interest in things of the mind among those whom it reaches. But -far greater tasks than it has yet attacked remain. The academic method -is not suited to the instruction of adults. A method will have to be -worked out for teaching a subject to mature minds different from that -which is appropriate in introducing the subject to the relatively -immature minds of students. The student who has not yet entered -vocational life needs to be put in possession of the principles by -which he can lay hold of life. A mature person who is deficient in -theoretical education needs to be helped to interpret his vocational -experience in such a manner as to find his way back to the principles. -In the one case there is the outlook and the emptiness; in the other -case the fullness of content without the comprehensive outlook. - -Secondly, the stages of vocational development through which the -worker has already passed in his vocation are to be borne in mind, and -the teaching adapted to the different stages. I have suggested four -divisions: that of apprenticeship, that of initial mastery, that of -more complete mastery, and the emeritus stage.[84] - -Thirdly, it is getting to be increasingly difficult for a specialist in -any one branch to keep abreast of the progress made in other branches. -Popularization of the ordinary kind does not satisfy. It means, as a -rule, diluting the subject-matter, not truly simplifying it. Provision -should be made, in any large and generous scheme of public education, -for enabling ripe minds to assimilate the ripest fruits produced by -contemporary thinkers and writers who work in other fields. - - - NOTE - - - A few outstanding points in regard to what is called Moral Education - may be added to this chapter. - - There should be ethical teaching in the universities. The kinds of - ethics taught should be adapted to the university period of life, - emphasis being put on the experiences of the student at that time of - life,—on friendship, the sex relation, the vocational outlook, etc. be - included in the programme for the education of adults. - - Systematic moral education in schools and high schools is advisable. - It is frequently criticised on the ground that it is apt to be - schematic and unreal. Moral counsels given as the occasion arises - are believed to be more effective. They hit the nail on the head and - drive it home. The reply to this is that incidental moral advice - and exhortation is not excluded, but that it by no means adequately - answers the purpose. The occasions for giving the necessary guidance - simply do not arise. This kind of moral teaching is apt to be patchy. - In the next place, ethical instruction, when rightly planned, has - two objects: the one to bring into clear relief the life axioms that - underlie the entire home and school experience of the pupil, and - secondly, to give to the pupil a provisional chart and compass or - ethical outlook upon his future life. Ethical teaching conceived of - and conducted in this manner is neither schematic nor artificial. It - does not drive home a nail here and there, it constructs a mental - house in which the mind of the pupil can be at home,—with windows in - it, looking out upon a large landscape outside. - - The capital significance of right relations, ethical relations, - between the members of the teaching staff has been noted in the text. - In every school clubs should be formed consisting of pupils specially - interested in any one subject and of the special teachers of that - subject:—or if not formal clubs, then at least more intimate personal - relations should exist between the special teacher and those selected - pupils, the object being through personal intercourse to introduce - the young aspirant to a knowledge of the problems on which the older - person is intent. There is nothing nearly so educative for the young - as to be taken into the counsels of their elders. - - The more gifted pupils of the school should be invited to take a - personal interest in helping the more backward students. In every - school, high school and university there are social misfits,—shy, - sensitive, solitary youths who fail to come into easy touch with their - fellows, and suffer acutely. They are objects of the most delicate, - deferential charity, and the task of bringing them into fellowship - offers one of the finest opportunities for ethical education. - - A vital system of self-government is to be used as a means of - placing real responsibility upon the students under due advice. To - exercise responsibility is to acquire character. Self-government is - particularly important so far as it relates to the administration of - justice in a school. Cases of discipline should be used as means to - create the right conception of punishment, the right attitude towards - those who have erred. - - The relation between the adolescent boy and girl and the parents is - of prime significance as illustrating in a way that young persons - can understand the general conception of the ethical relation as - _reciprocal_. The youth should be shown that he can be not only the - recipient but a giver of benefits, that he can be a real help to his - parents, chiefly by sympathetically entering into the problems and - difficulties with which they have to contend. The parents, instead - of being regarded by the young as an earthly providence, existing - only for the purpose of bestowing benefits, should be seen in their - true light as struggling, and often heavily burdened human beings. - At the same time the young son or daughter will in this way gain an - invaluable preparation for comprehending the difficulties under which - the effort to live must be carried on. - - In regard to patriotism, it is important that the errors and mistakes - committed by one’s nation in the past should not be overlooked or - minimized. - - The school should furnish to the students various outlets for social - service such as they in their period of life are capable of rendering. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[83] Compare with the spiritual conception of culture here outlined -Matthew Arnold’s “knowing the best which has been thought and said”; -and a recent definition of culture by an eminent American as “the -knowing one thing well and a little of everything else,” without -correlation of the little one knows of everything else with the one -thing one is supposed to know extremely well. - -[84] See the chapter on “Ethical Development Extending Through Life” in -_The World Crisis_. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE STATE - - -The leading theories of the state should be kept in view for comparison -with the ethical theory here set forth—the theories of Aristotle -and Plato, St. Augustine and the mediæval schoolmen, Rousseau’s -contract theory, and the German conceptions of the state propounded by -Kant, Fichte, Hegel. Moreover, since the ideas actually embodied in -governments, in the Persian monarchy, for instance, in the Greek City -State, Venice, etc., are not identical with the constructions of the -philosophers, the leading facts of the history of politics should be -borne in mind as well as the leading theories. - -The state has two aspects: (1) It is the balance wheel of the -vocational groups included within it. (2) It is the political -expression of the national character, and its ethical purpose is to -develop this empirical national character into a spiritual character. I -shall speak of the first aspect in this chapter. - -1. The state exists in order to furnish increasingly from age to age -the conditions under which the reactions between the groups described -above can take place effectually. In concentrating attention upon the -vocational groups as the entities to be harmonized with one another, -account is taken by implication of the family and of the individual. -The sub-organisms are embraced within the superior organisms. A -more general statement would be that the state supplies the external -conditions required for development towards ethical personality by -those who pass through the institutions of the family, of the vocation, -etc. - -The state possesses a spiritual character in so far as it supplies -these conditions, and in as much as it has a spiritual character it -is not merely justified but ethically required to use force. Force is -spiritualized when employed to establish the conditions indispensable -to spiritual life. The conditions enforced must be such as in the -opinion of the preponderant number of citizens indisputably make -for the development of personality. Examples of such conditions are -protection of life, property, reputation, compulsory education, the -maintenance of the monogamic family, protection against foreign -invasion, etc. All the functions of the state commonly enumerated -follow from the ethical principle. But over and above the recognized -ones, new and nobler functions of the state will appear. - -The redeeming thought with respect to the use of force by the state -consists in regarding _force as ethical discipline_, and in making the -extent to which it is favorable to spiritual freedom the measure and -test of its rightful use.[85] When men are compelled to spend the major -part of their time in the protection of bare life, as was the case, -for instance, in the early days of feudalism, they are to that extent -unfree. Freedom consists in energizing the highest and most distinctive -human faculties. - -_The development of the state_ should proceed in two directions. It -should withdraw from many functions exercised by it in the past, -notably from such as properly belong to the sub-organisms. At the -same time, it should lay its coercive hands upon new matters, -imposing new limitations on capricious freedom in the interest of -spiritual freedom, as soon as the pertinency of such limitations -to the ethical end becomes clear. For instance, the state may, and -doubtless will, interfere with marriage to a far greater extent -than it has yet done. It will forbid the marriage of the unsound. -If a study of character-types should ever become advanced enough—a -hazardous conjecture—to make it predictable that the union of certain -character-types will lead to infelicitous marriage, the state will be -justified in prohibiting such unions. - -_Law_, ideally defined, is the sum total of conditions, capable of -being enforced, which are necessary or favorable to the development -of personality. The purpose of law is two-fold: to maintain the more -developed members of society at the level they have reached, and, by -educative penalties, to bring the backward up to the same level. In -the article on “Force and Freedom” referred to above, law is compared -to such bodily actions as walking, which at first are superintended by -consciousness, and then become automatic, thereby setting consciousness -free to attend to new and more important business. Similarly, law is -designed to render the conditions favorable to personality so explicit -that their observance shall become automatic, and that mankind shall be -at liberty to discover new and more significant conditions which in -their turn are again to become automatic. - -Because of the lack of the ethical point of view, the exercise of force -by the state has seemed purely arbitrary, and has given rise to a -perverted and disastrous conception of _sovereignty_. The sovereignty -of the state has two aspects: the one internal, the other external. -Sovereignty means supremacy. The state is sovereign, within limits, -however, with respect to its citizens. The state is also sovereign, -within limits, however, with respect to other outside states. - -With respect to the internal aspect of sovereignty some writers hold -that citizens have no rights as against the state—only rights accorded -by the state. But this from the ethical point of view is a wholly -untenable position. There are rights of the individual, rights of -the family, rights of the vocational group, which the state does not -create but is bound to acknowledge and which its power cannot properly -infringe. As against the state the individual has, for instance, the -right which is commonly designated as “the freedom of conscience.” The -family has rights against the state; the law cannot interfere with -the intimacies of the marriage and parental relations. The vocational -group likewise is only partially subject to public reglementation. I -have defined law as the sum total of the conditions. The state can -prescribe the conditions, but cannot trace the ways of freedom within -the conditions. The state prescribes the enforceable conditions; it has -no concern with unenforceable inner processes. - -It thus appears that sovereignty or supremacy is an attribute not -peculiar to the state, although it looms up larger and more impressive -when exercised by the state. Supremacy belongs to the individual in -his private sphere, to the family in its proper province, to the -vocation, etc. Sovereignty or supremacy belongs to each of the social -institutions within its precincts, in so far as the supremacy within -that precinct is requisite for the accomplishment of the ethical end -to be therein attained. But sovereignty is not absolute in any sphere; -neither in that of the individual, nor of the family, nor yet of the -state. _The absolute conception of sovereignty is the result of the -lack of an ethical conception of the social institutions._ The state is -sovereign only so far as the exercise of its supremacy is necessary to -the spiritual end of citizenship. On this account and for this purpose -it may rightfully constrain the sub-organisms within it, and may also -pronounce its _noli me tangere_ as against the larger group of states -encompassing it. But so far as the spiritual ends to be achieved in -the international relations are concerned, the state with respect to -these is subject to international sovereignty,—a new conception which -mankind is striving to bring to the birth today. The false notion of -state sovereignty as arbitrary and absolute, is admittedly today a -chief stumbling-block in the way of the formation of an international -organization of peoples. - - -_The System of Representation Which Is Required to Give Expression to -the Organic Idea of the State._ - -The ethical aim of political reformation and reconstruction may be -put in a single word, Organization. _The state and especially the -democratic state must be organized._[86] This means practically that -the basis of representation shall be the vocational group, that -vocational representation shall replace representation by geographical -districts.[87] The law-making body on this basis will consist of -representatives or delegates of the agricultural, the commercial, the -industrial, the scientific group, etc. Women belonging to these groups -will exercise the franchise within them. There will also be a distinct -group of home-makers; motherhood will be recognized as a vocation. - -Attention may be called to certain practical advantages of the -proposed rearrangement of the representative system. It will tend to -bring forward in political life the best citizens, instead of the -mediocre or the base. This is likely to come about because there is no -distinction that men more ardently covet than that of being considered -_primus inter pares_; as, for instance, the first or one of the first -of the city’s merchants, or one of the most eminent scientists, or an -artist whom his fellow-artists select as the fittest to represent them -in the great council of city, state, or nation. And if only this much -can be gained by the new representative system, that the law-making -body shall consist of the most experienced, the most enlightened, the -wisest, the actual leaders in the various walks of life, in brief, -that the elected shall be the elect, certainly one of the principal -evils with which individualistic democracy is afflicted will tend to be -removed. - -But other advantages will accrue. This, in particular, that the -constituencies, instead of merely delegating their powers, will -share in the business of law-making, will be in vital touch with -their leaders or representatives, while the latter conversely will -politically educate the constituencies. The mode of procedure under the -system here sketched will be somewhat as follows: - -Take, as an illustration, the group of industrial laborers. They will -first meet in a primary assembly, and discuss measures deemed by them -important in the interests of their group. The leader who represents -them in the legislature will take part in the initial discussions, and -exercise no doubt a strong influence in bringing matter finally to a -head. He will then carry into the law-making body,—which consists of -representatives of the various social groups,—the sifted-out demands -of the laborers, the measures which they desire to have enacted into -law. He will bring forward these measures in the legislature. But -there objections are likely to be raised. The representatives of the -other groups will discover what the laborers naturally failed to -note, that the proposed law or laws, if enacted, will have certain -injurious effects on the interests of the other groups. The sifting-out -process, therefore, will now begin anew and be carried on on a higher -level in the legislature. The representatives of all the various -groups will separate the wheat from the chaff in what is proposed -by any one group. The next stop will be that the representative of -the laborers, returning to his constituency, will communicate to -them the difficulties that were raised, the decisions reached, and -will thus impart to them the wider vision which he himself gained -in the discussions of the law-making body. In this way he will be -the instructor, the political teacher of his constituents. And the -principle by which the value of any new measure will finally be judged -will be simply this: that the supposed interests of one group cannot be -its true interests unless they are found to promote the interests of -all the other vocational groups.[88] - -The law-making body should be a council of the groups. It should not be -a “Parliament,” or “talking body,” but a sifting body. Nor yet a body -of mandatories commissioned to merely give effect to a public opinion -or a public sentiment already existing. In fact, public opinion or -public sentiment in the raw is apt to be a poor index of what is really -for the public good. Public opinion is apt to be unripe, haphazard, -impulsive rather than reflective. Besides, it is often contaminated -at its very source, the facts on which the public depend for their -opinions being deliberately falsified or placed in false perspective; -while the opinions furnished in newspaper editorials are almost -inevitably biased. Only on great occasions, when simple moral issues -are presented, can the common sense and moral sense of the people be -wholly depended on. But such occasions are episodical; and the orderly -business of government cannot be carried on by spurts. Government by -public opinion may be and in some respects is better indeed than class -government; in other important respects it is worse. A class at the -head of the state at least as a rule knows what it wants, and proceeds -methodically to carry out its purposes. Public opinion, on the other -hand, like all opinion, is unsure, unsafe, as Plato has long since -made dialectically clear. And public sentiment, like all sentiment, is -fluctuating. To build the state on public opinion and public sentiment, -as many of our writers on politics would have us do, is after all a -good deal like building a house on sand.[89] - -Instead of “public opinion” and “public sentiment” let us say public -reason and public will!—reason and will to discover in conjunction -what the public good really is. For what it really is no one as yet -knows. The “public good” is a problem to be approximately solved. The -public good will be consummated when the conditions are furnished -necessary and favorable to the development of personality in each of -the constituent groups of the social body. To study these conditions is -the office of the law-making body, and therefore that body must be so -constituted as to include these groups in their capacity as groups. - -Another advantage to be expected from vocational representation is that -the different interests of society,—I stress the fact that they are -different, and often temporarily conflicting,—will be compelled under -this plan to come out into the open. An industry, for instance, may -require the assistance of a protective tariff, in its infant stages, -and the agricultural group may rightly be asked to make the necessary -sacrifices. - -In the long run there will be compensation. The agriculturists will -eventually benefit by the diversification of the national life. -But “in the long run” means that the next generation will benefit, -not the present agriculturists, a distinction sometimes somewhat -cavalierly ignored. The present generation will be called upon to make -a sacrifice, precisely as in the family some of the members may have -to sacrifice a part of their income to provide for a weaker member. -But the circumstance that the sacrifice is recognized as a sacrifice -will serve to put an end to the protection when the special need for it -has ceased. Under the present system, on the other hand, the state is -supposed to have no concern with the special interests of any group. -All the same, there are the special interests, and in consequence -that which is for the interest of one group has to be advocated as -if it were for the general interest of the entire community. And -since general interest is easily mistaken for perpetual interest, the -protection is apt to be continued long after its particular usefulness -has ceased.[90] - -I am earnestly concerned that vocational representation shall not -be regarded as a mere device in the mechanism of politics, like the -substitution of the long for the short ballot, or the initiative -and referendum. Innovations of the latter kind leave the prevalent -conception of democracy untouched, they are merely intended to improve -the machinery by which that conception is to be worked out in practice; -they are mechanical contrivances, not fundamental reconstructions. -Vocational representation, in my view of it, is the appropriate -expression of the organic idea of the state. The state is the soul. The -soul must have a body. Vocational representation is that body. - -Two remarks may here be added. One relates to a question which has -given rise to considerable discussion, namely, the question where -the state resides? In a monarchy it seems to reside visibly in the -person of the king. Louis XIV is said to have declared “I am the -state.” But where does it reside in a democracy? The chief executive, -the law-making body, and even the constituencies, are organs of the -state. But where does the state itself have its habitation? The state -has no separate domicile. So far as it truly exists at all it exists -in the minds of the individuals who truly conceive of it. The object -of political life is to educate the citizen so that he may more and -more truly conceive of the state, so that he may give birth to the -state idea within himself. To do this is to pass through one of -the necessary phases on the road to personality. In the family the -individual is in reactive relations with a few, in the vocation with -a larger number. In the state or nation he may be one of a hundred -millions or more. Yet it is not the numerical extension as such that -constitutes the enlargement. It is rather the diversity of the points -of contact, and the complexity of the relations by which the spiritual -ideal is more fully illustrated in the finite world in proportion as -the circle widens. To engender the idea of the state in oneself is to -place oneself ideally into reactive relations with the diverse groups -embraced within one’s nation. And to do this is a spiritual achievement -of no mean order. I should prefer to use the word “stateship” instead -of citizenship. Stateship is attained by one who brings to birth -within himself the idea of the state, and in whom that idea becomes a -controlling ethical force. - -A second remark concerns the perplexed subject of the conflict of -duties. The nearer duties are sometimes preferred to the more remote, -and at other times we are asked to sacrifice everything to the larger -whole. We owe our first devotion, it is said, to the members of our -family; but then again we must be willing to sacrifice life itself and -the welfare of our family to our country when it calls upon us in its -need. Largeness alone certainly does not serve as an ethical ground for -preference. The quantitative standard implied in such phrases as “the -greatest good of the greatest number” is out of place when we deal with -ethical relations, which in their very nature are qualitative. Now -the account of the social institutions given in previous chapters as -successive stations on the road to the spiritual goal may throw some -light on this difficult subject. Normally, the claims of the anterior -stations are to be preferred—the claims of the family for instance -to those of the vocation, because the family is the matrix of the -three-fold reverence, and the individual must pass under the ethical -influence of family life before he is fit to use vocational life -ethically to good purpose. The anterior groups are not merely smaller, -they are germinal. The training received in them is the condition on -which spiritual progress depends later on. On the other hand, the later -groups are the more complete and more explicated expressions of the -spiritual ideal; hence if the very existence of one of the later groups -is threatened, or is in danger of being denatured of its spiritual use, -then the later group is to be preferred to the earlier, the _terminus -ad quem_, precisely because it is the _terminus ad quem_, to the -_terminus a quo_. - -To give a familiar illustration. In our time, which is a time of -transition and doubt, many a religious teacher finds himself in sore -straits to decide between the claims of the vocation and the family. -As a religious teacher he is pledged to teach only what in his heart -of hearts he believes to be true; he is especially under obligation to -use words in such a way as to convey to others the same meaning that -he attaches to them himself. But this may mean exposing his family to -serious privations. The situation is full of perplexity and pain, but -the line of choice is plain enough. The claims of his high vocation -must in this case take precedence. In like manner, when the existence -or the integrity of the state is at issue, the claims of the state as -the _terminus ad quem_ override those of the vocation, the family, and -the state, and may even demand the sacrifice of the physical existence -of the individual himself. - - - NOTES - - - 1. The idea of democracy is often neatly put—all too neatly, into the - following formula: In antiquity the individual existed for the sake of - the state, in modern democracy the state exists for the sake of the - individual. Both of these statements as they stand are mischievous - and misleading and require to be qualified. It is not true that in - antiquity the individual existed for the sake of the state in the - sense that his separate existence was extinguished. The citizen class - in Aristotle’s state, the rulers in Plato’s state, and even a member - of one of the inferior classes, each in his own way fulfilled a - distinct function. He was not suppressed in the state, he expressed - his function by the action appropriate to his station. The philosophic - rulers might do the thinking and governing. They were the head of the - body politic—others the hands and feet. The underlying conception was - what may be called spuriously organic, borrowed more or less from the - animal type of organism. - - The second limb of the formula is no less superficial. In no modern - nation does the state exist, or at bottom is it supposed to exist, for - the benefit of the individuals who at any time compose it. If this - were the ruling conception, how could the democratic state require its - citizens to give up their lives in its defense? If the state existed - for the benefit of the individuals, the state would be the means, and - the so-called good of the individual the end. And in that case it - would surely be irrational to sacrifice the end for the sake of the - means, in other words to put an end to one’s life in defense of the - state, a mere instrument for the protection and prosperity of one’s - own life. - - To reply that the state exists for the sake not of one individual but - of all (observe however that the formula says “the individual,” and is - ambiguous and slippery at this point), nor even only for the sake of - all the individuals now living, but also for the sake of the millions - yet unborn—to say this is once more to introduce an ideal entity which - it was the very object of the formula as quoted to banish. The formula - was intended to give us, in place of “the metaphysical entities” of - the Greeks and the Germans, a very palpable thing—the good of the - individual. The good of the individual seemed to be a palpable thing, - though in truth it is the most impalpable thing in the world. And by - defining the state in this wise we were supposed to come onto solid - ground. But now, behold, it is the good of unborn millions which is to - be the object of our devotion, and who can imagine what this good of - unborn millions is likely to be? - - The fact is that without ideal entities the conception of the state - in any noble shape cannot be construed at all. The organic conception - must now take the place of the individualistic. The organic conception - indeed as it was worked out in antiquity, or as it lived on in the - theories of mediæval writers, or as it survives in the works of - certain German publicists, who use it to defend the feudalistic - structure of society, has rightly fallen into discredit,—not because - it is organic, but because it is pseudo-organic, that is, based on the - type of the animal organism. The individualistic conception of the - state at present current in America and in all modern democracies, - is a violent reaction against this false idea of organization. The - inestimable germ of truth individualism contains is that no such - distinction can be allowed as between head and hands or feet in - political life, that all the multitudes of “hands” who work in the - factories, for instance, must be respected as personalities having - not only hands but also heads and hearts. But individualism, though - it affirms this idea, belies it in practice, as the actual state of - society in America and elsewhere abundantly proves. And it is bound - to do so, because personality implies more than material well-being, - either for a single individual or for all individuals now living - or for all future individuals. Personality implies truly organic - relations to other fellow-beings—and this can only be achieved by - organizing the society in which men live. - - The way taken has been, by reaction from pseudo-organization, to - extreme individualism and concomitant materialism. The way out lies in - the direction of genuine organization. - - - 2. Certain evils observable in the workings of American democracy may - be traced to the following causes: - - (a) The people as a whole are still in the pioneer stage. A country - enormously rich in material resources stimulates wealth-production. - A host of immigrants escaped from poverty abroad are stung into - wealth-getting here. The frontier line is now far to the West, but the - influence of the pioneer movement still in progress flows back upon - the Eastern states. - - (b) More important still are the evils due to the crude - individualistic idea of democracy just characterized. If the state - exists for the good of the individual, and if the good of the - individual is conceived to be the acquisition of wealth, then private - business will take precedence of the public business. Yet under the - democratic system of frequent elections the public business demands - constant attention. In consequence, a special class of professional - politicians arises, comprising a minority of disinterestedly - patriotic men, and a majority of persons whose private business - is not sufficiently remunerative to divert them from the public - service. The appearance of the political dictator called “boss” is - the inevitable outcome of these conditions. This army of professional - politicians, and in particular the vulgar figure at their hand, is the - chief disgrace of the American democracy, and has been the target of - incessant invective by American writers. But it is idle to stigmatize - the effect and overlook the cause, to squander invective upon the - symptom and at the same time to leave the malady untouched. The malady - itself is the individualistic conception of democracy, and until this - is replaced by a better one, the evil in question may be modified in - form but will certainly not disappear. - - A way must be found for the citizen to attend to his private business, - which is coming to be more and more exacting, and to the public - business at the same time. The system of vocational representation - offers an opportunity in this direction. Citizens will be voting - in their vocational groups for measures intended to advance their - vocational interests, but will be taught to advance them in such a way - that the related interests of other groups, or the public interest, - shall be thereby promoted. - - 3. Proportional representation, which is at present being tested - abroad, and earnestly considered in France, England and Germany, may - be a bridge leading over from the present plan of geographical to that - of vocational representation. The proportional system itself, it is - true, is still based on the individualistic idea. It is a movement - on behalf of submerged minorities. It quarrels with the present - arrangement for the reason that the will of the greater number of - individuals, but not of all individuals, is brought to bear on public - decisions. But if adopted it may well offer, without violent change, a - way for the collective representation of vocational groups. - - 4. Citizenship should be graded. A youth of twenty-one is scarcely - prepared to exercise the duties of the citizen intelligently. As - long as the view prevails that the functions of the state are to be - restricted to a minimum, it is perhaps not wholly absurd to admit a - mere stripling to a share in the conduct of government. But the sphere - of government is steadily enlarging, and its problems are becoming - more and more intricate. Twenty-five would certainly be a better - minimum age. Under vocational representation there is likely to be an - Upper House consisting of members who have served in the Lower House. - Citizens who have attained the age of twenty-five might be empowered - to vote for members of the Lower House, those who have attained the - age of thirty-five for members of the Upper House, but these are - details upon which it is unfitting to expatiate here. The point I have - in mind is that citizenship should be graded. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[85] _Vide_ Appendix II, on _Force and Freedom_. - -[86] I use the word Organize in its spiritual sense. The empirical, -animal organism is commonly taken as the type upon which the notion of -organism is modeled. The animal organism, however, fails to express -the implicit idea, for the following reasons: The number of members -is limited; the combination of organs is, so far as we can know, -accidental, and the relation is hierarchical,—there are inferior and -superior organs. The spiritual conception differs in each of these -points. The number of members is infinite; the relation is necessary; -and they are equal, that is, of equal worth. To distinguish the -spiritual pattern from the animal type the term metorganic may be used -for the former, in analogy to such terms as metempirical, metaphysical, -etc., and the system of ethics expounded in this volume may be called -the _metorganic system of ethics_. - -[87] Representation by geographical districts is the logical outcome -of the individualistic conception of democracy. Where this prevails, -the state is supposed to take account only of the common interests, -those in respect to which all individuals are alike, such as security -of life and property, those interests being ignored in respect to -which the groups that constitute society, the farmers, the merchants, -the industrial laborers, etc., differ. Hence any convenient number -of citizens, pursuing their life purposes side by side within a -certain geographical area, may serve as a constituency. The absence -of regard for the real diversity, and often the clash of interests, -between persons belonging to such constituencies, is due to the -atomistic, individualistic notion of democracy just mentioned. But -sheer individualism is everywhere on the wane, and is bound to become -less and less dominant in the degree that the industrial evolution -of society proceeds, and the various groups stand out distinctly as -different against one another in their functions and in the conditions -subservient to those functions. Society is in fact not an aggregate of -human atoms. It is already an imperfect organism, destined to become -more and more adequately organized. And the system of representation -has got to be remodeled and adjusted to this fact and this ideal. - -[88] By “interests” I understand fulfilment of the social function with -which the group is charged. - -[89] And, as a matter of fact, because this is so, there is no state, -no democracy, in which public opinion or public sentiment actually -does rule, save by fits and starts. Government is usually in the hands -of more or less selfish coteries, who operate behind the scenes, who -do know what they want and who, like the Piper of Hamelin, are past -masters of the art of leading the political children whither they will. - -[90] I am not of course discussing the merits or demerits of the -protective tariff as such, but am using it as illustration. As such it -will serve the purpose. - -The practice of “log-rolling” may at first sight seem to resemble the -proposed plan. But, in reality, the two are diametrical opposites. By -“log-rolling” is meant the kind of concessions made by the shipping -interests to the manufacturers by the manufacturers to the farmers, or -to the workingmen when the latter happen to be strong enough to enforce -their demands. Each group persists in pursuing its selfish aims; only, -in order to achieve them it makes concessions to the selfishness of the -others. Each follows the path into the Hades of egotism, and throws the -necessary sops to Cerberus on the way. The plan outlined in the text, -on the other hand, has for its object the interlocking of the various -social interests, the fitting them reciprocally into one another; or -better, the object is to cure each group as far as possible of its -selfishness by so modifying its claims, that the granting of them shall -become beneficial to the rest. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE NATIONAL CHARACTER SPIRITUALLY TRANSFORMED: THE INTERNATIONAL -SOCIETY, OR THE ORGANIZATION OF MANKIND - - -There is such a thing as a national character.[91] The national -character is reflected in the language, literature, laws and customs, -arts, institutions and religion of a people. Even when the religion -professed by different peoples is the same in name it is strongly -tinctured in the different countries by the national differences. -Compare for example the Christianity of Prussia with that of France, or -that of England with that of Russia. - -The national character, like that of the individual, has its plus and -minus qualities, its excellent and its repellent traits. - -The national character is to be spiritualized by raising the plus -traits to the Nth degree. - -To this end, as before, the three-fold reverence and especially the -third reverence is the means. _The backward peoples of the earth are -the paramount object of reverence._ The more advanced peoples are to -bring to light the spiritual life latent in the backward. In order -to do so, they are to carry out the principle of reverence toward -past civilization, to sift out what is vital in the work of previous -generations. And further, they are to conform to the second principle -of reverence, that toward contemporaries approximately on the same -level, _i.e._, toward the other civilized nations. No single nation is -really competent to undertake the great task of awaking the stationary -peoples of India and China, of educating the primitive peoples of -Africa. A union of the civilized nations should be formed in order -that together they may jointly accomplish _the pedagogy of the less -developed_. The educational point of view once again appears as the -ethical. The relation of the less developed to the more advanced -peoples should be analogous to that of the child towards the parents. -Just as neither the father singly nor the mother alone can release -spiritual life in the offspring, so the different civilized nations, -each of which has its own gift, its own plus traits, are to interact -for the purpose of jointly awakening the creative energies within the -slumbering souls of the undeveloped peoples. - -It follows that a nation cannot even be defined ethically except as -a member of an international society, and we begin to see the help -afforded by the spiritual conception in solving at least ideally the -problem of right international relations. Whereas hitherto the notion -of the sovereignty of each nation has been a formidable impediment to -the formation of an overarching world society, the ethical conception -not only permits this expansion of sovereignty, but necessitates -it. A nation, ethically defined, is a unique member of the _corpus -internationale_ of mankind. As unique it maintains of right its -relative independence, as a member it is bound by intrinsic ties -to its fellow-members, and is subject to the greater sovereignty -including them all alike.[92] A nation indeed cannot even maintain -its independence against other nations except by sheer might if it -acknowledges none but capricious ties between itself and them, such -as treaties, or Hague Conference agreements which can be dissolved at -pleasure. There must be recognized an inner ethical tie between nation -and nation, and it must receive legal formulation. This ethical tie is -the true _vinculum societatis humanæ_ and supplies what has hitherto -been absolutely lacking,—an ethical basis for international law. - -The ethical relation between nations is founded on the fact that each -nation represents a significant type of humanity, that each nation -has certain plus and minus qualities, that it is dependent on other -nations to supplement its defects; and more than this, that it can -expurgate, as it ought, its minus qualities only by striving to evoke -the spiritual life in other peoples. - -One salient point I must emphasize. The national character with its -plus and minus traits is empirical, and the development of the -empirical character is not itself the highest aim of the state. The -spiritual transformation of this empirical character, as I must take -pains to repeat, is the aim. - -And herein appears the difference between the point of view taken in -this chapter and the political doctrine of the eminent Swiss publicist -Bluntschli. He too recognizes the development of the national character -as the aim of the state; and in so far as he does this he is in advance -of writers who limit the state’s functions to the protection of life -and property, to defense against foreign aggression, promotion of -prosperity, and of power and prestige. Bluntschli has the insight to -perceive that a nation is a collective entity, having a certain defined -character, and the development of the distinctive national gifts -is in his eyes the supreme purpose of national life, the political -organization of the state being a means to this end. But he falls into -a grave error by identifying the empirical with the spiritual character -of the nation, and setting up the former as an end worthy on its own -account. The empirical character of a collective entity is in this -respect no more worthy of honor, and no more fit to be a ground of -obligation, than the empirical character of the individual. And the -conclusions at which Bluntschli arrives are a sufficient proof of the -ethical inadequacy of his vision. Some nations, a very few he thinks, -possess political capacity, and they are to rule other peoples. Here -we have the “White Man’s Burden”—an obvious violation of the ethical -principle of national independence. Further, the world state, which is -to include all nations, is to concern itself only with their common -interests. Bluntschli thus accepts the uniformity principle in ethics, -excluding the idea of the reaction of differences which is of the very -essence of the ethical relation; while the ideal future as he sees -it is that of nations coexisting peacefully side by side, competing -peacefully with each other, and doubtless borrowing from one another -the best fruits produced by each. But it is idle to expect peaceful -coexistence so long as the strong exist by the side of the weak without -there being acknowledged an _intrinsic_ spiritual tie between them; -and competition between peoples will result, like competition between -individuals, in strife and exploitation; while the mere borrowing by -each of the fruits produced by the rest omits the vital point, upon -which I lay the greatest stress, of the eliciting of the fruits in each -by the spiritualizing influence of the rest. - -Surveying Bluntschli’s doctrine as a whole, it is clear that his -empirical conception of the state leaves it a purely secular -institution concerned with externals, and not really related to the -inner life, certainly not a station in the development of personality. -He practically acknowledges as much when he says that the state is man -writ large, and the church woman writ large; that the state represents -the masculine principle, the church the feminine principle. For the -feminine, according to him, is the spiritual principle. The state deals -with externals; to the church is reserved the prerogative of entering -into and transforming the inner life.[93] - -But what shall be the motive force for the creation of an international -society? I hold that the sense of national sin, or of national guilt, -must supply the motive force. At present all the more advanced nations -are to be censured because of their pride. Germany prides itself on -its science and its efficiency, England on its political liberalism, -France on its logical conception of equality, America on its democratic -individualism. Each of the great nations dwells complacently upon -its fair traits, and vaunts its special type of civilization as that -which should rightfully prevail among mankind generally. The national -defects, acknowledged perhaps by the critical few, are glozed over. -Indeed the consciousness of a collective national character though -latent is not yet distinct. It must be evoked. National self-knowledge -must be promoted by the leaders and teachers of mankind, and with it -must come, as in the case of the individual, the conscious recognition -of deep defects—in the case of Germany the narrowness of the conception -of the expert:[94] in the case of England the discrepancy between -political liberalism as applied to the white inhabitants of the British -Isles and of the self-governing dominions on the one hand, and the -“benevolent despotism” exercised over the subject millions of India on -the other; in America the effacement of true individualism under the -crushing pressure of mass opinion, etc. - -Moreover not only will the defects be admitted, but their detrimental -influence on other peoples will have to be frankly avowed—every nation -must cry its _Peccavi_—the effect for instance on Europe of the French -love of glory, the effect of the efficiency notion of the Germans -as it is at present penetrating all other nations,[95] and in the -still wider view the effect of Western civilization as a whole on the -stationary civilization of China, on Egypt, on the myriads of Africa. -The civilized peoples of the earth have sinned their sins and are best -seen when we consider: - -A. The spoliation and outrages perpetrated by the Western nations, for -instance at the time of the entrance of the Allies into Pekin, the -wholesale destruction of human life and the mutilations of the natives -on the Congo. It has been stated that some ten millions of the natives -of Africa perished as victims of the white race. If these acts do not -warrant our speaking of the sins of the civilized nations, what kind of -human behavior does deserve that name? - -B. The effect of European example in practically forcing the peoples of -the Orient to adopt militarism and navalism. - -C. The effect of Western individualism in undermining the religious -foundation in Eastern civilization.[96] The spreading of Christianity -itself, despite the exemplary influence of the higher type of -missionary, must yet be classed, in one important respect, among -the detrimental influences exercised by the West upon the East. For -Christianity, in the form in which it is usually taught, tends to -break up the sense of solidarity which is often strong among the less -civilized peoples, without supplying an adequate principle upon which -solidarity might be reëstablished on a higher plane. Hence Christian -teaching in the Orient and in Africa, however friendly and merciful in -intention, and however beneficent in many ways, is yet a disintegrating -influence. - -The great problem of the spiritual education of the lower races -will have to be taken up anew. Not only are individual missionaries -of broader mental and moral horizons needed, the civilized nations -as such must reach a common understanding and establish a union -among themselves, the keynote of which shall be reverence for the -undeveloped, that is to say divination of what, under right educational -influence, they, the undeveloped, may come to mean for humanity. And -a union of this kind, consecrated to a noble object, will at the same -time be the means of leading the Western world out of the chaotic -condition in which it is at present weltering. The object for which -nations combine may not be their own peace, their own prosperity. -The key to peace between the adult peoples is a common, effectual -resolve to win new varieties of spiritual expression from the child -and adolescent peoples of the earth. Peace must come incidentally. -The common object must be disinterested, spiritual, because there is a -duty on the part of the civilized towards the uncivilized to exercise -a spiritual function. The task of humanity in general consists in -extending the web of spiritual relations so as to cover larger and -still larger areas of the finite world. The family is only partly -spiritualized. The vocations, the state, are not yet spiritualized. The -international society hardly exists. But what I here endeavor to sketch -is the human world as it would be in the light and under the influence -of the spiritual ideal. And I set down as the saving task of the -civilized nations that of extending the spiritual realm so as to cover -backward, undeveloped peoples, so as to embody them in the _corpus -spirituale_ of mankind. - -_Some of the Principal Obstacles That Stand in the Way of the -Organization of Mankind._ - -The first obstacle is to be found in the inadequate theories that -underlie international law. Seventeenth and eighteenth century thinking -is still, strange to say, the theoretical foundation. Grotius and -Vattel remain the chief authorities. Grotius’s theory is a system of -empirical individualism with Christian individualism grafted upon it, -to mitigate its harsher features. The right of conquest is admitted. -A nation is allowed to punish another, punishment being taken in -the crude sense, while what has been permitted under natural law is -subsequently modified by counsels of perfection derived from Christian -individualism. - -Vattel is the intellectual grandchild of Leibnitz. He derives from -Leibnitz through Wolff. Vattel envisages the various states as so many -individual entities without intrinsic ties. Peaceful coexistence and -unhindered pursuit by each people of its own perfection or welfare with -mutual aid to be voluntarily rendered are the ultimate conceptions -beyond which this thinker does not venture. And if the root principles -are thus infertile, small wonder that the fruit of the tree should be -what it is. In any handbook of international law, the preponderant -space is allotted to the laws of war, and yet international law has -proved impotent to restrain the passion of war, or even to prevent its -excesses. International law binds the Samson of war with green withes -which the giant snaps in derision. It is plain that we are still in -the earliest stages, not only of international practice, but even of -international thinking. The problem of the right ethical relations -between the nations has hardly been broached. - -Another conspicuous obstacle in the way of international progress is to -be seen in false hopes. Among the false hopes I class: - -A. The hope that increased facilities of intercourse will automatically -bring about more friendly relations. To expect this is to forget that -closeness accentuates repugnances as well as congenialities, increases -antipathy as well as amity. When nations come within short range of -each other they resemble antipathetical kinsmen who are compelled -to live together. The Czechs and Germans in Bohemia would not hate -each other as they do were they not such near neighbors. Spatial -rapprochement, for instance, between East and West will not of itself -guarantee moral rapprochement—far from it. - -B. The hope that science may be relied on to bring the nations -together. Science is neutral. Science is subservient to evil as well -as good. Science is at present distilling the poisonous gases used on -the European battlefields as well as inventing the improved methods -of surgery. It has made possible instruments of destruction such as -savages might have shrunk from using. Moreover, scientific as well as -artistic interests are partial manifestations of a people’s life and -the ethical relation is between peoples as totalities or collective -entities—just as the ethical relation between man and man is between -the whole man and the whole man, and not between some partial aspect -of the man and of his fellows. Hence it is easy to explain why the -scientists and the scholars of the different belligerent peoples were -swept away by the war passion like the rest, and in their utterance -have even carried animosity to greater lengths, expressing it in -language calculated to wound more deeply and to leave more permanent -scars. They felt that they belonged to the people as a whole, and -when the occasion came for them to choose between their scientific -co-workers across the frontier and their fellow-nationals, they sided -with the latter. - -C. The hope that reliance can be placed on international trade to bring -about ethical relations between nations. But trade, like science, -is ethically neutral. In its own interest it is favorable to order -and security in colonies and dependencies, and when, sufficiently -enlightened, to the impartial administration of justice. The European -nations abolished the slave trade in Africa because it decimated the -native population, and decreased the supply of labor.[97] On the other -hand England in the eighteenth century, even at that time the most -liberal country of Europe, did not hesitate to wage war with Spain for -the maintenance of the monopoly of the hideous slave-trade, and the -Opium War occurred in the “full light” of the nineteenth century. But -the most striking example of the ethical neutrality of the commercial -mind is to be found in the recent partition of Africa between England, -France, the Congo Free State and Germany. The methods which these four -nations adopted in the “scramble for Africa” were marked by a perfect -disregard of the rights of the native populations of the African -continent. Two devices were used—proclamations, and treaties with -native chiefs. The Queen of England proclaimed that a certain territory -would thenceforth be a British possession, as if proclamation could -convey a right to the territory. The German emperor indulged in the -same fiction. And there was a veritable race between French and English -in the West; between Germans and English in the East, as to which of -the two could outdistance or outwit the other in treaty-making. Karl -Peters came in disguise with a stock of blank treaties in his pocket. -Forty or fifty treaties were concluded by the French annually for -several years in the West—as if a treaty with a native chief, who -might be bribed or coerced into lending his signature, could be the -foundation of moral right to the territory occupied by his tribe. The -European nations artfully employed the fictions of sovereignty in -order to varnish their acts of plunder with a semblance of legality. -Of course these proclamations and treaties were not intended to -justify exploitation in the eyes of the natives—the natives were not -consulted or regarded—but rather to base thereon the division of the -spoils between the exploiters. A proclamation or the conclusion of a -treaty with a chief was notice given to rivals not to interfere with -the spoils reserved for the nation that had issued the proclamation or -secured the treaty. It meant “hands off” to competing exploiters. - -If it be asked whether this picture is not too dark? Whether the -civilized nations of the twentieth century in their dealings with the -helpless natives were merely selfish? Whether their motives are so -sinister? Whether they are not animated by better, more moral aims? -the answer is that the commercial mind, and it is the commercial -mind that chiefly rules the world today, allays its scruples and -justifies its aggressions by the fallacy that to extend trade is to -spread civilization, and to spread civilization is to contribute to -the advancement of the human race. The interests of trade and of -civilization are simply identified. To build railroads, to stretch -telegraph lines across the Dark Continent, to launch steamboats on -lakes that never heard the whistle of a steam engine before, these -are assumed to be the evidences of “progress.” Besides are not the -natives disciplined in habits of industry, are they not encouraged to -cultivate the raw products needed by Europe, and in return to receive -the overflow of European markets? The instruments of civilization are -thus confounded with civilization itself; the means with the end; while -the real object, veiled by sophistry, is nevertheless the material -benefit to be secured by the white race. Even the humane treatment of -the natives, where it is humane, resembles somewhat too unpleasantly -the fattening of the calf prior to its consumption by the owner. - -Furthermore, the interests of Trade being supposed to be paramount, -it is held that any country the people of which do not sufficiently -cultivate the products desired by other peoples, or who close their -doors against the industrial surplus of Europe, may be annexed, the -land forcibly seized, and the inhabitants subjugated, and moreover -that such action is right and proper and in the interests of humanity. -So long as this view obtains, there will be no peace on earth. The -competition for foreign territories and foreign markets, the scramble -between the “civilized” exploiters, will be indefinitely provocative of -new wars. - -The root disease that afflicts the world at the present day is the -supremacy of the commercial point of view. Intercourse and exchange -of products is no doubt desirable. The education of backward peoples -in agriculture and in industry for their own good and along their own -line is indispensable. The fallacy of the commercial mind consists -in erecting the means into the paramount end, in brusquing the love -of independence which is so strongly entrenched, even among many -primitive peoples, and in preventing their development in the direction -prescribed by their own natures. All this for the sake of the -immediate increase of material wealth. The white race shall have the -lion’s share of the wealth; the native population are to be accorded a -lesser share, with which they must be content. This is the extent of -the concession to humanity. This is, in plain words, what is signified -by the haughty phrase—“the spread of civilization.” - -The commercial mind is neither benevolent nor malevolent—as little as -science is. It seems at times to be beneficent; at other times it seems -to be almost fiendish—as in the case of the atrocities perpetrated on -the Congo. It is not fiendish, it is simply ethically neutral or blind. - -From this series of reflections, certain conclusions may be drawn as -to fundamental points of view relating to international law. The main -principle is respect for the total personality of peoples, recognition -of them as potential members of the spiritual body of mankind. - -The territory of a people is to be regarded as the body of that -people’s soul. Their independence is to be strictly respected. -Expropriation or annexation is to be characterized as outrage. -Intrusion, except for purposes of education, is to be forbidden. The -conception which underlies the scramble for Africa and for the Far -East—that the material interests of the advanced nations entitle them -to force the backward to become receptacles of the industrial overflow -of the West, the producers of raw material for the factories of the -West must be abandoned.[98] - -And now the main point may once more be stated. The salvation of the -civilized peoples, their spiritualization in the effort to spiritualize -the less advanced demands a new turn in the history of humanity. _Union -in a common sublime object will overcome the antagonisms and discords -that prevail among the civilized nations themselves._ The sword will -never be turned into a plow-share until the nations come to love the -work of the plow—the work of spiritual _tilth in the human_ field. The -strong peoples will never cease to harm the weak, and in so doing to -harm themselves, until they see in the weak, members of the _corpus -spirituale_ of mankind, depositaries of potential spiritual life in -liberating which they the strong themselves will find increased life. -And the task of uplifting the lower peoples will never be successfully -prosecuted until it is seen to be part of the task of humanity in -general, which is to spread the web of spiritual relations over larger -and ever larger provinces of the finite realm.[99] - -FOOTNOTES: - -[91] See Fouillée’s _Esquisse psychologique des Peuples européens_, -also the Chapter on German, English and American Ideals in _The World -Crisis_. - -[92] Each term in the series of social institutions is ethically -defined by referring to the succeeding terms. The family prepares for -the vocation, the vocation for the state or nation, the nation for -the international society, and all the successive terms receive their -ultimate definition from the infinite spiritual universe which includes -them, and broods over them and dwells in each, so that the expanding -ethical experience gained at the successive stations is spiritually the -_ratio cognoscendi_, not the _ratio essendi_. - -[93] It is true that the state is concerned with those conditions of -the spiritual reactions that are capable of being enforced, but in -instituting such conditions the spiritual content is inevitably kept in -view. And in the very process of fitting the body to the spirit, the -form to the content, the content itself will be discerned more clearly -and explicitly. - -[94] See the chapter in _The World Crisis_. - -[95] To myself as an individual I say: look to your radiations, -consider the effects you produce on others; if the effects are -harmful trace them to faults in your character, and let your desire -and obligation to influence others beneficently be the spur to lead -you to transform your own character. The same each people should -say to itself. For instance the obvious faults of our democracy -have retarded the progress of democracy in Europe. Our failure in -municipal government is constantly quoted abroad as an argument against -democracy. This should be a real incentive to rouse us out of our -self-complacency. - -[96] Cf. Lord Cromer’s remarks on this subject in his book on Egypt. - -[97] See, however, the importation of Indian and Chinese coolies, and -the surreptitious resurrection of the slave trade mentioned by Sir -Charles Dilke in his _Problems of Greater Britain_. - -[98] As to practical steps that might be taken to give effect to -this conception of international law, see my published address “The -Great Rôle of the United States After the War,” in which is discussed -the creation of an international law-making body or a Parliament of -Parliaments. In connection with the latter, I should attach particular -importance to the institution of commissions which may serve as a -link between the international legislature and the less civilized -peoples—the commissions to study the needs and gifts of those peoples -with a view to securing their development along their own lines. In the -case of civilized peoples that have until recently been stationary, -like the Chinese, the commission representing the Western nations would -sit in consultation with the most enlightened leaders of the Chinese -people themselves, the common object being to discover the points -of attachment in Chinese civilization which may wisely be made the -starting point of a more modern and progressive evolution. For instance -the filial piety of the Chinese, the rectitude of their merchants, the -absence of an aristocracy, and their civil service resting on education -(despite its defects). In this manner it may become possible to avoid -the abrupt, superficial, and infinitely destructive substitution -of modern ideas for the system at present existing, and gradual -development will take the place of intrusive and uncongenial change. - -[99] I add that this conception will react on the internal life of -democracy. Democracy is at present regarded as a relation between -equals. In fact, we have in America the negro population, the -illiterate and backward immigrants. A truer conception of democracy -depends on our realizing that within each people as well as between -people and people there is the distinction of the more advanced and -the less advanced groups. Democracy rightly conceived will be found to -consist in the effort spent by the more advanced in each vocational -group to uplift the less advanced, the more advanced themselves coming -into possession of their spiritual worth in the degree that they -realize this their task of leadership and its great responsibilities. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -RELIGIOUS FELLOWSHIP AS THE CULMINATING SOCIAL INSTITUTION - - -In this chapter I shall undertake to sketch the plan of a religious -society as determined by the spiritual ideal herein set forth. -The religious society is the last term in the series of social -institutions, and its peculiar office is to furnish the principle for -the successive transformation of the entire series. It is to be the -laboratory in which the ideal of the spiritual universe is created -and constantly recreated, the womb in which the spiritual life is -conceived. No single religious society can adequately fulfill this -purpose. The spiritual ideal itself must necessarily be conceived -differently by different minds; but the great general purpose will be -the same, despite variations in shades of meaning and points of view. - -The fellowship of the religious society must be based on the voluntary -principle; membership must be a matter of free choice.[100] In -antiquity the boundaries of the political and religious organizations -coincided. The citizen was under obligations as a part of his civic -duty to worship the divinities of the state. In modern times a state -church is still maintained in some countries and supported out of the -public funds, while dissenting and nonconformist bodies exist more -or less on sufferance at its side. But this arrangement is harmful, -especially so to those whom it seems to favor. Erastianism paralyzes -religious spontaneity. The state, it is true, is profoundly interested -in the flourishing of ethical idealism, and in the constant rebirth in -its midst of spiritual ideals. But it is not competent to determine -what the character of these ideals shall be. The moment they cease to -be freely produced they lose their life-giving power. The state within -limits may enforce actions; it may not even attempt to enforce beliefs. - -On the other hand, the “secularization of the state” has given rise -to the deplorable impression that the state exists only for so-called -secular purposes, and has stripped the idea of the state of the lofty -attributes with which the greatest thinkers of antiquity had clothed -it. It is the function of the religious society, dwelling uncoerced in -the midst of the state, to reinvest the state with the sacred character -that belongs to it. I do not of course intend to exalt the state after -the manner of Hegel, as if it were a kind of earthly god or to set it -up as an object of religious or quasi-religious devotion. The object -of religious devotion is the infinite holy community, the spiritual -universe. The function of the religious society is to generate the -ideal of the infinite holy community, of the spiritual universe. The -family, the vocation, the nation, are sub-groups of this, lesser -entities. Even mankind itself is but a province of the ideal spiritual -commonwealth that extends beyond it. To concentrate worship upon the -state or nation as some propose, would be to usurp for the part the -piety that belongs to the whole. - -In describing a religious society three main aspects are to be borne in -mind: - -The teaching, the organization, the worship. - - -_A. The Teaching_ - -In the religious society as here conceived there is to be worked out -a body of doctrine, and there is to be a body of specially designated -teachers. An ethico-religious society cannot ignore or dispense with a -general philosophy of life and statements of belief. It cannot restrict -itself to encouraging practical morality without regard to what are -called metaphysical subtleties. A moral society of this kind would soon -become ossified. On the contrary, an ethico-religious society should -excel in the fertility with which it gives rise to new metaphysical -constructions and original formulations of ethical faith. The will -cannot be divorced from the intellect. The active volitional life -cannot be successfully stimulated and guided without the assistance of -the mind as well as of the imagination. - -But the relation between philosophy and formulas of belief on the one -hand and volitional experience on the other should be the reverse of -what it has been in the past. Here there must be a new departure. The -doctrine, the formulations, whatever they may be, must not be dogmatic -but flexible. Growing originally out of ethical experience, they must -ever prove themselves apt to enlarge and deepen ethical experience. -By this test they will be judged and they must therefore ever be -subject to revision and correction. Every dogma, every philosophic or -theological creed, was at its inception a statement in terms of the -intellect of a certain inner experience. But then it claimed for itself -eternal validity, compressing the spiritual life within its mold, and -checking further development. The body of doctrine which I desire and -foresee will likewise be an interpretation of ethical experience, -intended to make explicit the fundamental principles implicit in -ethical experience, and thereby clarifying it, and assisting its -further unfolding. But it is not and should never be allowed to -become dogmatic. The difference, I take it, is plain: in the one case -experience contracted in procrustean fashion into a rigid formula, in -the other case an elastic formula adapted to and subordinated to the -experience. - -Thus much for the body of teachings. There should also be a body -of teachers. A teacher in an ethico-religious society will retain -something of the character of his predecessors—priest, prophet, rabbi, -pastor. The priest is the mediator of grace; the prophet is the seer -of visions; the rabbi is learned in the Divine law, and the pastor is -the helper of the individual in securing his individual salvation. -But these functions will now be seen in an altered light, and will be -radically modified in their exercise. The magical attribute of the -priest disappears. The confident prediction of future events, based -on the assumption that the moral order is to be completely realized -in human society, has ceased to be convincing. The Divine law is no -longer identical with the Law revealed in the Scriptures and their -commentaries, and the salvation of the individual is to be accomplished -by other means. - -The religious teacher of the new kind is to resemble his predecessors -in being a specialist. The word specialist in this connection may, -perhaps, awaken misgivings, and these must be removed. He is not a -specialist in the sense of having a conscience unlike that of others, -or in being the keeper of other men’s consciences. Nor shall he impose -his philosophy of life or his belief authoritatively, but propose -it suggestively. His best results will be gained if he succeeds in -so stimulating those whom he influences that they will attain an -individualized spiritual outlook of their own, consonant with their -own individual nature and need. But specialists of this kind are -indispensable. The generality of men have neither the time nor the -mental equipment to think out the larger problems of life without -assistance, and the attempt on their part to do so leads to crudities -and eccentricities of which one meets nowadays with many pathetic -examples among those who have severed their connection with the -traditional faiths, and have tried in their groping fashion to invent -a metaphysic or a creed of their own.[101] - -The preparation of the ethical teacher for his special task consists in -making himself thoroughly acquainted with the great religious systems -of the past, in which much that is of permanent spiritual value is -enshrined.[102] He is to fit himself to revitalize what is vital, not -to repristinate what is obsolete. There is required of him a first-hand -knowledge of the great ethical systems, and of their philosophical -backgrounds: furthermore acquaintance, so far as it is as yet -accessible, with the moral history of mankind, as distinguished from -the history of ethical thinking; in addition, he should intensively -study the economic, social and political problems of the time from -the ethical point of view, and the psychology both of individual -and national character, so far as that fascinating and difficult -subject has been opened up by competent writers. Apprenticeship in -the social reform movements of the day, direct touch with the inner -life of people, on its healthful as well as on its sick side, is also -presupposed. - -Since no single person can be adequately prepared in these various -subjects, and since a variety of gifts and talents is demanded, it -follows that the teaching function shall be exercised by a body -or group of teachers, not by a single pastor at whose feet the -congregation are supposed to sit. Some of the persons engaged in this -work will excel as public speakers, others as writers, others as -teachers of the young, others as leaders of vocational groups. But all -these different functionaries must learn to work, not only in harmony, -but in organic, reciprocal support, themselves illustrating in their -group life the spiritual relation, the knowledge and the practice of -which they are to carry out into the world. The guild or group idea -must be applied to the religious teachers of the future. - - -_B. The Organization_ - -Every religion exhibits a certain form of organization peculiar to -itself and derived from its controlling idea. The organization of the -Buddhist fellowship is dependent on the Buddhist ideal of preparation -for absorption in Nirvana. The constitution of the Jewish synagogue -reflects the conception of the relation of the Chosen People, as an -_élite_ corps of the divinity. The organization of the Christian church -is characterized by its bifurcation into an _ecclesia militans_ and an -_ecclesia triumphans_, and further by the idea of incorporation into -the body of Christ, a difficult mystical conception as of a typical -divine individual including within his body a multitude of other -individuals. - -The organization of the ethico-religious society has been foreshadowed -in the chapter on the vocations. The society is to be divided into -vocational groups. In each vocational group is to be worked out the -specific ethical ideal of that vocation. In the groups the general -ethical philosophy of life is to be applied, tested and enriched. -The so-called ethical teachers will here come into fruitful contact -with those who are in touch at first hand with actual conditions, -and are cognizant of the difficulties to be surmounted in ethicizing -vocational standards. The members of the groups in democratic fashion -will contribute to the advancement, not only of ethical practice, but -of ethical knowledge, and thus become on their side teachers of the -teachers. The danger of the formation of an ethical clergy will be -averted. The teachers will be in certain respects the pupils of the -taught, and the relation be reciprocal, that is, ethical. - -Among the groups the vocational group of Mothers will occupy the -central place. The influence of women, especially of the mother group, -must penetrate the religious society through and through, for the -purpose of drawing the entire fellowship together into a coherent -unity. Women henceforth will take a deeper interest in the ethical -development of human society. A main factor, if not the only factor -in the ethical development of human society, is the elevation of the -vocational standards. The group of mothers will therefore be in close -touch with the other vocational groups in order to gain a knowledge of -the higher standards therein proposed, in order to appraise them, and -to inspire the growing generation with the devoted purpose to carry -these standards out in practice. - - -_C. The Worship or Public Manifestation of Religion_ - -The ideal of worship likewise must undergo transformation. It has -meant an act of homage toward a superior or supreme individual; it -has meant eulogistic affirmation of the power, wisdom, goodness, of -that individual; it has meant prayer or petition for help from that -individual. It has also meant spiritual edification. - -In all these various modes, religious worship heretofore has focused -attention on a single individual deity as one who embodies in himself -the sum of perfection. In thus presenting the ideal of perfection, it -has encouraged preference for unity at the expense of plurality. The -salient feature of the spiritual ideal sketched in this volume is the -affirmation, on ethical grounds, that plurality is of equal dignity -with unity, and hence that the divine ideal is to be represented not as -One, but as manifold; not as an individual, however supereminent, but -as an infinite holy community,—every human being being in his essential -nature a member of that community. - -But can worship be offered to the members of a holy community? In a -certain sense one might say, Yes, preëminently so, since worship may -be taken to mean Worthship, and the worth intrinsic in our fellowmen -is the object of our unceasing homage. At the same time very different -associations have gathered about the word. Public worship consists -largely of eulogistic singing, prayer, adoration, genuflexion, and -these are appropriate only to deity conceived as an individual. We -cannot even say with the Psalmist “the heavens declare the glory -of God, and the firmament showeth his handiwork.” For though the -beauty and order apparent in Nature is one aspect of nature on which -we delight to dwell, yet we cannot disingenuously suppress the -counter evidence of disorder, ugliness and suffering which Nature -no less obtrudes on our sight. The argument from design implied in -the Psalmist’s words is no longer tenable. Certainly we cannot any -longer pray for material assistance as our forefathers did, or invoke -supernatural intervention in situations where human science and human -helpfulness are impotent. But worship also aims at ethical edification, -by holding up to the mind the moral ideal as an object of imitation, -and as a rebuke to man’s shortcomings. This indeed is its highest -function. Nevertheless the moral ideal, as we conceive it, is incapable -of being presented in the guise of an individual being, no matter by -what superlative language the limitation inseparable from individuality -be concealed. The bare attributes of omniscience and omnipotence are -abstract and convey no positive meaning whatever. In actual worship -a concrete image is invariably associated with the notion of the -individualized Deity, such as the Father image or the Christ image. And -as soon as this is done, the vast ethical ideal tends to shrink to the -dimensions of a human image; and instead of the ideal in its fullness, -only certain selected but inadequate aspects of ethical excellence are -presented to the worshiper. - -And yet in an ethico-religious society also the public manifestation of -religion is indispensable. Of what elements shall it consist? - -First, there are to be the public addresses by the teachers, having -for their main object to arouse or intensify a certain kind of -spiritual distress, and then as far as possible to appease it. Every -religion in my judgment originates in a particular kind of anguish, -and is an attempt to assuage it. The spiritual distress in which the -ethico-religious society has its origin is the agonizing consciousness -of tangled relations with one’s fellow-beings, and the inexpressible -longing to come into right relations with them. He is fit to be a -public teacher of this religion who profoundly experiences this -distress, who desires nothing so much as to cease to be, for his part, -a thorn in his neighbor’s side. We are that, each of us, inevitably. -The more this feeling is strong in him the more will he arouse similar -feelings in others, and thus awaken those who are spiritually asleep, -the self-righteous, the self-satisfied, and he will then indicate to -the utmost of his power, the way of relief. - -The specific ethical ideals of life are also to be presented in public -assemblies—the ideals of private ethics, of marriage, friendship, -and the rest. These expressions of the specific ideals, charged with -feeling, and taking on appropriate imagery, will gradually attain a -certain classical fitness—classical at least for a time—and may be used -as public readings. - -But is there a substitute for prayer? - -Among the advantages of prayer is often mentioned this: that in it -the soul reaches out towards its source, and in so doing wonderfully -recruits its spiritual energy. It finds, ethically speaking, its second -wind. It reaches down beneath its utmost strength to find an increment -of strength not previously at its disposal. The question is whether -this increment of strength cannot be obtained more surely and to better -purpose in another way, namely, by concentrating attention on the -spiritual need of the fellow-beings with whom we are in daily touch, -and by becoming aware to what an extent the finer nature imprisoned in -them is dependent for its release upon our exertions. The appeal of the -God in our neighbor is the substitute for the appeal in prayer to the -God in heaven, the call of the stifled spiritual nature in the men and -women at our side, is to draw out of us our utmost latent force, the -strengths underneath the strength. - -The common life we share with our fellow-members in the religious -society demands expression in song and in responsive services. The -high wave of this common life welling up in us, rising to the surface, -makes the glow of religious meetings, gives them fervor, and a touch of -rapture, not indeed the common life conceived as a uniform life, but as -the life we live in others, and they in us. - -The addresses that awaken and appease spiritual pain, the presentation -of the various modes of right living, the songs that lift the -individual above his private self and help him to live, not indeed -submerged, but rather spiritually accentuated in the life of the whole, -these are the public manifestations of ethical religion as I see them. -They will contribute to make of the society itself the symbol of its -ethical faith. We shall not have an external symbol like the cross: the -fellowship itself will be our symbol. - -There will also be festivals. Every religion must have its -festivals. In place of Baptism the solemn taking of responsibility -for the spiritual development of the child. A festival of vocational -initiation, like the ancient assumption of the _toga_. Festivals of -citizenship, inspired by the ideal of the national character as one to -be spiritually transformed. Festivals of humanity in connection with -the commemoration of great events in the history of our race and of -great leaders who were inspired in some degree by the ideal task of -humanity. Festivals of the seasons, deriving their significance from -the spiritual interpretation of the corresponding seasons of human -life,—youth, middle age, old age. And a solemn though not mournful -festival in commemoration of the departed. - -The religious assembly should itself be organized; the members of the -different vocational groups should be allocated to different parts -of the meeting hall, as were the Guilds in certain of the mediæval -cathedrals. - -Besides the public manifestations, the private religion will receive -attention. The religious society as a whole is to be the microcosm of -the spiritual macrocosm, a miniature model of the ideal society, but -care must also be taken for the private communion of the individual -with the spiritual presences which the ideal evokes. There should be a -special breviary for the sick, a Book of Consolation for the bereaved, -a Book of Friendship, a Book of direction for those who pass through -the experience of sin, and a book of preparation for those who face the -end. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[100] Among other ethical relations based on free election, friendship -is the most important. In a separate _Book of Friendship_ which I hope -to publish, I intend to review the ideals of friendship as they have -arisen from time to time in the history of civilized mankind—the ideal -of Pythagorean friendship, the ideals presented by Aristotle, Kant, -Emerson. And I shall endeavor to show in each case the connection -between the friendship ideal and the general philosophy of life. I -shall then set forth that ideal of friendship which is the corollary -of the spiritual conceptions outlined in this volume: the friend being -in my view one who assists spiritual development as a spectator. He -is the faithful mirror of his friend’s progress toward personality, -the benevolent yet incorruptible recorder and appraiser. By this token -friendship is distinguished from the interlocking relations such as -that between partners in marriage, vocational co-workers, etc. - -[101] In certain Ethical Societies abroad, the fear of encouraging -the rise of a new clericalism led to the plan of drawing for ethical -teachers on professors of universities, and others engaged in various -lines of practical activity. These persons could of necessity give -only the leavings of their time and thought to the complex questions -which they undertook to discuss; and the experiment, as might have been -foreseen, proved disastrous. - -[102] It has been said that the science of today lives only in -superseding the science of yesterday. Whether this be true of science -or not it is not true of religion. The religions of the past are not -merely superseded. There is much in them that is to be reinterpreted, -and thus perpetuated. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE LAST OUTLOOK ON LIFE - - -The view of life that man has on leaving it is the final test of his -philosophy of life. These are my thoughts: It is time to detach thyself -from this earth. The shadows are lengthening. Look around you and note -the strange changes that have taken place in the men and women of your -acquaintance. Those that you once knew in their prime are now old and -wrinkled,—and how many already dead! As you survey the procession of -life, how many vacant places are there in it! How many true and loyal -comrades have been swept away! Or go into the busy streets of the -city, and look at the multitude passing through them. You are still -one of this multitude. Presently you will drop out. There will perhaps -be a little ripple on the surface, and then the stream will flow on -as before. How curious is it to think that this frame of life which -sustains such high faculties should crumble into a little heap of dust -at the touch of the wand of death! Detach thyself, therefore, relax -thy hold by anticipation as thou shalt soon relax it actually. But -detachment does not mean cold inattention or unnatural shrinking from -the earthly scene, like that of the monk in his cell. Relax thy hold -on what is earthly in the earthly scene, and fix thy loving attention -all the more on what is _spiritually significant_ in it. Regard with -a friendly eye the beauty of the natural landscape around thee—yonder -lake and yonder noble mountain summit. They are earthly, yet are they -also hieroglyphs and symbols. - -Still more is this true of thy social relations. Detach thyself means -relax thy hold on what is transient in those relations. Cling all the -more firmly to what is spiritual in them. The earth is thy foundation, -thou art Antæus as long as thou remainest in contact with the earth. -Until the very last thou must lean for strength upon the earthly bases -and substrata. - -Consider the drive of the human race through the time and space world, -and its net result. Thou standest now on a high tower. Lean over -the parapet and peer as far out into the future as thou canst. Thou -standest as did Moses on Mount Pisgah. Strain thy eyes to catch sight -of the Promised Land. But remember that the Promised Land turned out -to be a land still of promise, not of fulfilment,—a land in which the -prophetic soul of Israel matured its visions of a fulfilment never on -earth to be attained. - -Remember that as thou art linked to thy ancestry, so art thou linked -to posterity. The future centuries of the human race are like the -future years of an individual. Thou art keenly interested in what may -happen hereafter to the race with which thou art interlinked. But the -race, like the individual, will be cut off and become extinct before -ever the ideal is reached. Remember, therefore, that the purpose for -which humanity exists is achieved at every moment in everyone who -appropriates the fruits of partial success and frustration. Whosoever -standing on the earth as a foundation builds up for himself the -spiritual universe attains the purpose of human existence. There is -indeed progress in the explicitness with which the spiritual ideal is -conceived, and we are immeasurably interested in the greater light to -be attained by our posterity. But the essential fruition of the contact -of the infinite that is in us with the finite world is achievable at -every moment in every human being. And this gives an entirely new -meaning to the spiritual gains achieved in solitude, which seem vain -because there are no witnesses. But neither will there be witnesses -when the last human beings perish on earth. The spiritual bravery of -the shipwrecked man who sinks on the lonely ocean springs from the -conviction that though the sea can overwhelm him there is that in -him greater than ocean’s immensity; a conviction achieved through -the experience of living in the life of others. The same is the gain -achieved by the sick man who lies in solitude like a helpless log in -the darkened room. The altruistic philosophy fails in accounting for -the moral grandeur that attaches to the spiritual victories gained in -silence and solitude. - -Face the terrors of life before you leave life. Be resolute to the -last not to cherish illusions. Face the terrors of life, the absence -of observable design, the cruelties, the ferocities. Think of William -Blake’s poem “The Tiger”: “Did he who made the lamb make thee?” In your -philosophy there is no question any longer of a Creator. Creation is an -attempt to explain the coexistence of the imperfect with the perfect, -to account for a lower stage in terms of a higher. The ultimate -inability of man to understand, to explain, is one of the principal -frustrations he meets with, is the crucifixion of man at the point of -his intellect. - -The radical incompetence of man to grasp with his intellect the -world as a “universe,” is to be faced by him and accepted without -qualification. It marks off this philosophy of life from those -philosophies and theologies which have attempted to explain the -universe, and which, while affecting humility, are the dupes of an -unwarranted self-confidence. Unqualified admission of the incompetence -of the human intellect to resolve the world riddle is the determining -factor in the more profound humility which characterizes the religion -of ethical experience. Agnosticism on the intellectual side is the very -condition of the transcending ethical conviction subsequently attained. -Without intellectual agnosticism there is no ethical certainty. - -Consider now frustration and its supreme outcome, or the various -points at which man is crucified. I have mentioned the intellectual -crucifixion, due to the incompetence of the mind to understand. I must -now speak of still more poignant experiences due to the incompetence of -man adequately to fulfill the moral law, or to carry out the spiritual -relation in finite terms. - -I have reached the bourne, or am very near it. The shadows lengthen, -the twilight deepens. I look back on my life and its net results. I -have seen spiritual ideals, and the more clearly I saw them, the wider -appeared the distance between them and the empirical conditions, and -the changes I could effect in those conditions. I have worked in -social reform, and the impression I have been able to make now seems to -me so utterly insignificant as to make my early sanguine aspirations -appear pathetic. I have seen the vision of democracy in the air, and on -the ground around me I have seen the sordid travesty of democracy—not -only in practice but in idea. I have caught the far outlook upon the -organization of mankind, the extension of the spiritual empire over the -earth by the addition to it of new provinces, and I do not find even -the faintest beginnings, or recognition of the task which the advanced -nations should set themselves. I scrutinize closely my relations -to those who have been closest to me,—and I find that I have been -groping in the dark with respect to their most real needs, and that my -faculty of divination has been feeble. I look lastly into my heart, -my own character, and the effort I have made to fuse the discordant -elements there, to achieve a genuine integrity there, and I find the -disappointment in that respect the deepest of all. - -These are the various points of my life at which I have undergone the -crucifixion. I am like Arnold Winkelried, who gathered the sheaf of -spears into his breast, and even pressed them inward, to make a way for -liberty. So do I press the sharp-pointed spears of frustration into my -breast to make way for spiritual liberty. For these cruel spears turn -into shafts of light, radiating outward along which my spirit travels, -building its final nest—the spiritual universe. - -Consider the new and profounder humility. In ethical experience is -revealed the plan of the spiritual relations, but the entities or -substances which are thus related are incognizable, unknowable. Did -I know them I should be able to solve the riddle of the universe. I -should know how it is that the finite exists side by side with the -infinite. But I cannot know. I cannot enter into the counsels of -the multiform godhead. There are the mighty powers that weave and -interweave behind the veil, but the veil between them and myself is -down, not to be lifted. Within the palace of light is the solemn and -serene assembly of the gods: I, man, stand at the gate. - -The world as we know it is itself the veil, the screen, that shuts out -the interplay, the weavings and the interweavings of the spiritual -universe. But at least at one point, in the ethical experience of man, -is the screen translucent. The plan of the spiritual relation is there -traced in outline. It is this plan that conveys the certainty as to -what verily exists beyond, within, beneath. - -As to my empirical self, I let go my hold on it. I see it perish with -the same indifference which the materialist asserts, for whom man is -but a compound of physical matter and physical force. It is the real -self, of which the empirical was the substratum, upon which I tighten -my hold. I do not assert immortality, since immortality, like creation, -is a bridge between the phenomenal and the spiritual levels. Creation -is the bridge at the beginning; immortality the bridge at the end. Were -I able to build the bridge, I should know. I do not affirm immortality. -I affirm the real and irreducible existence of the essential self. Or -rather, as my last act, I affirm that the ideal of perfection which -my mind inevitably conceives has its counterpart in the ultimate -reality of things, is the truest reading of that reality whereof man is -capable. I turn away from the thought of the self, even the essential -self, as if that could be my chief concern, toward the vaster infinite -whole in which the self is integrally preserved. I affirm that there -verily is an eternal divine life, a best beyond the best I can think -or imagine, in which all that is best in me, and best in those who are -dear to me, is contained and continued. In this sense _I bless the -universe. And to be able to bless the universe in one’s last moments -is the supreme prize which man can wrest from life’s struggles, life’s -experience._ - -I look back upon my life once more, and am grateful for the eternal -worth which it was permitted me in this frail vessel of my mortal -existence to hold, for the shimmer of the spiritual reality of things -which I was permitted to see; grateful especially to those who loved -me, and whom I was permitted to love, and who were to me in some -measure revealers of the eternal life. - -Consider lastly the peace that passeth understanding. Now, if ever, -this peace should descend upon me. There is a kind of peace that is -accessible to the understanding, and there is the peace that passeth -understanding. The peace that can be understood is that which consists -in the relief of pain. It arises in various ways. After an acute attack -of physical pain how like balm is felt the succeeding absence of pain. -After a prolonged sickness, when the convalescent takes his first walk, -what a sweet tranquillity fills his mind! There is also the mental -relief that comes when some danger has been safely passed; the peace -of the sheltered fireside to one who has passed through a storm. Again, -there is the peace that follows pecuniary anxiety, or the removal of -some carking care, as when an erring son is reclaimed, or an estranged -wife or husband is found anew. - -But the peace that passeth understanding is that which comes when the -pain is _not_ relieved, which subsists in the midst of the painful -situation, suffusing it, which springs out of the pain itself, which -shimmers on the crest of the wave of pain, which is the spear of -frustration transfigured into the shaft of light. - -It is upon those we love that we must anchor ourselves spiritually in -the last moments. The sense of interconnectedness with them stands -out vividly by way of contrast at the very moment when our mortal -connection with them is about to be dissolved. And the intertwining of -our life with theirs, the living in the life that is in them, is but -a part of our living in the infinite manifold of the spiritual life. -The thought of this, as apprehended, not in terms of knowledge, but in -_immediate experience_, begets the peace that passeth understanding. -And it is upon the bosom of that peace that we can pass safely out of -the realm of time and space. - - - - -APPENDIX - - - - -APPENDIX I - -SPIRITUAL SELF-DISCIPLINE - - -The preceding volume in its entirety and in every part is nothing else -than a book of spiritual self-discipline. Every religion presents to -its followers as real objects that the eye has not seen. The certainty -of the existence of these objects, religious certainty, religious -conviction, springs from one or other kind of need and distress. The -object that the eye has not seen is believed in because it corresponds -to that need, and relieves that distress. Furthermore, the conviction -is strengthened, the certainty intensified, by two methods: (1) -elaboration of the ideas presented; (2) performing acts in the doing -of which the existence of the objects is presupposed. Thus the idea of -the Heavenly Father corresponds to the childlike need of protection. -The elaboration of this idea in theological systems strengthens its -hold, every idea being powerful as an active force in proportion as it -is worked out in detail and linked up with other ideas. And ceremonies, -prayers, acts of worship in the doing of which the reality of the -Father-God is presupposed, strengthen the belief in him. Conduct is -one of the chief sources of belief. The more frequently a devout -Roman Catholic prays to the Virgin Mary, the more firmly will he be -convinced that she exists and hears him. These features are common to -all religion: unseen objects are presented as real; the belief in their -reality is augmented by elaboration of the ideas; and above all their -hold is reinforced by practice founded on and presuming the reality of -the ideas. - -The unseen object which the religion of spiritual experience presents -is the unique personality. The lines along which the ideas are to be -elaborated have been sketched in the above. Conduct based on the -presumption that the divine nature exists in every human being is the -principal means of fortifying that conviction, and this presumption -itself rests on the fundamental fact of worth. - -The difference in rank between the various religions depends on the -kind of need which they seek to satisfy. It may be physical, as when -the worshiper prays for large herds and fruitful crops. It may be the -urging of a passion, as when a man prays for revenge on his enemies. -And it may be ethical. And if ethical, it may be purely ethical, or -ethical with non-ethical elements admixed. A religion is neither -approved nor condemned because it satisfies a need. The judgment passed -on it depends on the kind of need it undertakes to satisfy. - -Seek to raise the plus traits to the Nth degree. Seek through spiritual -sex interaction to release the spiritual life in the child. Bring -to birth in thyself the idea of the state, etc. Every chapter of -this volume contains some direction as to the lines of conduct to be -followed. The principal self-discipline consists in the effort to -follow these lines. - -But experience tells us that the effort may be hindered or helped in -certain ways. I shall mention a few of the helps and hindrances: - -Physical and Mental _Athleticism_ are helps to Moral Athleticism. -Ethics is a science of energetics. Bodily and mental energy is -favorable to ethical energizing. By mental energy I understand -especially the habit of vigorously attacking complex and difficult -mental problems. - -Right _Asceticism_ is related to Ethical Development. I exclude -self-abnegation and self-repression practiced as drill apart from any -particular occasion requiring them, holding that self-repression should -always be incidental to self-expression. This applies especially to the -hygiene of the sex passion. A positive ideal of the sex relation, as in -marriage, is an invaluable help in ennobling and thereby restraining -the passion. - -The Ethical Life is the supremely Planful Life. There is a hierarchy of -ends of which the ethical is the apex. The ethical end is the supreme -end to which all others are to be planfully subordinated. The habit of -conducting one’s life planfully is favorable to ethical behavior. I say -planfully, not pedantically, due regard being always had to spontaneity. - -Among hindrances to Ethical development may be mentioned the tendency -to be satisfied with the _minor perfections_. The better is the -greatest enemy of the best. The disproportionate value set on the -embellishments of life is but one illustration of this point. - -A great hindrance to the spiritual life is the necessity under which -we lie of restricting our actual ethical relations to a _few persons_. -We cannot extend our influence to the millions of China and India. -We cannot even deeply influence a considerable number of our fellow -citizens. On ethical grounds we do acknowledge the claims of each -individual, of all these myriads of human beings. Yet as far as any -actual good we can do them is concerned, we are powerless, and must -leave them to their fate. The tragic aspect of life comes home to us -sharply at this point. Intensity must take the place of extensity. -Intensive spiritual relations with a few will teach us at least to -conceive worthily of those personalities whom we cannot directly -affect, and to invest them in idea with the honor which is their due. - -Intimate spiritual relations with a few will also counteract the -unethical habit of labeling those with whom we come into casual -contact according to the special functions they happen to exercise. -Thus a letter-carrier is apt to be thought of as an animated machine -to carry letters, a stenographer as a kind of animated machine to -take dictation, the servant in the house a machine to render physical -service. The more complete our appreciation of personality is in the -case of the few, the more we shall be impelled to transfer the concept -of personality, at least in its outlines, to all others. In this way -our friendships, our close relations, will not restrict our ethical -horizon. In the narrower circle we shall engender those ideas which -in thought at least we can carry out to the farthest limits of human -society. - -But among the hindrances to ethical practice the two most conspicuous -must not be omitted. They are _pity_ and _terror_, pity for the pain -suffered by others, fear of pain for oneself. Aristotle regarded it -as the high function of the tragic drama to liberate men from these -disturbing factors. The two are combined and in consequence exacerbated -to an extreme degree in those situations where the pain suffered by -another person is at the same time poignantly felt as one’s own pain. -And the anguish felt in seeing the physical suffering of another is -even exceeded in witnessing the moral degradation of another, as of an -erring son or an apparently irreclaimable husband or wife. The doctrine -of frustration as explained in this volume is intended to show the way -of relief in such situations. But it is only by not shirking the pain, -by permitting it fully to penetrate, by uncovering the breast entirely -to the entrance of the pointed spear that we shall have the experience -of the transformation of it into the shaft of light. - - - - -APPENDIX II[103] - -THE EXERCISE OF FORCE IN THE INTEREST OF FREEDOM - - -Force is a moral adiaphoron. The stigma attaching to the use of force -belongs rather to its abuse. The employment of force is good or bad -according as the ends for which it is used are good or bad. - -The precept of non-resistance in the Sermon on the Mount is to be -understood as a piece of ethical irony. - -The right, or to be more explicit, the duty, of society to coerce -individual members of it rests on the same ground and holds within -the same limits as the duty of the individual to coerce himself. -Self-coercion depends on the difference in the quality of one’s -impulses, on the choice one is bound to make between competitive ends. -Self-coercion is of two kinds: stimulative and repressive; stimulative -to overcome inertia, repressive to subject wrong to right impulses. - -He who denies the duty of self-coercion, to be consistent, must -fall back on the position of the Cynics. For the Cynics were indeed -consistent. They asserted not only the right of the individual to be -free from outside compulsion, but also the right of each individual -moment of the individual’s life to be lived without regard or -subjection to future moments. Hence they rejected civilization and -its tasks, inasmuch as the prosecution of any task involves the -subordination of the present to the content of some future moment. - -But if the coercion of a man by himself be admitted, it follows that -the exercise of force upon a man by society must in principle be -likewise admitted. For we are social by nature; we take an interest in -the achievement by each one of his ends, and we regard such achievement -as a social-benefit. - -As to the limits within which outside interference is to be permitted -and welcomed, these can best be ascertained by fastening attention -upon the end to be attained. And here the positive conception of -freedom seems to be the most helpful,—freedom defined as the release -in each one of his essential self, that is, of his distinctive gift -and capability, or of that in him which is unique or most nearly so. A -society in which such valuable contributions were elicited from each -would be the ideal society. Stimulative and repressive social coercion -are justified in so far as they provoke energy and check disturbing -impulses,—always of course without discouraging spontaneity, which is -the very good to be secured. - -The antithesis of reason and force common in discussions of this -subject seems misleading and inadequate; since reason is a faculty of -inference and not of preference, has to do with the adapting of means -to ends, and does not of itself afford guidance in the choice of ends. - -The concept of freedom as defined is more illuminating. Let freedom and -force be contrasted, not reason and force. - -The idea of law that would follow from what has been said may be -illustrated by comparing the action of law with that of automatism -in the human body. The system of co-ordinations by which we learn to -walk, or acquire any kind of skill, such as that of performing on a -musical instrument, is at first painfully and consciously acquired. -Consciousness superintends every step in the process. But after a -time the sequences reel off automatically. Consciousness retires from -the field, ascends to a higher plane, and devotes itself to more -interesting and significant business. Law, taking it in its broadest -sense, may be regarded as the automatic machinery of freedom. It is -the system of stimulations and repressions which the experience of -mankind at any given time has found conducive to the attainment of the -superior ends of life. In the minds of the more advanced members of -the community repressive laws like the prohibitions of murder, theft, -etc., have already become automatic. Such a thing as questioning or -transgressing these laws never once in a lifetime occurs to them. (Of -the stimulative laws, such as the requirement to pay taxes in support -of the progressive interests of society, the same is not yet true.) As -regards the backward members of society, however, the repressive laws -are educative. Just as in certain diseases the convalescent needs to -acquire anew the art of walking, which his neighbors exercise without -thinking, so the backward members of society have to learn painfully -those habits of repression which for others have sunk below the -threshold of consciousness. - -Social compulsion therefore may be defined as discipline in the -interest of positive freedom. We may expect that in future this -salutary kind of compulsion will go to even much greater lengths than -it has yet gone. Society as organized in the state has undoubtedly -the right to interfere in the choice of the sexes by prohibiting the -marriage of persons afflicted with infectious disease. If the study of -human character could ever be so far developed as to determine what -kind of temperaments are radically incompatible with one another (a -bare throw in the air of course), it would be within the province of -the state to prohibit the conjugal union of such temperaments, and -thus to prevent the disastrous effects on real freedom which such -incompatibilities are apt to cause. - -I am well aware of the perils of this point of view. There is a -brutal factor in the action of society, as in that of individuals. A -given community is apt to mistake its prejudices for principles, its -torpor for conservatism, its superstitions for spirituality. Such -apprehensions as those that weighed on the mind of John Stuart Mill as -set forth in his _Essay on Liberty_ are not to be lightly dismissed. -And yet the main trend of his argument was plainly determined by an -individualistic conception of liberty which many of us no longer share. -It is safe to say that on the whole the benefits of coercion outweigh -the detriments. We have only to picture to ourselves a state of society -in which these coercions should not exist to realize that this is so. -The dangers are real, but are due to the abuse of force and not to the -exercise of it under the controlling idea of positive freedom which is -here proposed. - -FOOTNOTES: - -[103] A paper read before the Fourth Conference on Legal and Social -Philosophy at Columbia University, November, 1915. (Reprinted from the -_International Journal of Ethics_, April, 1916, pp. 420-423.) - - - - -INDEX - - - Achilles, 210 - - Africa, exploitation of, 187f, 335 - - Altruism, 79, 218, 220, 256 - - Antæus, 355 - - ἄπαξ λεγόμενον, 228 - - A priori knowledge, 105f, 111 - - Architecture, 286n - - Aristotle, 105, 127, 168n, 190, 281, 305, 319, 365 - - Ark of the Covenant, 77 - - Arnold, Matthew, 10, 298 - - Arnold von Winkelried, 358 - - Art, relation to Ethics, 277f; - limitations, 287n; - students of, 296 - - Asceticism, 363 - - - Bacon, _On Studies_, 10 - - Baptism, 353 - - Beatrice, 170 - - Beauty, 281f - - Bereavement, 64, 162f - - Bergson, 108, 131n - - Blackstone, 185 - - Blake, William, 356 - - Bloch, 242 - - Bluntschli, 327f - - Buddha, 16, 32, 199, 347 - - - Cæsar Borgia, 172 - - Cana, feast at, 206 - - Categorical Imperative, 75f; - and hypothetical, 80 - - Causality, “prejudice of,” 110f, 136, 141, 171 - - Christianity, an estimate of, 30-42; - other-worldliness of, 140, 268; - national, 321; - forced on the East, 331 - - Church, 347 - - Citizenship, 322 - - Confucius, 16, 31, 299 - - Congo, atrocities in, 330, 335, 338 - - Conscience, origin of, 78 - - Copernicus, 141 - - Creation, doctrine of, 139, 356 - - Cromer, Lord, 331n - - Crucifixion, of man, 357f - - Cynics, 366 - - - Dante, 198n, 283 - - Darwinism, 59, 78f, 120 - - “Death in Life,” 225 - - Decalogue, 198 - - Democracy, ethical aspect of, 125, 143; - political, 319n; - evils in, 321, 330n; - new conception of, 340n - - Dependence, 226 - - Dilke, Sir Charles, 335n - - Discipline, 244f - - Duality, of character traits, 208f - - Duty, in Kant, 75f; - conflicts of, 317f - - - Education, state, 252; - as vocation, 291f; - for adults, 301f; - moral, 302n - - Edwards, Jonathan, 163 - - Egoism, 220 - - Elisha, the prophet, 61 - - Emerson, estimate of, 27-29; - _Essay on Love_, 164n - - Ends, proximate and ultimate, 50-51; - in Kant, 74, 89; - instrumental, 138, 166, 229f, 268; - unattainable in finite world, 149f, 158; - hierarchy of, 363 - - Enemies, 205; - intellectual, 207n - - Erastianism, 342 - - Ethical Culture, Society for, 58, 346n; - School, 58n, 276 - - Ethics, as non-violation of personality, 7, 35, 54; - individuality of, 24; - as science of ends, 40, 50f; - and social reform, 48; - relation to other subjects, 66; - Kantian, 73f; - an independent discipline, 84f, 132f; - energizing quality of, 93, 101, 135n, 221, 228, 274, 363; - contrast with physical science, 93, 99; - its peculiar manifold, 109f, 114f, 126, 132, 141; - verification in, 112; - and social structure, 191; - and empirical traits, 212f, 223f, 242f; - the law of levitation, 222; - as science of relations, 233; - and industry, 272f; - and art, 277f; - and nationality, 325f; - historical systems of, 346; - and worship, 349, 352 - - Evil, problem of, 32-34; - immediate reform, 49; - contrasted with sin, 172f - - - Family, as empirical group, 133, 249f; - spiritual view of, 251f - - Festivals, religious, 353 - - Feudalism, 142 - - Force, as ethical discipline, 356f; - and freedom, 366f - - Forgiveness, 202f - - Fouillée, Alfred, 209, 324 - - Freedom, 148f, 300, 306, 366f - - Freud, 79 - - Friendship, 234f - - Froebel, 295 - - Frustration, in marriage, 62f, 235; - in bereavement, 64; - in intellectual ambition, 65f, 227; - cosmic, 67; - in social betterment, 69; - in achieving ethical uniqueness, 118; - and ethical plan, 137, 140, 147, 150f; - mission of, 152f, 165, 195, 365; - in science, 265; - in vocation, 269; - final realization of, 356f - - “Functional Finalities,” 106, 111f - - - Galileo, 97n - - Gang Loyalty, 77 - - George, Henry, 44 - - Goethe, 67n, 176n, 198n, 220, 243, 285 - - God, idea of, 136, 139, 362; - submission to will of, 156; - worship, 350 - - Greek, art, 16n; - philosophy, 105; - treatment of suffering, 155, 166; - idea of evil, 172; - social system, 190f; - epic, 283; - education, 299 - - Grotius, 332 - - - Hague Conference, 326 - - Happiness, 227f - - Harnack, Adolf, 39 - - Hebrews, sex purity, 7; - religion, 14-26; - as elect people, 19; - their mission, 21f; - and problem of evil, 33 - - Hegel, 139, 343 - - Helmholtz, 196, 267 - - History, value of, 247n; - ethical aim of, 275f - - Humboldt, William von, 126 - - Hume, 111 - - - Ilion, 283 - - Imagination, 267 - - Immortality, 139, 166f, 359 - - Individual, the, 246, 250, 295, 319f - - Industry, organization of, 271, 274; - representation of, 312 - - Insanity, 161n - - Intellect, 227 - - Internationalism, 325f; - obstacles to, 332f; - organized, 338n - - Isaiah, 22 - - - Jerusalem, siege of, 33 - - Jesus, as exemplar, 25; - his teaching, 30-42; - and the problem of evil, 33f; - and socialism, 37; - attitude toward sin, 204n, 205 - - Jews, 347 - - Justice, social, 194f; - commercial, 215f; - ethical, 217; - legal, 289 - - - Kant, individualistic ethics, 9; - and holiness idea, 59; - Critique of Ethical Ideal, 73f, 137f; - his pre-occupation with physical science, 84f, 88, 100, 133; - doctrine of ends, 74, 80, 87, 100; - _Critique of Pure Reason_, 84, 95, 102; - not a pure rationalist, 95f; - _a priori_ doctrine, 111; - doctrine of worth, 119; - and God idea, 126f; - and ontological argument, 129; - on marriage, 257 - - Keats, 282 - - - Labor, remuneration of, 193 - - Lange, Albert, _Die Arbeiterfrage_, 10; - _History of Materialism_, 11 - - Law, 290, 307; - international, 332f; - divine, 345; - and freedom, 367 - - Lawyer, vocation of, 289 - - Lear, King, 282 - - Leibnitz, 196, 247n, 332 - - Lessing, 150 - - Life, right to, 179f - - Louis XIV, 316 - - “Lycidas,” 282 - - - Manifold, of time and space, 96; - in physical science, 107f; - ethical, 109f, 132, 134, 141 - - Marcus Aurelius, 120 - - Marriage, and happiness, 61f; - _tabu_ notion of, 77; - spiritual relation in, 163, 258f; - monogamic, 251, 254; - infelicitous, 257; - state control of, 307 - - Marx, Karl, _Das Kapital_, 44; - type of socialism, 45f - - Materialism, of middle class, 52 - - Mayer, Robert, 196 - - Mill, J. S., 368 - - Mommsen, 276n - - Monasticism, 40 - - Monotheism, 20f - - Moral Law, as worshipful, 10, 12; - obligation to obey, 75; - universality of, 177; - and worship, 350 - - More, Sir Thomas, 205n - - Moses, 26, 355 - - - National Character, 324; - sins of, 330, 336f - - Nature, exploitation of, 186f - - Necessity, applied to ethics, 85f; - Kantian, 88 - - Newton, 84, 94, 196 - - Nietzsche, 47, 152, 214 - - Non-resistance, doctrine of, 182 - - _Noumena_, Kantian, 127n - - _Numen_, spiritual, 220, 224, 228, 231 - - - _Œdipus Rex_, 173, 281n - - Ontological Argument, 129f - - Ostwald, 94 - - - Pantheism, 8n - - Paul, St., 38 - - Peace, spiritual, 360 - - Pekin, 330 - - Personal Factor in Ethics, 3-6 - - Personality, 197, 222, 247, 321 - - Pestalozzi, 295 - - Peters, Karl, 335 - - Philistinism, 52 - - Philosophy, monism and pluralism, 110 - - Plagiarism, 197 - - Plato, transcendent vision of, 16; - his idea of justice, 31; - ethics of, 74, 120, 132; - influence of, 198n; - and eugenics, 214; - and art, 286; - and the State, 305, 313, 319 - - Poverty, evils of, 44f; - relief of, 51 - - Pragmatism, 106n, 136n - - Prayer, 351f - - Property, its rights, 185f; - as a social concept, 189 - - Ptolemy, 105n - - Public Good, 314 - - Punishment, its object, 176, 203; - capital, 204 - - - Race Prejudice, 236n - - Ranke, 247n - - “Reality-producing functions,” 114f, 124n, 126, 130, 132, 265 - - Religion, Types of, 363 - - Religious Society, 341f; - its teaching, 343f; - organization, 347f; - worship, 349f - - Repentance, 203f - - Representation, in State, 310n, 322; - proportional, 322 - - Reputation, right to, 196f - - Responsibility, definition, 173f; - for others’ life, 180; - for poverty and suffering, 183f - - Reverence, three-fold, 241f, 250; - in family, 253; - in artist, 284f; - in education, 292; - among nations, 324 - - Reymond, Dubois, 128 - - Rousseau, _Confessions_, 6; - idea of State, 305 - - - Schiller, 285n - - School, 292; - and home, 294; - objects of, 295f; - prevocational, 298; - moral education in, 303; - self-government in, 304 - - Schopenhauer, 120, 131n - - Science, as vocation, 263f; - and internationalism, 334 - - Self-discipline, 362f - - Self-sacrifice, 212f - - Sermon on the Mount, 4, 198, 366 - - Service, 226f - - Shelley, 282 - - Sin, 171f, 202f - - Social reform, 48f; - fallacies of, 53f, 268; - spiritual view of, 56; - its object, 261; - various schemes of, 273; - ethical program of, 275n - - Socialism, 11, 37, 43f, 56n, 196, 271f, 274 - - Socrates, 122 - - Sophocles, 173 - - Spencer, Herbert, 94 - - Spinoza, 8 - - Spiritual Nature, 148, 224, 231 - - State, ethical conception of, 305f; - sovereignty of, 308f; - organization of, 310f; - as lawmaker, 313; - duty towards, 319; - and individual, 319n; - international relations, 326f; - and religion, 342f - - Stephen, the Martyr, 38 - - Stevenson, R. L., 208n, 211n - - Stoicism, 154, 159 - - Suffering, various attitudes toward, 154f; - ethical attitude, 159f - - Sympathy, as ethical motive, 49f, 99n, 156 - - - _Tabus_, 77, 179 - - Tariff, 314, 315n - - Tasks of Life, 268 - - Thomas à Kempis, 258 - - Tolstoy, 184 - - Trade, international, 334f; - slave, 335 - - Tyndall, 268 - - Tyrrel, Father, 39, 150n - - - Universe, spiritual, 125f, 134; - last blessing of, 360 - - University, ideal of, 298f; - American, 300f - - - Value, _vs._ Worth, 117n - - Vattel, 332 - - Verification in ethics, 112, 118, 135n - - Virtue, 211 - - Vocation, influence on development, 58f; - _vs._ occupation, 260f; - an ethical classification, 262f; - practical, 270f; - educational, 289f; - represented in State, 310f, 322 - - - Wages and wage-earners, 194, 215n, 216 - - Waitz, _Anthropologie_, 209 - - War, when justified, 182f - - Wealth, 51; - stewardship of, 192 - - Whole, ideal of, in ethics, 100f, 114f, 121 - - Women, in State, 311; - in religious societies, 348 - - Wordsworth, 282 - - Worship, religious, 349 - - Worth, in human personality, 57, 68, 70, 224n, 247; - Kant’s doctrine of, 82f, 89f, 101; - ethical justification of, 91f, 98n; - attributed to man, 101n, 102f; - as member of ethical manifold, 117, 119, 121; - _vs._ value, 117n; - homage to, 349, 360 - - - Zeno, 108 - - Zionism, 24 - - Zoroaster, 15 - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An ethical philosophy of life -presented in its main outline, by Felix Adler - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE *** - -***** This file should be named 60068-0.txt or 60068-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/0/6/60068/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Les Galloway and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: An ethical philosophy of life presented in its main outlines - -Author: Felix Adler - -Release Date: August 6, 2019 [EBook #60068] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Les Galloway and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote"> -<h3>Transcriber’s Notes</h3> - -<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations -in hyphenation and accents have been standardised but all other spelling and -punctuation remains unchanged.</p> - -<p>The cover was prepared by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain. -</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<h1> -AN ETHICAL -PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE</h1> - -<p class="center">PRESENTED IN ITS MAIN OUTLINES</p> - -<p class="center spaced"><small>BY</small><br /> -FELIX ADLER</p> - - - -<p class="center">D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br /> -<small>NEW YORK<span class="gap6">LONDON</span><br /> -1920</small></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - - -<p class="center small"> -<span class="smcap">Copyright, 1918, by</span><br /> -D. APPLETON AND COMPANY</p> -<p class="center small space-above"> -Printed in the United States of America</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> - - -<p>This book records a philosophy of life growing out of the -experience of a lifetime. The convictions put in it are not dogmatic, -for dogma is the conviction of one man imposed authoritatively -upon others. The convictions herein expounded are -submitted to those who search, as the writer has searched, for -light on the problems of life, in order that they may compare -their experience with his, and their interpretations of their experience -with his interpretation.<a id="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">1</a></p> - -<p>It is a great hope that some of the readers of this book may -find the general world-view expounded congenial, and for them -also real and true. It is believed that others may find the -practical suggestions as to the conduct of life in which the -theory issues helpful in part, if not in whole, as many of us -accept from the teachings of the Stoics, or of other thinkers, -practical precepts, without on that account adopting the -philosophy from which these precepts are derived.</p> - -<p>The book is divided into four parts: the first an autobiographical -introduction describing the various stations on the -road by which the author arrived at his present position, and -offering incidental appreciations and appraisements of the -Hebrew religion, of Emerson, of the ethics of the Gospels, of -Socialism and of other social reform movements.</p> - -<p>The second part expounds the philosophical theory.</p> - -<p>The third part contains the applications of the theory to the -more strictly personal life, under the captions of the Three -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span>Shadows of Sickness, Sorrow and Sin, and also to the principal -so-called Rights to Life, Property, Reputation.</p> - -<p>The fourth part applies the theory to the social institutions, -to the Family, the Vocation, the State, the International Society, -and the Church, these institutions being considered as an -expanding series through which the individual is to pass on his -pilgrimage in the direction of the supreme spiritual end.</p> - -<p>The principal problems considered are:</p> - -<p>1. How to establish the fundamental ethical dictum that -every human being ought to count, and is intrinsically worth -while. This dictum has been denied by many of the greatest -thinkers, who assert the intrinsic inferiority of some men, the -intrinsic superiority of others. The practice of the world also -runs most distinctly contrary to it. How then is it to be -validated?</p> - -<p>2. The problem of how to attach a precise meaning to the -term “spiritual,” thereby divesting it of the flavor of sentimentality -and vagueness that attaches to it.</p> - -<p>3. How to link up the world’s activities in science, art, -politics, business, to the supreme ethical end.</p> - -<p>4. How to lay foundations whereon to erect the conviction -that there verily is a supersensible reality.</p> - -<p>For the repetitions that occur throughout the volume indulgence -is requested. In presenting an unfamiliar system of -thought they may sometimes assist the reader in retaining the -thread.</p> - -<p>The work is conceived as a whole, and should be read through -before any part of it is more minutely examined. The theory -of Part II especially should be read in the light of the applications -submitted in Parts III and IV.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> - - - -<div class="center small"> -<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#BOOK_I">BOOK I</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION</td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdlt" colspan="2"><small>CHAPTER</small></td> - <td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">I.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">Prelude</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">II.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Hebrew Religion</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">III.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">Emerson</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">IV.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Teachings of Jesus</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">V.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">Social Reform</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VI.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Influence of My Vocation on Inner Development</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#BOOK_II">BOOK II</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY</td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">I.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">Introductory Remarks: Critique of Kant</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">II.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">Critique of Kant</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">III.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">Preliminary Remarks on Worth, and on the Reasons -Why the Method Employed by Ethics -Must Be the Opposite of That Employed by -the Physical Sciences</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">IV.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Ideal of the Whole</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">V.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Ideal of the Whole and the Ethical Manifold</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VI.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Ideal of the Spiritual Universe and the God-Ideal</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#BOOK_III">BOOK III</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">APPLICATIONS: THE THREE SHADOWS, SICKNESS, -SORROW AND SIN, AND THE RIGHT TO LIFE, -PROPERTY AND REPUTATION</td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">I.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span>II.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Three Shadows: Sickness, Sorrow, Sin</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">III.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">Bereavement</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">IV.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Shadow of Sin</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">V.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Spiritual Attitude to be Observed towards -Fellow-Men in General, Irrespective of the -Special Relations Which Connect Us More -Closely with Some than Others</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VI.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Meaning of Forgiveness</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VII.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Supreme Ethical Rule: Act so as to Elicit -the Best in Others and Thereby in Thyself</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Supreme Ethical Rule</span> (<i>Continued</i>)</td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">IX.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">How to Learn to See the Spiritual</span> <i>Numen</i> <span class="smcap">in -Others</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><a href="#BOOK_IV">BOOK IV</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">APPLICATIONS: THE ETHICS OF THE FAMILY, THE -STATE, THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, ETC.</td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">I.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Collective Task of Mankind and the Three-fold -Reverence</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">II.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Family</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">III.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Vocations</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">IV.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Practical Vocations</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">V.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Vocation of the Artist: Outline of a Theory -of the Relation of Art to Ethics</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VI.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">Educational Vocations, or Vocations Connected -with the State</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VII.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The State</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">VIII.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The National Character Spiritually Transformed: -the International Society, or the -Organization of Mankind</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_324">324</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">IX.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">Religious Fellowship as the Culminating Social -Institution</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_341">341</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdrt">X.</td> - <td class="tdhang"><span class="smcap">The Last Outlook on Life</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_354">354</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3">APPENDIX</td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdlt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Appendix I: Spiritual Self-Discipline</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdlt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Appendix II: The Exercise of Force in the Interest of -Freedom</span></td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr> -<tr> - <td class="tdlt" colspan="2">INDEX</td> - <td class="tdrb"><a href="#Page_375">375</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="BOOK_I">BOOK I<br /> - -AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION</h2> - - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_I-1">CHAPTER I<br /> - -<small>PRELUDE</small></h3> - - -<p>What this book offers is a system of thought and of -points of view as to conduct, as these have jointly -grown out of personal experience. It will be useful to -introduce them with an autobiographical statement. -The ideas which follow are such as have been found by -me, the author, to be fruitful. Certainly I claim for -them objectivity; but I do so because of what I have -found them to mean in my own life. He who has been -scorched by lightning knows that the effects of the -lightning will be felt by all who are exposed to the same -experience. I narrate my experience; let others compare -with it theirs.</p> - -<p>There is, however, a serious, and most embarrassing -difficulty in the way of discussing the phases and vicissitudes -of one’s ethical development. Self-appraisement -is necessarily involved in the narration. The outstanding -subject of ethics is the self and its relations. The -physicist, the chemist, the biologist, however the methods -they use may differ in other respects, agree in the -endeavor to eliminate the personal equation. The psychologist -likewise does his best to see the procession -that moves across the inner stage like an interested but -detached spectator. In the case of ethics, however, the -personal factor cannot be eliminated, because the per<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span>sonal -factor is just the Alpha and the Omega of the -whole matter; and if this be left out of account, the -very object to be studied disappears.</p> - -<p>Ethical standards are exacting, separated often from -performance by the widest interval. To set up a standard, -therefore, is to reflect upon oneself, to expose oneself -to the backstroke of one’s own deliverances, to be -plunged perhaps into deep pits of self-humiliation. -How shall anyone have the courage to face so searching -a test, or the hardihood to discuss with a lofty air, -and to recommend to others ideals of conduct against -which he knows that he daily offends? How can anyone -teach ethics or write about it? The words of the Sermon -on the Mount, “Judge not that ye be not judged,” -seem to apply very closely. Do not judge others, do -not lay down the law for others, because in so doing -you will be judged in the inner forum, becoming a repulsive -object in your own eyes, or standing forth a -whited sepulcher. In brief, to touch the subject of ethics -is to handle a knife that cuts both ways, to cast a weapon -which returns upon him who sends it.</p> - -<p>The difficulty then which confronts the ethical writer -is that the attitude of detachment possible in other -branches of investigation is found to be impossible when -one attempts to sound the profundities of that kind of -inner experience which is called ethical. The self obtrudes -itself at every point, and it instinctively refuses -to be humbled. What may be denominated the struggle -for self-esteem has indeed played a leading rôle -both in the outer and inner history of mankind. This -struggle, whose immense importance is often overlooked,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span> -accounts for even more interesting facts than the biological -struggle for existence. The desire to exercise -power over others, often ruthless in the means adopted, -is frequently nothing more than a miserable attempt to -save self-esteem by covering up the inner sense of the -weakness of the self. But the same struggle penetrates -also into the realm of theoretical ethics with which we are -concerned. Here it tampers with the standards which -mortify self-esteem, by inventing such ethical theories as -seem to make the problems of personality easy of solution, -and by blinking the tragic facts of guilt, remorse, -etc. Various ethical systems that are in vogue at the -present time are, at least in part, exemplars of this -process—the theory for instance that ethics is nothing -more than a calculus of self-interest, or a matter of sympathetic -feeling, or a balancing of the more refined -against the grosser pleasures. The instinct of self-preservation, -in the shape of the preservation of self-esteem, -is quite incorrigible, and against its insidious suggestion -we have reason to be particularly on our guard in the -discussion which we are entering.</p> - -<p>Are we then to refrain, out of sheer regard for decency, -from touching on this subject at all? Is everyone -who writes on ethics, or attempts to teach it, either -a pedant or a hypocrite? But we cannot avoid discussing -it, nor resist the impulse to teach and write -about it, for it is the subject on which more than any -other we and others sorely need help and enlightenment. -And we shall get help in the endeavor to afford it to -others. This, then, is my position: I do not presume -to lay down the law for anyone. I find that I can set<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> -forth the better standards which in the course of trial -and error I have come to recognize. I would not -shamelessly expose mere private failures and failings -after the manner of Rousseau in the “Confessions”; -for there is a tract of the inner life which ought to be -kept from publicity and prying intrusion. I shall then -deal with deflections only in so far as they can be traced -to false standards or principles, and as they tend to -illustrate the flaw in those standards and principles.</p> - -<p>What I state as certain is certain for me. It has -approved itself as such in my experience. Let others -consult their experience, and see how far it tallies with -that which is here set forth. A distinction, however, -I wish to call attention to between the theory as expounded -in the second part of this volume, and the -practical applications to be found in the third and -fourth parts. Persons who are not trained in metaphysical -thinking or interested in it, may do well to -omit the reading of the second part. To those who are -competent in philosophical thinking, and who disagree -with the positions there taken, I may perhaps be permitted -to suggest that one can dissent from a philosophy -and yet find help in the applications to which it leads. -And, after all, it is the practice that counts.</p> - -<p>With these preliminaries, I now proceed to delineate -briefly the stages of inner development which have led -me slowly and with much labor to the system of thought -described in the following pages.</p> - -<p>One of the leading principles to which I early gave -assent, and to which I have ever since adhered as a -correct fundamental insight, is expressed in the state<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span>ment -that every human being is an end <i lang="la">per se</i>, worth -while on his own account.<a id="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">2</a></p> - -<p>Every human personality is to be safe against infringement -and is, in this sense, sacred. There is a -certain precinct which may not be invaded. The experience -which served me especially as the matrix of -this idea was the adolescent experience of sex-life,—the -necessity felt of inhibiting, out of reverence for the -personality of women, the powerful instincts then -awakened.<a id="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p> - -<p>The fact that I had lived abroad for three years in -frequent contact with young men, especially students, -who derided my scruples, and in the impure atmosphere<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -of three capital cities of Europe, Berlin, Paris and -Vienna, where the “primrose path” is easy, tended to -make the retention of my point of view more difficult, -and at the same time to give it greater fixity, also to -drive me into a kind of inward solitude. I felt myself -in opposition to my surroundings, and acquired a -confidence, perhaps exaggerated, to persevere along my -own lines against prevailing tendencies.</p> - -<p>I ought next to mention the decay of theism which -took place in my mind in consequence of philosophic -reading. Already at an early age I had stumbled over -the doctrine of Creation. I remember asking my Sunday -School teacher—How is creation possible? How -can something originate out of nothing? The answer -I received was evasive, and left me uneasy and unsatisfied. -On another occasion I ventured to suggest to -the same authority—a revered and beloved authority—that -the conception of God seemed to me too much like -that of a man, too much fashioned on the human model; -and he amazed me beyond words by replying that he -himself sympathized more or less with the ideas of -Spinoza. This chance remark set me thinking, and -seemed to open wide spaces in which my mind felt free -to travel—though I never tended in the direction of -Spinoza.<a id="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">4</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> -<p>My thoughts were driven still further by reaction -against the narrow theology of the lectures on Christian -Evidences as taught at that time in Columbia College, -where I was a student. And all these influences -came to a head in the atmosphere of the German university -at Berlin. There I heard Zeller, Duhring, -Steinthal, Bonitz. Above all I came into contact with -Herman Cohen, subsequently and for many years professor -of philosophy at the University of Marburg, and -undertook to grapple in grim earnest with the philosophy -of Immanuel Kant. The net outcome was not -atheism in the moral sense,—I have never been what is -called an atheist,—but the definite and permanent disappearance -of the individualistic conception of Deity. -I was attracted by the rigor, the sublimity, of Kant’s -system, and especially by his transcendental derivation -of the moral law. The individualistic basis of his -ethics, which is quite uncongenial to me, I ignored, and -for a time simply accounted myself a follower of -Kant. Very often since then I have discovered that -men, unbeknown to themselves, are apt to sail under -false flags, ranking themselves Kantians, Socialists, -or what not, because the system to which they give -their adherence attracts them at some one outstanding -point, the point namely, where it sharply conflicts with -views which they themselves strongly reprobate; and -they are thus led to overlook other features no less -important in which the system is really uncongenial -to them. Thus a person who recognizes the evils of -the present wage system may label himself a Socialist, -simply because Socialism is most in evidence as an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -adversary of the wage system, while he may by no -means agree with the positive principles that underlie -Socialism, when he comes to examine them dispassionately.</p> - -<p>I thought at that time of the Moral Law as that -which answers to or should replace the individualistic -God-idea. I believed in an unknown principle or power -in things of which the Moral Law is the manifestation, -and I found the evidence of the moral law in man’s -consciousness. Matthew Arnold’s “the power that -makes for righteousness” is a phrase which at that time -would have suited me,—though perhaps not entirely -even at that time. I have since come to see that “making -for righteousness” is a conception inapplicable to -the ultimate reality, and is properly applied only to human -effort; since purpose implies that the end sought has -not as yet been realized, and non-realization and ultimate -reality are contradictory ideas. The power that -only makes for righteousness cannot be the ultimate -truth in things. The utmost we can say is that the -ultimate reality expresses itself in the human world -as the power that inspires in men moral purpose.</p> - -<p>To return to my personal experiences, there fell into -my hands, while still a student abroad, a book by Friedrich -Albert Lange entitled <cite>Die Arbeiterfrage</cite> (The -Labor Question), which proved epoch-making in my -life. Bacon says in his essay <cite>Of Studies</cite>: “Some books -are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to -be chewed and digested.” He might have added that -there are books that make a man over, changing the cur<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>rent -of his existence, or at least opening channels which -previously had been blocked.<a id="FNanchor_5_5" href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></p> - -<p><cite>Die Arbeiterfrage</cite> is not a great book. In the -literature of the subject it has long since been superseded. -Yet it opened for me a wide and tragic prospect, -an outlook of which I had been until then in -great measure oblivious, an outlook on all the moral -as well as economic issues involved in what is called -the Labor Question. My teacher in philosophy, Cohen, -once said to me sharply, that if there is to be anything -like religion in the world hereafter, Socialism must be -the expression of it. I did not agree with his statement -that Socialism spells religion, and have not seen -my way to this day toward identifying the two. But -I realized that there was a measure of truth in what -he said,—and that I must square myself with the issues -that Socialism raises. Lange helped me to do this.</p> - -<p>He aided me in other respects as well. His <cite>History -of Materialism</cite> dispelled some of the fictitious glamor -that still hung about the materialistic hypothesis at -that time,—though the last chapter on the ultimate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -philosophy of life, in which he identifies religion with -poetry, is distinctly weak. I read his book on the Labor -Question with burning cheeks; no work of fiction ever -excited me as did this little treatise. It was ethical -in spirit, if not in its ruling ideas. It favored productive -co-operation, and seemed to point a way to immediate -action, as Socialism did not.</p> - -<p>The upshot of it was that I now possessed a second -object, namely, the laborer, to whom I could apply my -non-violation ethics. I had always felt an instinctive, -idealizing reverence for women, and this had its influence -in the first practical outcome of the philosophy -of life with which I started on my career. I would go -out as the minister of a new religious evangel. Instead -of preaching the individual God, I was to stir men -up to enact the Moral Law; and to enact the Moral -Law meant at that time primarily to influence the -young men with whom I came into contact to reverence -womanhood, and to keep inviolate the sacred thing, -woman’s honor. And now I had a second arrow in -my quiver. I was to go out to help to arouse the -conscience of the wealthy, the advantaged, the educated -classes, to a sense of their guilt in violating the human -personality of the laborer. My mother had often sent -me as a child on errands of charity, and had always -impressed upon me the duty of respecting the dignity -of the poor while ministering sympathetically to their -needs. I was prepared by this youthful training to -resent the indignity offered to the personality of the -laborer, as well as the suffering endured by him in -consequence of existing conditions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span></p> - -<p>Accordingly, on returning from abroad, my first -action consisted in founding among men of my own -or nearly my own age a little society which we ambitiously -called a Union for the Higher Life, based -on three tacit assumptions: sex purity, the principle -of devoting the surplus of one’s income beyond that -required for one’s own genuine needs to the elevation -of the working class, and thirdly, continued intellectual -development. A second practical enterprise attempted -was the establishment of a co-operative printing -shop. This having failed because of the selfishness -actuating the members, the Workingman’s School -was founded, with the avowed object of creating a -truly co-operative spirit among workingmen.</p> - -<p>I must, however, pause at this point to explain how -the development described led me to separation from -the Hebrew religion, the religion in which I was born, -and to the service of which as a Jewish minister it was -expected that I should devote my life.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_II-1">CHAPTER II<br /> - -<small>THE HEBREW RELIGION</small></h3> - - -<p>The separation was not violent. There was no sudden -wrenching off. There were none of those painful -struggles which many others have had to undergo -when breaking away from the faith of their fathers. -It was all a gradual, smooth transition, the unfolding -of a seed that had long been planted. I have never -felt the bitterness often characteristic of the radical, -nor his vengeful impulse to retaliate upon those who -had imposed the yoke of dogmas upon his soul. I -had never worn the yoke. I had never been in bondage. -I had been gently guided. And consequently -the wine did not turn into vinegar, the love into hate. -The truth is, I was hardly aware of the change that had -taken place until it was fairly consummated. One day -I awoke, and found that I had traveled into a new -country. The landscape was different; the faces I encountered -were different; and looking casually into a -mental mirror, as it were, I perceived that I too had -become different. And I was sure also that I had -gained, not lost, that into my new spiritual home I -had taken with me, not indeed the images of my gods, -like Æneas, fleeing from Troy, but something for which -those images had stood, and which in other ways would -remain for me a permanent possession.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span></p> - -<p>It has been said that the science of today lives only -in so far as it supersedes the science of yesterday. -Whatever may be true of science (and the statement is -certainly not true without large qualifications—the -science of Newton and Darwin has not been “superseded”—and -it may even come to pass that outreachings -of a more ancient science frustrated at the time will -hereafter be taken up anew with fairer results than -formerly were attainable), in religion at all events there -is no such thing as the bare substitution of the new for -the old. The religions of the past, at least the more -advanced religions, are not simply to be cast on the -scrap heap, or treated as exploded superstitions. There -is in all of them a certain fund of truth which may not -be allowed to perish, but should be rescued out of the -wreck.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, even the most advanced religions -contain a large admixture of error, survivals of primitive -taboos, mythological elements having their root in -polytheism, while the very truths which I have just admitted -to be infinitely precious require to be restated -so as to fit them into a larger synthesis.</p> - -<p>It is not easy to define my attitude toward the Old -Masters, I mean the Old Masters in religion, the incomparably -great religious teachers of the past, who -tower above us like giants. My attitude is one of profoundest -reverence—toward the Hebrew prophets and -Jesus especially. The Hebrew religion first sounded -the distinctively spiritual note. Zoroaster had emphasized -the struggle of the powers of Light and the -powers of Darkness, but the conception of light in his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span> -system remained to a considerable extent materialistic. -Buddha emphasized Enlightenment in the sense -of escape from Illusion, and in conjunction with it -sympathy for all who remain under the spell of illusion. -Confucius endeavored to walk, and taught his followers -to walk, with equipoise in the Middle Path; he emphasized -what he thought to be the cosmic principle -of balance or equilibrium. Plato, taking his stand on -the highest terrestrial platform, caught, or believed himself -to have caught, sight of transcendental beauty as -the ultimate principle in things. But the prophets of -Israel assigned to the ethical principle the highest rank -in man’s life and in the world at large. The best thing -in man, they declared, is his moral personality; and the -best thing in the world, the supreme and controlling -principle, is the moral power that pervades it.</p> - -<p>The predominance of the ethical principle in religion -dates from the prophets of Israel. The religious development -of the human race took a new turn in their -sublime predications, and I for one am certainly conscious -of having drawn my first draught of moral inspiration -from their writings.<a id="FNanchor_6_6" href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">6</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span></p> -<p>But nevertheless I found myself compelled to -separate from the religion of Israel. Now why was -it necessary for me to take this step? Why not continue -along the path first blazed by the Hebrew prophets—smoothing -it perhaps and widening it? Why not -separate the dross from the gold, the error from the -truth, explicating what is implicit in that truth, and -adapting it to the needs and conditions of the modern -age? The answer is that the truth contained in the -Hebrew, and as I shall presently show, in the Christian -religion, is not capable of such adaptation. It -claims finality. I have mentioned that there is an element -of permanent value in both the Hebrew and the -Christian religion, and that it should be restated and -fitted into a larger synthesis. But this is impossible unless -the Hebrew or Christian setting be broken, unless -the element to be preserved is taken out of its context, -and treated freshly and with perfect freedom. A religion -like the two I am concerned with is a determinate -thing. It is a closed circle of thoughts and beliefs. It is -capable of a certain degree of change but not of indefinite -change. The limits of change are determined by its -leading conceptions—the monotheistic idea in the one -case, and the centrality of the figure of Christ in the -other. Abandon these, and the boundaries by which the -religion is circumscribed are passed.</p> - -<p>The great religious teachers are men who see the -spiritual landscape from a certain point of view, including -whatever is visible from their station, excluding -whatever is not. The religion which they originate is -thus both inclusive and sharply exclusive. What they -see with their rapt eyes they describe with a trenchancy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -and fitness never thereafter to be equaled.<a id="FNanchor_7_7" href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> But in -order to progress in religion it is necessary to advance -toward a different station, to reach a different, a higher -eminence, and from that to look forth anew upon the -spiritual landscape, comprehending the outlook of one’s -predecessors in a new perspective, seeing what they saw -and much besides.</p> - -<p>Religious growth may also be compared to the growth -of a tree. To expect that development shall continue -along the Hebrew or Christian lines is like expecting -that a tree will continue to develop along one of its -branches. There is a limit beyond which the extension -of a branch cannot go. Then growth must show -itself in the putting forth of a new branch.</p> - -<p>But let me now state with somewhat greater particularity -the reasons that compelled me to depart from -the faith of Israel, and to leave my early religious -home, cherishing pious memories of it, but nevertheless -firmly set in my course towards new horizons.<a id="FNanchor_8_8" href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span></p> - -<p>1. The difficulty created by the claim that Israel is -an elect people, that it stands in a peculiar relation to -the Deity. This claim, at the time when it was put -forth, was neither arrogant nor unfounded. It was -not arrogant because the mission was understood to be -a heavy burden not a privilege: or if a privilege at all, -then the tragic privilege of martyrdom, a martyrdom -continued through generations. And the claim was not -unfounded or preposterous at the time when it was -put forth because the Hebrews were in reality the only -people who conceived of morality in terms of holiness. -It was not absurd for them to assert their mission to -be the teachers of mankind in respect to the spiritual -interpretation of morality, since there was something, -and that something infinitely important, which they actually -had to teach. Moral thinking and moral practices -of course had existed from immemorial times everywhere, -but the conception of morality as divine in its source, as -spiritual in its inmost essence,—this immense idea was -the offspring of the Hebrew mind. On the other hand, -I asked myself, has not the task of Israel in this respect -been accomplished? Have not its Scriptures be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>come -the common property of the civilized nations? -And does not that teacher mistake his office who attempts -to maintain his magisterial authority after his -pupils have come to man’s estate, and are capable of -original contributions? The “nations” are not to be -looked upon in the light of mere pupils. The ethical -message of Israel so far as it is sane is universalistic. -It is founded on the conviction that there is a moral -nature in every human being, and that the moral -nature is a spiritual nature. And if this be so, then -the utterances, the insights, the new visions with which -the spiritual nature is pregnant, cannot be supposed -to be restricted to members of the Jewish people. If -the teaching function is to be maintained it must be -exercised by all who have the gift. If there is to be -an elect body (a dangerous conception, the meaning of -which is to be carefully defined), it must consist of -gentiles and Jews, of men of every race and condition -in whom the spiritual nature is more awakened than -in others, peculiarly vivid, pressing towards utterance.</p> - -<p>2. Aside from the spiritual interpretation of morality, -the mission of the Jewish people has been said to -consist in holding aloft the standard of pure monotheism -as against trinitarianism. But pure monotheism is -a philosophy rather than a religion. Taken by itself -it is too pure, too empty of content to serve the purposes -of a living faith. The attributes of omniscience, -omnipotence, etc., ascribed to Deity are highly abstract, -too abstruse to be even thinkable, save indirectly, and -they certainly fail to touch the heart. As a matter -of fact it was the image of the Father projected upon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -the background of these abstractions, that made the -object of Jewish piety. Jahweh is the heavenly -spouse; Israel is to be his faithful earthly spouse. The -Children of Israel are pre-eminently his children. Other -nations likewise are his children,—some children of -wrath to be cast out and destroyed like the rebellious -son in Deuteronomy, others to be eventually gathered -into the patriarchal household. But this view comes back -to the same general conception of the relations of Israel -to other nations which has just been discussed. Moreover, -the Father image, as representing the divine life -in the world, even when extended so as to include all -mankind on equal terms, is open to a serious objection.<a id="FNanchor_9_9" href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span></p> -<p>3. If, nevertheless, the Jews have a mission, is it perhaps -this: to rehabilitate the prophetic ideal of social -justice? Is it not social justice that the world is crying -for today? Were not the prophets of Israel the -great preachers of righteousness in the sense of social -justice? Did they not affirm that religion consists in -justice and in its concomitant mercifulness, but above -all in justice? Did not Isaiah say: “When ye come -to tread my courts, who has demanded this of you? -Go wash you, make you clean. Put away the evil that -is in your hands. Cease to do evil; learn to do good.” -And later on, “That ye let the oppressed go free, and -that ye break every yoke.” These are solemn, marvelous -words assuredly! They have been ringing down -through the ages, and still find their echo in our hearts. -And yet the justice idea of the prophets is inadequate -to serve the purpose of social reconstruction today. To -go back to it would mean repristination, not renovation. -It is sound as far as it goes, but it does not go far -enough. It is negative, rather than positive; it is based -on the idea of non-violation. What we require today -is a positive conception, and this implies a positive -definition of that holy thing in man that is to be treated -as inviolable. To the mind of the prophets justice -meant chiefly resistance to oppression, since oppression -is the most palpable exemplification of the forbidden -violation. The prophets in their outlook on the external -relations of their people stood for the weak, the -oppressed, against the strong, the oppressor. They stood -for their own weak little nation, the Belgium of those -days, against the two over-mighty empires, Egypt and -Assyria, that bordered it on either side. In the internal -affairs of Israel they espoused the cause of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -weak against the rich and strong: “Woe unto them -that add house to house and field to field, that grind -the faces of the poor.” Ever and ever again the same -note resounds, the same intense, passionately indignant -feeling against violation in the form of oppression. -But this aspect of justice, as I have said, is the negative -aspect,—inestimably important, but insufficient. Where -oppression does not occur, have the claims of justice -ceased? Is there not something even greater than mere -non-infringement, greater than mercifulness or kindness, -which in justice we owe to the personality of our fellows, -namely, to aid in the development of their personality? -Righteousness, yes, by all means,—but does -the righteousness of the prophets of Israel exhaust or -begin to exhaust the content of that vast idea?</p> - -<p>The universalistic ethical idea in the Hebrew religion -is bound up with and bound down by racial restrictions. -The issue between monotheism and trinitarianism -is no longer a vital issue of our day. The -Father image as the symbol of Deity raises expectations -which experience does not confirm. The ideal of -social justice as conceived by the prophets of Israel is -a valid but incomplete expression of what is implied -in social justice. These are weighty considerations -that make it difficult to retain the belief in the elect -character attributed to the people of Israel. There is -one other, of very deep-reaching importance, that must -be noticed. An elect people is supposed to be an exemplary -people, one that sets a moral example which -other nations are expected to copy. But it has become -more and more clear to me that the value of example<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -in the moral life has been overestimated and misunderstood. -No individual, for instance, can really serve -as an example to others so as to be copied by them. -The circumstances are always somewhat different, the -natures are different, and the obligations, finely -examined, are never quite the same. In fact, the best -that anyone can do for another by his example is -to stimulate him to express with consummate fidelity his -different nature in his own different way. I do not -of course deny that there are certain uniformities, chiefly -negative, in moral conduct, but I have come to think -that the ethical quality of moral acts consists in the -points in which they differ rather than in those in which -they agree. The ideally ethical act, to my mind, is the -most completely individualized act.</p> - -<p>And what is true of individuals is no less true of peoples. -No people can really be exemplary for other -peoples, and in this sense elect. Every people possesses -a character of its own to which it is to give expression -in ways which I shall indicate in the last part of this -work. But the way rightly adopted by one nation -cannot be a law or a model for its sister nations. If -the ideal of the modern Zionists were realized, if the -Jews were to return to Palestine, to speak once more -the language of the Bible, to cultivate their distinctive -gifts, they would not therefore produce a pattern which -could be copied in Japan, or among the 400 millions -of China, or in the United States, or among the Slavic -or Latin peoples.</p> - -<p>In concluding these reflections, I may not conceal -from myself or from others that the objection to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -function of exemplariness, if sustained, affects at the -root both the theology and the ethics of the past. If no -individual can be in the strict sense an example to others, -neither can an individual Deity be an example to be -copied by men, neither can Christ be the perfect exemplar -to be imitated. There can be no single perfect exemplar. -Virtues that bear the same name are not therefore -the same virtues. Often it is only the name that is -the same, not the substance; and where they are in a -broad way the same, yet there remains a difference of accent. -The natures of men are unlike. Their moral -destiny is to work out the unlikeness of each in harmony -with that of the others. The moral equivalence of men, -rather than their moral equality, is for me the expression -of the fundamental moral relation.<a id="FNanchor_10_10" href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p> -<p>At the early stage of my career to which I am still -adverting it was urgently put to me that with all the -changes that had taken place in my inner life, I need -not separate myself from the religion of the Fathers, -nay, that I might remain a servant and teacher of -religion within the Jewish fold, gradually weaning -away from the beliefs which they held those whom I -might contrive to influence, and drawing them up—such -was the phrase used—to my own “higher level.” -But this advice was repelled by every inmost fibre -of my being, and could not but be utterly rejected. I -was to publicly represent a certain belief with the purpose -of undermining it. I was to trade upon the simplicity -of my hearers in order to rob them of what they, -crudely and mistakenly perhaps, considered their most -sacred truth, by feigning provisionally, until I could -alter their views, to be in agreement with them. Would -this be fair to them or to myself? Was I to act a lie -in order to teach the truth? There was especially one -passage in the Sabbath service which brought me to the -point of resolution: I mean the words spoken by the -officiating minister as he holds up the Pentateuch scroll, -“And this is the Law which Moses set before the people -of Israel.” I had lately returned from abroad where -I had had a fairly thorough course in Biblical exegesis, -and had become convinced that the Mosaic religion is -so to speak a religious mosaic, and that there is hardly -a single stone in it which can with certainty be traced -to the authorship of Moses. Was I to repeat these -words? It was impossible. I was certain that they -would stick in my throat. On these grounds the separation -was decided on by me, and became irremediable.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_III-1">CHAPTER III<br /> - -<small>EMERSON</small></h3> - - -<p>I find on looking backward that my development -proceeded with the help of a series of definitions fixing -my attitude toward teachers who made a special appeal -to me, and toward great historic tendencies past and -present. I was helped both by what I was able to -appreciate in them, and, where I diverged, by what -they forced me to think out for myself. Here let me -acknowledge a passing debt to Emerson. As in the -case of Kant, a strong attraction drew me toward Emerson -with temporary disregard of radical differences,—although -the spell was never so potent or so persistent -in the latter instance as in the former. I made Emerson’s -acquaintance in 1875. I came into touch with -the Emerson circle and read and re-read the <cite>Essays</cite>. -The value of Emerson’s teaching to me at that time consisted -in the exalted view he takes of the self. Divinity -as an object of extraneous worship for me had vanished. -Emerson taught that immediate experience of the divine -power in self may take the place of worship. His doctrine -of self-reliance also was bracing to a youth just -setting out to challenge prevailing opinions and to -urge plans of transformation upon the community in -which he worked. But I soon discovered that Emerson -overstresses self-affirmation at the expense of service.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -For a time indeed I reconciled in my own fashion the two -contrary tendencies. The divine power, I argued, -flows through me as a channel—hence the grandeur -which attaches to my spiritual nature. But the divine -power manifests itself in redressing the wrongs that -exist in the world, and in putting an end to such violations -of personality as the sexual and economic exploitations -which disgrace human society. So for a -time I continued to walk on air with Emerson, and had -my head in the clouds,—the clouds in which Emerson -enveloped me.</p> - -<p>Out of this false sense of security, this quasi-pantheistic -self-affirmation, the experiences of the next few years -effectually roused me. I came to see that Emerson’s -pantheism in effect spoils his ethics. Be thyself, he -says, not a counterfeit or imitation of someone else. -Be different. But why! Because the One manifests -itself in endless variety. Penetrating below the surface, -however, one finds that in this kind of philosophy the -value of difference, to which I attach essential importance -on ethical grounds, is nothing more than that -of a foil. According to Emerson life is a universal -masquerade, and the interest of the whole business of -living consists in the ever-renewed discovery that the -face behind the different masks is still the same. Difference -is not cherished on its own account. And here, -as in the case of the uniformity principle of Hebraism, -I found myself dissenting.</p> - -<p>Emerson is a kind of eagle, circling high up in the -ether—<i lang="la">non soli cedit</i>.</p> - -<p>Emerson with his oracular sayings might have served<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -as a priest at Dodona or led the mysteries at Eleusis. -Yet, withal, he is genuinely American,—a rare blend -of ancient mystic and modern Yankee,—a valued poet -too, but as an ethical guide to be accepted only with -large reservations.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_IV-1">CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<small>THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS</small></h3> - - -<p>At about this time I began to occupy myself more -seriously than I had done before, with the study of the -New Testament. I had, I think a great advantage in -my approach to it, for the very reason that I had not -been brought up in the Christian tradition. I came -from the outside, with a mind fresh to receive first-hand -impressions. I had not had instilled into me from -childhood the kind of hesitant awe that prevents impartial -appraisement of excellences and of possible deficiencies. -On the other hand, as a searcher I was -deeply interested to ascertain what Christianity could -give me, and to what extent it could further my spiritual -development. I had not the enforcedly apologetic -attitude; I did not come prepared to accept without -question nor yet to find fault; I came to test for my own -use. Here am I, with life and its problem before me—how -can the teachings of Jesus help me in my search, -in my dire perplexities?</p> - -<p>I must say to begin with that I was particularly -struck with the originality of Jesus’ teachings, a quality -in them which to my amazement I had found disputed, -not only by Jews, but by representative Christians. In -Jewish circles it is not uncommon to speak almost condescendingly -of Christianity as of a daughter religion<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -commissioned to spread abroad the truths of Judaism, -with such alloy as may be needed to suit them to the -apprehension of the gentiles. But Christian teachers -likewise—I remember particularly a recent sermon to -that effect—have taken the ground that Jesus added -nothing new to the ethical insight of mankind. His -work, it is said, consisted merely in supplying a sufficient -motive for performing the duties which everyone -knows, but which, lacking this motive, we are supposedly -impotent to practice. This strange misapprehension -of the intimate nature of Jesus’ contribution to -ethical progress is largely due, I take it, to the poverty -of our moral vocabulary. Language puts at our disposal -only a few terms, such as Justice, Righteousness, -Love,—which must needs stand for a great variety of -moral ideas. Thus Justice in Plato’s use of the word, -implies that “a shoemaker shall stick to his last,” that -those who perform the humble functions shall be content -to perform them in due subservience to their superiors. -A very different meaning was attached to justice -by the Hebrew prophets as I have explained in the last -chapter. Again, a quite different conception of justice -is framed and stressed by modern social reformers. -Now it is this ambiguity of the moral vocabulary that -conceals the novelty of Jesus’ precepts. Thus, to mention -only a single capital instance, it has been asserted -that the Golden Rule as taught by Jesus is not original, -but substantially the same rule that had been laid down -by Confucius 500 years before the time of Jesus. But -on closer scrutiny it will be seen that the two Golden -Rules are by no means the same. As propounded by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -the Chinese sage the rule appears to mean: Keep the -balance true between thyself and thy neighbor; illustrate -in thy conduct the principle of equilibrium. As -impressed upon his disciples by Jesus it means: Look -upon thy neighbor as thy other self; act towards him as -if thou wert he.</p> - -<p>To return to my point, the impression of novelty -which I received in reading the Gospels was definite and -striking. The mythological idealization of Jesus, indeed, -I put aside as a thing that did not concern me. -On the other hand, to say with certain modern liberals -that he was just a man, an infinitely gracious personality, -one who exemplified in his life the virtues of forgiveness -and self-sacrifice, did not satisfy me either. Buddha -too had taught forgiveness: “For hatred is not conquered -by hatred at any time; hatred is conquered by -love.” It could not then be the bare precept of forgiveness -that lets light on the secret of Jesus. And self-sacrifice—“Greater -love hath no man than this, that -he should lay down his life for his friend”—had been -practiced within and without the pale of Hebraism.</p> - -<p>That he continued the work of his Hebrew predecessors -I made no doubt. On the Hebrew side he was a -prophet, or rather, a saint in Israel. But I had just -as little doubt that he took a step beyond his predecessors, -that his teachings bear upon them the signature -of originality.</p> - -<p>To put my thought briefly, I came to conclude that -the ethical originality of Jesus consists in a new way -of dealing with the problem of evil, that is, of evil in -the guise of oppression. The prophets, his predeces<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>sors, -as we have seen, identified injustice with oppression; -and in the first flush of their moral enthusiasm -the more optimistic among them believed that justice as -they conceived of it would presently triumph and that -oppression would cease altogether—“Arise, shine, for -thy light is come.” God would miraculously interfere, -and bring about on earth a state of righteousness. But -years and centuries passed by, and oppression, far from -ceasing, became under the ruthless administration of -Rome ever more grinding and terrible. The yoke of -Rome weighed upon the Jews as it did upon other peoples; -but perhaps, because they were more independent -in spirit, it galled them more sorely. The fiery zealots -among the Jews persisted in hoping that by supreme -desperate efforts, God coming to their aid, they might -yet succeed in shaking off this yoke—efforts which culminated -in the horrors of the last siege of Jerusalem. -Jesus was not of their way of thinking. He seems indeed -to have believed that the end of the existing order -was near. It was too incredibly bad to last. The -world would be consumed by fire. A new earth and a -new heaven would appear. But in the meantime how -accommodate oneself to the intolerable fact of oppression? -Jesus said, Resist not evil in the guise of oppression, -it is irresistible. He mentions in particular -three forms of intolerable oppression: a blow in the face, -the stripping of a man of his garment, and the coercing -him to do the arbitrary bidding of another. He says, -Resist not evil, resist not oppression. Shall then evil -triumph? Is the victim helplessly at the mercy of the -injurer? Shall he even be told that in a servile spirit<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -he must accept the indignities that are put upon him? -No; this is not the meaning. Quite a different meaning -is implied. And here the teaching of Jesus takes -its novel turn. There is a way, he says to the victim, in -which you can spiritually triumph over the evildoer, -and make your peace with irresistible oppression. Use -it as a means of self-purification; pause to consider what -the inner motives are that lead your enemy, and others -like him, to do such acts as they are guilty of, and to -so violate your personality and that of others. The -motives <em>in them</em> are lust, greed, anger, wilfulness, pride. -Now turn your gaze inward upon yourself, look into -your own heart and learn, perhaps to your amazement, -that the same evil streams trickle through you; that you, -too, are subject, even if it be only subconsciously and incipiently, -to the same appetites, passions, and pride, -that animate your injurers. Therefore let the sufferings -you endure at the hands of those who allow these bad -impulses free rein in their treatment of you lead you -to expel the same bad impulses that stir potentially in -your breast; let this experience fill you with a deeper -horror of the evil, and prove the incentive to secure -your own emancipation from its control. In this way -you will achieve a real triumph over your enemy, and -will be able to make your peace with oppression. There -are other intolerable evils in the world besides oppression -which nevertheless must be tolerated. The method -of Jesus can be applied to these also. This method -I regard as a permanent contribution to the ethical -progress of humanity.</p> - -<p>A second original trait in Jesus’ teaching I found in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -his conception of the spiritual nature, and of his doctrine -of love as dependent on that conception. The -conception or definition is still negative as in the non-violation -ethics of the Hebrew prophets. The spiritual -element in man is hidden. It cannot be apprehended -as to what it is substantively. The attributes ascribed -to it are the effects in which it manifests itself; this -goes without saying. To define the spiritual nature -means to describe these effects, these manifestations. -According to the Hebrew predecessors of Jesus the -spiritual power is to be conceived of as that which -prompts a man to respect the holy precinct of personality -in others and in himself. What the holy thing is remains -unknown. This view leads to acts of justice and -mercy, as above explained. According to Jesus the -spiritual essence in man bids him expel the inner, impure -impulses that lead to external violations. In brief, the -spiritual power is conceived of in terms of purity. It is -the pure thing in man that thrusts out as alien to itself -whatever is impure—whatever is of the world, the flesh, -and, in mythological language, whatever is Satanic. In -this sense I say that the definition is negative. It marks -out, indeed, a definite line of conduct; and it even leads, -as we shall presently see, to active efforts in a specific -direction. A negative principle may have certain positive -results. But in the main, nevertheless, the teaching -of Jesus enlightens us as to what shall not be rather than -as to what shall be. From the Hebrew prophets we learn -that there shall not be violation of personality or injustice, -the positive concomitant being mercy; from -Jesus’ teachings we learn that there shall not be im<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>purity -in the inner forum, the positive by-product being -the doctrine of love.</p> - -<p>Taking over the Hebrew heritage, Jesus affirmed -that the spiritual nature exists in all human beings. -In every man there is presumed to be this inner power to -reject the unclean admixtures, to ward off and repel the -carnal solicitations, to withdraw from the “world,” and -to move upward toward the source of purity, which is -God. The spirituality of man consisting of purity, the -Father-God, the Father of Lights, is likewise conceived -as the absolutely pure, in this sense as the most -holy. In every man there is a ray of the eternal light -emanating from the eternal luminary, and all men are -one in so far as their rays converge at the focus of Godhead. -To love men is to be conscious of one’s unity -with them in the central life, and to give effect to this -consciousness. Hence Christian love, the love that Jesus -taught, is no earthly love, no mere sentiment, or outreaching -of the human affections. On the contrary, the -natural human ties are repeatedly set aside in the <i lang="la">logia</i>. -To love another is to love him in God. Later the -current phrase became, to love him in Christ; that is, -to think of him, and act towards him, as if he possessed -the same capacity for purity with oneself.</p> - -<p>The love of others in God or Christ encouraged a -particular kind of earthly beneficence, and it especially -inspired the followers of Jesus with an unparalleled zeal -in works of remedial (though never of preventive) charity. -This may at first sight seem paradoxical. The young -man is advised to dispossess himself of all he has, and -in the same breath is told to distribute his possessions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -among the poor. Why not rather scatter them to the -winds? Why should not the poor too cease to toil and -spin and take heed for the morrow? For their simple -necessities God would provide. The two-fold attitude, -however, is easy to understand if we remember that -certain acts of helpfulness have a symbolic significance, -as attesting the value we set upon the person to whose -needs we minister, much as a flower offered to a beloved -person emblematically intimates our sense of the -beauty and worth of the one to whom the tribute is -offered. Christian charity, on its earthly side, has a similar -meaning and purpose. It is intended to efface -the indignity to which human beings are subjected -when reduced to extreme indigence or allowed to suffer -without relief, for it is the disdain of the spiritual personality -thus evinced which Jesus disallows. He bids -his followers intimate by earthly tokens their consciousness -of the super-earthly worth of their fellow-beings. -But the pursuit of riches as such he nowhere encourages—quite -the contrary. And it is certainly a mistake to -represent Jesus, as has recently been done, as a kind of -precursor of modern Socialism, and to think of him as -one who, if he had lived in our time, would have laid -stress on equality of opportunity for all to gain earthly -possessions. He who advocated wealth for none could -not be supposed to have sympathized with a social -movement whose first object it is to secure wealth for -all.</p> - -<p>It is this interpretation of love that helped me to understand -the interior meaning of the doctrine of the -forgiveness of enemies as taught by Jesus, and to per<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span>ceive -wherein it differs from the apparently identical -mode of behavior enjoined by Buddha and the Stoic -Seneca. It plays a capital rôle in Jesus’ teaching. -As illustrated by the proto-martyr Stephen it probably -effected the conversion of Paul. Jesus says: “Bless -them that curse you.” But how is it possible to bless -those that curse us? How, for instance, was it possible -for Stephen to bless the men of blood at the very moment -when they were crushing him under stones? To -bless them that curse you, to bless them that despitefully -use you, means to distinguish between the spiritual possibilities -latent in them and their overt conduct, to see -the human, the potentially divine face behind the horrible -mask, and to invoke the influence of the divine -power upon them in order that it may change them into -their purer, better selves.</p> - -<p>With complete and eager appreciation of the points -of excellence contained in these teachings, with a reverence -which it is impossible to express in words for -their incomparable Author, and with a large sense of -the beneficent influence which they have exercised on -human history, I still could not avoid the question, so -vital for me, Have these ethical teachings of the great -Master the stamp of finality upon them? Has Jesus -really spoken the last word in ethics? Is nothing left -for us but further to expand and apply the truth which -he laid down once and for all? When theology goes, -the last stand of apologetic writers is apt to be made -on the ethics. The instinct to claim finality for the -religion in which one has been brought up asserts itself -in the claim that the moral teachings at least are un<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span>exceptionable -and valid for all time to come. The -searcher who is in great moral perplexities and who -seeks help for others and himself, is bound to ask and -will ask in no captious spirit, is this so?</p> - -<p>The decisive point is whether the ethical teachings of -Jesus supply a principle which enables us to work with -zest in the world, to take the keenest interest in all the -manifold activities of human society, to embrace the -world with the view of penetrating it with a spiritual -purpose and of thus transforming it. Do these teachings -exhibit a way of making the world and the flesh -instrumental to the spirit, or do they serve to turn us -away from the world and its interests, to abandon the -world in despair? Is the conception of spirituality as -purity adequate? Purity is certainly one aspect of -morality; is it the sole or the principal factor in it? -The other-worldly attitude in the Gospels is certainly -clearly marked. It is the background on which the ethical -precepts stand forth. Tyrrel has argued as against -Harnack for the close connection between the thought -of Jesus and the apocalyptic vision. I asked myself, -Can the apocalyptic vision, that is to say the other-worldliness, -be dissociated from the ethics, or is the -relation between them necessary?<a id="FNanchor_11_11" href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> If the world is -speedily, almost immediately, coming to an end, then -it is justifiable to prefer celibacy to marriage, to ignore -the state, to counsel disregard of the toiling and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -spinning. All of this is warranted on the assumption -that the order of things in which these institutions and -activities have their place is about to disappear.</p> - -<p>But if this expectation is deceived, if things continue -in their ancient course, if the world and the flesh persist, -taking on ever new and more baffling shapes, how is a -system of ethics which is based on the assumption of one -state of things to be reconciled with a state of things -exactly the opposite? How shall an ethical person conduct -himself in a world which his philosophy of life -teaches him to reject, but with which the necessities of -his existence compel him to come to terms day by day -and hour by hour? There must then be compromise. -And the history of Christianity up to the present moment -is the record of such compromises. Monasticism -was one of the earliest. A distinction was made, so to -speak, between perfect and imperfect Christians, between -a class of men and women who lived in ascetic seclusion, -as if the world did not exist, and another class, -the greater number, who managed ethically as best they -could, dependent on the supererogatory merits of the -real Christians or saints to eke out their unholiness. Another -species of compromise is illustrated, especially in -Protestant countries. It appears as a division between -the contracted sphere of holiness and the circumambient -sphere of the practical life, in both of which, however, -the same individual has his place. Chastity, forgiveness -of personal enemies, and the like virtues are to be practiced -in the contracted sphere of private life, the ability -to practice these virtues being derived from mystical -identification with Jesus. In the Christian’s public life<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> -no such identification is possible, and he is left to be consciously -or unconsciously unholy. As a politician, as a -competitor in the struggle for wealth, he remains without -ethical direction. The ethical ideal of the Gospels requires -for its setting the apocalyptic vision. It derives -its cogency from the belief that the world is about to -perish. Can it serve as a sufficient guide to those who -must live in the world, and affirm their ethical personality -in dealing with it? In politics, in business, in -science, in art, must we not somehow see our way to the -conception that these great interests are not alien to the -spiritual nature, introducing perchance impure admixtures -into it, but rather can be made subservient or instrumental -to it? Yes; but instrumental in what way? -At this point, not only the Christian system, but every -one of the systems of ethics that have arisen since then -has failed. And it is, moreover, perfectly evident that -the instrumental function of the sex relation or of the -pursuit of knowledge or of patriotism cannot be determined -unless we first answer the one question which the -ethical writers are in the habit of evading—Instrumental -to what end? What is the ethical end? Instruments are -means to ends—how can the means be rightly appraised -without a definite conception of the end? And if the end -be the affirmation of our ethical personality, of our -spiritual nature, of that holy thing in us without which -man loses his worth (and without which the rule of non-violation -itself falls to the ground, since where there is -nothing inviolable there can be no infringement), it is -plain that we must seek a positive definition of the spiritual -nature which shall serve as a principle of regulation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -where the empty concept of purity has manifestly failed.</p> - -<p>Christian ethics has promoted the moral development -of mankind in a thousand ways. It has helped even by -its mythological embodiment of a transcendental idea to -place the individual more firmly on his feet. It has emphasized -the inner springs of conduct; it has given -prominence to certain principal virtues of the private -life; but, like every product of the mind and aspirations -of man, it exhibits the limitations of the time and of the -social conditions under which it arose. The conditions -have since changed. Society has become infinitely more -complex, and in consequence new moral problems have -forced themselves upon men’s attention; and with the -help of Christianity itself the human race has advanced -beyond the point of view for which Christianity stands.<a id="FNanchor_12_12" href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">12</a></p> - -<p>Speaking again only for myself I could not assent to -the position that finality appertains to the ethical teachings -of the Gospel, that they or their Author have -spoken the last word in ethics. I could not persuade -myself that this is so because I failed to get from these -teachings, inestimably precious as they are, an answer -to the question that most pressed upon me—Instrumental -in what sense, instrumental to what end?</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span></p> - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_V-1">CHAPTER V<br /> - -<small>SOCIAL REFORM</small></h3> - - -<p>My position at that time may be summarized as follows: -There is a divine power in the world, not individual, -manifest in the moral law as revealed in human experience. -The moral law involves recognition of the -presence of a something holy in each human being. -Since the world presents innumerable examples of the -grossest violation of human personality (e.g., prostitution -and exploitation of laborers), the business immediately -in hand is to make an end of these violations. -There was as yet in my mind no positive definition of -personality. Clarification and further development were -promoted by the necessity of grappling with the problems -of poverty and with the attempted solutions of the -Socialists and of other social reformers. At this period, -the notion of personality in my mind being still without -determinate content, empirical matter intruded, and a -species of millennialism for a time vitiated my thinking. -In order to set up a goal for humanity, I dallied with -Utopias, and flattered my imagination with the vision -of something like a state of ultimate earthly felicity. -The cheap cry of “Let us have heaven on earth” was -also on my lips, though the delusion did not last long -and perhaps never penetrated very deeply.</p> - -<p>The problem of poverty, as mentioned above, en<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>grossed -me early. I acted as chairman of the meeting -at which Henry George was first introduced to the -public in New York City. But Henry George’s -remedy,—a single draught of Socialism with unstinted -individualism thereafter—never attracted me, while his -descriptions of the misery of the poor, eloquent as they -were, and fitted to awaken persons unacquainted with -actual conditions, conveyed to me no novel message. I -had before then been profoundly stirred by the chapters -in Karl Marx’s <cite>Kapital</cite> in which he collects from the -English Blue Books frightful evidence of the mistreatment -of laborers and especially of children in the early -part of the nineteenth century. My errands in the tenement -slums of New York had also made me fairly familiar -with the bitter facts, and throughout my life I have -been in touch in a practical way with the appalling complexus -of misery and wrong which we abstractly designate -as the Labor Question. I shall not here take time -to discuss Socialism or other social reform movements in -detail. My intention is to sketch a certain philosophy -of life, and to trace the steps by which I reached it. My -reaction against Socialism and related movements, however, -was a prime factor in this inner development; and -it is of this reaction and the causes of it that I must -speak.</p> - -<p>The evils inherent in poverty are, in the first place, -obviously, the privations entailed by it; secondly, the -fact that the greater part of the life of the poor is consumed -in efforts to provide the bare necessaries, the -mind being thus kept in bondage to bodily needs and -prevented from rising to other interests more appropri<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>ate -to rational beings; thirdly, the fact that the first -two wrongs are caused, not wholly it is true, but yet in -a large measure, by fellow human beings.<a id="FNanchor_13_13" href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> The sting -in poverty is not so much the hardships suffered, as the -contempt for the manhood of the poor, exhibited by -their exploiters,—the inequity being thus turned into iniquity.</p> - -<p>Now my reaction against Socialism was and is that it -neglects the third, the moral evil, and stresses only the -first and second. I am now speaking of Marxian Socialism, -with which in its rigid form I early acquainted -myself. The Marxian Socialist does not deny the pain -felt in consequence of the inequity, nor the desire of -those who suffer to become the equals of their masters; -but he regards this desire as a fact of nature explicable -on deterministic grounds, a consequence of improvement -in the technique or tools of industry. He does -not deny that there are so-called moral ideas, but he -considers them epiphenomena or by-products of economic -development. The tendency toward equilibrium -of power in human society, termed democracy, is to him -just a fact and nothing more. The mere desire for it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -apart from the rightness of the desire is the efficient -cause which leads to social readjustments. But evidently -this account of the matter will be persuasive only -in case the efficient cause proves to be really efficient, -that is to say, in case the desire for equilibration is on -the point of effectuating itself. If it is not, if the desire -of the masses for power is thwarted, if the realization of -their hopes is indefinitely postponed, then the foundations -of the theory are undermined. Hence Marxian -Socialism has been coupled with and depends on a belief -which is a kind of materialistic parallel of the apocalyptic -vision of Jesus,—the belief that the end of the present -world (the world of the wage system) is close at -hand, only with the difference that the end is to be -brought about not by divine interference but automatically -by the acquisition of power on the part of the -masses.</p> - -<p>To me neither hunger nor the bondage of the mind to -physical necessities nor the bare fact of inequity seem -sufficient to justify the demand for social reconstruction, -apart from moral right. If there be no such thing -as morality, or if morality be but an epiphenomenon of -economic conditions, what warrant have the hungry or -the disadvantaged for complaining? Animals, too, hunger -and sicken. If man be like them a mere chance -product of nature, why should he not share their fate? -Let the weak succumb! Surely the bald fact that the -democratic masses today chafe under the yoke of their -masters and demand a better state of things, is no more -a ground of obligation for the former than the tendency -toward an ultimate equilibrium in nature of which scien<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>tists -speak can be a ground of obligation. The tendency -will effectuate itself or not as the acting forces determine. -There is in truth no such thing as obligation -from this point of view. Then why not fold our arms -and wait for what will happen? The notion of democracy -currently held is obnoxious to the same criticism. -Leave out the moral basis in the claim to equity, -and nothing remains but the brute fact that men, being -egotists, fret under the exercise of superior power by -their fellow egotists. But let Nietzsche or some one -else demonstrate that certain higher values, higher merely -because subjectively relished as higher, are incompatible -with equilibrium of power, and he will be justified -at least in his own eyes in scoffing at equality and scourging -the democratic dogs back to their kennels. No one -denies that the masses have the desire to be treated as -the equals of their masters (very inconveniently for the -latter), but it is quite another matter whether their desire -ought to be gratified. Social reconstruction, in -other words, must be motivated by other considerations -than those by which according to Marx the great change -is to come about.</p> - -<p>I have not stopped to consider whether the Socialistic -scheme is workable, whether the run of mankind are -capable of coöperative effort on a large scale without -the preëminent leadership of master minds; whether -Socialism, if carried out, would really breed, as it is expected -to, the sentiment of ideal brotherhood; whether -the sentiment of brotherhood itself, unless it be rooted in -the closer family and national ties, is morally sound, -whether the emotional forces that sweep through and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span> -overwhelm large aggregations of men, can be bridled -and sufficiently enlightened to promote the ends of Socialism. -All such questions as these touch the feasibility -of the ideal proposed; my own reaction was and is -against the ideal <em>itself</em>. Instead of pronouncing as some -do that mankind are not yet ripe to carry out so high an -ideal, I found myself seriously challenging and finally -rejecting the very ideal on the ground that it is not a -genuine moral ideal at all. It is ethically spurious, because -it omits the notion of right and substitutes for it -that of power.</p> - -<p>A different objection lies against certain modifications -of Socialism and against many of the social reform -movements of our time. In these movements the idea -of personality is not absent as in Marx’s theory. The -inherent dignity of every human being is deeply felt, -and <i lang="la">per contra</i> the indignity of the present condition of -the greater number. Man is worth while; and for the -sake of the worth in him, the unfavorable circumstances -which stifle the promise of his nature are to be changed. -My objection in this case is that the higher spiritual -nature of man, or the notion of personality, is left indefinite -and remains vaguely in the background. It -supplies indeed the initial motive for practical efforts; -but the instrumental relation of the goods of life to the -supreme good is not apprehended positively. And thus -the door is left open, as we shall presently see, for corrupting -influences to enter in.</p> - -<p>There seems, it is true, at first sight, considerable -warrant for demanding certain instant reforms without -troubling about ulterior spiritual ends. We are con<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>fronted -in modern society with evils which seem to require -immediate abolition. Exploitation is palpably one -of them. It is the clearest possible case of trespass on -personality. Why not then demand respect simply for -personality in general, without inquiring into the nature -of personality? Is it not beyond all question dishonoring -to human nature that some should be on the verge of -starvation while others are even themselves injured by -excessive possessions; that the energies of children should -be exhausted by premature toil; that adults should be -worked like beasts of burden? Why not leave in abeyance -the definition of the supreme end, and concentrate -effort on the removal of these incontestable evils?</p> - -<p>My answer to this is, in the first place, that we cannot -gain the best leverage even for these initial reforms -without a high and defined conception of man as a -spiritual being. Efforts directed toward improving even -material conditions are apt to be fluctuating, spasmodic, -and are ever in danger of dying down, unless material -improvement is seen in its relation towards something -else that commands the highest respect—implicit respect. -Sympathy alone is altogether inadequate. It -often works grave harm; it is notoriously intermittent, -at one time broadly expansive and then again contracting -upon the nearest objects. Furthermore, we can at -best sympathize genuinely with only a very limited number -of persons. If anyone were to open his heart to the -sufferings of all the millions of human beings at present -engaged in conflict on the battlefields of Europe; if he -were to try to realize the indirect consequences of this -war; if he were to take a still wider sweep and embrace<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> -in his imagination the populations of India, China, and -the races of Africa, the effect upon him would be simply -paralyzing. The possible effect of one’s sympathetic -action upon this huge volume of human suffering would -appear so insignificant as to make exertion on his part -seem quite irrational. We are assisted by sympathy in -the matter of social reform by the narrowness of our -horizons; and even within these narrow boundaries the -efficiency of the motive depends largely upon the transciency -of the sympathetic mood. Sympathy as a permanent -attitude would disintegrate the self.<a id="FNanchor_14_14" href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">14</a></p> - -<p>The second answer is that by ignoring the ultimate -end we <em>install proximate ends in its place</em>. The reform -movements of our day abstain from attempting to set -up an ultimate good. They are content, as they say, -“to evaluate the tangible goods ready at hand.” In consequence -these tangible goods inevitably usurp the place -of the supreme good. Begin as we may with the high -notion of personality, we become materialists before we -have proceeded very far, and we infect the laboring -masses with our materialism if we omit to define the relation -of proximate ends to the ultimate aim. For remember -that the ultimate end is that which prescribes -the limits within which the nearer aims are to be sanctioned,—the -limit for each being the degree in which it -conduces toward the highest end. Without a goal set<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> -up, without an explicit conception of its regulative function, -the proximate ends abound, and are likely to expand -<i lang="la">ad indefinitum</i>. This is evident, for instance, in -the case of wealth-getting. The poor have not enough -wealth, the rich have too much. “Let us then redress the -balance by at least securing enough for the poor. The -necessary limitations we can discuss after they shall have -at least reached the limit of sufficiency.” But we are -thus kindling the desire for wealth; and this desire and -its possible gratifications are boundless. It is in the -nature of desire to be prolific of new desire, and to aim -unceasingly at new satisfactions. First, a decent dwelling, -sufficient food, education for the children, are -wanted, then luxury, then millions, then multi-millions. -Secondary motives take the place of primary ones. -Wealth becomes a token; the satisfactions it gives are -no longer related to actual wants or needs, but solely to -a fantastic desire for preëminence. Has not this been -the actual history of many of those who have risen from -poverty to great riches? But the same desires are present, -though suppressed, unsatisfied, in the masses, who -look up to the few with admiration or envy. And suppressed -desires are often even more insidiously poisoning, -more contaminating in their effects than satisfied -desires.</p> - -<p>The psychological fact is that human volition as expressed -in action is always determined by some end. A -means is never adopted without there being some object -or purpose in view. Leave out the ultimate aim and the -means become themselves the ends. A decent subsistence -should be treated as related to the ultimate end,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>— -a decent living, for example, as a means to fit the worker -for the duties of fatherhood and citizenship.</p> - -<p>It may again be urged that what has been said is true -only of the ambitious minority, and that the masses -would be quite content with a decent subsistence if only -that much could be assured them. But the prevalence -of cheap imitations of luxury among the poor points in -the opposite direction. At least in a democratic community, -the ambitions of the few are apt to be contagious. -And where this is not the case, as in some of -the older countries of Europe, a certain sordid Philistinism -is apt to manifest itself. The life of the middle -class in Europe is without the restless brilliance that -characterizes the upward-striving class in America,—is -not daringly but meanly materialistic. Redeeming features -are, of course, not wanting, yet how anyone can -conceive the social ideal as a state of things in which the -laboring people shall be raised to the level at present -occupied by the “middle class” is difficult for me to understand. -Nor is it a sufficient rejoinder to say that the -present complexion of the middle class, its narrowness -and Philistinism, are due to isolation from the social -classes beneath them, and that the broad sentiment of -universal fellowship and fraternity, when it shall have -come to prevail, will purify the atmosphere on the middle -level. I have sufficiently indicated my doubts as to the -efficiency and soundness of what is called fraternalism.</p> - -<p>In brief, if we are to preserve a man’s respect for -himself as a moral being, we must find a ground on -which he can maintain his self-esteem apart from the -material conditions in which he is placed, and in the in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>terval -before the desirable material changes can possibly -be accomplished. This interval is certain to be long. -The betterment of social conditions is sure to be gradual. -The slum ought to be abolished immediately, but until it -goes we must find a reason to respect the man in the -slums even now, and a reason why he should respect -himself even now. This reason can only be derived from -the spiritual nature of man, from the spiritual end for -which he exists; and on this account, above all others, -it is indispensable that the spiritual end be defined. -How painfully social reformers may be led into error -by slighting this consideration is seen in the readiness -with which some have subscribed to the amazing opinion -that the issue between chastity and dishonor for the -working-girl depends ultimately on the amount of her -wages.</p> - -<p>There are two fallacies that affect the social reform -movements of today. The substitution of power for -right is one. What I venture to call the fallacy of provisionalism -is the second. This is the fallacy of the opportunist -movements. “Lead the laboring classes provisionally -up to the level of sufficiency, or of decent existence, -and then we shall see.” But man does not act -without ends, and unless we define the ultimate end, we -give license to the proximate ends. In other words, we -simply cannot act provisionally. We cannot ignore our -spiritual nature without offending against it. We may -start with the idea of serving it, but without explicit -definition of it we shall presently find ourselves disgraced -in all sorts of idolatries.</p> - -<p>What I am trying to show is how I came to perceive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -the inadequacy of the non-violation ethics. Its formula -is: “Admit the existence of personality; do not infringe -upon it. In your actions for the good of others, try to -abolish the manifest infringements or violations. Since -there must be some positive content to the idea of good, -accept the material or empirical goods as the provisional -content with the general understanding that they are to -be instrumental to the higher life but without troubling -to define exactly how.”</p> - -<p>The aberrations to which this view leads on the side -of action toward others I have pointed out. A word -now as to the injurious effect on self. Of these the following -are the most important:</p> - -<p>1. The leader in social reform is apt to be regarded -by his followers and to think of himself as a kind of savior. -It is his sincere intention to save society from some -of the glaring evils with which it is afflicted. But if salvation -is sought in the betterment of external conditions, -the social savior is apt to become the victim of a false -sense of moral security. He is likely to be off his guard -at the weak points of his own character, and to fall -abruptly from high levels into the ditch.</p> - -<p>2. The social reformer who adopts the fallacy of provisionalism -is apt to be absorbed in the <em>mechanical</em> details -of his work,—the settlement or the municipal reform -society, or the charitable association tend to become -highly organized and efficient pieces of machinery. -But moral idealism declines in proportion as this kind -of efficiency increases,—the salt loses its savor.</p> - -<p>3. The social reformer who sets his heart on external -changes is apt to become <em>impatient</em> to bring about those<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -changes. For since he attempts to work from without -inwardly, and not at the same time from within outwardly, -he has nothing to show for his pains unless the desired -outward changes are actually effected. In this way -may be explained a certain dictatorial manner, a certain -arbitrariness sometimes observed in social workers of -whose earnestness and devotion there can be no question, -the preposterous outcome being that in attempting -to carry out plans of reform in a democratic community -such reformers offend against the very principle -of democracy by over-riding the personality of others.</p> - -<p>4. The Social reformer who concentrates his attention -on external changes is apt to be ambitious of large results, -to measure betterment by statistical standards. -Though quality be not overlooked, <em>quantity</em> is likely to -be over-emphasized.</p> - -<p>5. The painful spectacle is sometimes presented of a -leader in social movements who <em>goes to pieces morally in -his private relations</em> (becomes a bad father, a worthless -husband, an unscrupulous sponge on his friends, etc.). -Absorption in extensive public movements has this danger -in it that it often tends to make men neglectful of -the nearer duties.</p> - -<p>Facts of this kind, which came repeatedly under my -observation in the course of years, drove home to my -mind the conviction that the provisional method in social -reform (the method of working for external changes -without definition of the end) is morally perilous, both -in its effects on those who are to be benefited, and in its -reaction on the character of the reformer himself. I -parted company with opportunism in every one of its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> -forms; I became more and more imbued with the belief -that no one can really help others who in the effort to do -so is not himself morally helped, i.e., whose character is -not improved in every respect, who does not become a -<em>better</em> father, husband, citizen, a more upright man in -all his relations in and because of his endeavors to benefit -society. I became convinced that the ethical principle -must run like a golden thread through the whole of a -man’s life, in a word, that social reform unless inspired -by the spiritual view of it, that is, unless it is made -tributary to the spiritual, the total end of life, is not -social reform in any true sense at all.<a id="FNanchor_15_15" href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span></p> -<p>The fundamental question, therefore, echoed and re-echoed -with ever intenser insistence: “What then is the -holy thing in others? What is the supreme end or good -to which all the lesser goods should be subordinate and -subservient? And what is the holy thing in me?—for I -may not spiritually sacrifice myself. My own highest -good must be achievable in agreement with that of -others. What definition of the essential end is possible -that shall reconcile egoism and altruism by transforming -and transcending them? And if there be such end -thinkable and definable, how establish the applicability -of this end to empirical man, either in the person of -others or in my own?”</p> - -<p>I shall have to dwell on this subject at length in the -sequel. Here at the outset I cannot forbear expressing -my sense of the obliquities, the folly, the meanness, -the cruelties which human nature often exhibits on the -empirical side when dispassionately contemplated. -That there are also finer traits in people, gleams of -gold in the quartz, I do not deny. But even in the -best exemplars of the race the alloy is not wanting. And -it is an open question how far any human being, if his -whole make-up and all the circumstances that influenced -him be considered, can be called predominantly good, -assuming that goodness is a matter of desert and not of -chance. How, therefore, a being that to actual, impartial -observation reveals himself as so dubiously worth -while, can be regarded as possessing the quality of transcendent -worth (which seems to be implied in the idea -of personality as inviolable and precious) will be the -starting point of my inquiry into the philosophical first -principle in the second part of this volume.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_VI-1">CHAPTER VI<br /> - -<small>THE INFLUENCE OF MY VOCATION ON INNER -DEVELOPMENT</small></h3> - - -<p>The present chapter deals with my inner development -as I believe it to have been furthered by my connection -with the Society for Ethical Culture. The functions -intrusted to me in this connection were, first, various -forms of so-called philanthropic activity. The effects -of the experience gathered in them has been described -in a preceding chapter; they may be summed -up in the formula: littleness in the external results -achieved, consciousness of moral danger to self.</p> - -<p>Secondly, the ministerial function of offering “edification” -in public addresses to Sunday assemblies, the solemnizing -of marriages, and the conducting of funeral -services,—while in addition a large part of my vocational -life consisted in the building up of an educational institution.<a id="FNanchor_16_16" href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p> - -<p><em>The Public Addresses.</em> Edification, or building up, -as I understood it, involved the profoundly difficult task -of supplying a working philosophy of life without traveling -into the field of metaphysics, teaching the practicable -counterpart of a connected system of thought -concerning the problems of life,—the system being so -firmly knit as to make the appropriate feelings and im<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span>pulses -more or less natural to its exponent. In my case, -not having fallen heir to such a system, the task of edification -became doubly difficult. It meant from the beginning -unceasing self-edification, with a view to edifying -others.<a id="FNanchor_17_17" href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> Setting out with a general scheme along -Kantian lines, I proceeded to fill in the outline in the -course of my public teachings, with the result that the -content filled in eventually disrupted the scheme, and -compelled a thoroughgoing reconstruction. The Holiness -conception had been my starting point. I never -gave it up. I was attracted to Kant because he affirmed -it. I broke with him because he does not make good his -affirmation.</p> - -<p>I began with Kantianism, which is predominantly individualistic, -and I found that in dealing with the problems -of the family, with the labor question, and in the attempt -to reach an ideal of democracy beyond the materialistic -conception of it which is at present current—I -was introducing into my initial sketch elements incompatible -with individualism, and necessitating formulation -in social terms. And since I retained and stressed -the notion of personality, I had to seek a way of interpreting -the term Social spiritually, as Kant had undertaken -to interpret the term individual spiritually. I certainly -could not fall in with Darwinism or other evolutionary -interpretations of sociality, inasmuch as they -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -all leave out the concept of inviolable personality, the -indefeasible factor in my ethical thinking.</p> - -<p>These things are here alluded to in order to emphasize -the influence of the public Sunday addresses delivered -by me regularly for more than forty years in stimulating, -I had almost said forcing, my ethical growth. To -care for anyone else enough to make his problem one’s -own is ever the beginning of one’s real ethical development. -To care for a group of people in the sense of -being challenged to suggest to them ideas and ways of -behavior that shall really be of use to them in the storm -and stress of life, is the most searching incentive to self-development -imaginable. It is more powerful than the -desire to get truth for one’s own sake. The closet philosopher -may be serious enough in his search for truth, -and he may succeed in constructing a symmetrical system -which at the time seems complete. Will it stand -wear and tear? Will it in the bitter moments of his life -hold together? If not, he has failed; but then he only -is the loser, it is only his ship that has gone down. But -the situation is different when a company of people venture -with you on the same voyage, and trust to you as in -a way their pilot.</p> - -<p>The challenge that comes from the expectant eyes of -those who are in trouble, of those whose relations to their -friends or the members of their family have become -tangled, the challenge that comes from the larger public -towards which every public speaker has a certain ethical -duty—all these challenges press home the question: are -the things that you believe true, so true that you may -confidently expect them to be confirmed by the experi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>ence -of those who in some measure depend upon you? -Are they genuinely of use?</p> - -<p>There is also another kind of challenge that in a way -is even more taxing and searching: the silent appeal -that comes from those who are spiritually dead, from -those who are sunk in sloth or sensuality, or who waste -their precious days in the pursuit of trivial, frivolous -ends, and from the insensitive consciences of the self-righteous -and the self-complacent. In the Bible we -read that the prophet Elisha once threw himself on the -body of a dead child, in order with his own life to kindle -there the life that seemed extinct. In some such way in -public addresses, in which it is not the word but the personality -behind the word that counts, the speaker is -bound to throw himself body and soul, as it were, upon -those who are spiritually numbed, and to <em>enhance the life -within himself</em> in order to stir up life in them. All of -which means that the task of edifying others involves -continuous efforts at self-edification.</p> - -<p><em>The Solemnizing of Marriages.</em> In solemnizing marriages -I had the experience that some of those at which -I had officiated ended disastrously,—there had been no -real marriage at all. Though such instances were not -numerous in my own experience, yet the statistics of divorce -prove that the number of unfortunate marriages in -this and other countries is very large, and is increasing. -What are the foundations of a permanent relation such -as would tend to the development of personality in and -through marriage? was the question urged upon me. -Here is a social tie in which two individuals, and later -the offspring, are combined in the closest propinquity.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -How can an ethical theory of marriage be reached, that -is, a theory dependent on the idea of the joint realization -of the highest end of life by the members of the family -group? This ethical theory of marriage will be set forth -in a subsequent part of this volume. Here I wish again -to mark the retroactive effect of the function I was -called upon to exercise in the Ethical Society on the development -of theory. The most incisive effect of my -practical experience, however, was the being compelled -to encounter the effect of <em>frustration</em>. How reluctant -is the natural man to face this fact! How he shrinks, -and puts up screens between his face and the head of -Medusa! In my earliest marriage addresses I remember -how I used to describe the relation as one in which -each of the partners receives the cup of happiness at -the hands of the other. The second time I performed -the ceremony, the bride was the only child of excellent -friends, whose life was completely wrapped up -in their one daughter. She was a charming young -girl, and the bridegroom was a fine-grained person -entirely devoted to her. That marriage feast I shall -never forget. A little less than a year after, the young -wife having died in child-birth, I was called in to speak -at her bier. Where, then, was the exchange of happiness? -How suddenly had the house of bliss fallen into -ruins! A similar experience that touched me even more -deeply was that of a friend, the first one among my associates -who believed with me in the possibility of a religious -society without a dogmatic creed. The course of -love in his case had not run smooth. The marriage between -himself and the lovely young woman he wedded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -was the happy culmination of many trials, a haven of -peace after storms. Hardly more than two years -elapsed when he suddenly developed a fatal form of -mental disease, and lingered for ten years in a long, -slow, degrading decline. I thus became acquainted with -frustration in one of its most woeful shapes. I remember -how the poor young wife, during those ten years, -widow in all but name, sought alleviation in various directions -for her intolerable grief. Work to occupy her -mind was one; caring for the needs of the poor another. -I remember also how futile these devices seemed. She -had lived “on the heights”; she must now descend to -lower levels; she had had first best, she must now put up -with second or third best. Gladly indeed would she -have exchanged places with some of the poor women -whom she assisted, could she have kept her husband at -her side as they had theirs. It was well enough for her -to try to alleviate the troubles of these people, but what -were their sorrows compared to hers? And to keep the -mind occupied by work, what was it at best but a temporary -anodyne? When the work was over, in the still, -lonely hours of the night, the storm of grief would break -with all the greater violence. I had not taught these my -friends a really valid spiritual conception of the purpose -of marriage: I had failed in that: and when they were -in need of it they did not have it to support them. They -had looked on marriage as a scene of felicity; they had -not been taught to make allowance for the frustration.</p> - -<p>I had not made preparation for the palpable frustrations -just mentioned, nor yet for others, for the discovery -that the beloved person is faulty, that the nimbus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -of divine personality does not coincide with the character. -And especially did the lack of any explicit idea of -personality prove fatal in those cases where the frustration -is most serious, where real or apparent incompatibilities -appear, or where actual degeneration occurs, and -the hope of regeneration becomes remote.</p> - -<p><em>Bereavement</em> was the second shape in which the fact -of frustration most often came home to me. Hundreds -of times I have spoken to people in the moment of the -last leave-taking. The usual consolations, aside from -those that depend on mythological beliefs, are: Submit -to the inevitable; clinch your teeth and face the storms -of fate. Remember the debt you owe to the living. -There is work that remains for you to do. See to it that -you do not by excessive grieving destroy your capacity -for work. Instead of indulging in sorrow for your own -loss, take upon yourself the sorrows of others. In particular -it is uplifting for one who has been more severely -afflicted to take upon himself the sorrow of those whose -burden is lighter. Be grateful for what you have possessed. -Think not so much of what you have lost, as of -what you were privileged for a season to call your own. -Make the virtues of those who are no longer living a -force for good in your own life. Paint the portrait of -your friend incessantly. Retouch it. Eliminate what -was of merely transient value in him. Remember him in -the light of his best qualities, and live so as to be able to -endure his purified glance. Or, in the case of those -whose lives were stained, seek to expiate their faults in -your life. Purify and perpetuate them in this way in -yourself. Memory is not a mere passive receptacle, it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -rather a creative faculty. Let it play upon the lives that -are no longer sensibly present, and thus maintain the -connection with them. A friend living across the sea, -whom you will never see again, may yet be a living presence -for you if you continue by the aid of memory to be -in communication with him. In the case of the departed, -likewise, their effectual influence may remain none the -less real.</p> - -<p>These various modes of consolation have each a certain -value. To the one last mentioned I attach the -greatest value. Bereavement is a challenge for a fresh -start in spiritual development. It should not mean -putting up with the second best, but reaching out toward -first best. The object to be achieved by the ethical -teacher on such occasions is to help the bereaved to tie -anew the threads that have been sundered, or rather to -substitute a more ethereal but firmer tie for the contacts -mediated by the senses. But this task of the reweaving -of ties, spiritually, not sensibly, depends entirely for its -success upon a spiritual conception of personality. And -if this be lacking, the attempt is hopeless. Frustration -itself must be recognized as partial if it is to lead beyond -itself. There must be found in man that which cannot -be defeated if the defeat is not to be accepted as final.</p> - -<p>A third kind of frustration was brought home to me -by the problem of specialization, as it presented itself -in the course of my efforts to work out an ethical theory -true to the facts of life. To discharge competently my -own special function, I saw that I ought to be acquainted -with the best ethical thought of the past. This meant -an exhaustive study of the philosophical systems of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -which the ethical thought of the philosophers is the fruit. -I ought further to be familiar with the great religions, -in which so much of the ethical insight of mankind is incorporated. -I ought to acquaint myself with the moral -history of mankind in so far as it is accessible, including -that of the primitive races. I ought to gain a survey of -the variations of moral opinion that have so staggered -belief in the possibility of ethical truth. I ought to master -at least the general principles of the physical and -biological sciences, since it is impossible that the first -principles of ethics should not be related to the governing -principles that obtain in other departments of -knowledge. I ought in addition to master in their ethical -aspect the economic and political problems of the -present day, as well as the psychology of individual -and social life, in order to be able to apply with some degree -of competence the directives of ethics to actual conduct. -There are in addition other subjects, such as jurisprudence, -poetry and the fine arts, that have ultimate relation -to ethics, and that may not safely be neglected. -Behold, then, the problem of specialism in one of its most -appalling forms. For how can any one individual hope -to adequately fill out such a programme? And what I -have said is but my own personal illustration of a general -problem that more and more besets every reflective person -in our time. And it is a problem that has direct bearings -upon the question of human personality. The personality -is not a detached and isolated thing. It is a center -that radiates out in every possible direction, and depends -for the release of its energy on the influences received -in turn from all directions. On the one hand, to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span> -have a footing at all in reality one must be a specialist, -and the fields of specialism are becoming more and more -restricted. To know one thing well is the indispensable -condition of the sense of mastery, yes, of self-respect. -And yet it seems to be becoming increasingly clear that -one cannot really master a single specialty without -knowing of other specialties whatsoever is related to -one’s own. Narrowness, and loss of power, and consequent -decay of the special function itself, seems the one -alternative. Dilettantism, the other. But again I ask, -who can actually fill out such a programme? The frustration -of effort thus appears, in its intellectual guise, -as one more manifestation of that general fact of frustration -which we meet with wherever we turn.<a id="FNanchor_18_18" href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">18</a></p> - -<p>On the side of character the same reflections occur. -Unity in the direction of distinctiveness or uniqueness is -the end and aim. But instead of unity of character, conflict -of inner tendencies, ever-recurrent rupture of provisional -harmonies, a duality of self or multiplicity of -selves, are the facts attested by one’s inner experience. -And frustration here, at the core of a man’s being, is -perhaps more painful and more seemingly contradictory -of the very ideal and purpose of ethical development -than in any of the forms previously recorded.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span></p> -<p>The last instance of frustration that I will mention -appears in connection with the cosmic relation of our -race. The thought of the death of the individual may be -overcome by the idea of perpetuity in the lives of successors. -The death of the human race, its eventual extinction, -is capable of no such assured compensation. -We are ethical beings, committed to the pursuit of an -ideal end, yet the cosmic conditions are such as to make -the end unattainable within the limits of a finite world. -This unattainableness of the end it is true is the very -ground and foundation of the supersensible interpretation -of ethical experience. Yet this thought itself can -only be made good by a positive interpretation of personality -(of the spiritual nature), which we are yet to -seek. As viewed empirically, the human generations are -but accidents of nature, waves on the sea of life, passing -shadows. And viewing ourselves in this manner our -self-respect goes to pieces. The idea of obligation vanishes. -Man’s claim to infinite worth is bitterly mocked. -Unless we can reach the spiritual view of life, the frustration -of purpose in the large, that is, of humanity as a -whole, is final.</p> - -<p>These then, summarily stated, are the problems with -which an ethical philosophy of life has to deal.</p> - -<p>1. How to remedy the belittlement of man, the infinitesimal -insignificance of him as a creature of time -and space, when compared with the immensities of the -world around him—its spatial and temporal immensities. -What is man in the presence of these myriads of worlds, -of this unending procession of time that he should attribute -to himself significance, nay, worth? Is he perhaps -an infinitesimal member of an Infinite?—preserving -in this way the sense of his littleness, and of the vastness -that bears down upon him, and yet maintaining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -himself irrefragably at his station, as indispensable to -the perfection of the whole.</p> - -<p>2. How to discover a way of retaining the connection -between man and the lower forms of life that preceded -him, not doing violence to the facts which the evolutionists -have brought out, and yet at the same time assuring -man’s spiritual distinction? Does he perhaps possess in -his ethical nature a window, so to speak, through which -he can catch at least a glimpse of the ultimate reality, of -the infinite life which is the real life, behind the picture -screen of sea and mountain, plants and animals?</p> - -<p>3. How to overcome the various types of frustration -mentioned above: frustration on its intellectual side, or -the reconciliation of specialist efficiency with breadth -and relatedness; frustration on the character side.</p> - -<p>Frustration in the social relations, as in marriage, or -as in the case of defective children.</p> - -<p>Frustration through bereavement, or the privation -suffered by the going out of our life of lives with which -we are inseparably connected by ethical as well as affectional -ties.</p> - -<p>Frustration in the attempt to carry out projects of -social betterment; on what moral ground to assert the -possible moral value of life in the slums today, and at -the same time to put forth and to stimulate the most assiduous -efforts to abolish the slum; on what grounds to -affirm that the best life is possible under the worst conditions, -and yet not to cease or for an instant relax the -effort to change the conditions.</p> - -<p>The problem of how to support and console the -wretched multitudes of mankind in the interval that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span> -must elapse before the reform of conditions can take -real effect; the problem of support and consolation in -fatal sickness, on the deathbed, and in the harrowing recollection -of irremediable and irrevocable wrong done -to others; the problem raised by the prospective extinction, -or the possible old age and degeneration before -extinction of mankind—all these problems should be -taken together, not one, for instance the so-called social -problem, accentuated, leaving the rest out of sight. From -one peg they all hang, on one cardinal idea they all depend—the -idea of personality as positively defined, of -the holy thing as not merely inviolable without regard to -its content, but inviolable because of a certain positive -content. The ascription of worth to man, in this sense, -is the fundamental problem of all, and to the full discussion -of this we shall turn in the constructive part of the -volume which is now to follow.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="BOOK_II">BOOK II<br /> - -<small>PHILOSOPHICAL THEORY</small></h2> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_I-2">CHAPTER I<br /> - -<small>INTRODUCTORY REMARKS: CRITIQUE OF KANT</small></h3> - - -<p>I begin my statement of the ethical ideal with a -critique of Kant. The reason for this is that Kant stands -forth preëminent among all philosophers as the one who -emphatically asserts that the attribute of inviolability attaches -to every human being, in his formula that <em>every</em> -man is to be treated as an end <i lang="la">per se</i>, and never to be -used as a mere tool by others. The formula as thus worded -by him is subject to grave objections which will be -dealt with later on. But the grand conception of the -moral worthwhileness of all men is specially connected -with the name of Kant. Did he succeed, on the basis -of his system, in establishing this conception? He seems -to make it the corner-stone of his ethics. Is the corner-stone -secure?</p> - -<p>Referring again to my individual development, I -should find it difficult to express how much Kant’s <cite>Metaphysik -der Sitten</cite> and <cite>Kritik der praktischen Vernunft</cite> -at one time meant to me.</p> - -<p>The one ethical fact of which I was so to speak perfectly -assured, the “inviolability” so often mentioned in -previous chapters, is extremely hard to justify to the -thinking mind. The empirical school of philosophers -scoff at the very notion of it. The practice of the world -is a perpetual, painful evidence of the small attention<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -paid to it, and even idealistic philosophers from Plato -down have found it quite possible to construct quasi-ethical -systems based on the idea, not of human equality, -but of the inferiority of the greater number. In Kant, -however, one encounters an epoch-making philosopher -who not only accepts as a fact the idea of inviolability, -and of the kind of equality that goes with it, but who undertakes -to set it forth in such a manner as to command -the assent of the reason. For a long time I believed -that he had succeeded in his great enterprise; and it was -only after years of discipleship, not indeed without suppressed -misgivings, that I began to see that I had been -mistaken.</p> - -<p>My eyes were opened when I realized certain extremely -questionable moral consequences to which his -doctrine led him: for instance, his unspeakable theory -of marriage, his defense of capital punishment, the stiff -individualism of his system, and his failure to establish -an instrumental connection between the empirical goods, -of wealth, culture, and the like, and the supreme good or -supreme end as defined by him. I was forced by these -unsound conclusions to ask myself whether the foundations -of the system are sound. Surely if it is true of any -system of thought, it is true of an ethical system that it -must be judged by its fruits. The Kantian system is -indeed vastly impressive, and even sublime in some of its -aspects. We travel on the road along which Kant leads -with a certain sense of exaltation, but when at the end of -our journey we find that we have reached a goal at which -we cannot consent to abide, it is imperative to inquire -whether the point of departure was well taken.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span></p> - -<p>The point of departure in Kant’s exposition is the -existence in all men of a sense of duty. Moral relations -subsist only between moral beings. All men possess a -sense of duty,—therefore all men are moral beings, -therefore all are morally equal,—therefore no one may -be used as a mere tool for the benefit of others, but is -to be treated as worth while on his own account. Thus -runs the argument.</p> - -<p>The sense of duty is the consciousness of being bound -to render implicit obedience to a categorical imperative. -Our rational nature tells us categorically what is right -to do. Our rational nature issues absolute commands. -The sense of duty is man’s response to them. Kant does -not for a moment imply that either he or anyone else has -ever adequately obeyed. The moral dignity, the moral -equality of men, does not depend on the obedience but -on the consciousness of the obligation to obey—on acknowledged -subjection to the command. The actual -moral performances of some men are certainly better -than those of others; but of no one, not even of the best -of men, can it be shown that the moral principle in its -purity, that is, unadulterated by baser incentives, was -ever the actuating motive of his conduct. The different -members of the human species differ morally in degree, -but are of the same moral kind, being distinguished -from the lower animals not because they obey the moral -law, but because they recognize the obligation to obey -it. This sort of consciousness may be dim in some, but -it exists in all. The most brutal murderer is dimly aware -of the holy law which he has transgressed.</p> - -<p>The great dictum of the universal moral equality of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -mankind is thus made to depend on an assumed fact. -If this fact can be successfully disputed, the dictum itself -is imperilled. It has been disputed, not flippantly, -but most seriously, and it is in my opinion obnoxious -to fatal objections. I do not indeed believe it possible -to establish the negative, to wit, that the sense of -duty does not lurk somewhere, is not latent somewhere -in the consciousness of persons morally the most obtuse; -but I hold it to be impossible to prove the affirmative, to -wit, that a sense of duty does exist in all human beings, -even in the most degraded. Kant’s dictum of equality -depends on making good the affirmative proposition, but -this he has failed to do.</p> - -<p>One circumstance especially which at first sight seems -favorable to Kant’s contention turns against him. He -has been assailed on the ground that his categorical imperative -is a fiction, that no such an imperative plays -a rôle in the actual experience of men. On the contrary, -the actual experience of men is replete with categorical -imperatives. Nothing in the life of man plays a greater -rôle than these imperatives. The danger that threatens -Kant’s demonstration is due to the number of rival categoricals -that compete with his, and from which the -one he sets up is not with certainty distinguishable. To -put the matter simply, what is called in technical language -a categorical imperative is nothing else than a -way of acting somehow felt by the individual to be obligatory -upon him, whether he likes it or dislikes it. It is a -constraint in which he is bound to acquiesce, a public rule -of some sort which overrides his private propensities.</p> - -<p>Constraints of this sort are numerous. Many of them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -no one would think of designating as moral. Some -are distinctly antimoral. I will mention a few:—for instance, -the rules of behavior derived from the <em>tabu</em> notion. -Certain kinds of food may not be eaten; certain -objects like the Ark of the Covenant in David’s time -may not be touched.<a id="FNanchor_19_19" href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> Strict <em>tabus</em> obtain in regard -to marriage such as the rules of endogamy and exogamy. -Certain persons may not even be looked at. A feeling -of horror is felt toward those who transgress these rules; -and the transgression of them is often considered far -more reprehensible than a moral sin. It would evidently -be absurd to characterize a Hottentot or a Fiji Islander -as the moral equal of a civilized man on the ground that, -like the latter, he possesses the sense of duty, consisting -in his case of an unquestioning acknowledgment of the -categorical imperative of <em>tabus</em>.</p> - -<p>Gang loyalty is another instance in point. In one of -our prisons a certain convict is at present paying the -penalty of a crime which was really committed by one of -his pals. He could have got off scot free if he had -“squealed.” But “squealing” is contrary to the honor -code of the gang and he preferred to sacrifice his liberty -rather than prove recreant to the claims of gang loyalty. -There are some writers who hold that this is an instance -of morality, genuine as far as it goes, but restricted -within too narrow a circle. The fact that it is restricted -within too narrow a circle, that fidelity to a few is compatible -with violent hostility against the community at -large, seems to me to prove that the moral quality is absent. -Morality is either universal or nothing. Gang<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -loyalty is a social phenomenon, but not an ethical -phenomenon. The distinction between the two terms -will be enforced later on. In any event the sense of constraint -is manifest. The moral character of the constraint -I deny.</p> - -<p>Another example of an imperative which is categorical -enough but at the same time non-ethical is furnished by -Darwin’s well-known explanation of the original of conscience. -He assumes that certain ways of behaving -which our ancestors found to be socially useful, have become -registered as it were in our organisms, and constitute -a kind of race-consciousness which persists in each -individual. This latent consciousness is potent as a tendency, -though often not masterful enough to repress the -recalcitrant egoistic impulses. A conflict ensues. The -deep ingrained tendency makes itself felt. And as social -beings we are aware that we ought to side with it. But -the egoistic impulses break out on the surface of consciousness -and vehemently urge us in the opposite direction. -The feeling of obligation, and thereafter of remorse, -are the record of the inner struggle. I do not here -undertake to discuss at length the truth of Darwin’s theory. -There are a number of weak spots in it, to which I -shall merely allude in passing. First, he speaks of acts -found to be socially useful in primitive communities. Is -it possible to show that the same or similar acts retain -their utility in a developed industrial society like that of -the present day? Is not the term “socially useful” extremely -vague, and can the notion implied in it be expanded -without the assistance of a truly ethical princi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>ple?<a id="FNanchor_20_20" href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> -Then again, why should the thing called social -utility overawe the individual mind and thwart individual -purpose? Why should not the daring egotist affirm -his right to be and flourish in the present hour, in the -teeth of social utility? It will be said that the claims -are insistent, that the tendency is ingrained, that it has -become instinctive in him, and that he cannot release -himself from the control it exercises over him. But instincts -can be weakened and in time extinguished, like -the fear of the dark, when the absence of an objective -cause is recognized. Why should not the altruistic impulse -likewise, by the method of Freudian analysis, if -you please, be exposed to the light, and the egotist thereby -be enabled to disembarrass himself of the interference -of dead ancestors in his life purposes, and to proceed on -his way undisturbed by any inward qualms?</p> - -<p>These examples serve to illustrate the point with -which we are here concerned, namely, that the presence -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -and operation of undoubted constraints does not establish -the existence in all men of the sense of duty on -which Kant founds universal moral equality. Kant -would indeed object that all these so-called constraints -or imperatives are hypothetical, and not really categorical. -By an hypothetical imperative he understands one -in which the command depends upon an “if”—<em>if</em> there -be invisible spirits such as primitive men imagined, then -the rules of <em>tabu</em> follow. <em>If</em> the safety of the gang is -an object of commanding interest, then gang loyalty is -obligatory. <em>If</em> the preservation and prosperity of -human society in general (a society superior to that of -ants and of bees indeed but like them a product of nature -and not radically distinct from them) be regarded as -the supreme end of desire and endeavor, then the rules -of social behavior are to be obeyed. But, he would -say, none of these objects are fit to rank so high. They -all are optional ends. An hypothetical imperative is -one in which the end pursued is optional, the imperative -extending only to the means. If the end be desired, -then it is reasonable, and in so far imperative, that we -adopt the means that lead to its attainment. An imperative -truly categorical, however, is one in which the -obligation extends to the end proposed as well as to the -means. It is not left to our inclination to embrace or to -refuse the end, it being of such a kind as absolutely to -constrain us to accept it.</p> - -<p>But if this be so, then in this first part of our criticism -we turn upon Kant and declare that he has nowhere -given us reason to believe that the acceptance of an -absolute end is implied in the kind of constraints to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -which the generality of men submit. And again if such -acceptance cannot be proved, then the universal moral -equality of men based by him on the presence in all of -the sense of duty disappears, and his lofty ethical structure -breaks down at this point.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_II-2">CHAPTER II<br /> - -<small>CRITIQUE OF KANT (<i>Continued</i>)</small></h3> - - -<p>I now proceed to the second point of criticism, which -strikes at the heart of Kant’s ethics. Man according -to Kant is worth while on his own account (an end <i lang="la">per -se</i>), never to be used as a mere tool or thing. He is -a person, an object towards whom we are bound to -evince absolute respect. Yet Kant immediately goes -on to say that there is no object in all the world, neither -man nor any other, that is worth while on its own account, -that deserves such respect. Kant’s views of actual -human nature are tinged with somber pessimism. -(Compare the chapter on Radical Evil in his <cite>Religion -Within the Limits of Pure Reason</cite>.) A strange paradox -is thus presented to us. Man is to be accepted as a -worth while object, and yet there is no worth while -object. How does Kant seek to escape from this predicament? -He says, not the man primarily, but something -that happens in the man, is supremely significant: -certain acts are worth while on their own account,—the -agent only in so far as he performs such acts (or, -let us add with a sigh, as he tries to perform them)—namely, -acts which have as their sole motive respect for -universal law. Then he informs us that similar processes -occur in other agents, in fellow human beings, or, more -precisely, that these others are capable of trying to act<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -as I myself feel bound to try to act. Consider how far -fetched is the argument, on what wavering foundations -has been placed the ethical pronouncement of human -worth and human equality in which our interest is so -profoundly engaged. We do wish to be assured of this -cardinal truth. No other truth is practically and theoretically -of greater importance. As against the iniquitous -practices of the world, as against the exploitation of labor, -as against the degradation of woman, as against political -tyranny whether exercised by kings or by mobs, -we raise up for our shield the indefeasible worth of men—not -of some men but of all men. And now, behold! -the thinker to whom we owe the forcible expression of -this truth seems to have left it in the air. I scrutinize -my neighbors, and find in their behavior no sure sign of -real worth. I fall back on myself and I discover what? -The idea of an act which, if I could perform it, would -stand on its own merits (would be self-justified). I -then find that I am bound to try to perform such acts. -I cannot affirm that in a single instance I have ever performed -such an act. I next infer—on what tenuous -ground has been shown in the last chapter—that my fellow-beings -have the same inner experience as mine. -And it is for this reason that by a circuitous inference -I declare them to be worth while objects.</p> - -<p>That Kant has formulated a truth of the utmost importance -for mankind (that no man is to be treated as -a mere tool), seems to me incontestable. That he has -not made good his own proposition is my contention, -and that the whole problem must therefore be taken up -<i lang="la">de novo</i>. It will assist us in doing so to expose the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -flaw in his categorical imperative, or the formal principle -of universality and necessity applied to human actions, -which in his view imprints upon them the character of -absolute rightness.</p> - -<p>Note that Kant approaches the problems of ethics -from the side of physical science, and with the bias of -the physical scientist. The ethical principle he sets up, -the bare idea of universal necessity or of law in general, -is derived by way of abstraction from the particular -laws of nature. It is a physical principle in disguise. -To understand Kant’s system, it is simply indispensable -to keep this point in mind. He was pre-occupied during -the major portion of his life with profound speculations -on scientific subjects. The title of the <cite>Critique of Pure -Reason</cite> might not be inappropriately changed into “A -treatise on the fundamental assumptions of science, as -handled by Newton and his successors.” He was undeniably -interested in ethics. His ultimate aim was to -clear the way for the confident holding of ethical -principles. (See the Preface to the <cite>Critique of Pure -Reason</cite>.) But he could not divest himself of the prejudice -of his temperament and of his lifelong pursuit. -He is not singular in this respect. To borrow the first -principle of ethics from some other field is a common -and apparently ineradicable error. Mechanics, æsthetics, -and recently biology, have been laid under contribution -for this purpose. A consistent attempt to study -ethical phenomena on their own ground, to mark off -what is really distinctive in the data of ethical experience, -and then to search for some principle which shall -serve to give a coherent account of them, has to my<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span> -knowledge never yet been undertaken. Always ethics -has been treated as an annex to some other discipline. -Always we behold the attempt to assimilate before the -distinctive traits and characteristics have been carefully -investigated. Never yet has the independence of this -wonderful aspect of human nature been truly acknowledged. -Kant indeed freed ethics from its long tutelage -to theology; but he left it still in subjection, subject to -his own favorite study, physical science.</p> - -<p>But though the notion of necessity, together with that -of universality, which he derived from physics was employed -by him as a fundamental principle of rightness -in conduct, the principle itself insensibly, and as it would -seem unbeknown to himself, underwent a remarkable -change in the course of his undertaking to give it a new -application. The following brief comments will serve -to elucidate this point.</p> - -<p>In physics, whenever an antecedent phenomenon has -been exactly described, and a sequent phenomenon is -defined in the same fashion, the connection is pronounced -to be necessary—as for instance the transformation -of mechanical energy into heat, and conversely. -A single carefully guarded experiment may -suffice to establish the necessary nexus between two -phenomena. And after having established the necessity, -we are confident of the universality. If exceptions -should occur and contravene the supposed law, the calculations -or the observations are to be corrected. But never -in physical science do we start from universality and -predict necessity therefrom. Kant in his ethics invariably -couples together the two terms Universal and Neces<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span>sary. -But he reverses the procedure of science, he -<em>begins with the universality and thereupon affirms the -necessity</em>.</p> - -<p>Universality is for him the test of moral necessity. -If an act can be universalized, the performance of it, -according to him, is morally necessary. For instance, -the question is asked, Is it right to kill? Look at the -act of killing, says Kant, and see whether it can be -universalized, that is to say, whether if everybody felt -at liberty to kill, the act of the murderer would or would -not be self-defeating? He kills in order to affirm his -life at the expense of another’s. If his action were to -be generally imitated, his own life would be forfeit, or at -least in danger, and he would be annulling what he intends -to affirm. Hence murder is morally wrong: to -sacredly respect the life of others is right.</p> - -<p>But not only is the order reversed, so that necessity -follows on the heels of universality, but the very meaning -of the term necessity is altered. <em>A logical necessity -is substituted for a physical necessity.</em> The idea of necessity -as handled by physical science denotes the connection -between one thing and something else. It is -not the thing itself but its relation to some other thing -that is necessary. It is not the phenomenon A nor the -phenomenon B, in the case of a cause and its effect, that -is declared to be necessary, but the sequence of B on A, -the circumstance that B is tied up to A, must follow -in its wake. But the term Necessity as used by Kant -in his <cite>Ethics</cite>, denotes a relation of a thing to itself. It -is in fact equivalent to self-consistency, which is a logical -notion derived from the principle of self-identity. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -is A, and it is not thinkable that it should be non-A. -Similarly Kant says: If a man desires to affirm his -life, that is, to be self-preserving, it is not thinkable, -it would not be rational or logical on his part, to perform -an act which would be self-defeating. Kant does -not say that a man might not irrationally take another -man’s life, regardless of the consequences to himself; -he says that as a rational intelligence acting on purely -logical motives he could not do so.<a id="FNanchor_21_21" href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> To repeat, then, -physical necessity is a relation of one thing to another -thing: the logical necessity involved in self-consistency -is a relation of a thing to itself.</p> - -<p>My next contention, and this touches the root of the -matter, is that the notion of end is incompatible with -self-consistency as the paramount principle in ethics. -For a self-consistent rational being is a being in harmony -with himself, one who if this harmony should in -some unaccountable way ever be broken would by his -own endeavor seek to return to himself. (Kant declares -that the morality of any one man cannot be -affected by his fellows, by any influence from the outside; -it must be his own act.) But an end presupposes -some outside object as a means: means and ends are inseparable -correlatives. On the other hand, an entity -which merely affirms itself, or if somehow alienated from -self endeavors without assistance from beyond its sphere -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -to return to itself, is no true end at all, and cannot be -designated as such. It is no end because it employs no -means.</p> - -<p>What warrant then has Kant for introducing the -foreign notion of end into a world of pure self-consistency? -When we use the term Necessity in relation -to physical phenomena, as of cause and effect, we assert -unalterable sequence, unity of temporal and spatial -differentiæ. When we use the same term as Kant uses -it, we assert the unity of a thing with itself. But this in -the nature of the case does not admit the intrusion of the -alien concept of the outside. The spiritual society or -pattern to which human society ought to be conformed, -is according to Kant a society of ends, of ends <i lang="la">per se</i>. -This is his great pronouncement. But the very idea on -which he lays so much stress, the idea of end, on closer -scrutiny of his premises disappears. The entities composing -that society are self-sufficing, and moreover intrinsically -unrelated to each other. Rational self-preservation -is the only character that can be predicated of -any of them.</p> - -<p>I have laid stress on the fact that Kant derived his -ethical principle from his physics. The passage in -which he speaks of the ethical order as a universal and -necessary order like that of nature is to my mind conclusive. -I now urge in addition that this sort of second -nature superimposed upon existing nature would not -have to our contemplating minds a dignity superior to -that of physical nature. The moral order as thus exhibited -would not possess the worth we attribute to it -as exalted above what is called the natural order. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -falling stone is a perfect illustration of physical necessity. -Necessity passed through human consciousness, -or bathed in human consciousness, is not on that account -a more eligible principle. Nay, since human consciousness -interferes and causes contingent actions, due to -passion, appetite, etc., the moral order constructed by -men should be even less worth while than the physical -order of nature, if indeed necessity be the touchstone -of worth.<a id="FNanchor_22_22" href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p> - -<p>To summarize: according to Kant man as an object -is unfit to warrant the claim of unconditional obligation -on the part of others toward himself. An abstract -principle must be sought. This principle is universality, -and necessity based on universality. Respect for this -purely abstract notion is that which alone imparts a -moral quality to so-called moral acts. We start, according -to Kant, with the declaration that man is an -end <i lang="la">per se</i>. But we reject him as an object, and take -refuge in a formal principle. We then assume that -every human being is conscious of the working within -himself of this formal principle and acknowledges his -subjection to it, whether he is able to analyze it out -or not. And thus indirectly we derive out of emptiness -a ray of glory which we allow to fall upon each and -every man.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span></p> - -<p>The question now is, since this approach to the ethical -problem manifestly fails, must we not begin at the -opposite end, and take the attribution of worth to men, -however unworthy they may actually be, as our starting-point?</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_III-2">CHAPTER III</h3> - -<p class="hang"> -PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON WORTH, AND ON THE -REASONS WHY THE METHOD EMPLOYED BY -ETHICS MUST BE THE OPPOSITE OF THAT EMPLOYED -BY THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES</p> - - -<p>The moral equality of men is a corollary of the attribution -of worth to all men. Did we not ascribe worth -to them, there is no reason why we should not make -servile use of them. But there are admittedly formidable -difficulties in the way of attributing worth to human -nature.</p> - -<p>The first and most obvious of these is the existence -of repulsive traits in human beings, such as sly cunning, -deceit, falsehood, grossness, cruelty: <i lang="la">homo homini lupus</i>! -Secondly, there is the prevalent error of employing -ethical terms, like good and bad, to denote the merely -attractive and repellent traits.<a id="FNanchor_23_23" href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> Attractive traits, such -as gentleness, sweetness, kindness, a sympathetic disposition, -are, in those fortunate enough to possess them, -pleasing accidents of nature. We delight in them, but -have no reason to ascribe the superlative quality of worth -to those who possess them. If the evil that men do revolts -us, the so-called good in them does not give us -the right to surround their heads with the nimbus of -worth. Thirdly, and perhaps even more deterrent than<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -the ever-present spectacle of evil and the inadequacy of -so-called goodness, is the commonplaceness, the cheapness -of men.</p> - -<p>It must be admitted that, with rare exceptions, our -estimates of others are apt to be low rather than lofty. -Can we ascribe worth to those whom we hold cheap? -The reason of our habitual under-estimation of fellowmen -I think is that we regard them from the standpoint -of the use to which we can put them, and do not see -them from the inside, as it were, in the light of the -marvelous energies of which human nature is the scene. -The grossest matter, the most ordinary physical happenings, -reveal to the instructed eye of the scientist the -play of forces which it taxes the most powerful intellects -in some measure to apprehend and describe. Yet -these miracles escape the dull senses of those of us who -deal with the forces of nature from the point of view of -their immediate use. We turn on the electric light, but -have little more than a crude surmise of the things -that the word electricity meant to Faraday, Clerk Maxwell, -or Hertz. And as we turn on the electric light, so -we turn on our fellowmen, as it were, to use them. The -thought of the poet—“What a piece of work is man, -how infinite in faculty!” occurs to us only at scattered -moments. And yet things transpire in the inner life -of human beings far more marvelous than the chemical -processes or the flux of electric waves, did we but attend -to them. There is in particular one kind of energy to -which the quality of worth may well attach itself. It -is unlike the physical forces; it is not a transformed mode -of mechanical energy. It is <i lang="la">sui generis</i>, underivative,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -unique; it is synonymous with highest freedom; it is -power raised to the Nth degree. It is ethical energy. -To release it in oneself is to achieve unbounded expansion. -Morality, as commonly understood, is a system -of rules, chiefly repressive. Ethical energy, on the contrary, -is determined by the very opposite tendency; a -tendency, it is true, never more than tentatively effectuated -under finite conditions. And because the energy -is unique, it points toward a unique, irreducible, hence -substantive entity in man, from which it springs. This -entity is itself incognizable, yet the effect it produces -requires that it be postulated. The category of substance, -which is almost disappearing from science, is -to be reinstalled in ethics. Ethics cannot dispense with -it. This, as a prelude, may suffice to indicate the path -along which we shall proceed.</p> - - -<h4><i>The Reason Why the Method of Ethics Must Be the -Opposite of the Method Employed by the Physical -Sciences</i></h4> - -<p>Physical science begins from the bottom and builds -upwards. It analyzes phenomena into their elements, -and thereupon seeks to combine these elements into -structures that shall correspond to experience. In this -business it never comes to a finish. Its analysis of the -elements is provisional. Every element is hypothetical. -Indeed it is plain in the nature of the case that no -element can be ultimate. An element is a unit, and -every empirical unit necessarily conceals in its bosom a -plexus of which it is the unification. The very idea of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -unit requires for its complement a manifold of some -kind. In hypothetical units, or ideal constructs that -have for their purpose to lead to the discovery and -arrangement of real phenomena, science abounds. -Atoms, electrons, energy conceived as a substance by -Ostwald, Spencer’s physiological units, are examples.</p> - -<p>The results achieved by science are never more than -approximations in the sense that the units, the bricks -with which the house is built, are liable to be rejected, -and the constructions achieved are subject to revision.</p> - -<p>The point however which I wish to emphasize is that -the scientist is satisfied of the truth, the reality of its -partial results. Newton, for instance, in formulating -the law of gravitation has, so to speak, marked off a -strip of reality. The ground covered cannot be lost; -when some natural law is enunciated, the proper conditions -for its discovery and verification having been observed, -a sure footing in reality has been gained, science -standing to this extent on <i lang="la">terra firma</i>, though beyond -the domain within which the law applies the phenomena -may be heaving and billowing like the sea.</p> - -<p>Now the question I am intent upon is, Why is it possible -for science to be content with partial acquisition? -Why does it profess to know positively a part without -knowing the whole? And why can ethics not take a -step without an ideal of the whole?</p> - -<p>Kant’s chief purpose in the <cite>Critique of Pure Reason</cite> -was to vindicate the certainty of the physical knowledge -of a part as being compatible with total ignorance of -the whole. The older metaphysics was engaged in the -attempt to supply the whole, to sketch it out in order<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> -to give certainty to the part that is within the reach -of science. The older metaphysics said to science: You -have in hand the conditioned, but remember the conditioned -depends on the unconditioned. Unless, therefore, -you round out what you possess, with the help of -the unconditioned, the certainty you seem to have within -the field of the conditioned disappears. Again, science -traces causes, and the older metaphysicians insisted that -the whole chain of causes hangs in air unless it be attached -to a first cause. Now Kant’s <cite>Critique of Pure -Reason</cite> really amounts <i lang="la">in nuce</i> to this: you do not require -the whole in order to explain the part. Link the -partial phenomena together in a certain way, a way dependent -on the joint action of the space and time intuitions -and the categories, and you will gain the desired -certainty. The certainty is in the linkage. We may add -link to link of the chain of reality without troubling to -consider by what piers it is supported or on what shore -the piers rest—if indeed there be piers and shores at all. -The bridge hangs over the River of Time and we can -safely travel on it. How we get on to this bridge we -do not know, and where we shall leave it we cannot -know either.</p> - -<p>It is a mistake to speak of Kant as a rationalist pure -and simple. When he expelled the older metaphysics -he antagonized pure rationalism. The older metaphysics -held that the mere existence of the conditioned -proves the existence of the unconditioned, requires the -unconditioned. In Kant’s answer to this lies the gist of -his enterprise in philosophy: You are quite right, he -says, that the <em>idea</em> of the conditioned requires the idea of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> -the unconditioned, logically, rationally. But observe -well, nature is not just logical or rational. There is an -irrational element in it, namely, extended manifold and -temporal sequence. Juxtaposition and sequence are irrational, -because, if I interpret him rightly, in the case -of each the relation presented to the mind is that of parts -outside each other—in the one case alongside, in the other -before and after; while in the logical or rational relation -the parts are implicit in the whole as in the case of the -premises of a syllogism and the conclusion, the relation -of a genus to the species, the universal to the particular.</p> - -<p>We have in nature, according to Kant, a partnership -between the irrational and the rational factors. And -thereupon he proceeds to argue that we impose laws on -nature, understanding thereby that we get hold of -reality or objectivity in so far as we are able to imprint -the rational element upon the irrational. The positing -of the thing <i lang="la">per se</i>, which has proved a stumbling-block -to many, is no more than a confession that we shall never -succeed entirely in this business of subjecting the irrational -to the rational factor. The thing <i lang="la">per se</i> is the X -that remains over when the rational function has done its -utmost. A thing, a real object, is that which is imprinted -with, penetrated with, rationality. The manifolds of -space and time, of juxtaposition and sequence are incapable -of completely receiving this imprint, that is, of -completely responding to our quest for reality, and this -their incompetency is expressed in the notion of the thing -<i lang="la">per se</i>.</p> - -<p>To return to the main question as to the difference -between the method by which science proceeds and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -reverse method prescribed to ethics, I ask, Why is absolute -knowledge of nature impossible? The answer is, -Because absolute knowledge would mean the completely -rational construction of nature, and this is prevented by -the irrational element existing in it. But why has the -relative knowledge we possess the character of certainty? -Why are we sure of the law of gravitation? -Why are we justified in saying that science within certain -limits plants her foot on <i lang="la">terra solida</i>? Because at -certain points the sense data do coincide with the rational -requirements. There are recurrent phenomena of -such a kind, coupled together in such a way, that each is -capable of mathematical measurement, and that the -sequence of the one after the other can therefore be predicted.</p> - -<p>Nature might have been arranged quite otherwise. -The time spans might have been so long, as to prevent -our observing the recurrences. A day-fly cannot observe -the periodicity of the earth’s revolution around its axis. -The fact however that there is this partial correspondence -between human rationality and the unknown nature -of things is a bare fact, incapable of explanation.<a id="FNanchor_24_24" href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> The -answer, then, I take it, is: our knowledge of nature is -relative, which means incompletely rational, because of -the foreign element in nature unamenable to the opera<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span>tion -of the rational, the synthetic, function. This relative -knowledge is none the less certain, that is, in some -sense absolute, because of the partial coincidence of the -phenomena of nature and the synthetic processes of the -mind.</p> - -<p>With this degree of certainty we must perforce content -ourselves, in dealing with outside nature. In trying -to understand and interpret that which is not ourselves, -we hit upon barriers which cannot be transcended, -upon a foreign factor which opposes itself to our endeavors. -But it is otherwise in the sphere of conduct. -Here, if there is to be certainty at all, in regard to -right as distinguished from wrong, if there is to be such -a thing as right in the strict sense, we cannot content -ourselves with the paradoxical, relative-absolute just -described. For here we not merely interpret but act, -and we must possess an ideal plan of the whole if we are -to be certain of our rightness in any particular part of -conduct. <em>For in conduct there is no such partial coincidence -between the rational and the irrational as in -the case of physical law.</em> There is not a single partial -rule of conduct, neither “Thou shalt not kill” nor “Thou -shalt not lie,” nor any other that, taken by itself, is of -itself ethically right. It may be right, it may be wrong. -It takes its ethical quality from the plan of conduct -as a whole, and without reference to the whole it is devoid -of rightness.<a id="FNanchor_25_25" href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span></p> - -<p>I have thus indicated the ground of the distinction -between the method of science and the method of ethics, -a distinction, it is true, to which Kant himself did not -adhere. Partial coincidence of the rational with the -irrational is expressed in physical law; absence of such -concurrence destroys any attempt to build up an ethical -theory on the empirical method. We cannot plant our -feet on the part, gaining there the sense of certainty: -we must creatively conceive the ideal of the whole and -educe every partial mode of ethical conduct from that.</p> - -<p>But how shall we proceed in the construction of such -an ideal, for it is obvious that knowledge, in the scientific -sense of the word, is entirely out of the question?</p> -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span></p> - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_IV-2">CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<small>THE IDEAL OF THE WHOLE</small></h3> - - -<p>To recapitulate and at the same time to enlarge somewhat -the points thus far covered in Book II: Kant -proclaims man an end <i lang="la">per se</i>. This promises a philosophic -basis for an ethical world-view. The promise is -not kept. Kant takes as his point of departure absolute -obligation, and attempts to deduce out of an -empty formula a worthwhile object. Kant’s formula -is: Treat man never merely as a means, but also as an -end <i lang="la">per se</i>. But how far man may be treated as a -means, and what the relation of the means to the end -may be is left undetermined. An upper crust of morality -is formed, as it were, upon the empirical flood of -passions, desires, etc. A straight line is drawn beyond -which the under world in every man may not emerge. -But a truly instrumental view of the means as related -to the end is not established. This is one of the great -gaps in Kant’s system. Note the almost puerile reason -given for culture: we should cultivate our talents <i lang="de">weil -sie zu allerhand Zwecken nützlich sein mögen</i>.</p> - -<p>Kant’s ethical order is a duplicate of the physical -order. The notion of law is taken from physics, and -expanded into the concept of law in general. Ethical -behavior is represented as behavior motivated by the -notion of lawfulness. Law is characterized by uni<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span>versality -and necessity. Chapter II, however, shows -that in physics universality is predicated on the ground -of an ascertained necessary connection. In physics, -necessity has its true meaning as pertaining to a relation -between one thing and another. If the linkage can be -established, the universality follows. In Kant’s ethics, -on the contrary, necessity is taken as the consequence of -the universality and the proper meaning of necessity is -lost. Self-consistency takes the place of the relation to -something else. The ideal society, as described, would -therefore be a society of self-preserving rational intelligences, -ethically solipsistic.</p> - -<p>Next we began the investigation into the idea of -worth. Why do men hold themselves and others cheap? -They regard each other from the point of view of the -<em>use</em> to be made of others and of their own life, and not -from the point of view of the energies deployed. The -turning on of electric power was used as an illustration. -Nevertheless, even exceptional men, men regarded as -illustrating in the highest degree the mental energies -implicit in human nature, would not possess the quality -of worth, that is, of being ends <i lang="la">per se</i>, merely on the -score of their scientific or their artistic activities. We -cannot say that the world would be less perfect if there -were no scientists to discover its laws. There is a supreme, -a unique energy and it is to this that the quality -of worth belongs.<a id="FNanchor_26_26" href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">26</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span></p> -<p>The ethical quality called worth is the supreme good, -and must be accessible to all, even to those to whom the -lesser goods are denied. Ethics is a system of thought -which stands or falls with the contention that while the -better may be within reach only of the exceptional few, -the best is within reach of all.</p> - -<p>In attempting to approach the task of building up a -world-view based on ethical experience, it became unavoidable -to consider the method by which the approach -might be made, and for this purpose to contrast the -methods of science and the methods of ethics. Science, -as we have seen, collects its bricks and builds its house -by composition. Science analyzes phenomena into -units, which it then combines. The mystery is how -science can achieve certainty in respect to certain -phenomena of nature without previous knowledge of -the whole of nature. Kant’s answer is that there is -partial congruity between the mental functions and the -data that come to us from the unknown. Kant’s -<cite>Critique of Pure Reason</cite> faces in two directions. It -expels the older metaphysics which assumed that the -empirical world is rational throughout, or rationalizable, -and which thence argued the existence of the unconditioned -as necessarily implied in the existence of the conditioned, -and of a first cause as actually implied in the -chain of causes and effects. Kant contends that there is -an irrational element, namely, bare juxtaposition (part -outside part), and bare sequence (part before and after -part), while the logical or rational relation implies that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -the part is to be conceived as implicit in the whole. -Juxtaposition and sequence, therefore, can never be -completely rationalized. On the other hand, Kant undertakes -to prove that whatever of reality we know is -traceable to the projection of the rational factor upon -the irrational. One might even say that, according to -Kant, the mind itself produces the irrational factor, -since the intuitions of space and time are according to -him, functions of the mind itself—the mind setting up -a manifold so constituted as to receive sense impressions. -At any rate the capital point to which we were -led up was that science puts her foot on <i lang="la">terra firma</i> in -a restricted area, without reference to what lies beyond, -while if we are to proceed in ethics at all, we must begin -with some ideal plan of the whole, since in ethics we are -not interpreting a foreign nature, but act upon natures -similar to our own; and since, in the case of conduct, -there is no such partial concurrence of the rational and -irrational as in physics, no one of the so-called moral -modes of behavior being moral when taken separately. -Hence the conclusion that there is no possibility of -establishing the conception of worth unless we have -some ideal of the whole in which and in relation to which -the incomparable worthwhileness of a human being can -be made good.</p> - -<p>We need hardly again remind ourselves that this -conception of worth, or of man as end <i lang="la">per se</i>, is not a -mere abstraction, and that our interest in it is not -academic. Every outcry against the oppression of man -by man, or against whatsoever is morally hideous, is but -the affirmation of the cardinal principle that a human<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> -being as such is not to be violated, is not to be handled -like a tool, but is to be respected and revered as an end -<i lang="la">per se</i>. But what do we mean by end <i lang="la">per se</i>, and how -account for this notion? Does it come into our mind -like a bolt from the blue, or is it revealed as prefigured -in the human mind when we follow it into its intimate -constitution?</p> - -<p>Our knowledge of the world we live in is extremely -limited—in its details it is confined to the planet we -live on, extending to the myriads of celestial bodies beyond -us only by means of scant generalizations. If we -have knowledge of only so small a portion, how can we -frame an ideal of the whole? At the same time we -must remember that the world we actually know, this -earth and yonder starry myriads, is in very truth <em>our</em> -world, the world as it exists for us, a world which with -the help of data coming to us from the unknown, we -ourselves have built up on certain constructive principles; -and that these principles have been found, within -certain limits, availing.<a id="FNanchor_27_27" href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> I say availing within certain -limits. The defeat they meet with beyond those -limits is due to the intractable elements of juxtaposition -and sequence, of the time and space manifolds, -which in themselves are incapable of being completely -rationalized.</p> - -<p>Now the ideal of the whole is a plan or scheme in -which the constructive principles of the mind are conceived -as having untrammeled course and unhindered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -application, and the task of world-building, or rather -universe-building, is in idea carried out to completion.</p> - -<p>The attempt to present an ideal forecast, or outline -of the whole of reality, as it would satisfy a mind constituted -like ours, an ideal landscape of this sort, is not -at all to be confounded with the arrogation of <i lang="la">a priori</i> -knowledge. <i lang="la">A priori</i> knowledge is supposed to be a kind -of knowledge, and <em>knowledge</em> of the whole is utterly and -confessedly beyond our reach. The phrase <i lang="la">a priori</i>, too, -is objectionable and unfortunate for two reasons. First, -as just said, because it has been supposed to be a kind of -knowledge. By some theologians men were supposed -to possess <i lang="la">a priori</i> knowledge of God.<a id="FNanchor_28_28" href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> Secondly, because -the word <i lang="la">a priori</i> suggests precedence in time, and -our knowledge of the human mind and of its irreducible -capacities comes out only in the course of experience. -Much that has been called <i lang="la">a priori</i>, that is implicit in -experience, did not become explicit until after prolonged -experience. The Greek thinkers before Aristotle doubtless -thought in terms of syllogism, but it was not until -Greek science had attained a certain ripeness that Aristotle -was able to dissect out the logic which had previously -been employed more or less unconsciously.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span></p> -<p>Instead, therefore, of using the term <i lang="la">a priori</i>, which -gives rise to the two-fold misapprehension of an <i lang="la">a priori</i> -knowledge and of temporal precedence, and instead of -throwing out the child with the bath, that is, of ignoring -the independent part played by our mental constitution -in building up experience, and in affording us the conviction -of certainty, and of reality, it is highly desirable -that a new term be found to take the place of <i lang="la">a priori</i>. -The term “functional finality” suggests itself to me for -this purpose.<a id="FNanchor_29_29" href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">29</a></p> - -<p>My field is ethics. I am entirely desirous of sticking -to my own last, that is, dealing with such concepts as -the data of my subject force upon me. I do not wish -to trespass, or to seem to trespass, on the domain of my -neighbors. Hence in dealing with functional finalities -I must deal with them primarily as they appear in the -field of ethics, that is, in the domain of the actions and -reactions of human beings upon one another. Irreducible -<i lang="la">principia</i> of ethics are the functional finalities, -which prescribe rules for such intercourse, or better -which create a scheme of ideal intercourse whereby -the conduct of men shall be measured and determined.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span></p> -<p>I must, however, glance for a moment at fields outside -my own, for the purpose not of controversy but of -elucidation; not to deal with the subject matter of my -neighbors, but to mark off my own more definitely. -What then, I ask, is the most general expression by -which to designate the singularities of the human mind, -the principles on which it acts, its immutable modes of -behavior, the invariants that recur amid all the complex -varieties of its processes? The principal invariants are -the positing of a manifold of some kind, and the apprehending -of that manifold as coherent. The manifold is -not given, but is posited by the mind. The positing is a -mental function, just as much as the apprehending of -the plurality as coherent is a mental function. The particular -manifolds of space and time experience are said -to be given, but they would not be received by the mind -were not the function of manifold-positing prepared to -apprehend them.</p> - -<p>In recent physical science the notion of the manifold -plays a conspicuous rôle. Subtle speculations are employed -to define the kinds of manifold which the -physicist finds opportune, and the kind of unity of -which these manifolds are respectively capable. The -two terms mentioned are themselves the most abstract -conceivable, and naturally, that which is here taken to -underlie all the constructive, world-building activity of -the mind in every possible direction can only be expressed -in the most sublimated language. But the -notions themselves, or rather the acts of the mind, the -functions designated, are rich and replete with concrete<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -utility when applied to subject matter in the different -fields.</p> - -<p>Wherever we turn we find that the assurance of -reality depends on the joint use of the two principles -mentioned, the joint operation of the two kinds of mental -action; that is to say—on the positing of a manifold -and on the simultaneous apprehension of the subject -matter to which it relates as coherent, as unified.</p> - -<p>The simultaneity, the inseparableness of the two -mental acts or functions in regard to the same subject-matter -is the essential point on which hangs the web of -the argument here submitted. Thus in geometry space -must be regarded as a continuum, unbroken, uninterrupted -at any point, and at the same time the same -space must be treated as capable of puncture, of linear -and superficial delimitations; that is to say, of division. -That which is one must yet be apprehended as divided; -that which is divided, or delimitated, must yet be apprehended -as one. The difficulties that arise spring -from the vain endeavor to separate the two inseparable -acts—the act of apprehending the manifold of space -<i lang="la">sub specie pluralitatis</i>, and the act of apprehending it -<i lang="la">sub specie unitatis</i>. Hence arises the puzzling question: -How can that which is continuous be divided, how can -chasms between the parts of space, however infinitesimal, -be bridged? Witness the problem of Zeno, -and the pragmatist solution of it by a demonstration -that satisfies us indeed as to the fact (which no one -doubts), but leaves the mental puzzle as before; and -also Bergson’s Method of accounting for division by a -comparison of the inner and the outer flux, wherein he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -seems to overlook the difficulty that for the purpose of -comparison two points must be fixed, one in each flux, -that is to say, the division in the flux must be regarded -as already existing.</p> - -<p>In the physical sciences we are compelled to assume -on the one hand the atomic or granular constitution of -matter, in other words, manifoldness. On the other -hand, if “action at a distance” is to be escaped, we are -bound to assume a continuum of some sort like the -ether. Again, in the organic world there is the -manifold of structures and functions, and the unity of -organism. To whatever object of inquiry we give our -attention, we find ourselves not only restricted fundamentally -to the two functions described, but we discover -that to their insunderable co-operation we owe -whatever of truth we possess.</p> - -<p>Now the business of ethics is to define its own subject-matter, -that is to say the particular kind of manifold -with which it deals, and the kind of unity of which -that manifold is susceptible. But as I approach this -first goal of my enterprise, there is one obstacle which -I must try to remove out of the way of the reader, -before I can hope to win him to a hospitable consideration -of my conclusions. The jointness or inseparableness -of the two acts out of which certainty or reality -issues has created all the difficulties. The fact that the -manifold must be regarded as remaining a manifold, -unaltered in its character as such, not derivative from -the One (there is no such One), and that the unity does -not contrariwise result from the manifold in the sense -of springing from or being derived from it;—in other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span> -words that we must see the same landscape of things -and events both <i lang="la">sub specie pluralitatis</i> and <i lang="la">sub specie -unitatis</i>—has been the stumbling-block. The history -of philosophy might be written under the two headings: -1, monistic systems that undertake, collapsing in -their futile effort, to derive the world and its plurality -from the One, as if there were such an One, out of whose -bosom philosophy might evoke the many (creational -systems, pantheistic systems, emanation systems, evolution -systems); 2, pluralistic systems that essay, with -equal lack of success, to explain the unity as somehow -the offspring of the plurality.</p> - -<p>Why then have these systems flourished? Why are -these vain undertakings still renewed? The reason is -that we cannot understand the joint action of the two -functions, and the very point where enlightenment is -needed is for us to recognize that no fundamental truths -can be understood by us, that we can only look at them, -contemplate and accept them. The point, I say, where -enlightenment is needed is that the habit of trying to -understand is due to a prejudice, to what may be called -the <em>superstition of causality</em>.</p> - -<p>I shall have to explain this hardy assertion with some -care to prevent misconception. Causality, it will be -objected, is the one thread that leads us through the -labyrinth of nature. The search for causes enables us -to become at home in our world by foreseeing events. -In what sense then can it be permissible to speak of -the prejudice of causality, nay, of the superstition of it? -With what warrant prescribe a limit to the aspirations -of the human intellect to push its inquiries to the farthest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span> -limit, even so far as to understand the functional finalities -themselves, if such there be?</p> - -<p>The answer, succinctly put, is this: explaining or -understanding things means tracing effects to their -causes, and this is only one mode, a somewhat <em>disguised</em> -mode, of the joint functional activity of which I have -spoken. The manifold in this case is that of the temporal -sequence of phenomena, of differences due to -change of position in time; and the unity established -between them (as for instance energy, of which the sequent -phenomena represent the transformations) is an -ideal, fictive unity, mentally superimposed (real despite -its ideal or imaginary character, because of the necessity -we are under to view the sequent phenomena <i lang="la">sub specie -unitatis</i>). That there is nothing in the antecedent to -compel the sequent to follow has been since the days of -Hume a commonplace in philosophy. That nevertheless -there is such a thing as the prediction of eclipses was -made by Kant the basis of his doctrine of synthesis <i lang="la">a -priori</i>. Be the terms used what they may, what counts -is the fact that the <em>joint action of two functions, which -itself is inexplicable</em>, not to be understood, that is, not -to be referred back to a preceding cause (as if there -could be such a thing as a cause why we think in terms -of causality) is the foundation of all so-called understanding.</p> - -<p>Moreover causality is an incomplete example of the -fundamental functional process. We never do thoroughly -understand; we gain a certain relief, a certain -increased ease of mind by pushing the problem back a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -step. And what I have called the prejudice of causality, -is the unwillingness on our part to acknowledge the fact -that we are face to face, in the case of causality, with the -inexplicable; that that which helps us partially to understand -(and serves for practical purposes well enough) -is in its nature not to be understood, one of the -modes in which the joint action of the functional finalities -manifests itself.</p> - -<p>An ultimate principle has been defined as one which -is presupposed in every attempt to account for it. The -functional finalities of which I speak bear the test of -this definition. The upshot of it all is that the constitutive -principles of the human mind cannot be explained -or understood, but can nevertheless be verified. -And verification, in the last analysis, means exemplification. -If we look at these ultimate truths, whether -in geometry, in physics, or, as we shall later see, in -ethics and æsthetics, as enunciated abstractly, baldly, -we confront them blankly, we are as it were dumbfounded -in their presence. They seem arbitrarily imposed -upon us. And why? Because we are endeavoring -to understand them. We have acquired the habit of trying -to get hold of truth by referring back to some antecedent. -And therefore we are uneasy and disconcerted. -But the moment we see them exemplified, as in the constructions -of the geometer, in the laws or uniformities -established by the physicist, etc., we are convinced. The -subject-matter of ethics is different. The kind of -exemplification is likewise different. But verification -is exemplification in ethics as elsewhere; and this will be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> -found to mean that the life, the ethical experience, must -lead to the certainty.</p> - -<p>And now we have reached the point where a brief -discussion of the ethical manifold and its mode of unification -comes up in proper order.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_V-2">CHAPTER V<br /> - -<small>THE IDEAL OF THE WHOLE AND THE ETHICAL -MANIFOLD</small></h3> - - -<p>The ethical manifold, conceived of as unified, furnishes, -or rather is, the ideal of the whole. The ethical -manifold is the true universe, not “Universe” in the -sense in which the word is too laxly used at present to -designate those fragmentary and in many respects unconnected -lines of experience which might better by -way of discrimination be called World.</p> - -<p>The ideal of the whole, as the terms imply, must fulfill -two conditions: it must be a whole, that is, include all -manifoldness whatsoever; and it must be ideal, or perfectly -unified. In such an ideal whole the two reality-producing -functions of the human mind would find their -complete fruition.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>Point 1.—The totality of manifoldness must be comprised.</p> - -<p>Point 2.—The connectedness must be without flaw.</p></blockquote> - -<p>From point one it follows that the ethical manifold -cannot be spatial or temporal, since juxtaposition and -sequence lapse into indefiniteness, abounding without -ceasing, but never attaining or promising the attainment -of totality. Our first conclusion then is that the -ethical manifold is non-temporal and non-spatial.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span></p> - -<p>Furthermore it is necessary and decisive for the theoretical -construction here attempted to keep sharply -in view, that the manifoldness may not be derived from -the unity, or conversely. The manifold remains forever -manifold. This means that in the ethical manifold each -member<a id="FNanchor_30_30" href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> will differ uniquely from all the rest, and preserve -his irreducible singularity. The member of the -ethical manifold was not created by <em>the</em> One or any One. -He is not derived as effect from any cause. Causality -does not apply to the ethical manifold, being a category -of spatial sequence. The member of the ethical manifold, -or the ethical unit, as we may now call him (I say -him metaphorically and provisionally) is unbegotten, induplicable, -unique. In the ethical manifold each infinitesimal -member is indispensable, inasmuch as he is one -of the totality of intrinsically unlike differentiæ. A -duplicate would be superfluous. Inclusion implies indispensableness; -no member acquires a place within the -ethical universe save on the score of his title, as one of the -possible modes of being that are required to complete -the totality of manifoldness.</p> - -<p>But the reality-producing functions of the mind are -two, and they act jointly. The same manifold that is -regarded as the scene of irreducible manifoldness, is -also regarded <i lang="la">sub specie unitatis</i>. The immense practical -importance of holding fast to diversity as indefeasible, -and at the same time stressing the unity, will -amply appear in the course of the third Book. It is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> -this insistence on the two aspects <em>jointly</em>, that distinguishes -the theory here worked out from preceding -ethical philosophies, and will be found to open new -ethical applications to conduct. It is this insistence on -the joint action of the two reality-producing functions -that will enable us to see in the ideal of the whole <em>a -pattern traced</em>, and to derive from this pattern of relations -a supreme rule of conduct. If the differences that -exist among the members of the manifold be slurred -over, if the indefeasible singularity of each member be -overlooked, if the many be derived from the One, since -the One is an empty concept, we shall gain no light upon -the conduct to be followed by each of the many. It -is true that our notion of the distinctive difference or -the uniqueness of each ethical unit is also empty as far -as knowledge goes. The unique is incognizable. Yet -we are able to apprehend, and do apprehend, a determinate -relation as subsisting between the ethical units, -and this relation supplies us with an ideal plan of the -ethical universe and a first principle and rule of ethics. -The relation is that of reciprocal universal interdependence.</p> - -<p>Consider that an infinite number of ethical entities is -presented to our minds—each of them radically different -from the rest. In what then possibly can the -unity of this infinite assemblage consist? In this—<em>that -the unique difference of each shall be such as to -render possible the correlated unique differences of all -the rest</em>. It is in this formula that we find the key to a -new ethical system, in this conception we get our hand -firmly on the notion of right, and by means of it we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -discover the object which Kant failed to find, the object -to which worth attaches, the object which is so -indispensable to the ideal of the whole as to authenticate -unconditional obligation or rightness in conduct -with respect to it. It is as an ethical unit, as a member -of the infinite ethical manifold, that man has worth.<a id="FNanchor_31_31" href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">31</a></p> - -<p>In accordance with the above, the first principle of -ethics may be expressed in the following formulas:</p> - -<p>A. Act as a member of the ethical manifold (the infinite -spiritual universe).</p> - -<p>B. Act so as to achieve uniqueness (complete individualization—the -most completely individualized act is -the most ethical).</p> - -<p>C. Act so as to elicit in another the distinctive, unique -quality characteristic of him as a fellow-member of the -infinite whole.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span></p> -<p>A and B are comprised in C. I am taking three -steps toward a fuller exposition of the meaning of the -principle. To act as a member according to A is to -strive to achieve uniqueness as declared in B. To -achieve uniqueness as declared in C is to seek to elicit -the diverse uniqueness in others. The actual unique -quality in myself is incognizable, and only appears, so -far as it does appear, in the effect produced by myself -upon my fellows. Hence, to advance towards uniqueness -I must project dynamically my most distinctive -mode of energy upon my fellow-members.</p> - -<p>Since the finite nature of man is a clog and screen, -clouding and checking the action of man viewed as an -ethical unit, it follows that no man will ever succeed -in carrying out completely the rule which is derived from -the ideal pattern. He will invariably meet with partial -frustration in his efforts to do so, and yet in virtue of his -ethical character he will always renew the effort. While -in physical science the recurrence of phenomena supplies -the occasion for exemplification or verification, in -conduct, or the sphere of volition, not recurrence but -the persistence of the effort after defeat is at least a help -to verification, arguing in one’s self a consciousness, however -obscured, of the relation of reciprocal interdependence -and of subjection to the urge or pressure thence -derived.<a id="FNanchor_32_32" href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> It is our own reality-producing functions, -exerted to their utmost, to which we are delivered over. -Hence the final formulation: So act as to raise up in -others the ideal of the relation of give and take, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -universal interdependence in which they stand with an -infinity of beings like themselves, members of the infinite -universe, irreducible, like and unlike themselves in -their respective uniqueness.</p> - -<p>The simile that may be used is that of a ray of light -which has the effect of kindling other rays, unlike but -complementary to itself. Each ethical unit, each member -of the infinite universe, is to be regarded as a center -from which such a ray emanates, touching other centers, -and awakening there the light intrinsic in them. -Or we may think of a fountain from which stream forth -jets of indescribable life-power—playing out of it, playing -into other life, and evoking there kindred and yet -unkindred life-waves, waves effluent and refluent. -Whatever the symbolism may be, inadequate in any case, -the idea of the enmeshing of one’s life in universal life -without loss of distinctness—the everlasting selfhood to -be achieved on the contrary, by means of the cross-relation—is -the cardinal point.</p> - -<p>I have here to answer one question. By what warrant -do I ascribe worth to any human being? Where -is the head deserving that this ray that streams out from -me shall light upon it? What man or woman merits -that he be invested with this glory? Does not the same -objection opposed to Kant hold with respect to my -own view? It is true that he found no object at all, and -sought indirectly to draw from the empty notion of -obligation the inference that man is an end <i lang="la">per se</i>. -Perhaps it will be admitted that the supremely worthwhile -object has now been found, the holy thing (holy -in two ways, as being inviolable, reverence-inspiring,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span> -holding at a distance those who would encroach: and -intrinsically priceless as a component of the ethical -manifold, as indispensable in a perfect whole). But -this object, you will say, is in the air, or in the heavens, -and how shall it be made to descend on empirical man?</p> - -<p>My answer is that certainly I do not discover the -quality of worth in people as an empirical fact. In -many people I do not even discover value. Judging -from the point of view of bare fact, many of us could -very well be spared. Many are even in the way of -what is called “progress.” And the suggestion of some -extreme disciples of Darwin that the degenerate and -defective should be removed, or the opinion of others -that pestilence and war should be allowed to take the -unpleasant business off our hands, is, from the empirical -point of view, not easily to be refuted. I can also enter -into, if I do not wholly share, the pessimistic mood with -regard to actual human nature expressed by Schopenhauer -and others. To the list of repulsive human creatures -mentioned by Marcus Aurelius in one of his morning -meditations,—the back-biter, the scandal-monger, -the informer, etc.—might be added in modern times, the -white-slaver, the exploiter of child-labor, the fawning -politician, and many another revolting type. And even -more discouraging in a way, than these examples of -deepest human debasement—the copper natures, as -Plato calls them, or the leaden natures, as we might -call them—is the disillusionment we often experience -with regard to the so-called gold natures, the discovery -of the large admixture of baser metal which is often -combined with their gold.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span></p> - -<p>It is imperative to acquaint oneself, nay, to impregnate -one’s mind thoroughly with these contrary facts, -if the doctrine of worth, the sanest and to my mind the -most real of all conceptions, is to be saved from the -appearance of an optimistic illusion.</p> - -<p>The answer to the objection is that I do not <em>find</em> -worth in others or in myself, I <em>attribute</em> it to them and -to myself. And why do I attribute it? In virtue of -the reality-producing functions of my own mind. I -create the ethical manifold. The pressure of the essential -rationality within me, seeking to complete itself in -the perfect fruition of these functions, <i>i.e.</i>, in the positing -of a total manifold and its total unification, drives -me forward. I need an idea of the whole in order to -act rightly, in such a way as to satisfy the dual functions -within me. My own nature as a spiritual being -urges me to seek this satisfaction. This ideal whole, -as I have shown, is a complexus of uniquely differentiated -units. In order to advance toward uniqueness, -in order to achieve what in a word may be called my -own truth, to build myself into the truth, to become -essentially real, I must seek to elicit the consciousness -of the uniqueness and the interrelation in others. I -must help others in order to save myself; I must look -upon the other as an ethical unit or moral being in order -to become a moral being myself. And wherever I find -consciousness of relation, of connectedness, even incipient, -I project myself upon that consciousness, with -a view to awaking in it the consciousness of universal -connectedness. Wherever I can hope to get a response -I test my power. Fields and trees do not speak to me,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -as Socrates said, but human beings do. I should attribute -worth to stones and to animals could they respond, -were the power of forming ideas, without which the idea -of relation or connectedness is impossible, apparent in -them. Doubtless stones and trees and animals, and -the physical world itself, are but the screen behind which -lies the infinite universe. But the light of that universe -does not break through the screen where it is made up -of stones and trees and the lower animals. It breaks -through, however faintly, where there is consciousness -of relation: and wherever I discover that consciousness -I find my opportunity. It is quite possible that the -men and women upon whom I try my power will not -actually respond. The complaint is often heard from -moral persons, or persons who think themselves such, -that what they call the moral plan of rousing the moral -consciousness in others will not work. Perhaps the plan -they follow is not the moral plan at all, but the plan -of sympathy or of some other empirically derived rule. -But be that as it may, the question is not whether we get -the response but whether we shall achieve reality or truth -ourselves; in theological terms, save our own life, by -trying to elicit the response.</p> - -<p>And here one profoundly important practical consideration -will come to our aid, namely, the sense of our -own imperfection, coupled indeed with the consciousness -of inextinguishable power of moral renewal. Instead -of attributing the lack of response to the hopeless -dullness of the person upon whom we labor, a sense of -humility, based on the knowledge of our own exceeding -spiritual variability—best moments followed by worst<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> -moments, imperfect grasp on our own ideals, most imperfect -fidelity in executing them—will lead us to turn -upon ourselves, and far from permitting us to despair -of others, will impel us rather to make ourselves more -fitting instruments of spiritual influence than obviously -as yet we are.<a id="FNanchor_33_33" href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">33</a></p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span></p> - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_VI-2">CHAPTER VI<br /> - -<small>THE IDEAL OF THE SPIRITUAL UNIVERSE AND -THE GOD-IDEAL</small></h3> - - -<p>We have seen whence the ideal of a spiritual universe -arises. It is unnecessary to prove that the universe is -moral. What it is necessary to verify is that a universe -exists; for “universe” is an ethical ideal, it is the ethical -manifold, or, if we distinguish ethical as concerning relations -between man and man, then we may use the term -“spiritual” to designate that infinite system of interdependence -in which men as ethical units have their -place. We begin with the affirmation—Man is an end -<i lang="la">per se</i>. This wonderful affirmation, which the democracies -are darkly and confusedly trying to express in political -and social arrangements, constitutes the problem -of all problems. It is the great datum of ethics, of which -ethical theory must give an account. All other data or -problems that have been thrust into the foreground—freedom -of the will, responsibility, altruistic self-sacrifice—are -secondary, in the sense that they depend for -their solution on a right conception of man as end <i lang="la">per se</i>. -As possessing worth on his own account he is an ethical -unit. Only as a member of the infinite spiritual universe -does he possess the two-fold attributes implied in worth—inviolability -with respect to outsiders and indefeasible, -intrinsic preciousness. Therefore I say that around the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span> -individual, the ethical unit, we build up as a necessary -postulate the spiritual universe. Man ethically considered -carries with him this infinite environment.</p> - -<p>Does this universe exist or is it a mere figment? It -is the product of the reality-producing functions in their -ideal completion. It is the necessary postulate required -if the idea of right is to have validity, and the idea of -right is required by man in so far as he is an agent and -not merely a spectator of life. The ethical manifold, the -spiritual universe, exists in so far as there is a right.</p> - -<p>Have we then reinstated the idea of God as existent? -Not the idea of God as an individual. We have on the -contrary set aside that idea by affirming that manifoldness -cannot be derived from unity, that the positing of -plurality is just as much a primary function of the -mind as the positing of unity. We have discarded the -God-idea as the <em>locus</em> of unity, since the unity subsists -in the relation of the units. Strictly speaking, we have -replaced the God-idea by that of a universe of spiritual -beings interacting in infinite harmony.</p> - -<p>But at this point I must go back for a moment to -Kant, using his ideas once more as a foil to make my -own more explicit. Wilhelm von Humboldt said of -Kant that some of the things he had destroyed would -never be rebuilt, and that some of the things he had -built would never be destroyed.</p> - -<p>For more than a hundred years the impression has -prevailed that among the things forever destroyed by -Kant are the proofs of the existence of God. He is represented -as an intellectual giant whose blows have forever -shattered the proofs on which the existence of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span> -supersensible reality rested. Kant’s mind was preëminently -scientific. He was the philosopher who made -explicit the principles underlying Newtonian science as -Aristotle had made explicit the logic underlying the -Greek science. His philosophy is essentially agnostic. -The use that he continues to make of the God-idea can -be dissociated from his system with advantage to the -latter.<a id="FNanchor_34_34" href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">34</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></p> -<p>But did Kant indeed destroy the idea of a supersensible -reality as existent, or are we warranted in undertaking -to build anew the supersensible world.<a id="FNanchor_35_35" href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> “<i lang="de">Du hast sie -zerstörrt, die schöne Welt, In deinem Busen baue sie -wieder</i>”—not indeed in the realm of mere feelings, but -in the sphere of will. The spell of Kant’s shattering attack -still rests upon the intellectual world today. The -notion of a supersensible reality, if held at all, is held -timidly, apologetically and is apt to be based on subjective -emotional need. The wish is more or less admitted -to be father to the faith—the will to believe is defiantly -asserted in despair of sound foundations. A scientist -like Dubois-Reymond enumerates seven world riddles, -or mysteries that cannot be explained, and after saying -that they cannot be explained, he seems to see that no -alternative remains but to take refuge in resignation: -“Ignoramus, ignorabimus!”</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">129</span></p> -<p>That “explanation” is not the only avenue to truth, -that the referring of effects to their causes is not the -highest operation of the reality-producing functions, I -have pointed out in a previous chapter. But Kant, as -has been said, is supposed to have utterly annihilated the -arguments intended to demonstrate the existence of -God, and it will clear up the matter at issue if we consider -wherein he actually succeeded and wherein he quite -failed. As he himself declares, his method is regressive; -he does not attempt the progressive method path. -He seeks to ascertain whether by going backward along -the chain of effects and causes, or of conditions, he can -somewhere find God as first cause or as unconditioned. -He does not look forward looking to the ideals of the -will. He does not enter into the realm of ends, where -the necessity of determining action in obedience to some -universal plan or scheme of relations might have forced -itself on his attention. His approach, like his habit of -mind, is scientific. He is not primarily an ethicist. -Proceeding in this manner he shows that the notion of a -first cause is untenable, and he attacks in particular the -ontological argument by which every other argument -supplements itself at the point where it breaks down.</p> - -<p>Did Kant, however, annihilate the Ontological Argument? -Yes, in the scholastic form in which it was held. -No, in a form, based on the idea of the ethical manifold, -in which it can be restated. In the scholastic form it -runs:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">130</span> “There is such a thing as the idea of a perfect -being. Existence is an element of perfection. If the -perfect being did not exist it would be less than perfect. -But the <i lang="la">ens realissimum</i>, the perfect being, is present -as an idea in the mind. Therefore it exists.” The -disproof of this amounts to the curt statement that -what exists in the mind does not necessarily exist outside -of it, or, as Kant put it: “The idea of 100 thalers -in the head of a man is one thing, lacking no element -of conceptual integrity; while the existence of the 100 -thalers in the man’s purse is an entirely different matter.” -The evidence of existence, in other words, depends -on the synthesis of the data of sense as arranged -in the space and time manifold in accordance with the -categories of the understanding. Existence is temporal -and spatial. To prove that God exists we should have -to prove that he exists in the world of the senses. Of -any other kind of existence we are agnostic. Kant’s -disproof of the Ontological Argument thus depends on -his agnosticism.</p> - -<p>But suppose that on ethical grounds we find ourselves -compelled to affirm that there is an object which -has worth, and that to account for the inviolableness, indispensableness -and preciousness of this object we are -compelled to give free rein to the reality-producing -functions, and to place this object having worth as -a member in a manifold not spatial and temporal but -infinite: and suppose we say that the existence of this -worth-endowed object, of this ethical unit with its -compeers, is as certain as the notion of rightness is certain, -have we not then without blame widened the conception -of existence, and placed the Ontological Argu<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">131</span>ment -where Kant’s disproof does not even touch it?<a id="FNanchor_36_36" href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">36</a></p> - -<p>One more important remark is here in place, suggested -by Kant’s designation of God as the ideal of -reason, and by his designation of our highest nature as -the rational nature.</p> - -<p>Is “rational” equivalent to intellectual? If it be so, -then feeling must be classed as irrational, and impulse -likewise, since neither feeling nor impulse is subject -to logical rules. And then the war will be on between -the intellectualists or rationalists and the champions of -irrational conceptions of life, since feeling and impulse -actually make up the major part of life, and can neither -be left out of account nor compressed into intellectualist -formulas.<a id="FNanchor_37_37" href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">132</span></p> - -<p>Plainly, there is a deep misunderstanding between -the two parties. An error is involved somewhere. It appears -to consist in assuming that objectivity can be supplied -only by the intellect, in overlooking the fact that -the feelings and still more the volition possess intrinsic -controls and norms of their own, that Science, the work -of the intellect, and art and ethics, spring from a common -root, namely, the reality-producing functions. The -manifolds with which each of the three respectively deals -are different, the methods of synthesis are different, but -the root principle, synthesis of the manifold, is identical -in all.</p> - -<p>To describe our highest nature, therefore, as the rational -nature is perilous, since the word rational suggests -intellectual. Either we must strain the signification of -reason to include feeling and will, which is contrary to -common usage, or we should select some other term, such -as <em>spiritual</em>, to designate that nature within us which -operates in science and art and achieves its highest manifestation -in producing the ethical ideal.</p> - -<p>Finally, if what has been said regarding the ethical -manifold holds good, then a genuine philosophy of life -can only be reached by the ethical approach to the -problems of life. This has never yet been consistently -attempted. The approach has been made from the scientific -or the logical side, or as in the case of Plato from -the æsthetic, or as in modern times from the biological. -Yet the ethical approach is full of promise. A philosophy -of physical nature may be feasible without it, a -philosophy of art may be possible without it, but not -so a philosophy of life. It has not been tried because -ethics has lain in the lap of theology, which was itself -corrupted by the attempt to apply to ethical problems -the inadequate principle of causality in the form of -creation theories, while again in recent times, by way<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">133</span> -of reaction against theology, the solution of ethical questions -is sought for in the empirical disciplines where a -measure at least of objective certainty has rewarded -the investigators. Even Kant, who asserted the independence -of ethics, actually made it dependent on -Newtonian science. The great task now is, strictly to -carry out the idea of the independence of ethics, not indeed -as if its principles were unrelated to those of -science and art, but in the sense of independently investigating -the problems <em>peculiar</em> to ethical consciousness. -I am well aware that the attempt made in this volume -to take the ethical line of approach to a general philosophy -of life, is tentative and defective in a hundred -ways, nevertheless it is an attempt in a new direction.</p> - -<p>In the next book I shall take up the practical consequences -that follow from the theory here advanced. -Having delineated the ethical ideal, and discovered the -invaluable fact that there is a structural plan contained -in it, we shall see that our actual human duties may be -derived by applying this ideal scheme to the quasi-organic -groups already existing in human society. -There are provocative correspondences to the ethical -ideal in the social life of men; otherwise it would be impossible -to apply it. There are human groups in which -a quasi-correlative membership in a common life already -exists. In the case of each of these groups we find some -sort of empirical multiplicity which must be studied -scientifically, and also an empirical motive which may -be utilized in the interest of developing the ethical relation. -The family is the first of these groups which offers -a footing in the world of experience for the ideal. In the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">134</span> -family natural affection is the motive; in the vocational -group, the desire to express a talent or special gift; in -the state, patriotism; in the church, the need felt to integrate -all human ideals.</p> - -<p>Thus the things of earth are to be used as instrumentalities -by which we are to become aware of the spiritual -reality. Only that the disparateness of the physical -world and the ethical universe should ever be kept in the -foreground. Every effort to solve the riddle by somehow -identifying the two has failed. To account for the -existence of a finite world of indefinite extensibility side -by side with a universe <i lang="la">ex hypothesi</i> infinite is impossible. -Instead of seeking to explain let effort go toward utilizing. -Let the <em>world</em> be used instrumentally for the purpose -of verifying the existence of <em>universe</em>.</p> - -<p>For the average man, and indeed for all men, the test -of the truth of a theory is in the practice to which it -leads. Abstract metaphysical arguments appeal only to -a few, and even for them the formula in its abstract -guise is unconvincing. Look at the mathematical -figure, and see whether the axioms hold good. Look at -the sequent phenomena and see whether the so-called -law of nature is exemplified. And so with respect to conduct: -look at the ways of human behavior traced out in -accordance with the plan of the ethical manifold, and -see whether such behavior wins the approval of the -spiritual nature implicit within you.<a id="FNanchor_38_38" href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">38</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">135</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<h4>NOTE I</h4> - -<p>There are various points at which the system sketched in -the text deviates from current opinion, but in regard to the -underlying proposition the reader’s particular attention is -called to the remarks on the “prejudice of causality” and to -the statement that verification is exemplification.</p> - -<p>How can ethical truth be verified? How can we be sure that -ethical ideals are more than fine wishes, expressing subjective -aspiration, but having no counterpart in the ultimate constitution -of things? This is the dark doubt that haunts the -minds of ethical writers, as well as of the average man. We -ask to have the things we believe in, the objects of our supreme -aspiration, verified. How can they be verified?</p> - -<p>I think that we shall see light in this matter once we have -grasped the thought that verification, both in science and in -ethics, is nothing more than exemplification. In the case of -causality, in science, verification does not consist in mere recurrence. -For if we find, even by a single carefully guarded experiment, -that a given phenomenon A is the true antecedent of -B, then we take leave to predict that B will always follow A, -without regard to the repetition of the sequence in our -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">136</span>experience.<a id="FNanchor_39_39" href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> Indeed, no amount of repetition would justify prediction. -The problem in the case of causality is to determine -the true antecedent and the true consequent. For at any -moment there are innumerable phenomena that might possibly -be antecedents of B. How obtain certainty that A is the -causal antecedent? By the synthetic process. We assume -a unity, say energy. We assume that there are differentiæ, -say a certain mathematically determined quantum of mechanical -energy in A, and a determined quantum of thermal energy -in B. No sooner have these differentiæ been mathematically -determined, than in virtue of the assumed unity of energy -underlying the differences, we pronounce the nexus to be necessary. -We predict that B will always follow A.</p> - -<p>Causality, therefore, is an example of a synthesis which -over-arches sequences. The fact that the phenomena are sequent -does not affect the principle involved. Whenever we -contemplate an example of synthesis, that is, defined differentiæ -of some sort, and a defined underlying unity of some sort, -the mind affirms that reality exists. There are degrees of -reality. The degree of completeness with which the synthetic -function is carried out in any instance determines the degree.</p> - -<p>Ethical verification is likewise exemplification, though in -another sense. When the ideal plan of ethical relations is presented, -the ideal plan being a synthesis not of sequences but of -all co-existent entities whatsoever, the mind assents to this ideal -plan as representing the complete synthesis or the complete -reality. The more explicitly and definitely the relation between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">137</span> -the ethical units is conceived, the greater the conviction of -reality resulting. Now frustration after partial achievement -has the effect of making more explicit the idea of the plan of -relations as it ought to be carried out in human life. And in -this sense I would have the reader understand the main practical -argument of the book—that frustration is the condition of -our intensified conviction as to the reality of the supersensible -universe.</p> - -<p>In virtue of the constitution of our minds we cannot help -acknowledging as real that which is synthesized. Synthesized -and real are synonymous terms. Hence the idea of the completed -synthesis necessarily is the idea of the ultimate reality.</p> - - -<h4>NOTE II</h4> - -<p>The three principal respects wherein Kant has failed to justify -his affirmation that every human being is to be regarded as -an end <i lang="la">per se</i>, and not to be used as a tool, are:</p> - -<p>1. Out of the bare experience of oughtness, absolute constraint, -he seeks to derive personality. Out of the empty -categorical imperative he seeks to draw a substantive entity—a -being possessed of worth.</p> - -<p>2. The society of ends <i lang="la">per se</i> described by him is not a true -society, but a collection of atomic individuals juxtaposed. -The capital flaw in his ethics is here. He begins by detaching -the individual. He studies the individual, and discovers, or believes -himself to have discovered, that something happens in -him (the consciousness of absolute constraint) which entitles -him to be considered worth while on his own account.</p> - -<p>Next, since the formula of university proposes imitability by -others as the test of a moral act, all others are called in as concomitants -of the detached atom first considered. Each of the -concomitants in turn is an atomic entity. It is in this mechanical -way that the conception of a kingdom of ends, or a holy -community, is supposed to be validated. Kant’s mistake is -to assume that an individual regarded as an isolated being can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">138</span> -be worth while, can be an end <i lang="la">per se</i>. The notion of end involves -relation to others, not mechanical juxtaposition, but -intrinsic connection. No one is worth while by himself. He -has worth only as an organic member of a spiritual whole. -The unique quality which lends him incomparable distinction -is the creative life which emanates from him and quickens -cognate but diversely modified life in his associates.</p> - -<p>3. Kant’s version of the ethical rule is strong on the side -of interdiction, but quite inadequate on the positive side. He -tells us that we are to look on others not merely as means to -our own ends, but also ends <i lang="la">per se</i>. The vagueness is in the -formula “not merely ... but also.” Where the dividing line -is to be drawn he does not tell. I am at liberty to use the -services of others in the prosecution of my own interests, as -they may use mine, since we are social beings and dependent -on one another. But how far may I go in this direction? On -this point we are left wholly in the dark. Kant admits into his -system the so-called natural ends,<a id="FNanchor_40_40" href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> such as wealth, culture and -the like, gives them leave to abound, only with the proviso that -they may not overpass a certain limit,—the limit beyond which -they would interfere with the rights of fellowmen. An instrumental -view of wealth, science, culture, as positively promoting -the ethical end of man, he does not and cannot establish.<a id="FNanchor_41_41" href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> -But the instrumental view is precisely that in which modern -society has most at stake, on the working out of which the -solution of our most pressing problems,—such as the labor -problem, the problem of the family, the problem of patriotism -and international relations—is entirely dependent. If Kant -has failed at this point, as I believe he has, his usefulness as a -guide in the reconstruction of modern life is seriously diminished. -What he had set out to demonstrate, the inalienable -worth of man, remains; but foundations other than his must<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">139</span> -be found. For the formula “not merely as a means but also -as an end” I would substitute: Treat every man as a spiritual -means to thine own spiritual end and conversely ... treat the -extent and the manner in which we are to use one another as -means being determined by the criterion that our exchange of -services shall conduce to the attainment of each other’s ends as -ethical beings conjointly.</p> - - -<h4>NOTE III</h4> - -<p>I would also ask the reader to consider well the effect upon -the philosophy of life of the position taken throughout this -volume that there is no intellectual bridge between the finite -order and the infinite order. This involves dropping creation -at the beginning and immortality in its usual sense at the end. -Creation is an attempt to show how the world, including man, -proceeded out of the infinite. Immortality is an attempt to -express how man returns to the infinite. In this volume man’s -dealings with the finite order are represented as having for -their purpose the achievement of the conviction that there -verily is an infinite life, a supersensible universe. Creation systems, -pantheistic systems, certain evolutionary systems, also -the Hegelian system, are futile attempts to explain the How. -But explanation is impossible; for to explain means to understand, -and to understand means to trace an effect to its cause. -And causality is not the kind of synthesis applicable to a co-existent -totality.</p> - -<p>Among practical consequences note the difference between -the theistic attitude in fatal sickness and the spiritual attitude.<a id="FNanchor_42_42" href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> -The theist presupposes that there is a God to whose -will he must patiently submit. But theism is a principle of -explanation, the God-idea being employed to account for the -finite order. God is thus made responsible for the suffering of -the sick as well as for all other evils in the world. Hence the -very idea which is presupposed in order to produce patience<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">140</span> -raises up doubts and perplexities, which imperil patience. If -God made the world why does he permit pain and evil? The -spiritual attitude, on the contrary, ethically interpreted, does -not presuppose the idea of a divine order as a dogma, but offers -it as the product of the experience of suffering itself. The -conviction that there is in man an essential spiritual self, a holy -thing, and a spiritual universe, a holy community, are not gifts -to which we fall heir at birth, or by some sort of revelation borrow -from the experience of ancient teachers; they are a supreme -good to be arduously worked out by ourselves. And the interpretation -given to the facts of suffering and frustration is that -they can be used as the means of bringing to birth in us that -supreme conviction.</p> - -<p>In general it may be said that the purpose of existence, both -of the individual and of the race, is so to work in the finite -world as to become possessed with ever greater distinctness of -the conviction of the reality of the wholly real world, the infinite -supersensible universe.</p> - -<p>The attitude of the Christian is other-worldly. He shuns -intimacy with the finite world and turns his face toward his -“true home.” The attitude herein described is that of hearty -attack upon the business of life, and close embrace of all the -partial reality which finite experience contains, with a view -of thus acquiring in some measure an appreciation of the utter -reality of which these partial realities are hints and glimmerings.</p> - - -<h4>NOTE IV</h4> - -<p>In the case of any new theory, it is true that one must live -with it for a considerable time before acquiring the habit of -thinking in accordance with it. The older habits constantly -crop up and interfere with the correct understanding of any -new point of view. This is especially so of a new attitude towards -reality. The world seems topsy-turvy to one who learns -for the first time that grass and the leaves of trees are not -really green apart from the eye that sees them, that beings with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">141</span> -different organs might interpret differently that which stimulates -the human eye to its specific color reactions. The heliocentric -theory, when first announced by Copernicus, outraged -naïve commonsense. It exacted a new habit of thinking in regard -to the relation of the sun to the earth,—the real relation, -apprehended by intercalated mental processes being the direct -opposite of the apparent relation. The sun evidently revolves -around the earth, nevertheless the truth is that the earth -revolves around the sun.</p> - -<p>Modern science reveals behind the palpable world around us -unimaginable fluids, speeds, and physical units which are so -sublimated in thought as to be barely distinguishable from -metaphysical entities. The habit of penetrating with radium-like -glance the concrete screen of things, and of seeing behind -the screen the company of atoms, ions, etc., may be gradually -acquired; but the older habit of regarding the palpable and -visible as the truly real continues to assert itself in conflict with -the new habit.</p> - -<p>The ethical unit in an ethical manifold postulated in the -text as the closest, though still symbolic, reading of the ultimate -reality, makes a similar demand upon the reader, and -requires of him in like manner the formation of a new habit of -thinking, against which the older habits will doubtless continue -to protest.</p> - -<p>The most obstinate of the older habits that stand in the way -has been dealt with in the note on causality, namely,—the -unscientific habit of ignoring the boundaries of science, and -of taking the method employed in the physical sciences as the -sole method that leads to certainty. The prejudice of causality -is probably ineradicable, just as the illusion that the sun -revolves about the earth persists. But we can at least reach -the point of realizing that it is a prejudice, and to this extent -overcome it. If it be synthesis, or the employment in inseparable -conjunction of the two functions mentioned, that for -the human mind spells reality, then one kind of synthesis -called causality, that of sequent phenomena, does not exclude<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">142</span> -the ampler, though ideal synthesis, which is carried out in the -mental production of the ethical manifold. So much I wish to -add to the statements contained in the text in regard to the -theory.</p> - -<p>But there is also a new habit to be acquired in regard to the -practical ethical consequences of the theory. The chief of -these is the prizing of distinctive difference above uniformity -or sameness. The ethical quality is that quality in which a -man is intrinsically unique. The ethical act is the most completely -individualized act (I ought perhaps to say personalized, -but the completely individualized act <em>is</em> that of a unique personality). -In brief, the emphasis is here put on that in which a -man differs from all others, and not on the common nature -which he shares with the rest; or rather, since the common nature -is not denied, the stress is put on the intrinsically different -mode in which the common nature is expressed in him.<a id="FNanchor_43_43" href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">43</a></p> - -<p>The accentuation in current ethical discussion of the common -nature of man, and the fallacious assumption that the -common interests are the pre-eminently moral interests, that -uniformity is the test of ethical quality, is easy to understand. -It is the reaction of the modern world against feudalism, a -social system not yet entirely outgrown, in which the empirical -differences of rank and birth were made the basis of intolerably -oppressive discriminations, and in which it was an accepted -axiom that some men are baked of better clay than -others. It is also a reaction against the capitalistic system -that has taken the place of the feudal, in which wealth is to a -considerable extent made the standard of social appraisement.</p> - -<p>It is against these false discriminations that the voice of humanity -is now indignantly raised, affirming the moral equality -of all men. But equality is mistakenly taken to mean likeness in -the sense of sameness, not in the sense of that fundamental like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">143</span>ness -on the background of which the desirable unlikenesses -stand forth. And this notion of equality as identical with -sameness leads to great practical aberrations. Thus, for instance, -women are not only to be recognized as the equals of -men, but are to be the same as men,—their education patterned -on that of men, their specific functions, as far as possible, -ignored. For unlikeness is supposed to connote inferiority, and -inferiority is justly repelled as morally intolerable. But aside -from this one example, the stressing of the common nature, or -of the basis of likeness at the expense of the outstanding unlikenesses, -leads to other leveling tendencies of which modern democracies -furnish many unpleasing illustrations. Thus uniform -popular opinion, encompassing the individual on every side, -penetrates into his inmost thinking, so that he hardly ventures -to hold to his own judgment against the judgments of the majority. -And the impulses of the mass tend also to threaten his -independence in action. There is indeed a certain intoxication -in the very sense of being submerged in a large whole, a certain -glad loss of self in great impersonal movements, a certain strain -of democratic pantheism, as it were, that takes the place with -some of mystic absorption in Deity. But whatever the value that -may attach to these upswellings of feeling, it is counterbalanced -by the circumstance that in proportion as indiscriminate devotion -to society as a whole becomes the paramount motive, the -sub-organisms of society, the family, the vocation and the state, -in which the ethical personality is ripened, are threatened with -effacement. Instead of moral equality it were better to use the -term “moral equivalence.” The differences are to be stressed; -they are the coruscating points in the spiritual life of mankind. -That every man is the equal of his fellows means that he has -the same right as each of the others to become unlike the others, -to acquire a distinct personality, to contribute his one peculiar -ray to the white light of the spiritual life.</p> -</blockquote> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">145</span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="BOOK_III">BOOK III</h2> - -<p class="hang">APPLICATIONS: THE THREE SHADOWS, -SICKNESS, SORROW AND SIN, AND -THE RIGHT TO LIFE, PROPERTY AND -REPUTATION</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">147</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_I-3">CHAPTER I<br /> - -<small>INTRODUCTION</small></h3> - - -<p>Three main thoughts should be kept clear: the end to -be realized, the incongruity of the finite and the infinite -order, and hence, thirdly, the indispensable ministry of -frustration in the realization of the purpose of life.</p> - -<p>In regard to the so-called moral end of life, there has -been much variety and contrarity of teaching. I shall -touch only upon that aspect of the doctrine expounded -in the previous book wherein it seems to resemble other -doctrines, and where a distinct statement of the difference -is therefore imperative. “So act as to develop -the faculties of thy fellowman” is not the rule proposed. -“So act as to develop the so-called good qualities -in the man” is not the rule proposed. The rule -reads, “Act so as to bring out the spiritual personality, -the unique nature of the other.” Now, in putting the -matter in this way, we incurred the danger of seeming -to concentrate attention on the individual as a detached -being, we seemed to have him only in mind, though it is -true, in respect to what is intrinsic in him, the irreducible -ethical unit which he essentially is. We must, -therefore, constantly remind ourselves that the ethical -unit, while unique, is at the same time an inseparable -member of a society of differentiated units; that its very -distinctiveness consists in injecting, as it were, streams<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">148</span> -of dynamic energy into its fellow-beings. Or, as I have -elsewhere figuratively put it, the distinctiveness of any -ethical being consists, so to speak, in emitting a ray the -color of which is nowhere else to be found, the miraculous -quality of which consists in acquiring this color at -the very instant in which it causes counter or complementary -colors to appear in its fellow-being. (I am -using the words “instant,” “miraculous,” “ray of light,” -etc., of course, in a wholly figurative sense.)</p> - -<p>We have at last, this is my belief, achieved a positive -definition of the spiritual nature. The spiritual nature -is that which forever is social in a supra-social sense, -as embracing not only human society, but a universal -society of spirits. The spiritual nature is that of which -the very life consists in starting up unlike but equally -worthwhile life elsewhere, everywhere. The spiritual experience -to get hold of, therefore, is the consciousness of -this interrelation.</p> - -<p>The moral end to be realized, in accordance with the -deductions of Book II, is “So to act upon another as to -evoke in him, and conjointly in oneself, in the same -movement and counter-movement the consciousness of -the interlacedness of life with life, the reciprocal, universal, -infinite interrelatedness.” -Now, as a fact, we never realize this end. If we did -we should possess what alone is properly called freedom,—freedom -in the positive sense being the exercise of -power peculiar to ourselves, welling up out of our veriest -self, and executing the totality of its effects. Freedom -is marked by these two signs: energy coming unborrowed -out of self, and producing the totality of its ef<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">149</span>fects. -I am free when the thing I do is verily my own, -when the power released is the power of my essential -self; and when that power is nowhere checked, inhibited -or interrupted, so that it produces its due, that is, its universal -effects.</p> - -<p>An ethical being in an ethical universe would be free. -The dynamic energy proceeding from it would be aboriginal. -And since it would radiate upon every other -member of the infinite society, it would also produce the -unstinted plenitude of its effects. Each ethical unit, -at its station, would be at once the <em>producer and the -recipient of the totality of life</em>.<a id="FNanchor_44_44" href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p> - -<p>It is apparent from what has been said that the superlative, -sublime thing, freedom, is not realizable except in -an infinite world. And hence that the supreme end to be -realized by man as a finite being cannot be the full release -of unique power in himself. But neither can the -end be approximation. In so serious a business as a -philosophy of life we ought not to play with words, nor -delude ourselves with the implication of proximity seemingly -contained in the word approximation. For it being -admitted that we cannot reach the ideal, approximation -seems to suggest that we come into its neighborhood. -But the truth is that the more we advance the less do we -arrive in the immediate neighborhood of the ideal, the -distance at which it lies becoming ever more remote.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">150</span> -The moral end, therefore, for a finite nature, like that of -man, is just to realize the unattainableness of the end. -There must be no heaven-on-earth illusions, no resting in -the development of our inadequate human faculties, and -no illusions as to approximation. The unattainableness -of the infinite end in the finite world by the finite nature -is the Alpha and Omega of the doctrine, as I propound -it. Only after this truth has been fully faced and recognized, -shall we be in a position to take in the vast significance -of the fact that we are nevertheless under a -certain coercion to persist in our efforts to attain the -unattainable, and in inquiring into the source from -which this pressure comes, we shall be led to infer the -influence in us of an infinite nature enshrined in this -finite nature of ours. In other words, to admit the unattainableness -of the end in a finite world by a finite -being is the very condition of our acquiring the conviction -that there is an infinite world, and that we, as possessing -an infinite nature, are included in it.<a id="FNanchor_45_45" href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">45</a></p> - -<p>I have now covered the points mentioned: the end to -be realized, the incongruity of the two orders, and the -cardinal importance of frustration as a spiritual experience, -as a means of spiritual education.</p> - -<p>From this point of view the whole question of how to -deal with the frustrations of life assumes a new aspect. -Lessing published his well-known essay on the Education -of the Race towards the close of the eighteenth century.<a id="FNanchor_46_46" href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> -Interest in the subject has since been obscured by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">151</span> -the scientific movement, and especially by the evolutionary -philosophy. The latter excludes the idea of education -in the proper sense, and substitutes for it a natural -process, a genetic unfolding. The education of the human -race, and of the human individual from the spiritual -point of view consists in a series of efforts never to be intermitted, -but not necessarily following each other in an -orderly series, aiming to embody the infinite in the finite.</p> - -<p>Both partial success and failure in these efforts are -instrumental to the achievement of the task of mankind. -Both serve to make more explicit the character and extent -of the ideal, while the ultimate inevitable failure -painfully instructs man in the fact of the incongruity -of the two orders. The only outcome of human history -that we can view with satisfaction on a large scale, -is the same as that which we should regard as the -best outcome of an individual life, namely, the growing -conviction and the clearer vision of the eternal spiritual -universe as real. We might say that that man had lived -best who on his deathbed could declare with perfect -truth: “I have achieved the certainty, and in through the -vicissitudes of my life, that there is a universe.” I here -emphasize again the distinction between universe and -world. To say that the universe is “good” is equivocal. -The term “good,” as commonly used, describes the moral -striving of a finite nature, and not the quality that belongs -to the spiritual universe and its members, thinking -of them as ideally we must, as freed from finite limitation. -Of the spiritual universe, we might use the term -“supra-good,” only we should then be careful to add that -the “beyond good” is to be conceived as lying in the di<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">152</span>rection -of the good, while transcending it. Thereby we -avoid the pitfall of Nietzsche and of others who speak in -a totally different sense of the “beyond good and evil.” -We read of a man blessing his children on his deathbed. -The highest type of man is the one who <i lang="la">in articulo mortis</i> -can bless the universe.</p> - -<p>The discrepancy of the finite and the infinite order -appears on the physical and moral sides. On the -physical side it thrusts itself upon our attention in the -circumstance that juxtaposition and sequence are incapable -of being unified, or totalized. Space and time and -that which fills them, matter, are by nature incongruous -with spirit. On the moral side the incongruity appears -in the deflecting forces of appetite and passion which -hinder us in the attainment of the spiritual end and in -the fact that our so-called higher faculties are in irreconcilable -conflict with one another. The harmonious -union of all of them in any individual is a fiction. It -is impossible to be fully developed on all sides. And -in addition the social substrata in which the spiritual relation -has to be worked out, are themselves too deeply -beset with internal contrarieties to serve their purpose -adequately. The sex relation, for instance, is to a certain -extent favorable to the achievement of spirituality, that -is, of living in the life of another; yet on the other hand -there are elements in it that defeat this very object.</p> - -<p>I write, therefore, at the head of such words of counsel -as I can hope to give in respect to the conduct of -life, the word <em>Frustration</em>. It is understood that this -word is not used in the pathetic sense. First because -there is partial achievement, moments in life at which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">153</span> -the rainbow actually seems to touch the earth. Love and -marriage, the completing of a beautiful work of art, the -discovery of a new law of nature, the emancipation of -an oppressed class, are examples. But these partial successes -are presently seen to be partial; they are followed, -or even in the moment of triumph, permeated, with the -sense of incompleteness and the foreboding of new obscurities -and perplexities advancing upon the mind. -Yet essentially the doctrine is not a melancholy doctrine, -because frustration, though a painful instrument, is yet -a necessary instrument of spiritual development. We -are not open to the reproach of dampening the zest and -relish for life of those who are setting out to try the -hazard of their fortunes. They shall put forth their best -effort to succeed, but let them be so guided herein that -they may meet in the right attitude of mind the disillusionment -which is the condition of the revelation. The -shadows will and must descend before they can be -parted, disclosing the landscape of the spiritual universe.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">154</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_II-3">CHAPTER II<br /> - -<small>THE THREE GREAT SHADOWS: SICKNESS, SORROW, -SIN</small></h3> - - -<p>Having concentrated attention upon the point that -the end is not the development of any particular faculty -or assemblage of faculties, but the awakening in man, in -and through his development, of the consciousness of interrelation, -of life in life, we shall now turn to the three -great shadows: sickness, sorrow, sin. In the case of sickness -the suffering, however acute, must be made to pass -over into action. There is a certain work to be done, -something to be accomplished on the sick bed. What is -it? I shall briefly review a few of the answers that have -been given.</p> - -<p>First, the Stoic says: A man in pain is to resist the -pain by an act of will, thereby demonstrating that his -essential self is inaccessible to bodily suffering. “If -there is a pain in thy limb, remember that the pain is -in thy limb, and not in thyself.” Now the fortitude -of the Stoic is admirable as far as it goes; his counsels -are bracing and manly. But, because he is a materialistic -pantheist, the reason he gives for his defiance of -pain is not convincing. In effect his appeal is rather to -the empirical than to the spiritual nature of man. The -spiritual nature is characterized by humility; the appeal -of the Stoic is to pride. Fate with all its sledge<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">155</span>hammer -blows shall not crush him. Yet the Stoic’s pride -when put to the supreme test does not avail, and the -proof of it is that at the last it breaks down in suicide.</p> - -<p>We come to a second answer. There is business in -hand for the sufferer on the sick bed. What is the -business? To hide the expression of his suffering, so -that the cloud which rests on him may not cast its shadow -upon others, obscuring their sunshine. But, we are -bound to ask, are others always worthy of such consideration? -Is not our sympathetic regard for their -pleasures, their sunshine, often misplaced? Are not their -pleasures often selfish and frivolous? The Greeks believed -that outcries in situations of great distress are -perfectly legitimate, since they seem to afford a kind -of relief. Is it not cruel to forbid such outcries? In -our age the view prevails that it is a proof of moral -grandeur to suppress the signs of suffering. But the -cynical question obtrudes itself whether it may not be the -collective selfishness of the multitude that imposes this -rule. The common run of men desire to go on their way -undisturbed by cries that emanate from the sick chamber, -and perhaps it is on this account that they impose a rule -of behavior based, not on the principle of human worth, -but on its opposite. The individual forsooth is not to -count; the unhappiness of one is not to interfere with the -happiness of the greater number!</p> - -<p>There is, however, another view of the matter possible. -Everyone carries his own particular burden. When -tortured by some painful malady, we are apt to think -that others, because they wear a smiling exterior, are -therefore free from pain. But often those who seem<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">156</span> -in sound health are in fact as great sufferers as we, or -even greater. And physical pain is not the only kind -of suffering. Why, then, should I, for one, add to the -troubles of others by imposing my own upon them? -Put in this way, it is plain that there is an ethical element -in the kind of behavior that is expected of a -manly person. But the reason assigned, sympathy with -the pleasures of others, is unconvincing. Unless there -be some good to which grievous suffering can be made -instrumental, there is no warrant for enduring it. As -for the Stoics, so for the philosopher of sympathy, the -logical end would be suicide, at least when the pain is -exceptionally intense.</p> - -<p>There is a third answer. Something is to be worked -out on the sick bed. What is it? To be purified in the -furnace, to learn patience and humble submission to the -inscrutable will of God. Patience is the supreme virtue. -“Be patient, Oh, be patient,” I once heard a dying -man repeat with touching accents. But patience for -the sake of what? There must be some object to be -gained by the patience to make it commendable. I can -be patient in a storm at sea if I may entertain the hope -of reaching port. I can be patient in conducting a difficult -scientific experiment if I may hope that it will -issue in an important discovery, or prepare the way for -such discovery by others. I can be patient in sickness -if I have any reason to expect a return to health. But -patience for mere patience’s sake is absurd. Well, then, -the third answer is,—patience for the sake of manifesting -your faith and trust in a wise and beneficent Deity. -Why he has sent this suffering, why he has so made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">157</span> -the world that it is replete with the agony of sentient -creatures we do not know. We cannot know. But he -knows. Trust him, have faith in him: “Though he slay -me yet will I trust him.”</p> - -<p>Here a genuine characteristic of the spiritual attitude -has been expressed, but the ground on which it is put is -once more unconvincing. How do I know that there -is such a being as this wise and loving Deity of whom -you tell me? By the evidence of his works, by the testimony -of the world he has created, by the life for -which I am indebted to him. But the world is the playground -of good and evil forces. There is a semblance -of design; there is on the other hand apparently the -wildest disorder. The stars in their courses travel with -incredible celerity in every direction, but no astronomer -has ever yet been able to discern a plan in their -journeyings. Human life is full of sorrow as well as -joy; and whether there be more sorrow or more joy in -the lives of most persons, who will venture to say? There -is kindness, but there is also cruelty. There is coöperation, -and there is merciless competition. There is health -and bloom, and there is miserable physical decay. At -present, in my case, suffering and sorrow are in the -ascendant. The picture of the Deity as fashioned from -the evidence of experience is dark and bright, cruel and -kind. If he be omnipotent, why did he introduce the -elements of discord and trouble into his creation? Why, -in particular, does he at present torture me so cruelly? -In order that I may believe in him despite the evidence! -But how can I believe, seeing that in my own case the -evidence on the bad side preponderates? Thus the mind<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">158</span> -of the sufferer on his couch of pain gropes in the labyrinth -of argument and counter-argument—for the intellectual -processes are often preternaturally acute in -times of physical suffering—and there is no outlet. In -a fine spiritual nature there is something which pleads -that the counter-arguments ought not to prevail. Desperately, -by an act of faith, a man lays hold on his -God. But presently his faith again relaxes, his state -of mind becomes confused, and unless supported by -strong impressions received in and retained from childhood -on, the third answer will not avail him.</p> - -<p>There is business in hand on the sick bed. What is -it? The fourth answer, the answer as it appeals to me, -depends on the very incongruity of the finite and the -infinite order. Every attempt to explain this incongruity -breaks down, every theodicy is a fiction. To explain -is to find the cause of effects. But the notion of -cause does not apply to the relation between the finite -and the infinite. And of the infinite order itself we -possess only the plan or scheme of relations. The members -of this ideal world are related to one another in -such a manner that the essential uniqueness of the one -is to be provocative of the diverse distinctiveness of the -others. This, as I think, is a very fruitful formula, furnishing -a rule of conduct to be applied to our finite relations. -But it sheds no light on the uniqueness itself, -which is forever ideal. What in its ultimate constitution -our spiritual being may be, remains unknown. -Did we know, were we capable of comprehending the -infinite order, and seeing things in that supersolar light, -we might then be able to solve the insoluble riddle,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">159</span> -the coexistence side by side of the finite and the infinite. -As it is, the problem of finiteness especially in -its human aspect of suffering and evil is impenetrable, -inexplicable. <em>But if we cannot explain suffering and -evil, we can utilize them for a definite spiritual end.</em> -And that end is to achieve through the ministry of frustration -and the persistence of the effort toward the unattainable, -the consciousness of the reality of the spiritual -universe and of our membership in it.</p> - -<p>The answer, therefore, which I should offer, is based -on this pivotal distinction between explaining and using. -And thus the business in hand, the end to be gained, is -the intensified realization of our spiritual interconnectedness -with others, the life in life. To this end we accept -from the Stoic, though for a reason which he does -not give, resistance to pain, and from the philosopher -of sympathy the obligation of not clouding the life of -others with our shadow, and from the theologian the -law of patience—and we take a step beyond all three.</p> - -<p>Let me carry this out somewhat more in detail. To -gain the consciousness of interrelation, there must be an -object outside of myself of supreme interest to me, enabling -me to transcend the ego. Now, pain has the -opposite effect, that of concentrating attention on the -ego. Pain builds a prison around us, raises up high -walls which shut us in. Anyone in great pain is incessantly -reminded of his physical state. In order that -the mind may pass out of the prison cell and over the -encompassing wall, there needs to be some object beyond -the wall appealing enough to solicit the outward -movement. This object is the spiritual self of my fel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">160</span>lowmen. -It is my concern for their spiritual self which -is their highest good, it is my eager wish to reinforce what -is best in them that works the transcendence of the ego -and of its pains. In such supreme moments the lesser -values dwindle into relative insignificance. And what is -best in others is the same consciousness on their part of -the interrelation. It is this that I am to awaken in -them, to strengthen in them by the intensity with which -I myself realize it. In the case of loving kin and -friends, they, too, suffer with me. In vain I try to hide -my sufferings. They divine what I try to suppress; and -the more I try to suppress it, the more they suffer with -me. They suffer not only with the suffering, but with -the attempt to conceal the suffering. I have seen this in -the case of a mother at the bedside of her dying daughter. -They go with me to the brink of life. They enter -into the anxieties and forebodings that haunt my mind -as I face death. There may be young children that still -need fostering care. Dangers to the family may arise -after I am gone. The more my life is implicated in the -lives around me, the more as I stand on the edge of life -will my thoughts be occupied, not with the obliteration -of my empirical self, but with the future of those that -survive—that best future of theirs which I long to assure. -And they, in turn, if they are fine natures, will -pass through this inward experience with me. Thus I -descend into the darkness and the depths, and they descend -with me; and I am also to rise out of the darkness -and the depths, and am to gain the force to do this in -order that I may lift them with me.</p> - -<p>This is the business in hand. I am to draw myself<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">161</span> -out of the depths, to overcome the centralizing, egotizing -effects of physical and mental pain, in order by my -effort to make those around me realize the intensity -with which I feel my interrelatedness with them, and -thereby to reveal to them the same spiritual power in -themselves. Plans for the future education of the children, -counsels of peace, by way of anticipation for the -too lonely hours that await the most loving and the most -beloved,—these things have value chiefly in so far as they -are insignificant of the indissoluble interlacing of life -with life.<a id="FNanchor_47_47" href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">47</a></p> -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">162</span></p> - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_III-3">CHAPTER III<br /> - -<small>BEREAVEMENT</small></h3> - - -<p>When we reflect on what actually happens in cases -of bereavement, we shall find great diversity in different -situations. It may be that the deceased person has -led a worthless life, and that the grave is allowed to -close over him without much regret. Nevertheless, the -honor due to worth that <em>never appeared in him</em> ought to -be shown. In the worst cases we may not treat human -beings like animals. Besides, there are generally one or -more persons who seem to have an unreasoning natural -affection for the wretched being, and so he does not go -wholly without the tribute of tears. Others, like sufferers -from cancer, pass through days, weeks, months of -acute pain before they die. In their case it is said that -death comes as a relief, and often the final relief from the -suffering obscures the loss.</p> - -<p>Again, in most men’s lives there is an upper and an -under side. Though the public career of statesmen, -poets, artists may be dazzling, yet their faults or obliquities -are probably well enough known to those who -have seen them at close range. Obituaries are seldom -truthful. Sometimes, however, the reverse happens; -men whose names are held up to public obloquy are not -always as black as they are painted. Their worst side<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">163</span> -becomes known to the public, yet they sometimes possess -wonderfully fine traits.</p> - -<p>Very pathetic is the mourning for a baby, and its -unfulfilled promise, or for a defective child, long a burden, -yet strangely grieved for when its feeble little -flame of life is extinguished.</p> - -<p>The most poignant sorrow is that which cannot be -communicated to others or shared by others, because -the tie severed by bereavement, like that of husband and -wife, is between two only. The loss by death of a beloved -life companion is apt to lead to an inconsolable -state of mind, because in this relation, when finely interpreted, -the empirical and the spiritual appear almost to -coincide. The ethical rule, Live in the life of another, -live so as to enhance to the highest degree the possibilities -of another, seems almost no longer a counsel of perfection -but an actual experience. Hence the utter grief -into which the sundering of the tie is apt to plunge the -survivor. On the other hand, Jonathan Edwards said on -his deathbed to his wife: “Our relation has been spiritual, -and therefore is eternal.” And there is indeed an -element of eternality in marriage, only it is not the sex -relation as such that is or can be conceived of as eternal. -It is not man and woman in their empirical form to -which this attribute belongs. Marriage is the sign; the -spiritual relation that which is signified.<a id="FNanchor_48_48" href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">164</span></p> -<p>It may be objected that marriage being a tie strictly -between two, one can hardly think without repugnance -of an equally intimate, nay, far more intimate, relation -with all spiritual beings whatsoever. Yet the spiritual -relation is one in which the ethical being is conceived to -be in touch with each of the infinite beings that comprise -the spiritual universe, pouring its essential life -into them, and receiving theirs in return. Is not then -the sign incompatible with and contradictory to the -thing signified? But it is not of the multitude of mortal -men and women surrounding us that we think when -we speak of the eternal hosts. From this surrounding -swarm of mortals, we retreat, taking refuge in the inmost -privacy which we share with one other only. Yet -this very inmost intimacy, so far as it is pure, is the -emblem of that pure intercourse of essential being with -essential being in which we are related to all.<a id="FNanchor_49_49" href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">49</a></p> - -<p>Following up the subject of bereavement, we find -the following consolations employed:</p> - -<p>The first to be mentioned is,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">165</span> “Bow to the inevitable.” -I include this because frustration is inevitable, on account -of the discrepancy between the finite and the infinite -order, and because we are to use inevitable frustration -for the purpose of experiencing the reality of the -ideal. But without this use in mind, the inevitable presents -itself as a mere blind necessity, in which we can see -neither right nor reason, a hostile doom that simply -crushes us. The psychological effect of the thought of -an event as inevitable, it is true, is in any case calming, -but the tranquillity thus induced is a heavy and hopeless -one. And those who accept the inevitable in this stupefying -manner often become meaner in their way of living. -The light of life is for them extinguished. They put up -perhaps with creature comforts, or with work that merely -keeps the mind occupied, and prevents it from fretting -the wound, thus allowing slow time to cicatrize it.</p> - -<p>There is, however, a larger way in which a materialist -may regard the inevitable. The world in his view being -a vast machine, he may, as it were, identify himself with -the machine, and thereby rise in thought superior to the -injury it inflicts on him. But though we can imagine -someone thus deadening his feelings when he himself is -the victim, we cannot well conceive of the same remedy -applying when a beloved person, say an only child, is -being crushed under the Juggernaut car of the world-machine. -<em>The great test of one’s philosophy of life is -whether it helps us in the case of those whom we love, -rather than in the case of the sufferings we experience -in our own person.</em></p> - -<p>A second consolation is: Remember the universality of -sorrow. Look around you, behold the vast multitude<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">166</span> -who are suffering like you; remember the countless generations -who have suffered in the past, think of the generations -to come that will suffer in like manner. Such -are some of the consolations of the choruses in the Greek -tragedies. Latent perhaps in this mournful view of the -facts of existence is another aspect of the matter, -namely, the uprising from frustration toward ideal -realization. And in so far as this other uplifting view -is indeed latent or suggested, the thought of the universality -of sorrow has an ennobling effect. On the -other hand, without the explication of what may be regarded -as implicit in them the consolations of the Greek -choruses are inexpressibly saddening.</p> - -<p>A third and active variant of the former consolation is: -Seek to mitigate the sorrow and trouble of thy fellow-sufferers. -Appease the passion of thine own grief by -compassion and the works to which it leads. And by as -much as activity of any kind is better than passivity, or -mere feeling, by so much is this third kind of consolation -better than the ones above mentioned. But at bottom the -same criticism applies to it. It leaves still unanswered -the question, To what end this suffering both of others -and of oneself? Not Why? is the question, but To what -end? How bereavement may be used so as to bring it -into relation with the final end of life?</p> - -<p>A fourth consolation is the popular belief in immortality. -This is a resort to supernaturalism, and the supernatural -should ever be distinguished from the supersensible. -Immortality as popularly held involves the continued -existence in some empirical form of the essential, -central entity in man. For the suggestion that new or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">167</span>gans -may replace the wornout terrestrial body does not -alter the empirical character of the conception. The -new organs are still conceived in some vague fashion -as similar to those with which we are acquainted.</p> - -<p>Finally, my own interpretation of consolation may be -set forth in contrast to all these. Again I say that for the -bereaved, as for the sick, there is business in hand, there -is a task to be performed, a work to be done. What is -it? Let me endeavor to explain. The spiritual nature -of man is incognizable, only the plan of the relations -between spirit and spirit being given. Yet to think of -a relation at all we must think of entities or objects -between which it subsists. Of the spiritual part of -our fellow-beings, therefore, we are bound to fashion -mentally a symbolic image, one that shall stand for the -real object, the spiritual nature, though we are well -aware that it does not adequately express it.</p> - -<p>When the beloved person is no longer visibly present, -the work we do upon the symbolic image of him is not to -cease. We are to review, to summarize the whole existence -of a departed friend, as we have probably never -done while he was with us. We are to get the total perspective -of his life, to see the fine qualities standing out -more distinctly; to seize the net result of his existence -so far as those character traits are concerned which in -him were most analogous to spiritual traits. This -image we can now ideally contemplate with the advantage -that none of the actual infirmities of his nature -can mar it, and that no future events can henceforth -alter our impression. The work of clarifying the image -of our friend goes on unimpeded. And our own ac<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">168</span>tivity -in the process of purifying his image of all that -was merely fallible in him benefits us in return. The -effect of this activity of ours on the datum of his life is -our permanent gain. Thus both what he was and what -he was not is stimulative. While he lived we performed -the function of elimination and concentration with a view -of producing progress in him and in ourselves jointly. -Progress, induced by us, so far as he is concerned, for all -we know is at an end. Progress so far as we are concerned -is assured by the activity we continue to expend as -long as we live on his memory. And the memory, or the -image, stands for the beloved person. There is real -mental intercourse wherever there is a movement of one -mind towards the outgoings of another, even though the -retroactive relation be suspended. The beloved person -benefits me, though I no longer benefit him, except indirectly -so far as in my own life I possibly expiate his -shortcomings and in so far as I bestow on other living -persons the advantage I receive from my mental intercourse -with him.<a id="FNanchor_50_50" href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p> - -<p>What, then, is the business in hand? What is the -work to be done? Plainly to tie anew the threads that -were broken, to bring it about that the loss, infinitely -painful though it be, shall lead to gain, to substitute -for the mixed relation of touch and sight the -purely spiritual relation.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">169</span></p> -<p>One more remark must be made in connection with the -above. There is at present a tendency to dishonor the -past in comparison with the future. Interest seems to lie -in what lies ahead. Hence a breathless, forward-urging -mood. One consequence of this is that the dead are less -honored than of old. Within a single generation, for -instance, I have seen not a few eminent persons in the -city of New York pass away who up to the time of -their death and in their obituaries were greatly and -justly praised. I have hardly ever seen their names -publicly mentioned since. Already they seem practically -forgotten. In our national history likewise only -a few of the most eminent are remembered. In like -manner in families, the names even of father and mother -are seldom mentioned by their surviving adult children, -and ancestors at second remove are barely remembered. -Now excessive reverence for the past, as in China, is a -mark of stationariness. A retrospective point of view is -inconsistent with progress. Our face must necessarily -be turned toward the future. And yet forgetfulness -of those human beings whom we have known, and who -represented to us while they lived much of the best that -life had to give, seems inhuman and incredible. It is -true that I have drawn a sharp distinction between the -empirical selves and those spiritual selves which the -former for a time enshrined. The empirical selves have -now disappeared. The gleam of love in the eye, the luster -of beauty, whether of form or of expression, that -touched for a season the sacred features, have vanished. -On the other hand, the spiritual self as a member of the -spiritual universe is confessedly past knowing and past -imagining. On what object then shall memory dwell? -It may dwell on the empirical self in so far as it was the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">170</span> -sign of the thing signified, in so far as the being we knew -and loved was to us convincing of the reality of that -spiritual world which itself is incognizable by sense or -mind. The greatest boon any human being can confer -on another is to serve him in attaining the end for which -he exists; and the supreme end for us all is the realization -of our interrelation with the infinite community of spirits. -The woman whom we say we loved, we loved precisely -because she revealed to us that spiritual galaxy—because -she was a Beatrice, ascending with us, and opening to -our sight the eternal expanses.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">171</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_IV-3">CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<small>THE SHADOW OF SIN</small></h3> - - -<p>If any term in the moral vocabulary stands in need -of strict redefinition, it is sin. Three elements combine -to complete the idea of sin: first, that the deed was -one that ought not to have been done, not so much because -of its painful consequences to others or to self, or -to both, or, by repercussion on society as a whole; but -because it was opposed to what is intrinsically right: in -other words, because it contravened the kind of interrelation -which would exist in its purity in the ethical -manifold.</p> - -<p>Secondly, the idea of sin implies that the sinner himself -is the doer of the deed, or that there is to this extent -freedom of the will. I do not say that he is the cause of -which the deed is the effect. Causality appertains to -sequent phenomena. As regards freedom of the will, the -distinction between the category of interdependence and -that of causality is vital. A long series of causes, such as -bad heredity, bad environment, etc., may have led A to -determine to murder B.<a id="FNanchor_51_51" href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">51</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">172</span></p> -<p>The notion of the freedom of the will as here -viewed signifies that no matter what the causal series -may have been which leads up to the act, when the act -itself is about to be performed, when B is about to -experience the effect of A as cause, in that moment the -relation of interdependence between A and B ought to -arise before the mind of A and withhold him from -completing his evil purpose.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, it is characteristic of sin that the fuller -knowledge that the harmful deed is sinful <em>comes after -the act</em>,—that it is the Fruit of the Tree, the enlightenment -of the eyes. As the serpent said: “If ye eat of -the fruit ye shall be as gods.”</p> - -<p>Many a man has done what is called evil, and done -it most deliberately, knowing evil as evil. Remember -the career of a Cæsar Borgia, the extermination of the -Caribbean Indians by the Spaniards, the outrages on -women perpetrated during the present war, the exploitation -of human labor practiced on a large -scale among the civilized nations. That the blackest -crimes may be committed with a full knowledge of the -horrible consequences to the victims seems hardly to -admit of doubt. Evil is known as evil.</p> - -<p>But evil in its character as sin cannot be fully recognized -prior to the act. In this respect the Greeks had -a certain prescience of the truth when they asserted -that no one can knowingly commit evil; only they failed -to distinguish between evil and sin. A man <em>can</em> knowingly -commit evil, but cannot with full consciousness -commit sin. The knowledge of the sin is the divine elixir -which may be distilled from the evil deed <span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">173</span>(“Ye shall -be as gods”), and the object of every kind of punishment -should be to extract that pain-giving but ultimately -peace-giving elixir.</p> - -<p>Above I mentioned the criminal as the extreme type. -But evils in less formidable guise, though not on that -account less evil, refined invasions of the personality -of others, spiritual oppressions, sometimes deliberate, -often unwitting, are included in everyone’s experience. -And the process of expiation, by which evil is transcended -through the recognition of sin (with its prostrating -effect at first, its strangely elevating effect later -on) is alike applicable to all. The best of men have -to go through this ordeal as well as the worst. Especially -is unwitting transgression inevitable. Sophocles -makes it the text of his philosophy in the <em>Œdipus</em>, -though the solution offered is that of Greek enlightenment -and not that of the more profound ethical consciousness.</p> - -<p>We have next, in close connection with sin, to consider -the tremendous question of responsibility, interpreted -from the point of view of our ethical principle. -Responsible means answerable. Answerable to -whom, and in what sense? As commonly understood, -it means answerable to God the Law-giver, to God regarded -as the Author of the moral law. God is likened -to a sovereign. Any infraction of his law is an offense -against the sovereign. Answerable means subject -to the pains and penalties which it suits the sovereign -to annex to moral offences. There is no intrinsic -connection implied between pain and redemption. -The pain is supposed to break the will of the offender,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">174</span> -or to mellow him, so that he will in future obey the -mandates of the sovereign without a murmur.</p> - -<p>Again, responsibility may mean responsibility to society. -Crime is infectious. A fissure opening at any -one point in the dykes erected against crime may let in -a flood. The social order as a whole is threatened in -every single violation of law. The offender must answer -for his defiance of the public will by being subjected -to the pains or penalties which society annexes -to his crime. The object is the same as before, to break -him into submission, to fit or force him into the social -mould, to make him harmless, or if possible what is -called a “useful citizen.” No internal redemptive -change in the nature of the evildoer is contemplated, -except as it may be necessary to lead him to a -useful or at least a harmless life. The antisocial attitude -is to be replaced by the social attitude. Appeals -to enlightened self-interest, and to the sympathies are -commonly thought sufficient for this purpose.</p> - -<p>Thirdly, responsibility means responsible to oneself. -There is an inner forum, a tribunal in which the spiritual -self sits in judgment on the empirical self. Conscience, -the voice of this spiritual self, pronounces the -verdict. (Cf. the passages in Kant in which this figure -of speech is used.) These are metaphorical expressions.</p> - -<p>To grasp the meaning of responsibility from the ethical -standpoint, we must lift into view the concept of -<em>the task of mankind as a whole</em>, and of the individual -as a factor in the fulfilment of that task. This intro<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">175</span>duces -a momentous turn into the discussion of the subject.</p> - -<p>The task of mankind is to arrive through its commerce -with the finite world, through its unremitting -efforts to incorporate the infinite plan within the sphere -of human relations, at an increasingly explicit conception -of the ideal of the infinite universe; and through -partial success and frustration to seize the reality of -that universe. Responsibility means <em>participation in -this task</em>, sharing its doom, and attaining in oneself, in -part, its sublime compensation. The evildoer is to -achieve the knowledge that his evil deed is sin, that is to -say, that it not only carries with it harm to others and -indirectly to himself, but that it is <em>the defeat in him</em> of -the task which is set for the human race as a whole on -earth. Instead of doing his share in fulfilling this task, -in gaining a footing in the finite world for the spiritual -relation of living so as to enhance the life of others and -thereby his own, he has miserably sought to enhance his -life at the expense of other life. The knowledge that -he has so acted sears his awakened soul like fire, but -it is also the beginning of healing. The transgressor, -now sees what he did not see before. He sees by way of -contrast the holy pattern of relations which in his act he -has travestied, the holy laws which he has infringed, and -in imputing sin to himself for transgressing them, he at -the same time proclaims himself in his essential being -holy, that is, capable of executing them, or at least of -striving unceasingly to do so. It is thus that he opens -within himself the sources of redemption, unseals the -deeper fountains of spiritual energy.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">176</span></p> - -<p>That man is responsible means that he is answerable -to do his share in discharging the task of mankind. And -when he is inwardly transformed by the consciousness -of the holy laws, and of himself as intrinsically committed -to holiness, he does thereby advance the business -of his kind on earth. In him humanity does take a step -forward on the spiritual road. In him one other member -of our race has been lifted out of evil, becoming perhaps, -from the spiritual point of view, a more advanced -member of the forward-pressing host than those who -have never passed through an experience like his, who -have not been overtly tempted, who have remained conventionally -moral, who have not realized the evil that -remains unexpurgated within them, and have not passed -through the cleansing process of self-condemnation and -rebirth.</p> - -<p>The incongruity between the finite and the infinite order -is the basis of this doctrine of responsibility. Mankind -is responsible for seeking to embody the infinite in -the finite. It fails to do so, but gains its compensation. -The individual shares this responsibility, but both -mankind and the individual jointly take a step forward -whenever an evil deed is recognized, branded and -expiated as sinful. The object of punishment, whether -inflicted by society or self-inflicted, is to promote this -regeneration which is the expiation.<a id="FNanchor_52_52" href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">52</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">177</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<h4>NOTE</h4> - - -<p>Evil in its ethical meaning presupposes worth as attaching to -human beings. To do evil is to offend against worth. To assert -the worth of man is to view him as one of an infinite number of -beings, united in an infinite universe, each induplicable in its -kind. Of this spiritual multitude ideally projected by us as -enveloping human society only our fellow human beings are -known to us. <em>The moral law is the law which reigns throughout -the infinite spiritual universe applied within, the narrow -confines of human society. It is applied within those confines, -it is spiritual, universal in its jurisdiction.</em></p> - -<p>The task of humanity as a whole is to embody more and -more the universal spiritual law in human relationships, and -thus to transform and transfigure human society. In the New -Testament we read the expression: “the light of God reflected -in the face of Christ.” The ideal here indicated may be expressed -in the phrase, The spiritual universe with its endless -lights reflected on the face of human society! The task of -humanity is one which can never be completed, one from which -mankind may never desist. To see evil as sin is to see it as contravening -the collective task of mankind, the task of weaving -the human groups more and more into the fabric of the spiritual -relations.</p> - -<p>To see evil as sin is to see any single act or series of acts -ideally in their infinite connections. This is what I mean when -I say that the knowledge of sin comes after the act. I do not -mean that there may not be before the act a vague consciousness -of the ramified consequences of evil, but that the fuller -knowledge of it as sin is the fruit of the act. Nor do I mean that -evil in its deeper significance is revealed to every guilty person. -The opposite is obviously true. What I mean is that it is -possible after having eaten of the Fruit of the Tree to gain the -enlightenment, in other words, to become aware of the intrinsic -holiness of our nature in consequence of our offense against<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">178</span> -the holy laws. If anyone should ask “Must I then do evil in -order to gain the enlightenment?” the answer is that this question -is an idle one. No one can escape doing evil. If not in its -grosser forms, then in ways subtler and more complex, but not -therefore less evil, every one is bound to make acquaintance -with guilt. He need not go out of his way to seek occasion, -let him see to it that he improves the occasion when it comes, as -inevitably it will, to his spiritual advantage.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">179</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_V-3">CHAPTER V</h3> - - -<p class="hang">THE SPIRITUAL ATTITUDE TO BE OBSERVED -TOWARDS FELLOW-MEN IN GENERAL, IRRESPECTIVE -OF THE SPECIAL RELATIONS WHICH -CONNECT US MORE CLOSELY WITH SOME THAN -OTHERS</p> - - -<h4><i>The Right to Life</i></h4> - -<p>The thoughts presented above on the subject of sin -naturally lead over to the next topic, the obligations we -are under regarding the life, the property and the reputation -of others. The ancient moral laws unquestionably -remain: “Thou shalt not kill”; “Thou shalt not -steal”; “Thou shalt not bear false witness.” But their -application is extended and their significance intensified -by the positive definition which has been given to the -term <em>Spiritual</em>.</p> - -<p>So long as the mere inviolateness of the human personality -is emphasized, without any defined conception -of what it is that is inviolate (the inviolateness without -the infinite preciousness), there is danger that the -physical part of man will be invested with the sacred -character that belongs to the spiritual, that the two, -the spiritual and the physical parts, will be identified.</p> - -<p>The result will be mischievous in two ways: First, -while the act of killing will be reprobated, a kind of -tabu being attached to bloodshed, the taking of the life -of fellow-beings in more indirect ways, or what may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">180</span> -called constructive murder, will be lightly regarded. -The following case is mentioned by a recent writer. -The directors of a railroad refused to vote the sum of -five thousand dollars to provide a certain safety appliance -for their cars. Soon after an accident occurred, -in which a number of men were killed. The accident -might have been prevented had the five thousand dollars -required for the installation of the safety appliance -been voted. Now the men were undoubtedly killed by -the directors of the company. As to the difference in -the degree of guilt in the case of direct and indirect -murder, there is room for casuistical debate. The -consequences it is true were not present to the directors’ -minds. But are they not responsible for the very -fact that the consequences were excluded from their -view? They were intent on their dividends, and ignored -the endangered lives. But is not this the substance -of their guilt? Does not moral progress lie in -the direction of extending the sense of responsibility so -as to cover the indirect taking of life? Similarly the -use of poisonous substances in industry, bad sanitation, -inadequate fire protection, must be stigmatized as indirect -murder. The Commandment “Thou shalt not -kill” must extend over a far wider area than it has covered -in the past.<a id="FNanchor_53_53" href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">181</span></p> -<p>Secondly, the positive definition of the spiritual nature -enables us to perceive more distinctly that the -physical part is the means and the spiritual part the end, -and to draw the necessary consequences. That which is -means is not to be cherished if to do so would defeat -the end itself; hence the physical life is <em>not</em> to be preserved -if by preserving it we deny or defeat the very -purpose which the physical part is to serve. So long as -men have the tabu feeling about bloodshed, the fact that -life ought of right to be taken in certain instances will -seem a hopeless contradiction of the general rule against -killing. Keeping in mind the spiritual end of existence -on the other hand, we affirm unhesitatingly that it is better -that a man should die than commit a heinous crime. -It was better for the young girl mentioned in a well-known -tale, threatened with outrage, and seeing no other -possible way of escape, to strangle herself with her own -hair rather than submit. According to the opinion of -certain scholastic writers on ethics, dishonor resides solely -in the consent of the soul, and where this is absent the -mere physical infringement cannot leave a moral stain. -This is a helpful point of view in regard to the victims of -the atrocities of war, the inmates of certain Belgian nunneries, -and the hapless objects of unspeakable brutality -in certain Polish villages. The anguish of a pure-minded -woman who becomes a mother under such circumstances -is hardly conceivable. And to discriminate between the -infamy done to her and her own unpolluted soul is a -plain duty, as well as to relieve the innocent offspring of -outrage from any participation in the guilt to which it -owes its existence. But the case to which I refer is different. -It is one in which the choice remains between -voluntary death and submission to intended violation. -Submission in such a situation argues a kind of consent, -or at least the absence of a sufficient revulsion.</p> - -<p>It is right to kill an intending murderer supposing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">182</span> -that there is no other way of preventing him from committing -his crime, whether the intended victim be oneself -or someone else. It is not only the life thus protected -from attack that is saved, but the murderer in -a sense is saved as well, so far as he can be saved, by -the intervention. Also the members of his family are -saved, humanity is saved from moral disgrace in his -person. The same reasoning applies to the position of -the extreme non-resistants. They will not, they tell us, -do a wrong to prevent a wrong. In their eyes to take -the physical life of another is in every possible instance -an absolute wrong. They fail to take account of the -instrumental relation between the physical and the spiritual -parts. And on the same grounds, a defensive -war, a war to ward off aggression, may be theoretically -justified. But here the application of the theory is -dubious as well as dangerous. Exceptional cases of -high-handed aggression that ought to be resisted occur, -but aggression is rarely, if ever, one-sided. As a rule, -there is more or less wrong on both sides, and the tangle -of accusations and mutual recriminations is almost impossible -to unravel. Very rarely, indeed, if ever, is -right altogether on one side, and wrong on the other, -though predominant right may be on one side and predominant -wrong on the other. And aside from this, the -instruments of destruction in modern warfare have become -so monstrous, the efficiency notion applied to war -has led to such ruthlessness, the attempt to distinguish -between the civilian population and the armed forces -has so nearly broken down, that right-thinking persons -everywhere are now eagerly intent on how to prevent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">183</span> -aggression before it can take effect, rather than to resist -it after it has occurred.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<h4>NOTE</h4> - -<p>The casuistical question may be raised whether from this -point of view we are not all murderers. The amount I spend -on my house, food, recreation, might if divided prolong the -life of many a child in the slums. Am I not then actually a -parasite, that is, a murderer? It is this shocking scruple that -has led fine people to live among the poor, and to try to equalize -their mode of living with that prevailing in the environment. -The motive is noble, though as a matter of fact they may never -succeed in doing what they set out to do because they never -actually touch bottom. There are always depths of poverty to -which they can not descend. They may spend comparatively -little, yet that little is far in excess of the spending of the most -indigent. And had they stripped themselves of everything they -would have been face to face with the <i lang="la">reductio ad absurdum</i> of -their method, for they would have abandoned civilization and -degraded their human life to the level of the wayside tramp.</p> - -<p>What is inspiring in their example is just the immense -compassion, the willingness to give up so much. But the -method itself is not a solution.</p> - -<p>Are we then murderers, all of us? Perhaps a distinction may -be drawn between acts which in themselves are hostile to the -life of fellowmen, like overtaxing the worker, and acts which -tend positively to maintain the higher values of life,—such as -the providing of decent shelter, support and education, for the -members of one’s family. It is true that, as Tolstoy warns us, -we easily slip into indefensible luxury under the pretence of -maintaining the higher values. But this does not affect the -validity of the distinction itself.</p> - -<p>And yet the distinction does not relieve us of what may be -called our share of the social or collective guilt. The exploiter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">184</span> -is chargeable with individual guilt. I who am trying to keep up -the standard of civilized living within my little sphere am nevertheless -conscious of participating in the social guilt, the guilt -of a society that has permitted and still permits such misery to -exist. Well, it does exist, and I can do but a very little to change -it. Can I then endure the contrast between my own lot and -that of the greater number. Is it not true after all that if I -give up the comforts, or let me say the helps to the maintenance -of the higher values, I should be saving the lives of many children? -Those children are dying because I am not dividing my -possessions among the poor. Can I stand up and look at that -fact, at those deaths?</p> - -<p>The only answer which it is possible to give at the point we -have thus far reached in our exposition is: push on, perfect -civilization, a way will eventually be found to uplift the masses -and make them partakers of the future civilization. The other -alternative, that of Tolstoy, is stagnation. Yet I cannot disguise -from myself the fact that in the meanwhile, while we are -trying to push on, millions are perishing. This is the true -“burden of world pain,” not the sentimental world pain due to -the fact that one is not having oneself the best kind of a time in -the world, but the pain caused by the fact that while we are -reaching forward to help the suffering masses, those masses, -though composed of individuals morally as worth while as ourselves, -and many of them doubtless better, if we only knew it, -are perishing before our very eyes, and that we stand by and -cannot save them. I have said that in the meanwhile while we -are trying to push on, millions are perishing. The actual -moral problem so often overlooked is underlined in the words -“in the meanwhile.”</p> - -<p>There is one pathetic consolation. Envy is not the widespread -vice which it is sometimes represented to be. Those who -are in trouble take the will very largely for the deed. People -in the worst conditions are grateful to anyone who shows a real -desire to help, even if his actual performance does not go very -far. And there is a still finer trait in ordinary human nature,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">185</span> -namely, the tendency to find a certain vicarious relief in the joy -of the few, provided that their joy be pure.</p></blockquote> - - -<h4><i>The Right to Property</i><a id="FNanchor_54_54" href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">54</a></h4> - -<p>“Property,” according to Blackstone, “is the sole and -despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises -over the external things of the world in total exclusion -of the right of any other individual in the universe.”</p> - -<p>Orthodox jurisprudence, like orthodox religion, is -characterized by the absoluteness of its formula. It ignores -the genesis of its concepts in the long line of antecedent -historical development, and it disdains to entertain -the demand for modification, though the circumstances -of the time loudly call for it.</p> - -<p>“The sole and despotic dominion which one man -claims and exercises,” etc., may be a fact, but it is not -a right. Property can only be regarded as a right if -shown to be subservient to the ethical end,—the maintenance -and development of personality. Orthodox -jurisprudence effaces the end, and treats that which is -or has been at one time a means as if it possessed a -sanctity of its own. On the other hand, the empirical -treatment of jurisprudence, in dismissing the supposedly -absolute means, tends to leave out of sight the -ethical end, and to treat the social institutions as subservient -to mere convenience.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">186</span></p> -<p>The following propositions will indicate the changes -in the conception of the right of property required by -our ethical theory.</p> - -<p>1. Property is a relation between a person or persons -and things. There can be no property right in persons, -but only in things.<a id="FNanchor_55_55" href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">55</a></p> - -<p>2. The right of property faces in two directions: -Toward outside nature and toward fellow human beings. -We have a right over the external things of nature. -We have a right to the services, though not to -the personality, of fellow human beings. These two -aspects of the right of property must be kept apart and -defined.</p> - -<p>It is sometimes held that the human race as a whole, -as over against nature, has the right of dominion. Nature, -it is said, is our quarry, we can take out of it the -stones we need to construct the edifice of civilization. -Nature is our tool. The laws of nature, as science discovers -them, become our servants. Nature offers the -raw material which we consume. Nature has no rights -as against man. But I hold that neither has man rights -as against nature, except in so far as he rightly -defines the end in the interest of which he makes -use of nature—the maintenance and development of -personality.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">187</span></p> -<p>To suppose that the right of property as the extension -of personality over things is tenable without regard -to its instrumental use, to suppose that bare appropriation -of nature as of “treasure trove” is a prerogative -of man, is to lend countenance to the false notion -of occupation, or first appropriation, which has confused -the ethics of the subject in the literature of jurisprudence, -and prevented a right understanding of it. -If bare appropriation be the foundation, then the first -comer has a right against his successors, since the extension -of personality over the thing has been actually accomplished -by him, and that is all there is to be said about -it. Again, on this view, a case may be made out for -vested interests, that is to say, for those who have successfully -appropriated the earth, yes, and the fullness thereof, -and who having thus effectually extended their personality -over things without regard to the uses they -make of their possessions, are then to be entitled to -remain indefinitely in secure ownership of them.</p> - -<p>Without an ethical standard, without the notion of -an end to be subserved, stubborn possession will always -be able to resist modification, and on the other hand -attempts at modification will be haphazard. Neither -the human species collectively nor the individual has a -right simply to appropriate the things of the external -world. Neither the first occupier nor the last is entitled -to his goods unless he can make out a greater good -in the interest of which he should be allowed to possess -them.</p> - -<p>But the case of primary occupation is academic. It -occurs on Robinson Crusoe’s island and in legal fiction. -Even when the white race invades Africa, it does -not commonly take possession of unoccupied land, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">188</span> -dispossesses the natives. On what ground does it dispossess -them? Is there an ethical standard by which the -dealings of the civilized nations with the populations of -Africa can be measured? Is the introduction of the appliances -of modern civilization, the opening up to trade, a -sufficient ground for the subjection or the extermination -of the inhabitants? In this connection it becomes clear -how urgent a more clarified conception of property -rights is. False ideas of this so-called right are to no -small extent responsible for the massacre of the inferior -races, and the mutual slaughter of those who covet their -lands. A proclamation of the Queen of England or of -the Emperor of Germany, or the signature of an irresponsible -chief to a treaty the meaning of which he -scarcely understands, transfers millions of subjects and -their territory to one or other of the European powers. -What right of property have these European powers in -the territory and the peoples acquired by them in this -fashion?</p> - -<p>The last example shows that the right of ownership, -except in very rare instances, is not in question in respect -to the dealings of man with nature, but comes into play -chiefly in the relation of man to his fellows. There are -competitors to be outstripped, thwarted. There are -weaker fellow-beings to be subdued. The use of force -and cunning in acquiring property is well nigh the general -rule. Are there any ethical ideals which, if they could -be realized, might disclose a better way, might bring -order into this frightful chaos, and abate the conflicts? -From the ethical ideal as outlined in previous chapters -this follows:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">189</span></p> - -<p>The extension of personality over things is a right in -so far as things are employed to maintain and develop -potential personality. The use of the services of a fellowman -is a right in so far as his services are used in -such a manner as to preserve and develop his personality -as well as that of the user.</p> - -<p>In speaking of the use of the services of others we -touch upon the social aspect of the property relation, -and here is the crux of the whole matter. It is coming -to be affirmed more and more that property is a -“social” concept, that it cannot be explained either as implying -a relation of the individual to outside nature, -save exceptionally, nor as a relation of the individual -considered atomistically to other atomic individuals. -The social tie, it is held, is intrinsic. The nature of man -as such is social, but the word “social” in current discussion -is very ill-defined, and is commonly understood to -denote merely the fact of the interdependence of men -upon one another, without conveying the idea of a rule -or standard by which the system of interdependence may -be regulated. Vague notions, such as that of social happiness, -are believed sufficient to take the place of such a -standard.</p> - -<p>Let me then consider first the bare fact of interdependence, -and see what follows from it, and how far it -will take us.</p> - -<p>Every man has manifold wants for the satisfaction -of which he depends on others. His wants are legion; -his ability and opportunity to satisfy them exceedingly -limited. It is this cross relation that expresses the so-called -social nature of man. But the reciprocal de<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">190</span>pendence -of men upon one another for the satisfaction -of their wants by no means constitutes an -ethical tie. The tie between the Greek master and the -Greek slave, as described by Aristotle, was social, but -not ethical. The same is true of the tie that united the -Southern planter to his negro slaves. The relation -was indeed far more social than that between the modern -mill-owner and the operatives in his factory, but -still it was not ethical. The reason is clearly stated by -Aristotle himself. According to him the slave is a living -tool: the purpose of his existence is not realized -in himself but in his master. He fulfils the end of his -being by setting free the higher functions exercised by -his master. But from the ethical point of view no man -may be regarded as the tool of another. Each human -being is an end <i lang="la">per se</i>, and the highest object of his existence -is to be fulfilled, not in others, but jointly in -them and in himself.</p> - -<p>I have just said that the social and the ethical views -are not synonymous or coincident, as the loose use of -language in current literature would imply. I go farther -and say that the social and the ethical point of view -are even on their face contradictory. It cannot be denied -that the natural system of interdependence resembles -that of the body and its members. A hierarchy of -organs and of functions is apparent in the human body, -and likewise in the social body. Some men do the lowest -kind of work. Their function appears to be to produce -food, clothing and shelter, to satisfy the mere physical -wants. Some are the hands, so to speak, of society, -while only a very few effectually represent the brain.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">191</span> -The simile has been carried out in detail by well-known -writers, in both ancient and modern times. It is quite -true that the artist and the scientist are dependent on -the manual laborer, just as he in turn is dependent on -them. But then, consider the difference in the dignity -of the services they render one another. Was not the -Greek, who saw things dispassionately as they are, right -in asserting that, taking society in the large, the purpose -of human life is fulfilled in the few, and that the greater -number exist in order that by their inferior services -they may enable these few to express humanity in its -highest terms?</p> - -<p>It seems to me that the kind of social arrangement -contemplated by the great Greek philosophers, and by -some of the mediæval publicists, as well as by certain -modern thinkers, is unquestionably social. The fact of -interdependence is stressed by them. The ethical note -of equality, or, as I should prefer to put it, equivalence, -is left out.</p> - -<p>I have endeavored in a recent book to indicate how -the ethical system may be superinduced over the social -system.<a id="FNanchor_56_56" href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> Here I am concerned chiefly to mark as -strictly as possible the distinction between the two terms -social and ethical. And I must, therefore, at once amend -my previous statement that property is a social concept -by saying that it is the concept of a social relation considered -as the substratum in which is to be worked out -the ethical relation.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">192</span></p> -<p>The general consequences of the property concept as -defined are these:</p> - -<p>1. He who will not work, neither shall he eat; or -better, he who will not work if able-bodied shall be disciplined -and trained in such a manner that he will work. -The fruits of nature do not fall into the lap of mankind. -We are not living in a state of Paradise. The -human race is engaged in the arduous labor of constantly -renewing the capital on which it subsists. As -a member of the race, everyone is bound to do his part.</p> - -<p>2. No one has a property right in harmful or superfluous -luxuries, since property is the control of external -things for the maintenance and development of personality; -and luxury, so far from maintaining, undermines -personality, and hinders its development.</p> - -<p>No one has ethically a right of property in great fortunes -like those accumulated under the modern system -of industry. Whatever is in excess of one’s needs, -rightly estimated, is not appropriate to one, not proper -to one, not his property. Since the present system of -ownership cannot be changed abruptly, the idea of the -stewardship of wealth has been suggested to quiet the -consciences of those who have come to realize that they -have no moral right to excessive wealth. But the idea -of stewardship should be held with fear and trembling. -It is at best a makeshift, a bridge leading over to something -more sound. It may be so taught and received as -to seem to justify by philanthropic use the possession of -great fortunes. But the power to dispose of vast funds -for philanthropic uses may come to be itself a badge of -superiority. And even if this be not so, if surplus wealth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">193</span> -be used modestly, and with a sincere intention to apply it -in the best possible way, there is yet no surety that any -individual owner will have the breadth of vision, the experience, -the insight, to discharge adequately the function -of distributor. The defects of his early education, -habits ingrained in him in the course of his business -career, may lead him to bestow lavishly in one direction -while turning a deaf ear to the appeal of other needs even -more urgent and fundamental. Nothing short of the collective -wisdom of the community, the collaboration of -the best, can safely direct the surplus wealth available -for social benefaction.</p> - -<p>3. Everyone is ethically entitled to a share of the -products furnished by nature and worked up into usable -shape by his fellows, and also to the direct services of -fellow human beings, in so far as that share and those -services are necessary in order to enable him to perform -in the best possible way the specific service which -he in turn is capable of rendering. Our ethical theory -here supplies us with a principle which takes the place -of remuneration. There is no such thing as a just remuneration -of labor, there is no such thing as a fair -wage, if the wage be considered as the equivalent of, -or the reward for the work done. It is not possible by -any process of calculation to construct an equation between -labor and reward. The laborer is assuredly not -entitled to the product of his labor, as the current formula -awkwardly puts it, for it is an entirely hopeless -undertaking to try to ascertain what the product of any -man’s labor is. In the modern forms of industry, the -contributions of the different factors engaged in pro<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">194</span>duction -are intimately intermingled, play into one another, -and are inseparable. Neither the so-called workers -alone are the producers of wealth, nor the employers -and capitalists, nor yet both together irrespective of -the labors of past generations of which they enjoy the -usufruct. The question, what is a fair wage, or a fair -profit, is badly posed. There is no such thing as a fair -wage or profit in the sense of a fair compensation for -the work performed.</p> - -<p>The proper payment of the human factors engaged -in production is unascertainable genetically, <i>i.e.</i>, if one -goes back to the origin of the product. It can only be -approximately determined by fixing attention on the -end to be served. And the end in each case is the -maintenance and development of personality. In other -words, that is a fair wage which suffices to enable the -different functionaries coöperating in production each -to perform his function, or render his service, in the most -efficient possible manner. The solution of the labor -question must be along teleological not genetic lines. -Adequate nourishment as to quantity and quality, suitable -dwellings, educational opportunities, etc., are all -indispensable to the rendering of service, even by “common -laborers.” Specific requirements come up for consideration -with respect to the different special functions, -and those who perform them.</p> - -<p>My intention in this chapter is to indicate the bearings -of the ethical theory on living questions of the -day. Nothing is more emphatic in the programmes of -the working-class than this demand for social justice. -Nothing is more discouraging than to see the futile<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">195</span> -efforts made to define social justice by extemporizing a -notion of fair adjustment which goes to pieces in every -serious labor controversy.</p> - -<p>One more remark should be made in regard to what -is meant by property as a relation between persons and -things considered as a means of developing personality. -A convenient illustration is the use of a block of stone by -a sculptor. The sculptor’s attempt at self-expression is -an effort to combine two things in themselves uncongenial, -an ideal image, and an external tangible thing, -the block of stone. The mental image does not leap from -the mind upon the stone and transform it magically into -its own likeness. The external thing, the stone, offers -resistance, and the resistance limits the artist’s effort. -But the limitation itself becomes in time an indispensable -aid. For the ideal image as at first it started up in -the artist’s mind was vague, and the limitations imposed -by the intractable nature of the material compel -him to articulate the image, to grasp more firmly its -complex details, and thus to become more surely possessed -of it. The same is true of the mental thing -which we call the relation of cause and effect in the -mind of the scientist, and of his endeavor to impose this -mental relation on the sequence of phenomena observed -by him. And the same is again true of that supreme -thing which we call the ethical ideal, and of the effort -to embody it in the social relations. The attempt to -express the ethical ideal in human society inevitably -hits on limitations, and leads to frustrations. We have -in our heads fine schemes of universal regeneration. -We find elements in human nature that resent and re<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">196</span>sist -our Socialisms, our communisms. We desire to enlarge -men’s moral horizon, the field of their moral interest, -to lead out from the family to the nation, to -fraternity in general. We presently discover that we -are losing the benefit of the closer ties. In the very -process of building we seem to be in danger of destroying -the foundations, and to be building in the air. In -this way our formulations of the ethical ideal are tested. -We are compelled to recast them, and the frustrations -which we meet with become the means of clarifying and -articulating the ideal itself, and of enabling us to experience -more vividly the coercive impulses that go out -from it.</p> - - -<h4><i>The Right to Reputation</i></h4> - -<p>The ethical rule is to show a sacred respect for the -reputation of others. In the present discussion intellectual -and moral reputation may be considered separately.</p> - -<p>Under the first head of intellectual reputation, certain -points suggest themselves, one of them in regard -to controversies concerning priority of scientific discovery. -What is the sense of such controversies? -What difference does it make whether the law of the -conservation of energy was first enunciated by Helmholtz -or by Robert Mayer, or whether the method of -fluxions was invented by Newton or Leibnitz,—not to -mention lesser contrarieties of claims? Would it not -argue, on the part of the scientists and their friends, a -more entire devotion to objective truth if they showed -themselves indifferent to personal credit? The discov<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">197</span>ery, -the invention, it may be said, is important, not the -reputation of the discoverer or the inventor. Nevertheless, -such controversies are carried on in a lively -spirit. And it is usually felt that something more than -vanity is at stake, that a man is entitled to be named in -connection with the productions of his mind.</p> - -<p>Such controversies resemble a suit at law undertaken -to determine a disputed title to some valuable property. -Plagiarism is different. It is barefaced intellectual -theft. The title to the property in this case is not disputed. -The plagiarist just steals an idea or a form of -words in which an idea has been happily expressed, and -palms it off as his own, hoping to escape with his stolen -goods undetected. In this case too, it seems, one might -say the idea is important, not the authorship. Nevertheless, -a profound resentment is felt, not only by the -author, but by the general public, against a plagiarist.</p> - -<p>A rule is ethical when the conduct prescribed is instrumental -to the development of personality. Respect -for reputation is ethical because reputation is a help -to the development of personality. A man projects -his mind outward, so to speak, into the productions of -his mind. As a thinking being he anchors himself in -outside reality. He transfers himself, as it were, into -an external thing,—a discovery, an invention, the expression -of an idea in apt language,—each a thing that -goes on existing independently of himself. To deny his -connection with it is to infringe upon his personality, -to efface his personality in so far as his personality is -enshrined in his mental product.</p> - -<p>Again, a man’s reputation as a scientist or scholar is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">198</span> -a prop to his personality as a thinker. A man can -never be quite certain of the validity of his thinking -until it is approved by the consensus of the competent. -To win that approbation is to know that as far as he -has gone he is on sure ground. He can thence proceed, -can turn toward new problems with a sense of -power and a measure of self-confidence not previously -attained. To rob him of his reputation is to deprive -him of this invaluable aid to further mental development.<a id="FNanchor_57_57" href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> - -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">199</span></p> - -<p>Coming next to moral reputation, we find that the -ethical rule requiring respect for the moral character -of others is even more exacting, and that any contravention -of it deserves an even more strenuous reprobation. -The Decalogue prohibits the bearing of false witness -and this rule is extensible from courts of law to -ordinary conversation, since the principle involved is the same. -The Sermon on the Mount menacingly warns against judging others: “Judge not that ye be -not judged.” Buddha enjoins his followers to refrain -from malicious gossip, and includes a prohibition -to this effect among the principal pronouncements of -his religion. All the great teachers of ethics and religion -insist on this point, perhaps because the natural -propensities of men constantly tend in the opposite direction, -and are so hard to restrain. To stab one’s -neighbor in the back, morally speaking, to insinuate -base motives, to spread damaging reports about him, to -suggest as possibly and then as probably true rumors -which one does not positively know to be untrue, to -allow private repugnance to take the place of evidence,—are -infringements of the moral reputation of others -with some of which notoriously many even of the so-called -best people are chargeable. I do not here speak of -the grosser attacks, attacks on character inspired by -envy, rivalry, and greed. The soundness of the rule is -generally admitted, though its violations are past belief -and without number.</p> - -<p>But is the rule itself as to moral reputation tenable? -There is a difference between intellectual and moral -reputation at which we must at least cast a glance. Intellectual -reputation is a fairly safe index of merit; -moral reputation is not. A man’s mind is reflected in -his intellectual performances. Is the same true of his -moral character? Is not the moral character an interior, -elusive thing? The real character escapes the -eye of the outside spectator and judge; and if this be so, -why should it be so important a matter to safeguard a -man’s moral reputation, seeing that the reputation he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">200</span> -deserves is past finding out? A public official, for instance, -is accused of corrupt practices. He is innocent, -and his friends and he are indignant at the damaging accusations -brought against him. But if not guilty of -the palpable derelictions with which he is charged, yet, -in view of his opportunities and education, he may not -be less blameworthy for other acts with which he has -not been charged, and in his heart of hearts he knows -that this is so. Why then, this outcry?</p> - -<p>Other examples might be adduced. The honor of a -young woman is attacked by the circulation of atrocious -rumors, and the reaction at this most sensitive point is -certain to be extreme when the falseness of the accusation -is exposed. But is outward decorum, correct -behavior, always a sure sign of inward purity?</p> - -<p>There is this difference then between the intellectual -and the moral character. The one can be measured, the -other cannot. But the reply to these sophistical objections -is still the same as before. The purpose of the -ethical rule is to furnish aids in the development of -personality. The aim in view is not genetic, but teleological, -not to determine how far in analyzing a man’s -character down to the bottom he may be found to be already -admirable, but to help him in attaining excellence, -by progressively advancing toward strength and virtue. -And moral reputation is a great help to this end. It -is a prop on which he can lean. He who does right acts -and has the credit for them, is thereby encouraged to do -other right acts. And if the inner voice whispers, as -it is sure to do in the finer natures, that the good opinion -of his fellows, founded on his correct deportment, is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">201</span> -undeserved, the shame of it may lead him to more determined -efforts to merit the character which, on however -insufficient evidence, is attributed to him.</p> - -<p>Reputation is sacred because it is an almost indispensable -means to further mental and moral progress.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">202</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_VI-3">CHAPTER VI<br /> - -<small>THE MEANING OF FORGIVENESS</small></h3> - - -<p>In the last chapter we treated the imputation of evil -to the innocent. We must now consider the right -attitude toward actual evildoers.</p> - -<p>In discussing sin, one of the points emphasized was -that of the moral solidarity between the individual and -society. The moral interest of the individual is always -identical with the moral interest of society; and, -on the other hand, the failure of the individual is a social -failure. The human race sags morally at the point -of some particular member of it.</p> - -<p>Again, we defined the task of humanity as the incessant -endeavor to embody the ideal spiritual order in -the finite sphere of human relations. This effort meets -both with partial success and with failure. The gain -derived by the human race from its experiences, its labors, -its sufferings, is that the spiritual universe in its -unattainable elevation and sublimity is more and more -revealed to the inner eye; in other words, that by way -of effort and recoil, and renewed effort and renewed -recoil from the finite, the infiniteness of the infinite world -is realized. The essential point is that the boon of realization -must be gained both through partial success and -failure. Now sin is failure; everyone fails, everyone is -convicted of sin. There is no exception. In insisting on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">203</span> -this point the Christian account is exact. Only it should -be remembered that sin or failure itself is one of the instrumentalities -by which the end of human existence is -achieved. These preliminaries being understood, certain -propositions may be brought forward as to the -treatment of sin, and in particular as to repentance, -punishment and forgiveness.</p> - -<p>Repentance is recoil, recoil not from the bad act and -its painful consequences, but from the principle underlying -the act. Every kind of sin is an attempt in some -fashion to live at the expense of other life. The spiritual -principle is: live in the life of others, in the energy -expended to promote the essential life in others. Moral -badness is self-isolation, detachment. Spirituality is -consciousness of infinite interrelatedness.</p> - -<p>Punishment, rightly regarded, is a name for the -steps taken to lead the unrepentant up to the point of -repentance, <i>i.e.</i>, up to the recoil. Punishment is itself -criminal when undertaken for any other object. Punishment -on the vindictive <i lang="la">lex talionis</i> theory, or on the -bare deterrent theory, is excluded. Reformatory punishment -as commonly understood is no less inadequate, -because it restricts the idea of reformation as a rule to -the externals of conduct.<a id="FNanchor_58_58" href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">204</span></p> -<p>The steps taken to lead the evildoer up to the point -of repentance are to be criticised from this point of view. -Transient or prolonged separation from ordinary society -may be necessary. Severe discipline may be indispensable. -Capital punishment, however, is wholly out of -the question, since the prevention of the crime now being -impossible, the achievement of the spiritual gain is -the point to be aimed at. But the most effectual aid in -promoting repentance is faith in the better nature of the -wrongdoer, in that spiritual principle resident within him -which no crime committed by him can wholly crush, and -which in the most apparently hopeless cases is still to be -presumed. But faith in the good that persists in those -whom we call bad must go hand in hand with the acknowledgment -of the bad that remains unexpurgated -in those whom we call good. The prison reformer who -poses as impeccable and righteous himself can never win -the confidence of the poor human derelicts with whom he -has to deal nor effect in them the desired change. He -must share with them the conviction of sin if he would -impart to them the power of the resilience which he -experiences within himself.</p> - -<p>Faith in the potential power of goodness resident in -the evildoer is often confounded with forgiveness. The -distinction between the two, however, should not be obliterated. -Faith is help proffered from the outside to effectuate -the inner change. Forgiveness is a record of the -fact that the change has actually taken place, and belief<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">205</span> -that it is likely to be permanent. Forgiveness, in the -mind of spiritually-minded persons, takes place almost -automatically when the conditions on which it depends -are fulfilled. So long as he remains unrepentant a man -cannot be forgiven, although we may have the conviction -that it is in his power to repent and the earnest desire -to bring about the change in him. Jesus on the -Cross says: “Forgive them, for they know not what -they do.” Perhaps “open their eyes so that they may -see the Light” may be the more just interpretation of -the meaning—not “forgive” in the strict sense, for forgiveness -is not feasible while the heart of the offender -remains closed.<a id="FNanchor_59_59" href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">59</a></p> - -<p>Both faith and forgiveness are factors in regeneration: -the one to assist in accomplishing the change, the -other to assist in making it permanent. But both the -faith and the forgiveness are exceptionally difficult in -the case of our personal enemies. <em>Enemies in the spiritual -sense there are and can be none.</em> Every human -being, even one who has done me the most cruel harm, -is yet, from another point of view, a fellow member of -the spiritual society. But to discriminate between the -two relations in which the man stands to me—that in -which he is my foe, and the other in which he is my fellow—to -be able to put aside as less important the harm -he has done, the suffering he has forced me to endure, -and to desire with perfect sincerity that the recoil, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">206</span> -transformation, may take place in him, that is the most -searching test of one’s own ethical character.<a id="FNanchor_60_60" href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">60</a></p> - -<p>The forgiveness of personal foes, when complete, establishes -a strangely tender spiritual fellowship between -the pardoner and the pardoned. Both have -transcended their normal empirical selves, both have -become partners in a sublime transaction: the one delivered -from the clinging of his baser desires, the other -released from his first crude reaction against evil. They -will never forget what they thus owe to one another. -They will continue to walk hand in hand, the one still -leaning, the other supporting and himself unspeakably -strengthened by the support he gives.</p> - -<p>Finally, to forgive is not to forget—quite the contrary. -To forgive is to remember the past action, but -to remember it as belonging to the past, as the act -of one who has since undergone the great change. -The miracle of the change of water into wine at the -feast of Cana would not have seemed so wonderful to -the guests had they not remembered that what was -turned into wine had before been water. To forgive is -to remember that what was water has become wine.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">207</span> -And he, too, who has been forgiven may not forget. -The remembrance of the past he will need as a warning -and a safeguard.<a id="FNanchor_61_61" href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> Not to see the essentially divine -nature in others, and thus also in one’s self is the essence -of the wrong. To teach the guilty to see it is the -object of punishment. To forgive is to declare that -what before was ignored is now seen and known.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">208</span></p> - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_VII-3">CHAPTER VII</h3> - - -<p class="hang">THE SUPREME ETHICAL RULE: ACT SO AS TO ELICIT -THE BEST IN OTHERS AND THEREBY IN THYSELF<a id="FNanchor_62_62" href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">62</a></p> - - -<p>It is difficult to see the potentially divine nature in -men when masked by the forbidding traits which human -beings so often exhibit.</p> - -<p>A number of vital considerations will now have to -be emphasized as pertinent to the subject we are dealing -with.</p> - -<p>The first point is that the character of every person -contains contrary elements.<a id="FNanchor_63_63" href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> Let the two kinds of qualities -be called the fair and foul, or more simply still the -plus and minus traits. The bright qualities, the plus -traits, are undoubtedly more predominant in some, the -dark or minus traits in others. But potential plus qualities -exist in the worst characters, and potential minus -traits may be surmised, and on scrutiny will be found, -in those whom the world most admires.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">209</span></p> - -<p>A second point is mentioned as an hypothesis not indeed -as yet verified, but I believe verifiable, namely, that -certain defined minus traits will be found to go with -certain plus traits. Wherever bright qualities stand out -we are likely to meet with <em>corresponding</em> dark qualities -or dispositions, and conversely. There are, I am persuaded, -uniformities of correspondence between the plus -and minus traits, and it would be of greatest practical -help in judging others and ourselves if these uniformities -could be worked out. A kind of chart might then be -made, a description of the principal types of human character, -with the salient defects and qualities that belong to -each. Extensive statistical treatment of a multitude of -biographies would lay the foundation for such an undertaking; -also sketches of the prominent characteristics -of nations, like those furnished by Fouillée, would be -utilized. Also the study of the character traits of primitive -races as partially carried out by Waitz in his <cite>Anthropology</cite> -and the character types of animals, so far -as accessible to observation, might be used for comparison. -Instructed in this manner, we should, on coming -into contact with others, either on their attractive or -repellent side, be prepared to expect and to allow for -the opposite traits. And we should learn to see ourselves -in the same manner; we should see our empirical -character as it really is, the dark traits side by side with -the bright. The courage to wish to know the truth -about one’s self is rare, and when the revelation comes -or is forced upon us, it often breeds a kind of sick -self-disgust and despair. The saint at such times in -moral agony declares himself to be the worst of sin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">210</span>ners. -He has striven to attain a higher than the average -moral level, and behold he has slipped into only deeper -depths. The minister of religion, the revered teacher, -the political and social leader, when abruptly shocked -into self-examination by some evidence of grossness or -deviousness in themselves, no longer to be glossed over -or explained away, are fated to go through the same -ordeal. A profound despondency is the consequence. -It is not only the badness now exposed, but -the previous state of hypocrisy that seems in the retrospect -intolerable. Some persons live what is called a -double life in the face of the world. But who is quite -free from living a double life in his own estimate? -Achilles said of himself ἄχθος ἀροῦρας (“cumberer of -the ground”). Many a man has echoed that cry with -a bitterness of soul more poignant than that which -Achilles felt when he uttered the words.</p> - -<p>Now the principle of the duality<a id="FNanchor_64_64" href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> of character traits, -or as we may also designate it, the principle of the polarity -of character, applies to our natural or empirical -character, and our empirical character is not our moral -character. The distinction between the two will serve, -as we shall presently see, to rescue us from the state of -moral dejection just described. But first it is indispensable -to fix attention on the natural character, to -recognize that we are composite, each and every one of -us, and that the all-important thing to know is which -of our plus qualities go with which of the minus. Here<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">211</span> -the psychologist can help us. Here a great field is open -for a practical science of ethology. This would give us -a more adequate knowledge of the empirical character, -the substratum in which ethical character is to be -worked out.</p> - -<p>Point three opens up a great enlightenment in regard -to the whole subject. It is that the distinction -must be drawn, and ever be kept in mind, between the -bright and dark qualities and the virtues and vices. The -bright qualities are not of themselves virtues. The dark -qualities are not of themselves vices. To suppose that -they are, to confuse the bright with virtue and the dark -with viciousness, is the most prevalent of moral fallacies.<a id="FNanchor_65_65" href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">65</a></p> - -<p>A person is found to be kind, sympathetic, gentle, -and on this score is said to be virtuous or good. But -gentleness, kindness, a sympathetic disposition, while -they lend themselves to the process of being transformed -into virtues, are not of themselves moral qualities at -all, but gifts of nature, happy endowments for which -the possessor can claim no merit. And sullenness, irascibility, -the hot, fierce cravings and passions with which -some men are cursed, are not vices, though it is obvious -how readily they turn into vices as soon as the will consents -to them.</p> - -<p>The question becomes urgent: What then is a virtue? -The fair qualities are the basis, the natural substratum -of the virtues, the material susceptible of trans<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">212</span>formation -into virtues. In what does the transformation -consist? When does it take place? The answer -is, when the plus quality has been raised to the Nth degree, -and in consequence the minus qualities are expelled. -This result, of course, is never actually -achieved. The concept here presented is a concept of -limits. But in the direction defined lies growth and -continuous development not of but toward ethical personality. -In public addresses I have often said: Look -to your virtues, and your vices will take care of themselves. -I can put this thought more exactly by saying: -Change your so-called virtues into real virtues: -raise your plus qualities to the Nth degree. And the -degree to which you succeed in so doing you can judge -of by the extent to which the minus qualities are in -process of disappearing.</p> - -<p>One or two examples will illustrate the pivotal -thought thus reached in the exposition of our ethical -system with respect to its practical consequences. To -raise to the Nth degree is to infinitize a finite quality, or -to enhance it in the direction of infinity. I shall take -two examples, one <em>self-sacrifice</em>, the other <em>justice</em>, both -viewed in their finite aspect as plus traits requiring to -be subjected to the process of transformation.</p> - -<p>The empirical motive of self-sacrifice may be egocentric -or altruistic. In egocentric self-sacrifice, doing for -others is a means of exalting the idea of self to the mind -of the doer. He uses others, not as sacred personalities, -worth while on their own account, but subtly exploits -them by benefiting them. He uses them as objects -by means of which to achieve a finer self-aggrandize<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">213</span>ment. -He may indeed go to the utmost lengths of devotion -for his friends. He may perform for them the -most repulsive offices. He may give freely of his -means, denying himself meanwhile comforts and even -necessaries in order perhaps to extricate them from pecuniary -difficulties. He may contribute in refined -ways to their pleasure. As a physician he may watch -night after night at the bedside of the sick, foregoing -sleep though fatigued to the point of exhaustion in order -to be at hand to mitigate the pains of the sufferer, -jeopardizing his own health in order to assist others in -recovering theirs. Yes, he may even give of his own -blood to renew their ebbing life. In all this he will -look for no material compensation. Gratitude, especially -gratitude expressed in words, is repugnant to him. -The lofty image of self which he strives to create would -be marred if any such coarsely selfish motive were allowed -to intrude. All that he requires, but this he does -inexorably require, is that his beneficiaries shall silently -confess their dependence on him, that he shall see the -exalted image of himself mirrored in their attitude, and -that they shall move in their orbits as satellites around -his sun. The egocentrism is veiled and easily confounded -with the purest moral disposition. But it is -there all the same, and the proof of it is that the very -same person who is thus friendly to his friends, and an -unstinting benefactor to those who pay him the kind of -homage he exacts, is capable of behaving with almost inconceivable -hardness and even cruelty toward others -who will not stand in this subordinate relation to him, -or who in any way wound his self-esteem. Sister Dora,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">214</span> -serving enthusiastically in a small-pox hospital, while -neglecting the nearer duties at home, intent on dramatic, -histrionic self-representation, is likewise a palpable -instance of egocentric self-sacrifice.</p> - -<p>The self is precious on its own account. The non-self, -the other, equally so. A virtuous act is one in -which the ends of self and of the other are respected -and promoted jointly. It is an act which has for its -result the more vivid consciousness of this very jointness. -Egocentric self-sacrifice errs on the one side, the -personality of another being made tributary to the empirical -self, despite the actual benefits conferred. Altruistic -self-sacrifice errs in the opposite way. In it -the personality of the self is effaced or made servile to -the interests or supposed interests of another. Not, let -me add, to the real interests, for the spiritual interests are -never achievable at the expense of other spiritual natures. -The wife or mother is an instance, who slaves -for husband or children, obliterating herself, never requiring -the services due to her in return and the respect -for her which such services imply, degrading herself -and thereby injuring the moral character of those whom -she pampers. An historic instance of the altruistic error -on a larger scale is afforded by the Platonic scheme -of scientific breeding under state supervision, a suggestion -revived in modern times, in which freedom of choice -between the sexes, and the integrity of the personality -of those concerned, is sacrificed to the supposed interests -of the community. Nietzsche’s doctrine may possibly -be regarded as a compound of the two errors described, -the Superman representing the egocentrism,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">215</span> -while altruistic self-sacrifice, entire annulment of their -personalities is expected of the multitude.</p> - -<p>It is easy to distinguish the plus and minus qualities -in the characters of the egocentrist and the altruist: in -the one case, beneficence combined with hardness; in the -other, service of others combined with absence of self-respect.</p> - -<p>The second example to be briefly considered is the -finite trait commonly mistaken for justice. A typical -illustration of this is presented by the merchant who -ascribes to himself a just character on the ground that -he is punctual in the payment of his debts, that his word -is as good as his bond; or by the manufacturer who entertains -the same opinion of himself because he pays -scrupulously the wages on which he has agreed with -his employees.<a id="FNanchor_66_66" href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> One wonders that so great and pro<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">216</span>found -a notion as that of justice should be understood -so superficially, restricted to such narrow limits, and -that rational human beings should claim to possess so -lofty a virtue on the score of credentials so inadequate. -The reason is that the empirical substratum of justice is -mistaken for the ethical virtue itself. This substratum -may be described as an inborn propensity toward order -in things and in relations, a natural impatience of loose -fringes, a certain mental neatness. Hence insistence -on explicitly defined arrangements and on -simple, over-simple formulas. These are favored because -they keep out of sight the complex elements which -if considered might introduce uncertainty and possibly -disorder into the situation. Thus a manufacturer, impatient -of looseness, over-rating explicitness, will be led -to grasp at a formula of justice which reduces it to the -bare literal performance of a fixed agreement, no matter -with what unfreedom, owing to the pressure of want, -it was entered into by the wage-earners, and no matter -how deteriorating the effect of the insufficient wage may -prove to be on their standard of living.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">217</span></p> -<p>But it is a far cry from this empirical predisposition -to the sublime ethical idea itself. The idea of “the just” -as exemplified in any act performed by me includes the -totality of all those conditions which make for the development -of the ethical personality of others in so far -as it can be affected by my action. To do a just act -is to act with the totality of these conditions in view, in -order to promote the end in view, which is the liberation -of personality or at least the idea of personality in -others and in myself.</p> - -<p>It is thus evident that a just act—an ideally, perfectly -just act,—can be performed by no man. First -because the right conditions of human development are -but very imperfectly known, and are only brought to -light by slow degrees. Secondly because even as to the -known conditions of justice, for instance the abolition -of the evils of the present industrial wage system, a -single employer, or even a group of well-intentioned -employers can bring about the desired changes only to -a very limited extent.</p> - -<p>Raising the finite quality underlying justice to the -Nth degree therefore means opening an illimitable prospect. -The ethical effort in this, as in all other instances, -is destined to be thwarted. It is an effort in -the direction of the finitely unattainable; the effort itself, -with the conviction it fosters as to the reality of -that which is finitely unattainable, being the ethically -valuable outcome. The just man, therefore, in any -proper sense of the word, is one who is convinced of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">218</span> -the fact that he is <em>essentially not a just man</em>, and a deep -humility as to both his actual and possible achievements -will distinguish him from the “just man” so-called, who -arrogates to himself that sublime attribute on the -ground of the scrupulous payment of debts, or the fulfilment -of contracts. Humility in fact will be found to -be the characteristic mark of those who have attained -ethical enlightenment in any direction. It is the outward -sign from which we may infer that the finite quality -in them is in process of being raised to the Nth degree.</p> - -<p>I have given these few specific illustrations of my -meaning, but what has been said applies equally to -any of the plus qualities. The plus qualities are -the ones which are favorable for transformation -into the infinitized ethical quality. The ethical -principle itself is one and indivisible. Any one of the -plus qualities, when ethicized, will conduce to the same -result. From whatever point of the periphery of the -ethical sphere we advance toward the center we shall -meet with the same experience. Thus self-affirmation -or egoism when in idea raised to the Nth degree will -reveal that the highest selfhood can be achieved only -when the unique power of a spiritual being is deployed -in such a way as to challenge the unique, distinctive -power that is lodged in each of the infinite multitude of -spiritual beings that are partners with us in the eternal -life.</p> - -<p>And altruism, or care for others, at its spiritual -climax, will conversely involve the recognition that true -service to others can only be perfectly performed when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">219</span> -the power that is resident in ourselves is exercised in -its most vigorous, most spontaneous, and most self-affirming -mode. And as the diverse empirical qualities -which we observe in one another all appear to be modes -of or cognate with these two principal tendencies—the -self-affirming and the altruistic—the method of transfiguring -empirical qualities which has been set forth may -be found to apply in every instance.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">220</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_VIII-3">CHAPTER VIII<br /> - -<small>THE SUPREME ETHICAL RULE (<i>Continued</i>)</small></h3> - - -<p>Whatever the steps that have thus far been taken, -they are preliminary to the final step. And the <em>method</em> -of “salvation,” the distinctive feature wherein this ethical -system differs from others, may now be briefly -stated. So act as to elicit the unique personality in -others, and <em>thereby</em> in thyself. Salvation is found in -the effort to save others! The difference in method -consists in the joint pursuit of the two ends, that of the -other and that of the self. The controlling idea is that -the <em>numen</em> in the self is raised out of potentiality into -actuality by the energy put forth to raise the <em>numen</em> in -the other,—the two divinities greeting each other as simultaneously -they rise into the light.</p> - -<p>It is thus that both egoism and altruism are transcended. -To be egoistic is to assert one’s empirical self -at the expense of other empirical selves. To be altruistic -is to prefer the empirical selves of others to one’s -own. It is not true that self-realization, keeping to the -empirical signification of self, leads insensibly to altruistic -conduct. The life of the great “self-realizer,” -Goethe, may be cited in evidence of this. Nor is it true -that preference for the empirical self of another necessarily -involves maintaining the integrity of one’s own -empirical self. In the empirical field egoism and altru<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">221</span>ism -are conflicting and mutually contradictory. It -is in the spiritual field that they cease to be -so, because both disappear in an object of the will -which includes them both and transcends them both. If -this be so, it may be asked why does the formula we -have adopted read: So act as to elicit the unique personality -in others, and thereby in thyself? Why not -conversely:—So act as to realize the unique personality -in thyself, and thereby in others?—since in any -case the ends in view are to be achieved conjointly. -The answer is that in the pure spiritual field, in the -world of ideal ethical units, it would make no difference -from which point of view the relation were regarded. -But when the spiritual formula is applied as a regulative -rule to the mutual relations of empirical beings -there is a difference. Thus applied, it must necessarily -be couched in such terms as will make the spiritual birth -of the other the prime object, and the spiritual birth of -the self its incidental though inseparable concomitant. -This is so because ethics is a science of energetics, which -has to do with the potencies of our nature in their most -affirmative efferent expression. All our higher faculties -are active, and touch for good or ill the lives of those -who surround us. Even the secret thoughts which -seem only to affect our own individuality, inevitably -project their influence upon our associates.</p> - -<p>Now ethics is a science of <em>right</em> energizing. And since -as a matter of fact we do inevitably energize in such a -manner as to affect others, the fundamental question in -ethics is: how are we to regulate the incidences of our -natures that fall upon other lives so that they shall be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">222</span> -right? Since we cannot help acting upon them and influencing -them, how can we act rightly toward them and -rightly influence them? And the rule supplied by the -ethical principle is: Act upon their empirical selves in -such a manner as to draw from their empirical natures -the hidden personality, or at least the consciousness of it. -And the repercussion of the rule is: in the attempt to do -so you will convert your own empirical self into a spiritual -personality, or at least evoke in yourself the idea -of yourself as a spiritual personality.</p> - -<p>Incontestably, in the attempt to change others we are -compelled to try to change ourselves. The transformation -undergone by a parent in the attempt to educate -his child is an obvious instance. No parent is a true -parent at the outset. As his perception deepens of the -real needs of the child, which is so entirely dependent on -his self-control, on his wisdom as well as his love, he -will realize more and more his own deficiencies, and seek -to remedy them. The same is true of the professor in -relation to his students, of a leader and his followers, of -a religious teacher and those who look to him for advice -and help. In all such relations when rightly understood -there is simultaneous growth on both sides. In -the ethical sphere there is a law of levitation, the contrary -of the law of gravitation that obtains in the realm -of matter. We actually tend to rise from a lower to a -higher level in proportion as we bend downward to lift -those still lower than ourselves.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">223</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_IX-3">CHAPTER IX<br /> - -<small>HOW TO LEARN TO SEE THE SPIRITUAL <em>NUMEN</em> IN -OTHERS</small></h3> - - -<p>We now have to consider how to acquire the faculty -of seeing the light that in our fellowmen is often so -deeply hidden. We can love only that which is lovable. -If we could see holiness, beauty concealed within our -fellow-beings, we should be drawn towards them by the -most powerful attraction, willingly living in their life, -and permitting them to live in ours. We should then -love all men, for we should see in all what is unspeakably -lovable. But the empirical man stands between us and -the spiritual man, and the empirical woman between us -and the spiritual woman; and very often the former are -most repulsive, even when their ugly traits do not affect -us personally, even when as spectators merely we observe -how they behave.</p> - -<p>Much more is it well-nigh insuperably difficult to -worship, in the sense of holding worthy, those whose -characteristic traits directly offend us, or are perpetual -thorns in our side. We must somehow learn to regard -the empirical traits, odious, harmful or merely commonplace -and vulgar as they may be, as the mask, the screen -interposed between our eyes and the real self of others. -We must acquire the faculty of second sight, of seeing -the lovable self as the true self. And how without <span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">224</span>self deception -we can possibly succeed in doing so is the -question.</p> - -<p>In the first place, it is my own craving for resurrection -out of that death in life to which I seem doomed that -must impel me to penetrate to the essential life in others. -My own spiritual nature is in fetters, and to burst the -fetters, to escape from the prison, there is but one way. -The unique personality, which is the real life in me, I -cannot gain, nor even approximate to, unless I search -and go on searching for the spiritual <em>numen</em> in others.<a id="FNanchor_67_67" href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> -The force which incites me to penetrate beyond the -empirical traits of others, to surmount the walls which surround -the shrine in them, is the consciousness that unless -I do so I am myself spiritually lost, I remain myself -spiritually dead. For it is only face to face with the -god enthroned in the innermost shrine of the other that -the god hidden in me will consent to appear. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">225</span></p> - -<p>The expression “death in life” means living, even living -passionately and in a way efficiently, with a sense, -nevertheless, underneath of the hollowness, the futility -of the objects of pursuit. The death in life is the state -of discontent that slowly gathers and augments in a -man’s mind as he pursues his customary ends, as he reviews -his intellectual achievement, the books he has written, -the pictures he has painted, the meager outcome of -his schemes of social reform, the uncertain result of his -efforts at moral self-development. It is the ensuing distaste -for what he has actually accomplished, the disallowance -of it as in any way ultimately satisfying. And -yet this death in life is itself the well-spring of resurrection, -out of which is engendered an irrepressible yearning -of the mind to attach itself to something greater -than all ephemeral interests, to something that has eternal -worth, and is of such a kind as to communicate of its -eternal nature to him who touches it. The god in the -other, the eternal personality in the inner sanctuary of -the other, is that object which must be sought and -touched. The cry of my own soul for salvation is the -impulse that leads me on to search for that object. -Without the previous discontent, I shall not seek; without -the appraisement of the temporal ends and interests -of man as in the last analysis unsatisfying, I shall not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">226</span> -set out on my quest. Enmeshed in the jungle of the -empirical world, I shall find no exit. I shall remain the -victim of the illusion that the peace I need can be found -in the realm of temporal desire. I shall commit what the -theologians called Original Sin, that is, the preferring of -“the works of the Creator to the Creator himself.”</p> - -<p>But there is a second force that must act in conjunction -with this keen desire for personal liberation or highest -personal self-affirmation. It is the sense of the <em>dependence -of others</em> upon what I can do for them. Notoriously -it is the dependence of the child that evokes -in the parent the noblest qualities of which he is capable, -the self-denial, the incessant willingness to labor -for the good of the offspring. It is the dependence of -the student on the teacher, of the disciple on the master -that elicits the latter’s best thought. It is the dependence -of the multitude on the religious teacher that puts -him on his mettle. But if the dependence of others upon -oneself is to produce its appropriate results, that dependence -will have to be interpreted in a spiritual sense. We -shall have to think of others as dependent on us not -only for the necessary empirical services we are bound -to render them, but those empirical services themselves -will have to be regarded as instruments by means of -which we may render them the highest spiritual service.</p> - -<p>This leads to a more <em>rigorous scrutiny of the notion of -service</em> than has hitherto been customary.</p> - -<p>The question we must answer, and it is one that has -never been adequately met, is: What is it in the other -that we are to serve, what is the true object of our service? -Man is worth while on his own account.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">227</span> -Now no one can pretend that the welfare of the animal -part of man is an object worth while on its own account. -To satisfy the hunger or the thirst of another, or to promote -his health is to serve his body. But the body is the -servant of a master. And I am not bound to serve a -servant. If I am to serve the servant at all it must be -for the sake of the master. Who then is the master?</p> - -<p>The same argument applies also to the intellect. Human -science is after all but a narrow littoral along the -illimitable continent of nescience. No one who compares -the intellectual achievements of mankind with -the problems that remain unsolved will pretend that the -accomplishments of the intellect are worth while on their -own account. The mental no less than the physical part -of us has a master. There is an object higher than the -acquisition of knowledge to be attained in the course of -the mind’s endeavors to acquire knowledge, namely the -growth of the scientist towards unique personality, as -will be shown in the chapter on the Vocations in the last -Book. Analogous considerations apply to art and its -achievements.</p> - -<p>And if someone should say that neither the satisfaction -of the body alone, nor of the intellect, nor of the æsthetic -sense, nor of the affections, but of all of them taken together, -is to be the object of our service, the answer is -that this would be merely serving a whole household of -servants, and still not serving the master. This quite -aside from the fact that the ideal of happiness as consisting -in the harmonious gratification of the various elements -enumerated is chimerical. Since some of the most -indispensable elements of happiness, such as freedom<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">228</span> -from disease and from bereavement, are beyond our -control. While even the higher faculties are far from -harmoniously coöperating, the one-sidedness of human -nature being such that a marked development in one -direction is actually incompatible with complete development -in other directions.</p> - -<p>Unless, then, there be some master end in everyone’s -life, one paramount to all others, to which all others -are subordinate (the subordination and the renunciation -involved being themselves means of spiritualizing one’s -nature) there is no point to the notion of service. That -master end I have defined as the attainment of the conviction -of one’s infinite interrelatedness, the consciousness -of oneself as a member of the spiritual universe, a -ἄπαξ λεγόμενον<a id="FNanchor_68_68" href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> in the eternal life, a source of energy -induplicable in its kind, which radiates out and touches -at the center each one of the infinite multitude of spiritual -associates, and receives from them the effect of -their aboriginally diverse modes of energizing in return.</p> - -<p>I have mentioned two motives that impel me to search -for the <em>numen</em> in others. The one, the craving for my -own liberation from the death in life, my own desperate -outreaching toward salvation; the other, the sense of the -dependence of others upon me. Yes, but this dependence -of theirs I must now interpret as spiritual dependence. -I must look for them also beyond the death in -life to life itself. I must have the courage and the truthfulness -to look upon neighbor, friend, wife, husband, -son, daughter <i lang="la">sub specie æternitatis</i>, that is, as primarily -spiritual beings, and estimate any physical, intellectual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">229</span> -or emotional help I can give them by the consideration -whether it does or does not advance them toward the -master end of their being.</p> - -<p>Courage of this sort is rare, because precisely the -physical, mental and emotional wants of those who depend -on us are the most obvious and clamorous. I do -not of course mean that we should not attend effectually -to their immediate wants. How could we avoid -doing so? How could we neglect the health, -the education, etc., of our children? What I say is -that we should acquire the habit of looking upon the -immediate ends as instrumental, and keep in view the -supreme end which they in turn are to serve, and that -we should beware of what I have called the fallacy of -provisionalism—that of supposing that we are at liberty -to provide for the lower immediate necessities first, leaving -the higher and the highest needs to be attended to -later on.</p> - -<p>The manner in which parents commonly plan for the -future of their sons and daughters is perhaps the fittest -illustration of the idea I am here seeking to exclude. -During the period of infancy they pilot the child through -the dangers that beset its physical existence. Later on, -what is called education, the preliminary mental training -required to fit the young for the business of life, -is felt to be imperative. Then comes the selection of -a vocation with a view of assuring the material basis -of subsistence. Still later, the advancement of the -sons or daughters in their chosen vocations, or their -social success occupies perhaps the parent’s mind. -Thoughts of a happy marriage flatter the parent’s im<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">230</span>agination. -If the moral side receives attention, the utmost -that as a rule is demanded is that the young person -shall not fall below the average moral standard that -happens to prevail in the community. And it is in -such ways as these that we are apt to respond to -the claims of those spiritual beings for whose essential -future welfare we are to so large an extent responsible.</p> - -<p>To widen this all too narrow conception of our responsibilities, -the following reflections may be found useful. -A father in the last decade of his life realizes acutely the -brevity of his own past existence. The curve of his life -is now rapidly descending. Supposing him to be nearing -seventy, his adult sons and daughters may by this time -have reached the age of thirty or forty. Looking back -on the thirty or more years that separate him from them, -and remembering how like a dream the intervening -years have glided by, it may come home to him with sudden -force how soon these, his sons and daughters too, -though now in their prime, will reach the point at which -he has arrived. The error of parents is to think of their -grown sons and daughters only as moving on the upward -curve of life. They stop short in imagination -there. They look forward to marriage, vocational -success and the like, as finalities for those who are -still young. We ought to remember that the upward -curve in the lives of our children will presently descend -just as ours has descended, that the few decades which -separate them from old age will pass as quickly for them -as they have passed for us,—almost in the twinkling of -an eye,—and we ought to ask on their behalf as we must -on ours,—What is to be the result of it all? What does<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">231</span> -it all profit? And it is this thought that will turn our -attention for them as for ourselves to the spiritual end -which should be dominant at all times,—in the morning, -at noon, and in the evening twilight of a human existence.</p> - -<p>All that has been said has to do with the arousing in -us of the desire to see in others the god, the <em>numen</em>, the -master end. The wish to escape from our own death in -life, the sense of the dependence of others on us as interpreted,—these -two are the means of stirring us up to -go forth upon the quest, and the seeking is already more -than half the journey. Seek, and ye shall find. But -what exactly is it that we are to seek? What are we to -see in the other?—The spiritual nature. But what is the -spiritual nature? I have frequently urged that the lack -of a definite description of the spiritual nature is the -chief defect in ethics up to the present time. This defect -I endeavor to supply. The spiritual nature is the -unique nature conceived as interrelated with an infinity -of natures unique like itself. The spiritual nature in -another is the fair quality distinctive of the other -raised toward the Nth degree. We are to paint ideal -portraits of our spiritual associates. We are to see them -in the light of what is better in them as it would be if it -were transfigured into the best. We are to go on as -long as we live painting these ideal portraits of them. -We are to retouch their portraits constantly. We are -not indeed to obtrude or impose upon others these -sketches, these mental creations of ours, but to propose -them diffidently, reverently, to hold them up as glasses -in which our associates may possibly see themselves mir<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">232</span>rored. -It is for them to accept in whole or in part our -rendering of their inner selves or to reject it. But we -are not to desist from our labor in creating the ideal -portraits, for in this consists the spiritual artistry of -human intercourse.</p> - -<p>Our friends we are to see in the light of these glorified -sketches,—our friends and our enemies too. For only -thus can we win them, and be essentially their benefactors. -There is no power so irresistible, it has been said, as -love. I do not quite accept the word Love. It signifies -the feeling that goes with the ideal appreciation of -others; and mere feeling supplies no directive rule of conduct. -But it is true that the power of ideally appreciating -others, of seeing them in the light of their possible -best, and the feeling of love consequent on this vision, is -the mightiest lever for transforming evil into good, and -for sweetening the embittered lives of men. No greater -boon can anyone receive from another than to be helped -to think well of himself. Flattery is the base counterfeit -of appreciation. Spiritual appreciation, appreciation -of the inner self despite the mask, is the greatest of -gifts, to manifest it is the greatest of arts. In its supreme -form it is the art of going down to the lowest of -human beings—the man in the ditch, the woman on the -street—and making them think well of themselves because -of possibilities in their nature they themselves -hardly surmise. It is also the art of making the most -developed and advanced human beings realize in themselves -something still higher and better than they have -ever reached. It is this art by which the supreme human -benefactors have worked their spiritual miracles, and it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">233</span> -an art which to the extent of our ability we must each -acquire and practice, if human society is to be redeemed.</p> - -<p>There are specially two points to be remembered: the -one, that of seeing the unattained excellence in those who -are already in the way of excellence; the other, where -there is or seems to be a complete absence of fine qualities -or of the promise of development, as in the case of -backward children, that we should still not abate one -jot of hope or effort, seeking to win even the smallest -improvement, in the conviction that the best possible under -the circumstances is incalculably worth while. For, -compared with the infinite ideal even the achievements -of the most advanced and most developed fall infinitely -short, and what are they more than the best possible -under the circumstances. The best possible under the -circumstances represents for us the absolute best.</p> - -<p>Now a word in regard to those who resist the better influence -which we may seek to exercise over them, for -instance, the so-called black sheep in families. Our -chief concern should here be to prevent the resistance -from infecting ourselves and provoking unethical reactions. -Ethics is a system of relations. The ethical -point of view consists in seeing the relation between the -offending person and ourselves as it ought to be, in seeing -with perfect objectivity the kind of conduct ideally -required by the relation on both sides, seeing it and -thereby assisting the other to see it. But we shall never -succeed in doing this until we purge from our thoughts -and speech every trace of private irritation. If we can -point out to the one who has gone wrong how he has hurt -another, and has spiritually hurt himself; if while we do<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">234</span> -this we see the fineness that is possible to him and make -him realize that we see it, we shall not utterly fail. I -am aware that other methods should accompany the -spiritual appeal. In some cases, a temporary separation -is indicated, in other cases, a prolonged change of environment, -or the gradual formation of new habits of industry -and application, the awakening of interest in -some pursuit that leads the mind away from egocentric -pre-occupation. Psychology and experience crystallized, -into commonsense have valuable counsels to give. But, -along with the technical aids, the spiritual influence -should never be lost sight of or relegated to the second -place.</p> - -<p>And finally two ideas should be mentioned which are -pertinent to broken relations, as for instance to the unhappy -marriage relation and to interrupted friendships: -One that the break is never complete. There remain certain -threads unsundered, which should be most sedulously -preserved intact. They may serve as points of -attachment to weave the tie anew. Again, and -this is still more important, thought that the break -would never have occurred if the relation had been as -finely conceived as it ought to have been on my side as -well as on the others. Take friendship as an example. -A friendship of many years’ standing is suddenly -wrecked. Why? What were the terms on which the -friendship had been based? What had friendship meant -to me?—A certain personal attraction, mutual aid and -comfort, taking counsel together, sympathy in joy and -sorrow. These are valuable elements of friendship, -but they do not even touch the essential point. They<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">235</span> -do not describe the principal function which a friend -has to fulfil. The friend ideally is one who stands alongside -another as the spectator of his spiritual development, -as one who appraises his friend’s advance toward -the master end of life disinterestedly, and yet with deepest -personal concern. He is the mirror in which his -friend may see the stages of his spiritual progress reflected. -Now I have lost my friend. Why have I lost -him? Because he was never a true friend to me, and, I -must add, because I was never a real friend to him. I -have not really lost him, because I never really possessed -him. And on making this discovery I shall have a new -light shed on what friendship might mean. I may never -be so fortunate as to find the actual friend, but I shall -know what he ought to be, and what it is in me to be to -him. And when I say, “what it is in me to be to him,” I -think of resources of my inner being which have never -been called out; I think of the worth that belongs to me -as a spiritual being capable of giving forth and receiving -highest spiritual influence, and I am thereby immeasurably -aggrandized in my own esteem, the self in me is -lifted nearer as it were to its infinite counterpart in the -eternal life. I walk henceforth on a higher level, I dwell -amid serener presences. And this aggrandizement of -the self, not on the ground of what I am but what I may -be, and of others too, not on the ground of what they are, -but what they may be, is the compensation derived from -the bitter experience of broken relations. And what has -been said of friendship by way of example is true of -frustration in marriage as well, and of frustrations of -every kind.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">236</span></p> - - -<blockquote> - -<h4>NOTE TO BOOK III</h4> - -<p>I may mention a certain test case for trying out the proposed -rule, namely, to idealize the fair quality in others, and -thereby achieve the concomitant transformation of the self. I -mean the case of the victims of a cruel race prejudice, such as -is entertained against the colored people of the South by the -more brutal whites. I remember a long evening which I once -spent in the company of a leader among the colored people, and -one of the best men I have ever known. I looked that night -deep into a suffering, sensitive human soul, and I tried to put -myself in his place. I realized the hardships of his lot, the -anguish that I myself should suffer if I were in his position. But -would there be the spiritual equivalent? Would the way I had -found in trials less poignant be the way of release? To make -the situation clear, I selected two points in which the white -man, my supposed oppressor, has the advantage, two fair -qualities of which he can boast. His family life is purer on the -average than that of a large number of the colored people. -And he has also learned in the case of white men to distinguish -between the criminal and the innocent. He will protect the -latter, and give up the former to justice. Now my own people, -putting myself in the place of the colored man, are backward -in both these respects. In consequence of the long centuries -of slavery their family relations are often unstable, while they -are apt to shield the colored criminal from the arm of the law. -In both respects I want to represent to myself the white man -as he ought to act. He ought to help me lift up my race, first, -by making their family life purer and more stable. But instead, -many of the whites debauch the women of my race, while -perhaps respecting those of their own race; moreover, by refusing -decent accommodation on railroads they compel educated -and refined colored women to travel in cars in which the coarsest -men are herded together.</p> - -<p>Again, how can I, as a leader among my people, teach them<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">237</span> -to distinguish between the criminal and the innocent of their -race so long as mobs of white men indiscriminately lynch the -innocent and the criminal of my race alike on the barest suspicion? -Against their actual behavior I set up in my mind a -picture of how the superior race, superior in point of civilization, -but still morally backward, ought to act. I can but suggest -this picture, keep it in view as a constant protest, or still -better as an imperative model.</p> - -<p>But I can do more. I can turn upon myself, and upon -others of my own people who are in advance of the majority of -them, and presently I shall be compelled to admit that amongst -ourselves something of the same pride of superiority exists, -something of the same prejudice against those who are -lower in the scale. For there is also a stratification and a hierarchy -of higher and lower among the oppressed. And the -relatively higher are apt to behave toward the lower in the -same fashion as their common oppressors behave toward them -all. We find the same tendency among other oppressed races, -as for instance in the attitude of certain of the Spanish and the -German Jews toward the Polish and the Russian. Purge thyself, -therefore, is the incisive monition; purify thine own nature -of that pride which hurts so cruelly when it is directed upon -thee from without. Let the sin committed against thee be the -means of purifying thee from the like sin. This is the spiritual -compensation, this the thought that leads to inward peace!</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">239</span></p> - - - - -<h2 id="BOOK_IV">BOOK IV</h2> - -<p class="hang">APPLICATIONS: THE ETHICS OF THE -FAMILY, THE STATE, THE INTERNATIONAL -RELATIONS, ETC.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">241</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_I-4">CHAPTER I<br /> - -<small>THE COLLECTIVE TASK OF MANKIND AND THE -THREE-FOLD REVERENCE</small></h3> - - -<p>The social institutions, the family, the organs of education, -the vocation, the political organization, the organization -of mankind, the ideal religious society are to -be treated as a progressive series. The individual is to -pass successively through them, advancing from station -to station toward ethical personality.</p> - -<p>In designating the social institutions as an ethical -series, care must be taken not to confound the terms of -the series as now existent with the terms as they would -be did they conform to their ethical functions. For instance, -even the monogamic family is as yet only in part -ethically organized. School and university are adrift as -to their ethical purpose. The majority of mankind are -engaged in occupations which it would be absurd -to call vocations, and the international group exists -as yet barely in embryo. Hence when we speak of -the social institutions as a progressive series through -which the individual is to advance towards personality, -we are describing the aim of social reconstruction, not -the present state of things. The spiritual nature of -man must create for itself appropriate social organs. It -has been painfully engaged in the attempt to do so since -the existence of our race on earth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">242</span></p> - -<p>In each of the social institutions we are to -distinguish between the empirical substratum and the -spiritual imprint which it is to receive. We find in each -ready to hand some natural non-moral motive or set of -motives of which we are to avail ourselves in the endeavor -to evoke the spiritual result. Thus in the family -the non-moral motive is affection due to consanguinity; -in the school sociality, the school society being the first -society into which the child enters; in the vocation there -is the craving for mental self-expression, in the state, -patriotism, or the feeling we have for the larger whole -in which we are included on the basis of similarity of -language, historic tradition, etc. The natural basis of -the international group of society is the empirical, and -as yet in no way ethical, fact of the commercial and industrial -interdependence of the different countries, a -fact used by M. Bloch and his more recent followers as -an argument against war.</p> - -<p>In popular literature the empirical substratum and -the spiritual relation to be produced by means of it are -constantly confused. In any genuinely ethical system -they must be carefully discriminated.<a id="FNanchor_69_69" href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">69</a></p> - -<p>In each of the social institutions, or, as we may now -call them, the phases of life experience through which -the individual must pass on the way toward personality, -the winning of the ethical result depends on observance -of <em>the three-fold reverence</em>. What I mean by the three-fold -reverence must be explained in some detail, es<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">243</span>pecially -as the reader might otherwise be led into identifying -my view with that expressed by Goethe in <cite>Wilhelm -Meister</cite>. The three modes of reverence mentioned -by Goethe in his sketch of the “pedagogical province” -have for their background the poet’s pantheism. The -view here set forth is based on ethical idealism.</p> - -<p>In order to introduce my thought let me go back to -the phrase repeatedly used in Book III—“the task of -humanity.” Mankind as a whole, the generations past, -present and to come, have a certain work to do, a task to -accomplish. A collective obligation rests on our race, -spanning the generations.</p> - -<p>The spiritual conception of the collective task is the -basis of the three-fold reverence. The spiritual result, as -was said above, is in every instance to be superinduced -upon an empirical substratum. The empirical substratum -in this case is mankind considered as a developing -entity, which partially reproduces in the present the -mental and moral acquisitions of ancestors, partially increases -the heritage and passes it on to the newcomers. -I, as an individual, am also inextricably linked up backward -and forward with those who come before and those -who are to come after. I cannot take myself out of this -web. The task laid upon human society as a whole is also -laid upon me. I am a conscious thread in the fabric that -is weaving, conscious in a general way of the pattern to -be woven.</p> - -<p>But viewed empirically the development of humanity -is haphazard. Much is preserved from the past that -ought to be cast aside. Many traces of past error remain -unexpunged in the life of the present. A mixed stream,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">244</span> -compounded of good and evil, passes through our veins -into our successors’. The empirical fact is simply the -fact of partial reproduction, partial augmentation and -partial transmission. The ethical conception of progress -depends on the view that there is an ideal pattern of the -spiritual relation in the mind of man, destined to become -more explicit as it is tested out and that the -present generation ought to appraise the heritage of -the past according to this pattern, preserving and rejecting -and adding its own quota in such a way as to -enable the succeeding generations to sift the worthful -from the worthless more successfully, and to see the -ideal pattern more explicitly.</p> - -<p>The three-fold reverence has been described as reverence -towards superiors, equals and inferiors. For this -inadequate description I would substitute the following: -In place of reverence towards superiors, reverence for -the valid work of ethicizing human relations already accomplished -in the past, reverence for the precious permanent -achievements and for those who achieved them,—the -“Old Masters.” The human race has gained -a certain ethical footing in the empirical sphere. The -general task has not to be begun <i lang="la">ab initio</i>. In the act -of separating what is worth while from what is worthless, -in the very process of revision and reinterpretation, -we manifest our reverence for the past. It is thus -that true historicity is distinguished from blind conservatism. -And besides, by studying the old masters, -we acquire a certain standard of excellence. Since those -who have contributed epoch-making advances in philosophy, -in religion, in science, inspire us by the grandeur<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">245</span> -of their attack on the great problems; and the spirit of -their attack, is unspeakably stimulating to us, even when -we reject their solutions. We cannot too humbly sit -as disciples at the feet of the great masters if discipleship -has this meaning.</p> - -<p>Reverence of the first type prescribes the same attitude -towards preëminent personalities among our contemporaries. -They rank with the great predecessors inasmuch -as they are in a way for us predecessors. They -are in advance of us. To revere them is to endeavor to -come abreast of them, to obtain the advantage of the -forward movement which their superior capacity enabled -them to initiate, and to start where they leave off, -adding our small quota.</p> - -<p>The second kind of reverence is directed toward those -who are, in respect to their gifts and opportunities, -approximately on the same level with us, but whose gifts -differ from and are supplementary to ours. In our -relation to them we may learn the great lesson of appreciating -unlikeness, and working out our own correlative -unlikeness by way of reaction.</p> - -<p>The third kind of reverence is directed toward the undeveloped, -among whom I include the young, the backward -groups among civilized peoples, and the uncivilized -peoples. We are to reverence that which is potential in -all of these individuals and groups, and we do so by fitting -ourselves to help them actualize their spiritual possibilities. -Reverence of the third kind takes the highest -rank among the three. The spiritual life of the world is -a deep mine as yet explored only near the surface. The -unrealized possibilities of mankind are the chief asset.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">246</span> -But in order to effectuate our purpose with respect to -the undeveloped, we must have reverence toward the -great Old Masters, to gain a certain standard of excellence; -and reverence towards unlikeness in others to become -ourselves differentiated individualities, and in order -to respect the unlikeness which we shall presently -likewise find in the backward and the young. So that the -three reverences play into one another and are inseparable -from one another, the first two being indispensable -to the third. They are in truth a “trinity in unity.” But -the third reverence is the supreme one. The chief objective -must be the undeveloped, because our face must be -turned toward the future, because the task of mankind -is as yet in its early stages. The third reverence is -supreme. Now it is only when we have grasped the -meaning of the triple reverence that we can fully appreciate -the significance of the family as the first matrix -in which the reverential attitudes are to be acquired. It -is only then that we can rightly conceive of the organs of -education, and of the end upon which the activities of -school and university should converge. And similarly -we shall find our interpretation of the vocation, the state, -and the international society illuminated by this conception -of the three-fold reverence.</p> - -<p>In popular religious teaching the individual is thrust -into the foreground. His salvation as a detached entity -is the principal object. In positivism and evolutionalism -society in its empirical aspect is exalted, and the individual -tends to be regarded as a stepping-stone. In the -spiritual interpretation of the collective task as outlined, -the individual remains integral and sacrosanct. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">247</span> -spiritual society of which the image is to be imprinted on -human society is a society of indefeasible ethical personalities.<a id="FNanchor_70_70" href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> -The individual even now at his station in the -present attributes to himself this lofty character and the -various obligations which he already recognizes, and -which he endeavors to fulfil, afford him ample opportunity -to vindicate his spiritual selfhood. If in addition -he looks forward longingly to the future, and to the -greater spiritual fulfilment that may be expected among -posterity, this expectation is founded on the belief that -what he already possesses in germ will then be more unfolded, -that the ideal of the indefeasible worth of man -of which he is already conscious in himself will then be -more completely recognized and its infinite implications -be more fully understood.<a id="FNanchor_71_71" href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">71</a></p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">249</span></p> - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_II-4">CHAPTER II<br /> - -<small>THE FAMILY</small></h3> - - -<p>The family is in process of change. We should fix -attention on the kind of change that is desirable. The -change desirable is the more perfect expression of the -ethical ideal in the life of the family. One striking fact -is that in the past the family was never supposed to exist -merely for the “benefit” of its individual members. The -latter view is an individualistic novelty of our age, and, -as commonly understood, it is radically false.</p> - -<p>Under the caste system the family subordinates the -welfare of its members to the function of the caste. Society -being stationary and stratified, the family is the -organ for the reproduction of a stratified social system.</p> - -<p>A similar view prevails under feudalism. We of today -resent the idea underlying primogeniture. From -the modern point of view we ask why the eldest born -should be preferred to his brothers. Primogeniture appears -to us to assert the inequality of individual men; but -from the feudal point of view the eldest born was preferred, -not as an individual, but as the steward of the -family property. The family had a fixed place in the -social hierarchy, and to maintain this place the estate -was to remain undivided in the hands of one person.</p> - -<p>Now what is amiss with the modern family? This is -profoundly amiss—that the idea of the family as serv<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">250</span>ing -a larger purpose is disappearing, and that the family -is supposed to exist for the benefit of its individual -members, benefit meaning happiness. Frequent divorce -and disintegration are the natural consequences -of this view, for if the tie exists solely for the happiness -of those bound by it, then it ought indeed to be dissolved -when the relation entails suffering.</p> - -<p>Society has passed from status to contract, and many -seem to hold that contract is the last word, the true expression -of freedom. We have passed from status to -contract, we must pass on from contract to organization, -and thus to true freedom.</p> - -<p>Status is based on the analogy of the animal organism. -The caste society and the feudal society, ethically -regarded, are spurious organisms. This spurious type -of organization is no longer viable, and now bald individualism -is taking its place. The malady with which -the family is afflicted is individualism. The desirable -change is genuine organization on the basis of the spiritual -equivalence of all functions.<a id="FNanchor_72_72" href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> The relation of the -family to the general social task of organization is two-fold. -The family is the seminary in which shall be implanted -the germinal principle of organization, that principle -which is destined to transform all the subsequent -terms of the social series, the instrumentality to be employed -being the three-fold reverence. Again, the family -will reach its more perfect form in proportion as the -succeeding social institutions, the school, vocation, state,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">251</span> -shall themselves be essentially organized, the influence -of the later terms retroacting on the first term.</p> - -<p>The family, in the spiritual view of it which I am -sketching, differs from the family of other days, and -also from the modern family, in two particulars. It -does not recruit some one social class or stratum. It -does not direct the offspring into a single specific vocation. -It is the vestibule that leads into all the different -professions and vocations. And secondly, the -family does not prepare the young to enter into a vocation -for the purpose of securing happiness. It does not -regard the vocation as servile to the empirical ends of -the individual, but as a phase through which he is to -pass on the road toward ethical personality, the fulfilment -of the objective aims of the vocation being the -means of acquiring the ethical development which the -vocation is competent to furnish. Thus we regain, but -on a much higher plane, what the family possessed before -it began to break down under the influence of modern -individualism, namely, an ulterior greater purpose -imbedded within itself and yet extending beyond itself.</p> - -<p>When we have grasped this relation of the family -to the subsequent terms of the social series, and bear -constantly in mind as we should that the three-fold reverence -is the instrument by which <em>organization</em> is to be -effected, we shall then be able to give adequate reasons -why the monogamic ideal alone is the true ethical ideal, -why the marriage relation, if it is to be ethical, must be -permanent between two and exclusive of all others.</p> - -<p>Let me briefly point out the relation of the monogamic -family to the three types of reverence. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">252</span> -third type ranks highest. The tie of consanguinity between -parents and offspring supplies the empirical substratum. -To be interested in the undeveloped, to surmise -possibilities as yet wholly unapparent, to go to infinite -pains to nurture and educate an immature being -like a child, for all this natural affection is almost indispensable. -As a rule no one can so love a child as its own -parents do. The plan of state education for infants to -replace home education is advocated by some on the -ground that professional kindergartners and teachers -are more competent to train the budding human mind -than unpedagogical fathers and mothers. The function -to be performed by the scientific educator in co-operation -with the home is doubtless not to be -missed; but taking children away from under the care -of their parents, assembling them in what would be -equivalent to state orphan asylums, is a procedure -which precisely for pedagogical reasons would be preposterous. -For the parent supplies that concentrated -love for the individual child, that intimate cherishing -which the most generous teacher, whose affections are -necessarily distributed over many, can never give. And -the child needs this selective affection. The love of the -parent is the warm nest for the fledgling spirit of the -child. To be at home in this strange world the young -being with no claims as yet on the score of usefulness to -society or of merit of any kind, must find somewhere a -place where it is welcomed without regard to usefulness -or merit. And it is the love of the parents that makes -the home, and it is his own home that makes the child -at home in the world.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">253</span></p> - -<p>It does not follow that parents in general do reverence -the spiritual possibilities latent in their children. -The natural affection is there, but the empirical substratum -and the spiritual relation are not to be -confounded. The kind of reverence of which I -speak is an ideal thing to be worked towards, -not something that as yet actually exists, save in exceptional -cases. In the caste family and the feudal -family the father incarnated, as it were, the social system -so far as that stratum or class was concerned to -which he belonged. He inspired awe. He demanded -implicit obedience. It was the existing social system -that spoke from his lips. But this system itself had -an arbitrary character, and the worship of the father -was hardly ethical. The modern family goes to the opposite -extreme. In it the relations between parents -and children are loose, and tend to become more and -more so. Reverence is scarcely looked for by the parent, -and is not likely to be accorded. On the individualistic -theory the child at a very early age is treated as -an equal, and whether encouraged to do so or not is -apt to assert its independence. The members of the -family are not joined in an organic connection, but -resemble a collection of atomic units that easily fall -apart. The ethical relation, the real reverence must -spring from the service the parent renders in bringing -to light the specific individuality of the child with an -eye to the transmutation which it is to receive in the -later terms of the social series. Not only highest gratitude -but genuine reverence are due to the parent who -performs this office.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">254</span> “You have given me physical -birth, you are now giving me spiritual birth,” will be -the child’s response to the parent’s efforts.</p> - -<p>Thus much may be said as to the reason why the marriage -relation should be exclusive. The principal reason -why it should be lifelong, is that the office of the -parent in furthering the spiritual development of the -children does not end when they reach the threshold of -manhood or womanhood. On the contrary, the finest -touches are often added to the work of education when -the sons and daughters have become established in a -business or profession, and have founded families of -their own. The wisdom gathered from the experience -of their elders, the disinterested counsel inspired by -love, will then be of the greatest use to them. The -young mother, especially, confronted with the problems -of child-rearing, will naturally turn to her own -mother for advice. The son, who comes to close quarters -with the difficulties of life, will find in the father, -who is detached from life and has the tranquil vision -of old age, his best friend.</p> - -<p>In speaking of the third type of reverence I have -already included all that need here be said of the first -type. The reverential relation is mutual. The child -will truly reverence the parent who on his side reverences -the child’s spiritual possibilities. The child does -not understand the word Spiritual, but is unconsciously -affected by the thing itself which I am here describing. -A person who has the vision, who has the gift of divining -what is as yet unmanifested, will convey to others -the illumination of his vision. The child will realize -in his parent the presence of something higher, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">255</span> -will revere it, worship it. Certain looks, certain expressions -of the countenance, certain gestures, though -not understood in their meaning at the time, will be -imprinted on memory to be recalled in later life and -then understood. But it is essential, in order to evoke -reverence in the young, to have it oneself. He who -does not steadfastly revere something, yes, someone -greater than himself, will never elicit reverence in others.</p> - -<p>The second type of reverence, towards those who are -unlike ourselves but none the less our equals, can be -inculcated in an elementary way in the family through -the relations of brothers and sisters. Fraternal feeling is -an empirical means whereby to produce or at least prepare -the way for a very notable spiritual result—the -willingness not only to respect difference in others, but -to welcome it. In current teaching the emphasis in fraternity -is placed on likeness. It should rather be -placed on the unlikeness. These exist, and are -sometimes very marked between brothers, and often -cause discord and separation. The novices in life -should therefore be taught betimes to overcome their -repugnance to those who are unlike themselves, and -the common relation of the brothers to their parents will -be helpful to this end. Naturally we dislike the unlike. -Alienness is ever productive of disharmony. The fact, -however, that the unlike person in the case of a brother -is the child of the same parents draws us powerfully -toward him despite the tendency to recoil.</p> - -<p>I must not omit to mention that the triple reverence -is most naturally and easily learned in the family, be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">256</span>cause -of the simplicity of the relations, and the limited -number of persons involved.</p> - -<p>The question may be raised whether the single family -should remain the primary social unit, or whether -a group of families united in close coöperation would -better fulfil the purposes for which the family exists. -The privacy and separateness of each family would not -need to be disturbed, coöperation might be limited to -specific objects, such as simplifying the work of the -household, providing kindergarten education for the -young children, better play facilities, separate study -rooms for adolescents, common entertainments for all, -and a service of song at the beginning or close of the -day. One obvious difficulty in constituting such a -group would be: the diversities of tastes and opinions, -particularly such as are not perceived at the outset, but -emerge on nearer acquaintance, and as the younger -members grow up and develop their idiosyncrasies. -One great advantage, however, would result if care were -taken to include in the group persons belonging to different -vocations—scientist, scholar, architect, lawyer, -artist. Young persons as they mature would then have -the benefit of contact with those who are intimately -familiar with different lines of vocational activity, -and would be helped to know their own mind as to their -future career better than they commonly do now. Personal -contact with one who is engaged in a certain line -of work is a far better instruction as to the nature of the -work than reading about it or observation from a distance.</p> - -<p>The ethical theory of marriage has been developed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">257</span> -my published addresses.<a id="FNanchor_73_73" href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> But certain topics not there -treated I would at least allude to here in passing, and -among them the need of a more careful study of the -causes that lead to infelicity in marriage. Kant mentions, -as an instance of the discrepancy between the natural -and the moral order, the fact that the sex passion -is often at its height before the period when marriage -may be wisely entered into. There are other seemingly -radical incongruities, for instance, that between the face, -the features of a person and his real character. The one -may be borrowed so to speak from some ancestor, while -the real nature is quite at variance with the impression -created by the face, so that one who thinks he marries -A really marries B. There are diversities also between -partners in marriage that only show themselves in the -latter part of life, when the outlines of character are apt -to stand forth bare. Besides, there is assumed to be, by -some modern writers, a certain fundamental sex antagonism.</p> - -<p>The whole question of the characteristics of sex requires -to be far more carefully investigated than it has -been. And here let me take the opportunity to express -my positive appreciation of empirical science in connection -with ethical theory. The chief object of this -volume is to work out the general plan of the ethical -relations, or the regulative principle in ethics, and this -I am deeply convinced is supersensible and non-empirical. -Applied ethics, however, is dependent not only on -the regulative principle but on empirical science, that -is, on an extended and ever-increasing knowledge of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">258</span> -physiology, psychology, and of the environmental conditions -that influence human beings, and I am keenly -desirous to ward off the possible misunderstanding that -the ethical theory here proposed is intended to replace -the empirical science of man, individual or social</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"><div class="poetry"><div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse">Without the way there is no going.</div> - <div class="verse">Without the truth there is no knowing;</div> -</div></div></div> - -<p>says Thomas à Kempis. The way is the empirical -knowledge, the truth is the regulative principle. The -way itself, as we proceed along it, will shed additional -light on the truth. Nevertheless, without the outlines -of the truth, without a goal in view, we should but -be wandering blindly.</p> - -<p>It is likely that the relations between persons in marriage -will in future become more complex, and the difficulties -of adjustment more serious, in proportion as -under the influence of the new education the individualities -of men and women become more developed. -Problems hardly as yet envisaged will then become -pressing. But whatever the difficulties, they can be -overcome if the ideal purpose of marriage be kept in -view, namely, that two beings of opposite sexes shall -spend their lives in the spiritual reproduction of offspring. -The relation is triangular. Husband and -wife are each to elicit the distinctive best in -the other, incited, impelled to do so in order jointly -to evoke the distinctive best in the young. And the -young represent posterity. What the parents do for -their own children they do for posterity, since children<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">259</span> -are that portion of posterity which comes under their immediate -influence. And in this sense it may be said that -marriage is an organ for the spiritual reproduction and -advancement of the human race.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">260</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_III-4">CHAPTER III<br /> - -<small>THE VOCATIONS</small></h3> - - -<p>The next term in the series of social institutions is -the school, inclusive of its higher departments. But for -reasons which will sufficiently appear to anyone who -carefully reads this chapter, it is advisable to treat the -vocations first.</p> - -<p>A more ludicrous mistake cannot be conceived than -that of taking the ideal for the fact, the wish for the -deed, in matters touching the social institutions. Thus -the term “vocational guidance” is often used, as if the -occupations of the majority of men already answered -to what is implied in the idea of a vocation as if, for instance, -industrial labor in a factory were a “vocation” -into which the young only needed to be guided, whereas -guidance means, in this case, being directed into some -mechanical <em>occupation</em> not already overcrowded, or -turned into other unvocational occupations when they -happen not to be over-filled. But what is true of -monotonous, mechanical labor in factories is true in a -greater or less degree of all human occupations. None -of them at least are as yet vocations in the highest sense.</p> - -<p>I dwell on this because, in describing the vocation as -the third term in the series, I would not have the reader -imagine that this third term exists in any adequate manner. -Rather is it to be the task of what is often loosely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">261</span> -called “social reform” <em>to create the ethical series</em>,—not -only the third term (the vocation), but the whole series -from beginning to end, the family, the school, the state, -the international society, the ideal religious society. -The phrase “social reform” is strictly correct only when -used comprehensively in this way. To confine its usage -to the more equable repartition of wealth, or to changes -in economic conditions is unwarrantably to narrow its -signification. Social reform is the <em>reformation of all -the social institutions in such a way that they may become -successive phases through which the individual -shall advance towards the acquisition of an ethical personality</em>.</p> - -<p>In sketching the ideals of the different vocations, I -have to consider in what way each contributes to the -formation of an ethical personality. There is an empirical -side to each vocation. Every vocation satisfies -some one or more of the empirical human needs; but in -the very act or process of doing so, it ought, in order to -deserve the name of a vocation, to satisfy also a spiritual -need, to contribute in a specific way toward the formation -of a spiritual personality.<a id="FNanchor_74_74" href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> Agriculture furnishes -food. The different trades minister to a great variety -of wants. The scientist extends our knowledge of nature. -With this empirical aspect of the vocations, however, -I am not here concerned. A scientific classification -of the vocations is not a task to which I need address myself. -<em>My task is an ethical classification of the vocations.</em><span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">262</span> -As this has never been undertaken, the first attempt -is difficult and perforce provisional.</p> - -<p>I outline my topics as follows:</p> - -<p>1. The theoretical physical sciences (including mathematics) -considered from the point of view of the specific -way in which the ethical personality may be developed -by those who pursue them.</p> - -<p>2. The practical counterparts of the theoretical sciences, -<i>e.g.</i>, engineering, and the industrial arts in so -far as they depend on and illustrate and use principles -and methods furnished by science. Work in factories, -mines, and also in the fields, is to be regarded as the -executive side of theoretical science.</p> - -<p>3. The historical sciences, those which have to do with -mentally reproducing the life of the human race in the -past, including history proper, philology, archæology, -etc.</p> - -<p>4. The vocation of the artist.</p> - -<p class="hang">5. The vocation of the lawyer and the judge.<br /> -The vocation of the statesman.<br /> -The vocation of the religious teacher.</p> - -<p>The three last mentioned are classed together as educational -vocations, that is, as vocations which, in respect -to their highest significance, are branches of the <em>pedagogy -of mankind</em>, having for their object to educate the -human race; the ethical object of the lawyer being to -educate society in the idea of justice; of the statesman -to educate society in the idea of the state; of the religious -teacher to educate society in the idea of the spiritual -universe.</p> - -<p>This conception of the lawyer, the politician, etc., as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">263</span> -primarily educators, is a point to which particular attention -is directed. The significance of it will appear -further on. I shall now indicate in bare outline what -I conceive to be the specific contribution of the vocations -mentioned to the formation of a spiritual personality.</p> - - -<h4><i>Science</i></h4> - -<p>Conspicuously important in this connection is the -question whether and by what means the pursuit of the -physical sciences can be linked up to the supreme spiritual -end of man. The scientist may develop into a -great thinker in the course of comprehensive and intricate -investigations, but he does not thereby necessarily -develop into a personality. His mind will become in this -way a mirror of the orderly procession of nature’s phenomena. -He will be the accurate recorder of what happens, -the knowing spectator of the play, whose eye recognizes -the actors, the forces, beneath their disguises. -The pursuit of knowledge of this kind for the sake of -knowledge, or it may be for the sake of exercising the -faculty of cognition, represents the purely scientific conception -of the aim of science. Whatever moral qualities -are exacted of the scientist, such as accuracy or intellectual -veracity, self-abnegation, scorn of mere vulgar -pecuniary reward or celebrity, and at least a provisional -disregard of the practical benefits to be derived by mankind -from scientific discovery—all these fine traits of -character are prized as subordinate to the strictly scientific -object. The ethical character of the man himself is -not regarded as the supreme end to be fostered by his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">264</span> -scientific occupation, but as instrumental to his occupation -the aims of which are said to be purely <em>impersonal</em>.</p> - -<p>There is thus a scientific conception of the aim of science; -on the other hand, there is an ethical conception -of it. The former points in the direction of the indefinite -extension of knowledge which never embraces a totality -of the knowable, never reaches a limit, even in -idea. The latter points to the <em>infinite</em>, not to the <em>indefinite</em>, -sets up an ideal of the infinite as the goal, takes the -man out of the flux, centralizes his individuality into a -personality by relating him to the infinite, not as the mere -spectator and scribe of nature, but through his action or -other potential spiritual beings like himself.</p> - -<p>The scientist, in brief, like every one else, becomes a -personality by eliciting the potential spiritual nature in -other human beings. But be it noted that he is to perform -this task <em>as a scientist</em>. His particular occupation -is to be the means of producing a particular spiritual -result in others as well as in himself, and by this -means his occupation is to be converted into a vocation.</p> - -<p>How? Through partial success and frustration. -Partial success in the case of a scientist means for one -thing, increased mental grasp, the power to hold before -the mind ever more and more complex relations,—a -faculty supremely serviceable in mastering complexities -of relation in the economic, in the political -spheres, in the sphere of international intercourse, in -the sphere of the social relations in general, and wherever -the ethical principle has to be applied. The scientific -occupation trains powers which are to be exercised -so as to illuminate obscurities in the ethical field.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">265</span></p> - -<p>The frustration which the scientist meets with when -he reflects in thoroughgoing fashion on the business he -has in hand is the inevitable realization that <i lang="de">Alles -Vergängliche ist nur ein Gleichniss</i>, that the sphere of -the finite in which he labors, though capable of indefinite -extension, is forever incapable of being rounded out to -a true infinity, and hence that the complete unification -of the manifold (in which alone the reality-producing -functions of the mind can find repose and ultimate satisfaction), -can never be carried out in the manifold of -juxtaposition and sequence with which, as a physical -scientist, he deals. He will thus be led to face in -thought the limits of what is finitely attainable, not only -by him as an individual scientist, but by physical science -in general. And in proportion as his spiritual nature -is energetic it will then assert itself all the more resiliently -after this defeat, and turn in a new direction, and -towards another kind of truth, the truth which is discovered -in the realm of <em>will</em>, in the sphere of intercourse -with fellow human beings. The propædeutic result of -science with respect to ethical personality is the training -of the more complex mental faculties. The positive -result following the frustration is the new turn toward -the spiritual, the escape from the spell wherewith -the physical world enchains the mind, the dissipating of -the widespread illusion that the truths of physical science -are the only kind of truth, the more determined setting -of the face towards a different kind of truth. The scientist, -in brief, is to travel along the paths of the finite -in order to arrive and stand at the gate of the infinite.</p> - -<p>I have said that the boon of personality is gained in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">266</span> -intercourse with others, through the influence which we -exert on others. How does the scientist as a scientist -spiritually affect others? The great specific service, as -I have just said, which he is to render is to destroy the -illusion that the material world is a finality. And it is -just he, the scientist, who works most successfully in the -field of physical truth who must assist the rest of us in -escaping from the spell to which we are all subject. He -is the one, he who more than others succeeds in unifying -the manifold of juxtaposition and sequence, to whom we -look to liberate others as well as himself from the deceptive -belief that the reality-producing functions of the human -mind can be satisfied in the temporal and spatial -manifold. Not from the tyro, not from the purveyor of -“popular science” can we hope to learn the profoundest -lessons as to the incapacity of physical nature to appease -the spirit of man. It is from the familiar friend of nature, -from one more deeply read than we are in her secrets, -that we are to obtain this great instruction, to receive -this boon.</p> - -<p>Ethics is a science of reactions. Each vocation reacts -upon the others. The general reaction of science I -have mentioned. In addition the work of the scientist -reacts upon agriculture, industry, etc. The industrial -arts, as has been stated, are to be regarded as the executive -auxiliaries of science, receiving from it the knowledge -of the uniformities of nature, and in turn setting -for science new problems by attention to which scientific -theory is advanced.</p> - -<p>The relations of science to art also need to be considered -at greater length than is possible here. I have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">267</span> -in mind inquiries into the scientific basis of music like -those of Helmholtz, the scientific theory of color and the -like, and also detailed studies of the return gift which -art confers on science, especially the value to the scientist -of that cultivation of the imagination which is gained by -the contemplation and study of works of art. There are -different kinds of imagination: the purely artistic, the -scientific, the mechanical imagination, the ethical imagination. -The function of the imagination in advancing -science has been discussed by Tyndall and others, but the -subject is far indeed from being exhausted.</p> - -<p>The scientist then may be defined as one who stands -in reciprocal relations to all other departments of human -interest and activity, who gives to each from his -specific standpoint as a scientist, and receives from each, -from religion,<a id="FNanchor_75_75" href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> from art, from the practical vocations, -etc. Ideally speaking, every man participates in all -the principal interests and activities of the human mind. -Every man is something of an artist, something of a -practical or executive worker, scientist, religious being. -But in each individual the different interests are colored -by his special pursuit, and the influence he wields in return -is modified in the same fashion.<a id="FNanchor_76_76" href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">76</a></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">268</span></p> - -<p>There are three great tasks that occupy human life:</p> - -<p>1. To build our finite world (science and its adjuncts).</p> - -<p>2. To create in the finite the semblance of the infinite, -or spiritual relation (art).</p> - -<p>3. To strive to realize the spiritual relation in human -intercourse (ethics and religion).</p> - -<p>This discussion of science affords me the opportunity -to give an exact definition of the word “instrumental” -as I use it. And the word “instrumental” is -of decisive importance as to the entire ethical conception -of life. Instrumental in what sense? The finite ends -of man are to be the means used in the pursuit of the -infinite end. But in what manner are they to be the -means? To be a <em>cheerful world-builder</em>, to take an active -and whole-hearted interest in the improvement of -material conditions, in political reforms, in the embellishment -of earthly life—how is it possible to do this and -at the same time keep the spiritual end in view as the -supreme end?</p> - -<p>Christianity in its pristine form,<a id="FNanchor_77_77" href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> abandons the task -in dismay. Instead of seeking action in the finite world -as a means, it counsels renunciation and withdrawal. -Modern social reform movements, on the other hand, -are devoted to finite ends, more or less ignoring the -spiritual. How is it possible to work in the world, in -the finite sphere, for an end beyond the finite? The answer, -as I have shown in the case of science (and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">269</span> -same applies to all other vocations), is to be found in -the words “partial success and frustration.” The finite, -lesser ends, are means to the highest end in so far as we -are partially able to embody the spiritual relation in the -finite world, and in so far as the inevitable defeat of -our effort to do so serves to implant in us the conviction -of the reality of the infinite ethical ideal.</p> - -<p>The points contained in this chapter may be briefly -summarized as follows:</p> - -<p>What is the relation of science to the ethical end? -We are seeking to link up the world to spirit. Along -what line can the connection be marked out in the case of -science? Science is instrumental in founding more securely -the empirical basis of self-respect, inasmuch as -it gives to man to a certain extent a sense of mastery over -nature. With the help of science he feels himself no -longer the helpless sport of nature’s forces.</p> - -<p>The training in complex thinking afforded by science -is favorable to the ethical reformer. Science also incidentally -encourages the virtues of veracity, and the -like.</p> - -<p>Knowledge for knowledge’s sake cannot be the final -end of the pursuit of science, since the world of space -and time with which science deals is not only not as -yet rationalized but is not ultimately rationalizable.</p> - -<p>While in all the respects just mentioned the pursuit -of science is indirectly instrumental to the spiritual end—instrumental -to the instrument—it is directly instrumental -to it in so far as, at the hand of the supreme -scientist, man is conducted through the finite as far as -the gate of the infinite.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">270</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_IV-4">CHAPTER IV<br /> - -<small>THE PRACTICAL VOCATIONS</small></h3> - - -<p>Medicine is the executive of the science of physiology, -and the others, on which it depends. The physician -has a certain work to do, a certain need to satisfy—the -need of health, the alleviation of pain. In endeavoring -to satisfy this need he uses the sciences that underlie -his vocation and in turn promotes those sciences.</p> - -<p>On the lower levels of agriculture and the industrial -arts the same holds true. Our physical necessities vociferously -demand satisfaction. They cannot wait. Men -must have food or they perish. The agriculturist supplies -the food they need. But the spiritual view of life -declares that man, <em>while</em> engaged in satisfying his material -wants, shall in so doing assert his spiritual nature. -He is to hammer out his personality on the anvil of his -empirical necessities. Even as human beings do not partake -of food like animals, but indicate by the manner in -which they take it the superior worth of the being who -is dependent on food, so the agriculturist who raises the -food should testify to his spiritual character. He does -so in part at least by his reaction on the sciences which -he applies, biology, chemistry, etc. The same holds -good of the industrial occupations. The work a man -does should be the means of promoting the development -of his mental and æsthetic nature, and of his will. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">271</span> -mental and æsthetic development is acquired by mastering -and reacting on the science and the art that enter -into the trade. The development of the will, the most -important of all, depends on the organic relations of the -industrial workers among themselves and to their chiefs.</p> - -<p>This raises the problem of the right organization of -“industrial vocationalists” from the ethical point of -view, and the following questions present themselves: -Shall the present division into the two hostile camps of -trade-unionists and employers continue? Or is it to be -regarded as a makeshift, perhaps necessary during the -present period of transition, but certainly untenable in -the long run? Is the uniform arrangement contemplated -by Socialism desirable, the government of every -industry and indeed of every vocation by the representatives -of the community as a whole? Shall what is -called coöperation be adopted, that is, the formation of -independent groups of workers on the voluntary principle, -associated for the purpose of equably dividing the -profits?</p> - -<p>The three alternatives mentioned may be examined -from various points of view. Here we consider them -from the ethical point of view. Assuming that the -ethical end of life is to be supreme, what kind of industrial -re-organization of society will be most in harmony -with it? All three plans are open to the ethical objection -that they concentrate attention on the material gain -to be derived from the industry instead of on the specific -service which those who follow the industry as a vocation -are to render. Collective bargaining between -unions and employers is after all just bargaining. So<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">272</span>cialism -differs from trade-unionism not in the object -so much as in the means. Instead of securing for the -workers a larger share it would secure for them at once -an approximately equal share. Coöperation aims at -the same result as Socialism by voluntary association instead -of by collective compulsion.</p> - -<p>None of the three plans is ethically satisfying, and a -fourth arrangement should be contemplated. Its characteristics -are the following:</p> - -<p>1. The idea of service to be pre-eminent instead of -the gain, the wage or salary to be apportioned as the -means of sustaining the worker in the best possible performance -of the service.</p> - -<p>2. The work done by the workers to be the means of -developing them mentally, æsthetically and volitionally, -the educational features therefore to be pre-eminent.</p> - -<p>3. The industrial group to be transformed into a social -sub-organism (in the ethical sense a sub-organ of -the larger organism of the nation). By this is meant -that the employers cease to be employers and become -functionaries, while each worker in his place and in his -degree likewise becomes a functionary. A common -social service group will thus be formed embracing the -chiefs and the humbler workers. The chiefs will be the -executive and administrative functionaries, and will be -safeguarded in the due discharge of their proper functions. -The workers will not attempt to wrest from their -chiefs as they do at present the directive functions which -properly belong to the latter (subject, however, to due -control). To each of the lesser functionaries in turn<span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">273</span> -will be assigned a sphere within which a relative independence -would be his.</p> - -<p>The industry as a whole will be an <em>organ</em> of the <i lang="la">corpus -sociale</i>, and this its character will be expressed in its -government. The workers, not required to render implicit -obedience to rules imposed upon them by masters -and superintendents, will have a voice in the legislation -of the industry, in framing the policy of the industry, -in electing the chiefs, and in this way the development -of the will, upon which I lay the greatest stress, will -be attained. The will of the worker, at present fettered, -will be liberated by the opportunity given it to -become enlightened and effectual.</p> - -<p>I am not here describing a scheme which is to be immediately -launched in its completeness. I am illustrating -the ethical principle as I see it as applied to this -particular vocation. I am endeavoring to show how an -occupation can be changed into a vocation. The constitutional -government of industries would be an intermediate -stage between the present autocratic form, in -which more or less absolute power is vested in the employer, -and that organic constitution of industry which -is ethically desirable.</p> - -<p>Thus far the following plans have been before the -minds of social reformers:</p> - -<p>A. Competition, or life and death struggle.</p> - -<p>B. Modified competition, or raising the plane of competition, -as it is called, that is, doing away with the more -ferocious and unscrupulous methods of competition.</p> - -<p>C. Socialism.</p> - -<p>D. Coöperation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">274</span></p> - -<p>I propose to add (E) organization in the ethical sense. -The word “organization” is deplorably misused at present. -It is commonly employed as a synonym for aggregation, -which is the very reverse of organization. Thus -“organized labor” really means aggregate labor, labor -acting <i>en masse</i>.</p> - -<p>A further remark on the difference between industrial -vocationalism as outlined and Socialism may be of -use in clarifying the main idea. The relative independence -of the social sub-organism is the salient point. -This kind of independence is based on the general conception -underlying my entire ethical philosophy, that -the ethical quality resides in uniqueness in distinctiveness, -that ethical progress consists in driving towards -individualization in the sense of personalization. This as -opposed to those philosophies of life that see the ethical -quality in uniformity. Socialism is on the side of uniformity. -It is indeed an extreme expression of it. If -sometimes it is urged that the relative independence of -the vocational groups might be recognized in the socialistic -state, the answer is that the tendency would be in -the opposite direction. And besides, the all-important -question is to what end the relative independence is to -be used. Under socialism it would be used for the purpose -of increasing the quantity of valuable products at -the disposal of the community as a whole. From the -ethical point of view, the independence of the organic -group would be used to insure reciprocal relations, and -by means of these the development mentally, æsthetically -and volitionally of <em>the producers</em>. The distinction cer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">275</span>tainly -is clear enough to its members, whichever way -the reader may incline.<a id="FNanchor_78_78" href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">78</a></p> - - -<h4><i>The Historical Sciences</i></h4> - -<p>I refer now briefly to historical science. The ethical -aim of history and its adjunct sciences is to redeem -from oblivion as far as is possible the past of the human -race, its documents, its monuments, the knowledge of -its political adventures, its customs, laws and institutions, -its religious beliefs. In view of the lacunae in -our knowledge a complete revival of the past is impossible. -We must therefore principally seek to understand -the ruling ideas that have governed our ancestors, -in the family, in the state, etc. The task of the -historian is to present these ideas as seen in the light of -their consequences, so as to help us revalue them from -the point of view of present experience and insight. The -historian will thus enable us to carry over from the past -what is truly valuable, for the business we have in hand.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">276</span></p> -<p>There is just now a strong reaction against the kind -of historical science which deals principally with wars -and the actions of princes or of great leaders. Detailed -attention is being given to the more obscure life of the -people. But it must be remembered that mere penetration -into the lower strata of bygone societies, the mere -heaping up of facts concerning mass movements, is as -unprofitable as the more picturesque recitals with which -works on history were formerly adorned. The mass -movements and <em>the ideas</em> which gave rise to them should -be set clear as far as possible; but without the evaluation -and the revaluation, or the ethical appraisement, the -voluminous knowledge of details is merely stupefying, -and leaves us as much at sea as ever.<a id="FNanchor_79_79" href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">79</a></p> - -<p>Many men have read many books on history, and -filled their minds with information on subjects like the -Protestant Reformation or the French Revolution, -without being in the least wiser themselves, or more -fitted to enlighten others in respect to the religious and -ethical problems which were involved in these great -movements, and which still touch us so closely today. -As to the ordinary high school or college student, what -as a rule does he carry away from his study of past “history”?</p> -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">277</span></p> - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_V-4">CHAPTER V<br /> - -<small>THE VOCATION OF THE ARTIST: OUTLINE OF A -THEORY OF THE RELATION OF ART TO ETHICS</small></h3> - - -<p>The three great directions of effort are: to work in -the finite; to create in the finite the semblance of the infinite; -to realize through effort the reality of the infinite. -The vocation of the artist is to create the semblance -of the spiritual relation between the parts of an -empirical object. The object may be a vase or a lamp; -it may be a human figure, it may be a group of <i lang="la">dramatis -personae</i>. By introducing into the discussion of art -the idea that a semblance of the spiritual relation is to -be produced by the artist, we get rid at the outset of -the barren formula of unity in variety.</p> - -<p>Let me endeavor to elucidate the main ideas that flow -from this definition of the spiritual aim of art.</p> - -<p>1. The two points to be discussed are: What is -meant by semblance? and What is meant by the quasi-spiritual -relation as subsisting between the parts of a -work of Art?</p> - -<p>First, then, there is the semblance of <em>totality</em>. The -spiritual relation is characterized by the totality of the -parts related. That totality is realized only in the universal -manifold. But a semblance of totality is furnished -in the case of colors by the circumstance that the -chromatic scale is cut off at the bottom and top in consequence -of our inability to perceive the colors below and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">278</span> -above; the musical scale likewise presents a quasi-totality, -and the human figure in its contours presents a thing -cut off from its surroundings, and in so far relatively -complete in itself.</p> - -<p>Because the spiritual relation involves the idea of the -perfect totality, a relative totality, due to the accidental -limitations of our sensory organs and power of attention, -may become a semblance of the spiritual totality. I say, -<em>may become</em>. A certain relation must be established between -the parts of the relative totality in order that the -semblance shall result.</p> - -<p>One thing is clear; the subject of the work of art -must possess relative completeness, and be capable of -being contemplated as circumscribed and separated off. -It must stand out like a tree, or like an oasis encircled -by the desert, or like an island. The subject of art cannot -be a mere length of cloth cut off from the fabric -of things as they reel unceasingly from the loom of -time—the mistake of Realism.</p> - -<p>The point, emphasized in our third Book, namely, -that an empirical substratum is to be spiritualized, and -that ethics consists in spiritualizing this physical and -psychical substratum, applies to art, but with the difference, -that in the case of art the physical or psychical -substratum cannot be spiritualized, but is to be made to -take on the semblance of spirituality.</p> - -<p>Now what is meant by this kind of transformation? -I can perhaps explain by using as an illustration the -color scheme of a picture. The transformation appears -in the difference between the colors on the palette and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">279</span> -the colors on the canvas. The colors on the palette represent -the empirical substratum, the natural colors; the -colors seen on the canvas show the same natural tints -after they have taken on a new or second nature.</p> - -<p>The second nature,—in what does it consist? In the -circumstance that each color on the canvas, by its juxtaposition -and its relation to the rest, is altered in tone -and value, and that all the rest are altered by it. The -spiritual relation is a give and take relation actually -carried out. The semblance produced in art is the illusive -appearance of such a relation as seen by the beholder.</p> - -<p>We have thus set down two points—the apparent -totality, and the apparent give and take relation between -the parts (the second nature assumed by the -parts, the illusory transformation of the substratum).</p> - -<p>A third point involved in the second is that each part -of a work of art shall remain invincibly individualized, -despite the closeness of the relation which connects it -with the rest. The individual member of a work of art -may never be submerged in the whole, may never merely -convey the abstract idea of unity amid variation. The -“unity in variety” formula is not only empty but misleading, -based on the same misconception which we have -noted in dealing with Kant and with the Pantheists. -The unity of a work of art consists in the reciprocal effect -produced by the members on each other. Hence -the more accentuated, the more distinctive the members -are, always provided that the reciprocal relation is maintained, -the more artistically satisfying will be the re<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">280</span>sult. -In this manner the work of art will be true to its -essential character as a semblance of the spiritual relation.</p> - -<p>I have thus far spoken of the form. In regard to -content I have only remarked that it must be capable -of relative detachment. It must also be capable of interior -articulation. The idea that an empirical substratum -is to be transformed will here be found helpful in determining -what is and what is not a fit subject for art. -A vase or a pitcher is a utensil. As such it is a detached -thing. Is it capable of articulation <em>without destroying</em> -its utility? If it is, as the beautiful vases show, -it is a fit subject for art to treat. The embellishment -of utensils, of tables, chairs, etc., that is to say, the giving -of artistic form to objects with which we bodily -come into contact, is a means of casting the appearance -of the spiritual relation over these objects, and -thus in a fine sense making them congenial to ourselves -as spiritual personalities. This justifies the time spent -by artist artisans on their handiwork, and also justifies -our availing ourselves of their products (provided that -the store set by these symbolic reminders of the spiritual -relation do not divert us from the main business of life, -which is to attempt to <em>realize</em> that relation in human -intercourse). The war song sung by a primitive tribe -is a detachable, empirical thing, and possesses natural -articulation. It has its slow beginning, its gradual rise, -its paroxysmic culminations, its wild ecstasy, its final -dying down.</p> - -<p>The love passion expressed in lyric form has for its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">281</span> -basis the natural ups and downs, dejections and transports -characteristic of that passion.</p> - -<p>The theme of a tragedy, as Aristotle says, must have -a beginning, a middle, and an end. Repetition (always -with a difference), contrast, apparent triumph, defeat, -and somehow a triumph in defeat—whatever may be -the elements with which the tragic poet deals, the crude -substance of them is furnished by the theme itself. And -the result becomes artistic when the articulation is such -that each part becomes a member of an organized whole, -that is, when each part exchanges its first nature for the -second nature mentioned above in connection with painting.<a id="FNanchor_80_80" href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">80</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">282</span></p> -<p>The next point of interest to consider is whether -beauty is to be regarded as the invariable object of art. -Relative detachment and susceptibility to articulation in -the manner described are indispensable. But if tragedy -is to be included, beauty cannot be the exclusive -object. Lear, on the heath, the harpy daughters, Lear and -Cordelia perishing together, are not beautiful objects. -The task of the artist is to produce the semblance of the -spiritual relation in any material which is capable of -bearing that imprint. In the great tragedies we are -lifted into an exalted mood by the form of the work even -though the subject treated evokes horror—perhaps because -of the very contrast between the form and the subject-matter. -Beauty, on the other hand, is produced -when both subject-matter and form are satisfying to our -needs or aspirations. A vase is beautiful when perfectly -adapted to its use and at the same time perfect in form. -For this reason any kind of embellishment, for instance, -in architecture not structurally in place is offensive, -while on the other hand mere structural utility without -the formal touch is mechanical. It is not true that utility -itself inevitably flowers into beauty.</p> - -<p>It should be added, however, that the artistic expression -even of unsatisfied desires may come within the -scope of beauty. The “Lycidas” is beautiful, Wordsworth’s -“Laodamia” is beautiful, the Gothic form of -architecture is beautiful, and so is Keats’ “Ode to the -Nightingale,” and Shelley’s “Ode to the West Wind.” -In such productions the adequate expression of the need -itself affords relief and induces tranquillity. The mind -ceases to strive toward a beyond longed for, and rests -tranquillized in the longing itself. That it should thus -aspire and long, in consequence of its higher nature, and -the assurance of the existence of this higher nature, as -evidenced by the longing, is peace-giving.</p> - -<p>But it is hardly possible to discuss even in the most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">283</span> -cursory manner the subject matter or content of a work -of art without drawing attention to the ideals which at -various times have been expressed in art, and to the -function of art in respect to these ideals. For here the -<em>grandeur</em> of the great art as connected with the ultimate -aim and purpose of life appears.</p> - -<p>Art in its fictions has endeavored to present to men -the solution of the problem of life, the things most worth -striving for. The ideals, of course, have varied. In -the Greek epic the heroes contend around the walls of -wind-swept Ilion. They themselves are wind-swept apparitions. -Life is short; presently they too will pass -out of sight, yet their names and deeds will live after -them. Fate is inscrutable. There is no ulterior meaning -in things. To glitter for a time in shining armor, -and then to be remembered in the song of the rhapsodists -is alone worth while. It is this ideal of life that -Homer records.</p> - -<p>The romantic ideal of feudalism is reflected in the -poems of chivalry. The ideal of the English Renascence -is found in Shakespeare. The religious ideals are expressed -in the Hindu temples, in the Parthenon, in the -mediæval cathedrals, and in the poems of Dante and -Milton. The ideals of the oriental monarchs are visibly -embodied in the Assyrian and Babylonian palaces; the -ideal of the merchant class in the stones of Venice, in -the architecture of the German and Flemish cities, etc. -The plastic arts especially owe their rise and prosperity -to the princely and religious ideals—to the demand for -temples, churches and palaces suitable for monarchs or -merchant princes to dwell and worship in. The aim of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">284</span> -the artificer is to furnish a splendid setting for princes -and divinities.</p> - -<p>Mankind at different periods is in labor to give birth -to ideals representing the purpose for which man -exists, or the things that make life worth while, and art -<em>assists in bringing to the birth these ideals</em>. It seeks to -express them, and in the effort to do so it helps to develop -and clarify them. This, and not merely to give -pleasure, is its <em>grand</em> function.</p> - -<p>In an age like the present, in which a new ideal is in -the early stages of formation, art is likely to become, -as in fact it has become, uncertain of its function, and -hence apt to lose its direction, either turning back to the -servile reproduction of past art forms, or seeking to -achieve progress in the perfection of technical detail, or -in the ways of subjective impressionism.<a id="FNanchor_81_81" href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">81</a></p> - -<p>The efforts of a serious artist today, in so far as he -undertakes to assist in bringing to the birth a new ideal -by his endeavor to express it, must necessarily be tentative, -if not crude. But such as they are their worth, -if wholly sincere, can hardly be overestimated.</p> - -<p>In the vocation of the artist, as everywhere, the three-fold -reverence is the capital point. Reverence for the -great masters, as shown not in slavishly copying them, -but in understanding the qualities that made them great, -and in delivering from past art the things that are to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">285</span> -reincorporated and to live on; reverence for those who -in different fields are intent on the problem of art today—all -this to prepare the way for future artists, for -the greater art that is to come.</p> - -<p>The relation of art to ethics, or to the spiritual life, is -now sufficiently clear. In general it is to produce the -semblance of the spiritual relation, and thereby to rejuvenate -the world’s workers, to give them the joy of -relative perfection, and thus to stimulate them to persevere -in the real business of life, which is to approximate -toward actual perfection. The specific task of the -artist <em>at its height</em> is to enshrine in his creation the ideals -of the age with respect to the ultimate purpose of human -existence, and in the endeavor so to incorporate them as -to assist in defining them.</p> - -<p>The dangers of pre-occupation with art, however, -must not be passed over. Just because it creates the -illusion of perfection it is apt to encourage the indolence -of our nature, which ever prefers to content itself with -illusion, and to desist from effort. It is on this account -that periods in which art greatly flourishes are apt to -lead to the halting of progress and eventually to decay. -A second danger is that the artist, in applying the ideal -of present perfection, is in danger of selfishly subordinating -other persons to himself (cf. Goethe as a notable -example), or of setting up a special kind of morality for -artists.<a id="FNanchor_82_82" href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">82</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">286</span></p> -<p>In a full account of the matter, the different so-called -fine arts should be specifically treated from the point of -view of this chapter. The particular contribution of -each to the general purpose of art should be noted, the -distinctions marked between painting, sculpture, poetry, -etc., and in each case the kind of art which is favorable -to the spiritual development of man be discriminated -from that which is hostile to it. Plato attempted to do -this in the case of music.</p> - -<p>To summarize: What has been attempted in this -chapter is a theory not of art but of the relation of art -to ethics. The dominating thought is this: in a work -of art each line, color, sound, word, must be irreplaceable, -and on that account convincing. Each member -must be indispensable in its place and the connection -with the rest inevitable. Substitute for line, color, -sound, etc., a life—an ethical being,—conceive the members -to be not a few but in number infinite, and you have -the spiritual ideal, which is the reality whereof the art -work is a semblance. This is the relation of art to ethics—the -quality which we call in art “convincing,” in ethics -we call “worth.”</p> - -<blockquote> -<h4>NOTES</h4> - -<p>As one example architecture may be mentioned. Architecture -furnishes <em>the envelope for the social life</em>, the dwelling, the nest -of the family, the workshops that house the vocational life, the -public buildings that provide a habitation for the political life, -the temples, the churches that enshrine the religious life. The -relation of the enshrining dwelling to the inner social life should -be the same as that of the body to the soul in sculpture. That -which goes on within should be significantly indicated exter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">287</span>nally. -The progress of architecture will depend on its holding -fast to this idea, and changing the outside as the inner life -changes. Thus, we have, or are beginning to have, a conception -of the family very different from that which prevailed at -the time when the princely mansions of the Renaissance were -built. To reproduce these princely mansions because they -beautifully expressed the princely idea is a mistake. To provide -a proper dwelling-place for the modern family the architect -should clearly apprehend what functions go on in the -family, what the distribution of functions should be, and the -rank to be assigned to the different functions. There is to be, -for instance, in addition to the ordinary requirements, provision -for separate study rooms, places of retirement, refuges of -intellectual solitude for the adult members; a playroom for -children, a place of reunion for the household religion. The -formation of a number of families into a larger group (<i lang="la">vid. -supra</i>) would help in the solution of this problem.</p> - -<p>In like manner the conception of what a religious society -should be is changing. The church-building, the Mosque, the -Synagogue, certainly no longer declare the spirit and the purpose -that animate the new religious fellowships that are forming -among us today. The progress of architecture will thus -depend, not on the out of hand invention of new styles, but on a -thorough understanding of <em>the new kind of life which is to be -domiciled within buildings</em>, accepting this as the empirical substratum, -and articulating it in accordance with the spiritual relation -of give and take between the parts; and the architect will -assist in clarifying the ideal of the new kind of life that is to be -lived within the buildings by endeavoring to give it outward -expression.</p> - -<p>One more remark: The limitations opposed to the artist, for -instance to the sculptor, by the material in which he works, are -a helpful illustration of one of the most important ethical -truths. The material is found to be intractable to the idea. -The hardness of the stone, the veins that run through the marble, -the unpropitious qualities of the wood, are so many hin<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">288</span>drances -to execution. The value of these hindrances is that -they compel the artist to achieve a more definite grasp of the -ideal itself. Before the attempt to carry it out into stone, the -idea is apt to be vague in the mind of the artist. The same is -true of every ideal conception—that of the author before he -writes a book, that of the social reformer before he attempts -to carry his scheme into practice. And it applies no less to the -ethical ideal of life in general. The empirical analogue or substratum -is ductile to a certain degree, else we could never -achieve even partial success. But it is also hostile and mutinous -in many ways, and the fact that it is so compels us to adapt -our ideal to existing empirical requirements, and to make it -more explicit in the process of adapting it.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">289</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_VI-4">CHAPTER VI<br /> - -<small>EDUCATIONAL VOCATIONS, OR VOCATIONS CONNECTED -WITH THE STATE</small></h3> - - -<p>Every vocation on its ethical side is educational. The -reason for accentuating the educational aspect of the vocations -connected with the state is that this educational -significance is generally overlooked. The vocations referred -to are those of the lawyer, the judge, the statesman, -the teacher in the narrower sense of the word (the -teacher in schools and universities).</p> - - -<h4><i>The Vocation of the Lawyer</i></h4> - -<p>Vocation, as I use the term, invariably means related -to the spiritual end of life. A profession or occupation -becomes a vocation when he who follows it seeks to respond -to the <em>call</em> of the latent spiritual possibilities in his -fellowmen. If this be not the common definition of calling -or vocation, yet I think it will bear scrutiny. It is -the vocation of the lawyer to be the <em>teacher of justice</em> -to his clients,—I mean of justice in so far as it is already -embodied in law,—and at the same time to promote -a desire for and a preliminary understanding of -the justice which is not yet embodied in law.</p> - -<p>The lawyer is commonly regarded as the learned <i lang="la">alter -ego</i> of his client. The lawyer is the client as he would<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">290</span> -be if he were versed in the law, and skilled to employ -it in his interest. The client is supposed to be an egotist, -intent solely on securing his advantage to the fullest -extent possible under the existing system of social -regulations. The lawyer is his expert substitute. The -judge appears on the scene as the impartial representative -of the law.</p> - -<p>From the vocational point of view the lawyer is an -assistant to the judge, the agent not so much of his -client as of justice. He is as much interested in the -just issue of the suit as is his legal opponent. His educational -function is to teach his client to take the same -point of view. Another point, no less important, is the -following: Law is a system of general rules, at best a -rude social mechanics. And even as such it is constantly -deflected from its ostensible purpose by selfishness and -prejudice. The discriminations against women, the conspiracy -laws against combinations of laborers, the laws -enacted in the interests of landed aristocracies, are ample -evidence in point. In every country the law as it stands -is still largely infected with unfair discriminations, and -it is the special duty of those who follow the legal vocation -to open the eyes of their clients and of the public -to these defects and to suggest remedies.</p> - -<p>Every vocation has its special vice, that is, a kind -of behavior the very opposite of that prescribed by the -particular ethical function with which it is charged. The -vice of the lawyer is <em>blind</em> conservatism (unless he is at -the same time progressive and conservative he fails to -fulfil his ethical function).</p> - -<p>The judge, too, is a teacher, especially in criminal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">291</span> -cases. The voice of the judge, when he pronounces sentence -on a criminal, should reverberate throughout the -whole of society, awakening all men to the fact that society -as such shares the guilt.</p> - - -<p><i>The Vocation of the Statesman</i></p> - -<p>What I have to say on this subject will find its proper -setting in the next chapter. In general, it is the vocation -of the statesman to teach the citizens a sublime conception -of the state. He is neither to be the obedient -tool of the mass—the docile “public servant” in that -sense—nor yet to impose his arbitrary will upon the -people, consulting only his own genius. The one type -is seen in the average American politician, who is or affects -to be a mere instrument executing the public will; -the other type is exemplified by the supermen statesmen -of ancient and modern times. The ethically-minded -statesman is to evoke the spiritual conception of -the State in the minds of his constituents, and in the -process of doing so to become more essentially a citizen -himself.</p> - - -<h4><i>The Vocation of the Educator</i></h4> - -<p>It was unavoidable to discuss the vocations and their -aims before considering the school, college and university; -for these institutions are orientated towards the -vocations, are preparatory to the latter, and the true aim -of school and university cannot possibly be defined unless -the vocational outlook be first distinctly spread before -our eyes.</p> - -<p>In dealing with the vocation of the teacher, I shall<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">292</span> -necessarily be led to define the purpose of the social institution -in which he labors and I shall for the sake of -brevity use the word school to designate the social organs -of education, which cover the period of childhood, adolescence -and the beginning of manhood and womanhood.</p> - -<p>The school is like the hundred-gated Thebes. It leads -out into a hundred vocational avenues. But note the following: -its aim is far greater than merely to prepare the -student for that future vocation to which he is best -suited. It should no less supply the incentive for creating -new vocations, and for changing what are at present -still occupations into vocations. The school searches out -the individuality of its pupils. It undertakes to differentiate -and to personalize individualities. But when it -has done its part, it sends the pupils into a world where -little account is taken of the finer differences of aptitude, -where occupations predominate and vocations are few, -and where most things, ethically speaking, are still in -the rough. The school cannot indeed transform society -by merely raising its indignant voice and asking society -to pay heed to the finer things which it has fostered, and -which often are subsequently crushed. But it can at -least contribute to the vocational evolution of society by -reiterating its unsatisfied demands.</p> - -<p>Taking the three-fold reverence for my guide, I lay it -down in the first place that the school is an organ of -tradition. True conservatism has its place in the school. -In it are preserved the knowledges and the skills of the -past. The heir of today comes to his own by appropriating -the products of past thinking and past labor, -and the school superintends the process of appro<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">293</span>priation -and assimilation. At the same time it sifts in -tradition what is clean from what is unclean, what is -true from what is false, what is usable from what is dead. -Reverence is shown in this very sifting process. To revere -the past is to make the past live again; but only -what is vital can go on living.</p> - -<p>The teaching should be reverential in spirit. The -business spirit, the drive towards mere efficiency, cannot -in the long run satisfy. Efficiency as commonly understood -has in view the utilities of the moment. It merely -exploits the past for the sake of present interests, and -as a rule is unmindful of the future. Industrial efficiency, -in particular, reverses the right ethical relation -between work and personality; instead of work being -so contrived as to liberate personality, it is mechanized -so as to sacrifice personality.</p> - -<p>The teacher should be reverent towards the great masters -of his own craft, his own art. No one is reverenced -by others who does not himself habitually revere someone. -The teachers should be acquainted at first hand -with the master educators, such as Plato, Comenius, -Pestalozzi and the others.</p> - -<p>I pass on to speak of the second type of reverence. -This involves cordial reciprocally stimulating relations -between the members of the teaching staff. It is generally -agreed that no other factor counts for more in -shaping the character of the young than personal influence. -The best personal influence, however, is not -unilateral, like that which radiates from a single teacher -upon his class. The best is that which proceeds from -cross-relations between a number of teachers. Just as in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">294</span> -the home it is not the father singly, nor the mother -singly, but the reciprocal relations between the two that -touch child life to finer issues and create a spiritual atmosphere -in the learner, so also in the school the best -spirit is created by the relations of reciprocal furtherance -between the teachers, each doing his work in such a -way as to make easier and more successful the work of -his colleagues, with a strong sense of partnership in the -common work of man-building.</p> - -<p>The teachers as an organized body should also relate -themselves to an organized body of parents. Home and -school should not merely coöperate but interpenetrate. -The interests and efforts of both are centered on the -same young lives. The home is supremely concerned -in what goes on in the school, and the school in the kind -of influence that prevails in the home. An organized -conference of parents is in a position to render signal -service to a school by appraising its ideals, by keeping -tally on the extent to which acknowledged standards are -carried out, and by joining in the unceasing endeavor to -advance the standards. Schools must be backed by the -interest and appreciation of the community. Parents -whose children are pupils of a school are for that particular -school the best representatives of the community.</p> - -<p>The school is to prepare its charges, not only for -vocational life, but for citizenship. Teachers must be -good citizens. They cannot give what they do not possess. -They must keep in living contact with the civic -and social movements of the time.</p> - -<p>The first and second types are instrumental to the -third. Now here, if anywhere, a new departure in edu<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">295</span>cational -philosophy is called for. For when we discuss -this third kind of reverence, the question of all questions -is raised: To what end do we educate? What is to -be the aim and outcome of all our effort? And our answer -to this question will depend on our philosophy, and -if our philosophy is ethical our answer must be distinctively -ethical. Froebel was a pantheist, and his pantheism -colored his conception of the educational end. -Pestalozzi was an eighteenth century humanitarian. -Many modern writers on education are biological evolutionists. -Others even expressly disclaim any general -outlook, and appear to be exclusively interested in perfecting -the technique of schoolmastering. Reverence of -the third type is reverence for the undeveloped human -being,—for the new generation, for our successors. -What is it that we are to revere in a child? Its spiritual -possibilities, its latent personality. To bring to birth its -personality is the supreme educational end. We show -our reverence for the child in the effort to personalize it. -Let us consider in brief some of the practical consequences -of this idea.</p> - -<p>To personalize the individual the first step is to discover -the empirical substratum in his nature. There is -ever an empirical substratum subject to ethical transformations. -The empirical substratum of personality is -individuality! Individuality manifests itself in a leading -interest of some kind, a predominant bias which indicates -the thing which the individual is fit to be and -do. To discover the bent or bias is the first step, and -the difficulties in the way of taking even this first step -are admittedly great. Children and even adolescents<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">296</span> -often show no marked intellectual preferences whatever. -Many adults too appear to be neutral so far as their -mental life is concerned. Circumstances ran them perhaps -into a certain mould—they might have been run -into some other just as well. It is the task of the educator -to discover the predominant interest where it exists, -and to try to produce such an interest where it does -not. What nature has not done in such cases art must -attempt.</p> - -<p>When the leading interest is found it should next be -made the means of creating interest in subjects to which -the pupil is naturally indifferent or even averse. I have -illustrated the process here implied in a paper on the -prevocational art school which is connected with the -Ethical Culture School. Young persons devoted to art -are often unwilling to take up subjects which seem to -them unrelated to what they really care for, like science -and history. They are obsessed by a single passionate -ambition. They are all eagerness to become artists—to -draw, paint, model, etc. Time spent on any other -subject seems to them misspent. If indulged in this one-sided -activity, the chances are that they will not even become -competent artists. In any case they will lack -breadth and vision. They will lack a cultural background. -They will be inferior as human beings. They -will not be personalized. For personality, on its mental -as well as on its social side, depends on relatedness,—depends -not so much on what one does, as on the interrelation -between what one does and what other people do.</p> - -<p>In order to expand the interest of the young art student, -the method employed in the school just mentioned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">297</span> -is to present those subjects which appear to be alien in -such a way as to bring out the art aspects of them, the -contact points between them and art. Thus in history -special prominence is given to the age of Pericles, the -age of Rembrandt. In science special attention is paid -to the theory of color, the chemistry of etching. And all -other branches of knowledge are treated similarly. The -aim is not indeed to exploit the other subjects in the interest -of art, but so to utilize the artistic interest as to -lead the mind out to a larger comprehensive interest in -other related branches on their own account. Or rather, -to put my thought precisely, and thus to connect it with -the underlying ethical theory, the aim is to prepare the -future artist for the give and take relation between his -own pursuit and the activities of men in other vocations. -He should be helped to enrich his own life as an artist by -drawing upon all that the sciences and the humanities -can give him, with a view to eventually returning with -interest the profit he has derived. What the artist can -do for the scientist, the religious teacher, etc., I have indicated -in the previous chapter.</p> - -<p>Precisely the same cultural idea should be worked out -in prevocational schools of commerce, of technology, of -science, etc. In each case the paramount interest should -be the starting-point, the center from which lines of -interest are to be made to radiate out into the correlated -branches.</p> - -<p>If this ethical idea is carried out the whole educational -system will be remodeled. The cæsura in education will -then fall about the sixteenth year. Before that the task -will be to lay the general foundations and to recon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">298</span>noiter -the individuality of the pupil. After that there -will be a system of <em>prevocational schools</em>. The college, -a legacy which has come to us from a type of society -unlike our own, will disappear, and the university will -become an organism of vocational schools succeeding the -prevocational.<a id="FNanchor_83_83" href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">83</a></p> - -<p>I mentioned at the end of Book I the problem of -specialization, the increased necessity of restricting oneself -to a limited field in order to achieve anything like -the consciousness of mastery, and the inevitable fractionalizing -of men which is the consequence of this very -tendency toward specialization. In the idea of outreaching -radiations of interest and of the give and take relation -there is the promise of liberation from the narrowness -of specialism without the calamity of dilettantism. -That this idea cannot be fully realized, that no -one can actually extend his web of interest so far, that -his reactions at best will be feeble, is perhaps a palmary -instance of that law of frustration which fatally besets -all human effort. But the effort will be in the right -direction, and the effort counts.</p> - - -<h4><i>The University</i></h4> - -<p>In sketching the ethical or spiritual side of the University, -initial stress is to be laid on the meaning of the -word <i lang="la">universitas</i>. The term as at present used hardly</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">299</span></p> -<p>suggests more than all-inclusiveness. A modern university -is an institution in which all the different schools, -the school of engineering, the school of science, the -school of philosophy, etc., <em>exist side by side</em>, under a single -governing body, and in which the various branches -of knowledge are pursued without any visible systematic -connection between them! The spiritual ideal of a university -is that of system, of organic connection, for this -is what spiritual means.</p> - -<p>In looking back on the history of the higher institutions -of learning one cannot but be struck by the close -correspondence of those institutions to the general ideals -of life of the people among whom they flourished. I -call to mind the Hindu education with its Brahmanic -background; the Mandarin education, with Confucianism -as its inspiring principle; the musical education of -the Greeks; the theological education of Jews and Mohammedans; -then among the Western nations, the English -university a seminary for training rulers of the -Empire; the German university, a training institution -for the higher bureaucracy; the French university, visibly -reflecting the logical tendency of the French mind.</p> - -<p>We in America, instructed by the survey of the past, -are bound to face the question: In what way shall the -American university differ from universities elsewhere? -What characteristic shape shall the American university -take on? <em>How can the American university correspond -to the American ideal of life?</em> At present our notions -in this respect are in a formative, not to say in a chaotic, -condition. The college still survives—an institution designed -for the education of gentlemen. Practical ten<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">300</span>dencies, -looking toward materialistic success, prevail in -many of our Western universities. The German research -idea has come in as a third factor, penetrating -deeply in some of our institutions, less deeply in others, -but inharmonious everywhere with the rival conceptions -that still persist.</p> - -<p>The principal circumstance that retards our university -development doubtless is that the ideal of American life -itself, which the university is to express and to promote, -is as yet undefined in the minds of the American people. -But without presuming to anticipate what must be the -outcome of gradual and prolonged growth, it may still -be serviceable to clear our minds as to the goal towards -which we desire that the development shall tend. The -fundamental ideal of the American people is that of -freedom! The notion of freedom is crude as yet, but -is capable of being ennobled and refined. To be free -is to express power. To be free in the highest sense is -to express the highest kind of power. The highest kind -is that which is exercised in such wise as to elicit unlike -yet cognate power in others. A people is to be called -free when all the different social or vocational groups of -which it is the integrated whole spontaneously react upon -one another, and when in each group each member of it -realizes some mental gift of his own. A free people is -not one which is merely released from the authority of -autocrats. That is only a condition of freedom, not freedom -itself. A free people is not one in which strong individuals -are permitted to thrive parasitically at the expense -of the weak. Nor yet one in which merely equal -opportunity is afforded to all in the race for material<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">301</span> -well-being. A free people is one in which the essential -energies of all effectuate themselves unhindered, the life -of each swelling the surrounding tide of life, and being -enriched in turn by the returning tide. This to my mind -is liberty,—the liberation of what is best in each. This -is freedom,—the free flow of life into life. The ideal -American University is one which expresses and promotes -this ideal of freedom.</p> - -<p>A university is a group of vocational schools. A truly -democratic university is an organic system of vocational -schools, one which in the relations that subsist between -its schools affords a shining, stimulating example of the -kind of relations that ought to subsist between the vocational -groups in the state.</p> - -<p>The aim of an American university should be to furnish -leaders for all the various groups who will undertake -the great business of truly organizing democracy.</p> - - -<h4><i>Education for Adults</i></h4> - -<p>Education should be continuous through life. The -University Extension movement is endeavoring to meet -this demand. It has already to its credit a considerable -extension of knowledge, as well as the stirring up of -interest in things of the mind among those whom it -reaches. But far greater tasks than it has yet attacked -remain. The academic method is not suited to the instruction -of adults. A method will have to be worked -out for teaching a subject to mature minds different -from that which is appropriate in introducing the subject -to the relatively immature minds of students. The -student who has not yet entered vocational life needs to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">302</span> -be put in possession of the principles by which he can lay -hold of life. A mature person who is deficient in theoretical -education needs to be helped to interpret his vocational -experience in such a manner as to find his way -back to the principles. In the one case there is the outlook -and the emptiness; in the other case the fullness of -content without the comprehensive outlook.</p> - -<p>Secondly, the stages of vocational development -through which the worker has already passed in his vocation -are to be borne in mind, and the teaching adapted -to the different stages. I have suggested four divisions: -that of apprenticeship, that of initial mastery, that of -more complete mastery, and the emeritus stage.<a id="FNanchor_84_84" href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">84</a></p> - -<p>Thirdly, it is getting to be increasingly difficult for -a specialist in any one branch to keep abreast of the -progress made in other branches. Popularization of the -ordinary kind does not satisfy. It means, as a rule, diluting -the subject-matter, not truly simplifying it. Provision -should be made, in any large and generous scheme -of public education, for enabling ripe minds to assimilate -the ripest fruits produced by contemporary thinkers -and writers who work in other fields.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<h4>NOTE</h4> - - -<p>A few outstanding points in regard to what is called Moral -Education may be added to this chapter.</p> - -<p>There should be ethical teaching in the universities. The -kinds of ethics taught should be adapted to the university -period of life, emphasis being put on the experiences of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">303</span> -student at that time of life,—on friendship, the sex relation, -the vocational outlook, etc. be included in the programme for the education of adults.</p> - -<p>Systematic moral education in schools and high schools is advisable. -It is frequently criticised on the ground that it is apt -to be schematic and unreal. Moral counsels given as the occasion -arises are believed to be more effective. They hit the nail -on the head and drive it home. The reply to this is that incidental -moral advice and exhortation is not excluded, but that it -by no means adequately answers the purpose. The occasions for -giving the necessary guidance simply do not arise. This kind -of moral teaching is apt to be patchy. In the next place, ethical -instruction, when rightly planned, has two objects: the one -to bring into clear relief the life axioms that underlie the entire -home and school experience of the pupil, and secondly, to give -to the pupil a provisional chart and compass or ethical outlook -upon his future life. Ethical teaching conceived of and -conducted in this manner is neither schematic nor artificial. -It does not drive home a nail here and there, it constructs a -mental house in which the mind of the pupil can be at home,—with -windows in it, looking out upon a large landscape outside.</p> - -<p>The capital significance of right relations, ethical relations, -between the members of the teaching staff has been noted in -the text. In every school clubs should be formed consisting of -pupils specially interested in any one subject and of the -special teachers of that subject:—or if not formal clubs, then -at least more intimate personal relations should exist between -the special teacher and those selected pupils, the object being -through personal intercourse to introduce the young aspirant -to a knowledge of the problems on which the older person is -intent. There is nothing nearly so educative for the young -as to be taken into the counsels of their elders.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">304</span></p> - -<p>The more gifted pupils of the school should be invited to take -a personal interest in helping the more backward students. In -every school, high school and university there are social misfits,—shy, -sensitive, solitary youths who fail to come into easy -touch with their fellows, and suffer acutely. They are objects -of the most delicate, deferential charity, and the task of bringing -them into fellowship offers one of the finest opportunities -for ethical education.</p> - -<p>A vital system of self-government is to be used as a means of -placing real responsibility upon the students under due advice. -To exercise responsibility is to acquire character. Self-government -is particularly important so far as it relates to the -administration of justice in a school. Cases of discipline -should be used as means to create the right conception of punishment, -the right attitude towards those who have erred.</p> - -<p>The relation between the adolescent boy and girl and the -parents is of prime significance as illustrating in a way that -young persons can understand the general conception of the -ethical relation as <em>reciprocal</em>. The youth should be shown that -he can be not only the recipient but a giver of benefits, that he -can be a real help to his parents, chiefly by sympathetically -entering into the problems and difficulties with which they have -to contend. The parents, instead of being regarded by the -young as an earthly providence, existing only for the purpose -of bestowing benefits, should be seen in their true light as -struggling, and often heavily burdened human beings. At the -same time the young son or daughter will in this way gain an -invaluable preparation for comprehending the difficulties under -which the effort to live must be carried on.</p> - -<p>In regard to patriotism, it is important that the errors and -mistakes committed by one’s nation in the past should not be -overlooked or minimized.</p> - -<p>The school should furnish to the students various outlets -for social service such as they in their period of life are capable -of rendering.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">305</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_VII-4">CHAPTER VII<br /> - -<small>THE STATE</small></h3> - - -<p>The leading theories of the state should be kept in -view for comparison with the ethical theory here set -forth—the theories of Aristotle and Plato, St. Augustine -and the mediæval schoolmen, Rousseau’s contract -theory, and the German conceptions of the state propounded -by Kant, Fichte, Hegel. Moreover, since the -ideas actually embodied in governments, in the Persian -monarchy, for instance, in the Greek City State, Venice, -etc., are not identical with the constructions of the -philosophers, the leading facts of the history of politics -should be borne in mind as well as the leading theories.</p> - -<p>The state has two aspects: (1) It is the balance -wheel of the vocational groups included within it. (2) -It is the political expression of the national character, -and its ethical purpose is to develop this empirical national -character into a spiritual character. I shall speak -of the first aspect in this chapter.</p> - -<p>1. The state exists in order to furnish increasingly -from age to age the conditions under which the reactions -between the groups described above can take place -effectually. In concentrating attention upon the vocational -groups as the entities to be harmonized with one -another, account is taken by implication of the family -and of the individual. The sub-organisms are embraced<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">306</span> -within the superior organisms. A more general statement -would be that the state supplies the external conditions -required for development towards ethical personality -by those who pass through the institutions of -the family, of the vocation, etc.</p> - -<p>The state possesses a spiritual character in so far as -it supplies these conditions, and in as much as it has a -spiritual character it is not merely justified but ethically -required to use force. Force is spiritualized when employed -to establish the conditions indispensable to spiritual -life. The conditions enforced must be such as in -the opinion of the preponderant number of citizens indisputably -make for the development of personality. -Examples of such conditions are protection of life, -property, reputation, compulsory education, the maintenance -of the monogamic family, protection against -foreign invasion, etc. All the functions of the state -commonly enumerated follow from the ethical principle. -But over and above the recognized ones, new and nobler -functions of the state will appear.</p> - -<p>The redeeming thought with respect to the use of -force by the state consists in regarding <em>force as ethical -discipline</em>, and in making the extent to which it is favorable -to spiritual freedom the measure and test of its -rightful use.<a id="FNanchor_85_85" href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> When men are compelled to spend the -major part of their time in the protection of bare life, -as was the case, for instance, in the early days of feudalism, -they are to that extent unfree. Freedom consists -in energizing the highest and most distinctive human -faculties.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">307</span></p> -<p><em>The development of the state</em> should proceed in two -directions. It should withdraw from many functions exercised -by it in the past, notably from such as properly -belong to the sub-organisms. At the same time, it -should lay its coercive hands upon new matters, imposing -new limitations on capricious freedom in the -interest of spiritual freedom, as soon as the pertinency -of such limitations to the ethical end becomes clear. -For instance, the state may, and doubtless will, interfere -with marriage to a far greater extent than it has -yet done. It will forbid the marriage of the unsound. -If a study of character-types should ever become advanced -enough—a hazardous conjecture—to make it -predictable that the union of certain character-types will -lead to infelicitous marriage, the state will be justified -in prohibiting such unions.</p> - -<p><em>Law</em>, ideally defined, is the sum total of conditions, -capable of being enforced, which are necessary or favorable -to the development of personality. The purpose of -law is two-fold: to maintain the more developed members -of society at the level they have reached, and, by -educative penalties, to bring the backward up to the -same level. In the article on “Force and Freedom” -referred to above, law is compared to such bodily actions -as walking, which at first are superintended by consciousness, -and then become automatic, thereby setting -consciousness free to attend to new and more important -business. Similarly, law is designed to render the conditions -favorable to personality so explicit that their -observance shall become automatic, and that mankind -shall be at liberty to discover new and more significant<span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">308</span> -conditions which in their turn are again to become automatic.</p> - -<p>Because of the lack of the ethical point of view, the -exercise of force by the state has seemed purely arbitrary, -and has given rise to a perverted and disastrous -conception of <em>sovereignty</em>. The sovereignty of the state -has two aspects: the one internal, the other external. -Sovereignty means supremacy. The state is sovereign, -within limits, however, with respect to its citizens. The -state is also sovereign, within limits, however, with respect -to other outside states.</p> - -<p>With respect to the internal aspect of sovereignty -some writers hold that citizens have no rights as against -the state—only rights accorded by the state. But this -from the ethical point of view is a wholly untenable -position. There are rights of the individual, rights of -the family, rights of the vocational group, which the -state does not create but is bound to acknowledge and -which its power cannot properly infringe. As against -the state the individual has, for instance, the right which -is commonly designated as “the freedom of conscience.” -The family has rights against the state; the law cannot -interfere with the intimacies of the marriage and parental -relations. The vocational group likewise is only -partially subject to public reglementation. I have defined -law as the sum total of the conditions. The state -can prescribe the conditions, but cannot trace the ways of -freedom within the conditions. The state prescribes the -enforceable conditions; it has no concern with unenforceable -inner processes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">309</span></p> - -<p>It thus appears that sovereignty or supremacy is an -attribute not peculiar to the state, although it looms up -larger and more impressive when exercised by the state. -Supremacy belongs to the individual in his private -sphere, to the family in its proper province, to the vocation, -etc. Sovereignty or supremacy belongs to each -of the social institutions within its precincts, in so far -as the supremacy within that precinct is requisite for -the accomplishment of the ethical end to be therein attained. -But sovereignty is not absolute in any sphere; -neither in that of the individual, nor of the family, nor -yet of the state. <em>The absolute conception of sovereignty -is the result of the lack of an ethical conception of the -social institutions.</em> The state is sovereign only so far -as the exercise of its supremacy is necessary to the -spiritual end of citizenship. On this account and for -this purpose it may rightfully constrain the sub-organisms -within it, and may also pronounce its <i lang="la">noli me -tangere</i> as against the larger group of states encompassing -it. But so far as the spiritual ends to be achieved -in the international relations are concerned, the state -with respect to these is subject to international sovereignty,—a -new conception which mankind is striving -to bring to the birth today. The false notion of -state sovereignty as arbitrary and absolute, is admittedly -today a chief stumbling-block in the way of -the formation of an international organization of -peoples.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">310</span></p> - - -<h4><i>The System of Representation Which Is Required to -Give Expression to the Organic Idea of the State.</i></h4> - -<p>The ethical aim of political reformation and reconstruction -may be put in a single word, Organization. -<em>The state and especially the democratic state must be organized.</em><a id="FNanchor_86_86" href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> -This means practically that the basis of representation -shall be the vocational group, that vocational -representation shall replace representation by geographical -districts.<a id="FNanchor_87_87" href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> The law-making body on this basis<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">311</span> -will consist of representatives or delegates of the agricultural, -the commercial, the industrial, the scientific -group, etc. Women belonging to these groups will exercise -the franchise within them. There will also be a -distinct group of home-makers; motherhood will be -recognized as a vocation.</p> - -<p>Attention may be called to certain practical advantages -of the proposed rearrangement of the representative -system. It will tend to bring forward in political -life the best citizens, instead of the mediocre or the base. -This is likely to come about because there is no distinction -that men more ardently covet than that of being -considered <i lang="la">primus inter pares</i>; as, for instance, the first -or one of the first of the city’s merchants, or one of the -most eminent scientists, or an artist whom his fellow-artists -select as the fittest to represent them in the great -council of city, state, or nation. And if only this much -can be gained by the new representative system, that -the law-making body shall consist of the most experienced, -the most enlightened, the wisest, the actual leaders -in the various walks of life, in brief, that the elected -shall be the elect, certainly one of the principal evils -with which individualistic democracy is afflicted will -tend to be removed.</p> - -<p>But other advantages will accrue. This, in particular, -that the constituencies, instead of merely delegating -their powers, will share in the business of law-making,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">312</span> -will be in vital touch with their leaders or representatives, -while the latter conversely will politically educate -the constituencies. The mode of procedure under the system -here sketched will be somewhat as follows:</p> - -<p>Take, as an illustration, the group of industrial laborers. -They will first meet in a primary assembly, and -discuss measures deemed by them important in the interests -of their group. The leader who represents them -in the legislature will take part in the initial discussions, -and exercise no doubt a strong influence in bringing -matter finally to a head. He will then carry into the law-making -body,—which consists of representatives of the -various social groups,—the sifted-out demands of the -laborers, the measures which they desire to have enacted -into law. He will bring forward these measures in the -legislature. But there objections are likely to be raised. -The representatives of the other groups will discover -what the laborers naturally failed to note, that the proposed -law or laws, if enacted, will have certain injurious -effects on the interests of the other groups. The sifting-out -process, therefore, will now begin anew and be carried -on on a higher level in the legislature. The representatives -of all the various groups will separate the -wheat from the chaff in what is proposed by any one -group. The next stop will be that the representative of -the laborers, returning to his constituency, will communicate -to them the difficulties that were raised, the decisions -reached, and will thus impart to them the wider vision -which he himself gained in the discussions of the law-making -body. In this way he will be the instructor, the -political teacher of his constituents. And the principle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">313</span> -by which the value of any new measure will finally be -judged will be simply this: that the supposed interests -of one group cannot be its true interests unless they are -found to promote the interests of all the other vocational -groups.<a id="FNanchor_88_88" href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">88</a></p> - -<p>The law-making body should be a council of the -groups. It should not be a “Parliament,” or “talking -body,” but a sifting body. Nor yet a body of mandatories -commissioned to merely give effect to a public -opinion or a public sentiment already existing. In fact, -public opinion or public sentiment in the raw is apt to -be a poor index of what is really for the public good. -Public opinion is apt to be unripe, haphazard, impulsive -rather than reflective. Besides, it is often contaminated -at its very source, the facts on which the public depend -for their opinions being deliberately falsified or -placed in false perspective; while the opinions furnished -in newspaper editorials are almost inevitably biased. -Only on great occasions, when simple moral issues are -presented, can the common sense and moral sense of the -people be wholly depended on. But such occasions are -episodical; and the orderly business of government cannot -be carried on by spurts. Government by public -opinion may be and in some respects is better indeed than -class government; in other important respects it is -worse. A class at the head of the state at least as a rule -knows what it wants, and proceeds methodically to carry -out its purposes. Public opinion, on the other hand, like -all opinion, is unsure, unsafe, as Plato has long since<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">314</span> -made dialectically clear. And public sentiment, like all -sentiment, is fluctuating. To build the state on public -opinion and public sentiment, as many of our writers on -politics would have us do, is after all a good deal like -building a house on sand.<a id="FNanchor_89_89" href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">89</a></p> - -<p>Instead of “public opinion” and “public sentiment” -let us say public reason and public will!—reason and -will to discover in conjunction what the public good -really is. For what it really is no one as yet knows. -The “public good” is a problem to be approximately -solved. The public good will be consummated when the -conditions are furnished necessary and favorable to the -development of personality in each of the constituent -groups of the social body. To study these conditions is -the office of the law-making body, and therefore that -body must be so constituted as to include these groups in -their capacity as groups.</p> - -<p>Another advantage to be expected from vocational -representation is that the different interests of society,—I -stress the fact that they are different, and often -temporarily conflicting,—will be compelled under this -plan to come out into the open. An industry, for -instance, may require the assistance of a protective -tariff, in its infant stages, and the agricultural group -may rightly be asked to make the necessary sacrifices.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">315</span></p> -<p>In the long run there will be compensation. The agriculturists -will eventually benefit by the diversification -of the national life. But “in the long run” means that -the next generation will benefit, not the present agriculturists, -a distinction sometimes somewhat cavalierly ignored. -The present generation will be called upon to -make a sacrifice, precisely as in the family some of the -members may have to sacrifice a part of their income to -provide for a weaker member. But the circumstance -that the sacrifice is recognized as a sacrifice will serve -to put an end to the protection when the special need for -it has ceased. Under the present system, on the other -hand, the state is supposed to have no concern with the -special interests of any group. All the same, there are -the special interests, and in consequence that which is -for the interest of one group has to be advocated as if it -were for the general interest of the entire community. -And since general interest is easily mistaken for perpetual -interest, the protection is apt to be continued long -after its particular usefulness has ceased.<a id="FNanchor_90_90" href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">90</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">316</span></p> -<p>I am earnestly concerned that vocational representation -shall not be regarded as a mere device in the mechanism -of politics, like the substitution of the long for -the short ballot, or the initiative and referendum. Innovations -of the latter kind leave the prevalent conception -of democracy untouched, they are merely intended -to improve the machinery by which that conception is -to be worked out in practice; they are mechanical contrivances, -not fundamental reconstructions. Vocational -representation, in my view of it, is the appropriate -expression of the organic idea of the state. The -state is the soul. The soul must have a body. Vocational -representation is that body.</p> - -<p>Two remarks may here be added. One relates to a -question which has given rise to considerable discussion, -namely, the question where the state resides? In -a monarchy it seems to reside visibly in the person of -the king. Louis XIV is said to have declared “I am -the state.” But where does it reside in a democracy? -The chief executive, the law-making body, and even -the constituencies, are organs of the state. But where -does the state itself have its habitation? The state has -no separate domicile. So far as it truly exists at all -it exists in the minds of the individuals who truly conceive -of it. The object of political life is to educate -the citizen so that he may more and more truly con<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">317</span>ceive -of the state, so that he may give birth to the state -idea within himself. To do this is to pass through one -of the necessary phases on the road to personality. In -the family the individual is in reactive relations with -a few, in the vocation with a larger number. In the -state or nation he may be one of a hundred millions or -more. Yet it is not the numerical extension as such -that constitutes the enlargement. It is rather the diversity -of the points of contact, and the complexity of -the relations by which the spiritual ideal is more fully illustrated -in the finite world in proportion as the circle -widens. To engender the idea of the state in oneself is -to place oneself ideally into reactive relations with the -diverse groups embraced within one’s nation. And to -do this is a spiritual achievement of no mean order. I -should prefer to use the word “stateship” instead of citizenship. -Stateship is attained by one who brings to -birth within himself the idea of the state, and in whom -that idea becomes a controlling ethical force.</p> - -<p>A second remark concerns the perplexed subject of -the conflict of duties. The nearer duties are sometimes -preferred to the more remote, and at other times we -are asked to sacrifice everything to the larger whole. -We owe our first devotion, it is said, to the members of -our family; but then again we must be willing to sacrifice -life itself and the welfare of our family to our -country when it calls upon us in its need. Largeness -alone certainly does not serve as an ethical ground for -preference. The quantitative standard implied in such -phrases as “the greatest good of the greatest number” -is out of place when we deal with ethical relations, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">318</span> -in their very nature are qualitative. Now the account of -the social institutions given in previous chapters as successive -stations on the road to the spiritual goal may -throw some light on this difficult subject. Normally, the -claims of the anterior stations are to be preferred—the -claims of the family for instance to those of the vocation, -because the family is the matrix of the three-fold reverence, -and the individual must pass under the ethical influence -of family life before he is fit to use vocational life -ethically to good purpose. The anterior groups are not -merely smaller, they are germinal. The training received -in them is the condition on which spiritual progress -depends later on. On the other hand, the later -groups are the more complete and more explicated expressions -of the spiritual ideal; hence if the very existence -of one of the later groups is threatened, or is in danger -of being denatured of its spiritual use, then the later -group is to be preferred to the earlier, the <i lang="la">terminus ad -quem</i>, precisely because it is the <i lang="la">terminus ad quem</i>, to the -<i lang="la">terminus a quo</i>.</p> - -<p>To give a familiar illustration. In our time, which is -a time of transition and doubt, many a religious teacher -finds himself in sore straits to decide between the claims -of the vocation and the family. As a religious teacher -he is pledged to teach only what in his heart of hearts -he believes to be true; he is especially under obligation -to use words in such a way as to convey to others the -same meaning that he attaches to them himself. But -this may mean exposing his family to serious privations. -The situation is full of perplexity and pain, but -the line of choice is plain enough. The claims of his<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">319</span> -high vocation must in this case take precedence. In -like manner, when the existence or the integrity of the -state is at issue, the claims of the state as the <i lang="la">terminus -ad quem</i> override those of the vocation, the family, and -the state, and may even demand the sacrifice of the physical -existence of the individual himself.</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p>NOTES</p> - - -<p>1. The idea of democracy is often neatly put—all too -neatly, into the following formula: In antiquity the individual -existed for the sake of the state, in modern democracy the state -exists for the sake of the individual. Both of these statements -as they stand are mischievous and misleading and require to be -qualified. It is not true that in antiquity the individual existed -for the sake of the state in the sense that his separate existence -was extinguished. The citizen class in Aristotle’s state, the -rulers in Plato’s state, and even a member of one of the inferior -classes, each in his own way fulfilled a distinct function. He -was not suppressed in the state, he expressed his function by -the action appropriate to his station. The philosophic rulers -might do the thinking and governing. They were the head of -the body politic—others the hands and feet. The underlying -conception was what may be called spuriously organic, borrowed -more or less from the animal type of organism.</p> - -<p>The second limb of the formula is no less superficial. In no -modern nation does the state exist, or at bottom is it supposed -to exist, for the benefit of the individuals who at any time compose -it. If this were the ruling conception, how could the -democratic state require its citizens to give up their lives in its -defense? If the state existed for the benefit of the individuals, -the state would be the means, and the so-called good of the individual -the end. And in that case it would surely be irrational -to sacrifice the end for the sake of the means, in other words to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">320</span> -put an end to one’s life in defense of the state, a mere instrument -for the protection and prosperity of one’s own life.</p> - -<p>To reply that the state exists for the sake not of one individual -but of all (observe however that the formula says “the -individual,” and is ambiguous and slippery at this point), nor -even only for the sake of all the individuals now living, but also -for the sake of the millions yet unborn—to say this is once -more to introduce an ideal entity which it was the very object -of the formula as quoted to banish. The formula was intended -to give us, in place of “the metaphysical entities” of the Greeks -and the Germans, a very palpable thing—the good of the individual. -The good of the individual seemed to be a palpable -thing, though in truth it is the most impalpable thing in the -world. And by defining the state in this wise we were supposed -to come onto solid ground. But now, behold, it is the good of -unborn millions which is to be the object of our devotion, and -who can imagine what this good of unborn millions is likely -to be?</p> - -<p>The fact is that without ideal entities the conception of the -state in any noble shape cannot be construed at all. The -organic conception must now take the place of the individualistic. -The organic conception indeed as it was worked out in -antiquity, or as it lived on in the theories of mediæval writers, -or as it survives in the works of certain German publicists, who -use it to defend the feudalistic structure of society, has rightly -fallen into discredit,—not because it is organic, but because it is -pseudo-organic, that is, based on the type of the animal organism. -The individualistic conception of the state at present -current in America and in all modern democracies, is a violent -reaction against this false idea of organization. The inestimable -germ of truth individualism contains is that no such distinction -can be allowed as between head and hands or feet in -political life, that all the multitudes of “hands” who work in -the factories, for instance, must be respected as personalities -having not only hands but also heads and hearts. But individualism, -though it affirms this idea, belies it in practice, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">321</span> -the actual state of society in America and elsewhere abundantly -proves. And it is bound to do so, because personality implies -more than material well-being, either for a single individual or -for all individuals now living or for all future individuals. -Personality implies truly organic relations to other fellow-beings—and -this can only be achieved by organizing the society -in which men live.</p> - -<p>The way taken has been, by reaction from pseudo-organization, -to extreme individualism and concomitant materialism. -The way out lies in the direction of genuine organization.</p> - - -<p>2. Certain evils observable in the workings of American -democracy may be traced to the following causes:</p> - -<p>(a) The people as a whole are still in the pioneer stage. A -country enormously rich in material resources stimulates -wealth-production. A host of immigrants escaped from poverty -abroad are stung into wealth-getting here. The frontier line -is now far to the West, but the influence of the pioneer movement -still in progress flows back upon the Eastern states.</p> - -<p>(b) More important still are the evils due to the crude -individualistic idea of democracy just characterized. If the -state exists for the good of the individual, and if the good of -the individual is conceived to be the acquisition of wealth, then -private business will take precedence of the public business. -Yet under the democratic system of frequent elections the -public business demands constant attention. In consequence, a -special class of professional politicians arises, comprising a -minority of disinterestedly patriotic men, and a majority of -persons whose private business is not sufficiently remunerative -to divert them from the public service. The appearance of the -political dictator called “boss” is the inevitable outcome of these -conditions. This army of professional politicians, and in particular -the vulgar figure at their hand, is the chief disgrace of -the American democracy, and has been the target of incessant -invective by American writers. But it is idle to stigmatize the -effect and overlook the cause, to squander invective upon the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">322</span> -symptom and at the same time to leave the malady untouched. -The malady itself is the individualistic conception of democracy, -and until this is replaced by a better one, the evil in -question may be modified in form but will certainly not disappear.</p> - -<p>A way must be found for the citizen to attend to his private -business, which is coming to be more and more exacting, and -to the public business at the same time. The system of vocational -representation offers an opportunity in this direction. -Citizens will be voting in their vocational groups for measures -intended to advance their vocational interests, but will be -taught to advance them in such a way that the related interests -of other groups, or the public interest, shall be thereby -promoted.</p> - -<p>3. Proportional representation, which is at present being -tested abroad, and earnestly considered in France, England -and Germany, may be a bridge leading over from the present -plan of geographical to that of vocational representation. The -proportional system itself, it is true, is still based on the -individualistic idea. It is a movement on behalf of submerged -minorities. It quarrels with the present arrangement for the -reason that the will of the greater number of individuals, but -not of all individuals, is brought to bear on public decisions. -But if adopted it may well offer, without violent change, a way -for the collective representation of vocational groups.</p> - -<p>4. Citizenship should be graded. A youth of twenty-one is -scarcely prepared to exercise the duties of the citizen intelligently. -As long as the view prevails that the functions of the -state are to be restricted to a minimum, it is perhaps not wholly -absurd to admit a mere stripling to a share in the conduct of -government. But the sphere of government is steadily enlarging, -and its problems are becoming more and more intricate. -Twenty-five would certainly be a better minimum age. Under -vocational representation there is likely to be an Upper House -consisting of members who have served in the Lower House.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">323</span> -Citizens who have attained the age of twenty-five might be -empowered to vote for members of the Lower House, those who -have attained the age of thirty-five for members of the Upper -House, but these are details upon which it is unfitting to expatiate -here. The point I have in mind is that citizenship -should be graded.</p></blockquote> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">324</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_VIII-4">CHAPTER VIII<br /> - -<small>THE NATIONAL CHARACTER SPIRITUALLY TRANSFORMED: -THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY, OR -THE ORGANIZATION OF MANKIND</small></h3> - - -<p>There is such a thing as a national character.<a id="FNanchor_91_91" href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> The -national character is reflected in the language, literature, -laws and customs, arts, institutions and religion -of a people. Even when the religion professed by different -peoples is the same in name it is strongly tinctured -in the different countries by the national differences. -Compare for example the Christianity of Prussia -with that of France, or that of England with that -of Russia.</p> - -<p>The national character, like that of the individual, has -its plus and minus qualities, its excellent and its repellent -traits.</p> - -<p>The national character is to be spiritualized by raising -the plus traits to the Nth degree.</p> - -<p>To this end, as before, the three-fold reverence and especially -the third reverence is the means. <em>The backward -peoples of the earth are the paramount object of reverence.</em> -The more advanced peoples are to bring to light<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">325</span> -the spiritual life latent in the backward. In order to do -so, they are to carry out the principle of reverence toward -past civilization, to sift out what is vital in the -work of previous generations. And further, they are to -conform to the second principle of reverence, that toward -contemporaries approximately on the same level, -<i>i.e.</i>, toward the other civilized nations. No single nation -is really competent to undertake the great task of awaking -the stationary peoples of India and China, of educating -the primitive peoples of Africa. A union of the -civilized nations should be formed in order that together -they may jointly accomplish <em>the pedagogy of the less -developed</em>. The educational point of view once again -appears as the ethical. The relation of the less developed -to the more advanced peoples should be analogous -to that of the child towards the parents. Just as neither -the father singly nor the mother alone can release spiritual -life in the offspring, so the different civilized nations, -each of which has its own gift, its own plus traits, -are to interact for the purpose of jointly awakening the -creative energies within the slumbering souls of the undeveloped -peoples.</p> - -<p>It follows that a nation cannot even be defined ethically -except as a member of an international society, -and we begin to see the help afforded by the spiritual -conception in solving at least ideally the problem of -right international relations. Whereas hitherto the notion -of the sovereignty of each nation has been a formidable -impediment to the formation of an overarching -world society, the ethical conception not only permits -this expansion of sovereignty, but necessitates it. A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">326</span> -nation, ethically defined, is a unique member of the -<i lang="la">corpus internationale</i> of mankind. As unique it maintains -of right its relative independence, as a member it -is bound by intrinsic ties to its fellow-members, and is -subject to the greater sovereignty including them all -alike.<a id="FNanchor_92_92" href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> A nation indeed cannot even maintain its independence -against other nations except by sheer might -if it acknowledges none but capricious ties between itself -and them, such as treaties, or Hague Conference agreements -which can be dissolved at pleasure. There must -be recognized an inner ethical tie between nation and -nation, and it must receive legal formulation. This ethical -tie is the true <i lang="la">vinculum societatis humanæ</i> and supplies -what has hitherto been absolutely lacking,—an ethical -basis for international law.</p> - -<p>The ethical relation between nations is founded on -the fact that each nation represents a significant type of -humanity, that each nation has certain plus and minus -qualities, that it is dependent on other nations to supplement -its defects; and more than this, that it can expurgate, -as it ought, its minus qualities only by striving -to evoke the spiritual life in other peoples.</p> - -<p>One salient point I must emphasize. The national -character with its plus and minus traits is empirical, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">327</span> -the development of the empirical character is not itself -the highest aim of the state. The spiritual transformation -of this empirical character, as I must take pains to -repeat, is the aim.</p> - -<p>And herein appears the difference between the point -of view taken in this chapter and the political doctrine of -the eminent Swiss publicist Bluntschli. He too recognizes -the development of the national character as the -aim of the state; and in so far as he does this he is in advance -of writers who limit the state’s functions to the protection -of life and property, to defense against foreign -aggression, promotion of prosperity, and of power and -prestige. Bluntschli has the insight to perceive that a -nation is a collective entity, having a certain defined -character, and the development of the distinctive national -gifts is in his eyes the supreme purpose of national -life, the political organization of the state being a means -to this end. But he falls into a grave error by identifying -the empirical with the spiritual character of the nation, -and setting up the former as an end worthy on its -own account. The empirical character of a collective -entity is in this respect no more worthy of honor, and no -more fit to be a ground of obligation, than the empirical -character of the individual. And the conclusions at -which Bluntschli arrives are a sufficient proof of the -ethical inadequacy of his vision. Some nations, a very -few he thinks, possess political capacity, and they are to -rule other peoples. Here we have the “White Man’s -Burden”—an obvious violation of the ethical principle of -national independence. Further, the world state, which -is to include all nations, is to concern itself only with their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">328</span> -common interests. Bluntschli thus accepts the uniformity -principle in ethics, excluding the idea of the reaction -of differences which is of the very essence of the ethical -relation; while the ideal future as he sees it is that of nations -coexisting peacefully side by side, competing -peacefully with each other, and doubtless borrowing -from one another the best fruits produced by each. But -it is idle to expect peaceful coexistence so long as the -strong exist by the side of the weak without there being -acknowledged an <em>intrinsic</em> spiritual tie between them; -and competition between peoples will result, like competition -between individuals, in strife and exploitation; -while the mere borrowing by each of the fruits produced -by the rest omits the vital point, upon which I lay the -greatest stress, of the eliciting of the fruits in each by the -spiritualizing influence of the rest.</p> - -<p>Surveying Bluntschli’s doctrine as a whole, it is clear -that his empirical conception of the state leaves it a -purely secular institution concerned with externals, and -not really related to the inner life, certainly not a station -in the development of personality. He practically acknowledges -as much when he says that the state is man -writ large, and the church woman writ large; that the -state represents the masculine principle, the church the -feminine principle. For the feminine, according to him, -is the spiritual principle. The state deals with externals; -to the church is reserved the prerogative of entering -into and transforming the inner life.<a id="FNanchor_93_93" href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">329</span></p> -<p>But what shall be the motive force for the creation of -an international society? I hold that the sense of national -sin, or of national guilt, must supply the motive -force. At present all the more advanced nations are to -be censured because of their pride. Germany prides itself -on its science and its efficiency, England on its political -liberalism, France on its logical conception of equality, -America on its democratic individualism. Each of -the great nations dwells complacently upon its fair traits, -and vaunts its special type of civilization as that which -should rightfully prevail among mankind generally. -The national defects, acknowledged perhaps by the -critical few, are glozed over. Indeed the consciousness -of a collective national character though latent is not -yet distinct. It must be evoked. National self-knowledge -must be promoted by the leaders and teachers of -mankind, and with it must come, as in the case of the -individual, the conscious recognition of deep defects—in -the case of Germany the narrowness of the conception -of the expert:<a id="FNanchor_94_94" href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> in the case of England the discrepancy -between political liberalism as applied to the white inhabitants -of the British Isles and of the self-governing -dominions on the one hand, and the “benevolent despotism” -exercised over the subject millions of India on the -other; in America the effacement of true individualism -under the crushing pressure of mass opinion, etc.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">330</span></p> -<p>Moreover not only will the defects be admitted, but -their detrimental influence on other peoples will have to -be frankly avowed—every nation must cry its <i lang="la">Peccavi</i>—the -effect for instance on Europe of the French love -of glory, the effect of the efficiency notion of the Germans -as it is at present penetrating all other nations,<a id="FNanchor_95_95" href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> -and in the still wider view the effect of Western civilization -as a whole on the stationary civilization of China, -on Egypt, on the myriads of Africa. The civilized peoples -of the earth have sinned their sins and are best seen -when we consider:</p> - -<p>A. The spoliation and outrages perpetrated by the -Western nations, for instance at the time of the entrance -of the Allies into Pekin, the wholesale destruction -of human life and the mutilations of the natives on -the Congo. It has been stated that some ten millions of -the natives of Africa perished as victims of the white -race. If these acts do not warrant our speaking of the -sins of the civilized nations, what kind of human behavior -does deserve that name?</p> - -<p>B. The effect of European example in practically -forcing the peoples of the Orient to adopt militarism -and navalism.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">331</span></p> -<p>C. The effect of Western individualism in undermining -the religious foundation in Eastern civilization.<a id="FNanchor_96_96" href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> -The spreading of Christianity itself, despite the exemplary -influence of the higher type of missionary, must -yet be classed, in one important respect, among the detrimental -influences exercised by the West upon the East. -For Christianity, in the form in which it is usually -taught, tends to break up the sense of solidarity which is -often strong among the less civilized peoples, without -supplying an adequate principle upon which solidarity -might be reëstablished on a higher plane. Hence Christian -teaching in the Orient and in Africa, however -friendly and merciful in intention, and however beneficent -in many ways, is yet a disintegrating influence.</p> - -<p>The great problem of the spiritual education of the -lower races will have to be taken up anew. Not only -are individual missionaries of broader mental and moral -horizons needed, the civilized nations as such must reach -a common understanding and establish a union among -themselves, the keynote of which shall be reverence for -the undeveloped, that is to say divination of what, under -right educational influence, they, the undeveloped, -may come to mean for humanity. And a union of this -kind, consecrated to a noble object, will at the same time -be the means of leading the Western world out of the -chaotic condition in which it is at present weltering. The -object for which nations combine may not be their own -peace, their own prosperity. The key to peace between -the adult peoples is a common, effectual resolve to win -new varieties of spiritual expression from the child and -adolescent peoples of the earth. Peace must come inci<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">332</span>dentally. -The common object must be disinterested, -spiritual, because there is a duty on the part of the civilized -towards the uncivilized to exercise a spiritual function. -The task of humanity in general consists in extending -the web of spiritual relations so as to cover larger -and still larger areas of the finite world. The family is -only partly spiritualized. The vocations, the state, are -not yet spiritualized. The international society hardly -exists. But what I here endeavor to sketch is the human -world as it would be in the light and under the influence -of the spiritual ideal. And I set down as the saving -task of the civilized nations that of extending the spiritual -realm so as to cover backward, undeveloped peoples, -so as to embody them in the <i lang="la">corpus spirituale</i> of mankind.</p> - -<h4><i>Some of the Principal Obstacles That Stand in the Way -of the Organization of Mankind.</i></h4> - -<p>The first obstacle is to be found in the inadequate -theories that underlie international law. Seventeenth -and eighteenth century thinking is still, strange to say, -the theoretical foundation. Grotius and Vattel remain -the chief authorities. Grotius’s theory is a system of -empirical individualism with Christian individualism -grafted upon it, to mitigate its harsher features. The -right of conquest is admitted. A nation is allowed to -punish another, punishment being taken in the crude -sense, while what has been permitted under natural law -is subsequently modified by counsels of perfection derived -from Christian individualism.</p> - -<p>Vattel is the intellectual grandchild of Leibnitz. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">333</span> -derives from Leibnitz through Wolff. Vattel envisages -the various states as so many individual entities without -intrinsic ties. Peaceful coexistence and unhindered -pursuit by each people of its own perfection or welfare -with mutual aid to be voluntarily rendered are the ultimate -conceptions beyond which this thinker does not -venture. And if the root principles are thus infertile, -small wonder that the fruit of the tree should be what -it is. In any handbook of international law, the preponderant -space is allotted to the laws of war, and yet -international law has proved impotent to restrain the -passion of war, or even to prevent its excesses. International -law binds the Samson of war with green withes -which the giant snaps in derision. It is plain that we -are still in the earliest stages, not only of international -practice, but even of international thinking. The problem -of the right ethical relations between the nations -has hardly been broached.</p> - -<p>Another conspicuous obstacle in the way of international -progress is to be seen in false hopes. Among -the false hopes I class:</p> - -<p>A. The hope that increased facilities of intercourse -will automatically bring about more friendly relations. -To expect this is to forget that closeness accentuates -repugnances as well as congenialities, increases antipathy -as well as amity. When nations come within short -range of each other they resemble antipathetical kinsmen -who are compelled to live together. The Czechs and -Germans in Bohemia would not hate each other as they -do were they not such near neighbors. Spatial rapprochement, -for instance, between East and West will<span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">334</span> -not of itself guarantee moral rapprochement—far from -it.</p> - -<p>B. The hope that science may be relied on to bring -the nations together. Science is neutral. Science is -subservient to evil as well as good. Science is at present -distilling the poisonous gases used on the European -battlefields as well as inventing the improved methods of -surgery. It has made possible instruments of destruction -such as savages might have shrunk from using. -Moreover, scientific as well as artistic interests are -partial manifestations of a people’s life and the ethical -relation is between peoples as totalities or collective -entities—just as the ethical relation between man and -man is between the whole man and the whole man, -and not between some partial aspect of the man and -of his fellows. Hence it is easy to explain why the scientists -and the scholars of the different belligerent peoples -were swept away by the war passion like the rest, and -in their utterance have even carried animosity to greater -lengths, expressing it in language calculated to wound -more deeply and to leave more permanent scars. They -felt that they belonged to the people as a whole, and -when the occasion came for them to choose between their -scientific co-workers across the frontier and their fellow-nationals, -they sided with the latter.</p> - -<p>C. The hope that reliance can be placed on international -trade to bring about ethical relations between -nations. But trade, like science, is ethically neutral. -In its own interest it is favorable to order and security -in colonies and dependencies, and when, sufficiently enlightened, -to the impartial administration of justice.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">335</span> -The European nations abolished the slave trade in -Africa because it decimated the native population, and -decreased the supply of labor.<a id="FNanchor_97_97" href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> On the other hand England -in the eighteenth century, even at that time the most -liberal country of Europe, did not hesitate to wage war -with Spain for the maintenance of the monopoly of the -hideous slave-trade, and the Opium War occurred in the -“full light” of the nineteenth century. But the most -striking example of the ethical neutrality of the commercial -mind is to be found in the recent partition of -Africa between England, France, the Congo Free State -and Germany. The methods which these four nations -adopted in the “scramble for Africa” were marked by a -perfect disregard of the rights of the native populations -of the African continent. Two devices were used—proclamations, -and treaties with native chiefs. The Queen -of England proclaimed that a certain territory would -thenceforth be a British possession, as if proclamation -could convey a right to the territory. The German emperor -indulged in the same fiction. And there was a -veritable race between French and English in the West; -between Germans and English in the East, as to which -of the two could outdistance or outwit the other in treaty-making. -Karl Peters came in disguise with a stock of -blank treaties in his pocket. Forty or fifty treaties were -concluded by the French annually for several years in -the West—as if a treaty with a native chief, who might -be bribed or coerced into lending his signature, could be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">336</span> -the foundation of moral right to the territory occupied -by his tribe. The European nations artfully employed -the fictions of sovereignty in order to varnish their acts -of plunder with a semblance of legality. Of course these -proclamations and treaties were not intended to justify -exploitation in the eyes of the natives—the natives were -not consulted or regarded—but rather to base thereon -the division of the spoils between the exploiters. A -proclamation or the conclusion of a treaty with a chief -was notice given to rivals not to interfere with the spoils -reserved for the nation that had issued the proclamation -or secured the treaty. It meant “hands off” to competing -exploiters.</p> - -<p>If it be asked whether this picture is not too dark? -Whether the civilized nations of the twentieth century -in their dealings with the helpless natives were merely -selfish? Whether their motives are so sinister? -Whether they are not animated by better, more moral -aims? the answer is that the commercial mind, and it -is the commercial mind that chiefly rules the world -today, allays its scruples and justifies its aggressions -by the fallacy that to extend trade is to spread civilization, -and to spread civilization is to contribute to the advancement -of the human race. The interests of trade -and of civilization are simply identified. To build railroads, -to stretch telegraph lines across the Dark Continent, -to launch steamboats on lakes that never heard the -whistle of a steam engine before, these are assumed to be -the evidences of “progress.” Besides are not the natives -disciplined in habits of industry, are they not encouraged -to cultivate the raw products needed by Europe, and in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">337</span> -return to receive the overflow of European markets? -The instruments of civilization are thus confounded with -civilization itself; the means with the end; while the real -object, veiled by sophistry, is nevertheless the material -benefit to be secured by the white race. Even the humane -treatment of the natives, where it is humane, resembles -somewhat too unpleasantly the fattening of the calf prior -to its consumption by the owner.</p> - -<p>Furthermore, the interests of Trade being supposed -to be paramount, it is held that any country the people -of which do not sufficiently cultivate the products desired -by other peoples, or who close their doors against the industrial -surplus of Europe, may be annexed, the land -forcibly seized, and the inhabitants subjugated, and -moreover that such action is right and proper and in the -interests of humanity. So long as this view obtains, -there will be no peace on earth. The competition for -foreign territories and foreign markets, the scramble between -the “civilized” exploiters, will be indefinitely provocative -of new wars.</p> - -<p>The root disease that afflicts the world at the present -day is the supremacy of the commercial point of view. -Intercourse and exchange of products is no doubt desirable. -The education of backward peoples in agriculture -and in industry for their own good and along -their own line is indispensable. The fallacy of the -commercial mind consists in erecting the means into the -paramount end, in brusquing the love of independence -which is so strongly entrenched, even among many primitive -peoples, and in preventing their development in the -direction prescribed by their own natures. All this for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">338</span> -the sake of the immediate increase of material wealth. -The white race shall have the lion’s share of the wealth; -the native population are to be accorded a lesser share, -with which they must be content. This is the extent of -the concession to humanity. This is, in plain words, what -is signified by the haughty phrase—“the spread of civilization.”</p> - -<p>The commercial mind is neither benevolent nor malevolent—as -little as science is. It seems at times to be -beneficent; at other times it seems to be almost fiendish—as -in the case of the atrocities perpetrated on the -Congo. It is not fiendish, it is simply ethically neutral -or blind.</p> - -<p>From this series of reflections, certain conclusions -may be drawn as to fundamental points of view relating -to international law. The main principle is respect for -the total personality of peoples, recognition of them as -potential members of the spiritual body of mankind.</p> - -<p>The territory of a people is to be regarded as the -body of that people’s soul. Their independence is to -be strictly respected. Expropriation or annexation is -to be characterized as outrage. Intrusion, except for -purposes of education, is to be forbidden. The conception -which underlies the scramble for Africa and for -the Far East—that the material interests of the advanced -nations entitle them to force the backward to -become receptacles of the industrial overflow of the -West, the producers of raw material for the factories -of the West must be abandoned.<a id="FNanchor_98_98" href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">98</a></p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">339</span></p> -<p>And now the main point may once more be stated. -The salvation of the civilized peoples, their spiritualization -in the effort to spiritualize the less advanced demands -a new turn in the history of humanity. <em>Union in -a common sublime object will overcome the antagonisms -and discords that prevail among the civilized nations -themselves.</em> The sword will never be turned into a -plow-share until the nations come to love the work of -the plow—the work of spiritual <em>tilth in the human</em> field. -The strong peoples will never cease to harm the weak, -and in so doing to harm themselves, until they see in -the weak, members of the <em>corpus spirituale</em> of mankind, -depositaries of potential spiritual life in liberating -which they the strong themselves will find increased<span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">340</span> -life. And the task of uplifting the lower peoples will -never be successfully prosecuted until it is seen to be -part of the task of humanity in general, which is to -spread the web of spiritual relations over larger and -ever larger provinces of the finite realm.<a id="FNanchor_99_99" href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">99</a></p> -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">341</span></p> - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_IX-4">CHAPTER IX<br /> - -<small>RELIGIOUS FELLOWSHIP AS THE CULMINATING -SOCIAL INSTITUTION</small></h3> - - -<p>In this chapter I shall undertake to sketch the plan -of a religious society as determined by the spiritual -ideal herein set forth. The religious society is the last -term in the series of social institutions, and its peculiar -office is to furnish the principle for the successive transformation -of the entire series. It is to be the laboratory -in which the ideal of the spiritual universe is created and -constantly recreated, the womb in which the spiritual life -is conceived. No single religious society can adequately -fulfill this purpose. The spiritual ideal itself must -necessarily be conceived differently by different minds; -but the great general purpose will be the same, despite -variations in shades of meaning and points of view.</p> - -<p>The fellowship of the religious society must be based -on the voluntary principle; membership must be a matter -of free choice.<a id="FNanchor_100_100" href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> In antiquity the boundaries of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">342</span> -the political and religious organizations coincided. The -citizen was under obligations as a part of his civic duty -to worship the divinities of the state. In modern times -a state church is still maintained in some countries and -supported out of the public funds, while dissenting and -nonconformist bodies exist more or less on sufferance at -its side. But this arrangement is harmful, especially so -to those whom it seems to favor. Erastianism paralyzes -religious spontaneity. The state, it is true, is profoundly -interested in the flourishing of ethical idealism, and in -the constant rebirth in its midst of spiritual ideals. But -it is not competent to determine what the character of -these ideals shall be. The moment they cease to be freely -produced they lose their life-giving power. The state -within limits may enforce actions; it may not even attempt -to enforce beliefs.</p> - -<p>On the other hand, the “secularization of the state” -has given rise to the deplorable impression that the state -exists only for so-called secular purposes, and has -stripped the idea of the state of the lofty attributes with -which the greatest thinkers of antiquity had clothed it. -It is the function of the religious society, dwelling uncoerced -in the midst of the state, to reinvest the state -with the sacred character that belongs to it. I do not -of course intend to exalt the state after the manner of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">343</span> -Hegel, as if it were a kind of earthly god or to set -it up as an object of religious or quasi-religious devotion. -The object of religious devotion is the infinite -holy community, the spiritual universe. The function -of the religious society is to generate the ideal of the -infinite holy community, of the spiritual universe. The -family, the vocation, the nation, are sub-groups of this, -lesser entities. Even mankind itself is but a province -of the ideal spiritual commonwealth that extends beyond -it. To concentrate worship upon the state or -nation as some propose, would be to usurp for the part -the piety that belongs to the whole.</p> - -<p>In describing a religious society three main aspects -are to be borne in mind:</p> - -<p>The teaching, the organization, the worship.</p> - - -<h4><i>A. The Teaching</i></h4> - -<p>In the religious society as here conceived there is to -be worked out a body of doctrine, and there is to be a -body of specially designated teachers. An ethico-religious -society cannot ignore or dispense with a general -philosophy of life and statements of belief. It cannot -restrict itself to encouraging practical morality without -regard to what are called metaphysical subtleties. -A moral society of this kind would soon become ossified. -On the contrary, an ethico-religious society should excel -in the fertility with which it gives rise to new metaphysical -constructions and original formulations of ethical -faith. The will cannot be divorced from the intellect. -The active volitional life cannot be successfully stimu<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">344</span>lated -and guided without the assistance of the mind as -well as of the imagination.</p> - -<p>But the relation between philosophy and formulas of -belief on the one hand and volitional experience on the -other should be the reverse of what it has been in the past. -Here there must be a new departure. The doctrine, the -formulations, whatever they may be, must not be dogmatic -but flexible. Growing originally out of ethical experience, -they must ever prove themselves apt to enlarge -and deepen ethical experience. By this test they will be -judged and they must therefore ever be subject to revision -and correction. Every dogma, every philosophic or -theological creed, was at its inception a statement in -terms of the intellect of a certain inner experience. But -then it claimed for itself eternal validity, compressing -the spiritual life within its mold, and checking further -development. The body of doctrine which I desire and -foresee will likewise be an interpretation of ethical experience, -intended to make explicit the fundamental principles -implicit in ethical experience, and thereby clarifying -it, and assisting its further unfolding. But it is not -and should never be allowed to become dogmatic. The -difference, I take it, is plain: in the one case experience -contracted in procrustean fashion into a rigid formula, -in the other case an elastic formula adapted to and subordinated -to the experience.</p> - -<p>Thus much for the body of teachings. There should -also be a body of teachers. A teacher in an ethico-religious -society will retain something of the character -of his predecessors—priest, prophet, rabbi, pastor. The -priest is the mediator of grace; the prophet is the seer<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">345</span> -of visions; the rabbi is learned in the Divine law, and -the pastor is the helper of the individual in securing -his individual salvation. But these functions will now be -seen in an altered light, and will be radically modified -in their exercise. The magical attribute of the priest -disappears. The confident prediction of future events, -based on the assumption that the moral order is to be -completely realized in human society, has ceased to be -convincing. The Divine law is no longer identical with -the Law revealed in the Scriptures and their commentaries, -and the salvation of the individual is to be accomplished -by other means.</p> - -<p>The religious teacher of the new kind is to resemble -his predecessors in being a specialist. The word specialist -in this connection may, perhaps, awaken misgivings, -and these must be removed. He is not a specialist in -the sense of having a conscience unlike that of others, -or in being the keeper of other men’s consciences. Nor -shall he impose his philosophy of life or his belief authoritatively, -but propose it suggestively. His best -results will be gained if he succeeds in so stimulating -those whom he influences that they will attain an individualized -spiritual outlook of their own, consonant with -their own individual nature and need. But specialists -of this kind are indispensable. The generality of men -have neither the time nor the mental equipment to think -out the larger problems of life without assistance, and -the attempt on their part to do so leads to crudities -and eccentricities of which one meets nowadays with -many pathetic examples among those who have severed -their connection with the traditional faiths, and have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">346</span> -tried in their groping fashion to invent a metaphysic or -a creed of their own.<a id="FNanchor_101_101" href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">101</a></p> - -<p>The preparation of the ethical teacher for his special -task consists in making himself thoroughly acquainted -with the great religious systems of the past, in which -much that is of permanent spiritual value is enshrined.<a id="FNanchor_102_102" href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> -He is to fit himself to revitalize what is vital, not to -repristinate what is obsolete. There is required of him -a first-hand knowledge of the great ethical systems, -and of their philosophical backgrounds: furthermore -acquaintance, so far as it is as yet accessible, with the -moral history of mankind, as distinguished from the history -of ethical thinking; in addition, he should intensively -study the economic, social and political problems -of the time from the ethical point of view, and the -psychology both of individual and national character, -so far as that fascinating and difficult subject has been -opened up by competent writers. Apprenticeship in -the social reform movements of the day, direct touch -with the inner life of people, on its healthful as well -as on its sick side, is also presupposed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">347</span></p> - -<p>Since no single person can be adequately prepared in -these various subjects, and since a variety of gifts and -talents is demanded, it follows that the teaching function -shall be exercised by a body or group of teachers, -not by a single pastor at whose feet the congregation -are supposed to sit. Some of the persons engaged in -this work will excel as public speakers, others as writers, -others as teachers of the young, others as leaders of -vocational groups. But all these different functionaries -must learn to work, not only in harmony, but in -organic, reciprocal support, themselves illustrating in -their group life the spiritual relation, the knowledge -and the practice of which they are to carry out into the -world. The guild or group idea must be applied to the -religious teachers of the future.</p> - - -<h4><i>B. The Organization</i></h4> - -<p>Every religion exhibits a certain form of organization -peculiar to itself and derived from its controlling -idea. The organization of the Buddhist fellowship is dependent -on the Buddhist ideal of preparation for absorption -in Nirvana. The constitution of the Jewish -synagogue reflects the conception of the relation of the -Chosen People, as an <em>élite</em> corps of the divinity. The -organization of the Christian church is characterized by -its bifurcation into an <i lang="la">ecclesia militans</i> and an <i lang="la">ecclesia -triumphans</i>, and further by the idea of incorporation into -the body of Christ, a difficult mystical conception as of -a typical divine individual including within his body a -multitude of other individuals.</p> - -<p>The organization of the ethico-religious society has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">348</span> -been foreshadowed in the chapter on the vocations. The -society is to be divided into vocational groups. In each -vocational group is to be worked out the specific ethical -ideal of that vocation. In the groups the general -ethical philosophy of life is to be applied, tested and -enriched. The so-called ethical teachers will here come -into fruitful contact with those who are in touch at -first hand with actual conditions, and are cognizant of -the difficulties to be surmounted in ethicizing vocational -standards. The members of the groups in democratic -fashion will contribute to the advancement, not only of -ethical practice, but of ethical knowledge, and thus become -on their side teachers of the teachers. The danger -of the formation of an ethical clergy will be averted. -The teachers will be in certain respects the pupils of -the taught, and the relation be reciprocal, that is, ethical.</p> - -<p>Among the groups the vocational group of Mothers -will occupy the central place. The influence of women, -especially of the mother group, must penetrate the religious -society through and through, for the purpose of -drawing the entire fellowship together into a coherent -unity. Women henceforth will take a deeper interest in -the ethical development of human society. A main factor, -if not the only factor in the ethical development of -human society, is the elevation of the vocational standards. -The group of mothers will therefore be in close -touch with the other vocational groups in order to gain -a knowledge of the higher standards therein proposed, -in order to appraise them, and to inspire the growing -generation with the devoted purpose to carry these standards -out in practice.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">349</span></p> - - -<h4><i>C. The Worship or Public Manifestation of Religion</i></h4> - -<p>The ideal of worship likewise must undergo transformation. -It has meant an act of homage toward a superior -or supreme individual; it has meant eulogistic affirmation -of the power, wisdom, goodness, of that individual; -it has meant prayer or petition for help from that -individual. It has also meant spiritual edification.</p> - -<p>In all these various modes, religious worship heretofore -has focused attention on a single individual deity -as one who embodies in himself the sum of perfection. In -thus presenting the ideal of perfection, it has encouraged -preference for unity at the expense of plurality. -The salient feature of the spiritual ideal sketched in -this volume is the affirmation, on ethical grounds, that -plurality is of equal dignity with unity, and hence that -the divine ideal is to be represented not as One, but -as manifold; not as an individual, however supereminent, -but as an infinite holy community,—every human -being being in his essential nature a member of that -community.</p> - -<p>But can worship be offered to the members of a holy -community? In a certain sense one might say, Yes, -preëminently so, since worship may be taken to mean -Worthship, and the worth intrinsic in our fellowmen -is the object of our unceasing homage. At the same -time very different associations have gathered about -the word. Public worship consists largely of eulogistic -singing, prayer, adoration, genuflexion, and these are -appropriate only to deity conceived as an individual. -We cannot even say with the Psalmist<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">350</span> “the heavens declare -the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his -handiwork.” For though the beauty and order apparent -in Nature is one aspect of nature on which we delight to -dwell, yet we cannot disingenuously suppress the counter -evidence of disorder, ugliness and suffering which -Nature no less obtrudes on our sight. The argument -from design implied in the Psalmist’s words is no longer -tenable. Certainly we cannot any longer pray for material -assistance as our forefathers did, or invoke supernatural -intervention in situations where human science -and human helpfulness are impotent. But worship also -aims at ethical edification, by holding up to the mind the -moral ideal as an object of imitation, and as a rebuke -to man’s shortcomings. This indeed is its highest function. -Nevertheless the moral ideal, as we conceive it, is -incapable of being presented in the guise of an individual -being, no matter by what superlative language the limitation -inseparable from individuality be concealed. The -bare attributes of omniscience and omnipotence are -abstract and convey no positive meaning whatever. In -actual worship a concrete image is invariably associated -with the notion of the individualized Deity, such as the -Father image or the Christ image. And as soon as this -is done, the vast ethical ideal tends to shrink to the -dimensions of a human image; and instead of the ideal -in its fullness, only certain selected but inadequate aspects -of ethical excellence are presented to the worshiper.</p> - -<p>And yet in an ethico-religious society also the public -manifestation of religion is indispensable. Of what -elements shall it consist?</p> - -<p>First, there are to be the public addresses by the teach<span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">351</span>ers, -having for their main object to arouse or intensify a -certain kind of spiritual distress, and then as far as -possible to appease it. Every religion in my judgment -originates in a particular kind of anguish, and is an attempt -to assuage it. The spiritual distress in which the -ethico-religious society has its origin is the agonizing -consciousness of tangled relations with one’s fellow-beings, -and the inexpressible longing to come into right -relations with them. He is fit to be a public teacher of -this religion who profoundly experiences this distress, -who desires nothing so much as to cease to be, for his -part, a thorn in his neighbor’s side. We are that, each -of us, inevitably. The more this feeling is strong in him -the more will he arouse similar feelings in others, and -thus awaken those who are spiritually asleep, the self-righteous, -the self-satisfied, and he will then indicate to -the utmost of his power, the way of relief.</p> - -<p>The specific ethical ideals of life are also to be presented -in public assemblies—the ideals of private ethics, -of marriage, friendship, and the rest. These expressions -of the specific ideals, charged with feeling, and taking on -appropriate imagery, will gradually attain a certain -classical fitness—classical at least for a time—and may -be used as public readings.</p> - -<p>But is there a substitute for prayer?</p> - -<p>Among the advantages of prayer is often mentioned -this: that in it the soul reaches out towards its source, -and in so doing wonderfully recruits its spiritual energy. -It finds, ethically speaking, its second wind. It reaches -down beneath its utmost strength to find an increment -of strength not previously at its disposal. The question<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">352</span> -is whether this increment of strength cannot be obtained -more surely and to better purpose in another way, -namely, by concentrating attention on the spiritual need -of the fellow-beings with whom we are in daily touch, -and by becoming aware to what an extent the finer nature -imprisoned in them is dependent for its release -upon our exertions. The appeal of the God in our -neighbor is the substitute for the appeal in prayer to the -God in heaven, the call of the stifled spiritual nature in -the men and women at our side, is to draw out of us our -utmost latent force, the strengths underneath the -strength.</p> - -<p>The common life we share with our fellow-members -in the religious society demands expression in song and -in responsive services. The high wave of this common -life welling up in us, rising to the surface, makes -the glow of religious meetings, gives them fervor, and a -touch of rapture, not indeed the common life conceived -as a uniform life, but as the life we live in others, and -they in us.</p> - -<p>The addresses that awaken and appease spiritual -pain, the presentation of the various modes of right -living, the songs that lift the individual above his private -self and help him to live, not indeed submerged, but -rather spiritually accentuated in the life of the whole, -these are the public manifestations of ethical religion -as I see them. They will contribute to make of the -society itself the symbol of its ethical faith. We shall -not have an external symbol like the cross: the fellowship -itself will be our symbol.</p> - -<p>There will also be festivals. Every religion must<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">353</span> -have its festivals. In place of Baptism the solemn taking -of responsibility for the spiritual development of -the child. A festival of vocational initiation, like the -ancient assumption of the <em>toga</em>. Festivals of citizenship, -inspired by the ideal of the national character as one -to be spiritually transformed. Festivals of humanity -in connection with the commemoration of great events -in the history of our race and of great leaders who were -inspired in some degree by the ideal task of humanity. -Festivals of the seasons, deriving their significance from -the spiritual interpretation of the corresponding seasons -of human life,—youth, middle age, old age. And a -solemn though not mournful festival in commemoration -of the departed.</p> - -<p>The religious assembly should itself be organized; -the members of the different vocational groups should -be allocated to different parts of the meeting hall, as -were the Guilds in certain of the mediæval cathedrals.</p> - -<p>Besides the public manifestations, the private religion -will receive attention. The religious society as a whole -is to be the microcosm of the spiritual macrocosm, a -miniature model of the ideal society, but care must also -be taken for the private communion of the individual -with the spiritual presences which the ideal evokes. There -should be a special breviary for the sick, a Book of Consolation -for the bereaved, a Book of Friendship, a Book -of direction for those who pass through the experience of -sin, and a book of preparation for those who face the end.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">354</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_X-4">CHAPTER X<br /> - -<small>THE LAST OUTLOOK ON LIFE</small></h3> - - -<p>The view of life that man has on leaving it is the -final test of his philosophy of life. These are my -thoughts: It is time to detach thyself from this earth. -The shadows are lengthening. Look around you and -note the strange changes that have taken place in the -men and women of your acquaintance. Those that you -once knew in their prime are now old and wrinkled,—and -how many already dead! As you survey the procession -of life, how many vacant places are there in it! -How many true and loyal comrades have been swept -away! Or go into the busy streets of the city, and -look at the multitude passing through them. You are -still one of this multitude. Presently you will drop out. -There will perhaps be a little ripple on the surface, -and then the stream will flow on as before. How curious -is it to think that this frame of life which sustains -such high faculties should crumble into a little heap of -dust at the touch of the wand of death! Detach thyself, -therefore, relax thy hold by anticipation as thou -shalt soon relax it actually. But detachment does not -mean cold inattention or unnatural shrinking from the -earthly scene, like that of the monk in his cell. Relax -thy hold on what is earthly in the earthly scene, and -fix thy loving attention all the more on what is <em>spirit<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">355</span>ually -significant</em> in it. Regard with a friendly eye -the beauty of the natural landscape around thee—yonder -lake and yonder noble mountain summit. They -are earthly, yet are they also hieroglyphs and symbols.</p> - -<p>Still more is this true of thy social relations. Detach -thyself means relax thy hold on what is transient -in those relations. Cling all the more firmly to what -is spiritual in them. The earth is thy foundation, thou -art Antæus as long as thou remainest in contact with -the earth. Until the very last thou must lean for -strength upon the earthly bases and substrata.</p> - -<p>Consider the drive of the human race through the -time and space world, and its net result. Thou standest -now on a high tower. Lean over the parapet and -peer as far out into the future as thou canst. Thou -standest as did Moses on Mount Pisgah. Strain thy -eyes to catch sight of the Promised Land. But remember -that the Promised Land turned out to be a -land still of promise, not of fulfilment,—a land in which -the prophetic soul of Israel matured its visions of a -fulfilment never on earth to be attained.</p> - -<p>Remember that as thou art linked to thy ancestry, -so art thou linked to posterity. The future centuries -of the human race are like the future years of an individual. -Thou art keenly interested in what may happen -hereafter to the race with which thou art interlinked. -But the race, like the individual, will be cut -off and become extinct before ever the ideal is reached. -Remember, therefore, that the purpose for which humanity -exists is achieved at every moment in everyone -who appropriates the fruits of partial success and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">356</span> -frustration. Whosoever standing on the earth as a -foundation builds up for himself the spiritual universe -attains the purpose of human existence. There is indeed -progress in the explicitness with which the spiritual -ideal is conceived, and we are immeasurably interested -in the greater light to be attained by our posterity. -But the essential fruition of the contact of the infinite -that is in us with the finite world is achievable at every -moment in every human being. And this gives an entirely -new meaning to the spiritual gains achieved in -solitude, which seem vain because there are no witnesses. -But neither will there be witnesses when the -last human beings perish on earth. The spiritual bravery -of the shipwrecked man who sinks on the lonely -ocean springs from the conviction that though the sea -can overwhelm him there is that in him greater than -ocean’s immensity; a conviction achieved through the -experience of living in the life of others. The same -is the gain achieved by the sick man who lies in solitude -like a helpless log in the darkened room. The -altruistic philosophy fails in accounting for the moral -grandeur that attaches to the spiritual victories gained -in silence and solitude.</p> - -<p>Face the terrors of life before you leave life. Be -resolute to the last not to cherish illusions. Face the -terrors of life, the absence of observable design, the -cruelties, the ferocities. Think of William Blake’s -poem “The Tiger”: “Did he who made the lamb make -thee?” In your philosophy there is no question any -longer of a Creator. Creation is an attempt to explain -the coexistence of the imperfect with the perfect, to ac<span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">357</span>count -for a lower stage in terms of a higher. The ultimate -inability of man to understand, to explain, is one -of the principal frustrations he meets with, is the crucifixion -of man at the point of his intellect.</p> - -<p>The radical incompetence of man to grasp with his -intellect the world as a “universe,” is to be faced by -him and accepted without qualification. It marks off -this philosophy of life from those philosophies and theologies -which have attempted to explain the universe, -and which, while affecting humility, are the dupes of -an unwarranted self-confidence. Unqualified admission -of the incompetence of the human intellect to resolve -the world riddle is the determining factor in the -more profound humility which characterizes the religion -of ethical experience. Agnosticism on the intellectual -side is the very condition of the transcending -ethical conviction subsequently attained. Without intellectual -agnosticism there is no ethical certainty.</p> - -<p>Consider now frustration and its supreme outcome, -or the various points at which man is crucified. I have -mentioned the intellectual crucifixion, due to the incompetence -of the mind to understand. I must now -speak of still more poignant experiences due to the incompetence -of man adequately to fulfill the moral law, -or to carry out the spiritual relation in finite terms.</p> - -<p>I have reached the bourne, or am very near it. The -shadows lengthen, the twilight deepens. I look back -on my life and its net results. I have seen spiritual -ideals, and the more clearly I saw them, the wider appeared -the distance between them and the empirical conditions, -and the changes I could effect in those condi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">358</span>tions. -I have worked in social reform, and the impression -I have been able to make now seems to me so -utterly insignificant as to make my early sanguine aspirations -appear pathetic. I have seen the vision of -democracy in the air, and on the ground around me I -have seen the sordid travesty of democracy—not only -in practice but in idea. I have caught the far outlook -upon the organization of mankind, the extension of the -spiritual empire over the earth by the addition to it of -new provinces, and I do not find even the faintest beginnings, -or recognition of the task which the advanced -nations should set themselves. I scrutinize closely my -relations to those who have been closest to me,—and I -find that I have been groping in the dark with respect -to their most real needs, and that my faculty of divination -has been feeble. I look lastly into my heart, my -own character, and the effort I have made to fuse the -discordant elements there, to achieve a genuine integrity -there, and I find the disappointment in that respect the -deepest of all.</p> - -<p>These are the various points of my life at which I -have undergone the crucifixion. I am like Arnold -Winkelried, who gathered the sheaf of spears into his -breast, and even pressed them inward, to make a way -for liberty. So do I press the sharp-pointed spears of -frustration into my breast to make way for spiritual -liberty. For these cruel spears turn into shafts of light, -radiating outward along which my spirit travels, building -its final nest—the spiritual universe.</p> - -<p>Consider the new and profounder humility. In -ethical experience is revealed the plan of the spiritual<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">359</span> -relations, but the entities or substances which are thus -related are incognizable, unknowable. Did I know -them I should be able to solve the riddle of the universe. -I should know how it is that the finite exists side by -side with the infinite. But I cannot know. I cannot -enter into the counsels of the multiform godhead. There -are the mighty powers that weave and interweave behind -the veil, but the veil between them and myself is -down, not to be lifted. Within the palace of light is -the solemn and serene assembly of the gods: I, man, -stand at the gate.</p> - -<p>The world as we know it is itself the veil, the screen, -that shuts out the interplay, the weavings and the interweavings -of the spiritual universe. But at least at one -point, in the ethical experience of man, is the screen -translucent. The plan of the spiritual relation is there -traced in outline. It is this plan that conveys the certainty -as to what verily exists beyond, within, beneath.</p> - -<p>As to my empirical self, I let go my hold on it. I -see it perish with the same indifference which the materialist -asserts, for whom man is but a compound of -physical matter and physical force. It is the real self, -of which the empirical was the substratum, upon which -I tighten my hold. I do not assert immortality, since -immortality, like creation, is a bridge between the phenomenal -and the spiritual levels. Creation is the bridge -at the beginning; immortality the bridge at the end. -Were I able to build the bridge, I should know. I do -not affirm immortality. I affirm the real and irreducible -existence of the essential self. Or rather, as -my last act, I affirm that the ideal of perfection which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">360</span> -my mind inevitably conceives has its counterpart in the -ultimate reality of things, is the truest reading of that -reality whereof man is capable. I turn away from -the thought of the self, even the essential self, as if that -could be my chief concern, toward the vaster infinite -whole in which the self is integrally preserved. I affirm -that there verily is an eternal divine life, a best -beyond the best I can think or imagine, in which all -that is best in me, and best in those who are dear to me, -is contained and continued. In this sense <em>I bless the -universe. And to be able to bless the universe in one’s -last moments is the supreme prize which man can wrest -from life’s struggles, life’s experience.</em></p> - -<p>I look back upon my life once more, and am grateful -for the eternal worth which it was permitted me in this -frail vessel of my mortal existence to hold, for the shimmer -of the spiritual reality of things which I was permitted -to see; grateful especially to those who loved -me, and whom I was permitted to love, and who were -to me in some measure revealers of the eternal life.</p> - -<p>Consider lastly the peace that passeth understanding. -Now, if ever, this peace should descend upon me. -There is a kind of peace that is accessible to the understanding, -and there is the peace that passeth understanding. -The peace that can be understood is that -which consists in the relief of pain. It arises in various -ways. After an acute attack of physical pain how like -balm is felt the succeeding absence of pain. After a -prolonged sickness, when the convalescent takes his first -walk, what a sweet tranquillity fills his mind! There -is also the mental relief that comes when some danger<span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">361</span> -has been safely passed; the peace of the sheltered fireside -to one who has passed through a storm. Again, -there is the peace that follows pecuniary anxiety, or the -removal of some carking care, as when an erring son is -reclaimed, or an estranged wife or husband is found -anew.</p> - -<p>But the peace that passeth understanding is that -which comes when the pain is <em>not</em> relieved, which subsists -in the midst of the painful situation, suffusing it, -which springs out of the pain itself, which shimmers -on the crest of the wave of pain, which is the spear of -frustration transfigured into the shaft of light.</p> - -<p>It is upon those we love that we must anchor ourselves -spiritually in the last moments. The sense of -interconnectedness with them stands out vividly by way -of contrast at the very moment when our mortal connection -with them is about to be dissolved. And the -intertwining of our life with theirs, the living in the -life that is in them, is but a part of our living in the -infinite manifold of the spiritual life. The thought of -this, as apprehended, not in terms of knowledge, but -in <em>immediate experience</em>, begets the peace that passeth -understanding. And it is upon the bosom of that peace -that we can pass safely out of the realm of time and -space.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">363</span></p> - - -<h2 id="APPENDIX">APPENDIX</h2> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">365</span></p> - - -<h3 id="APPENDIX_I">APPENDIX I<br /> - -<small>SPIRITUAL SELF-DISCIPLINE</small></h3> - - -<p>The preceding volume in its entirety and in every part is -nothing else than a book of spiritual self-discipline. Every -religion presents to its followers as real objects that the eye -has not seen. The certainty of the existence of these objects, -religious certainty, religious conviction, springs from one or -other kind of need and distress. The object that the eye has -not seen is believed in because it corresponds to that need, and -relieves that distress. Furthermore, the conviction is strengthened, -the certainty intensified, by two methods: (1) elaboration -of the ideas presented; (2) performing acts in the doing -of which the existence of the objects is presupposed. Thus the -idea of the Heavenly Father corresponds to the childlike need -of protection. The elaboration of this idea in theological systems -strengthens its hold, every idea being powerful as an active -force in proportion as it is worked out in detail and linked up -with other ideas. And ceremonies, prayers, acts of worship in -the doing of which the reality of the Father-God is presupposed, -strengthen the belief in him. Conduct is one of the -chief sources of belief. The more frequently a devout Roman -Catholic prays to the Virgin Mary, the more firmly will he be -convinced that she exists and hears him. These features are -common to all religion: unseen objects are presented as real; -the belief in their reality is augmented by elaboration of the -ideas; and above all their hold is reinforced by practice -founded on and presuming the reality of the ideas.</p> - -<p>The unseen object which the religion of spiritual experience -presents is the unique personality. The lines along which the -ideas are to be elaborated have been sketched in the above.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">366</span> -Conduct based on the presumption that the divine nature exists -in every human being is the principal means of fortifying that -conviction, and this presumption itself rests on the fundamental -fact of worth.</p> - -<p>The difference in rank between the various religions depends -on the kind of need which they seek to satisfy. It may be -physical, as when the worshiper prays for large herds and -fruitful crops. It may be the urging of a passion, as when a -man prays for revenge on his enemies. And it may be ethical. -And if ethical, it may be purely ethical, or ethical with non-ethical -elements admixed. A religion is neither approved nor -condemned because it satisfies a need. The judgment passed on -it depends on the kind of need it undertakes to satisfy.</p> - -<p>Seek to raise the plus traits to the Nth degree. Seek through -spiritual sex interaction to release the spiritual life in the child. -Bring to birth in thyself the idea of the state, etc. Every -chapter of this volume contains some direction as to the lines of -conduct to be followed. The principal self-discipline consists -in the effort to follow these lines.</p> - -<p>But experience tells us that the effort may be hindered or -helped in certain ways. I shall mention a few of the helps and -hindrances:</p> - -<p>Physical and Mental <em>Athleticism</em> are helps to Moral Athleticism. -Ethics is a science of energetics. Bodily and mental -energy is favorable to ethical energizing. By mental energy I -understand especially the habit of vigorously attacking complex -and difficult mental problems.</p> - -<p>Right <em>Asceticism</em> is related to Ethical Development. I exclude -self-abnegation and self-repression practiced as drill -apart from any particular occasion requiring them, holding -that self-repression should always be incidental to self-expression. -This applies especially to the hygiene of the sex passion. -A positive ideal of the sex relation, as in marriage, is an invaluable -help in ennobling and thereby restraining the passion.</p> - -<p>The Ethical Life is the supremely Planful Life. There is a -hierarchy of ends of which the ethical is the apex. The ethical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">367</span> -end is the supreme end to which all others are to be planfully -subordinated. The habit of conducting one’s life planfully is -favorable to ethical behavior. I say planfully, not pedantically, -due regard being always had to spontaneity.</p> - -<p>Among hindrances to Ethical development may be mentioned -the tendency to be satisfied with the <em>minor perfections</em>. The -better is the greatest enemy of the best. The disproportionate -value set on the embellishments of life is but one illustration of -this point.</p> - -<p>A great hindrance to the spiritual life is the necessity under -which we lie of restricting our actual ethical relations to a -<em>few persons</em>. We cannot extend our influence to the millions of -China and India. We cannot even deeply influence a considerable -number of our fellow citizens. On ethical grounds we do -acknowledge the claims of each individual, of all these myriads -of human beings. Yet as far as any actual good we can do -them is concerned, we are powerless, and must leave them to -their fate. The tragic aspect of life comes home to us sharply -at this point. Intensity must take the place of extensity. -Intensive spiritual relations with a few will teach us at least -to conceive worthily of those personalities whom we cannot -directly affect, and to invest them in idea with the honor which -is their due.</p> - -<p>Intimate spiritual relations with a few will also counteract -the unethical habit of labeling those with whom we come into -casual contact according to the special functions they happen -to exercise. Thus a letter-carrier is apt to be thought of as -an animated machine to carry letters, a stenographer as a kind -of animated machine to take dictation, the servant in the house -a machine to render physical service. The more complete our -appreciation of personality is in the case of the few, the more -we shall be impelled to transfer the concept of personality, at -least in its outlines, to all others. In this way our friendships, -our close relations, will not restrict our ethical horizon. In the -narrower circle we shall engender those ideas which in thought<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">368</span> -at least we can carry out to the farthest limits of human -society.</p> - -<p>But among the hindrances to ethical practice the two most -conspicuous must not be omitted. They are <em>pity</em> and <em>terror</em>, -pity for the pain suffered by others, fear of pain for oneself. -Aristotle regarded it as the high function of the tragic drama -to liberate men from these disturbing factors. The two are -combined and in consequence exacerbated to an extreme degree -in those situations where the pain suffered by another person is -at the same time poignantly felt as one’s own pain. And the -anguish felt in seeing the physical suffering of another is even -exceeded in witnessing the moral degradation of another, as of -an erring son or an apparently irreclaimable husband or wife. -The doctrine of frustration as explained in this volume is intended -to show the way of relief in such situations. But it is -only by not shirking the pain, by permitting it fully to penetrate, -by uncovering the breast entirely to the entrance of the -pointed spear that we shall have the experience of the transformation -of it into the shaft of light.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">369</span></p> - - - - -<h3 id="APPENDIX_II103">APPENDIX II<a id="FNanchor_103_103" href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">103</a><br /> - -<small>THE EXERCISE OF FORCE IN THE INTEREST OF -FREEDOM</small></h3> - - -<p>Force is a moral adiaphoron. The stigma attaching to the -use of force belongs rather to its abuse. The employment of -force is good or bad according as the ends for which it is used -are good or bad.</p> - -<p>The precept of non-resistance in the Sermon on the Mount is -to be understood as a piece of ethical irony.</p> - -<p>The right, or to be more explicit, the duty, of society to -coerce individual members of it rests on the same ground and -holds within the same limits as the duty of the individual to coerce -himself. Self-coercion depends on the difference in the -quality of one’s impulses, on the choice one is bound to make between -competitive ends. Self-coercion is of two kinds: stimulative -and repressive; stimulative to overcome inertia, repressive -to subject wrong to right impulses.</p> - -<p>He who denies the duty of self-coercion, to be consistent, -must fall back on the position of the Cynics. For the Cynics -were indeed consistent. They asserted not only the right of -the individual to be free from outside compulsion, but also the -right of each individual moment of the individual’s life to be -lived without regard or subjection to future moments. Hence -they rejected civilization and its tasks, inasmuch as the prosecution -of any task involves the subordination of the present to -the content of some future moment.</p> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">370</span></p> -<p>But if the coercion of a man by himself be admitted, it follows -that the exercise of force upon a man by society must in -principle be likewise admitted. For we are social by nature; -we take an interest in the achievement by each one of his -ends, and we regard such achievement as a social-benefit.</p> - -<p>As to the limits within which outside interference is to be -permitted and welcomed, these can best be ascertained by -fastening attention upon the end to be attained. And here -the positive conception of freedom seems to be the most helpful,—freedom -defined as the release in each one of his essential -self, that is, of his distinctive gift and capability, or of that -in him which is unique or most nearly so. A society in which -such valuable contributions were elicited from each would be -the ideal society. Stimulative and repressive social coercion -are justified in so far as they provoke energy and check disturbing -impulses,—always of course without discouraging -spontaneity, which is the very good to be secured.</p> - -<p>The antithesis of reason and force common in discussions of -this subject seems misleading and inadequate; since reason is a -faculty of inference and not of preference, has to do with the -adapting of means to ends, and does not of itself afford guidance -in the choice of ends.</p> - -<p>The concept of freedom as defined is more illuminating. Let -freedom and force be contrasted, not reason and force.</p> - -<p>The idea of law that would follow from what has been said -may be illustrated by comparing the action of law with that of -automatism in the human body. The system of co-ordinations -by which we learn to walk, or acquire any kind of skill, such as -that of performing on a musical instrument, is at first painfully -and consciously acquired. Consciousness superintends every -step in the process. But after a time the sequences reel off automatically. -Consciousness retires from the field, ascends to a -higher plane, and devotes itself to more interesting and significant -business. Law, taking it in its broadest sense, may be -regarded as the automatic machinery of freedom. It is the -system of stimulations and repressions which the experience of -mankind at any given time has found conducive to the attain<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">371</span>ment -of the superior ends of life. In the minds of the more -advanced members of the community repressive laws like the -prohibitions of murder, theft, etc., have already become automatic. -Such a thing as questioning or transgressing these laws -never once in a lifetime occurs to them. (Of the stimulative -laws, such as the requirement to pay taxes in support of the -progressive interests of society, the same is not yet true.) As -regards the backward members of society, however, the repressive -laws are educative. Just as in certain diseases the convalescent -needs to acquire anew the art of walking, which his -neighbors exercise without thinking, so the backward members -of society have to learn painfully those habits of repression -which for others have sunk below the threshold of consciousness.</p> - -<p>Social compulsion therefore may be defined as discipline in -the interest of positive freedom. We may expect that in future -this salutary kind of compulsion will go to even much greater -lengths than it has yet gone. Society as organized in the state -has undoubtedly the right to interfere in the choice of the sexes -by prohibiting the marriage of persons afflicted with infectious -disease. If the study of human character could ever be so far -developed as to determine what kind of temperaments are radically -incompatible with one another (a bare throw in the air of -course), it would be within the province of the state to prohibit -the conjugal union of such temperaments, and thus to -prevent the disastrous effects on real freedom which such incompatibilities -are apt to cause.</p> - -<p>I am well aware of the perils of this point of view. There is a -brutal factor in the action of society, as in that of individuals. -A given community is apt to mistake its prejudices for principles, -its torpor for conservatism, its superstitions for spirituality. -Such apprehensions as those that weighed on the mind -of John Stuart Mill as set forth in his <cite>Essay on Liberty</cite> are not -to be lightly dismissed. And yet the main trend of his argument -was plainly determined by an individualistic conception of -liberty which many of us no longer share. It is safe to say<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">372</span> -that on the whole the benefits of coercion outweigh the detriments. -We have only to picture to ourselves a state of society -in which these coercions should not exist to realize that this is -so. The dangers are real, but are due to the abuse of force and -not to the exercise of it under the controlling idea of positive -freedom which is here proposed.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">374</span></p> - -<p class="half-title">INDEX</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">375</span></p> - - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> - -<div class="index"> -<ul class="index"> -<li class="ifrst">Achilles, <a href='#Page_210'>210</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Africa, exploitation of, <a href='#Page_187'>187</a>f, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Altruism, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a>, <a href='#Page_218'>218</a>, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_256'>256</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Antæus, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li> - -<li class="indx">ἄπαξ λεγόμενον, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a></li> - -<li class="indx">A priori knowledge, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>f, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Architecture, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Aristotle, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>, <a href='#Page_168'>168</a>n, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ark of the Covenant, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arnold, Matthew, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arnold von Winkelried, <a href='#Page_358'>358</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Art, relation to Ethics, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">limitations, <a href='#Page_287'>287</a>n;</li> -<li class="isub1">students of, <a href='#Page_296'>296</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Asceticism, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Bacon, <i>On Studies</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Baptism, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beatrice, <a href='#Page_170'>170</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beauty, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Bereavement, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>, <a href='#Page_162'>162</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Bergson, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Blackstone, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blake, William, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bloch, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bluntschli, <a href='#Page_327'>327</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Buddha, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>, <a href='#Page_199'>199</a>, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Cæsar Borgia, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cana, feast at, <a href='#Page_206'>206</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Categorical Imperative, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">and hypothetical, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Causality, “prejudice of,” <a href='#Page_110'>110</a>f, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Christianity, an estimate of, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>-42;</li> -<li class="isub1">other-worldliness of, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">national, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">forced on the East, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Church, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Citizenship, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Confucius, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Congo, atrocities in, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Conscience, origin of, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Copernicus, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Creation, doctrine of, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cromer, Lord, <a href='#Page_331'>331</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Crucifixion, of man, <a href='#Page_357'>357</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Cynics, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Dante, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>n, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Darwinism, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>, <a href='#Page_78'>78</a>f, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Death in Life,” <a href='#Page_225'>225</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Decalogue, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Democracy, ethical aspect of, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>, <a href='#Page_143'>143</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">political, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>n;</li> -<li class="isub1">evils in, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a>, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>n;</li> -<li class="isub1">new conception of, <a href='#Page_340'>340</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Dependence, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dilke, Sir Charles, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Discipline, <a href='#Page_244'>244</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">376</span>Duality, of character traits, <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Duty, in Kant, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">conflicts of, <a href='#Page_317'>317</a>f</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Education, state, <a href='#Page_252'>252</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as vocation, <a href='#Page_291'>291</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">for adults, <a href='#Page_301'>301</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">moral, <a href='#Page_302'>302</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Edwards, Jonathan, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Egoism, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Elisha, the prophet, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Emerson, estimate of, <a href='#Page_27'>27</a>-29;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Essay on Love</i>, <a href='#Page_164'>164</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Ends, proximate and ultimate, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>-51;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Kant, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">instrumental, <a href='#Page_138'>138</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>, <a href='#Page_229'>229</a>f, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unattainable in finite world, <a href='#Page_149'>149</a>f, <a href='#Page_158'>158</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hierarchy of, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Enemies, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">intellectual, <a href='#Page_207'>207</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Erastianism, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ethical Culture, Society for, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>n;</li> -<li class="isub1">School, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>n, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ethics, as non-violation of personality, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>, <a href='#Page_35'>35</a>, <a href='#Page_54'>54</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">individuality of, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as science of ends, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a>, <a href='#Page_50'>50</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">and social reform, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">relation to other subjects, <a href='#Page_66'>66</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Kantian, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">an independent discipline, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>f, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">energizing quality of, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>n, <a href='#Page_221'>221</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">contrast with physical science, <a href='#Page_93'>93</a>, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its peculiar manifold, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>f, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>f, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">verification in, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and social structure, <a href='#Page_191'>191</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and empirical traits, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>f, <a href='#Page_223'>223</a>f, <a href='#Page_242'>242</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">the law of levitation, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">as science of relations, <a href='#Page_233'>233</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and industry, <a href='#Page_272'>272</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">and art, <a href='#Page_277'>277</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">and nationality, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">historical systems</li> -<li class="indx">of, <a href='#Page_346'>346</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and worship, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page_352'>352</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Evil, problem of, <a href='#Page_32'>32</a>-34;</li> -<li class="isub1">immediate reform, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">contrasted with sin, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>f</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Family, as empirical group, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>, <a href='#Page_249'>249</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">spiritual view of, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Festivals, religious, <a href='#Page_353'>353</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Feudalism, <a href='#Page_142'>142</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Force, as ethical discipline, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">and freedom, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Forgiveness, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Fouillée, Alfred, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a>, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Freedom, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>f, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>, <a href='#Page_306'>306</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Freud, <a href='#Page_79'>79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Friendship, <a href='#Page_234'>234</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Froebel, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Frustration, in marriage, <a href='#Page_62'>62</a>f, <a href='#Page_235'>235</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in bereavement, <a href='#Page_64'>64</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in intellectual ambition, <a href='#Page_65'>65</a>f, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cosmic, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in social betterment, <a href='#Page_69'>69</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in achieving ethical uniqueness, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and ethical plan, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>, <a href='#Page_140'>140</a>, <a href='#Page_147'>147</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">mission of, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>f, <a href='#Page_165'>165</a>, <a href='#Page_195'>195</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in science, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in vocation, <a href='#Page_269'>269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">final realization of, <a href='#Page_356'>356</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">“Functional Finalities,” <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>f</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Galileo, <a href='#Page_97'>97</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Gang Loyalty, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">George, Henry, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Goethe, <a href='#Page_67'>67</a>n, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>n, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>n, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_243'>243</a>, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a></li> - -<li class="indx">God, idea of, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">submission to will of, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">377</span> worship, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greek, art, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>n;</li> -<li class="isub1">philosophy, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">treatment of suffering, <a href='#Page_155'>155</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">idea of evil, <a href='#Page_172'>172</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">social system, <a href='#Page_190'>190</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">epic, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">education, <a href='#Page_299'>299</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grotius, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Hague Conference, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Happiness, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Harnack, Adolf, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hebrews, sex purity, <a href='#Page_7'>7</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">religion, <a href='#Page_14'>14</a>-26;</li> -<li class="isub1">as elect people, <a href='#Page_19'>19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their mission, <a href='#Page_21'>21</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">and problem of evil, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hegel, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Helmholtz, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">History, value of, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>n;</li> -<li class="isub1">ethical aim of, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Humboldt, William von, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hume, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Ilion, <a href='#Page_283'>283</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Imagination, <a href='#Page_267'>267</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Immortality, <a href='#Page_139'>139</a>, <a href='#Page_166'>166</a>f, <a href='#Page_359'>359</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Individual, the, <a href='#Page_246'>246</a>, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Industry, organization of, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">representation of, <a href='#Page_312'>312</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Insanity, <a href='#Page_161'>161</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Intellect, <a href='#Page_227'>227</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Internationalism, <a href='#Page_325'>325</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">obstacles to, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">organized, <a href='#Page_338'>338</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Isaiah, <a href='#Page_22'>22</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Jerusalem, siege of, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jesus, as exemplar, <a href='#Page_25'>25</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his teaching, <a href='#Page_30'>30</a>-42;</li> -<li class="isub1">and the problem of evil, <a href='#Page_33'>33</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">and socialism, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">attitude toward sin, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a>n, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jews, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Justice, social, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">commercial, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">ethical, <a href='#Page_217'>217</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">legal, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Kant, individualistic ethics, <a href='#Page_9'>9</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and holiness idea, <a href='#Page_59'>59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Critique of Ethical Ideal, <a href='#Page_73'>73</a>f, <a href='#Page_137'>137</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">his pre-occupation with physical science, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>f, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>, <a href='#Page_133'>133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">doctrine of ends, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_80'>80</a>, <a href='#Page_87'>87</a>, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">not a pure rationalist, <a href='#Page_95'>95</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i lang="la">a priori</i> doctrine, <a href='#Page_111'>111</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">doctrine of worth, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and God idea, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">and ontological argument, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on marriage, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Keats, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Labor, remuneration of, <a href='#Page_193'>193</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lange, Albert, <i>Die Arbeiterfrage</i>, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>History of Materialism</i>, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Law, <a href='#Page_290'>290</a>, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">international, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">divine, <a href='#Page_345'>345</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and freedom, <a href='#Page_367'>367</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lawyer, vocation of, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lear, King, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Leibnitz, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>n, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lessing, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Life, right to, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Louis XIV, <a href='#Page_316'>316</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Lycidas,” <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Manifold, of time and space, <a href='#Page_96'>96</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in physical science, <a href='#Page_107'>107</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">ethical, <a href='#Page_109'>109</a>f, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>, <a href='#Page_141'>141</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">378</span>Marcus Aurelius, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marriage, and happiness, <a href='#Page_61'>61</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>tabu</i> notion of, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spiritual relation in, <a href='#Page_163'>163</a>, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">monogamic, <a href='#Page_251'>251</a>, <a href='#Page_254'>254</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">infelicitous, <a href='#Page_257'>257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">state control of, <a href='#Page_307'>307</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marx, Karl, <i>Das Kapital</i>, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">type of socialism, <a href='#Page_45'>45</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Materialism, of middle class, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mayer, Robert, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mill, J. S., <a href='#Page_368'>368</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mommsen, <a href='#Page_276'>276</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Monasticism, <a href='#Page_40'>40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monotheism, <a href='#Page_20'>20</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Moral Law, as worshipful, <a href='#Page_10'>10</a>, <a href='#Page_12'>12</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">obligation to obey, <a href='#Page_75'>75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">universality of, <a href='#Page_177'>177</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and worship, <a href='#Page_350'>350</a></li> - -<li class="indx">More, Sir Thomas, <a href='#Page_205'>205</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Moses, <a href='#Page_26'>26</a>, <a href='#Page_355'>355</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">National Character, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sins of, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a>, <a href='#Page_336'>336</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Nature, exploitation of, <a href='#Page_186'>186</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Necessity, applied to ethics, <a href='#Page_85'>85</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">Kantian, <a href='#Page_88'>88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Newton, <a href='#Page_84'>84</a>, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a>, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nietzsche, <a href='#Page_47'>47</a>, <a href='#Page_152'>152</a>, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Non-resistance, doctrine of, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Noumena</i>, Kantian, <a href='#Page_127'>127</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx"><i>Numen</i>, spiritual, <a href='#Page_220'>220</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_228'>228</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a></li> - - -<li class="indx"><i>Œdipus Rex</i>, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>, <a href='#Page_281'>281</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Ontological Argument, <a href='#Page_129'>129</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Ostwald, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Pantheism, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Paul, St., <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peace, spiritual, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pekin, <a href='#Page_330'>330</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Personal Factor in Ethics, <a href='#Page_3'>3</a>-6</li> - -<li class="indx">Personality, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a>, <a href='#Page_222'>222</a>, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>, <a href='#Page_321'>321</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pestalozzi, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peters, Karl, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Philistinism, <a href='#Page_52'>52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Philosophy, monism and pluralism, <a href='#Page_110'>110</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plagiarism, <a href='#Page_197'>197</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plato, transcendent vision of, <a href='#Page_16'>16</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">his idea of justice, <a href='#Page_31'>31</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ethics of, <a href='#Page_74'>74</a>, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">influence of, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>n;</li> -<li class="isub1">and eugenics, <a href='#Page_214'>214</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and art, <a href='#Page_286'>286</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and the State, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poverty, evils of, <a href='#Page_44'>44</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">relief of, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pragmatism, <a href='#Page_106'>106</a>n, <a href='#Page_136'>136</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Prayer, <a href='#Page_351'>351</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Property, its rights, <a href='#Page_185'>185</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">as a social concept, <a href='#Page_189'>189</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ptolemy, <a href='#Page_105'>105</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Public Good, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Punishment, its object, <a href='#Page_176'>176</a>, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">capital, <a href='#Page_204'>204</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Race Prejudice, <a href='#Page_236'>236</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Ranke, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">“Reality-producing functions,” <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>f, <a href='#Page_123'>123</a>n, <a href='#Page_126'>126</a>, <a href='#Page_130'>130</a>, <a href='#Page_132'>132</a>, <a href='#Page_265'>265</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Religion, Types of, <a href='#Page_363'>363</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Religious Society, <a href='#Page_341'>341</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">its teaching, <a href='#Page_343'>343</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">organization, <a href='#Page_347'>347</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">worship, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Repentance, <a href='#Page_203'>203</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Representation, in State, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>n, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">proportional, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reputation, right to, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">379</span>Responsibility, definition, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">for others’ life, <a href='#Page_180'>180</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">for poverty and suffering, <a href='#Page_183'>183</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Reverence, three-fold, <a href='#Page_241'>241</a>f, <a href='#Page_250'>250</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in family, <a href='#Page_253'>253</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in artist, <a href='#Page_284'>284</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">in education, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">among nations, <a href='#Page_324'>324</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Reymond, Dubois, <a href='#Page_128'>128</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rousseau, <i>Confessions</i>, <a href='#Page_6'>6</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">idea of State, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Schiller, <a href='#Page_285'>285</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">School, <a href='#Page_292'>292</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and home, <a href='#Page_294'>294</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">objects of, <a href='#Page_295'>295</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">prevocational, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">moral education in, <a href='#Page_303'>303</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">self-government in, <a href='#Page_304'>304</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Schopenhauer, <a href='#Page_120'>120</a>, <a href='#Page_131'>131</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Science, as vocation, <a href='#Page_263'>263</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">and internationalism, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Self-discipline, <a href='#Page_365'>365</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Self-sacrifice, <a href='#Page_212'>212</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Sermon on the Mount, <a href='#Page_4'>4</a>, <a href='#Page_198'>198</a>, <a href='#Page_366'>366</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Service, <a href='#Page_226'>226</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Shelley, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sin, <a href='#Page_171'>171</a>f, <a href='#Page_202'>202</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Social reform, <a href='#Page_48'>48</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">fallacies of, <a href='#Page_53'>53</a>f, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">spiritual view of, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">its object, <a href='#Page_261'>261</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">various schemes of, <a href='#Page_273'>273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ethical program of, <a href='#Page_275'>275</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Socialism, <a href='#Page_11'>11</a>, <a href='#Page_37'>37</a>, <a href='#Page_43'>43</a>f, <a href='#Page_56'>56</a>n, <a href='#Page_196'>196</a>, <a href='#Page_271'>271</a>f, <a href='#Page_274'>274</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Socrates, <a href='#Page_122'>122</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sophocles, <a href='#Page_173'>173</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spencer, Herbert, <a href='#Page_94'>94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spinoza, <a href='#Page_8'>8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spiritual Nature, <a href='#Page_148'>148</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>, <a href='#Page_231'>231</a></li> - -<li class="indx">State, ethical conception of, <a href='#Page_305'>305</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">sovereignty of, <a href='#Page_308'>308</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">organization of, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">as lawmaker, <a href='#Page_313'>313</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">duty towards, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">and individual, <a href='#Page_319'>319</a>n;</li> -<li class="isub1">international relations, <a href='#Page_326'>326</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">and religion, <a href='#Page_342'>342</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Stephen, the Martyr, <a href='#Page_38'>38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stevenson, R. L., <a href='#Page_208'>208</a>n, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Stoicism, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Suffering, various attitudes toward, <a href='#Page_154'>154</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">ethical attitude, <a href='#Page_159'>159</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Sympathy, as ethical motive, <a href='#Page_49'>49</a>f, <a href='#Page_99'>99</a>n, <a href='#Page_156'>156</a></li> - - -<li class="indx"><i>Tabus</i>, <a href='#Page_77'>77</a>, <a href='#Page_179'>179</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tariff, <a href='#Page_314'>314</a>, <a href='#Page_315'>315</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Tasks of Life, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Thomas à Kempis, <a href='#Page_258'>258</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tolstoy, <a href='#Page_184'>184</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trade, international, <a href='#Page_334'>334</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">slave, <a href='#Page_335'>335</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tyndall, <a href='#Page_268'>268</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tyrrel, Father, <a href='#Page_39'>39</a>, <a href='#Page_150'>150</a>n</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Universe, spiritual, <a href='#Page_125'>125</a>f, <a href='#Page_134'>134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">last blessing of, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li> - -<li class="indx">University, ideal of, <a href='#Page_298'>298</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">American, <a href='#Page_300'>300</a>f</li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Value, <i>vs.</i> Worth, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Vattel, <a href='#Page_332'>332</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Verification in ethics, <a href='#Page_112'>112</a>, <a href='#Page_118'>118</a>, <a href='#Page_135'>135</a>n</li> - -<li class="indx">Virtue, <a href='#Page_211'>211</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vocation, influence on development, <a href='#Page_58'>58</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>vs.</i> occupation, <a href='#Page_260'>260</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">an ethical classification, <a href='#Page_262'>262</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">practical, <a href='#Page_270'>270</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">educational, <a href='#Page_289'>289</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">380</span>represented in State, <a href='#Page_310'>310</a>f, <a href='#Page_322'>322</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Wages and wage-earners, <a href='#Page_194'>194</a>, <a href='#Page_215'>215</a>n, <a href='#Page_216'>216</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Waitz, <i>Anthropologie</i>, <a href='#Page_209'>209</a></li> - -<li class="indx">War, when justified, <a href='#Page_182'>182</a>f</li> - -<li class="indx">Wealth, <a href='#Page_51'>51</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stewardship of, <a href='#Page_192'>192</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whole, ideal of, in ethics, <a href='#Page_100'>100</a>f, <a href='#Page_114'>114</a>f, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Women, in State, <a href='#Page_311'>311</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in religious societies, <a href='#Page_348'>348</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wordsworth, <a href='#Page_282'>282</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Worship, religious, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Worth, in human personality, <a href='#Page_57'>57</a>, <a href='#Page_68'>68</a>, <a href='#Page_70'>70</a>, <a href='#Page_224'>224</a>n, <a href='#Page_247'>247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Kant’s doctrine of, <a href='#Page_82'>82</a>f, <a href='#Page_89'>89</a>f, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ethical justification of, <a href='#Page_91'>91</a>f, <a href='#Page_98'>98</a>n;</li> -<li class="isub1">attributed to man, <a href='#Page_101'>101</a>n, <a href='#Page_102'>102</a>f;</li> -<li class="isub1">as member of ethical manifold, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>, <a href='#Page_119'>119</a>, <a href='#Page_121'>121</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i>vs.</i> value, <a href='#Page_117'>117</a>n;</li> -<li class="isub1">homage to, <a href='#Page_349'>349</a>, <a href='#Page_360'>360</a></li> - - -<li class="ifrst">Zeno, <a href='#Page_108'>108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Zionism, <a href='#Page_24'>24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Zoroaster, <a href='#Page_15'>15</a></li> -</ul> - -<hr class="chap" /> -<div class="chapter"></div> - -<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">1</a> -In view of the writer’s connection with the Ethical Culture Societies -it is fitting to state expressly that the philosophical positions -herein set forth are not to be taken as an official pronouncement on -behalf of the Ethical Culture Movement. The Ethical Societies as -such have no official philosophy. <i>See</i> Book IV, Chapter 9.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">2</a> -Though I must at once mention the first great error which accompanied -the true insight, the shadow which went alongside of the -light, namely, my understanding of the above principle mainly in a -negative sense. My ethics was largely what may be called non-violation -ethics.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">3</a> -The relation of chastity to the birth of the idea of personality -among the Hebrews I have touched upon elsewhere. The Hebrew -people abhorred promiscuity, or the dishonoring of oneself by indiscriminate -mingling. It is instructive that this did not stand in the -way of polygamy. Those persons whom the Hebrew received, so -to speak, into the sphere of his personality, did not imperil his -sense of personal intactness. And personal intactness seems to have -been the determining motive in the severe attitude taken toward -prostitution. The fact that the worship of other gods, the worst -of crimes in the eyes of the Hebrew legislator, was described as -“whoring after other gods” is particularly significant. The sacred, -sensitive self, the holy thing whatever it might be, which the Hebrew -discovered within his own sex experience, was thereafter attributed -also to others, and especially to those who had the same aversion to -promiscuity as he. Hence perhaps the limited ascription of holiness -to members of the Hebrew people.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">4</a> -Pantheism has always seemed to me the least satisfactory of -theological or ethical solutions. The system of thought which will -be found later on in this volume may have a certain superficial -resemblance to Pantheism, but in reality is as far from it in origin -and purpose as pole from pole.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_5_5" href="#FNanchor_5_5" class="label">5</a> -There are also passages in books that have the same revolutionizing -effect (Cf. the passage quoted from St. Paul in St. Augustine’s -“Confessions”). However, it is curious to observe that the effect -brought about may be quite out of proportion to the cause. The -book or the passage may prove to be of inferior value, so far as its -subject is concerned, and may yet serve suddenly to call attention -to the subject itself, and give rise to trains of thought that eventually -go far beyond the impetus that set them in motion. “Ripeness,” -says Shakespeare, “is everything,”—ripeness to receive the -impetus. Relatedness to the state of mind of the recipient is the -decisive factor, and this accounts for the astounding changes that -result.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_6_6" href="#FNanchor_6_6" class="label">6</a> -I still go back to that fountain-head for refreshment and inspiration, -much as a modern poet may go back to Homer, without -attempting to copy him, or as a modern sculptor or architect may go -back to the Greek artists without relinquishing his right and his duty -to help in producing a different kind of art, which perchance may -one day culminate in masterpieces like theirs, though his own performance -be but the poor beginning.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_7_7" href="#FNanchor_7_7" class="label">7</a> -Compare the ejaculatory deliverance of Isaiah, the Sermon on -the Mount, and the Parables of Jesus. Who can attempt in language -to express what they saw as they did?</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_8_8" href="#FNanchor_8_8" class="label">8</a> -No seriously religious person will attempt to strike out into a new -path unless he be under inward coercion to do so. The advantages -of what is commonly called historic continuity (I have just shown -wherein real continuity consists, that of growth along the trunk, -and not of growth along the branch) are great. There is for one -thing the support derived from leaning on an ancient tradition, the -proud humility felt in passing on the torch that had been held by -mighty predecessors, the self-dedication to that which is larger than -self, <i>i.e.</i>, to an institution and ideas that existed in the world before -one was born, and will exist after one is gone. There is the strength -drawn from contact with a large and powerful organization, -powerful both in sustaining one’s efforts, and in restraining and correcting -them when need be. There are, on the other side, the perils of innovation, -the errors into which one is led for lack of restraint and -correction, the too great dependence on self, the spiritual loneliness -and the lack of many gracious and useful aids to the religious life -such as a noble ritual, majestic music, the fit emotional expressions -of religious feeling, which are not to be had for the asking, the fine -embellishments that are precious in their way, and that, like the -fruits in the Gardens of the Gods, ripen slowly, and may not be -extemporized or anticipated.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_9_9" href="#FNanchor_9_9" class="label">9</a> -See <a href="#CHAPTER_IX-4">Chapter IX</a> on the Religious Society in Part IV of this -volume. It gives rise to the belief that men as individuals or collectively -are the objects of a special Providence, and that the universe -is so arranged as to be adapted to man’s needs, not to say his -wishes; whereas the facts show that man must adapt himself to -the universe, and find his physical safety and his ethical salvation -in so doing. The belief in the Father who allows not one hair of -our heads to fall unnoticed raises expectations to which actual -experience fails to correspond. -</p> -<p> -As to the issue between monotheism and trinitarianism, it has -long since become obsolescent, if not obsolete. The forward-looking -men and women of our time are absorbed in far other issues—Is the -mechanical theory propounded by science the ultimate account of -things? Is the world in which we live a blind machine? Is man a -chance product of nature, like the beasts that perish? Not is God -one in unity or is He a Triune God, but, is there a God at all? Is -there a supersensible reality? Is religion capable of a new lease of -life, and of giving a new lease of life to us who now are spiritually -dead?</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_10_10" href="#FNanchor_10_10" class="label">10</a> -Of many ethical types of behavior no examples whatever as yet -exist, for instance, of the ethically-minded employer or merchant, -ethically-minded in thought and in practice. The standard of ethical -behavior which we apply is at present higher and more exacting. -The standard itself indeed is in process of being defined, and -there are no illustrations of it, or none but very imperfect ones, -on which to dwell with satisfaction. But the same is true of other -vocations. We are very thankful for any examples that can be -found. They seem to prove that that which ought to be can be. -But we may not lean on them too hard. They are never quite adequate, -even in their limited sphere; and there is ever an Ought-to-be -beyond that which has been even partially realized, beyond that -which has even as yet been conceived. To make too much of example -is to check moral progress. Along with a due appreciation -of past moral achievements, there should be encouraged a spirit of -brave adventure, a certain intrepidity of soul to venture forth on -voyages of discovery into unknown ethical regions, taking the risks -but bent upon the prize.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_11_11" href="#FNanchor_11_11" class="label">11</a> -I am aware that a highly esteemed school of modern theologians -maintain that the apocalyptic element is a secondary and even an -embarrassing feature for Jesus. But I am unable to convince myself -of the justice of this view.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_12_12" href="#FNanchor_12_12" class="label">12</a> -See the similes used in the previous chapter on the growth of -the tree as manifested in the putting forth of a new branch, and -the ascent of an eminence which includes the part of the spiritual -landscape previously seen, but also that part which from the previous -station was excluded.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_13_13" href="#FNanchor_13_13" class="label">13</a> -I say <i>caused</i>, but perhaps not deliberately intended, although -there are instances of the latter. An act is diabolical when maliciously -designed to inflict a wrong on another; as rape for the purpose -of dishonoring a family. It is cruelly selfish but not fiendish -when it springs from scorn of others as if they were only fractional -human beings. The Brahmin’s attitude towards the lower castes, -the attitude of the feudal lord toward the serf, of Shakespeare’s -nobility toward the common citizens, and of some modern theorists -toward the democratic multitude, are instances in point. In such -cases the moral sense itself is astray, but there is perhaps no deliberate -sinning against the light.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_14_14" href="#FNanchor_14_14" class="label">14</a> -I have not touched upon the further question to what extent -we can really compass the happiness, except at rare moments, even -of a single human being. The altruistic philosophy is apt to confound -the removal of manifest evils with positive benefaction. But -the removal of one kind of evil lets in new kinds; and wherein then -consists the gain so far as happiness is concerned?</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_15_15" href="#FNanchor_15_15" class="label">15</a> -To ward off the most serious misunderstanding, I must remind -every reader of the chapter on Social Reform, as well as on the -Hebrew religion and on the ethics of the Gospels, that I am narrating -the phases of my own development. I am not attempting to -do justice to all that is excellent in those great religions and in -these great social movements; I am trying to show at what points, -despite those excellences, I myself felt compelled to diverge from -them, to push beyond them. In regard to Socialism I recognize the -immense service it has performed in awakening the conscience of -modern society to the sufferings of the working class. And in pointing -out the dangers of opportunism, the fallacy of provisionalism, -I am speaking of dangers from which I felt that I must escape, not -casting a slur on the noble personalities that have appeared in the -field of social reform during my own time and among my friends -and acquaintances. Such personalities, because of their inbred fineness, -may be immune against tendencies which yet undeniably exist, -and which therefore require to be explicitly apprehended.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_16_16" href="#FNanchor_16_16" class="label">16</a> -See the published accounts of the Ethical Culture School.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_17_17" href="#FNanchor_17_17" class="label">17</a> -The word “edification” as commonly used has a sentimental flavor. -It does not as a rule convey the idea of constructiveness at all. -It frequently suggests a kind of warm, moist, semi-tropical atmosphere -for the emotions of the hearer to simmer in. But in its genuine -meaning of “building up” it is too valuable a word to lose.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_18_18" href="#FNanchor_18_18" class="label">18</a> -A new conception of culture is needed, based neither on exclusive -specialism, nor on the ambition to know everything after -the manner of Goethe in his early days, and such a conception of -culture must supply the foundation of an educational philosophy.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_19_19" href="#FNanchor_19_19" class="label">19</a> -See II Samuel, VI, 6, 7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_20_20" href="#FNanchor_20_20" class="label">20</a> -Primitive communities valued coöperation because it was socially -useful. But there are different kinds of coöperation. Which kind -shall we of today adopt? The mere idea of coöperation affords -no clue. The self-sacrifice of the individual to the whole of which -he is a part is socially useful. But on what occasions and to what -degree is it useful? Altruism is socially useful. We are to serve -others. But what in them shall we serve? Their physical needs, -their intellectual needs, all their needs together? Is that humanly -possible? Here again an ethical principle is required to define the -quality and the limits of the service. The latent race-consciousness -of which Darwin speaks affords no light on the ethical problems -proper. The concept of social utility, if not valueless, is at best -only of subsidiary value in any attempt to solve these problems. -So far from reading once and for all the riddle of conscience, -Darwin has not read aright the terms of the riddle.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_21_21" href="#FNanchor_21_21" class="label">21</a> -He also assumes a society not only of rational intelligences determined -by the same rational motives, but equal in ability to carry -out their motives. (See my article in <i>Mind</i> [new series, Vol. XI, -No. 42, p. 162], reprinted in the volume dedicated to William -James, by the Philosophical Faculty of Columbia University.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_22_22" href="#FNanchor_22_22" class="label">22</a> -Surefootedness, or certainty in thinking and in acting seems to -have been the chief desideratum at which Kant aimed. As against -scepticism or mere empirical groping this element of the inner life -is obviously of exceeding value. But it is far from being the only -element to be taken into account.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_23_23" href="#FNanchor_23_23" class="label">23</a> -See the more extended remarks on this subject in Book III.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_24_24" href="#FNanchor_24_24" class="label">24</a> -In Kant’s view the rational element is projected on the irrational. -In this way spatial juxtaposition is ideally transformed into -a spatial continuum. In the same manner temporal sequence is -ideally changed into a uniform temporal flux. Without the former, -geometry could not have established its propositions; without the -latter Galileo could not have measured the fall of the stone.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_25_25" href="#FNanchor_25_25" class="label">25</a> -The ethical character of acts depends on the worth of the agent -and the object. Is it right to kill or to enslave a fellowman? We -do not hesitate to kill an animal, or to harness horses to vehicles, -or to use them as beasts of burden. Why not kill men, or use them -as beasts of burden in like manner?—Only because they possess a -worth which gives them a different standing. -</p> -<p> -Is it on grounds of sympathy that I should observe the so-called -moral rules? But if I am not sympathetic by nature, why should -I be subject to censure in case I refrain from displaying a tenderness -which I do not feel? Why should I sympathize with the -pleasures and pains of fellow human beings any more than with -the pleasures and pains of inferior sentient creatures, unless men -have worth? And worth, as will appear in the subsequent chapters, -signifies indispensableness in a perfect whole. No detached thing -has worth. No part of an incomplete system has worth. Worth -belongs to those to whom it is attributed in so far as they are conceived -of as not to be spared, as representing a distinctive indispensable -preciousness, a mode of being without which perfection -would be less than perfect. -</p> -<p> -So that morality depends on the attribution of worth to men, and -worth depends on the formation in the mind of an ideal plan of the -whole—or instead of a complete plan let me say more precisely a -rule of relations whereby the plan is itself progressively developed.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_26_26" href="#FNanchor_26_26" class="label">26</a> -To rate anyone as an end <i lang="la">per se</i> means that in a world conceived -as perfect his existence would be indispensable. The world we -know may not be perfect, is not perfect, but we do conceive of an -ideal world that is. And to ascribe to anyone the quality of worth, -to denominate him an end <i lang="la">per se</i>, is to place him into that world, -to regard him as potentially a member of it.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_27_27" href="#FNanchor_27_27" class="label">27</a> -For a creature endowed with different senses, and having a -mind unlike our own, the world would be a totally different world.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_28_28" href="#FNanchor_28_28" class="label">28</a> -To deny such <i lang="la">a priori</i> knowledge of the object called God is -not to deny that the production of this object is due to constructive -principles of human thinking; while, in turn, to assert the functional -derivation of the God-idea is not to validate that idea itself as permanent -and inexpugnable. It may have owed its origin to a permanent -disposition of the mind, and yet be fallible because of the historical -conditions under which it arose and the defective data in -which it was expressed. By way of illustration we might apply the -same reflection to the Ptolemaic astronomy. The mathematical -processes by which this astronomy was constructed may be traced -to permanent singularities of human thinking, yet the astronomical -theory of Ptolemy is not on that account <i lang="la">a priori</i> true.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_29_29" href="#FNanchor_29_29" class="label">29</a> -It must, however, be understood that the formula in which a -finality is expressed is not itself a final formula. The business of -definition is precarious, liable to error and dogmatic abuse, and the -formulas of finality are to be constantly subjected to revision. Possible -and even probable abuse, however, does not warrant the negative -attitude at present taken; it does not justify the revulsion of -feeling against <i>A Priorism</i> which is just now general. Exasperation -with absolutism does not of itself justify recourse to the opposite -extreme of pragmatism.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_30_30" href="#FNanchor_30_30" class="label">30</a> -Say not <i>part</i> or <i>element</i>, but <i>member</i>, to distinguish the components -of the ethical manifold from such concepts as are used in -mathematics and physical science.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_31_31" href="#FNanchor_31_31" class="label">31</a> -The distinction between value and worth must be stressed for -it is capital. Value is subjective. The worth notion is the most -objective conceivable. Value depends on the wants or needs of our -empirical nature. That has value which satisfies our needs or wants. -We possess value for one another, for the reason that each of us -has wants which the others alone are capable of satisfying, as in -the case of sex, of coöperation, in the vocation, etc. But value -ceases when the want or need is gratified. The value which one -human being has for another is transient. There are, in the strict -sense, no permanent values. The value which the majority have -for the more advanced and developed members of a community is -small; from the standpoint of value most persons are duplicable and -dispensable. Consider only the ease with which factory labor is -replaced, in consequence of the prolific fertility of the human race. -The custom of speaking of ethics as a theory of values is regrettable. -It evidences the despair into which many writers on ethics -have fallen as to the possibility of discovering an objective basis -for rightness.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_32_32" href="#FNanchor_32_32" class="label">32</a> -But the verification itself is the clearer and more explicit vision -of the ethical relation, as it ought to be.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_33_33" href="#FNanchor_33_33" class="label">33</a> -The term “ethical unit” used above should be found useful. The -chemists have found the concept of the atom useful, though no one -has ever seen an atom. And all the sciences have recourse to similar -inventions,—such as the electron, or the ion, or energy regarded as -a substance, and in mathematics the sublimated, space-transcending -concepts. Looking through the eyes of science, we are taught to see, -underlying the grossest forms of matter, imaginary entities which -are well-nigh metaphysical in nature. Science starts from the -realm of the sensible, and constructs its super-rarefied devices on -mechanical models. Then it leaves the field of the intuitively perceptible, -and rises by the path of analogy into realms where the -notions with which it operates are no longer imaginable. I do not -wish, in speaking of an ethical, invisible, and unimaginable entity, -to derive the postulation of this conception from science. The -ethical concept transcends wholly the field of sensible experience. -It is not discovered by way of analogy. It is frankly and overtly -supersensible. It is not exemplified in the effects it produces in -the world of volition as the most nearly metaphysical concepts of -science are exemplified in the field of phenomena by the recurrences -or uniformities which they serve to account for. The ethical concepts -are not verified by their results at all, not by recurrences of -phenomena, but by the persistence of the effort to attain that which -is finitely never attained, and <i>by the more explicit perception of the -ideal itself</i> which follows the persistent effort; for as has been -shown above, when face to face with fundamental truth, <i>seeing is -believing</i>. But I allude to these matters in order to show that the -movement in ethical thinking represented by the system which I -propose is not contrary to the present-day movement in science, but -in line with it, though beyond it. It does not ask leave of science; -it does not base its certainty on scientific precedent; but neither does -it expect a veto from the lips of science. The worthwhileness of -scientific endeavor itself depends at bottom on the sanction which -the ideal of the complete carrying out of the reality-producing functions -lends to their incomplete execution in the world of the space -and time manifold.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_34_34" href="#FNanchor_34_34" class="label">34</a> -I do not however agree with those who regard the shreds of -theology remaining in his system as a concession, not wholly ingenuous, -to orthodoxy. He was brought up in the pietistic faith, -and had probably not entirely outgrown the emotional impressions -of those early teachings. The noumena, however, play a part in the -system itself distinct from the theology, and are not to be taken as -supersensible realities. They are limiting concepts intended to serve -as incentives or lures, winning the mind to continue without cessation -its advance along certain paths within the field of experience; -but they are not supposed to give any clue as to what is beyond -experience. That which is beyond the field of experience is simply -unknowable. Thus the noumenon called “thing <i lang="la">per se</i>” is notice -given to the mind not to be deterred in its proper business of unifying -the space and time manifold by the difficulties which arise when -the time and space manifold is taken as an ultimate account of -reality. The thing <i lang="la">per se</i> is a welcome to science and not a bar set -up in its path. -</p> -<p> -The noumenon of freedom is an incentive to man urging him to -act as if he were capable of practicing the law of universality and -necessity. In fact the phrase “as if” plays a leading rôle in the -Kantian philosophy. The noumenon of God, as will presently be -shown, is afflicted with this conditional “as if” character to even a -higher degree. We are to assume God in order to look upon the -vast field of possible experience as if it were unified, as if a being -who himself stands for unity had been its creator. This assumption -is supposed to be necessary in order to encourage the scientist in -his search for the thread of unity, lest he flag by the way. As a -matter of fact scientists have contented themselves with the simple -assumption of the uniformity of nature as necessary to the prosecution -of their investigations, and have as a rule troubled themselves -little to hypostasize the notion of unity. Nor has recent progress -in science been associated with and influenced by the belief in an -individual Deity. The noumenon of God is unnecessary for science -while in Kant’s ethical application of it it is positively harmful. He -introduces the God notion as an artificial device for linking together -happiness and virtue, a device quite inconsistent with the noble austerity -of his ethical system, whatever its other defects may be. -</p> -<p> -The noumena, then, are apparitions that appear at the end of -certain paths in the field of experience, far off where the sky and -the ground seem to meet. These paths run off in different directions. -At the end of each is one of these limiting apparitions, and -the society of noumena is disconnected internally: there is no relation -of unity between the unifiers.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_35_35" href="#FNanchor_35_35" class="label">35</a> -The difference between “supersensible” and “supernatural” is -capital. I do not encourage relapse into supernaturalism. The -supernatural is the opposite of the supersensible. It is an attempt -to represent in natural or <i>sensible</i> guise what is supposed to be -beyond the senses; and the naturalistic representation of the supersensible -is then taken not metaphorically but literally.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_36_36" href="#FNanchor_36_36" class="label">36</a> -He allows indeed the <i>Ens Realissimum</i> to remain, and calls it -the ideal of the reason, the ideal of unity hypostasized, centralized -in an individual, and somehow harboring within itself all real properties -whatsoever. But it is quite impossible to conceive how all -real properties can belong to a single individual. For the -properties as we know them are incompatible with each other. -Surely an individual cannot be both great and small, beautiful and -ugly, of all colors and sounds, etc., etc. Or again if all properties -were somehow assembled in one individual, since that individual is -conceived of as an hypostasized unity, it would be impossible to -speak of a relation between them, and yet upon the relation of the -differentiæ depends the ethical utility of the idea of a supreme -reality.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_37_37" href="#FNanchor_37_37" class="label">37</a> -Compare, for instance, the anti-intellectualistic philosophy of -Bergson, with its emphasis on planless spurts of energy, the irrationalist -philosophy of Schopenhauer, etc.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_38_38" href="#FNanchor_38_38" class="label">38</a> -The above exposition is not a transcendental derivation of -ethics. The ideal of the infinite society is a fulguration <i>out of</i> -ethical experience, to be ever renewed <i>in it</i>. We build not only our -world, but our universe. -The ethical principle is not a working hypothesis, like those provisionally -used in science. It is the outgrowth of the functional -finalities. It is a postulate. The specific moral laws, or expressions -of the ethical principle indeed, are changeable, being the product of -the principle with the varying empirical conditions of human society. -The fundamental principle is unchangeable. -</p> -<p> -The consciousness of universal interrelation is not to be described -as mystical consciousness. The identity of the self remains intact; -it is never lost in the One or the All. The ethical consciousness -includes indeed the consciousness of other selves related to our -own, in a kind of superindividual consciousness. But this is reached -along the sunlit path of action (So <i>act</i>, etc.), and not along the -dreamy flux of emotionalism or in the silent depths of quietism.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_39_39" href="#FNanchor_39_39" class="label">39</a> -The frequent recurrence gives us a sense of safety in expecting -the consequent on the appearance of the antecedent. But the sense -of safety should not be confounded with the sense of the certainty. -We expect that day will follow night, because it has followed innumerable -times. But no amount of repetition can warrant the assertion -that it will and must do so. The Pragmatist view explains the -sense of safety in expectation, but does not appear to account for -the certainty in prediction, as for instance in the astronomer’s prediction -of an eclipse.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_40_40" href="#FNanchor_40_40" class="label">40</a> -A hybrid conception, since in nature there are only happenings, -but no ends.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_41_41" href="#FNanchor_41_41" class="label">41</a> -His efforts in some measure to remedy this defect in the Doctrine -of Virtue are artificial and unconvincing.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_42_42" href="#FNanchor_42_42" class="label">42</a> -See Book III for a fuller development of this point.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_43_43" href="#FNanchor_43_43" class="label">43</a> -Difference in the ethical meaning is not to be confounded with -mere idiosyncrasy, or originality, not to say eccentricity. It is the -kind of difference which elicits correlated difference in all spiritual -associates.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_44_44" href="#FNanchor_44_44" class="label">44</a> -Incidentally it may be remarked that in introducing the category -of interrelation we remove the objection against freedom which -remains unmitigable so long as freedom is supposed to be a kind of -causality, competing with natural causality. Causality is the unity -of a temporal manifold of sequent phenomena. The concept of -interrelation is the concept of the unity of co-existent entities.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_45_45" href="#FNanchor_45_45" class="label">45</a> -See some fine remarks on the unattainableness in Tyrrel’s -<i>Christianity at the Cross-roads</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_46_46" href="#FNanchor_46_46" class="label">46</a> -<i>Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_47_47" href="#FNanchor_47_47" class="label">47</a> -I have spoken of the sick bed as surrounded by loving friends -and near of kin. There are sick beds where the situation is quite -different,—in the poor wards of hospitals for instance. Nevertheless, -the loneliest person is never without certain human relations. -It may be the pauper in the next bed, the nurse, or the physician, -to whom his behavior will be of lasting meaning. -</p> -<p> -I would add a word as to the attitude of a person who is threatened -with insanity, and who is aware that the disease is approaching. -His last conscious act should be to honor the community to -which he belongs by voluntarily putting himself out of the way of -harming them. Not that the physical harm is itself the principal -thing, but that the wish not to harm physically is the sign of his -sense of the ethical relation in which he stands to his fellows. Also -a person threatened in this way ought to be willing to put himself -in the keeping of others, even of strangers, as being no longer himself -competent to judge rightly of what shall be done to him. It is -true that in accepting the judgment of strangers as a substitute for -his own he is taking the risk of being treated with insufficient consideration, -and possibly even mistreated. Yet the jeopardy in which -he thus puts his future, the sacrificial act he performs, is evidence -of mental nobility at the very moment when mental night is about -to set in for him.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_48_48" href="#FNanchor_48_48" class="label">48</a> -In the New Testament, despite the preference expressed for -celibacy, the relation of the bridegroom to the bride is used metaphorically -to represent that of Christ with the church, and among -the mystics the same figure represents the union of Christ with the -believing soul.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_49_49" href="#FNanchor_49_49" class="label">49</a> -I call attention to the difference between the view here expressed -and that of Emerson in the last paragraphs of his <i>Essay on Love</i>, -where he says: “Our affections are tents of a night. Our warm -loves are clouds that pass over the firmament of mind with its overarching -vault, its galaxies of immutable lights. In the personal -relations we are put in training for impersonal submergence and -absorption in God.” In my own view the infinite community of -spiritual beings that takes the place of God consists altogether of -personalities. Godhead, if you choose to apply that name to this -infinite society, is not a person but a community of personalities. -Personality is not drowned in the impersonal. On the contrary, the -individual becomes a personality through his relation to his associates -in the eternal life.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_50_50" href="#FNanchor_50_50" class="label">50</a> -I have real intercourse with Aristotle and Kant, as the outgoings -of their minds are still effectual in me—more vital intercourse than -with many of those who surround me.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_51_51" href="#FNanchor_51_51" class="label">51</a> -The category of interdependence implies that the lines of energy -between A and B cross, so that A is subject to B’s influence, B subject -to A’s influence, simultaneously. The simultaneity of the relation -distinguishes the category of interdependence from that of -causality.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_52_52" href="#FNanchor_52_52" class="label">52</a> -This implies that the evil deed shall not be lost sight of, simply -forgotten. Compare the inadequate account of repentance as given -by Goethe in <i>Faust</i> and elsewhere.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_53_53" href="#FNanchor_53_53" class="label">53</a> -<i>Vide</i> note at the end of the Chapter.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_54_54" href="#FNanchor_54_54" class="label">54</a> -A right is a claim of one person upon another or others, and -the justification consists in its relation to personality. Rights exist -between persons for the sake of the maintenance and development -of personality.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_55_55" href="#FNanchor_55_55" class="label">55</a> -Animals, for the purpose now in hand, may be regarded as -things, being devoid of personality, though certain modifications in -the treatment of animals are prescribed by the fact that they are -sentient creatures. But there is no moral interdiction of the involuntary -servitude of animals.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_56_56" href="#FNanchor_56_56" class="label">56</a> -See Chapter VII on “An Ethical Programme of Social Reform” -in <i>The World Crisis</i>, published by D. Appleton and Company, 1915.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_57_57" href="#FNanchor_57_57" class="label">57</a> -A remark may here be in place regarding the erudition expended -in determining which of the writings attributed to some great philosopher -like Plato are spurious, and which genuine. Is the time and -labor spent on such researches worth while? The object in this case -is not so much to clear or vindicate the reputation of the philosopher, -or to give him his due, as to rescue for posterity, free from corruptions, -a living and quickening thing to which he has given birth, -and which the world cannot afford to lose. For the work of a great -philosopher like Plato is alive, and is valuable because it is still -quickening. And it is quickening, not because of any positive -formulation of truth (like a scientific law), but because of the élan -of the human spirit with which it is vibrant in attacking the eternal -problems of life and destiny. The same applies to the industry of -modern critics in collecting material wherewith to facilitate the -deeper understanding of some great poet like Dante or Goethe.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_58_58" href="#FNanchor_58_58" class="label">58</a> -I mean that it is usually considered sufficient, for purposes of -reformation, to bring the wrongdoer up to the average standard of -law-abiding citizenship, to restore him to the bosom of society as a -safe and industrious member. Whereas a person who has had the -searching experience of deep guilt is a candidate for a higher station -in the moral scale. Humanity having fallen in him, he should -be helped to rise to a higher than the average altitude. This at -least should be the aim. Consider the fact that Jesus selected some -of his most spiritual companions from among publicans and harlots.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_59_59" href="#FNanchor_59_59" class="label">59</a> -Compare the words addressed by Sir Thomas More to his -judges when sentence of death had been pronounced upon him—“For -though you have been my judges to condemnation, may we -meet merrily hereafter in everlasting salvation.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_60_60" href="#FNanchor_60_60" class="label">60</a> -Everyone admires a disinterested prison reformer, one who is -able to see and to call out the good in a so-called bad man; but it is -one thing to be disinterested and generous towards men who have -acted badly towards others, and quite another thing to take the -ethical attitude towards those who have acted wickedly towards oneself. -Hence the touchstone of the character of the prison-reformer -is to be found in the way in which he behaves and feels towards his -personal enemies, for instance, towards those who malignantly attack -him and interfere with the business of prison reform on which he -has set his heart.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_61_61" href="#FNanchor_61_61" class="label">61</a> -Perhaps I may add a word as to the forgiveness of those who, -by an extension of meaning, may be called our intellectual enemies. -By intellectual enemies I understand those whose point of view is -radically opposed to our own, whose principles and premises, if -accepted, would render the entire theory of life on which we act, -and on which we found our convictions, untenable. We are apt to be -exasperated in listening to them, or in reading the works in which -they express their opinions. We are apt to feel that there is no -room in the world in which we live for such ideas as theirs, that -we and they cannot exist side by side. The bitter feuds of rival -religious factions, the notorious <i>odium theologicum</i>, and in more -recent times the thinly veiled animus shown in the controversies of -philosophical schools are all alike traceable to this source. Racial -antagonisms, too, are partly to be accounted for on the same ground. -There are certain primary attitudes of mind, modes of feeling and -directions of impulse, the correctness of which we cannot demonstrate -just because they are primary, and which we all the more -vehemently assert when we find them disputed. Love your intellectual -enemies, may usefully be added to the stock of moral commandments; -keep an open and hospitable mind to opinions and ways -of acting, thinking and feeling which naturally repel you. And -it will help us to discipline ourselves in this difficult behavior if we -reflect that the views most contrary to our own are nevertheless sure -to contain some element of truth which we cannot afford to disregard, -and which will serve the purpose of correcting and supplementing -such truth as we may ourselves possess.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_62_62" href="#FNanchor_62_62" class="label">62</a> -Or more exactly act so as to elicit the sense of unique distinctive -selfhood, as interconnected with all other distinctive spiritual -beings in the infinite universe.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_63_63" href="#FNanchor_63_63" class="label">63</a> -The conception underlying Robert L. Stevenson’s sketch of -Jekyl and Hyde is to be taken seriously, and applied without exception -<i>mutatis mutandis</i> to every human being whatsoever (but see -footnote p. 76). It is not original with Stevenson. The French, -who are perhaps the keenest psychologists, long ago invented the -<i>apercu</i> that everyone has the defects of his qualities.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_64_64" href="#FNanchor_64_64" class="label">64</a> -The use of the term duality is not intended to exclude the possibility -of multiplicity, but only to call attention to one striking bifurcation -of human character.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_65_65" href="#FNanchor_65_65" class="label">65</a> -Stevenson falls into this error. He confounds Jekyl with the -virtuous and Hyde with the vicious side of character. In reality -the one should stand for the empirical plus traits, the other for the -empirical minus traits.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_66_66" href="#FNanchor_66_66" class="label">66</a> -Contract-keeping is peculiarly the moral rule applicable to mercantile -transactions. To apply it without modification to the dealings -of employers and wage-earners is to intrude the mercantile -standard into the industrial sphere. This is what we are now witnessing. -The industrial standard is only in process of development -and clarification, and the accepted mercantile standard is really in -conflict with it. Among merchants it is of the very essence of their -transactions that a contract shall not be invalidated, despite the -injurious consequences to one or the other party which it may turn -out later on to involve. The security of commercial transactions -would be gone if revision of the contract should be permitted whenever -consequent loss appears. Again, and this is particularly important, -merchants are assumed to be on a footing of equality in dealing -with one another, equally free in accepting or rejecting a proposed -contract, equally competent to take care of their respective interests. -The relation of employers to wage-earners however is not that of -economic equals, but of the economically stronger with the economically -weaker. And this difference is of cardinal importance in -determining the rule of justice as it should obtain in the industrial -sphere. I do not of course intend to imply that an agreement -between employer and wage-earners once made should not as a rule -be kept as scrupulously as that between merchant and merchant. -What I affirm is that in view of the greatness of the injury possibly -inflicted upon the weaker, the economically stronger party is bound -at least to share the responsibility with the weaker for the essential -fairness of the terms of the agreement before it is finally completed. -Nay, I would go a step farther, and say that despite the indispensable -condemnation of contract-breaking, provision should be -made for possible revision in cases where it can be shown that -exceptional hardships have appeared, unforeseen and unforeseeable -at the time when the agreement was made.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_67_67" href="#FNanchor_67_67" class="label">67</a> -In a previous chapter I remarked that the cheap estimate of -others and of oneself is due to the habit of regarding human beings -from the point of view of the use they can be put to, ignoring the -wonderful and mysterious energies and potencies which are exhibited -day by day in every human being. If the force stored in an -infinitesimal particle of radium is calculated to excite admiration, -how much more the forces exhibited in man, looking at him merely -as the stage on which the spectacle of these forces is displayed. -Consider the occurrence of such a thing as thought, the sheer miracle -of mentality, the working of the constructive imagination in the -artist, etc. If we sufficiently dwell on these inward facts about -men, instead of merely emphasizing their external utility to one -another, we shall thereby be put in tune, as it were, for the higher -spiritual view of man. The difference I have said is like that between -understanding the theory of electricity and merely turning -on electric power in the workshop or the home. And yet the scientific -contemplation of the miracles of human nature as seen from -within, while it serves as a propædeutic, cannot actually bring us up -to the ethical point of view. For this sort of contemplation reveals -only the working of impersonal forces or powers, thought, feeling, -impulse in their endless actions and reactions, similar, in so far as -they are impersonal, to the forces observed in nature. The ethical -point of view alone discloses a centrality, an underivative, irreducible -core, a substantive being, personality.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_68_68" href="#FNanchor_68_68" class="label">68</a> -An expression occurring once only.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_69_69" href="#FNanchor_69_69" class="label">69</a> -Thus the interdependence of nations in respect to their material -interests is often erroneously expatiated on as if it constituted an -actually ethical bond between them.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_70_70" href="#FNanchor_70_70" class="label">70</a> -While at the same time the ethical personality, unlike the “windowless -monads” of Leibnitz is effectuated only in the cross-relations -which subsist between each one and his spiritual associates.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_71_71" href="#FNanchor_71_71" class="label">71</a> -I may here point out the bearings of this general point of view -on the much-mooted and confused question of the value of the study -of history. Ranke holds that the aim of the historian should be to -reproduce factually the occurrences of the past. Robinson insists -on the uses of history. But uses to what end? The history of the -past is fragmentary and full of gaps. The data with respect to -some of the most important periods are irrecoverable. The attitude -of the human race towards its own history, I take it, should be like -that of an individual towards his past. I cannot really resuscitate -my past. Memory is treacherous. Much has been forgotten. The -events of my youth are discolored when seen in the perspective of -later years. I should try to know myself as far as I can, but with a -view of pressing on and realizing with such light upon myself as I -have, the ethical aim. The same applies to mankind. And the important -point is in the review to disengage the ideas that controlled -the principal social institutions in the past, and to appraise these -ideas from the standpoint of our present ethical insight. Thus, in -treating the history of the family, we should single out the ideas that -controlled the family relation, the idea of the <i>patria potestas</i>, the -feudal idea, or the connection of the family with landed property. -In writing the history of the organs of education, we should bring -into view priestly education as among the Brahmins, musical or -æsthetic education as among the Greeks, the idea of princely education, -the idea of preparation for the government of an empire, -which accounts for the system of the English universities, the controlling -idea of the German universities. And then at the end of our -survey we shall be in a better position to discern what is to be the -ideal of school and university education in an ethical democracy. -The same applies to the controlling ideas of the state, and of the -remaining social institutions.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_72_72" href="#FNanchor_72_72" class="label">72</a> -Spurious or bastard organization was based on the empirical -preëminence of some function like that of the priest or the warrior.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_73_73" href="#FNanchor_73_73" class="label">73</a> -See <i>Marriage and Divorce</i>, D. Appleton & Co.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_74_74" href="#FNanchor_74_74" class="label">74</a> -Just as the family is the organ of physical reproduction, but in -that very capacity is ethically required to bring to birth the spiritual -nature of its members.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_75_75" href="#FNanchor_75_75" class="label">75</a> -All that I have said in the beginning as to the relation of the -finite and the infinite belongs under this head.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_76_76" href="#FNanchor_76_76" class="label">76</a> -There is one point too obvious to be overlooked, but perhaps it -had better be expressly mentioned. The scientist helps us to build -our world, the physical nest in which we live, first by mastering -nature’s procedures, then by making possible inventions, which increase -the security of our footing in the physical world; dispense -us from the brute task of pitting our merely physical strength -against the forces of nature; render communication between distant -peoples feasible, and thereby lay the first foundation for an international -society.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_77_77" href="#FNanchor_77_77" class="label">77</a> -<i>Vide</i> Introduction to the First Book.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_78_78" href="#FNanchor_78_78" class="label">78</a> -The vocational group must be independent because the expert -familiar with the conditions under which a service is performed is -specially competent to decide on the improvements required to render -the conditions more favorable to the development of human -nature, the service more adequate. The representatives of the collective -community, that is of the inexpert, outside mass (inexpert -in respect to this particular service) can never perform the same -office. -</p> -<p> -With regard to the present state of industry the gigantic obstacle -in the way of improvement is obviously the subjection of the man to -the machine. The great hardship which the millions of factory -operatives suffer is not only the insufficient wage, it is the depersonalizing -effect produced by the substitution of the machine for the -hand and the blind subjection of adult workers to the arbitrary -will of superiors. (Compare what I have said on this subject in -the chapter on “An Ethical Programme of Social Reform” in <i>The -World Crisis</i>.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_79_79" href="#FNanchor_79_79" class="label">79</a> -Think of Mommsen, the author of a thousand treatises, whose -knowledge of the facts of Roman history was unsurpassed and -probably unequalled. Yet is his judgment on Cæsar or Cæsarism -helpful as an ethical appraisement?</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_80_80" href="#FNanchor_80_80" class="label">80</a> -Aristotle regards the <i>Œdipus Rex</i> as the most perfect example -of tragedy; let it serve the purpose of illustrating the idea here -proposed. Read the play and get the total impression of it. Analyze -it into its parts. Synthesize after the analysis. You will not -fail to realize how every character, every speech and act, contributes -to the total effect, and how in turn every single factor in the -play receives a new significance from its relation to the rest, while -still retaining its obvious meaning (the meaning it would have when -taken out of the context of the play). Take the first speech of -Œdipus as an example. He is the king solicitous for the welfare -of his subjects, to whom they look up with admiration and gratitude. -He is the father of his people. Read this speech again after you -have taken in the entire play, and note how its color is changed. -How the firmness, the fatherly, protective attitude is now seen to -be the outward mask of a fugitive soul, unsure of itself, haunted by -hideous fears.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_81_81" href="#FNanchor_81_81" class="label">81</a> -The use made of pageantry, the revival of English and other -folk-songs, the morris-dances and the like, the attempt to ennoble -the leisure of the industrial workers by leading them back to forms -of art which sprang up centuries ago in foreign countries, is evidence -of the keen desire for art rather than a step in a new direction.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_82_82" href="#FNanchor_82_82" class="label">82</a> -Art, like science, is to be subordinate. The relation between -persons and persons is mankind’s supreme concern. The views -above expressed differ radically from those of Schiller. See his -<i>Æsthetic Education of Man</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_83_83" href="#FNanchor_83_83" class="label">83</a> -Compare with the spiritual conception of culture here outlined -Matthew Arnold’s “knowing the best which has been thought and -said”; and a recent definition of culture by an eminent American -as “the knowing one thing well and a little of everything else,” -without correlation of the little one knows of everything else with -the one thing one is supposed to know extremely well.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_84_84" href="#FNanchor_84_84" class="label">84</a> -See the chapter on “Ethical Development Extending Through -Life” in <i>The World Crisis</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_85_85" href="#FNanchor_85_85" class="label">85</a> -<i>Vide</i> Appendix II, on <i>Force and Freedom</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_86_86" href="#FNanchor_86_86" class="label">86</a> -I use the word Organize in its spiritual sense. The empirical, -animal organism is commonly taken as the type upon which the -notion of organism is modeled. The animal organism, however, -fails to express the implicit idea, for the following reasons: The -number of members is limited; the combination of organs is, so far -as we can know, accidental, and the relation is hierarchical,—there -are inferior and superior organs. The spiritual conception differs -in each of these points. The number of members is infinite; the -relation is necessary; and they are equal, that is, of equal worth. -To distinguish the spiritual pattern from the animal type the term -metorganic may be used for the former, in analogy to such terms -as metempirical, metaphysical, etc., and the system of ethics expounded -in this volume may be called the <i>metorganic system of ethics</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_87_87" href="#FNanchor_87_87" class="label">87</a> -Representation by geographical districts is the logical outcome -of the individualistic conception of democracy. Where this prevails, -the state is supposed to take account only of the common interests, -those in respect to which all individuals are alike, such as security -of life and property, those interests being ignored in respect to -which the groups that constitute society, the farmers, the merchants, -the industrial laborers, etc., differ. Hence any convenient number -of citizens, pursuing their life purposes side by side within a certain -geographical area, may serve as a constituency. The absence of -regard for the real diversity, and often the clash of interests, between -persons belonging to such constituencies, is due to the atomistic, -individualistic notion of democracy just mentioned. But sheer -individualism is everywhere on the wane, and is bound to become less -and less dominant in the degree that the industrial evolution of society -proceeds, and the various groups stand out distinctly as different -against one another in their functions and in the conditions subservient -to those functions. Society is in fact not an aggregate of human -atoms. It is already an imperfect organism, destined to become more -and more adequately organized. And the system of representation -has got to be remodeled and adjusted to this fact and this ideal.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_88_88" href="#FNanchor_88_88" class="label">88</a> -By “interests” I understand fulfilment of the social function -with which the group is charged.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_89_89" href="#FNanchor_89_89" class="label">89</a> -And, as a matter of fact, because this is so, there is no state, no -democracy, in which public opinion or public sentiment actually does -rule, save by fits and starts. Government is usually in the hands of -more or less selfish coteries, who operate behind the scenes, who do -know what they want and who, like the Piper of Hamelin, are past -masters of the art of leading the political children whither they will.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_90_90" href="#FNanchor_90_90" class="label">90</a> -I am not of course discussing the merits or demerits of the protective -tariff as such, but am using it as illustration. As such it -will serve the purpose. -</p> -<p> -The practice of “log-rolling” may at first sight seem to resemble -the proposed plan. But, in reality, the two are diametrical opposites. -By “log-rolling” is meant the kind of concessions made by -the shipping interests to the manufacturers by the manufacturers to -the farmers, or to the workingmen when the latter happen to be -strong enough to enforce their demands. Each group persists in -pursuing its selfish aims; only, in order to achieve them it makes -concessions to the selfishness of the others. Each follows the path -into the Hades of egotism, and throws the necessary sops to Cerberus -on the way. The plan outlined in the text, on the other hand, -has for its object the interlocking of the various social interests, the -fitting them reciprocally into one another; or better, the object is to -cure each group as far as possible of its selfishness by so modifying -its claims, that the granting of them shall become beneficial to the -rest.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_91_91" href="#FNanchor_91_91" class="label">91</a> -See Fouillée’s <i>Esquisse psychologique des Peuples européens</i>, -also the Chapter on German, English and American Ideals in <i>The -World Crisis</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_92_92" href="#FNanchor_92_92" class="label">92</a> -Each term in the series of social institutions is ethically defined -by referring to the succeeding terms. The family prepares for the -vocation, the vocation for the state or nation, the nation for the -international society, and all the successive terms receive their ultimate -definition from the infinite spiritual universe which includes -them, and broods over them and dwells in each, so that the expanding -ethical experience gained at the successive stations is spiritually -the <i>ratio cognoscendi</i>, not the <i>ratio essendi</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_93_93" href="#FNanchor_93_93" class="label">93</a> -It is true that the state is concerned with those conditions of the -spiritual reactions that are capable of being enforced, but in instituting -such conditions the spiritual content is inevitably kept in view. -And in the very process of fitting the body to the spirit, the form -to the content, the content itself will be discerned more clearly and -explicitly.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_94_94" href="#FNanchor_94_94" class="label">94</a> -See the chapter in <i>The World Crisis</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_95_95" href="#FNanchor_95_95" class="label">95</a> -To myself as an individual I say: look to your radiations, consider -the effects you produce on others; if the effects are harmful -trace them to faults in your character, and let your desire and -obligation to influence others beneficently be the spur to lead you -to transform your own character. The same each people should -say to itself. For instance the obvious faults of our democracy have -retarded the progress of democracy in Europe. Our failure in -municipal government is constantly quoted abroad as an argument -against democracy. This should be a real incentive to rouse us out -of our self-complacency.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_96_96" href="#FNanchor_96_96" class="label">96</a> -Cf. Lord Cromer’s remarks on this subject in his book on Egypt.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_97_97" href="#FNanchor_97_97" class="label">97</a> -See, however, the importation of Indian and Chinese coolies, and -the surreptitious resurrection of the slave trade mentioned by Sir -Charles Dilke in his <i>Problems of Greater Britain</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_98_98" href="#FNanchor_98_98" class="label">98</a> -As to practical steps that might be taken to give effect to this -conception of international law, see my published address “The -Great Rôle of the United States After the War,” in which is discussed -the creation of an international law-making body or a Parliament -of Parliaments. In connection with the latter, I should attach -particular importance to the institution of commissions which may -serve as a link between the international legislature and the less -civilized peoples—the commissions to study the needs and gifts of -those peoples with a view to securing their development along their -own lines. In the case of civilized peoples that have until recently -been stationary, like the Chinese, the commission representing the -Western nations would sit in consultation with the most enlightened -leaders of the Chinese people themselves, the common object being -to discover the points of attachment in Chinese civilization which -may wisely be made the starting point of a more modern and progressive -evolution. For instance the filial piety of the Chinese, the -rectitude of their merchants, the absence of an aristocracy, and their -civil service resting on education (despite its defects). In this manner -it may become possible to avoid the abrupt, superficial, and infinitely -destructive substitution of modern ideas for the system at -present existing, and gradual development will take the place of -intrusive and uncongenial change.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_99_99" href="#FNanchor_99_99" class="label">99</a> -I add that this conception will react on the internal life of -democracy. Democracy is at present regarded as a relation between -equals. In fact, we have in America the negro population, -the illiterate and backward immigrants. A truer conception of -democracy depends on our realizing that within each people as well -as between people and people there is the distinction of the more -advanced and the less advanced groups. Democracy rightly conceived -will be found to consist in the effort spent by the more -advanced in each vocational group to uplift the less advanced, the -more advanced themselves coming into possession of their spiritual -worth in the degree that they realize this their task of leadership -and its great responsibilities.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_100_100" href="#FNanchor_100_100" class="label">100</a> -Among other ethical relations based on free election, friendship -is the most important. In a separate <i>Book of Friendship</i> which I -hope to publish, I intend to review the ideals of friendship as they -have arisen from time to time in the history of civilized mankind—the -ideal of Pythagorean friendship, the ideals presented by Aristotle, -Kant, Emerson. And I shall endeavor to show in each case -the connection between the friendship ideal and the general philosophy -of life. I shall then set forth that ideal of friendship which -is the corollary of the spiritual conceptions outlined in this volume: -the friend being in my view one who assists spiritual development -as a spectator. He is the faithful mirror of his friend’s progress -toward personality, the benevolent yet incorruptible recorder and -appraiser. By this token friendship is distinguished from the interlocking -relations such as that between partners in marriage, vocational -co-workers, etc.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_101_101" href="#FNanchor_101_101" class="label">101</a> -In certain Ethical Societies abroad, the fear of encouraging the -rise of a new clericalism led to the plan of drawing for ethical -teachers on professors of universities, and others engaged in various -lines of practical activity. These persons could of necessity give -only the leavings of their time and thought to the complex questions -which they undertook to discuss; and the experiment, as might have -been foreseen, proved disastrous.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_102_102" href="#FNanchor_102_102" class="label">102</a> -It has been said that the science of today lives only in superseding -the science of yesterday. Whether this be true of science -or not it is not true of religion. The religions of the past are not -merely superseded. There is much in them that is to be reinterpreted, -and thus perpetuated.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p><a id="Footnote_103_103" href="#FNanchor_103_103" class="label">103</a> -A paper read before the Fourth Conference on Legal and Social -Philosophy at Columbia University, November, 1915. (Reprinted -from the <i>International Journal of Ethics</i>, April, 1916, pp. 420-423.)</p></div></div> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An ethical philosophy of life -presented in its main outline, by Felix Adler - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ETHICAL PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE *** - -***** This file should be named 60068-h.htm or 60068-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/0/6/60068/ - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Les Galloway and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -book was produced from images made available by the -HathiTrust Digital Library.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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