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diff --git a/old/60026-0.txt b/old/60026-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index e625bdc..0000000 --- a/old/60026-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4006 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wars & Treaties, 1815-1914, by Arthur Ponsonby - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll -have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using -this ebook. - - - -Title: Wars & Treaties, 1815-1914 - -Author: Arthur Ponsonby - -Release Date: July 31, 2019 [EBook #60026] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WARS & TREATIES, 1815-1914 *** - - - - -Produced by Turgut Dincer, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -WARS AND TREATIES - -1815 to 1914 - - - - -DEMOCRACY AND DIPLOMACY - -(3s. 6d. net) - -BY - -ARTHUR PONSONBY - - -“It is the completest statement of the case for the democratic control -of foreign affairs which has been published, and contains a mass of -facts whose value cannot be exaggerated. We owe Mr. Ponsonby a great -debt for this work.”--_Labour Leader._ - -“... Mr. Ponsonby’s main contention is one which may and should receive -the hearty assent of many who disagree with him in detail. He strongly -urges the necessity in dealing with foreign affairs of ensuring the -co-operation and approval of the great mass of the people. He is -manifestly quite right.”--The late LORD CROMER in The _Spectator_. - - -REBELS AND REFORMERS - -(6s. net) - -BY - -ARTHUR & DOROTHEA PONSONBY - -Savonarola--William the Silent--Tycho Brahe--Cervantes--Giordano -Bruno--Grotius--Voltaire--Hans Andersen--Mazzini--W. Lloyd -Garrison--Thoreau--Tolstoy - - -“Mr. and Mrs. Ponsonby’s book is intended for children or for those -who are too busy to read books in many volumes. But the interest of -it lies not in the necessarily short and simple narratives giving the -story rather than the ideas, although these are done clearly and with -spirit, but in the reflections which lie about those stories and lodge -here and there in the reader’s mind. Like all books worth reading this -one is the outcome of a mass of judgments and beliefs which may be -very briefly expressed in the work itself, but lend it the gift which -in the case of human beings we call personality.”--_The Times Literary -Supplement._ - -“The story of these twelve lives is told in these pages--and told with -a most enticing simplicity and the happiest taste--in the hope of -redressing the balance between men of action and men of thought, and of -showing that this type of character and achievement can be made just as -interesting to the young as the more conventional hero of the history -book.... This book is more especially for the young, but it will be a -delight also to grown-up readers.”--_The Nation._ - -“The biographies are always well simplified and written in a clear -and pointed way. They are accompanied by portraits, which add not a -little to the work’s attractiveness as a book unusually well fitted to -the needs of young readers who are beginning to take an interest in -history.”--_The Scotsman._ - - - - - WARS & TREATIES - - 1815 to 1914 - - BY - ARTHUR PONSONBY - - [Illustration] - - LONDON: GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN LTD. - RUSKIN HOUSE 40 MUSEUM STREET, W.C. 1 - NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY - - - - - _First published_ _April 1918_ - - _Reprinted_ _June 1918_ - - _Third Edition, revised and enlarged_ _January 1919_ - - -(_All rights reserved_) - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - INTRODUCTION 7 - YEAR - 1821–1828 GREEK WAR 14 - - 1828–1829 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR 16 - - 1830–1839 WAR BETWEEN HOLLAND AND BELGIUM 18 - - 1830–1839 WAR IN PORTUGAL AND SPAIN 20 - - 1831 RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN IN POLAND 22 - - 1832–1841 TURKO-EGYPTIAN WAR 24 - - 1838–1842 FIRST AFGHAN WAR 26 - - 1840–1842 OPIUM WAR IN CHINA 28 - - 1846–1848 AMERICAN WAR WITH MEXICO 30 - - 1848–1849 AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN WAR 32 - - 1831 } - } - 1848–1849 } - } ITALIAN WAR OF LIBERATION 34 - 1859 } - } - 1866–1867 } - - 1854–1856 CRIMEAN WAR 36 - - 1857–1858 INDIAN MUTINY 38 - - 1857–1860 CHINESE WAR 40 - - 1861–1865 AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 42 - - 1862–1867 FRENCH EXPEDITION IN MEXICO 44 - - 1864–1870 BRAZILIAN WAR 46 - - 1864 DANISH WAR 48 - - 1866 AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR 50 - - 1867–1868 BRITISH EXPEDITION IN ABYSSINIA 52 - - 1870–1871 FRANCO-GERMAN WAR 54 - - 1873–1874 THE ASHANTI WAR 56 - - 1877–1878 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR 58 - - 1878–1881 SECOND AFGHAN WAR 60 - - 1879 ZULU WAR 62 - - 1879–1882 THE CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR 64 - - 1881 FRENCH EXPEDITION IN TUNIS 66 - - 1882 EGYPTIAN WAR 68 - - 1884–1885 FRANCO-CHINESE WAR 70 - - 1823–1826 } - } - 1851 } BURMESE WARS 72 - } - 1885 } - - 1885 SERBO-BULGARIAN WAR 74 - - 1894–1895 CHINO-JAPANESE WAR 76 - - 1895–1896 ITALO-ABYSSINIAN WAR 78 - - 1896–1898 WAR IN THE SOUDAN 80 - - 1897 TURKO-GREEK WAR 82 - - 1897–1898 SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 84 - - 1881 } - } THE BOER WARS 86 - 1899–1902 } - - 1899–1900 BOXER RISING IN CHINA 88 - - 1904–1905 RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 90 - - 1911–1912 TURKO-ITALIAN WAR 92 - - 1912–1913 FIRST BALKAN WAR 94 - - 1913 SECOND BALKAN WAR 96 - - - IMPORTANT TREATIES 98 - - INDEX OF TREATIES 102 - - BIBLIOGRAPHY 104 - - - - -WARS AND TREATIES - -1815–1914 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -A growing number of people are devoting their attention to a closer -study of foreign affairs. Many of them may not have the opportunity to -read the larger volumes of histories; and, indeed, even if they had, -they would find their choice of books very much restricted when they -came to the more recent period of European and world history, although -in the last year or so the gap has to some extent been filled up by -several interesting studies of international politics in the nineteenth -century. Some knowledge of this period is essential if we are to -understand the full significance of the events of to-day, and if we are -to form any helpful opinion of the course to be pursued in future. - -Historians often take for granted that their readers already have some -general knowledge of the groundwork of events and they build up their -structure of criticism, their delineation of policy and tendencies, -and their survey of international problems on the assumption that the -scaffolding has been erected. But often it has not, and then history, -more especially the complex tangle of international history, becomes -difficult to grasp. It may therefore serve some useful purpose if a few -poles of scaffolding representing the dates and outline of conflicts -and agreements between nations can be supplied in a very brief and -easily intelligible form, a presentment of the bare record of facts -which may be useful for reference. - -During the last hundred years war has been a more common occurrence -in international intercourse than most people realize. The forty-two -records of wars tabled in these pages do not cover the whole ground. -They are the chief conflicts, or the conflicts fraught with the most -serious consequences, but they are by no means the only occasions on -which there was fighting in the world. Revolutions, unless they led -to international war, are not mentioned, neither are expeditions such -as the advance on Llassa, the Chitral expedition, the Indian frontier -wars, the Kaffir wars, the Somaliland expeditions, the revolt of the -Herreroes in German West Africa or the French expeditions in Morocco: -the wars between the states of South America, with two exceptions, have -also been omitted. But the list as it stands, is striking enough and -may suffice to make the student inquire further into the circumstances -which produced this almost unceasing strife. - -The causes are epitomized in the fewest possible words and the occasion -is separated from the cause. Causes of wars are very seldom remembered -and are not very easily discovered in the perusal of histories. The -occasion is sometimes mistaken for the cause, whereas it may often be -merely a pretext. The occasion of a war has not infrequently been a -comparatively trivial incident, whereas the cause can be traced to the -gradual development of friction for which divergence of policies or -conflict of ambitions may have been responsible. The trivial incident, -or even an incident of a more serious nature, may pass off without -fatal consequences if no friction exists between the nations and there -is a general atmosphere of amicable understanding. Where, on the -contrary, relations are strained it requires but a very small spark -to light up a conflagration. It is important therefore to detach the -occasion from the cause. - -Causes of war in the nineteenth century differ to some extent from -those of previous centuries. The elemental combative passion of man -expressing itself in fierce racial animosities is far less noticeable. -Religious differences do not figure so positively as a reason for -conflict. Dynastic ambitions linger on and still play a formidable -part, even after 1815, but not with the same unashamed and aggressive -arrogance as in bygone centuries. Nationalist aspirations begin -to assert themselves, and the waves of revolutionary exasperation -with outworn systems of despotic government have made those very -governments combat that spirit by force of arms. As the century -proceeds, and the wonderful inventions for rapid transit and -communication develop, the most noticeable element in war-making is -the commercial or colonial ambition of governments fostered largely -by the pressure of financial interests and declaring itself under the -name of Empire. This policy of competitive imperial expansion in the -newly accessible regions of the globe will be found to constitute the -most frequent cause of dispute, of jealousy, and of suspicion between -nations. The pretext will vary, the excuse will be presented under -plausible guises for popular consumption, but the ultimate cause, the -fundamental origin will be the same. Imperialism economic in its origin -is fostered largely by an exaggerated spirit of nationalism. - -The remarkable extent of Empire expansion in the latter part of the -nineteenth century is best illustrated by the following figures:-- - - -_Acquisitions of Territory_ - - To the British Empire 1870–1900: 4,754,000 square miles; - 88,000,000 population. - - To France 1884–1900: 3,583,580 square miles; 36,553,000 - population. - - To Germany 1884–1900: 1,026,220 square miles; 16,687,100 - population. - -But perhaps the chief and most frequent cause of war is war itself. In -the Balkan Peninsula--where, whenever the fighting has ceased, nothing -approaching a satisfactory settlement has ever been concluded--this is -specially true. Eight or nine of the wars recorded concern the Balkans. -Or take the Crimean War. Sir Spencer Walpole says: - -“From 1856 to 1878 the Continent of Europe was afflicted with five -great wars--the Franco-Austrian War of 1859; the Danish of 1864; -the Austro-Prussian of 1860; the Franco-German of 1870 and the -Russo-Turkish of 1878: all of which can be lineally traced to the war -of 1854,” and one at least of those wars, as we know, sowed the seeds -of future war. The war that is concluded by a dictated peace, the war -that leaves a sense of grievance and unsatisfied though legitimate -claims, the war that inspires a lasting desire for revenge inevitably -leads to future war. Wars are never aggressive but always defensive on -the part of those who are responsible for waging them. Wars are never -defensive but always aggressive on the part of those against whom they -are waged. The Ministers and monarchs do the quarrelling, the people -believe the version they are told and obey. The people do the fighting -and make the sacrifice, the Ministers and monarchs do the treaty-making -without consulting them. The people’s part is one of valiance, -endurance, and suffering; the part of the Ministers and monarchs is one -too often marred by failure and frequently disfigured by intrigue and -deception. - -Cast your eye through these forty-two very brief records of wars. Think -of the valour, the determination, and the heroism of the people, be -they soldiers or civilians. Consider the noble part played by those -who without question obeyed what they were led to believe was their -country’s call. And then look on the other side at the results--the -ineptitude of the statesmen, the patched-up treaties, the worthless -agreements, the wars that led to further wars, the failure to secure -a settlement after the soldier had done his part, and the unnecessary -prolongation of conflicts when agreement might have been reached by the -exercise of a little wisdom and foresight. The contrast is remarkable -between the actions on the battlefield and the intrigue in the council -chamber. Blood has been spilt, lives lost, and victories won often -without any positive advantage being gained in the final result. - -The wars are arranged according to date. Some were long-drawn-out -struggles, others sharp conflicts of a few months. The number of men -engaged in any battle and the casualties if they could be tabulated -would no doubt seem comparatively small to our modern eyes. The total -loss of life in the Crimean War amounted to about 600,000 men.[1] An -estimate of the loss in killed and wounded in some of the other great -battles may be given as follows: Solferino (1859), 31,500; Chickamauga -(1863), 35,100; Gettysburg (1863), 37,000; Königrätz (1866), 26,894; -Vionville (1870), 32,800; Gravelotte (1870), 30,000; Plevna (1877), -19,000;[2] The Boer War (1899–1902): British losses, 28,603; Boers -killed, 4,000, prisoners 40,000;[3] Mukden (1905), 131,000. - - [1] _The Cambridge Modern History_, vol. xii - - [2] An article in _Current History_, by General Duryee, of the - U.S.A. Army. - - [3] _Encyclopædia Britannica._ - -Wars to the generation that experiences them are unmixed evils -engendering hatred and evil passions and bringing in their train loss, -suffering, destruction, and impoverishment, all of which are acutely -felt. The succeeding generation inherit their consequences in the -shape of high taxation and the attempts to mend and reconstruct the -dislocated national life. The horror has gone but the memory remains. -To the succeeding generation they become episodes read of in the cold -pages of history, and then at last they fade into mere names--a battle -with a vaguely remembered date. - -Each war is terminated by a treaty. The main provisions of a few -additional treaties which were not concluded after wars are also given. -In but few instances have war treaties been observed, and in several -cases they were not worth the paper they were written on. Treaties are -signed and ratified by statesmen without the sanction or approval, -and sometimes without the knowledge, of their people. The statesmen -enter the council chamber as individuals bent on securing advantages -at other people’s expense, and ready by bargain and intrigue to attain -their ends. These instruments therefore are expressions of temporary -expediency sometimes exacted after defeat, sometimes the result of -compromise and generally inconclusive. If treaties are to become sacred -obligations founded on international justice and respected not merely -by changing governments but by whole nations, the spirit in which -they are drawn up and the method by which they are concluded must be -radically altered. The existence of secret treaties and engagements has -proved to be one of the gravest dangers to European peace. - -There are a large number of conventions which have been concluded -between nations, by which social intercourse with regard to such -matters as post and telegraph is facilitated, and of late years -arbitration treaties between one Power and another have multiplied very -rapidly. This is the one advance in which the efforts of diplomacy have -borne fruit. The important treaty of Arbitration between Great Britain -and the United States is the only one of these treaties mentioned -in the list. Agreements with regard to the conduct of war have been -made, such as the Geneva Convention of 1864 and 1906, and the Hague -Declarations of 1899 and 1907, but they have proved to a large extent -futile. - -Treaties are generally concluded for an undefined period, and lapse -owing to deliberate breach or altered circumstances. But no people, and -it may safely be said no government, was precisely aware which of the -innumerable treaties were still in force, and what actually in given -circumstances its obligations were. - -There may be many instances in which a nation may look back with pride -at the victory of its arms and the achievements of its generals. There -are but few instances in which a nation can look back with pride at -the advantages gained by treaties of peace and at the achievements -of its diplomatists. From the Treaty of Vienna, 1815, to the Treaty -of Bukarest, 1913, the record of so-called settlements is not one to -inspire confidence in the efficacy of warfare or in the methods of -diplomacy. - -After the termination of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 there were great -hopes of an era of peace. But two antagonistic elements existed in -Europe which were bound sooner or later to come into open conflict. -On the one hand the French Revolution had engendered in the peoples -a spirit of unrest, of discontent, of impatience with the unfettered -monarchical system, and at the same time confidence in their power and -hope of success in the destruction of tyranny and arbitrary government. -It was in fact the rise of democracy. On the other side the despotic -governments were ready to co-operate, and, under the guidance of -Metternich, endeavour to repress and exterminate the movement for the -establishment of constitutional government, and for the expression of -nationalist and democratic aspirations. Two waves of revolution passed -over Europe in 1830 and 1848, and by the middle of the century the -reactionaries could no longer hold their own, and many states had been -freed from despotism and oppression. - -In the latter part of the century, however, as has already been -pointed out, fresh causes for war arose in the competitive ambition -of governments for imperial expansion. Wars became more frequent -and extended into remote regions of the world which had become -accessible. There are forty-seven wars mentioned in these records; of -these thirteen took place before the Crimean War, which is about the -middle of the period, and thirty-three after. In twenty-one out of -the forty-five wars Great Britain was either directly or indirectly -concerned as a belligerent. There were only two wars in which Christian -nations were not primarily involved. - -It must be remembered that in no country had the peoples any voice -in the determination of policy so far as international affairs were -concerned. While for brevity’s sake the usual phraseology is adopted, -and such expressions used as “France decided,” “Russia refused,” “Italy -intended,” etc., etc., in no case does the name of the country mean -the people or indeed anything more than a monarch and a few statesmen. -Although constitutional monarchy became established during the period -in many countries, and with it, parliamentary government, the idea of -diplomacy, foreign policy, international engagements, and treaties -being under parliamentary supervision and control, had not yet been -suggested. - -The solution of the vast problem of the avoidance of war in the future, -if it rests alone on the wisdom of sovereigns and statesmen, is not -likely, judging by the experience of the past, to be reached very -rapidly. In the meanwhile a careful examination of the events of recent -history is a necessary preparation for all who want to dispel the -strange but prevalent delusion that force of arms settles international -disputes, and this record may be useful as a manual for reference. - - - - -THE GREEK WAR - -1821–1828 - - -Belligerents: - - Greece and later Russia, France and Great Britain. - Turkey. - - -Cause: - -Nationalist aspirations had been growing in Greece ever since the -French Revolution. These were encouraged by an intellectual revival and -commercial development. The tyranny and cruel oppression of Turkish -misgovernment under Sultan Mahmud gradually inflamed public opinion. - - -Occasion: - -The Hetæria Philike, a secret society, inaugurated the rebellion. The -first move was made in Moldavia, where it completely failed. This was -followed by a revolt in the Morea and the islands of the Ægean and -subsequently in Central Greece. - - -Course of the War: - -There were wholesale massacres on both sides, notably the destruction -by the Turks of the inhabitants of Chios. The Turks were unable to -suppress the revolt. The Greeks under Kolokotrones exhausted the -Turkish army, and assistance was sought by the Sultan from Mehemet Ali, -of Egypt, who in 1823 conquered Crete and defeated the Greeks at Psara. -The Egyptians and Turks entered Morea. Missolonghi fell after a year’s -siege, and the garrison in the Acropolis at Athens surrendered in June -1827. By a treaty signed at London in July 1827 Great Britain, France, -and Russia decided to intervene as mediators. The Turks rejected -mediation. The victory of the allied fleets at Navarino took place on -October 20 1827. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Adrianople_, September 1829 (see also p. 17) Greece -became autonomous under the supreme sovereignty of the Sultan. Shortly -afterwards the Powers agreed that Greece should be established as an -absolutely independent kingdom, but without Crete or Samos, and with -a frontier line drawn from the mouth of the River Achelous to a spot -near Thermopylæ. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg accepted the crown, but -renounced it after a few months. Prince Otho of Bavaria accepted it in -February 1833. After a revolution in 1862 he was succeeded by Prince -George of Denmark in 1863, the father of King Constantine who was -deposed in 1917. - - -Remarks: - -Greece was confined within far too narrow limits, with which she could -not rest contented. The enmity between Russia and Turkey was in no way -mitigated, and Russian ambitions remained unsatisfied. - - - - -RUSSO-TURKISH WAR - -1828–1829 - - -Belligerents: - - Russia. - Turkey. - - -Cause: - -By the Treaty of London, July 1827, Great Britain, Russia, and France -undertook to put an end to the conflict in the East, which had arisen -out of the Greek struggle for independence. After the victory of -Navarino, Canning died and Great Britain was inactive. By the _Treaty -of Akerman_, October 1826, the points of contention between Russia and -Turkey had been settled in Russia’s favour. But the Russian Government -ardently desired a contest with Turkey. - - -Occasion: - -The Sultan Mahmud issued a proclamation which was a direct challenge -to Russia, and followed it by a levy of troops and the expulsion of -Christians from Constantinople. On April 26, 1828, Russia replied by -declaring war. - - -Course of the War: - -The Russians occupied the Roumanian principalities and crossed the -Danube. At first the Turks had considerable successes in the Dobrudja, -and the Russians, who suffered enormous losses, were only able to -capture Varna. Reserves were brought up during the winter. After fierce -resistance the Turks were routed near Shumla. In July 1829 the Russians -crossed the Balkans, the fleet co-operated in the Black Sea, and the -army began to march on Constantinople. In Asia, Kars and Erzeroum -having fallen into the Russian hands, the Sultan yielded. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Adrianople_, September 14, 1829, Russian ascendancy -in the principalities of the Danube was permanently assured, and the -whole of the Caucasus was converted into Russian territory. The Straits -were declared free and open to merchant ships of all Powers. The -Turkish Government gave its adhesion to the Treaty of London regulating -the Greek frontier. - - -Remarks: - -Russia’s hold over Turkey was greatly strengthened, but the -establishment of an absolutely independent kingdom in Greece was -finally secured. - - - - -WAR BETWEEN HOLLAND AND BELGIUM - -1830–1839 - - -Belligerents: - - Holland. - Belgium, France, Great Britain. - - -Cause: - -The Kingdom of the Netherlands was set up by the Congress of Vienna in -1815, but from the first there was discord between the two states of -the kingdom. King William was a Dutchman and a Protestant. Holland, -although the smaller of the two states, had a permanent majority in the -Chamber. Public offices and appointments were filled by Dutchmen. The -hatred of Dutch rule grew, and with it a desire for separation. - - -Occasion: - -The success of the French Revolution of 1830 led to an outbreak in -Brussels, and Belgian insurgents fought against the Dutch soldiers. -The Powers met in London, and Belgium was declared a separate kingdom. -Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was offered the crown and entered Brussels as -King of the Belgians on June 21, 1831; at the same time the Dutch -prepared for an invasion. - - -Course of the War: - -On August 9, 1831, the Belgians were routed in an encounter with -the Dutch, but on the intervention of the French army King William -withdrew. The Conference in London drew up a treaty, but King William -refused to come to terms and retained possession of Antwerp. In -November a combined British and French fleet sailed for the coast of -Holland, and a French army laid siege to Antwerp. The Dutch garrison -capitulated on December 23, 1831, and the town was handed over to the -Belgians and the French troops withdrew. Still the Dutch refused to -yield and held two forts which enabled them to command the navigation -of the Scheldt. Not till March 1838 did Holland signify her readiness -to accept the treaty. - - -Political Result: - -The Conference throughout had endeavoured to come to an agreement; -Austria, Prussia, and Russia sympathized with Holland; but eventually -the final _Treaty of London_ was signed on April 19, 1839. Luxemburg -was divided, and also the district of Maestricht. The Scheldt was -declared open to the commerce of both countries. The national debt was -divided, and the five Powers guaranteed the independence and neutrality -of Belgium. - - -Remarks: - -As independent states the two countries lived side by side amicably. -The neutrality of Belgium was reaffirmed in 1870 on the outbreak of the -Franco-German War. - -Leopold was succeeded in 1865 by his son Leopold II, under whose -sovereignty the Congo Free State was placed in 1885. King Albert -succeeded his uncle in 1909. - - - - -WAR IN PORTUGAL AND SPAIN - -1830–1839 - - -Belligerents: - - Followers of Don Miguel. - Portuguese Constitutionalists. - Spaniards. - Carlists. - and for a period France and Great Britain. - - -Cause: - -Don Miguel, the head of the reactionary party, was betrothed to -Donna Maria, daughter of Pedro of Brazil. In 1828, disregarding his -professions of loyalty to the Constitution, he declared himself King of -Portugal. The Constitutionalists, who were adherents of Donna Maria, -were crushed. She received no assistance from outside to deal with the -usurper. - -In Spain Don Carlos, the King’s brother, was the representative of -the reactionary party. King Ferdinand, before his death, issued the -Pragmatic Sanction, which enabled his daughter to succeed to the -throne. The King was weak and unpopular, and Don Carlos had a great -following in Spain. - - -Occasion: - -In 1830 Great Britain and France demanded satisfaction for the attacks -on their subjects in Lisbon, and their squadrons appeared in the Tagus. -Great Britain obtained an indemnity and an apology: the French admiral -carried off the best ships of Don Miguel’s navy. In 1831 Pedro came -over from Brazil and raised troops for the reconquest of Portugal, -which began in the following year. Don Carlos was making common cause -with Don Miguel when the King of Spain died in 1833, and his child -Isabella was declared Queen, with Christina, his wife, as Regent. -Rebellion broke out, and Don Carlos was proclaimed King in several -provinces. - - -Course of the War: - -Don Pedro captured Oporto, but was besieged there for nearly a year. -With assistance from outside he overcame the resistance of the enemy -and entered Lisbon in July, 1833. A quadruple treaty was signed at -London in April 1834, by which Spain and Portugal, assisted by Great -Britain and France, engaged to drive both Miguel and Carlos from the -Peninsula. A Spanish army marched against Miguel and the British fleet -arrived. Miguel renounced the crown, and quitted the Peninsula. Don -Carlos was conducted to London, but he escaped and appeared again in -Spain at the head of his insurgents in July 1834. He gained several -victories, and prepared to march on Madrid. Christina appealed to -France for assistance, but Louis Philippe was reluctant to embark on -the enterprise and refused. The war continued till at last General -Espatero forced back the insurgents, the Carlists turned their arms -against one another, and Don Carlos surrendered and crossed the French -frontier. - - -Political Result: - -Absolutism was crushed and a more constitutional form of government -was established. But the throne of Spain was the subject of further -disputes in the future. - - -Remarks: - -This prolonged and barbaric conflict disgraced the Spanish nation. The -three Eastern Powers favoured the cause of Don Carlos and reaction. -It was the fear of possibly provoking a general war that made France -refuse to intervene. - - - - -RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN IN POLAND - -1831 - - -Belligerents: - - Russia. - Poland. - - -Cause: - -By the three partitions of 1772, 1793, and 1795 Poland ceased to exist -as an independent state, and Polish territory was divided up between -Russia, Prussia, and Austria. But in 1814 the Grand Duchy of Warsaw -was established as a separate kingdom subject to the Czar of Russia. -The economic and political life was revived and with it antagonism to -Russia. In 1828 plans were made for an outbreak, but the opportunity -was neglected. The French Revolution of 1830 rekindled the flames. - - -Occasion: - -A revolt broke out in November 1830. An attempt was made to negotiate -with the Czar Nicholas, who let it be understood that Poland had but -two alternatives, unconditional submission or annihilation. The Polish -Government, in January 1831, replied by proclaiming his dethronement. -War was unavoidable, and Russian troops crossed the Polish frontier in -February. - - -Course of the War: - -The losses sustained by the Russian armies were considerable, but the -Poles had to fall back on Warsaw and were defeated at Ostrolenka. -Russian reinforcements came up, and on September 8, 1831, the Russian -army made its entrance into Warsaw, and the revolt was suppressed. - - -Political Result: - -The Constitution of Poland was abolished: it ceased to be a separate -kingdom and became a province of the Russian Empire. The Polish leaders -were exiled. - - -Remarks: - -The Poles might have won a gradual development of constitutional -liberty without a break with the powerful sovereignty of the Czar; -the revolt no doubt was rash and unwise. But, on the other hand, the -governments of Western Europe, including Great Britain, who, by the -Treaty of Vienna, guaranteed the autonomy of Poland, never lifted a -hand on behalf of Polish independence, and acquiesced in its complete -absorption by Russia. - - - - -THE TURKO-EGYPTIAN WAR - -1832–1841 - - -Belligerents: - - Turkey and later Prussia, Austria, Russia, and Great Britain. - Egypt. - - -Cause: - -The ambition for extension of power on the part of Mehemet Ali, Viceroy -of Egypt. - - -Occasion: - -Unsatisfied with the Island of Crete given to him for his services -to the Ottoman Empire, Mehemet Ali sent his son Ibrahim with a force -and laid siege to Acre. He was declared a rebel, and the Turkish army -entered Syria. - - -Course of the War: - -Syria and Asia Minor were conquered by Ibrahim. Russia offered aid, but -on the intervention of France the Sultan was persuaded to make peace, -making over to Mehemet Ali Syria and the province of Adena. At the -same time, in July 1833, a treaty of defensive alliance was signed at -_Unkiar Skelessi_ between Russia and Turkey, by which Russia obtained -very nearly complete ascendancy at Constantinople. Great Britain -desired to maintain the Sultan’s power: France befriended Mehemet Ali: -both were agreed in checking Russian influence in the Levant. War broke -out again. Ibrahim gained a victory at Nissibim in June 1839, and the -Turkish fleet surrendered to Mehemet Ali at Alexandria. A quadruple -treaty was signed by Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, -by which it was proposed that Mehemet should have the hereditary -government of Egypt, should withdraw from Syria and hold Palestine as a -governor under the Porte. The exclusion of France from this agreement -roused great public indignation. By the aid of the Allies Mehemet Ali -was driven from Syria. Acre was captured by Sir Charles Napier, and -Mehemet submitted. - - -Political Result: - -By the final settlement, to which France also agreed, Mehemet Ali -abandoned all claim to provinces outside Egypt, undertook to restore -the Turkish fleet, and was assured the hereditary possession of Egypt. -The Straits were closed to the warships of all nations. This prevented -Russia from becoming a Mediterranean Power. - - -Remarks: - -Turkey now became dependent on the protection of Europe. Hopes of -internal reform, however, never fructified. The conflicting ambitions -of European Powers with regard to the continually shrinking dominions -of the Sultan became henceforth an increasing source of friction. - - - - -FIRST AFGHAN WAR - -1838–1842 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain and Indian Troops. - Afghanistan. - - -Cause: - -The close proximity of Afghanistan to India necessitated the British -Government watching jealously the affairs of that country, and -preparing for the possibility of its being brought under the domination -of any other Power. Russian intrigues had been throughout a source of -suspicion and uneasiness. The British policy was declared to be the -maintenance of the integrity and independence of Afghanistan. - - -Occasion: - -The British Government decided to reinstate Shah Shuja, who was a -refugee in British territory, Dost Mahommed being in power at Kabul. - - -Course of the War: - -A British Indian force advanced in March 1838, and entered Kandahar. -Shah Shuja was crowned. Dost Mahommed withdrew, and Kabul was -entered. The war was brought to an end, but in November 1841 a revolt -broke out in Kabul and there were serious massacres. The British -garrison in withdrawing was overwhelmed between Kabul and Jalalabad. -Reinforcements, in 1842, forced the Kyber Pass, relieved Jalalabad and -occupied Kabul. The army finally evacuated Afghanistan in December 1842. - - -Political Result: - -A ruler imposed on a free people by foreign arms is always unpopular. -The Afghans considered that Shah Shuja’s rule under the protection of -British troops might be fatal to their national independence. - - -Remarks: - -This war has been described as a rash, ill-planned, and hazardous -enterprise, and was the immediate cause of further trouble. (See p. -58.) - - - - -THE OPIUM WAR IN CHINA - -1840–1842 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain. - China. - - -Cause: - -The Chinese still held the doctrine that no political relations -or dealings should be held with any foreign country. The British -Government under Palmerston decided to place trade relations with China -on a more satisfactory basis, confusion and annoyance having arisen -owing to the expiry of the East India Company’s charter. They also -resolved to protect the opium traffic in spite of the protests of the -Chinese Government. This latter reason overshadowed the others, and -the war, which was known as the Opium War, was the subject of heated -controversy in England. - - -Occasion: - -The Chinese Government refused to recognize the British Commission or -to come to terms on the opium question. Reports in 1839 from Captain -Elliot, the British Trade Commissioner, led to the decision of the -British Government to send an expedition, and war was declared in 1840. - - -Course of the War: - -The fleet captured Chusan, and in the following year Amoy. Ningpo fell, -and in 1842 Chapu, Woosung, and Shanghai shared the same fate. Before -Nanking could be captured the Chinese Government proposed terms of -peace. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Nanking_, August 21, 1842, Hong-kong was formally -ceded to the British Crown; Canton, Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo, and Shanghai -were declared open to foreign trade. A war indemnity of twelve million -dollars was paid to Great Britain, and subsequent treaties were signed -for the regulation of trade. - - -Remarks: - -This was the beginning of the exploitation of China by the Western -Powers. It led to further wars, and the opium question continued -to agitate public opinion in Great Britain and cause disputes with -China for the rest of the century, until the opium trade was finally -abolished in 1913. - - - - -AMERICAN WAR WITH MEXICO - -1846–1848 - - -Belligerents: - - The United States of America. - Mexico. - - -Cause: - -Texas seceded from Mexico in 1836. The independence of Texas was -recognized by the United States, but the proposal that the new state -should be admitted into the Union was declined. A strong support for -the annexation of Texas in the interests of slavery grew up, more -especially in the Southern states, and in December 1844 resolutions -were passed in both Houses, and it was formally enrolled as a new state. - - -Occasion: - -The Mexican Government still claimed Texas as a province, and its -annexation by the United States was considered an act of hostility. -The Americans had suffered long under continued acts of insult and -spoliation on the part of the Mexicans, and were therefore prepared to -fight. - - -Course of the War: - -The Americans under Taylor invaded Mexico, won battles at Palo Alto -and Resaca and captured Monterey. In 1847 there were more victories, -the Mexicans under Santa Anna being everywhere defeated. The Americans -entered Mexico City on September 14th. After further fighting peace was -proclaimed at Washington in July 1848. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo_, February 2, 1848, Mexico ceded -the whole of Texas, New Mexico, and Upper California. The United States -surrendered their other conquests. - - -Remarks: - -So far as Texas was concerned, the political opinion in the United -States was divided, and that division was to become more serious as -time went on. On the other hand, Mexico was a troublesome neighbour, -and has continued ever since to be the cause of disturbance and -dispute. - - - - -AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN WAR - -1848–1849 - - -Belligerents: - - Hungary. - Austria, the Southern Slavs and Russia. - - -Cause: - -The fall of Metternich, who had been the champion of despotism and -reaction throughout Europe, and the revolutionary spirit which ran -through Europe in 1848, created great unrest in the Austro-Hungarian -Empire. The Emperor Ferdinand was weak and worthless, and the Magyars -were determined not to submit to the domination of autocratic rule in -Austria. Jellacic, the Croatian leader, hoped to create a Southern Slav -state: he co-operated with the Austrians in opposition to Hungary, and -was supported by the Czechs of Bohemia. - - -Occasion: - -Finding it impossible to come to terms with the Emperor Ferdinand, -Kossuth, the Hungarian leader, took up an uncompromisingly hostile -attitude. Jellacic marched to Pesth. A revolutionary movement of -sympathy with Hungary broke out in Vienna. The Emperor fled to Olmutz. -Windischgrätz, the Austrian general, marched on Vienna and took -possession in November 1848. Ferdinand abdicated, and Francis Joseph, -his nephew, became Emperor December 2nd. The Hungarians refused to -acknowledge him. There was a rising of Roumanians in Transylvania, and -the whole Hungarian nation was called to arms. - - -Course of the War: - -The Austrians occupied Pesth on January 5, 1849; the Hungarians -withdrew to Debreczin and were defeated at Kapolona on February 26th. -In April the Magyar troops recovered and the Austrians were driven -out of Hungary. On April 19th Hungary was proclaimed an independent -state. Russia intervened to assist Austria, and marched an army across -Galicia. The Hungarians were now confronted with a force three times -the size of their own, and the main army capitulated at Vilagos on -August 13, 1849. - - -Political Result: - -Hungary was completely crushed and subjected to savage punishment by -its conquerors. Every vestige of its old constitutional rights was -extinguished. - - -Remarks: - -In 1860 the old Constitution was restored. In 1867 the Emperor Francis -Joseph was crowned King of Hungary. A responsible ministry was -appointed, and a financial agreement (Ausgleich) made between Austria -and Hungary. - -Nationality asserted itself in spite of all attempts at repression. But -the Hungarians, in their turn, held the Slav and Roumanian populations -within their borders with an iron grasp and failed to gain their -affection. - - - - -THE ITALIAN WAR OF LIBERATION - -1831, 1848–1849, 1859 and 1866–1867 - - -Belligerents: - - The States of Italy. - Austria. - France. - - -Cause: - -Italy, after the fall of Napoleon, was divided into separate -ill-governed small states, with Venice and Lombardy in the hands of -Austria. The idea of uniting Italy under one Government grew as the -century advanced, and received fresh impetus from the revolutionary -movements in Europe in 1830 and 1848. The society, “Young Italy,” under -the guidance of Mazzini, kept the spirit of revolution alive, although -several insurrections instigated by them failed. The expulsion of -Austria became the central idea of the movement. - - -Occasion: - -The quarrels between the smaller states: the hatred of the presence -of Austria, who, under Metternich’s guidance, desired throughout to -suppress the movement: the decline of Austrian power on the rise of -Prussia: the intervention of France to prevent Austrian aggrandizement -and to protect the Pope. - - -Course of the Wars: - -The revolt in the Papal States in 1831 was suppressed by Austrian -intervention. France also intervened, and the Austrian troops withdrew. -In 1848 Sardinian troops advanced against Austria, but after much -fighting round Verona were defeated at Santa Lucia. - -Civil war broke out between Naples and Sicily. Sardinia and Piedmont, -under Victor Emmanuel and his Minister, Cavour, now took the lead. -France became their ally in 1859. In spite of attempts at mediation by -Great Britain, Austria presented an ultimatum, April 23, 1859. Napoleon -III and the Allies won victories at Magenta and Solferino. By the -_Peace of Villa Franca_ in July, followed by the _Treaty of Zurich_, -November 10, 1859, Austria ceded Lombardy but not Venice. Tuscany, -Parma Modena, and Romagna were united to Piedmont by their own vote. -Savoy and Nice were ceded to France. - -In 1860 Garibaldi conquered Sicily and Naples. Piedmontese troops -entered the Papal States. By 1861 all Italy, with the exception of -Rome and Venice, was under Victor Emmanuel. In the North war broke -out again. The Italians were defeated by Austria at Custozza, but -after Königgrätz (see p. 50) the Austrians ceded Venice to France, and -Napoleon III handed it over to Italy. This arrangement was confirmed -by the _Treaty of Vienna_, October 3, 1866, between Austria and Italy. -In 1867 France defended the Papal States against Garibaldi’s invasion, -and he was defeated at Mentana. Finally, in 1870, Napoleon III withdrew -his troops from Papal territory, and on September 20th Victor Emmanuel -entered Rome. - - -Political Result: - -All Italy became united under one monarch with its capital at Rome. -Victor Emmanuel was succeeded in 1878 by Humbert, the father of King -Victor Emmanuel III. - - -Remarks: - -The rivalry between Austria and Italy did not die down, and there were -still certain territories--_Italia irredenta_ (such as Trentino)--which -remained in Austrian hands. - - - - -THE CRIMEAN WAR - -1854–1856 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia. - Russia. - - -Cause: - -From 1830 onwards there was a growing estrangement between Great -Britain and Russia. The Czar Nicholas believed that the dominion of the -Turk in Europe was nearing its end, and cherished the ambition that -Russia should acquire provinces of the Ottoman dominions. On the other -hand, there was keen opposition in Great Britain to Russia’s expansion, -and to the idea of Constantinople falling into her hands. Louis -Napoleon had only two years previously become Emperor of the French. -His dynastic ambitions made him eager for military glory. Sardinia -joined the Allies for tactical reasons. - - -Occasion: - -The French claimed the custody of the Holy Places in Palestine: the -Russians made a counter-claim to the custody of the Holy Places and -to a Protectorate over the Greek Christians in the Ottoman Empire. -The Turkish Government, on the advice of the British Ambassador, Lord -Stratford de Redcliffe, refused to accept the Russian claims. Russian -troops crossed the Pruth in June 1853, and a Turkish squadron was -destroyed at Sinope in November. On the refusal of Russia to make -her ships re-enter port in the Black Sea and evacuate the Danubian -principalities, war was declared by France and England on March 27, -1854. - - -Course of the War: - -The Crimea was invaded, and fighting continued there for two years. The -Austrian attempt at mediation in May 1855, failed. The Russians were -defeated at Alma and Inkerman, and Sevastopol, after a long siege, fell -on September 9, 1855. The Russians captured Kars in November. - - -Political Results: - -By the _Treaty of Paris_, March 30, 1856, the Black Sea was -neutralized. An engagement was made by all the Powers to respect the -independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire: the Sultan promised -to give equality of treatment to his Christian subjects. The Danubian -provinces were granted independence under the sovereignty of the Sultan. - - -Remarks: - -This treaty was absolutely barren. The Sultan’s promise was never acted -on: the neutrality of the Black Sea was maintained only till 1870: and -when the integrity of the Ottoman Empire was assailed in later years -none of the signatory Powers intervened in its defence. But at the -Congress of Berlin in 1878 the Powers partitioned parts of the Ottoman -Empire. So far from settling any disputes this war caused dissensions -which led to other wars. - - - - -THE INDIAN MUTINY - -1857–1858 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain. - Native Indians. - - -Cause: - -The East India Company had engaged in constant wars and employed an -army in which native troops outnumbered the British by eight to one. -The Sepoys especially became aware of their strength and importance. In -many ways religious sensibilities were offended, dissatisfaction with -the Company’s rule spread and unrest was abroad. - - -Occasion: - -The spirit of revolt grew, and a trivial incident was sufficient to -make the spark burst into a flame. Cartridges used for the new Enfield -rifle smeared with the fat of sacred cows and the lard of polluted pigs -were to be bitten by Hindu and Mohammedan alike. The ferment caused by -the rumour spread and the mutiny broke out. - - -Course of the War: - -Native troops mutinied at Mirat, and proceeded to Delhi, Cawnpore, and -Lucknow. Many British men and women were murdered. A British force in -June and July 1857 marched on Delhi. Engagements were fought, in which -there were heavy losses. Disease and cholera also carried off many -victims. After a great struggle Lahore was captured in September, and -Agra was relieved, also Cawnpore, where, under Nana Sahib, the most -hideous massacres and cruelty had taken place. At Lucknow a heroic -resistance was made against an overwhelming force of rebels. It was -relieved on November 22, 1857. In March 1858, the whole province of -Oudh was recovered by Outram and Colin Campbell. Not till the beginning -of 1859 did organized resistance come to an end in all parts of India. - - -Political Result: - -By the Queen’s proclamation of November 1858 the government of India -was taken over by the British Government. The Queen declared that -all her Indian subjects should be protected in the exercise of their -religious observances. Excessive measures of repression which had been -resorted to were stopped. - - -Remarks: - -Queen Victoria was styled Empress of India at the instance of Disraeli -in 1876. Various reforms have been instituted in Indian administration -tentatively allowing Indians some share in the government of the -country. But the problem of British rule in India is not one which is -capable of final solution. - - - - -THE CHINESE WAR - -1857–1860 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain, France. - China. - - -Cause: - -The increasing commercial ambitions of Western Powers in the East led -Great Britain and France to insist on the establishment of fair and -equitable terms of trade. The Chinese Government was in the hands of -the Tatars known as the Taipings, who, by their successful rebellion, -had overthrown the Manchu dynasty. - - -Occasion: - -The refusal of the Chinese Government to redress long-standing -grievances or to allow the diplomatic representatives of the Western -Powers to reside in Peking; the seizure of the crew of the British -ship _Arrow_ off Canton, and the refusal of the Chinese Governor to -apologize or surrender the men, and the murder of a French missionary -in Kwangsi brought things to a head. - - -Course of the War: - -Canton was taken by the British in December 1857. The Taku Forts fell -in May 1858 and Tientsin was occupied. Negotiations were attempted but -failed. An allied force of British and French landed in 1860, marched -on Peking, and the Chinese yielded. - - -Political Result: - -By the treaty of October 24, 1860, the Chinese paid an indemnity of -eight million taels. The right of Europeans to travel in the interior -was granted, and freedom guaranteed to the preaching of Christianity. -By the customs tariff agreed upon the import of opium was legalized. -In the course of 1861 British, French, and Russian legations were -permanently established at Peking, and in the following years the same -right was conceded to other European nations. By treaties with Russia -in the same year China ceded all its territory north of the Amur to -Russia, and in this territory Vladivostock was founded. - -Good relations having been established, the Chinese Government, with -the assistance of Gordon, carried out a successful campaign against the -Taipings, and the Manchu dynasty was restored. - - -Remarks: - -This was the opening of the door into China, and from henceforth the -Western Powers began to compete for commercial and territorial prizes -in the Chinese Empire. - - - - -AMERICAN CIVIL WAR - -1861–1865 - - -Belligerents: - - The Northern states of North America. - The Southern states of North America. - - -Cause: - -The cultivation of cotton progressed under very different conditions -in the North and South. In the North the white man had to work -vigorously to overcome the disadvantages of the soil. In the South -the negro labourer could be used with profit to his owner, and was -held as a slave. By 1860 the thirteen original states were enlarged to -thirty-three. The territories of the North-east found their prosperity -in free labour, the South throve on the cotton crop and continued to -exploit negro labour. The Southern states gradually combined together, -and between 1830 and 1850 gained a predominant voice in the control -of Federal affairs. The North also became consolidated, and a strong -movement against slavery grew up, chiefly owing to the efforts of -W. Lloyd Garrison. A new Republican party gained strength in its -opposition to the dominating differences of the South, and sectional -political differences were intensified. The prospect of the abolition -of slavery was not the only issue. The South resented the idea that -coercive measures might be used to keep the lower South in the Union. -They believed this to be an attack on the doctrine of the sovereignty -of states. A widespread feeling in favour of secession grew up. - - -Occasion: - -The Republican party triumphed at the election, and Abraham Lincoln -became President in November, 1860. South Carolina seceded, ten other -states followed, and the Confederate States were established under -the Presidency of Jefferson Davis. The attack on Fort Sumter by the -Confederates on April 4, 1861, made war inevitable. - - -Course of the War: - -The North was defeated at Bull Run in July 1861, but captured forts -Henry and Donelson in 1862, and gained a victory at Shiloh. At -Richmond, and later at Fredericksburg, the North was defeated. Lincoln -issued his proclamation of Emancipation on January 1, 1863. The -South, under Lee, were defeated in the greatest battle of the war at -Gettysburg, on July 4th. In 1864 there were further victories for the -North under Grant at Spottsylvania and Coldharbour; and Atlanta and -Savanah were captured. In 1865 Petersburg and Richmond were evacuated -by the Confederates and Lee surrendered. On May 26th the war came to an -end, after a desperate struggle of nearly four years. - - -Political Result: - -The Union was restored and slavery abolished. Lincoln was assassinated -on April 14, 1865, and his wise counsel was lost therefore for the -difficult work of reconstruction which followed the war. - - -Remarks: - -Great Britain declared neutrality at the outset, and thereby -implicitly, though not explicitly, recognized the Southern Confederacy -as a belligerent Power. There was much sympathy with the South among -the governing class, but the people were on the side of the North. The -Trent affair brought Great Britain and America very near to war. (See -_Treaty of Washington_, p. 94.) - - - - -FRENCH EXPEDITION IN MEXICO - -1862–1867 - - -Belligerents: - - France. - Mexican Republicans. - - -Cause: - -From 1789, the date of the first conspiracy against Spain, down to -1857, when a Constitution was promulgated, Mexico was in a state of -permanent warfare. In 1861 France, Spain, and Great Britain adopted -joint measures against the republic in order to get better protection -for their subjects and their property. In 1862 Great Britain and Spain -withdrew. But Napoleon III conceived the project of establishing a -monarchy in Mexico under his patronage, and so increasing French -ascendancy beyond the Atlantic. - - -Occasion: - -The financial misdemeanours of the Mexican Government were made the -pretext for the advance of French troops into Mexico in 1862. - - -Course of the War: - -The French force was checked in May 1862, and further reinforcements -were sent out. They advanced again in February 1863, and entered Mexico -City in June. A Provisional Government was established, and the crown -was offered to Maximilian of Austria, who accepted it and reached -Mexico City in June 1864. Juarez, the republican leader, was driven -into the extreme north of the country. But his resistance was by no -means overcome. Napoleon III bound himself to keep a force in Mexico -for the protection of Maximilian. In 1865, on the restoration of peace -after the Civil War in the United States, the Government of Washington -refused to acknowledge any authority in Mexico but that of Juarez. The -French were obliged to withdraw in 1867, and Maximilian was left to his -fate. The Juarists got the upper hand, and Maximilian was executed. - - -Political Result: - -Juarez, as President of Mexico, was succeeded by Diaz in 1877; and -order was maintained for a generation. - - -Remarks: - -This foolish enterprise damaged the reputation of Napoleon III. He was -regarded as a political adventurer, and became increasingly unpopular -in his own country. - - - - -BRAZILIAN WAR - -1864–1870 - - -Belligerents: - - Brazil, Uruguay, Argentine Republic. - Paraguay. - - -Cause: - -Brazil was part of the Portuguese possessions until 1822, when it -declared its independence. The Emperors Pedro I and II had frequent -trouble not only with the republican movement in Brazil itself, but -with the neighbouring states, with whom they were constantly at war. In -1855 Pedro II sent a squadron up the Parana to adjust several questions -outstanding with the republic of Paraguay. Although certain rights were -granted to Brazil the Government of Paraguay threw every obstacle in -the way to prevent a settlement. - - -Occasion: - -In 1864 Lopez, the ambitious dictator of Paraguay, without declaring -war, captured a Brazilian vessel, and invaded Brazil and the Argentine. -Uruguay joined them in a triple alliance of defence against Paraguay. - - -Course of the War: - -Owing to the strong natural position of Paraguay, and the obstinacy of -Lopez, the war was drawn out with constant fighting and great sacrifice -of life in addition to vast expenditure, until 1870, when it was -terminated by the capture and death of Lopez. - - -Political Result: - -External troubles ceased, but the republican movement gained in -strength until 1889, when Pedro was deposed and a republic declared in -Brazil. - - -Remarks: - -The slaughter in this war was so terrific that the population of -Paraguay was reduced from 1,337,439 to 221,079. - -This is only one example of the very frequent disturbances, both -internal and external, in the South American continent during the -course of the century. - - - - -THE DANISH WAR - -1864 - - -Belligerents: - - Denmark. - Prussia and Austria. - - -Cause: - -The strong revival of nationalism in Germany after the Napoleonic Wars -spread to the German inhabitants of the Duchies of Schleswig Holstein, -who desired in 1848 to be incorporated as a single constitutional -state in the German Federation. The Danish crown could be inherited by -female heirs, but in the Duchies the Salic law had never been repealed. -This made complications with regard to the succession. Frederick VII -of Denmark endeavoured to preserve the Duchy as an integral part of -Denmark. An insurrection broke out, and Prussia intervened by marching -troops into Holstein. Under pressure from other Powers the King of -Prussia signed a convention at Malmoe practically yielding all the -Danish demands, and in 1850, by the _Treaty of Berlin_, peace was -restored between Prussia and Denmark, but without any settlement of -the vexed question. In 1852 Great Britain intervened with a proposal -without success. In 1854 the King of Denmark promulgated special -Constitutions for the Duchies as well as a common Constitution for the -whole Monarchy. The German Confederation rejected this as the Diets of -the Duchies had not been consulted. The question became of European -interest: its complexity prevented any settlement being reached. -Bismarck alone was quite determined on eventual annexation, and Denmark -was equally determined not to yield. - - -Occasion: - -After further diplomatic disputes Austrian and Prussian troops entered -Schleswig in February 1864. - - -Course of the War: - -The allied troops broke through the frontier fortifications and -occupied the greater part of the Danish mainland. The Danes were -overthrown in the island of Alsen, and the German flag carried to the -northern extremity of Denmark. A conference was opened in London, April -1864, but the negotiations broke down and the war continued. - - -Political Result: - -Eventually, by the _Treaty of Vienna_, October 30, 1864, the King of -Denmark ceded the rights in the whole of Schleswig Holstein to the -Sovereigns of Austria and Prussia jointly. - - -Remarks: - -This was more a diplomatic war than a military war. The conflict was -between retention and annexation, and little regard was paid on any -side to the desires of the inhabitants of the disputed territory. -Although by the _Treaty of London_ of 1852 the Powers, including Great -Britain, had acknowledged as permanent the principle of the integrity -of the Danish Monarchy no steps were taken by them to maintain that -principle. The settlement did nothing to prevent the outbreak of war -between Prussia and Austria two years later, when Schleswig Holstein -was again one of the bones of contention. - - - - -THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR - -1866 - - -Belligerents: - - Prussia and some of the smaller North German States and Italy. - Austria and the other German States. - - -Cause: - -From 1848 onwards in all the projects for a united Germany there was -keen rivalry between Prussia and Austria. Each resisted the domination -of the other in any new Empire, and the South German states were -inclined to side with Austria against Prussian supremacy. This state of -affairs prevented any final scheme from being agreed to. At the same -time there were serious differences between Austria and Italy, who was -Prussia’s ally. Bismarck made up his mind that Austria must be expelled -by force of arms from the German Federation. He was an ardent supporter -of the House of Hohenzollern. - - -Occasion: - -Austria supported Schleswig Holstein in their struggle for independence -against Prussia after the conclusion of the Danish War. An attempted -congress of neutrals failed. Austria called on the Diet of Frankfort -to take the affairs of Schleswig Holstein into its own hands, and -demanded and obtained the mobilization of the whole Federal armies. -Prussia declared that this action made an end of the Federal Union, -and submitted a new plan for the organization of Germany, which was -refused. Diplomatic relations were broken off June 12, 1866. - - -Course of the War: - -Hanover and Hesse Cassel were conquered by Prussia, the Austrians were -defeated at Königgrätz, July 3, 1866, and the Prussians pushed forward -in sight of Vienna. The Austrians defeated the Italians on land at -Custozza, and by sea at Lissa. - - -Political Result: - -Napoleon III offered mediation, which was accepted. The _Treaty of -Prague_, August 23, 1866. Prussia annexed Hanover, Nassau, Hesse -Cassel, and Frankfort: Germany north of the Main together with Saxony -was included in a Federation under Prussia: the Southern states were -left independent. Prussian sovereignty over Schleswig Holstein was -recognized. Austria withdrew completely from German affairs. - - -Remarks: - -Napoleon III had attempted, by dividing Germany in two, to put an -obstacle in the way of German unity. His clumsy diplomacy was greatly -disapproved of in France. By preventing a final settlement he made the -recurrence of war inevitable. - - - - -BRITISH EXPEDITION IN ABYSSINIA - -1867–1868 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain. - Abyssinia. - - -Cause: - -From 1855 Abyssinia came under the powerful rule of the Emperor -Theodore. He subdued the neighbouring kingdoms of Tigré and Shoa, and -took Menelek, son of the ruler of Tigré, to be trained in his service. -He ravaged the surrounding country, and oppressed his own people. In -1864 there was an interchange of letters between Theodore and the -British Government, out of which difficulties arose. - - -Occasion: - -The British Consul and his staff, and subsequently a British emissary, -were imprisoned in Magdala and put in chains. Their release was -demanded, but the Emperor paid no attention, and the British Government -decided they must have recourse to arms. - - -Course of the War: - -A British force under Sir Robert Napier landed in January 1868, a -march of three hundred miles was undertaken through the mountainous -districts, and, after a fierce engagement, Magdala was stormed and -taken on April 13, 1868. The Emperor committed suicide, and his son was -taken to England, where he died. The British troops left the country in -May 1868. - - -Political Result: - -The ruler of Tigré succeeded Theodore under the title of King John, and -on his death, in 1889, Menelek became Emperor. - - -Remarks: - -After this the Italians came on to the scene with ambitions in this -part of Africa (see p. 74), but Abyssinia remained an independent -kingdom. In the various expeditions against the Mullah in Somaliland -(1902–4) the Abyssinians co-operated with Great Britain. - - - - -THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR - -1870–1871 - - -Belligerents: - - France. - Prussia and ten other German States. - - -Cause: - -For some years previously there had been increasing friction between -France and Prussia, owing chiefly to Louis Napoleon’s apprehensions -as to the possibility of closer union between Prussia and the South -German states, his repeated endeavours to extend the Eastern frontier -of France, and Bismarck’s counter-moves to frustrate his designs. The -desire also for a united Germany was growing stronger, and Bismarck -believed it could not be completed without a conflict with France. - - -Occasion: - -The candidature of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen for -the throne of Spain in 1870 was resented by France as calculated to -bring Spain under the influence of Prussia. King William of Prussia, -on representations from France, persuaded Prince Leopold to withdraw, -but refused firmly but politely a guarantee against the renewal of the -candidature. Bismarck published a telegram conveying the impression -that the French Ambassador, Benedetti, had been insulted by the King at -Ems on the occasion of the refusal. This infuriated public opinion in -France, the Empress Eugénie actively used her influence, and Napoleon -agreed to a declaration of war on July 14, 1870. - - -Course of the War: - -In the war, which lasted from July 1870 to February 1871, the -ill-organized and badly led French troops could make no stand against -the well-prepared armies of Germany. The French were defeated at Wörth, -August 6th; Metz, August 7th; Marsla Tour, August 17th; Gravelotte, -August 18th. Paris was besieged: Louis Napoleon capitulated at Sedan, -September 2nd; Strasburg fell, September 28th; Bazaine capitulated at -Metz, October 27th; and the Germans entered Paris on January 28, 1871. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Frankfort_, May 10, 1871, Alsace and half Lorraine -(with Metz) were ceded to Germany, and an indemnity of 200 millions was -exacted from France. The King of Prussia was proclaimed at Versailles -German Emperor. France was declared a republic, and Napoleon eventually -retired into exile in England. - - -Remarks: - -The dictation of terms and the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine entirely -prevented friendly relations from being established between the two -countries in the succeeding years. France, by getting rid of the -corrupt and incompetent government of Napoleon III, began to recuperate -from this time onward. Germany, having reached the ideal of unity, -proceeded gradually to join in the competition for commercial expansion -and Imperial aggrandizement. - - - - -THE ASHANTI WAR - -1873–1874 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain. - The Ashantis. - - -Cause: - -The Ashantis, a very fierce and warlike tribe on the Gold Coast of -Africa had repeatedly caused trouble owing to their treatment of the -Fantis, a tribe on the coast under British protection. In 1824 they -defeated a British force and carried off to Kumasi the skull of the -Governor, Sir Charles M’Carthy, which was used as a royal drinking cup. -They were afterwards defeated in 1826. In 1863 an expedition against -them had to be abandoned owing to the ravages done by sickness among -the troops. In 1867 a warlike king, Kofi Karikari succeeded as ruler -and proceeded to make hostile preparations against the Fantis. - - -Occasion: - -In 1872 some Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast were transferred to -Great Britain. The King of Ashanti claimed a tribute formerly allowed -to him by the Dutch and refused to evacuate the territory ceded -to Britain. He also held four Europeans in captivity. The British -Government determined to take up the matter seriously, and when in -January 1873 an Ashanti force invaded the British Protectorate an -expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley was immediately despatched. - - -Course of the War: - -Owing to difficulties of climate it was necessary that the whole -campaign should be rapidly carried out. The Ashantis were defeated at -all points. Kumasi was reached and King Kofi surrendered. The European -troops suffered severely from fever but the objects were successfully -accomplished. Wolseley sailed from England on September 12, 1873, and -returned to Portsmouth on March 21, 1874. - - -Political Result: - -The King renounced his claim to supremacy over any part of the former -Dutch protectorate, paid an indemnity in gold, and agreed to prohibit -human sacrifices. Further trouble arose, however, after the death of -the King, his successors disregarding the treaty. In 1895 an expedition -was sent out under Colonel Sir F. Scott. Kumasi was occupied and King -Prempeh deported. Still the Ashanti tribes refused to submit, and -continued in rebellion. The Governor of the Gold Coast and a small -force were surrounded in Kumasi. He managed to escape and Kumasi was -finally relieved by an expedition under Colonel Wilcocks who gradually -suppressed the rebellion. By an Order in Council of September 26, 1901, -Ashanti was formally annexed to the British dominions and given a -separate administration under the control of the Governor of the Gold -Coast. - - -Remarks: - -Imperial responsibilities entail the protection of friendly tribes -against hostile attack in the outlying parts of the Empire. Punitive -expeditions become necessary and annexation is found to be the best -method of securing law and order. - - - - -RUSSO-TURKISH WAR - -1877–1878 - - -Belligerents: - - Russia. - Turkey. - - -Cause: - -The persecution and oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire -led to a revolt in Herzegovina in 1875. Andrassy, on behalf of -Austria, presented a Note to the Turkish Government demanding reforms, -and this was followed by the Berlin Memorandum, signed by Germany, -France, Austria, Russia, and Italy. Great Britain alone stood out. The -Bulgarian massacres in June 1876 caused a great sensation in England, -and were followed by a declaration of war by Servia and Montenegro -against Turkey. Great Britain, always mistrusting Russian designs, -called a Conference. The demands of the Conference were rejected by -Turkey in January 1877. The Sultan protested against the encroachment -of the Powers on his inviolable rights. - - -Occasion: - -The London Protocol of March 1877, signed by Great Britain and Russia -and agreed to by the other Powers, called for reforms and expressed the -intention of the Powers to safeguard the Christian population. This was -also rejected by the Turks, and Russia declared war on April 24, 1877. - - -Course of the War: - -The Russian army crossed the Danube. Plevna fell in December 1877. -The Russians entered Adrianople, January 1878. The advance of the -Russian army towards Gallipoli was followed by the dispatch of the -British fleet to Constantinople and brought Russia and Great Britain -within a hair’s-breadth of war. This, however, was avoided and peace -negotiations began. - - -Political Result: - -_Treaty of San Stefano_, March 3, 1878. The independence of Servia, -Montenegro, and Roumania was recognized. Bulgaria was made an -autonomous principality with frontiers including the greater part of -European Turkey; the Dobrudja and certain districts in Asia Minor were -ceded to Russia. - -Great Britain objected strongly to this treaty, and proposed a Congress -at Berlin. While the chances of the Congress hung in the balance, Great -Britain made warlike preparations, but the Congress was finally agreed -to. - -_Treaty of Berlin_, July 13, 1878. Bulgaria’s frontier was confined to -the country north of the Balkans. Bosnia and Herzegovina were handed -over to Austria: the territory given to Serbia and Montenegro was -further restricted: Thessaly and part of Epirus were ceded to Greece. - -By a secret convention Great Britain engaged to protect Turkey against -further aggression of Russia in Asia. In return the Porte assigned -Cyprus to be occupied and administered by England. - -Lord Beaconsfield was the British Plenipotentiary at the Peace Congress -and returned declaring he had secured “peace with honour.” - - -Remarks: - -This was a patched-up peace. It settled none of the problems in the -Balkans, which continued to be the danger zone in Europe for the rest -of the century. - - - - -THE SECOND AFGHAN WAR - -1878–1881 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain and Indian Troops. - Afghanistan. - - -Cause: - -In 1868 the expanding power of Russia in Asia resulted in Bokhara -becoming a Russian dependency. In 1873 Russia conquered Khiva. Shere -Ali, now ruler of Afghanistan, became alarmed, but failing to come -to an understanding with the British Government, he began to make -overtures to Russia. In 1877 an offer of alliance was made by the -Viceroy of India, but Shere Ali refused to admit a British Agent into -Afghanistan. - - -Occasion: - -In 1878 the Russian Government sent an envoy to Kabul to make a treaty -with the Amir. A British army was also sent, but was turned back on the -frontier, and hostilities were proclaimed by the Viceroy. - - -Course of the War: - -Two British forces marched into the interior of Afghanistan, and -occupied important positions. Shere Ali fled from his capital, and -died in February 1879. By the _Treaty of Gandamuk_, May 1879, Yakub -Khan was recognized as Amir, and he agreed that a British envoy should -reside at his Court. In September 1879, the envoy, his staff, and -his escort were massacred. A fresh expedition was sent under Sir F. -Roberts, who entered Kabul. In 1880, Abdur Rahman, nephew of Shere Ali, -returned from exile in Russia and established himself in the northern -provinces. The British Government came to an agreement with him, and he -was recognized as Amir. In July 1880 Ayub Khan, another son of Shere -Ali, defeated a British force at Maiwand. Roberts reached Kandahar -from Kabul by a rapid march, and defeated Ayub Khan on September 1, -1880. Again, in July 1881, Ayub Khan returned and took possession of -Kandahar, but was finally routed by Abdur Rahman in September. - - -Political Result: - -The frontiers of Afghanistan were delimited in agreement with Russia. -Abdur Rahman’s rulership over Afghanistan was established. He extended -and consolidated his dominion over the whole country, and was -peacefully succeeded by his son Habibullah in 1901. - - -Remarks: - -By the Anglo-Russia Convention of 1907, Great Britain engaged not to -alter the political status of Afghanistan, and Russia recognized it as -outside her sphere of influence. - - - - -THE ZULU WAR - -1879 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain. - The Zulus. - - -Cause: - -The warlike and threatening attitude of the Zulus under Cetywayo -constituted a perpetual menace to the safety of the British possessions -in South Africa. The policy of Sir Bartle Frere, Governor of the Cape -and High Commissioner, was the eventual Federation of all South African -states under British rule, and it was essential, therefore, in his -opinion, that the white inhabitants should be secured against native -raids. There was a strong opinion that this could be effected without -force of arms. - - -Occasion: - -The cruelties and excesses practised by Cetywayo culminated in a raid -into Natal, where women were carried off and murdered. Frere issued an -ultimatum demanding the break-up of the military system of Zululand, -and further that a British Resident was to be received and missionaries -were not to be molested. No reply was received, and British troops -entered Zululand on January 10, 1879. - - -Course of the War: - -Frere’s application for reinforcements was refused by the British -Government. But after a British defeat at Isandhlwana, January 22, -1879, which was only prevented from being a disaster by the gallant -defence of Rorke’s Drift, Sir Garnet Wolseley was sent out with more -troops. The Zulus were defeated at Ulundi, July 5th, and Cetywayo was -taken prisoner. - - -Political Result: - -Zululand was divided into thirteen districts, each with a separate -chief, and was placed under a British Resident. It was finally annexed -in 1887. - - -Remarks: - -This war is only an episode in the extension and consolidation of the -British Empire in South Africa. But it is an instance of the grave -responsibilities which are involved in Imperial expansion. - -In the course of the war the Prince Imperial, only son of Napoleon III, -was killed, and with him died the last hopes of a restoration of the -Napoleonic dynasty in France. - - - - -THE CHILE-PERUVIAN WAR - -1879–1882 - - -Belligerents: - - Chile. - Peru. Bolivia. - - -Cause: - -After the blockade and bombardment of their ports by a Spanish squadron -in 1865, on account of their sympathy with Peru in a quarrel with -Spain, the Chileans were impressed with the necessity of possessing an -adequate fleet to defend their long coast line. Ships were obtained and -officers trained, so that Chile became well equipped for any future -encounter. - -The authorities of Bolivia seized the effects of the Chilean Nitrate -Company at Antofogasta. - - -Occasion: - -Five hundred soldiers were despatched to protect Chilean interests. The -force landed and marched inland. Bolivia declared war on March 1st, -Peru on April 5, 1879. - - -Course of the War: - -The Chileans occupied every port on the Bolivian coast, and engaged the -Peruvian fleet. The _Huascar_, a Peruvian ironclad, after other ships -had been destroyed, did great damage under four successive commanders, -but after severe fighting was forced to surrender off Angamos, and the -Peruvian navy ceased to exist. After several engagements on land the -Chileans succeeded in taking possession of the Bolivian seaboard and -the Peruvian province of Tarapaca. - -Fighting continued in 1880 when, in spite of daring resistance, the -Peruvians were defeated at all points. Lima was occupied on January 17, -1881, and Callao surrendered on January 18th. The last engagement took -place in September 1882, and a small army of occupation was left in -Peru. - - -Political Result: - -The Treaty of Peace was not ratified till April 1884. Peru ceded to -Chile the province of Tarapaca. The provinces of Tacna and Arica were -placed under Chilean authority for ten years, after which they were to -decide their own future government. Chile, however, eventually evaded -compliance with this agreement and retained forcible possession of the -provinces. Chile retained possession of the Bolivian seaboard, thus -cutting off Bolivia from access to the Pacific. - - -Remarks: - -The aggressive attitude of Chile was a cause of complaint with the -neighbouring states, and nearly led on more than one occasion to -further conflict. By a Treaty signed in 1905, however, Bolivia at last -ceded all claims to a seaport and strip of coast. Chile, except for a -civil war in 1891, is distinguished among the South American States by -its freedom from revolution and serious political unrest. - - - - -THE FRENCH EXPEDITION IN TUNIS - -1881 - - -Belligerents: - - France. - The Arabs of Tunis. - - -Cause: - -Tunis under the government of the Beys formed part of the Ottoman -Empire. In 1862 Italy began to take an interest in Tunis. A triple -British, French, and Italian control over Tunisian finances was -established in 1869. In 1878, at the Congress of Berlin, Great Britain -came to a secret understanding to allow France a free hand in Tunis in -return for French acquiescence in the British lease of Cyprus. - - -Occasion: - -In 1880 the Italians bought the British railway from Tunis to Golitta. -France, under the pretext of chastising independent tribes in the -north-east, determined to take action. - - -Course of the War: - -A French force marched on the capital. The conquest of the country was -not effected without serious resistance, specially at Sjax, but finally -the whole country was brought completely under French jurisdiction, and -the Bey was compelled to accept a French protectorate. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Bardo_, May 12, 1881, and a further _Treaty of La -Marsa_, June 8, 1883, the French protectorate was established. Italy -did not recognize the full consequences of the French protectorate -till 1896. Protests by Turkey were ignored by France, and in 1892 the -Ottoman Government was prepared to delimit the Tunis-Tripoli frontier. -But there were various frontier incidents, and Turkey maintained the -claim that the Tunisians were Ottoman subjects. - - -Remarks: - -The occupation of Tunis led to an estrangement between France and -Italy. - - - - -THE EGYPTIAN WAR - -1882 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain. - Egypt. - - -Cause: - -Since 1840, while Egypt had been virtually independent, Great Britain -had been regarded as the special champion of Turkish suzerainty; -France as the protector of the Viceroys of Egypt. The construction of -the Suez Canal, chiefly engineered by France and Great Britain, made -Egypt of new importance, as the direct route to India now lay through -the Red Sea. An Anglo-French financial control was established to -secure payment of interest on the enormous sums lent to the Khedive -Ismail. British influence became paramount, and the British Government -gradually assumed the responsibility for good government in Egypt. - - -Occasion: - -An anti-Turkish revolt under Arabi Pasha broke out, and there was a -massacre of Christians in Alexandria in June 1882. The Khedive was -powerless. The Powers met in conference at Constantinople, but before -any decision was arrived at the British Government resolved to act. - - -Course of the War: - -The bombardment of Alexandria took place on July 11, 1882, and the -Egyptian troops set fire to the town. The Sultan was willing to enter -into a military convention with Great Britain, but before it was signed -the Egyptians were defeated at Tel-el Kebir by the British under Sir -Garnet Wolseley, on September 13, 1882, and Arabi surrendered. - - -Political Result: - -Arabi and other Pashas were banished to Ceylon. - -The military occupation of Egypt by Great Britain, in spite of -declarations to the effect that the troops would shortly be withdrawn, -and in spite of protests from France, became permanent. - - -Remarks: - -Till the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 France adopted a more or -less hostile attitude with regard to Egypt. Many administrative and -financial reforms were introduced by Sir Evelyn Baring, afterwards Lord -Cromer. The government was practically taken out of the hands of the -Egyptians, and from time to time there was trouble with a nationalist -movement. - - - - -FRANCO-CHINESE WAR - -1884–1885 - - -Belligerents: - - France. - China. - - -Cause: - -France, after 1870, turned its attention more and more to colonial -expansion in Africa, and also in Asia, where for some time efforts had -been made by the French to indemnify themselves in Indo-China for the -loss of Hindustan. In 1875 a vague treaty with the Emperor of Annam -gave France the protectorate. The importance was realized of finding a -path of penetration towards China. - - -Occasion: - -In 1883–1884 an attempt was made to force the Emperor of Annam to -acknowledge the protectorate and to secure the delta of Tonkin. The -Chinese Government, unwilling to have France as a neighbour, took the -offensive. - - -Course of the War: - -The French fleet destroyed the arsenal of Foochow, took possession of -Formosa, Kelung, and the Pescadores Islands, and blockaded Southern -China. A French brigade was put to flight near Langsen. Incorrect -information as to the extent of the reverse caused the overthrow of -Jules Ferry’s ministry. But the victories and blockade of the French -fleet induced China to accept peace. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Tientsin_, June 9, 1885, China recognized the French -protectorate in Tonkin and Annam, and promised to open the southern -provinces to French traders. - -By treaties with Siam in 1893, and Great Britain in 1892–1896, Cambodia -came also under French protection, and the Empire in Indo-China was -consolidated. - - -Remarks: - -France definitely joined in the competition for Imperial expansion. - - - - -THE BURMESE WARS - -1823–1826, 1851, 1885 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain. - Burma. - - -Cause: - -The expansion of the British Empire in India involved the subjection of -neighbouring states. In addition to this there was fear of the rivalry -of France in Burma. - - -Occasions: - -(1) The conquest of Assam, which was under British protection, by the -King of Ava in 1823, and the attack by him on a British fort at Shapur, -led to the declaration of war against Burma. - -(2) The insults offered to the British flag at Rangoon by the King of -Ava, led to the fresh outbreak of war in 1851. - -(3) King Thibaw’s despotic rule and his design to enter into an -agreement with France, led to the last Ultimatum in 1885. - - -Course of the Wars: - -(I) A British force was defeated at Ramu, and the first two attempts to -reach Ava failed. Martaban and Tennasserin were taken by the British, -and the Burmese were expelled from Rangoon in December 1824. Prome -was reached in April 1825. Myede was entered in December. In 1826 Sir -Archibald Campbell pushed on to Yandabu, forty-five miles from Ava. By -the treaty of peace February 24, 1826, the British gained the provinces -of Assam, Arakan, and the coast of Tenasserim. - -(II) In April, 1852, as the King of Ava refused to come to terms, -Rangoon, Martaban, and Bassein were taken by Dalhousie. Prome was -taken in October, and Pegu in November 1852. No treaty was signed but -the King was prepared to accept an accomplished fact. - -(III) In 1885 the British Ultimatum took King Thibaw by surprise, and -within a fortnight he surrendered unconditionally when the British -force approached his capital. Guerilla warfare continued for nearly two -years. - - -Political Result: - -By the proclamation of January 1, 1886, the whole of Burma was annexed, -and Thibaw was deported to India. - - -Remarks: - -The conquest of Burma was affected, not so much because of the misrule -of the Kings of Ava as from a motive of Imperial expansion and the -desire to forestall the designs of France. - - - - -THE SERBO-BULGARIAN WAR - -1885 - - -Belligerents: - - Bulgaria. - Serbia. - - -Cause: - -The Treaty of Berlin of 1878 left abundant material for future conflict -in European Turkey. Bulgaria was confined to the north of the Balkan -mountains, and Eastern Roumelia was still under the Sultan. Prince -Alexander of Battenberg, the ruler of Bulgaria, in September 1885, -marched south and occupied Philippopolis. The Sultan protested, the -Czar was indignant, but Great Britain approved the Union of Roumelia -with Bulgaria, and the danger of war passed away. The success of -Bulgaria whetted the appetite of Milan, who had become King of Serbia -in 1882. With a view to strengthening the prestige of his dynasty he -adopted a spirited foreign policy and awaited an opportunity. - - -Occasion: - -Frontier troubles and tariff disputes between the two countries had -embittered relations, and the King of Serbia declared war, thinking -he would have a triumphal march to Sofia, the Russian officers having -withdrawn from the Bulgarian army. - - -Course of the War: - -The Bulgarians gained a decisive victory at Slivnitsa on November 16, -1885, and occupied Pirot, and the road to Belgrade lay open before -them. But Austria intervened on behalf of Serbia, and after fourteen -days’ fighting an armistice was signed. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Buckarest_, March 3, 1886, the _status quo_ was -restored; Bulgaria gained nothing, but established her right to Eastern -Roumelia. Owing to Russian intrigue Alexander was forced to abdicate -and was succeeded by Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg as Prince of Bulgaria. - - -Remarks: - -Bulgaria became gradually the most advanced and formidable state in the -Balkans. In 1908, at the time of the revolutionary crisis in Turkey and -the annexation of Bosnia and Herzogovina by Austria, Ferdinand declared -himself Czar of a completely independent Bulgaria. - -Milan abdicated in 1889, and his son Alexander became King of Serbia. -He and his wife were murdered in 1903 and Peter Karageorgevich accepted -the crown. - - - - -THE CHINO-JAPANESE WAR - -1894–1895 - - -Belligerents: - - Japan. - China and Korea. - - -Cause: - -Japan adopting Western ideas developed into a powerful state with -surprising rapidity during the last fifty years of the nineteenth -century. The growth of her armaments and an ambition for expansion -necessarily followed. China, on the other hand, did not welcome -the influence of the West, which rapid transit and communication -had brought into Asia. The weakness and misgovernment of Korea was -a perpetual temptation to her neighbours. Japan invited China to -co-operate in demanding reforms in Korea, but China refused and Japan -acted alone. - - -Occasion: - -In July 1894 Japan issued an Ultimatum calling on Korea to accept -a Japanese programme of reforms. Korea temporized, and Seoul, the -capital, was taken without difficulty, the Emperor being made a -prisoner. China immediately intervened. - - -Course of the War: - -By land and sea the Japanese, who had been trained by European -officers, were easily victorious. Asan was occupied, a victory was -gained off the Yalu River, and the Japanese marched on Yingkow. Port -Arthur, on the Liao-Tung peninsula, was captured, finally Wei-hai-Wei -fell, and Li Hung Chang, the Chinese Minister, sued for peace. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Shimonoseki_, China ceded to Japan the Liao Tung -peninsula, the island of Formosa and the Pescadores Islands, and the -indemnity was fixed at 200 million taels. But Russia, France, and -Germany intervened, and ordered Japan to surrender the Liao Tung -Peninsula on the ground that Port Arthur threatened the independence of -Peking. But the insincerity of the intervention of the Western Powers -was revealed in 1897, when China was compelled to lease Kiao Chow to -Germany, Port Arthur to Russia, Wei-hai-Wei to Great Britain, while -France obtained a concession near Tonkin. Only the Italian claim for -the port of Sanmen was refused by China. - - -Remarks: - -The encroachments of the Western Powers evoked intense indignation in -China. The rivalry in the exploitation of the Far East by the West had -begun in real earnest. - - - - -THE ITALO-ABYSSINIAN WAR - -1895–1896 - - -Belligerents: - - Italy. - Abyssinia. - - -Cause: - -Having become a united nation, Italy soon developed Imperialistic -ambitions. She looked towards Tunis, but was forestalled there by -France in 1881. In 1884, being secure from an attack by land, by an -alliance with Austria concluded in 1882, and being assured by Great -Britain that the occupation by a friendly Power of certain positions on -the Red Sea littoral would not be regarded unfavourably, the Italian -Government decided on a forward policy in Africa. - - -Occasion: - -After a preliminary expedition in 1887, which was unsuccessful and had -to be recalled, a treaty was made with Menelek, after the death of King -John of Abyssinia, which was interpreted in Italy as involving Italian -suzerainty over Abyssinia. Italy supported Menelek against his rival -Ras Mangascia. - - -Course of the War: - -Italian victories over the Dervishes at Agordat (1893) and Cassala -(1894) encouraged the ambition of Italy for a vast African Empire. -On a further Italian advance in 1895 the Abyssinians united in their -resistance. Menelek repudiated all idea of a protectorate, and General -Baratieri suffered a disastrous defeat at Adowah, March 1, 1896. - - -Political Result: - -The Italian suzerainty over Abyssinia was abandoned, and by the Treaty -of Peace signed in September 1900, the frontiers of the Italian colony -were reduced. - - -Remarks: - -The attempt on the part of Italy to hunt with the lions in colonial -aggrandizement ended in humiliation. Italy was now able to devote its -attention to much-needed internal reforms. But the Imperialist policy -only died down to be revived later. - - - - -THE WAR IN THE SOUDAN - -1896–1898 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain--Egypt. - Arabs and Dervishes. - - -Cause: - -The Soudan had fallen into the hands of rebellious tribes under the -Mahdi. In 1883 on Egyptian force under General Hicks had been defeated -at El Obeid, and General Baker was also defeated in his attempt to -relieve the Tokar garrison. The successes of a British force near -Suakin were rendered useless by the refusal of the British Government -to advance further. Early in 1884 it was decided to despatch General -Gordon, who had an intimate knowledge of the country, to bring away -Europeans from the Soudan. On arriving at Khartoum he was cut off from -all communication with Egypt, Berber and the Bahr-el-Gazal province -having fallen into the hands of the Mahdi. The relief expedition was -sent out too late to save him. Khartoum fell, and Gordon was killed -on January 25, 1885. The whole of the Soudan remained under the rule -of the Mahdi for thirteen years. The British Government came to the -conclusion that Egypt could never be considered permanently secure so -long as a hostile Power was in occupation of Khartoum. - - -Occasion: - -After the Italian defeat at Adowah it was decided to create a diversion -in Italian interests, and orders were given to occupy the province -of Dongola. Rumours of the crumbling power of the Khalifa, who had -succeeded the Mahdi, strengthened the idea that it was a favourable -opportunity to advance into the Soudan. - - -Course of the War: - -British and Egyptian troops under Kitchener occupied Dongola September -23, 1896. In 1897 desert railways were constructed, and Abu Hamed -and Berber were wrested from the dervishes. In 1898 reinforcements -of British troops were sent from Cairo. Omdurman, the stronghold of -Mahdism, was captured on September 2, 1898, and two days later Khartoum -was occupied. - - -Political Result: - -By an agreement between the British and Egyptian Governments in -January 1899, the Soudan was placed under their joint control, -the Governor-General to be appointed by the Khedive on British -recommendation. - - -Remarks: - -The arrival of Major Marchand at Fashoda, in September 1898, where -he hoisted the French flag, created a momentary excitement and talk -of war, but the British Government adopted a firm attitude, and he -received orders to withdraw. - -No opposition to the Anglo-Egyptian agreement was encountered in -Europe. The economic and agricultural development of the Soudan has -since progressed rapidly. - -Nearly a million square miles were added to the territory under British -rule. - - - - -THE TURKO-GREEK WAR - -1897 - - -Belligerents: - - Turkey. - Greece. - - -Cause: - -Crete, which formed part of the Ottoman Dominion, had been granted -a Constitution in 1868. A revolt in 1889 caused the Sultan to limit -the powers of the assembly and supersede the Christian governor by a -Mussulman. Disturbances broke out between Christians and Mohammedans -in the succeeding years. In February 1897 the Christians proclaimed -union with Greece, and Colonel Vassos was sent with a force to occupy -the island in the King’s name. The Powers intervened, and the Admirals -occupied Canea. Neither the Sultan nor the King wanted war. The King -was under the impression that the Powers would prevent it. - - -Occasion: - -Enthusiasm for war which was not accompanied by any sort of military -organization or preparation grew up in Greece. When armed bands crossed -the frontier into Macedonia, Turkey immediately declared war (April 17, -1897). - - -Course of the War: - -The Greek fleet, on which great hopes had been placed, effected -nothing. The Turkish forces occupied Larissa, advanced across Thessaly, -defeated the Greeks all along the line, and on May 17, 1897, the -victory of Domokos opened to the Turks the pass which leads down to -Lamia. The Powers intervened, and a armistice was signed. - - -Political Result: - -By the treaty of peace signed at Constantinople, December 4, 1897, -the Turks evacuated Thessaly, and certain strategic alterations were -made in the frontier. Greece paid an indemnity of four millions, and -accepted the European control of her finances. Crete continued to be -the arena of periodic conflict. Prince George of Greece was appointed -High Commissioner of the Powers under a new Constitution, but he -resigned in 1906. While virtually Greek the island remained under the -suzerainty of the Sultan. - - -Remarks: - -This was only one of the many Balkan conflicts. The intervention of -the Powers was invoked in order to check any increase in the dominion -of the Sultan. But owing to their own conflicting ambitions and the -inherent racial complications in the Balkans, they never at any time -reached a solution of the problems involved. - - - - -THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR - -1897–1898 - - -Belligerents: - - Spain. - The United States of America. - - -Cause: - -The decline of the Spanish Colonial Empire (which had reached its -highest point under Philip II at the end of the sixteenth century) -continued throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth -century, and was hastened by the misgovernment, corruption, and -incessant outbreaks of revolution in Spain itself. One by one by -means of revolution, the Spanish-American colonies had gained their -independence. The policy of the Holy Alliance and of Metternich was -to check the growth of Constitutional government in Europe. King -Ferdinand of Spain was in conflict with the constitutional movement, -and civil war prevailed. In 1823 France intervened in Spain on behalf -of Ferdinand, and French troops entered Madrid. Canning, on behalf of -Great Britain, prohibited the conquest by France or her allies of the -Spanish colonies, and formally recognized their independence in 1824. -Cuba and other islands were the last of the Spanish possessions. During -the remainder of the nineteenth century Spain continued periodically to -be torn and weakened by internal disturbances. - - -Occasion: - -In order to quell the revolts in Cuba more effectually the milder -policy of Martinez Campos was exchanged in 1897 for the ruthless and -brutal rule of General Weyler. The United States were deeply stirred -by the torture and starvation of their neighbours. General Weyler was -recalled. But when the American cruiser _Maine_ was blown up in the -port of Havana, the United States demanded the evacuation of Cuba by -Spain. Spain refused. - - -Course of the War: - -Two Spanish fleets were destroyed in May and July 1898, and American -land forces in Cuba, the Philippines, and Porto Rico won those islands -with comparatively little struggle. - - -Political Result: - -By the treaty of peace signed at Paris, December 1898, Spain -surrendered practically all her colonies. The Caroline Islands in the -Pacific were sold to Germany in 1899. - - -Remarks: - -This was the last chapter in the extinction of a vast colonial Empire, -which was dissolved owing to the spirit of independence in its various -states and the bad government in the Mother Country. - - - - -THE BOER WAR - -1881, 1899–1902 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain. - The Transvaal and Orange Free State. - - -Cause: - -The premature annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 was resented by the -majority of the Boers. In 1880 a formidable rebellion broke out, a -small British force was sent out which met with determined opposition -at Laing’s Nek and Ingogo, and on February 27, 1881, was defeated at -Majuba Hill. The Boers regained their independence under the suzerainty -of Great Britain. - -Cecil Rhodes, with vast ideas of Imperial expansion, became the -dominating influence in South Africa. In 1884 Bechuanaland was -annexed. In 1889 Rhodes founded the British South Africa Company. In -1896, after a successful conflict with the Matabeles, Buluwayo was -captured and Matabeleland added to the territory of Rhodesia. In 1886 -gold had been discovered in the Transvaal, and a great cosmopolitan -city arose at Johannesburg. This resulted in an enormous influx of -Europeans and the decision of the Boers to exclude them from any share -in the political life of the country. Behind Rhodes, who became Prime -Minister of Cape Colony in 1895, great financial interests grew up and -exerted considerable influence. Under the presidency of Kruger the -Boers adopted a more and more hostile attitude towards the Outlanders. -In 1895 the Jameson Raid, which was connived at by the authorities, -revived Kruger’s power, which had been waning, and made the Boers arm -in preparation for a further surprise. - - -Occasion: - -A promise of intervention was sent by the British Government in -reply to a petition from the Outlanders in 1899. Attempts to reach a -compromise with Kruger failed. Both sides were preparing for war, and -the mining interests exerted great pressure. On October 9, 1899, the -Transvaal issued an Ultimatum. - - -Course of the War: - -The Boers invaded Natal and Cape Colony; Ladysmith, Mafeking, and -Kimberley were invested. British defeats at Magersfontein, Stormberg, -and Colenso (December 1899) led to Lord Roberts being sent out to -supersede General Buller. Kimberley and Ladysmith were relieved, -Bloemfontein fell. In May 1900 Mafeking was relieved, and in June -Johannesburg and Pretoria were occupied. The attempt to insist on -unconditional surrender prolonged the war for two more years. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Vereeniging_, May 1902, the Transvaal lost its -independence. The Orange Free State had been annexed in 1900. Under -pressure from the financial interests Chinese were introduced to work -the gold-mines. This was one of the chief reasons for the fall of the -Conservative Government in 1906. Campbell-Bannerman, who became Prime -Minister, solved the problem of the future of the Transvaal by granting -them full self-government, and the importation of Chinese was stopped. - - -Remarks: - -The origin of the war can be directly traced to far less worthy -causes than that of redressing the grievances of the Outlanders. The -war was unnecessarily prolonged by an underestimate of the strength -of the Boers and the desire to humiliate them. But the grant of -self-government was the act that saved the war from being barren in -results and from being the precursor of further trouble. The Union of -South Africa was established in 1909. - -The Powers of Europe, with the exception of Italy, adopted an -unfriendly attitude towards Great Britain during the war. - - - - -THE BOXER RISING IN CHINA - -1899–1900 - - -Belligerents: - - Great Britain, Russia, Germany, France, and Japan. - China. - - -Cause: - -The humiliating results of the war of 1894–5 (p. 72) killed the reform -movement in China and brought the reactionary party, headed by the -Dowager-Empress, back to power. A society called the Boxers spread -very rapidly through the provinces, preaching death to foreigners and -receiving official support. - - -Occasion: - -Attacks on Europeans began in 1899, and became very frequent in -the early months of 1900. In May the Ministers at Peking asked for -additional guards. The Boxers surrounded the city, and Admiral -Seymour’s attempt to reach the capital was frustrated. The destruction -of the Taku Fort by the Allies was treated as a declaration of war, and -Chinese Imperial troops joined the Boxers. - - -Course of the War: - -The settlements at Tientsin were rescued by a Russian force. An -allied force made its way through from Taku, and forced an entry into -Pekin. In August a relief column of 18,000 allied troops defeated the -Chinese in several engagements and marched on Pekin. The legations -had for eight weeks withstood a siege. The Chinese Government gave -foreigners twenty-four hours to leave the capital. The German Minister -was murdered in the street. The British Legation formed the refuge of -all those who were driven out of their places of retreat. When the -relieving force arrived the Chinese only made a faint-hearted defence. -The Empress fled, the legations were relieved, and Pekin was occupied. - - -Political Result: - -By the peace protocol, which was signed on September 7, 1901, the -punishment of the ringleaders was demanded: the forts between Pekin -and the sea were dismantled, permanent guards for the legations were -established, and a large indemnity was fixed. - - -Remarks: - -Official intercourse with the Chinese Government was established on -a more satisfactory basis. But serious trouble in the Far East and -internal disturbances in China itself continued. - - - - -THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR - -1904–1905 - - -Belligerents: - - Russia. - Japan. - - -Cause: - -When Port Arthur, which Japan had been forced to surrender in 1895, was -seized by Russia there was deep indignation in Japan. In 1902 a treaty -of alliance was concluded between Great Britain and Japan. Russia -undertook to evacuate Manchuria, and although the withdrawal of troops -began in 1903, instead of continuing the evacuation Russia demanded -new concessions. In Korea Russian speculators obtained concessions, -and influential members of the Russian Court were interested in the -enterprise. Japan protested. - - -Occasion: - -A treaty regulating the position in Manchuria and Korea was suggested -by Japan, but Russia refused to recognize Japan’s paramount influence -in Korea, and after several months of fruitless negotiation Japan -issued an Ultimatum in February 1904. - - -Course of the War: - -After successful initial encounters on the part of Japan, Port Arthur -was surrendered on January 1, 1905. After a Japanese victory at Mukden, -the Russians retreated. In October 1904 the Russian fleet, coming -round from the Baltic, opened fire on a group of Hull fishing smacks -in crossing the Dogger Bank, mistaking them for torpedo boats. The -incident roused considerable indignation in Britain, but the Czar -expressed his regrets. The matter was referred to a commission of -admirals in Paris, and compensation was awarded for the damage done. -On May 27, 1905 the Russian fleet was annihilated by Admiral Togo at -Tsushima. The Japanese landed a force in Sakhalin, but, both sides -being exhausted and anxious for peace, negotiations were opened in -August 1905. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Portsmouth_, August 1905, the claims of Japan in -Korea were recognized; Russia agreed to evacuate Manchuria and ceded -the Liao-Tung peninsula (including Port Arthur) and the southern half -of Sakhalin to Japan. The payment of an indemnity, which had been the -chief obstacle to the conclusion of peace, was waived by Japan. The -moderation of the Japanese demands made a good impression in the world, -but was resented in Japan itself. - - -Remarks: - -This was a war of pure aggression, backed by high financial speculation -on the part of Russia. The easy triumph of Japan was a surprise. But -she was fighting for definite national objects, while the Russian -people knew nothing of the cause and aims of the war. Russia spent much -money in subsequent years in restoring her lost armaments. From this -time on the reform movements and revolutionary spirit in Russia grew -rapidly. - - - - -TURKO-ITALIAN WAR - -1911–1912 - - -Belligerents: - - Italy. - Turkey. - - -Cause: - -After the agreements with regard to North Africa between Great Britain -and France, Italy made up her mind that the time was favourable for a -decisive move with a view to expansion, and proceeded to make careful -preparations for military action early in 1911. The position in Tripoli -was made the subject of heated discussion in the Press, and the Turks -were charged with showing gross unfairness to Italian residents. The -possible designs of Germany in North Africa also induced the Italian -Government to take advantage of the first opportunity for an offensive -step. - - -Occasion: - -The Turks, foreseeing danger, sent war stores and munitions to Tripoli, -and on September 29, 1911, the Italians, with their fleet ready and -their troops embarked, declared war. - - -Course of the War: - -On September 30th, Tripoli was blockaded and occupied by the Italians -on October 5th; Benghazi fell on October 20th. In spite of the -publication of a decree annexing Tripoli as a province of Italy, the -advance of the invaders was kept in check. Austria refused to allow -operations in the Adriatic. Russia would not permit the blockade of the -Dardanelles. Fighting continued with indeterminate results and in a -desultory manner until a treaty of peace was finally signed at Ouchy on -October 15, 1912. - - -Result: - -By the _Treaty of Lausanne_, October 15, 1912, Turkish forces were -withdrawn from Tripoli and Cyrenaica, the Italians promised to withdraw -from the occupied islands of the Ægean, and a commercial agreement was -concluded between the two countries. There was no recognition by the -Turkish Government of Italian sovereignty in Tripoli. It was enough for -Italy that her sovereignty was recognized by the Powers. This was done, -France delaying her assent until Italy surrendered certain privileges -in Morocco. - - -Remarks: - -Italy’s aggressive action was prompted by a desire not to be left -behind in the competition for territorial acquisitions in Africa. - - - - -FIRST BALKAN WAR - -1912–1913 - - -Belligerents: - - Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro. - Turkey. - - -Cause: - -Even after the deposition of the Sultan, Abdul Hamid, and the triumph -of the Young Turks in the revolution of 1908 the misgovernment of -Turkey did not cease, more especially in Macedonia, where the European -Powers had entirely failed to secure any reforms, but produced an -intolerable situation in the Balkan Peninsula. Despairing of the -successful intervention of the Powers the Balkan States determined -to take matters into their own hands. For the first time an alliance -was formed between Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia for the purpose of -destroying the Turkish Empire in Europe. - - -Occasion: - -In September 1912 the Powers, through Austria, Hungary, and Russia -strongly deprecated the outbreak of war. The Allies simultaneously -handed in to the Turkish Government an Ultimatum demanding certain -specified reforms. No reply was sent. The Turks underestimated the -strength of their opponents, and hoped to detach Greece. War broke out -October 17th. - - -Course of the War: - -The Turkish forces were completely overwhelmed. They were defeated by -the Serbians at Kumanovo, October 24, 1912, and Uskub was occupied: the -Greeks drove the enemy north and occupied Salonika: and the Bulgarians -defeated the Ottoman army at Lule Burgas, October 31st, and advanced to -Chatalja. After an armistice and an abortive attempt of the Powers to -secure peace, the war broke out again. Adrianople fell March 26, 1913, -and the Turks submitted. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of London_ Bulgaria was given a frontier from Enos on -the Mediterranean to Midia on the Black Sea. The future of Albania was -to be decided by the Allies and Turkey ceded the island of Crete to -Greece. - - -Remarks: - -Serious disputes as to the disposal of the spoils won from Turkey led -immediately to the outbreak of war among the Allies. - - - - -SECOND BALKAN WAR - -1913 - - -Belligerents: - - Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, Roumania. - Bulgaria. - Turkey. - - -Cause: - -In February 1912 a treaty was concluded between Bulgaria and Serbia, -whereby it was agreed that North-west Macedonia should go to Serbia, -another part to Bulgaria, and the zone lying between these two should -be submitted to the arbitration of the Czar. In December 1912, in the -First Balkan War, Austria protested against the occupation by Serbia of -Durazzo on the Adriatic, and of Scutari by Montenegro. Serbia declared -that Bulgaria did not adequately support her in resisting the Austrian -demand, felt impelled to claim more territory in Macedonia, and refused -to carry out the provisions of the treaty with Bulgaria. Serbia was -ready to arbitrate. Russia was inclined to support the Serbian claim. -Bulgaria hesitated. - - -Occasion: - -While the dispute was still in the balance the aggressive party in -Bulgaria got the upper hand, and war was declared against Serbia and -Greece in June 24, 1913, only a few months after the cessation of -hostilities in the First Balkan War. - - -Course of the War: - -The Bulgarians found themselves invaded on four frontiers. While they -were being driven back by Serbia and Greece, the Turks repudiated the -Treaty of London and retook Adrianople, and Roumania advanced from the -north and without striking a blow annexed a large slice of territory in -the Dobrudja. Bulgaria was obliged to yield. - - -Political Result: - -By the _Treaty of Bukarest_, August 10, 1913, Serbia acquired a large -district of South-east Macedonia, Greece obtained Kavalla, and Roumania -was given possession of the territory her troops had occupied. - -By the _Treaty of Constantinople_, August 1913, Bulgaria ceded back -to Turkey more than half of the territory won in the previous war, -including Adrianople. - - -Remarks: - -Bulgaria being again restricted in territory felt she had been betrayed -by the Powers, who did nothing to enforce the engagements of the Treaty -of London. Her rivals, Serbia and Greece, gained at her expense. On the -other hand, Bulgarian responsibility for the outbreak of the second war -was undoubted. - -The European Powers, by acting together, prevented the Balkan conflict -from spreading into a European War. But the Treaty of Bukarest was no -settlement, and was a signal exposure of their inability to solve the -Balkan problem, which was destined to be the spark for a world-wide -conflagration. - - - - -IMPORTANT TREATIES - -(OTHER THAN THOSE ALREADY MENTIONED) - - - The _Treaty of Vienna_, June 9, 1815. - - _Second Treaty of Paris_, November 20, 1815, Signed by Great Britain, - Austria, Prussia, Russia, France at the conclusion of the - Napoleonic Wars. - - France gave up certain fortresses on the frontier but retained - Alsace-Lorraine. Payment of 700 million francs was exacted from - France. The greater part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw fell - to Russia, Posen to Prussia, and Cracow became a republic. - Prussia got back nearly all her old possessions, and there was a - reconstruction of German States under a Confederation. Holland, - Belgium, and Luxemburg were established as an independent - kingdom under the House of Orange: Switzerland was extended and - her integrity guaranteed: Sardinia obtained Genoa and other - territory: Austria received an extension of territory in North - Italy and on the coast of the Adriatic, and became the dominant - state in the German Confederation. The Pope and the King of the - Two Sicilies regained their former possessions. - - [The foregoing record of wars serves to show to what a small - extent this treaty secured the settlement of European territorial - problems.] - - _The Rushe-Bagot Treaty_, April 1817, between Great Britain and - the United States. The two powers agreed to withdraw their - battleships from the Great Lakes. - - It may be noted that the absence of armaments on the whole - Canadian frontier cannot be said to have endangered the relations - between the two countries in view of the fact that the - Anglo-American peace centenary was celebrated in 1915. - - _The Treaty of Washington_, May 8, 1871, between Great Britain and - the United States. The north-western boundary was finally - delimited: an attempt was made to settle the Canadian Fishery - dispute, and it was agreed to refer the Alabama Claims to a - tribunal of arbitration, which subsequently fixed the sum to be - paid over by Great Britain as indemnity. - - _The Triple Alliance_ in 1882 was the result of Italy joining the - alliance between Germany and Austria, which had grown out of the - support given to Austria as against Russia at the Congress of - Berlin in 1878, Italy having become estranged from France after - the occupation of Tunis in 1881. The Triple Alliance was renewed - for five years in 1887 and in 1891, and again in 1902 it was - extended for a term of twelve years. - - _The Berlin Act._ The outcome of the Conference of Berlin, 1884–5, at - which fourteen Powers were represented. The respective spheres - of influence of the European Powers in Africa were delimited. - The neutrality of the Congo Free State was recognized, and it - was established as an independent State under the sovereignty of - the King of the Belgians. An area was marked out in which there - should be free trade, which should be excluded from effects of - disputes between the signatory Powers, and be placed under the - rule of neutrality. - - The latter stipulation has, however, not been carried out. - - _The Suez Canal Convention_ signed by nine Powers at Constantinople, - October 29, 1888. Lesseps obtained the preliminary concession - for the construction of the Canal in 1856. The Canal was opened - in 1869. Disraeli bought four million pounds’ worth of shares - from the Khedive on behalf of the British Government in 1875. - The Convention ensured that the Canal should always be open to - vessels of commerce and war without distinction of flag. Great - Britain signed with a reservation, but in the Anglo-French - agreement of 1904 declared her adherence to the Convention and - agreed to its being put into force. - - _The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty_, November 18, 1901, between Great Britain - and the United States, gave the United States right of control - in time of war of the Panama Canal. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of - 1850, which established a joint Anglo-American protectorate over - the Canal was thereby abrogated. - - _The Anglo-Japanese Alliance._ Treaties signed in London January 30, - 1902, and August 12, 1905. The integrity and independence of - China was recognized. If either Great Britain or Japan should - be attacked and involved in a war with two Powers, they engaged - mutually to assist one another. The aim of the alliance was - officially defined as “the consolidation and maintenance of - general peace in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India.” In - 1911 the treaty was revised, a clause stipulating that there - was no obligation to go to war with a Power with whom a treaty - of arbitration was in force. This removed the danger of Great - Britain being involved in a war between Japan and the United - States. - - _The Argentine-Chile Treaty_, 1902. From 1840 to 1900 constant - boundary disputes arose between the two countries, which - invariably led to war. At last the people themselves in both - countries decided by large majorities to negotiate a peaceful - settlement of the dispute. The delimitation of the frontier was - carried out by a mixed commission, and to commemorate the treaty - an immense statue of Christ was erected on a high pass in the - Andes on the boundary line. - - _The Anglo-French Convention_, April 8, 1904. - - This removed outstanding causes of friction between the two - countries, and was the foundation of the Entente. - - Newfoundland fisheries and West African boundary problems were - settled: the Siamese, New Hebrides, and Madagascar disputes were - settled: Egypt was declared exclusively under British protection, - and Morocco was left to France. A Franco-Spanish Convention was - concluded in October of the same year with regard to Morocco. To - both these treaties secret clauses were attached which amounted - virtually to the prospective partition of Morocco by France and - Spain. - - _The Agreement of Karlstadt_, September 23, 1905. - - The Union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved, and Norway - recognized as an independent kingdom. - - The movement in favour of separation had grown rapidly from 1899. - It was resisted by the King of Sweden. A plebiscite in Norway - declared in favour of it, and agreement was reached without any - armed conflict. - - _The Algeciras Act_, April 7, 1906, agreed to by thirteen Powers, was - based on the sovereignty, independence, integrity, and economic - liberty of Morocco. The provisions concerned the organization - of police, regulation of taxation, customs, etc. This Act was - disregarded by France in 1911, when a French force was sent to - Fez and occupied the country. - - _The Anglo-Russian Convention_, September 23, 1907. - - Persia was divided so as to give Great Britain and Russia spheres - of influence with a neutral zone between. (Persia was not a party - to the treaty.) An agreement was come to with regard to - Afghanistan and Thibet, settling all points where dispute might - arise. - - _The Anglo-American Arbitration Treaty_, April 4, 1908. - - By this Treaty differences between Great Britain and the United - States which do not affect the vital interests, independence, - or honour of either country, or which do not concern the - interests of third parties are referred to the Permanent Court - of Arbitration at the Hague. - - - - -INDEX OF TREATIES - - - PAGE - Adrianople, Treaty of 15, 17 - - Akerman, Treaty of 16 - - Algeciras Act 101 - - Anglo-French Convention 100 - - Anglo-Japanese Alliance 100 - - Anglo-American Arbitration 101 - - Anglo-Russian Convention 101 - - Argentine-Chile Treaty 100 - - - Bardo, Treaty of 66 - - Berlin, Treaty of (1850) 48 - - Berlin, Treaty of (1878) 59 - - Berlin Act 99 - - Bukarest, Treaty of (1886) 75 - - Bukarest, Treaty of (1913) 97 - - - Constantinople, Treaty of (1897) 83 - - Constantinople, Treaty of (1913) 97 - - - Frankfort, Treaty of 55 - - - Gandamuk, Treaty of 58 - - Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Treaty of 30 - - - Hay-Pauncefote Treaty 100 - - - Karlstadt, Agreement of 101 - - - La Marsa, Treaty of 66 - - Lausanne, Treaty of 93 - - London, Treaty of (1834) 21 - - London, Treaty of (1839) 19 - - London, Treaty of (1852) 49 - - London, Treaty of (1913) 95 - - - Nanking, Treaty of 28 - - - Paris, Treaty of (1815) 98 - - Paris, Treaty of (1856) 37 - - Paris, Treaty of (1898) 85 - - Portsmouth, Treaty of 91 - - Prague, Treaty of 51 - - - Rushe-Bagot Treaty 98 - - - San Stefano, Treaty of 59 - - Shimonoseki, Treaty of 77 - - Suez Canal Convention 99 - - - Tientsin, Treaty of 66 - - Triple Alliance 99 - - - Unkiar Skelessi, Treaty of 24 - - - Vereenigen, Treaty of 87 - - Vienna, Treaty of (1815) 98 - - Vienna, Treaty of (1866) 35 - - Villa Franca, Treaty of 35 - - - Washington, Treaty of 43, 98 - - - Zurich, Treaty of 35 - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - -(_Each war has its own literature. Only a few leading authorities and -books easily accessible to students are given here._) - - - The Cambridge Modern History, vols. xi, xii. - - Modern Europe. C. A. Fyffe. - - A Political History of Contemporary Europe. Seignobos. - - History of our own Times. Justin McCarthy. - - A Century of British Foreign Policy. Gooch and Masterman. - - History of our Time (1885–1911). G. P. Gooch. - - Wars of the Nineties. Atteridge. - - The Map of Europe by Treaty. Hertslet. - - International Law. C. E. Hall. - - The Termination of War and Treaties of Peace. Coleman Philipson. - - Three Centuries of Treaties of Peace. Sir W. Philimore. - - Turkey in Europe. Sir C. Eliot. - - Nationality and War in the Near East. A Diplomatist. - - The New Map of Europe. H. A. Gibbons. - - Historical Atlas of Modern Europe. Robertson and Bartholomew. - - The Balkan War. Lieut.-Col. Rankine. - - History of the Greek Revolution. G. Finlay. - - History of Italian Unity. Bolton King. - - The Far Eastern Question. M. V. Chirol. - - The History of South America. Akers. - - The American Civil War. F. L. Paxon. - - The Downfall of Spain. Wilson. - - The Invasion of the Crimea. A. W. Kinglake. - - Modern Egypt. Lord Cromer. - - The War in South Africa. Hobson. - - The War of Steel and Gold. H. N. Brailsford. - - Nationalism, War, and Society. E. Krehbiel. - - Ten Years of Secret Diplomacy. E. D. Morel. - - Imperialism. J. A. Hobson. - - International Tribunals. Evans Darby. - - -_Printed in Great Britain by_ - -UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED, THE GRESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Italic text is encloseed in _underscores_. - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they -were not changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation -marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left -unbalanced. - -Text sometimes uses colons where current convention is to use -semi-colons. - -The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page -references. - -Page 9: The Austro-Prussian War began in 1866, not in 1860. 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