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diff --git a/5682-h/5682-h.htm b/5682-h/5682-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e3b3d0f --- /dev/null +++ b/5682-h/5682-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,3607 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta content="pg2html (binary v0.17)" name="linkgenerator" /> + <title> + Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic Of Morals, by Immanuel Kant + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; text-align: justify; font-size: 80%; font-style: italic;} + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + .xx-small {font-size: 60%;} + .x-small {font-size: 75%;} + .small {font-size: 85%;} + .large {font-size: 115%;} + .x-large {font-size: 130%;} + .indent5 { margin-left: 5%;} + .indent10 { margin-left: 10%;} + .indent15 { margin-left: 15%;} + .indent20 { margin-left: 20%;} + .indent25 { margin-left: 25%;} + .indent30 { margin-left: 30%;} + .indent35 { margin-left: 35%;} + .indent40 { margin-left: 40%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 1%; font-size: 0.6em; + font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; + text-align: right; background-color: #FFFACD; + border: 1px solid; padding: 0.3em;text-indent: 0em;} + .side { float: left; font-size: 75%; width: 15%; padding-left: 0.8em; + border-left: dashed thin; text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: solid 1px;} + .head { float: left; font-size: 90%; width: 98%; padding-left: 0.8em; + border-left: dashed thin; text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: solid 1px;} + p.pfirst, p.noindent {text-indent: 0} + span.dropcap { float: left; margin: 0 0.1em 0 0; line-height: 0.8 } + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 100%; margin-left: 10%;} +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fundamental Principles ofthe Metaphysic +of Morals by Immanuel Kant (#2 in our series by Immanuel Kant) + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals + +Author: Immanuel Kant + +Release Date: May, 2004 [EBook #5682] +This file was first posted on August 7, 2002 +Last Updated: December 10, 2018 + + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE METAPHYSIC OF MORALS *** + + + + +Etext prepared by Matthew Stapleton + +HTML file produced by David Widger + + + +</pre> + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE METAPHYSIC OF MORALS + </h1> + <h2> + By Immanuel Kant + </h2> + <h3> + 1785 + </h3> + <h4> + Translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott + </h4> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + <b>CONTENTS</b> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> FIRST SECTION—TRANSITION FROM THE COMMON + RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE OF MORALITY TO THE PHILOSOPHICAL </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> SECOND SECTION—TRANSITION FROM POPULAR + MORAL PHILOSOPHY TO THE METAPHYSIC OF MORALS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> The Autonomy of the Will as the Supreme + Principle of Morality </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> Heteronomy of the Will as the Source of all + spurious Principles of Morality </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> Classification of all Principles of Morality + which can be founded on the Conception of Heteronomy </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> THIRD SECTION—TRANSITION FROM THE + METAPHYSIC OF MORALS TO THE CRITIQUE OF PURE PRACTICAL REASON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> The Concept of Freedom is the Key that explains + the Autonomy of the Will </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> Freedom must be presupposed as a Property of the + Will of all Rational Beings </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> Of the Interest attaching to the Ideas of + Morality </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> How is a Categorical Imperative Possible? </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> Of the Extreme Limits of all Practical + Philosophy. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0013"> CONCLUDING REMARK </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE + </h2> + <p> + Ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three sciences: physics, ethics, + and logic. This division is perfectly suitable to the nature of the thing; + and the only improvement that can be made in it is to add the principle on + which it is based, so that we may both satisfy ourselves of its + completeness, and also be able to determine correctly the necessary + subdivisions. + </p> + <p> + All rational knowledge is either material or formal: the former considers + some object, the latter is concerned only with the form of the + understanding and of the reason itself, and with the universal laws of + thought in general without distinction of its objects. Formal philosophy + is called logic. Material philosophy, however, which has to do with + determinate objects and the laws to which they are subject, is again + twofold; for these laws are either laws of nature or of freedom. The + science of the former is physics, that of the latter, ethics; they are + also called natural philosophy and moral philosophy respectively. + </p> + <p> + Logic cannot have any empirical part; that is, a part in which the + universal and necessary laws of thought should rest on grounds taken from + experience; otherwise it would not be logic, i.e., a canon for the + understanding or the reason, valid for all thought, and capable of + demonstration. Natural and moral philosophy, on the contrary, can each + have their empirical part, since the former has to determine the laws of + nature as an object of experience; the latter the laws of the human will, + so far as it is affected by nature: the former, however, being laws + according to which everything does happen; the latter, laws according to + which everything ought to happen. Ethics, however, must also consider the + conditions under which what ought to happen frequently does not. + </p> + <p> + We may call all philosophy empirical, so far as it is based on grounds of + experience: on the other hand, that which delivers its doctrines from a + priori principles alone we may call pure philosophy. When the latter is + merely formal it is logic; if it is restricted to definite objects of the + understanding it is metaphysic. + </p> + <p> + In this way there arises the idea of a twofold metaphysic—a + metaphysic of nature and a metaphysic of morals. Physics will thus have an + empirical and also a rational part. It is the same with Ethics; but here + the empirical part might have the special name of practical anthropology, + the name morality being appropriated to the rational part. + </p> + <p> + All trades, arts, and handiworks have gained by division of labour, + namely, when, instead of one man doing everything, each confines himself + to a certain kind of work distinct from others in the treatment it + requires, so as to be able to perform it with greater facility and in the + greatest perfection. Where the different kinds of work are not + distinguished and divided, where everyone is a jack-of-all-trades, there + manufactures remain still in the greatest barbarism. It might deserve to + be considered whether pure philosophy in all its parts does not require a + man specially devoted to it, and whether it would not be better for the + whole business of science if those who, to please the tastes of the + public, are wont to blend the rational and empirical elements together, + mixed in all sorts of proportions unknown to themselves, and who call + themselves independent thinkers, giving the name of minute philosophers to + those who apply themselves to the rational part only- if these, I say, + were warned not to carry on two employments together which differ widely + in the treatment they demand, for each of which perhaps a special talent + is required, and the combination of which in one person only produces + bunglers. But I only ask here whether the nature of science does not + require that we should always carefully separate the empirical from the + rational part, and prefix to Physics proper (or empirical physics) a + metaphysic of nature, and to practical anthropology a metaphysic of + morals, which must be carefully cleared of everything empirical, so that + we may know how much can be accomplished by pure reason in both cases, and + from what sources it draws this its a priori teaching, and that whether + the latter inquiry is conducted by all moralists (whose name is legion), + or only by some who feel a calling thereto. + </p> + <p> + As my concern here is with moral philosophy, I limit the question + suggested to this: Whether it is not of the utmost necessity to construct + a pure thing which is only empirical and which belongs to anthropology? + for that such a philosophy must be possible is evident from the common + idea of duty and of the moral laws. Everyone must admit that if a law is + to have moral force, i.e., to be the basis of an obligation, it must carry + with it absolute necessity; that, for example, the precept, "Thou shalt + not lie," is not valid for men alone, as if other rational beings had no + need to observe it; and so with all the other moral laws properly so + called; that, therefore, the basis of obligation must not be sought in the + nature of man, or in the circumstances in the world in which he is placed, + but a priori simply in the conception of pure reason; and although any + other precept which is founded on principles of mere experience may be in + certain respects universal, yet in as far as it rests even in the least + degree on an empirical basis, perhaps only as to a motive, such a precept, + while it may be a practical rule, can never be called a moral law. + </p> + <p> + Thus not only are moral laws with their principles essentially + distinguished from every other kind of practical knowledge in which there + is anything empirical, but all moral philosophy rests wholly on its pure + part. When applied to man, it does not borrow the least thing from the + knowledge of man himself (anthropology), but gives laws a priori to him as + a rational being. No doubt these laws require a judgement sharpened by + experience, in order on the one hand to distinguish in what cases they are + applicable, and on the other to procure for them access to the will of the + man and effectual influence on conduct; since man is acted on by so many + inclinations that, though capable of the idea of a practical pure reason, + he is not so easily able to make it effective in concreto in his life. + </p> + <p> + A metaphysic of morals is therefore indispensably necessary, not merely + for speculative reasons, in order to investigate the sources of the + practical principles which are to be found a priori in our reason, but + also because morals themselves are liable to all sorts of corruption, as + long as we are without that clue and supreme canon by which to estimate + them correctly. For in order that an action should be morally good, it is + not enough that it conform to the moral law, but it must also be done for + the sake of the law, otherwise that conformity is only very contingent and + uncertain; since a principle which is not moral, although it may now and + then produce actions conformable to the law, will also often produce + actions which contradict it. Now it is only in a pure philosophy that we + can look for the moral law in its purity and genuineness (and, in a + practical matter, this is of the utmost consequence): we must, therefore, + begin with pure philosophy (metaphysic), and without it there cannot be + any moral philosophy at all. That which mingles these pure principles with + the empirical does not deserve the name of philosophy (for what + distinguishes philosophy from common rational knowledge is that it treats + in separate sciences what the latter only comprehends confusedly); much + less does it deserve that of moral philosophy, since by this confusion it + even spoils the purity of morals themselves, and counteracts its own end. + </p> + <p> + Let it not be thought, however, that what is here demanded is already + extant in the propaedeutic prefixed by the celebrated Wolf to his moral + philosophy, namely, his so-called general practical philosophy, and that, + therefore, we have not to strike into an entirely new field. Just because + it was to be a general practical philosophy, it has not taken into + consideration a will of any particular kind- say one which should be + determined solely from a priori principles without any empirical motives, + and which we might call a pure will, but volition in general, with all the + actions and conditions which belong to it in this general signification. + By this it is distinguished from a metaphysic of morals, just as general + logic, which treats of the acts and canons of thought in general, is + distinguished from transcendental philosophy, which treats of the + particular acts and canons of pure thought, i.e., that whose cognitions + are altogether a priori. For the metaphysic of morals has to examine the + idea and the principles of a possible pure will, and not the acts and + conditions of human volition generally, which for the most part are drawn + from psychology. It is true that moral laws and duty are spoken of in the + general moral philosophy (contrary indeed to all fitness). But this is no + objection, for in this respect also the authors of that science remain + true to their idea of it; they do not distinguish the motives which are + prescribed as such by reason alone altogether a priori, and which are + properly moral, from the empirical motives which the understanding raises + to general conceptions merely by comparison of experiences; but, without + noticing the difference of their sources, and looking on them all as + homogeneous, they consider only their greater or less amount. It is in + this way they frame their notion of obligation, which, though anything but + moral, is all that can be attained in a philosophy which passes no + judgement at all on the origin of all possible practical concepts, whether + they are a priori, or only a posteriori. + </p> + <p> + Intending to publish hereafter a metaphysic of morals, I issue in the + first instance these fundamental principles. Indeed there is properly no + other foundation for it than the critical examination of a pure practical + reason; just as that of metaphysics is the critical examination of the + pure speculative reason, already published. But in the first place the + former is not so absolutely necessary as the latter, because in moral + concerns human reason can easily be brought to a high degree of + correctness and completeness, even in the commonest understanding, while + on the contrary in its theoretic but pure use it is wholly dialectical; + and in the second place if the critique of a pure practical Reason is to + be complete, it must be possible at the same time to show its identity + with the speculative reason in a common principle, for it can ultimately + be only one and the same reason which has to be distinguished merely in + its application. I could not, however, bring it to such completeness here, + without introducing considerations of a wholly different kind, which would + be perplexing to the reader. On this account I have adopted the title of + Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals instead of that of a + Critical Examination of the pure practical reason. + </p> + <p> + But in the third place, since a metaphysic of morals, in spite of the + discouraging title, is yet capable of being presented in popular form, and + one adapted to the common understanding, I find it useful to separate from + it this preliminary treatise on its fundamental principles, in order that + I may not hereafter have need to introduce these necessarily subtle + discussions into a book of a more simple character. + </p> + <p> + The present treatise is, however, nothing more than the investigation and + establishment of the supreme principle of morality, and this alone + constitutes a study complete in itself and one which ought to be kept + apart from every other moral investigation. No doubt my conclusions on + this weighty question, which has hitherto been very unsatisfactorily + examined, would receive much light from the application of the same + principle to the whole system, and would be greatly confirmed by the + adequacy which it exhibits throughout; but I must forego this advantage, + which indeed would be after all more gratifying than useful, since the + easy applicability of a principle and its apparent adequacy give no very + certain proof of its soundness, but rather inspire a certain partiality, + which prevents us from examining and estimating it strictly in itself and + without regard to consequences. + </p> + <p> + I have adopted in this work the method which I think most suitable, + proceeding analytically from common knowledge to the determination of its + ultimate principle, and again descending synthetically from the + examination of this principle and its sources to the common knowledge in + which we find it employed. The division will, therefore, be as follows: + </p> + <p> + 1 FIRST SECTION. Transition from the common rational knowledge of morality + to the philosophical. + </p> + <p> + 2 SECOND SECTION. Transition from popular moral philosophy to the + metaphysic of morals. + </p> + <p> + 3 THIRD SECTION. Final step from the metaphysic of morals to the critique + of the pure practical reason. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + FIRST SECTION—TRANSITION FROM THE COMMON RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE OF + MORALITY TO THE PHILOSOPHICAL + </h2> + <p> + Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which + can be called good, without qualification, except a good will. + Intelligence, wit, judgement, and the other talents of the mind, however + they may be named, or courage, resolution, perseverance, as qualities of + temperament, are undoubtedly good and desirable in many respects; but + these gifts of nature may also become extremely bad and mischievous if the + will which is to make use of them, and which, therefore, constitutes what + is called character, is not good. It is the same with the gifts of + fortune. Power, riches, honour, even health, and the general well-being + and contentment with one's condition which is called happiness, inspire + pride, and often presumption, if there is not a good will to correct the + influence of these on the mind, and with this also to rectify the whole + principle of acting and adapt it to its end. The sight of a being who is + not adorned with a single feature of a pure and good will, enjoying + unbroken prosperity, can never give pleasure to an impartial rational + spectator. Thus a good will appears to constitute the indispensable + condition even of being worthy of happiness. + </p> + <p> + There are even some qualities which are of service to this good will + itself and may facilitate its action, yet which have no intrinsic + unconditional value, but always presuppose a good will, and this qualifies + the esteem that we justly have for them and does not permit us to regard + them as absolutely good. Moderation in the affections and passions, + self-control, and calm deliberation are not only good in many respects, + but even seem to constitute part of the intrinsic worth of the person; but + they are far from deserving to be called good without qualification, + although they have been so unconditionally praised by the ancients. For + without the principles of a good will, they may become extremely bad, and + the coolness of a villain not only makes him far more dangerous, but also + directly makes him more abominable in our eyes than he would have been + without it. + </p> + <p> + A good will is good not because of what it performs or effects, not by its + aptness for the attainment of some proposed end, but simply by virtue of + the volition; that is, it is good in itself, and considered by itself is + to be esteemed much higher than all that can be brought about by it in + favour of any inclination, nay even of the sum total of all inclinations. + Even if it should happen that, owing to special disfavour of fortune, or + the niggardly provision of a step-motherly nature, this will should wholly + lack power to accomplish its purpose, if with its greatest efforts it + should yet achieve nothing, and there should remain only the good will + (not, to be sure, a mere wish, but the summoning of all means in our + power), then, like a jewel, it would still shine by its own light, as a + thing which has its whole value in itself. Its usefulness or fruitlessness + can neither add nor take away anything from this value. It would be, as it + were, only the setting to enable us to handle it the more conveniently in + common commerce, or to attract to it the attention of those who are not + yet connoisseurs, but not to recommend it to true connoisseurs, or to + determine its value. + </p> + <p> + There is, however, something so strange in this idea of the absolute value + of the mere will, in which no account is taken of its utility, that + notwithstanding the thorough assent of even common reason to the idea, yet + a suspicion must arise that it may perhaps really be the product of mere + high-flown fancy, and that we may have misunderstood the purpose of nature + in assigning reason as the governor of our will. Therefore we will examine + this idea from this point of view. + </p> + <p> + In the physical constitution of an organized being, that is, a being + adapted suitably to the purposes of life, we assume it as a fundamental + principle that no organ for any purpose will be found but what is also the + fittest and best adapted for that purpose. Now in a being which has reason + and a will, if the proper object of nature were its conservation, its + welfare, in a word, its happiness, then nature would have hit upon a very + bad arrangement in selecting the reason of the creature to carry out this + purpose. For all the actions which the creature has to perform with a view + to this purpose, and the whole rule of its conduct, would be far more + surely prescribed to it by instinct, and that end would have been attained + thereby much more certainly than it ever can be by reason. Should reason + have been communicated to this favoured creature over and above, it must + only have served it to contemplate the happy constitution of its nature, + to admire it, to congratulate itself thereon, and to feel thankful for it + to the beneficent cause, but not that it should subject its desires to + that weak and delusive guidance and meddle bunglingly with the purpose of + nature. In a word, nature would have taken care that reason should not + break forth into practical exercise, nor have the presumption, with its + weak insight, to think out for itself the plan of happiness, and of the + means of attaining it. Nature would not only have taken on herself the + choice of the ends, but also of the means, and with wise foresight would + have entrusted both to instinct. + </p> + <p> + And, in fact, we find that the more a cultivated reason applies itself + with deliberate purpose to the enjoyment of life and happiness, so much + the more does the man fail of true satisfaction. And from this + circumstance there arises in many, if they are candid enough to confess + it, a certain degree of misology, that is, hatred of reason, especially in + the case of those who are most experienced in the use of it, because after + calculating all the advantages they derive, I do not say from the + invention of all the arts of common luxury, but even from the sciences + (which seem to them to be after all only a luxury of the understanding), + they find that they have, in fact, only brought more trouble on their + shoulders, rather than gained in happiness; and they end by envying, + rather than despising, the more common stamp of men who keep closer to the + guidance of mere instinct and do not allow their reason much influence on + their conduct. And this we must admit, that the judgement of those who + would very much lower the lofty eulogies of the advantages which reason + gives us in regard to the happiness and satisfaction of life, or who would + even reduce them below zero, is by no means morose or ungrateful to the + goodness with which the world is governed, but that there lies at the root + of these judgements the idea that our existence has a different and far + nobler end, for which, and not for happiness, reason is properly intended, + and which must, therefore, be regarded as the supreme condition to which + the private ends of man must, for the most part, be postponed. + </p> + <p> + For as reason is not competent to guide the will with certainty in regard + to its objects and the satisfaction of all our wants (which it to some + extent even multiplies), this being an end to which an implanted instinct + would have led with much greater certainty; and since, nevertheless, + reason is imparted to us as a practical faculty, i.e., as one which is to + have influence on the will, therefore, admitting that nature generally in + the distribution of her capacities has adapted the means to the end, its + true destination must be to produce a will, not merely good as a means to + something else, but good in itself, for which reason was absolutely + necessary. This will then, though not indeed the sole and complete good, + must be the supreme good and the condition of every other, even of the + desire of happiness. Under these circumstances, there is nothing + inconsistent with the wisdom of nature in the fact that the cultivation of + the reason, which is requisite for the first and unconditional purpose, + does in many ways interfere, at least in this life, with the attainment of + the second, which is always conditional, namely, happiness. Nay, it may + even reduce it to nothing, without nature thereby failing of her purpose. + For reason recognizes the establishment of a good will as its highest + practical destination, and in attaining this purpose is capable only of a + satisfaction of its own proper kind, namely that from the attainment of an + end, which end again is determined by reason only, notwithstanding that + this may involve many a disappointment to the ends of inclination. + </p> + <p> + We have then to develop the notion of a will which deserves to be highly + esteemed for itself and is good without a view to anything further, a + notion which exists already in the sound natural understanding, requiring + rather to be cleared up than to be taught, and which in estimating the + value of our actions always takes the first place and constitutes the + condition of all the rest. In order to do this, we will take the notion of + duty, which includes that of a good will, although implying certain + subjective restrictions and hindrances. These, however, far from + concealing it, or rendering it unrecognizable, rather bring it out by + contrast and make it shine forth so much the brighter. + </p> + <p> + I omit here all actions which are already recognized as inconsistent with + duty, although they may be useful for this or that purpose, for with these + the question whether they are done from duty cannot arise at all, since + they even conflict with it. I also set aside those actions which really + conform to duty, but to which men have no direct inclination, performing + them because they are impelled thereto by some other inclination. For in + this case we can readily distinguish whether the action which agrees with + duty is done from duty, or from a selfish view. It is much harder to make + this distinction when the action accords with duty and the subject has + besides a direct inclination to it. For example, it is always a matter of + duty that a dealer should not over charge an inexperienced purchaser; and + wherever there is much commerce the prudent tradesman does not overcharge, + but keeps a fixed price for everyone, so that a child buys of him as well + as any other. Men are thus honestly served; but this is not enough to make + us believe that the tradesman has so acted from duty and from principles + of honesty: his own advantage required it; it is out of the question in + this case to suppose that he might besides have a direct inclination in + favour of the buyers, so that, as it were, from love he should give no + advantage to one over another. Accordingly the action was done neither + from duty nor from direct inclination, but merely with a selfish view. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, it is a duty to maintain one's life; and, in addition, + everyone has also a direct inclination to do so. But on this account the + often anxious care which most men take for it has no intrinsic worth, and + their maxim has no moral import. They preserve their life as duty + requires, no doubt, but not because duty requires. On the other hand, if + adversity and hopeless sorrow have completely taken away the relish for + life; if the unfortunate one, strong in mind, indignant at his fate rather + than desponding or dejected, wishes for death, and yet preserves his life + without loving it- not from inclination or fear, but from duty- then his + maxim has a moral worth. + </p> + <p> + To be beneficent when we can is a duty; and besides this, there are many + minds so sympathetically constituted that, without any other motive of + vanity or self-interest, they find a pleasure in spreading joy around them + and can take delight in the satisfaction of others so far as it is their + own work. But I maintain that in such a case an action of this kind, + however proper, however amiable it may be, has nevertheless no true moral + worth, but is on a level with other inclinations, e.g., the inclination to + honour, which, if it is happily directed to that which is in fact of + public utility and accordant with duty and consequently honourable, + deserves praise and encouragement, but not esteem. For the maxim lacks the + moral import, namely, that such actions be done from duty, not from + inclination. Put the case that the mind of that philanthropist were + clouded by sorrow of his own, extinguishing all sympathy with the lot of + others, and that, while he still has the power to benefit others in + distress, he is not touched by their trouble because he is absorbed with + his own; and now suppose that he tears himself out of this dead + insensibility, and performs the action without any inclination to it, but + simply from duty, then first has his action its genuine moral worth. + Further still; if nature has put little sympathy in the heart of this or + that man; if he, supposed to be an upright man, is by temperament cold and + indifferent to the sufferings of others, perhaps because in respect of his + own he is provided with the special gift of patience and fortitude and + supposes, or even requires, that others should have the same- and such a + man would certainly not be the meanest product of nature- but if nature + had not specially framed him for a philanthropist, would he not still find + in himself a source from whence to give himself a far higher worth than + that of a good-natured temperament could be? Unquestionably. It is just in + this that the moral worth of the character is brought out which is + incomparably the highest of all, namely, that he is beneficent, not from + inclination, but from duty. + </p> + <p> + To secure one's own happiness is a duty, at least indirectly; for + discontent with one's condition, under a pressure of many anxieties and + amidst unsatisfied wants, might easily become a great temptation to + transgression of duty. But here again, without looking to duty, all men + have already the strongest and most intimate inclination to happiness, + because it is just in this idea that all inclinations are combined in one + total. But the precept of happiness is often of such a sort that it + greatly interferes with some inclinations, and yet a man cannot form any + definite and certain conception of the sum of satisfaction of all of them + which is called happiness. It is not then to be wondered at that a single + inclination, definite both as to what it promises and as to the time + within which it can be gratified, is often able to overcome such a + fluctuating idea, and that a gouty patient, for instance, can choose to + enjoy what he likes, and to suffer what he may, since, according to his + calculation, on this occasion at least, he has not sacrificed the + enjoyment of the present moment to a possibly mistaken expectation of a + happiness which is supposed to be found in health. But even in this case, + if the general desire for happiness did not influence his will, and + supposing that in his particular case health was not a necessary element + in this calculation, there yet remains in this, as in all other cases, + this law, namely, that he should promote his happiness not from + inclination but from duty, and by this would his conduct first acquire + true moral worth. + </p> + <p> + It is in this manner, undoubtedly, that we are to understand those + passages of Scripture also in which we are commanded to love our + neighbour, even our enemy. For love, as an affection, cannot be commanded, + but beneficence for duty's sake may; even though we are not impelled to it + by any inclination- nay, are even repelled by a natural and unconquerable + aversion. This is practical love and not pathological- a love which is + seated in the will, and not in the propensions of sense- in principles of + action and not of tender sympathy; and it is this love alone which can be + commanded. + </p> + <p> + The second proposition is: That an action done from duty derives its moral + worth, not from the purpose which is to be attained by it, but from the + maxim by which it is determined, and therefore does not depend on the + realization of the object of the action, but merely on the principle of + volition by which the action has taken place, without regard to any object + of desire. It is clear from what precedes that the purposes which we may + have in view in our actions, or their effects regarded as ends and springs + of the will, cannot give to actions any unconditional or moral worth. In + what, then, can their worth lie, if it is not to consist in the will and + in reference to its expected effect? It cannot lie anywhere but in the + principle of the will without regard to the ends which can be attained by + the action. For the will stands between its a priori principle, which is + formal, and its a posteriori spring, which is material, as between two + roads, and as it must be determined by something, it follows that it must + be determined by the formal principle of volition when an action is done + from duty, in which case every material principle has been withdrawn from + it. + </p> + <p> + The third proposition, which is a consequence of the two preceding, I + would express thus: Duty is the necessity of acting from respect for the + law. I may have inclination for an object as the effect of my proposed + action, but I cannot have respect for it, just for this reason, that it is + an effect and not an energy of will. Similarly I cannot have respect for + inclination, whether my own or another's; I can at most, if my own, + approve it; if another's, sometimes even love it; i.e., look on it as + favourable to my own interest. It is only what is connected with my will + as a principle, by no means as an effect- what does not subserve my + inclination, but overpowers it, or at least in case of choice excludes it + from its calculation- in other words, simply the law of itself, which can + be an object of respect, and hence a command. Now an action done from duty + must wholly exclude the influence of inclination and with it every object + of the will, so that nothing remains which can determine the will except + objectively the law, and subjectively pure respect for this practical law, + and consequently the maxim * that I should follow this law even to the + thwarting of all my inclinations. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A maxim is the subjective principle of volition. The + objective principle (i.e., that which would also serve + subjectively as a practical principle to all rational beings + if reason had full power over the faculty of desire) is the + practical law. +</pre> + <p> + Thus the moral worth of an action does not lie in the effect expected from + it, nor in any principle of action which requires to borrow its motive + from this expected effect. For all these effects- agreeableness of one's + condition and even the promotion of the happiness of others- could have + been also brought about by other causes, so that for this there would have + been no need of the will of a rational being; whereas it is in this alone + that the supreme and unconditional good can be found. The pre-eminent good + which we call moral can therefore consist in nothing else than the + conception of law in itself, which certainly is only possible in a + rational being, in so far as this conception, and not the expected effect, + determines the will. This is a good which is already present in the person + who acts accordingly, and we have not to wait for it to appear first in + the result. * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It might be here objected to me that I take refuge behind + the word respect in an obscure feeling, instead of giving a + distinct solution of the question by a concept of the + reason. But although respect is a feeling, it is not a + feeling received through influence, but is self-wrought by a + rational concept, and, therefore, is specifically distinct + from all feelings of the former kind, which may be referred + either to inclination or fear, What I recognise immediately + as a law for me, I recognise with respect. This merely + signifies the consciousness that my will is subordinate to a + law, without the intervention of other influences on my + sense. The immediate determination of the will by the law, + and the consciousness of this, is called respect, so that + this is regarded as an effect of the law on the subject, and + not as the cause of it. Respect is properly the conception + of a worth which thwarts my self-love. Accordingly it is + something which is considered neither as an object of + inclination nor of fear, although it has something analogous + to both. The object of respect is the law only, and that the + law which we impose on ourselves and yet recognise as + necessary in itself. As a law, we are subjected too it + without consulting self-love; as imposed by us on ourselves, + it is a result of our will. In the former aspect it has an + analogy to fear, in the latter to inclination. Respect for a + person is properly only respect for the law (of honesty, + etc.) of which he gives us an example. Since we also look on + the improvement of our talents as a duty, we consider that + we see in a person of talents, as it were, the example of a + law (viz., to become like him in this by exercise), and this + constitutes our respect. All so-called moral interest + consists simply in respect for the law. +</pre> + <p> + But what sort of law can that be, the conception of which must determine + the will, even without paying any regard to the effect expected from it, + in order that this will may be called good absolutely and without + qualification? As I have deprived the will of every impulse which could + arise to it from obedience to any law, there remains nothing but the + universal conformity of its actions to law in general, which alone is to + serve the will as a principle, i.e., I am never to act otherwise than so + that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law. Here, + now, it is the simple conformity to law in general, without assuming any + particular law applicable to certain actions, that serves the will as its + principle and must so serve it, if duty is not to be a vain delusion and a + chimerical notion. The common reason of men in its practical judgements + perfectly coincides with this and always has in view the principle here + suggested. Let the question be, for example: May I when in distress make a + promise with the intention not to keep it? I readily distinguish here + between the two significations which the question may have: Whether it is + prudent, or whether it is right, to make a false promise? The former may + undoubtedly often be the case. I see clearly indeed that it is not enough + to extricate myself from a present difficulty by means of this subterfuge, + but it must be well considered whether there may not hereafter spring from + this lie much greater inconvenience than that from which I now free + myself, and as, with all my supposed cunning, the consequences cannot be + so easily foreseen but that credit once lost may be much more injurious to + me than any mischief which I seek to avoid at present, it should be + considered whether it would not be more prudent to act herein according to + a universal maxim and to make it a habit to promise nothing except with + the intention of keeping it. But it is soon clear to me that such a maxim + will still only be based on the fear of consequences. Now it is a wholly + different thing to be truthful from duty and to be so from apprehension of + injurious consequences. In the first case, the very notion of the action + already implies a law for me; in the second case, I must first look about + elsewhere to see what results may be combined with it which would affect + myself. For to deviate from the principle of duty is beyond all doubt + wicked; but to be unfaithful to my maxim of prudence may often be very + advantageous to me, although to abide by it is certainly safer. The + shortest way, however, and an unerring one, to discover the answer to this + question whether a lying promise is consistent with duty, is to ask + myself, "Should I be content that my maxim (to extricate myself from + difficulty by a false promise) should hold good as a universal law, for + myself as well as for others?" and should I be able to say to myself, + "Every one may make a deceitful promise when he finds himself in a + difficulty from which he cannot otherwise extricate himself?" Then I + presently become aware that while I can will the lie, I can by no means + will that lying should be a universal law. For with such a law there would + be no promises at all, since it would be in vain to allege my intention in + regard to my future actions to those who would not believe this + allegation, or if they over hastily did so would pay me back in my own + coin. Hence my maxim, as soon as it should be made a universal law, would + necessarily destroy itself. + </p> + <p> + I do not, therefore, need any far-reaching penetration to discern what I + have to do in order that my will may be morally good. Inexperienced in the + course of the world, incapable of being prepared for all its + contingencies, I only ask myself: Canst thou also will that thy maxim + should be a universal law? If not, then it must be rejected, and that not + because of a disadvantage accruing from it to myself or even to others, + but because it cannot enter as a principle into a possible universal + legislation, and reason extorts from me immediate respect for such + legislation. I do not indeed as yet discern on what this respect is based + (this the philosopher may inquire), but at least I understand this, that + it is an estimation of the worth which far outweighs all worth of what is + recommended by inclination, and that the necessity of acting from pure + respect for the practical law is what constitutes duty, to which every + other motive must give place, because it is the condition of a will being + good in itself, and the worth of such a will is above everything. + </p> + <p> + Thus, then, without quitting the moral knowledge of common human reason, + we have arrived at its principle. And although, no doubt, common men do + not conceive it in such an abstract and universal form, yet they always + have it really before their eyes and use it as the standard of their + decision. Here it would be easy to show how, with this compass in hand, + men are well able to distinguish, in every case that occurs, what is good, + what bad, conformably to duty or inconsistent with it, if, without in the + least teaching them anything new, we only, like Socrates, direct their + attention to the principle they themselves employ; and that, therefore, we + do not need science and philosophy to know what we should do to be honest + and good, yea, even wise and virtuous. Indeed we might well have + conjectured beforehand that the knowledge of what every man is bound to + do, and therefore also to know, would be within the reach of every man, + even the commonest. Here we cannot forbear admiration when we see how + great an advantage the practical judgement has over the theoretical in the + common understanding of men. In the latter, if common reason ventures to + depart from the laws of experience and from the perceptions of the senses, + it falls into mere inconceivabilities and self-contradictions, at least + into a chaos of uncertainty, obscurity, and instability. But in the + practical sphere it is just when the common understanding excludes all + sensible springs from practical laws that its power of judgement begins to + show itself to advantage. It then becomes even subtle, whether it be that + it chicanes with its own conscience or with other claims respecting what + is to be called right, or whether it desires for its own instruction to + determine honestly the worth of actions; and, in the latter case, it may + even have as good a hope of hitting the mark as any philosopher whatever + can promise himself. Nay, it is almost more sure of doing so, because the + philosopher cannot have any other principle, while he may easily perplex + his judgement by a multitude of considerations foreign to the matter, and + so turn aside from the right way. Would it not therefore be wiser in moral + concerns to acquiesce in the judgement of common reason, or at most only + to call in philosophy for the purpose of rendering the system of morals + more complete and intelligible, and its rules more convenient for use + (especially for disputation), but not so as to draw off the common + understanding from its happy simplicity, or to bring it by means of + philosophy into a new path of inquiry and instruction? + </p> + <p> + Innocence is indeed a glorious thing; only, on the other hand, it is very + sad that it cannot well maintain itself and is easily seduced. On this + account even wisdom- which otherwise consists more in conduct than in + knowledge- yet has need of science, not in order to learn from it, but to + secure for its precepts admission and permanence. Against all the commands + of duty which reason represents to man as so deserving of respect, he + feels in himself a powerful counterpoise in his wants and inclinations, + the entire satisfaction of which he sums up under the name of happiness. + Now reason issues its commands unyieldingly, without promising anything to + the inclinations, and, as it were, with disregard and contempt for these + claims, which are so impetuous, and at the same time so plausible, and + which will not allow themselves to be suppressed by any command. Hence + there arises a natural dialectic, i.e., a disposition, to argue against + these strict laws of duty and to question their validity, or at least + their purity and strictness; and, if possible, to make them more accordant + with our wishes and inclinations, that is to say, to corrupt them at their + very source, and entirely to destroy their worth- a thing which even + common practical reason cannot ultimately call good. + </p> + <p> + Thus is the common reason of man compelled to go out of its sphere, and to + take a step into the field of a practical philosophy, not to satisfy any + speculative want (which never occurs to it as long as it is content to be + mere sound reason), but even on practical grounds, in order to attain in + it information and clear instruction respecting the source of its + principle, and the correct determination of it in opposition to the maxims + which are based on wants and inclinations, so that it may escape from the + perplexity of opposite claims and not run the risk of losing all genuine + moral principles through the equivocation into which it easily falls. + Thus, when practical reason cultivates itself, there insensibly arises in + it a dialetic which forces it to seek aid in philosophy, just as happens + to it in its theoretic use; and in this case, therefore, as well as in the + other, it will find rest nowhere but in a thorough critical examination of + our reason. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SECOND SECTION—TRANSITION FROM POPULAR MORAL PHILOSOPHY TO THE + METAPHYSIC OF MORALS + </h2> + <p> + If we have hitherto drawn our notion of duty from the common use of our + practical reason, it is by no means to be inferred that we have treated it + as an empirical notion. On the contrary, if we attend to the experience of + men's conduct, we meet frequent and, as we ourselves allow, just + complaints that one cannot find a single certain example of the + disposition to act from pure duty. Although many things are done in + conformity with what duty prescribes, it is nevertheless always doubtful + whether they are done strictly from duty, so as to have a moral worth. + Hence there have at all times been philosophers who have altogether denied + that this disposition actually exists at all in human actions, and have + ascribed everything to a more or less refined self-love. Not that they + have on that account questioned the soundness of the conception of + morality; on the contrary, they spoke with sincere regret of the frailty + and corruption of human nature, which, though noble enough to take its + rule an idea so worthy of respect, is yet weak to follow it and employs + reason which ought to give it the law only for the purpose of providing + for the interest of the inclinations, whether singly or at the best in the + greatest possible harmony with one another. + </p> + <p> + In fact, it is absolutely impossible to make out by experience with + complete certainty a single case in which the maxim of an action, however + right in itself, rested simply on moral grounds and on the conception of + duty. Sometimes it happens that with the sharpest self-examination we can + find nothing beside the moral principle of duty which could have been + powerful enough to move us to this or that action and to so great a + sacrifice; yet we cannot from this infer with certainty that it was not + really some secret impulse of self-love, under the false appearance of + duty, that was the actual determining cause of the will. We like them to + flatter ourselves by falsely taking credit for a more noble motive; + whereas in fact we can never, even by the strictest examination, get + completely behind the secret springs of action; since, when the question + is of moral worth, it is not with the actions which we see that we are + concerned, but with those inward principles of them which we do not see. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, we cannot better serve the wishes of those who ridicule all + morality as a mere chimera of human imagination over stepping itself from + vanity, than by conceding to them that notions of duty must be drawn only + from experience (as from indolence, people are ready to think is also the + case with all other notions); for or is to prepare for them a certain + triumph. I am willing to admit out of love of humanity that even most of + our actions are correct, but if we look closer at them we everywhere come + upon the dear self which is always prominent, and it is this they have in + view and not the strict command of duty which would often require + self-denial. Without being an enemy of virtue, a cool observer, one that + does not mistake the wish for good, however lively, for its reality, may + sometimes doubt whether true virtue is actually found anywhere in the + world, and this especially as years increase and the judgement is partly + made wiser by experience and partly, also, more acute in observation. This + being so, nothing can secure us from falling away altogether from our + ideas of duty, or maintain in the soul a well-grounded respect for its + law, but the clear conviction that although there should never have been + actions which really sprang from such pure sources, yet whether this or + that takes place is not at all the question; but that reason of itself, + independent on all experience, ordains what ought to take place, that + accordingly actions of which perhaps the world has hitherto never given an + example, the feasibility even of which might be very much doubted by one + who founds everything on experience, are nevertheless inflexibly commanded + by reason; that, e.g., even though there might never yet have been a + sincere friend, yet not a whit the less is pure sincerity in friendship + required of every man, because, prior to all experience, this duty is + involved as duty in the idea of a reason determining the will by a priori + principles. + </p> + <p> + When we add further that, unless we deny that the notion of morality has + any truth or reference to any possible object, we must admit that its law + must be valid, not merely for men but for all rational creatures + generally, not merely under certain contingent conditions or with + exceptions but with absolute necessity, then it is clear that no + experience could enable us to infer even the possibility of such + apodeictic laws. For with what right could we bring into unbounded respect + as a universal precept for every rational nature that which perhaps holds + only under the contingent conditions of humanity? Or how could laws of the + determination of our will be regarded as laws of the determination of the + will of rational beings generally, and for us only as such, if they were + merely empirical and did not take their origin wholly a priori from pure + but practical reason? + </p> + <p> + Nor could anything be more fatal to morality than that we should wish to + derive it from examples. For every example of it that is set before me + must be first itself tested by principles of morality, whether it is + worthy to serve as an original example, i.e., as a pattern; but by no + means can it authoritatively furnish the conception of morality. Even the + Holy One of the Gospels must first be compared with our ideal of moral + perfection before we can recognise Him as such; and so He says of Himself, + "Why call ye Me (whom you see) good; none is good (the model of good) but + God only (whom ye do not see)?" But whence have we the conception of God + as the supreme good? Simply from the idea of moral perfection, which + reason frames a priori and connects inseparably with the notion of a free + will. Imitation finds no place at all in morality, and examples serve only + for encouragement, i.e., they put beyond doubt the feasibility of what the + law commands, they make visible that which the practical rule expresses + more generally, but they can never authorize us to set aside the true + original which lies in reason and to guide ourselves by examples. + </p> + <p> + If then there is no genuine supreme principle of morality but what must + rest simply on pure reason, independent of all experience, I think it is + not necessary even to put the question whether it is good to exhibit these + concepts in their generality (in abstracto) as they are established a + priori along with the principles belonging to them, if our knowledge is to + be distinguished from the vulgar and to be called philosophical. + </p> + <p> + In our times indeed this might perhaps be necessary; for if we collected + votes whether pure rational knowledge separated from everything empirical, + that is to say, metaphysic of morals, or whether popular practical + philosophy is to be preferred, it is easy to guess which side would + preponderate. + </p> + <p> + This descending to popular notions is certainly very commendable, if the + ascent to the principles of pure reason has first taken place and been + satisfactorily accomplished. This implies that we first found ethics on + metaphysics, and then, when it is firmly established, procure a hearing + for it by giving it a popular character. But it is quite absurd to try to + be popular in the first inquiry, on which the soundness of the principles + depends. It is not only that this proceeding can never lay claim to the + very rare merit of a true philosophical popularity, since there is no art + in being intelligible if one renounces all thoroughness of insight; but + also it produces a disgusting medley of compiled observations and + half-reasoned principles. Shallow pates enjoy this because it can be used + for every-day chat, but the sagacious find in it only confusion, and being + unsatisfied and unable to help themselves, they turn away their eyes, + while philosophers, who see quite well through this delusion, are little + listened to when they call men off for a time from this pretended + popularity, in order that they might be rightfully popular after they have + attained a definite insight. + </p> + <p> + We need only look at the attempts of moralists in that favourite fashion, + and we shall find at one time the special constitution of human nature + (including, however, the idea of a rational nature generally), at one time + perfection, at another happiness, here moral sense, there fear of God. a + little of this, and a little of that, in marvellous mixture, without its + occurring to them to ask whether the principles of morality are to be + sought in the knowledge of human nature at all (which we can have only + from experience); or, if this is not so, if these principles are to be + found altogether a priori, free from everything empirical, in pure + rational concepts only and nowhere else, not even in the smallest degree; + then rather to adopt the method of making this a separate inquiry, as pure + practical philosophy, or (if one may use a name so decried) as metaphysic + of morals, * to bring it by itself to completeness, and to require the + public, which wishes for popular treatment, to await the issue of this + undertaking. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Just as pure mathematics are distinguished from applied, + pure logic from applied, so if we choose we may also + distinguish pure philosophy of morals (metaphysic) from + applied (viz., applied to human nature). By this designation + we are also at once reminded that moral principles are not + based on properties of human nature, but must subsist a + priori of themselves, while from such principles practical + rules must be capable of being deduced for every rational + nature, and accordingly for that of man. +</pre> + <p> + Such a metaphysic of morals, completely isolated, not mixed with any + anthropology, theology, physics, or hyperphysics, and still less with + occult qualities (which we might call hypophysical), is not only an + indispensable substratum of all sound theoretical knowledge of duties, but + is at the same time a desideratum of the highest importance to the actual + fulfilment of their precepts. For the pure conception of duty, unmixed + with any foreign addition of empirical attractions, and, in a word, the + conception of the moral law, exercises on the human heart, by way of + reason alone (which first becomes aware with this that it can of itself be + practical), an influence so much more powerful than all other springs * + which may be derived from the field of experience, that, in the + consciousness of its worth, it despises the latter, and can by degrees + become their master; whereas a mixed ethics, compounded partly of motives + drawn from feelings and inclinations, and partly also of conceptions of + reason, must make the mind waver between motives which cannot be brought + under any principle, which lead to good only by mere accident and very + often also to evil. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I have a letter from the late excellent Sulzer, in which + he asks me what can be the reason that moral instruction, + although containing much that is convincing for the reason, + yet accomplishes so little? My answer was postponed in order + that I might make it complete. But it is simply this: that + the teachers themselves have not got their own notions + clear, and when they endeavour to make up for this by raking + up motives of moral goodness from every quarter, trying to + make their physic right strong, they spoil it. For the + commonest understanding shows that if we imagine, on the one + hand, an act of honesty done with steadfast mind, apart from + every view to advantage of any kind in this world or + another, and even under the greatest temptations of + necessity or allurement, and, on the other hand, a similar + act which was affected, in however low a degree, by a + foreign motive, the former leaves far behind and eclipses + the second; it elevates the soul and inspires the wish to be + able to act in like manner oneself. Even moderately young + children feel this impression, ana one should never + represent duties to them in any other light. +</pre> + <p> + From what has been said, it is clear that all moral conceptions have their + seat and origin completely a priori in the reason, and that, moreover, in + the commonest reason just as truly as in that which is in the highest + degree speculative; that they cannot be obtained by abstraction from any + empirical, and therefore merely contingent, knowledge; that it is just + this purity of their origin that makes them worthy to serve as our supreme + practical principle, and that just in proportion as we add anything + empirical, we detract from their genuine influence and from the absolute + value of actions; that it is not only of the greatest necessity, in a + purely speculative point of view, but is also of the greatest practical + importance, to derive these notions and laws from pure reason, to present + them pure and unmixed, and even to determine the compass of this practical + or pure rational knowledge, i.e., to determine the whole faculty of pure + practical reason; and, in doing so, we must not make its principles + dependent on the particular nature of human reason, though in speculative + philosophy this may be permitted, or may even at times be necessary; but + since moral laws ought to hold good for every rational creature, we must + derive them from the general concept of a rational being. In this way, + although for its application to man morality has need of anthropology, + yet, in the first instance, we must treat it independently as pure + philosophy, i.e., as metaphysic, complete in itself (a thing which in such + distinct branches of science is easily done); knowing well that unless we + are in possession of this, it would not only be vain to determine the + moral element of duty in right actions for purposes of speculative + criticism, but it would be impossible to base morals on their genuine + principles, even for common practical purposes, especially of moral + instruction, so as to produce pure moral dispositions, and to engraft them + on men's minds to the promotion of the greatest possible good in the + world. + </p> + <p> + But in order that in this study we may not merely advance by the natural + steps from the common moral judgement (in this case very worthy of + respect) to the philosophical, as has been already done, but also from a + popular philosophy, which goes no further than it can reach by groping + with the help of examples, to metaphysic (which does allow itself to be + checked by anything empirical and, as it must measure the whole extent of + this kind of rational knowledge, goes as far as ideal conceptions, where + even examples fail us), we must follow and clearly describe the practical + faculty of reason, from the general rules of its determination to the + point where the notion of duty springs from it. + </p> + <p> + Everything in nature works according to laws. Rational beings alone have + the faculty of acting according to the conception of laws, that is + according to principles, i.e., have a will. Since the deduction of actions + from principles requires reason, the will is nothing but practical reason. + If reason infallibly determines the will, then the actions of such a being + which are recognised as objectively necessary are subjectively necessary + also, i.e., the will is a faculty to choose that only which reason + independent of inclination recognises as practically necessary, i.e., as + good. But if reason of itself does not sufficiently determine the will, if + the latter is subject also to subjective conditions (particular impulses) + which do not always coincide with the objective conditions; in a word, if + the will does not in itself completely accord with reason (which is + actually the case with men), then the actions which objectively are + recognised as necessary are subjectively contingent, and the determination + of such a will according to objective laws is obligation, that is to say, + the relation of the objective laws to a will that is not thoroughly good + is conceived as the determination of the will of a rational being by + principles of reason, but which the will from its nature does not of + necessity follow. + </p> + <p> + The conception of an objective principle, in so far as it is obligatory + for a will, is called a command (of reason), and the formula of the + command is called an imperative. + </p> + <p> + All imperatives are expressed by the word ought [or shall], and thereby + indicate the relation of an objective law of reason to a will, which from + its subjective constitution is not necessarily determined by it (an + obligation). They say that something would be good to do or to forbear, + but they say it to a will which does not always do a thing because it is + conceived to be good to do it. That is practically good, however, which + determines the will by means of the conceptions of reason, and + consequently not from subjective causes, but objectively, that is on + principles which are valid for every rational being as such. It is + distinguished from the pleasant, as that which influences the will only by + means of sensation from merely subjective causes, valid only for the sense + of this or that one, and not as a principle of reason, which holds for + every one. * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The dependence of the desires on sensations is called + inclination, and this accordingly always indicates a want. + The dependence of a contingently determinable will on + principles of reason is called an interest. This therefore, + is found only in the case of a dependent will which does not + always of itself conform to reason; in the Divine will we + cannot conceive any interest. But the human will can also + take an interest in a thing without therefore acting from + interest. The former signifies the practical interest in the + action, the latter the pathological in the object of the + action. The former indicates only dependence of the will on + principles of reason in themselves; the second, dependence + on principles of reason for the sake of inclination, reason + supplying only the practical rules how the requirement of + the inclination may be satisfied. In the first case the + action interests me; in the second the object of the action + (because it is pleasant to me). We have seen in the first + section that in an action done from duty we must look not to + the interest in the object, but only to that in the action + itself, and in its rational principle (viz., the law). +</pre> + <p> + A perfectly good will would therefore be equally subject to objective laws + (viz., laws of good), but could not be conceived as obliged thereby to act + lawfully, because of itself from its subjective constitution it can only + be determined by the conception of good. Therefore no imperatives hold for + the Divine will, or in general for a holy will; ought is here out of + place, because the volition is already of itself necessarily in unison + with the law. Therefore imperatives are only formulae to express the + relation of objective laws of all volition to the subjective imperfection + of the will of this or that rational being, e.g., the human will. + </p> + <p> + Now all imperatives command either hypothetically or categorically. The + former represent the practical necessity of a possible action as means to + something else that is willed (or at least which one might possibly will). + The categorical imperative would be that which represented an action as + necessary of itself without reference to another end, i.e., as objectively + necessary. + </p> + <p> + Since every practical law represents a possible action as good and, on + this account, for a subject who is practically determinable by reason, + necessary, all imperatives are formulae determining an action which is + necessary according to the principle of a will good in some respects. If + now the action is good only as a means to something else, then the + imperative is hypothetical; if it is conceived as good in itself and + consequently as being necessarily the principle of a will which of itself + conforms to reason, then it is categorical. + </p> + <p> + Thus the imperative declares what action possible by me would be good and + presents the practical rule in relation to a will which does not forthwith + perform an action simply because it is good, whether because the subject + does not always know that it is good, or because, even if it know this, + yet its maxims might be opposed to the objective principles of practical + reason. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly the hypothetical imperative only says that the action is good + for some purpose, possible or actual. In the first case it is a + problematical, in the second an assertorial practical principle. The + categorical imperative which declares an action to be objectively + necessary in itself without reference to any purpose, i.e., without any + other end, is valid as an apodeictic (practical) principle. + </p> + <p> + Whatever is possible only by the power of some rational being may also be + conceived as a possible purpose of some will; and therefore the principles + of action as regards the means necessary to attain some possible purpose + are in fact infinitely numerous. All sciences have a practical part, + consisting of problems expressing that some end is possible for us and of + imperatives directing how it may be attained. These may, therefore, be + called in general imperatives of skill. Here there is no question whether + the end is rational and good, but only what one must do in order to attain + it. The precepts for the physician to make his patient thoroughly healthy, + and for a poisoner to ensure certain death, are of equal value in this + respect, that each serves to effect its purpose perfectly. Since in early + youth it cannot be known what ends are likely to occur to us in the course + of life, parents seek to have their children taught a great many things, + and provide for their skill in the use of means for all sorts of arbitrary + ends, of none of which can they determine whether it may not perhaps + hereafter be an object to their pupil, but which it is at all events + possible that he might aim at; and this anxiety is so great that they + commonly neglect to form and correct their judgement on the value of the + things which may be chosen as ends. + </p> + <p> + There is one end, however, which may be assumed to be actually such to all + rational beings (so far as imperatives apply to them, viz., as dependent + beings), and, therefore, one purpose which they not merely may have, but + which we may with certainty assume that they all actually have by a + natural necessity, and this is happiness. The hypothetical imperative + which expresses the practical necessity of an action as means to the + advancement of happiness is assertorial. We are not to present it as + necessary for an uncertain and merely possible purpose, but for a purpose + which we may presuppose with certainty and a priori in every man, because + it belongs to his being. Now skill in the choice of means to his own + greatest well-being may be called prudence, * in the narrowest sense. And + thus the imperative which refers to the choice of means to one's own + happiness, i.e., the precept of prudence, is still always hypothetical; + the action is not commanded absolutely, but only as means to another + purpose. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The word prudence is taken in two senses: in the one it + may bear the name of knowledge of the world, in the other + that of private prudence. The former is a man's ability to + influence others so as to use them for his own purposes. The + latter is the sagacity to combine all these purposes for his + own lasting benefit. This latter is properly that to which + the value even of the former is reduced, and when a man is + prudent in the former sense, but not in the latter, we might + better say of him that he is clever and cunning, but, on the + whole, imprudent. +</pre> + <p> + Finally, there is an imperative which commands a certain conduct + immediately, without having as its condition any other purpose to be + attained by it. This imperative is categorical. It concerns not the matter + of the action, or its intended result, but its form and the principle of + which it is itself a result; and what is essentially good in it consists + in the mental disposition, let the consequence be what it may. This + imperative may be called that of morality. + </p> + <p> + There is a marked distinction also between the volitions on these three + sorts of principles in the dissimilarity of the obligation of the will. In + order to mark this difference more clearly, I think they would be most + suitably named in their order if we said they are either rules of skill, + or counsels of prudence, or commands (laws) of morality. For it is law + only that involves the conception of an unconditional and objective + necessity, which is consequently universally valid; and commands are laws + which must be obeyed, that is, must be followed, even in opposition to + inclination. Counsels, indeed, involve necessity, but one which can only + hold under a contingent subjective condition, viz., they depend on whether + this or that man reckons this or that as part of his happiness; the + categorical imperative, on the contrary, is not limited by any condition, + and as being absolutely, although practically, necessary, may be quite + properly called a command. We might also call the first kind of + imperatives technical (belonging to art), the second pragmatic * (to + welfare), the third moral (belonging to free conduct generally, that is, + to morals). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It seems to me that the proper signification of the word + pragmatic may be most accurately defined in this way. For + sanctions are called pragmatic which flow properly not from + the law of the states as necessary enactments, but from + precaution for the general welfare. A history is composed + pragmatically when it teaches prudence, i.e., instructs the + world how it can provide for its interests better, or at + least as well as, the men of former time. +</pre> + <p> + Now arises the question, how are all these imperatives possible? This + question does not seek to know how we can conceive the accomplishment of + the action which the imperative ordains, but merely how we can conceive + the obligation of the will which the imperative expresses. No special + explanation is needed to show how an imperative of skill is possible. + Whoever wills the end, wills also (so far as reason decides his conduct) + the means in his power which are indispensably necessary thereto. This + proposition is, as regards the volition, analytical; for, in willing an + object as my effect, there is already thought the causality of myself as + an acting cause, that is to say, the use of the means; and the imperative + educes from the conception of volition of an end the conception of actions + necessary to this end. Synthetical propositions must no doubt be employed + in defining the means to a proposed end; but they do not concern the + principle, the act of the will, but the object and its realization. E.g., + that in order to bisect a line on an unerring principle I must draw from + its extremities two intersecting arcs; this no doubt is taught by + mathematics only in synthetical propositions; but if I know that it is + only by this process that the intended operation can be performed, then to + say that, if I fully will the operation, I also will the action required + for it, is an analytical proposition; for it is one and the same thing to + conceive something as an effect which I can produce in a certain way, and + to conceive myself as acting in this way. + </p> + <p> + If it were only equally easy to give a definite conception of happiness, + the imperatives of prudence would correspond exactly with those of skill, + and would likewise be analytical. For in this case as in that, it could be + said: "Whoever wills the end, wills also (according to the dictate of + reason necessarily) the indispensable means thereto which are in his + power." But, unfortunately, the notion of happiness is so indefinite that + although every man wishes to attain it, yet he never can say definitely + and consistently what it is that he really wishes and wills. The reason of + this is that all the elements which belong to the notion of happiness are + altogether empirical, i.e., they must be borrowed from experience, and + nevertheless the idea of happiness requires an absolute whole, a maximum + of welfare in my present and all future circumstances. Now it is + impossible that the most clear-sighted and at the same time most powerful + being (supposed finite) should frame to himself a definite conception of + what he really wills in this. Does he will riches, how much anxiety, envy, + and snares might he not thereby draw upon his shoulders? Does he will + knowledge and discernment, perhaps it might prove to be only an eye so + much the sharper to show him so much the more fearfully the evils that are + now concealed from him, and that cannot be avoided, or to impose more + wants on his desires, which already give him concern enough. Would he have + long life? who guarantees to him that it would not be a long misery? would + he at least have health? how often has uneasiness of the body restrained + from excesses into which perfect health would have allowed one to fall? + and so on. In short, he is unable, on any principle, to determine with + certainty what would make him truly happy; because to do so he would need + to be omniscient. We cannot therefore act on any definite principles to + secure happiness, but only on empirical counsels, e.g. of regimen, + frugality, courtesy, reserve, etc., which experience teaches do, on the + average, most promote well-being. Hence it follows that the imperatives of + prudence do not, strictly speaking, command at all, that is, they cannot + present actions objectively as practically necessary; that they are rather + to be regarded as counsels (consilia) than precepts precepts of reason, + that the problem to determine certainly and universally what action would + promote the happiness of a rational being is completely insoluble, and + consequently no imperative respecting it is possible which should, in the + strict sense, command to do what makes happy; because happiness is not an + ideal of reason but of imagination, resting solely on empirical grounds, + and it is vain to expect that these should define an action by which one + could attain the totality of a series of consequences which is really + endless. This imperative of prudence would however be an analytical + proposition if we assume that the means to happiness could be certainly + assigned; for it is distinguished from the imperative of skill only by + this, that in the latter the end is merely possible, in the former it is + given; as however both only ordain the means to that which we suppose to + be willed as an end, it follows that the imperative which ordains the + willing of the means to him who wills the end is in both cases analytical. + Thus there is no difficulty in regard to the possibility of an imperative + of this kind either. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the question how the imperative of morality is + possible, is undoubtedly one, the only one, demanding a solution, as this + is not at all hypothetical, and the objective necessity which it presents + cannot rest on any hypothesis, as is the case with the hypothetical + imperatives. Only here we must never leave out of consideration that we + cannot make out by any example, in other words empirically, whether there + is such an imperative at all, but it is rather to be feared that all those + which seem to be categorical may yet be at bottom hypothetical. For + instance, when the precept is: "Thou shalt not promise deceitfully"; and + it is assumed that the necessity of this is not a mere counsel to avoid + some other evil, so that it should mean: "Thou shalt not make a lying + promise, lest if it become known thou shouldst destroy thy credit," but + that an action of this kind must be regarded as evil in itself, so that + the imperative of the prohibition is categorical; then we cannot show with + certainty in any example that the will was determined merely by the law, + without any other spring of action, although it may appear to be so. For + it is always possible that fear of disgrace, perhaps also obscure dread of + other dangers, may have a secret influence on the will. Who can prove by + experience the non-existence of a cause when all that experience tells us + is that we do not perceive it? But in such a case the so-called moral + imperative, which as such appears to be categorical and unconditional, + would in reality be only a pragmatic precept, drawing our attention to our + own interests and merely teaching us to take these into consideration. + </p> + <p> + We shall therefore have to investigate a priori the possibility of a + categorical imperative, as we have not in this case the advantage of its + reality being given in experience, so that [the elucidation of] its + possibility should be requisite only for its explanation, not for its + establishment. In the meantime it may be discerned beforehand that the + categorical imperative alone has the purport of a practical law; all the + rest may indeed be called principles of the will but not laws, since + whatever is only necessary for the attainment of some arbitrary purpose + may be considered as in itself contingent, and we can at any time be free + from the precept if we give up the purpose; on the contrary, the + unconditional command leaves the will no liberty to choose the opposite; + consequently it alone carries with it that necessity which we require in a + law. + </p> + <p> + Secondly, in the case of this categorical imperative or law of morality, + the difficulty (of discerning its possibility) is a very profound one. It + is an a priori synthetical practical proposition; * and as there is so + much difficulty in discerning the possibility of speculative propositions + of this kind, it may readily be supposed that the difficulty will be no + less with the practical. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I connect the act with the will without presupposing any + condition resulting from any inclination, but a priori, and + therefore necessarily (though only objectively, i.e., + assuming the idea of a reason possessing full power over all + subjective motives). This is accordingly a practical + proposition which does not deduce the willing of an action + by mere analysis from another already presupposed (for we + have not such a perfect will), but connects it immediately + with the conception of the will of a rational being, as + something not contained in it. +</pre> + <p> + In this problem we will first inquire whether the mere conception of a + categorical imperative may not perhaps supply us also with the formula of + it, containing the proposition which alone can be a categorical + imperative; for even if we know the tenor of such an absolute command, yet + how it is possible will require further special and laborious study, which + we postpone to the last section. + </p> + <p> + When I conceive a hypothetical imperative, in general I do not know + beforehand what it will contain until I am given the condition. But when I + conceive a categorical imperative, I know at once what it contains. For as + the imperative contains besides the law only the necessity that the maxims + * shall conform to this law, while the law contains no conditions + restricting it, there remains nothing but the general statement that the + maxim of the action should conform to a universal law, and it is this + conformity alone that the imperative properly represents as necessary. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A maxim is a subjective principle of action, and must be + distinguished from the objective principle, namely, + practical law. The former contains the practical rule set by + reason according to the conditions of the subject (often its + ignorance or its inclinations), so that it is the principle + on which the subject acts; but the law is the objective + principle valid for every rational being, and is the + principle on which it ought to act that is an imperative. +</pre> + <p> + There is therefore but one categorical imperative, namely, this: Act only + on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should + become a universal law. + </p> + <p> + Now if all imperatives of duty can be deduced from this one imperative as + from their principle, then, although it should remain undecided what is + called duty is not merely a vain notion, yet at least we shall be able to + show what we understand by it and what this notion means. + </p> + <p> + Since the universality of the law according to which effects are produced + constitutes what is properly called nature in the most general sense (as + to form), that is the existence of things so far as it is determined by + general laws, the imperative of duty may be expressed thus: Act as if the + maxim of thy action were to become by thy will a universal law of nature. + </p> + <p> + We will now enumerate a few duties, adopting the usual division of them + into duties to ourselves and ourselves and to others, and into perfect and + imperfect duties. * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It must be noted here that I reserve the division of + duties for a future metaphysic of morals; so that I give it + here only as an arbitrary one (in order to arrange my + examples). For the rest, I understand by a perfect duty one + that admits no exception in favour of inclination and then I + have not merely external but also internal perfect duties. + This is contrary to the use of the word adopted in the + schools; but I do not intend to justify there, as it is all + one for my purpose whether it is admitted or not. +</pre> + <p> + 1. A man reduced to despair by a series of misfortunes feels wearied of + life, but is still so far in possession of his reason that he can ask + himself whether it would not be contrary to his duty to himself to take + his own life. Now he inquires whether the maxim of his action could become + a universal law of nature. His maxim is: "From self-love I adopt it as a + principle to shorten my life when its longer duration is likely to bring + more evil than satisfaction." It is asked then simply whether this + principle founded on self-love can become a universal law of nature. Now + we see at once that a system of nature of which it should be a law to + destroy life by means of the very feeling whose special nature it is to + impel to the improvement of life would contradict itself and, therefore, + could not exist as a system of nature; hence that maxim cannot possibly + exist as a universal law of nature and, consequently, would be wholly + inconsistent with the supreme principle of all duty. + </p> + <p> + 2. Another finds himself forced by necessity to borrow money. He knows + that he will not be able to repay it, but sees also that nothing will be + lent to him unless he promises stoutly to repay it in a definite time. He + desires to make this promise, but he has still so much conscience as to + ask himself: "Is it not unlawful and inconsistent with duty to get out of + a difficulty in this way?" Suppose however that he resolves to do so: then + the maxim of his action would be expressed thus: "When I think myself in + want of money, I will borrow money and promise to repay it, although I + know that I never can do so." Now this principle of self-love or of one's + own advantage may perhaps be consistent with my whole future welfare; but + the question now is, "Is it right?" I change then the suggestion of + self-love into a universal law, and state the question thus: "How would it + be if my maxim were a universal law?" Then I see at once that it could + never hold as a universal law of nature, but would necessarily contradict + itself. For supposing it to be a universal law that everyone when he + thinks himself in a difficulty should be able to promise whatever he + pleases, with the purpose of not keeping his promise, the promise itself + would become impossible, as well as the end that one might have in view in + it, since no one would consider that anything was promised to him, but + would ridicule all such statements as vain pretences. + </p> + <p> + 3. A third finds in himself a talent which with the help of some culture + might make him a useful man in many respects. But he finds himself in + comfortable circumstances and prefers to indulge in pleasure rather than + to take pains in enlarging and improving his happy natural capacities. He + asks, however, whether his maxim of neglect of his natural gifts, besides + agreeing with his inclination to indulgence, agrees also with what is + called duty. He sees then that a system of nature could indeed subsist + with such a universal law although men (like the South Sea islanders) + should let their talents rest and resolve to devote their lives merely to + idleness, amusement, and propagation of their species- in a word, to + enjoyment; but he cannot possibly will that this should be a universal law + of nature, or be implanted in us as such by a natural instinct. For, as a + rational being, he necessarily wills that his faculties be developed, + since they serve him and have been given him, for all sorts of possible + purposes. + </p> + <p> + 4. A fourth, who is in prosperity, while he sees that others have to + contend with great wretchedness and that he could help them, thinks: "What + concern is it of mine? Let everyone be as happy as Heaven pleases, or as + he can make himself; I will take nothing from him nor even envy him, only + I do not wish to contribute anything to his welfare or to his assistance + in distress!" Now no doubt if such a mode of thinking were a universal + law, the human race might very well subsist and doubtless even better than + in a state in which everyone talks of sympathy and good-will, or even + takes care occasionally to put it into practice, but, on the other side, + also cheats when he can, betrays the rights of men, or otherwise violates + them. But although it is possible that a universal law of nature might + exist in accordance with that maxim, it is impossible to will that such a + principle should have the universal validity of a law of nature. For a + will which resolved this would contradict itself, inasmuch as many cases + might occur in which one would have need of the love and sympathy of + others, and in which, by such a law of nature, sprung from his own will, + he would deprive himself of all hope of the aid he desires. + </p> + <p> + These are a few of the many actual duties, or at least what we regard as + such, which obviously fall into two classes on the one principle that we + have laid down. We must be able to will that a maxim of our action should + be a universal law. This is the canon of the moral appreciation of the + action generally. Some actions are of such a character that their maxim + cannot without contradiction be even conceived as a universal law of + nature, far from it being possible that we should will that it should be + so. In others this intrinsic impossibility is not found, but still it is + impossible to will that their maxim should be raised to the universality + of a law of nature, since such a will would contradict itself It is easily + seen that the former violate strict or rigorous (inflexible) duty; the + latter only laxer (meritorious) duty. Thus it has been completely shown + how all duties depend as regards the nature of the obligation (not the + object of the action) on the same principle. + </p> + <p> + If now we attend to ourselves on occasion of any transgression of duty, we + shall find that we in fact do not will that our maxim should be a + universal law, for that is impossible for us; on the contrary, we will + that the opposite should remain a universal law, only we assume the + liberty of making an exception in our own favour or (just for this time + only) in favour of our inclination. Consequently if we considered all + cases from one and the same point of view, namely, that of reason, we + should find a contradiction in our own will, namely, that a certain + principle should be objectively necessary as a universal law, and yet + subjectively should not be universal, but admit of exceptions. As however + we at one moment regard our action from the point of view of a will wholly + conformed to reason, and then again look at the same action from the point + of view of a will affected by inclination, there is not really any + contradiction, but an antagonism of inclination to the precept of reason, + whereby the universality of the principle is changed into a mere + generality, so that the practical principle of reason shall meet the maxim + half way. Now, although this cannot be justified in our own impartial + judgement, yet it proves that we do really recognise the validity of the + categorical imperative and (with all respect for it) only allow ourselves + a few exceptions, which we think unimportant and forced from us. + </p> + <p> + We have thus established at least this much, that if duty is a conception + which is to have any import and real legislative authority for our + actions, it can only be expressed in categorical and not at all in + hypothetical imperatives. We have also, which is of great importance, + exhibited clearly and definitely for every practical application the + content of the categorical imperative, which must contain the principle of + all duty if there is such a thing at all. We have not yet, however, + advanced so far as to prove a priori that there actually is such an + imperative, that there is a practical law which commands absolutely of + itself and without any other impulse, and that the following of this law + is duty. + </p> + <p> + With the view of attaining to this, it is of extreme importance to + remember that we must not allow ourselves to think of deducing the reality + of this principle from the particular attributes of human nature. For duty + is to be a practical, unconditional necessity of action; it must therefore + hold for all rational beings (to whom an imperative can apply at all), and + for this reason only be also a law for all human wills. On the contrary, + whatever is deduced from the particular natural characteristics of + humanity, from certain feelings and propensions, nay, even, if possible, + from any particular tendency proper to human reason, and which need not + necessarily hold for the will of every rational being; this may indeed + supply us with a maxim, but not with a law; with a subjective principle on + which we may have a propension and inclination to act, but not with an + objective principle on which we should be enjoined to act, even though all + our propensions, inclinations, and natural dispositions were opposed to + it. In fact, the sublimity and intrinsic dignity of the command in duty + are so much the more evident, the less the subjective impulses favour it + and the more they oppose it, without being able in the slightest degree to + weaken the obligation of the law or to diminish its validity. + </p> + <p> + Here then we see philosophy brought to a critical position, since it has + to be firmly fixed, notwithstanding that it has nothing to support it in + heaven or earth. Here it must show its purity as absolute director of its + own laws, not the herald of those which are whispered to it by an + implanted sense or who knows what tutelary nature. Although these may be + better than nothing, yet they can never afford principles dictated by + reason, which must have their source wholly a priori and thence their + commanding authority, expecting everything from the supremacy of the law + and the due respect for it, nothing from inclination, or else condemning + the man to self-contempt and inward abhorrence. + </p> + <p> + Thus every empirical element is not only quite incapable of being an aid + to the principle of morality, but is even highly prejudicial to the purity + of morals, for the proper and inestimable worth of an absolutely good will + consists just in this, that the principle of action is free from all + influence of contingent grounds, which alone experience can furnish. We + cannot too much or too often repeat our warning against this lax and even + mean habit of thought which seeks for its principle amongst empirical + motives and laws; for human reason in its weariness is glad to rest on + this pillow, and in a dream of sweet illusions (in which, instead of Juno, + it embraces a cloud) it substitutes for morality a bastard patched up from + limbs of various derivation, which looks like anything one chooses to see + in it, only not like virtue to one who has once beheld her in her true + form. * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * To behold virtue in her proper form is nothing else but to + contemplate morality stripped of all admixture of sensible + things and of every spurious ornament of reward or self- + love. How much she then eclipses everything else that + appears charming to the affections, every one may readily + perceive with the least exertion of his reason, if it be not + wholly spoiled for abstraction. +</pre> + <p> + The question then is this: "Is it a necessary law for all rational beings + that they should always judge of their actions by maxims of which they can + themselves will that they should serve as universal laws?" If it is so, + then it must be connected (altogether a priori) with the very conception + of the will of a rational being generally. But in order to discover this + connexion we must, however reluctantly, take a step into metaphysic, + although into a domain of it which is distinct from speculative + philosophy, namely, the metaphysic of morals. In a practical philosophy, + where it is not the reasons of what happens that we have to ascertain, but + the laws of what ought to happen, even although it never does, i.e., + objective practical laws, there it is not necessary to inquire into the + reasons why anything pleases or displeases, how the pleasure of mere + sensation differs from taste, and whether the latter is distinct from a + general satisfaction of reason; on what the feeling of pleasure or pain + rests, and how from it desires and inclinations arise, and from these + again maxims by the co-operation of reason: for all this belongs to an + empirical psychology, which would constitute the second part of physics, + if we regard physics as the philosophy of nature, so far as it is based on + empirical laws. But here we are concerned with objective practical laws + and, consequently, with the relation of the will to itself so far as it is + determined by reason alone, in which case whatever has reference to + anything empirical is necessarily excluded; since if reason of itself + alone determines the conduct (and it is the possibility of this that we + are now investigating), it must necessarily do so a priori. + </p> + <p> + The will is conceived as a faculty of determining oneself to action in + accordance with the conception of certain laws. And such a faculty can be + found only in rational beings. Now that which serves the will as the + objective ground of its self-determination is the end, and, if this is + assigned by reason alone, it must hold for all rational beings. On the + other hand, that which merely contains the ground of possibility of the + action of which the effect is the end, this is called the means. The + subjective ground of the desire is the spring, the objective ground of the + volition is the motive; hence the distinction between subjective ends + which rest on springs, and objective ends which depend on motives valid + for every rational being. Practical principles are formal when they + abstract from all subjective ends; they are material when they assume + these, and therefore particular springs of action. The ends which a + rational being proposes to himself at pleasure as effects of his actions + (material ends) are all only relative, for it is only their relation to + the particular desires of the subject that gives them their worth, which + therefore cannot furnish principles universal and necessary for all + rational beings and for every volition, that is to say practical laws. + Hence all these relative ends can give rise only to hypothetical + imperatives. + </p> + <p> + Supposing, however, that there were something whose existence has in + itself an absolute worth, something which, being an end in itself, could + be a source of definite laws; then in this and this alone would lie the + source of a possible categorical imperative, i.e., a practical law. + </p> + <p> + Now I say: man and generally any rational being exists as an end in + himself, not merely as a means to be arbitrarily used by this or that + will, but in all his actions, whether they concern himself or other + rational beings, must be always regarded at the same time as an end. All + objects of the inclinations have only a conditional worth, for if the + inclinations and the wants founded on them did not exist, then their + object would be without value. But the inclinations, themselves being + sources of want, are so far from having an absolute worth for which they + should be desired that on the contrary it must be the universal wish of + every rational being to be wholly free from them. Thus the worth of any + object which is to be acquired by our action is always conditional. Beings + whose existence depends not on our will but on nature's, have + nevertheless, if they are irrational beings, only a relative value as + means, and are therefore called things; rational beings, on the contrary, + are called persons, because their very nature points them out as ends in + themselves, that is as something which must not be used merely as means, + and so far therefore restricts freedom of action (and is an object of + respect). These, therefore, are not merely subjective ends whose existence + has a worth for us as an effect of our action, but objective ends, that + is, things whose existence is an end in itself; an end moreover for which + no other can be substituted, which they should subserve merely as means, + for otherwise nothing whatever would possess absolute worth; but if all + worth were conditioned and therefore contingent, then there would be no + supreme practical principle of reason whatever. + </p> + <p> + If then there is a supreme practical principle or, in respect of the human + will, a categorical imperative, it must be one which, being drawn from the + conception of that which is necessarily an end for everyone because it is + an end in itself, constitutes an objective principle of will, and can + therefore serve as a universal practical law. The foundation of this + principle is: rational nature exists as an end in itself. Man necessarily + conceives his own existence as being so; so far then this is a subjective + principle of human actions. But every other rational being regards its + existence similarly, just on the same rational principle that holds for + me: * so that it is at the same time an objective principle, from which as + a supreme practical law all laws of the will must be capable of being + deduced. Accordingly the practical imperative will be as follows: So act + as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, + in every case as an end withal, never as means only. We will now inquire + whether this can be practically carried out. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This proposition is here stated as a postulate. The ground + of it will be found in the concluding section. +</pre> + <p> + To abide by the previous examples: + </p> + <p> + Firstly, under the head of necessary duty to oneself: He who contemplates + suicide should ask himself whether his action can be consistent with the + idea of humanity as an end in itself. If he destroys himself in order to + escape from painful circumstances, he uses a person merely as a mean to + maintain a tolerable condition up to the end of life. But a man is not a + thing, that is to say, something which can be used merely as means, but + must in all his actions be always considered as an end in himself. I + cannot, therefore, dispose in any way of a man in my own person so as to + mutilate him, to damage or kill him. (It belongs to ethics proper to + define this principle more precisely, so as to avoid all misunderstanding, + e. g., as to the amputation of the limbs in order to preserve myself, as + to exposing my life to danger with a view to preserve it, etc. This + question is therefore omitted here.) + </p> + <p> + Secondly, as regards necessary duties, or those of strict obligation, + towards others: He who is thinking of making a lying promise to others + will see at once that he would be using another man merely as a mean, + without the latter containing at the same time the end in himself. For he + whom I propose by such a promise to use for my own purposes cannot + possibly assent to my mode of acting towards him and, therefore, cannot + himself contain the end of this action. This violation of the principle of + humanity in other men is more obvious if we take in examples of attacks on + the freedom and property of others. For then it is clear that he who + transgresses the rights of men intends to use the person of others merely + as a means, without considering that as rational beings they ought always + to be esteemed also as ends, that is, as beings who must be capable of + containing in themselves the end of the very same action. * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Let it not be thought that the common "quod tibi non vis + fieri, etc." could serve here as the rule or principle. For + it is only a deduction from the former, though with several + limitations; it cannot be a universal law, for it does not + contain the principle of duties to oneself, nor of the + duties of benevolence to others (for many a one would gladly + consent that others should not benefit him, provided only + that he might be excused from showing benevolence to them), + nor finally that of duties of strict obligation to one + another, for on this principle the criminal might argue + against the judge who punishes him, and so on. +</pre> + <p> + Thirdly, as regards contingent (meritorious) duties to oneself: It is not + enough that the action does not violate humanity in our own person as an + end in itself, it must also harmonize with it. Now there are in humanity + capacities of greater perfection, which belong to the end that nature has + in view in regard to humanity in ourselves as the subject: to neglect + these might perhaps be consistent with the maintenance of humanity as an + end in itself, but not with the advancement of this end. + </p> + <p> + Fourthly, as regards meritorious duties towards others: The natural end + which all men have is their own happiness. Now humanity might indeed + subsist, although no one should contribute anything to the happiness of + others, provided he did not intentionally withdraw anything from it; but + after all this would only harmonize negatively not positively with + humanity as an end in itself, if every one does not also endeavour, as far + as in him lies, to forward the ends of others. For the ends of any subject + which is an end in himself ought as far as possible to be my ends also, if + that conception is to have its full effect with me. + </p> + <p> + This principle, that humanity and generally every rational nature is an + end in itself (which is the supreme limiting condition of every man's + freedom of action), is not borrowed from experience, firstly, because it + is universal, applying as it does to all rational beings whatever, and + experience is not capable of determining anything about them; secondly, + because it does not present humanity as an end to men (subjectively), that + is as an object which men do of themselves actually adopt as an end; but + as an objective end, which must as a law constitute the supreme limiting + condition of all our subjective ends, let them be what we will; it must + therefore spring from pure reason. In fact the objective principle of all + practical legislation lies (according to the first principle) in the rule + and its form of universality which makes it capable of being a law (say, + e. g., a law of nature); but the subjective principle is in the end; now + by the second principle the subject of all ends is each rational being, + inasmuch as it is an end in itself. Hence follows the third practical + principle of the will, which is the ultimate condition of its harmony with + universal practical reason, viz.: the idea of the will of every rational + being as a universally legislative will. + </p> + <p> + On this principle all maxims are rejected which are inconsistent with the + will being itself universal legislator. Thus the will is not subject + simply to the law, but so subject that it must be regarded as itself + giving the law and, on this ground only, subject to the law (of which it + can regard itself as the author). + </p> + <p> + In the previous imperatives, namely, that based on the conception of the + conformity of actions to general laws, as in a physical system of nature, + and that based on the universal prerogative of rational beings as ends in + themselves- these imperatives, just because they were conceived as + categorical, excluded from any share in their authority all admixture of + any interest as a spring of action; they were, however, only assumed to be + categorical, because such an assumption was necessary to explain the + conception of duty. But we could not prove independently that there are + practical propositions which command categorically, nor can it be proved + in this section; one thing, however, could be done, namely, to indicate in + the imperative itself, by some determinate expression, that in the case of + volition from duty all interest is renounced, which is the specific + criterion of categorical as distinguished from hypothetical imperatives. + This is done in the present (third) formula of the principle, namely, in + the idea of the will of every rational being as a universally legislating + will. + </p> + <p> + For although a will which is subject to laws may be attached to this law + by means of an interest, yet a will which is itself a supreme lawgiver so + far as it is such cannot possibly depend on any interest, since a will so + dependent would itself still need another law restricting the interest of + its self-love by the condition that it should be valid as universal law. + </p> + <p> + Thus the principle that every human will is a will which in all its maxims + gives universal laws, * provided it be otherwise justified, would be very + well adapted to be the categorical imperative, in this respect, namely, + that just because of the idea of universal legislation it is not based on + interest, and therefore it alone among all possible imperatives can be + unconditional. Or still better, converting the proposition, if there is a + categorical imperative (i.e., a law for the will of every rational being), + it can only command that everything be done from maxims of one's will + regarded as a will which could at the same time will that it should itself + give universal laws, for in that case only the practical principle and the + imperative which it obeys are unconditional, since they cannot be based on + any interest. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I may be excused from adducing examples to elucidate this + principle, as those which have already been used to + elucidate the categorical imperative and its formula would + all serve for the like purpose here. +</pre> + <p> + Looking back now on all previous attempts to discover the principle of + morality, we need not wonder why they all failed. It was seen that man was + bound to laws by duty, but it was not observed that the laws to which he + is subject are only those of his own giving, though at the same time they + are universal, and that he is only bound to act in conformity with his own + will; a will, however, which is designed by nature to give universal laws. + For when one has conceived man only as subject to a law (no matter what), + then this law required some interest, either by way of attraction or + constraint, since it did not originate as a law from his own will, but + this will was according to a law obliged by something else to act in a + certain manner. Now by this necessary consequence all the labour spent in + finding a supreme principle of duty was irrevocably lost. For men never + elicited duty, but only a necessity of acting from a certain interest. + Whether this interest was private or otherwise, in any case the imperative + must be conditional and could not by any means be capable of being a moral + command. I will therefore call this the principle of autonomy of the will, + in contrast with every other which I accordingly reckon as heteronomy. + </p> + <p> + The conception of the will of every rational being as one which must + consider itself as giving in all the maxims of its will universal laws, so + as to judge itself and its actions from this point of view- this + conception leads to another which depends on it and is very fruitful, + namely that of a kingdom of ends. + </p> + <p> + By a kingdom I understand the union of different rational beings in a + system by common laws. Now since it is by laws that ends are determined as + regards their universal validity, hence, if we abstract from the personal + differences of rational beings and likewise from all the content of their + private ends, we shall be able to conceive all ends combined in a + systematic whole (including both rational beings as ends in themselves, + and also the special ends which each may propose to himself), that is to + say, we can conceive a kingdom of ends, which on the preceding principles + is possible. + </p> + <p> + For all rational beings come under the law that each of them must treat + itself and all others never merely as means, but in every case at the same + time as ends in themselves. Hence results a systematic union of rational + being by common objective laws, i.e., a kingdom which may be called a + kingdom of ends, since what these laws have in view is just the relation + of these beings to one another as ends and means. It is certainly only an + ideal. + </p> + <p> + A rational being belongs as a member to the kingdom of ends when, although + giving universal laws in it, he is also himself subject to these laws. He + belongs to it as sovereign when, while giving laws, he is not subject to + the will of any other. + </p> + <p> + A rational being must always regard himself as giving laws either as + member or as sovereign in a kingdom of ends which is rendered possible by + the freedom of will. He cannot, however, maintain the latter position + merely by the maxims of his will, but only in case he is a completely + independent being without wants and with unrestricted power adequate to + his will. + </p> + <p> + Morality consists then in the reference of all action to the legislation + which alone can render a kingdom of ends possible. This legislation must + be capable of existing in every rational being and of emanating from his + will, so that the principle of this will is never to act on any maxim + which could not without contradiction be also a universal law and, + accordingly, always so to act that the will could at the same time regard + itself as giving in its maxims universal laws. If now the maxims of + rational beings are not by their own nature coincident with this objective + principle, then the necessity of acting on it is called practical + necessitation, i.e., duty. Duty does not apply to the sovereign in the + kingdom of ends, but it does to every member of it and to all in the same + degree. + </p> + <p> + The practical necessity of acting on this principle, i.e., duty, does not + rest at all on feelings, impulses, or inclinations, but solely on the + relation of rational beings to one another, a relation in which the will + of a rational being must always be regarded as legislative, since + otherwise it could not be conceived as an end in itself. Reason then + refers every maxim of the will, regarding it as legislating universally, + to every other will and also to every action towards oneself; and this not + on account of any other practical motive or any future advantage, but from + the idea of the dignity of a rational being, obeying no law but that which + he himself also gives. + </p> + <p> + In the kingdom of ends everything has either value or dignity. Whatever + has a value can be replaced by something else which is equivalent; + whatever, on the other hand, is above all value, and therefore admits of + no equivalent, has a dignity. + </p> + <p> + Whatever has reference to the general inclinations and wants of mankind + has a market value; whatever, without presupposing a want, corresponds to + a certain taste, that is to a satisfaction in the mere purposeless play of + our faculties, has a fancy value; but that which constitutes the condition + under which alone anything can be an end in itself, this has not merely a + relative worth, i.e., value, but an intrinsic worth, that is, dignity. + </p> + <p> + Now morality is the condition under which alone a rational being can be an + end in himself, since by this alone is it possible that he should be a + legislating member in the kingdom of ends. Thus morality, and humanity as + capable of it, is that which alone has dignity. Skill and diligence in + labour have a market value; wit, lively imagination, and humour, have + fancy value; on the other hand, fidelity to promises, benevolence from + principle (not from instinct), have an intrinsic worth. Neither nature nor + art contains anything which in default of these it could put in their + place, for their worth consists not in the effects which spring from them, + not in the use and advantage which they secure, but in the disposition of + mind, that is, the maxims of the will which are ready to manifest + themselves in such actions, even though they should not have the desired + effect. These actions also need no recommendation from any subjective + taste or sentiment, that they may be looked on with immediate favour and + satisfaction: they need no immediate propension or feeling for them; they + exhibit the will that performs them as an object of an immediate respect, + and nothing but reason is required to impose them on the will; not to + flatter it into them, which, in the case of duties, would be a + contradiction. This estimation therefore shows that the worth of such a + disposition is dignity, and places it infinitely above all value, with + which it cannot for a moment be brought into comparison or competition + without as it were violating its sanctity. + </p> + <p> + What then is it which justifies virtue or the morally good disposition, in + making such lofty claims? It is nothing less than the privilege it secures + to the rational being of participating in the giving of universal laws, by + which it qualifies him to be a member of a possible kingdom of ends, a + privilege to which he was already destined by his own nature as being an + end in himself and, on that account, legislating in the kingdom of ends; + free as regards all laws of physical nature, and obeying those only which + he himself gives, and by which his maxims can belong to a system of + universal law, to which at the same time he submits himself. For nothing + has any worth except what the law assigns it. Now the legislation itself + which assigns the worth of everything must for that very reason possess + dignity, that is an unconditional incomparable worth; and the word respect + alone supplies a becoming expression for the esteem which a rational being + must have for it. Autonomy then is the basis of the dignity of human and + of every rational nature. + </p> + <p> + The three modes of presenting the principle of morality that have been + adduced are at bottom only so many formulae of the very same law, and each + of itself involves the other two. There is, however, a difference in them, + but it is rather subjectively than objectively practical, intended namely + to bring an idea of the reason nearer to intuition (by means of a certain + analogy) and thereby nearer to feeling. All maxims, in fact, have: + </p> + <p> + 1. A form, consisting in universality; and in this view the formula of the + moral imperative is expressed thus, that the maxims must be so chosen as + if they were to serve as universal laws of nature. + </p> + <p> + 2. A matter, namely, an end, and here the formula says that the rational + being, as it is an end by its own nature and therefore an end in itself, + must in every maxim serve as the condition limiting all merely relative + and arbitrary ends. + </p> + <p> + 3. A complete characterization of all maxims by means of that formula, + namely, that all maxims ought by their own legislation to harmonize with a + possible kingdom of ends as with a kingdom of nature. * There is a + progress here in the order of the categories of unity of the form of the + will (its universality), plurality of the matter (the objects, i.e., the + ends), and totality of the system of these. In forming our moral judgement + of actions, it is better to proceed always on the strict method and start + from the general formula of the categorical imperative: Act according to a + maxim which can at the same time make itself a universal law. If, however, + we wish to gain an entrance for the moral law, it is very useful to bring + one and the same action under the three specified conceptions, and thereby + as far as possible to bring it nearer to intuition. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Teleology considers nature as a kingdom of ends; ethics + regards a possible kingdom of ends as a kingdom nature. In + the first case, the kingdom of ends is a theoretical idea, + adopted to explain what actually is. In the latter it is a + practical idea, adopted to bring about that which is not + yet, but which can be realized by our conduct, namely, if it + conforms to this idea. +</pre> + <p> + We can now end where we started at the beginning, namely, with the + conception of a will unconditionally good. That will is absolutely good + which cannot be evil- in other words, whose maxim, if made a universal + law, could never contradict itself. This principle, then, is its supreme + law: "Act always on such a maxim as thou canst at the same time will to be + a universal law"; this is the sole condition under which a will can never + contradict itself; and such an imperative is categorical. Since the + validity of the will as a universal law for possible actions is analogous + to the universal connexion of the existence of things by general laws, + which is the formal notion of nature in general, the categorical + imperative can also be expressed thus: Act on maxims which can at the same + time have for their object themselves as universal laws of nature. Such + then is the formula of an absolutely good will. + </p> + <p> + Rational nature is distinguished from the rest of nature by this, that it + sets before itself an end. This end would be the matter of every good + will. But since in the idea of a will that is absolutely good without + being limited by any condition (of attaining this or that end) we must + abstract wholly from every end to be effected (since this would make every + will only relatively good), it follows that in this case the end must be + conceived, not as an end to be effected, but as an independently existing + end. Consequently it is conceived only negatively, i.e., as that which we + must never act against and which, therefore, must never be regarded merely + as means, but must in every volition be esteemed as an end likewise. Now + this end can be nothing but the subject of all possible ends, since this + is also the subject of a possible absolutely good will; for such a will + cannot without contradiction be postponed to any other object. The + principle: "So act in regard to every rational being (thyself and others), + that he may always have place in thy maxim as an end in himself," is + accordingly essentially identical with this other: "Act upon a maxim + which, at the same time, involves its own universal validity for every + rational being." For that in using means for every end I should limit my + maxim by the condition of its holding good as a law for every subject, + this comes to the same thing as that the fundamental principle of all + maxims of action must be that the subject of all ends, i.e., the rational + being himself, be never employed merely as means, but as the supreme + condition restricting the use of all means, that is in every case as an + end likewise. + </p> + <p> + It follows incontestably that, to whatever laws any rational being may be + subject, he being an end in himself must be able to regard himself as also + legislating universally in respect of these same laws, since it is just + this fitness of his maxims for universal legislation that distinguishes + him as an end in himself; also it follows that this implies his dignity + (prerogative) above all mere physical beings, that he must always take his + maxims from the point of view which regards himself and, likewise, every + other rational being as law-giving beings (on which account they are + called persons). In this way a world of rational beings (mundus + intelligibilis) is possible as a kingdom of ends, and this by virtue of + the legislation proper to all persons as members. Therefore every rational + being must so act as if he were by his maxims in every case a legislating + member in the universal kingdom of ends. The formal principle of these + maxims is: "So act as if thy maxim were to serve likewise as the universal + law (of all rational beings)." A kingdom of ends is thus only possible on + the analogy of a kingdom of nature, the former however only by maxims, + that is self-imposed rules, the latter only by the laws of efficient + causes acting under necessitation from without. Nevertheless, although the + system of nature is looked upon as a machine, yet so far as it has + reference to rational beings as its ends, it is given on this account the + name of a kingdom of nature. Now such a kingdom of ends would be actually + realized by means of maxims conforming to the canon which the categorical + imperative prescribes to all rational beings, if they were universally + followed. But although a rational being, even if he punctually follows + this maxim himself, cannot reckon upon all others being therefore true to + the same, nor expect that the kingdom of nature and its orderly + arrangements shall be in harmony with him as a fitting member, so as to + form a kingdom of ends to which he himself contributes, that is to say, + that it shall favour his expectation of happiness, still that law: "Act + according to the maxims of a member of a merely possible kingdom of ends + legislating in it universally," remains in its full force, inasmuch as it + commands categorically. And it is just in this that the paradox lies; that + the mere dignity of man as a rational creature, without any other end or + advantage to be attained thereby, in other words, respect for a mere idea, + should yet serve as an inflexible precept of the will, and that it is + precisely in this independence of the maxim on all such springs of action + that its sublimity consists; and it is this that makes every rational + subject worthy to be a legislative member in the kingdom of ends: for + otherwise he would have to be conceived only as subject to the physical + law of his wants. And although we should suppose the kingdom of nature and + the kingdom of ends to be united under one sovereign, so that the latter + kingdom thereby ceased to be a mere idea and acquired true reality, then + it would no doubt gain the accession of a strong spring, but by no means + any increase of its intrinsic worth. For this sole absolute lawgiver must, + notwithstanding this, be always conceived as estimating the worth of + rational beings only by their disinterested behaviour, as prescribed to + themselves from that idea [the dignity of man] alone. The essence of + things is not altered by their external relations, and that which, + abstracting from these, alone constitutes the absolute worth of man, is + also that by which he must be judged, whoever the judge may be, and even + by the Supreme Being. Morality, then, is the relation of actions to the + relation of actions will, that is, to the autonomy of potential universal + legislation by its maxims. An action that is consistent with the autonomy + of the will is permitted; one that does not agree therewith is forbidden. + A will whose maxims necessarily coincide with the laws of autonomy is a + holy will, good absolutely. The dependence of a will not absolutely good + on the principle of autonomy (moral necessitation) is obligation. This, + then, cannot be applied to a holy being. The objective necessity of + actions from obligation is called duty. + </p> + <p> + From what has just been said, it is easy to see how it happens that, + although the conception of duty implies subjection to the law, we yet + ascribe a certain dignity and sublimity to the person who fulfils all his + duties. There is not, indeed, any sublimity in him, so far as he is + subject to the moral law; but inasmuch as in regard to that very law he is + likewise a legislator, and on that account alone subject to it, he has + sublimity. We have also shown above that neither fear nor inclination, but + simply respect for the law, is the spring which can give actions a moral + worth. Our own will, so far as we suppose it to act only under the + condition that its maxims are potentially universal laws, this ideal will + which is possible to us is the proper object of respect; and the dignity + of humanity consists just in this capacity of being universally + legislative, though with the condition that it is itself subject to this + same legislation. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + The Autonomy of the Will as the Supreme Principle of Morality + </h2> + <p> + Autonomy of the will is that property of it by which it is a law to itself + (independently of any property of the objects of volition). The principle + of autonomy then is: "Always so to choose that the same volition shall + comprehend the maxims of our choice as a universal law." We cannot prove + that this practical rule is an imperative, i.e., that the will of every + rational being is necessarily bound to it as a condition, by a mere + analysis of the conceptions which occur in it, since it is a synthetical + proposition; we must advance beyond the cognition of the objects to a + critical examination of the subject, that is, of the pure practical + reason, for this synthetic proposition which commands apodeictically must + be capable of being cognized wholly a priori. This matter, however, does + not belong to the present section. But that the principle of autonomy in + question is the sole principle of morals can be readily shown by mere + analysis of the conceptions of morality. For by this analysis we find that + its principle must be a categorical imperative and that what this commands + is neither more nor less than this very autonomy. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + Heteronomy of the Will as the Source of all spurious Principles of + Morality + </h2> + <p> + If the will seeks the law which is to determine it anywhere else than in + the fitness of its maxims to be universal laws of its own dictation, + consequently if it goes out of itself and seeks this law in the character + of any of its objects, there always results heteronomy. The will in that + case does not give itself the law, but it is given by the object through + its relation to the will. This relation, whether it rests on inclination + or on conceptions of reason, only admits of hypothetical imperatives: "I + ought to do something because I wish for something else." On the contrary, + the moral, and therefore categorical, imperative says: "I ought to do so + and so, even though I should not wish for anything else." E.g., the former + says: "I ought not to lie, if I would retain my reputation"; the latter + says: "I ought not to lie, although it should not bring me the least + discredit." The latter therefore must so far abstract from all objects + that they shall have no influence on the will, in order that practical + reason (will) may not be restricted to administering an interest not + belonging to it, but may simply show its own commanding authority as the + supreme legislation. Thus, e.g., I ought to endeavour to promote the + happiness of others, not as if its realization involved any concern of + mine (whether by immediate inclination or by any satisfaction indirectly + gained through reason), but simply because a maxim which excludes it + cannot be comprehended as a universal law in one and the same volition. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + Classification of all Principles of Morality which can be founded on the + Conception of Heteronomy + </h2> + <p> + Here as elsewhere human reason in its pure use, so long as it was not + critically examined, has first tried all possible wrong ways before it + succeeded in finding the one true way. + </p> + <p> + All principles which can be taken from this point of view are either + empirical or rational. The former, drawn from the principle of happiness, + are built on physical or moral feelings; the latter, drawn from the + principle of perfection, are built either on the rational conception of + perfection as a possible effect, or on that of an independent perfection + (the will of God) as the determining cause of our will. + </p> + <p> + Empirical principles are wholly incapable of serving as a foundation for + moral laws. For the universality with which these should hold for all + rational beings without distinction, the unconditional practical necessity + which is thereby imposed on them, is lost when their foundation is taken + from the particular constitution of human nature, or the accidental + circumstances in which it is placed. The principle of private happiness, + however, is the most objectionable, not merely because it is false, and + experience contradicts the supposition that prosperity is always + proportioned to good conduct, nor yet merely because it contributes + nothing to the establishment of morality- since it is quite a different + thing to make a prosperous man and a good man, or to make one prudent and + sharp-sighted for his own interests and to make him virtuous- but because + the springs it provides for morality are such as rather undermine it and + destroy its sublimity, since they put the motives to virtue and to vice in + the same class and only teach us to make a better calculation, the + specific difference between virtue and vice being entirely extinguished. + On the other hand, as to moral feeling, this supposed special sense, * the + appeal to it is indeed superficial when those who cannot think believe + that feeling will help them out, even in what concerns general laws: and + besides, feelings, which naturally differ infinitely in degree, cannot + furnish a uniform standard of good and evil, nor has anyone a right to + form judgements for others by his own feelings: nevertheless this moral + feeling is nearer to morality and its dignity in this respect, that it + pays virtue the honour of ascribing to her immediately the satisfaction + and esteem we have for her and does not, as it were, tell her to her face + that we are not attached to her by her beauty but by profit. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I class the principle of moral feeling under that of + happiness, because every empirical interest promises to + contribute to our well-being by the agreeableness that a + thing affords, whether it be immediately and without a view + to profit, or whether profit be regarded. We must likewise, + with Hutcheson, class the principle of sympathy with the + happiness of others under his assumed moral sense. +</pre> + <p> + Amongst the rational principles of morality, the ontological conception of + perfection, notwithstanding its defects, is better than the theological + conception which derives morality from a Divine absolutely perfect will. + The former is, no doubt, empty and indefinite and consequently useless for + finding in the boundless field of possible reality the greatest amount + suitable for us; moreover, in attempting to distinguish specifically the + reality of which we are now speaking from every other, it inevitably tends + to turn in a circle and cannot avoid tacitly presupposing the morality + which it is to explain; it is nevertheless preferable to the theological + view, first, because we have no intuition of the divine perfection and can + only deduce it from our own conceptions, the most important of which is + that of morality, and our explanation would thus be involved in a gross + circle; and, in the next place, if we avoid this, the only notion of the + Divine will remaining to us is a conception made up of the attributes of + desire of glory and dominion, combined with the awful conceptions of might + and vengeance, and any system of morals erected on this foundation would + be directly opposed to morality. + </p> + <p> + However, if I had to choose between the notion of the moral sense and that + of perfection in general (two systems which at least do not weaken + morality, although they are totally incapable of serving as its + foundation), then I should decide for the latter, because it at least + withdraws the decision of the question from the sensibility and brings it + to the court of pure reason; and although even here it decides nothing, it + at all events preserves the indefinite idea (of a will good in itself free + from corruption, until it shall be more precisely defined. + </p> + <p> + For the rest I think I may be excused here from a detailed refutation of + all these doctrines; that would only be superfluous labour, since it is so + easy, and is probably so well seen even by those whose office requires + them to decide for one of these theories (because their hearers would not + tolerate suspension of judgement). But what interests us more here is to + know that the prime foundation of morality laid down by all these + principles is nothing but heteronomy of the will, and for this reason they + must necessarily miss their aim. + </p> + <p> + In every case where an object of the will has to be supposed, in order + that the rule may be prescribed which is to determine the will, there the + rule is simply heteronomy; the imperative is conditional, namely, if or + because one wishes for this object, one should act so and so: hence it can + never command morally, that is, categorically. Whether the object + determines the will by means of inclination, as in the principle of + private happiness, or by means of reason directed to objects of our + possible volition generally, as in the principle of perfection, in either + case the will never determines itself immediately by the conception of the + action, but only by the influence which the foreseen effect of the action + has on the will; I ought to do something, on this account, because I wish + for something else; and here there must be yet another law assumed in me + as its subject, by which I necessarily will this other thing, and this law + again requires an imperative to restrict this maxim. For the influence + which the conception of an object within the reach of our faculties can + exercise on the will of the subject, in consequence of its natural + properties, depends on the nature of the subject, either the sensibility + (inclination and taste), or the understanding and reason, the employment + of which is by the peculiar constitution of their nature attended with + satisfaction. It follows that the law would be, properly speaking, given + by nature, and, as such, it must be known and proved by experience and + would consequently be contingent and therefore incapable of being an + apodeictic practical rule, such as the moral rule must be. Not only so, + but it is inevitably only heteronomy; the will does not give itself the + law, but is given by a foreign impulse by means of a particular natural + constitution of the subject adapted to receive it. An absolutely good + will, then, the principle of which must be a categorical imperative, will + be indeterminate as regards all objects and will contain merely the form + of volition generally, and that as autonomy, that is to say, the + capability of the maxims of every good will to make themselves a universal + law, is itself the only law which the will of every rational being imposes + on itself, without needing to assume any spring or interest as a + foundation. + </p> + <p> + How such a synthetical practical a priori proposition is possible, and why + it is necessary, is a problem whose solution does not lie within the + bounds of the metaphysic of morals; and we have not here affirmed its + truth, much less professed to have a proof of it in our power. We simply + showed by the development of the universally received notion of morality + that an autonomy of the will is inevitably connected with it, or rather is + its foundation. Whoever then holds morality to be anything real, and not a + chimerical idea without any truth, must likewise admit the principle of it + that is here assigned. This section then, like the first, was merely + analytical. Now to prove that morality is no creation of the brain, which + it cannot be if the categorical imperative and with it the autonomy of the + will is true, and as an a priori principle absolutely necessary, this + supposes the possibility of a synthetic use of pure practical reason, + which however we cannot venture on without first giving a critical + examination of this faculty of reason. In the concluding section we shall + give the principal outlines of this critical examination as far as is + sufficient for our purpose. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THIRD SECTION—TRANSITION FROM THE METAPHYSIC OF MORALS TO THE + CRITIQUE OF PURE PRACTICAL REASON + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + The Concept of Freedom is the Key that explains the Autonomy of the Will + </h2> + <p> + The will is a kind of causality belonging to living beings in so far as + they are rational, and freedom would be this property of such causality + that it can be efficient, independently of foreign causes determining it; + just as physical necessity is the property that the causality of all + irrational beings has of being determined to activity by the influence of + foreign causes. + </p> + <p> + The preceding definition of freedom is negative and therefore unfruitful + for the discovery of its essence, but it leads to a positive conception + which is so much the more full and fruitful. + </p> + <p> + Since the conception of causality involves that of laws, according to + which, by something that we call cause, something else, namely the effect, + must be produced; hence, although freedom is not a property of the will + depending on physical laws, yet it is not for that reason lawless; on the + contrary it must be a causality acting according to immutable laws, but of + a peculiar kind; otherwise a free will would be an absurdity. Physical + necessity is a heteronomy of the efficient causes, for every effect is + possible only according to this law, that something else determines the + efficient cause to exert its causality. What else then can freedom of the + will be but autonomy, that is, the property of the will to be a law to + itself? But the proposition: "The will is in every action a law to + itself," only expresses the principle: "To act on no other maxim than that + which can also have as an object itself as a universal law." Now this is + precisely the formula of the categorical imperative and is the principle + of morality, so that a free will and a will subject to moral laws are one + and the same. + </p> + <p> + On the hypothesis, then, of freedom of the will, morality together with + its principle follows from it by mere analysis of the conception. However, + the latter is a synthetic proposition; viz., an absolutely good will is + that whose maxim can always include itself regarded as a universal law; + for this property of its maxim can never be discovered by analysing the + conception of an absolutely good will. Now such synthetic propositions are + only possible in this way: that the two cognitions are connected together + by their union with a third in which they are both to be found. The + positive concept of freedom furnishes this third cognition, which cannot, + as with physical causes, be the nature of the sensible world (in the + concept of which we find conjoined the concept of something in relation as + cause to something else as effect). We cannot now at once show what this + third is to which freedom points us and of which we have an idea a priori, + nor can we make intelligible how the concept of freedom is shown to be + legitimate from principles of pure practical reason and with it the + possibility of a categorical imperative; but some further preparation is + required. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + Freedom must be presupposed as a Property of the Will of all Rational + Beings + </h2> + <p> + It is not enough to predicate freedom of our own will, from Whatever + reason, if we have not sufficient grounds for predicating the same of all + rational beings. For as morality serves as a law for us only because we + are rational beings, it must also hold for all rational beings; and as it + must be deduced simply from the property of freedom, it must be shown that + freedom also is a property of all rational beings. It is not enough, then, + to prove it from certain supposed experiences of human nature (which + indeed is quite impossible, and it can only be shown a priori), but we + must show that it belongs to the activity of all rational beings endowed + with a will. Now I say every being that cannot act except under the idea + of freedom is just for that reason in a practical point of view really + free, that is to say, all laws which are inseparably connected with + freedom have the same force for him as if his will had been shown to be + free in itself by a proof theoretically conclusive. * Now I affirm that we + must attribute to every rational being which has a will that it has also + the idea of freedom and acts entirely under this idea. For in such a being + we conceive a reason that is practical, that is, has causality in + reference to its objects. Now we cannot possibly conceive a reason + consciously receiving a bias from any other quarter with respect to its + judgements, for then the subject would ascribe the determination of its + judgement not to its own reason, but to an impulse. It must regard itself + as the author of its principles independent of foreign influences. + Consequently as practical reason or as the will of a rational being it + must regard itself as free, that is to say, the will of such a being + cannot be a will of its own except under the idea of freedom. This idea + must therefore in a practical point of view be ascribed to every rational + being. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I adopt this method of assuming freedom merely as an idea + which rational beings suppose in their actions, in order to + avoid the necessity of proving it in its theoretical aspect + also. The former is sufficient for my purpose; for even + though the speculative proof should not be made out, yet a + being that cannot act except with the idea of freedom is + bound by the same laws that would oblige a being who was + actually free. Thus we can escape here from the onus which + presses on the theory. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + Of the Interest attaching to the Ideas of Morality + </h2> + <p> + We have finally reduced the definite conception of morality to the idea of + freedom. This latter, however, we could not prove to be actually a + property of ourselves or of human nature; only we saw that it must be + presupposed if we would conceive a being as rational and conscious of its + causality in respect of its actions, i.e., as endowed with a will; and so + we find that on just the same grounds we must ascribe to every being + endowed with reason and will this attribute of determining itself to + action under the idea of its freedom. + </p> + <p> + Now it resulted also from the presupposition of these ideas that we became + aware of a law that the subjective principles of action, i.e., maxims, + must always be so assumed that they can also hold as objective, that is, + universal principles, and so serve as universal laws of our own dictation. + But why then should I subject myself to this principle and that simply as + a rational being, thus also subjecting to it all other being endowed with + reason? I will allow that no interest urges me to this, for that would not + give a categorical imperative, but I must take an interest in it and + discern how this comes to pass; for this properly an "I ought" is properly + an "I would," valid for every rational being, provided only that reason + determined his actions without any hindrance. But for beings that are in + addition affected as we are by springs of a different kind, namely, + sensibility, and in whose case that is not always done which reason alone + would do, for these that necessity is expressed only as an "ought," and + the subjective necessity is different from the objective. + </p> + <p> + It seems then as if the moral law, that is, the principle of autonomy of + the will, were properly speaking only presupposed in the idea of freedom, + and as if we could not prove its reality and objective necessity + independently. In that case we should still have gained something + considerable by at least determining the true principle more exactly than + had previously been done; but as regards its validity and the practical + necessity of subjecting oneself to it, we should not have advanced a step. + For if we were asked why the universal validity of our maxim as a law must + be the condition restricting our actions, and on what we ground the worth + which we assign to this manner of acting- a worth so great that there + cannot be any higher interest; and if we were asked further how it happens + that it is by this alone a man believes he feels his own personal worth, + in comparison with which that of an agreeable or disagreeable condition is + to be regarded as nothing, to these questions we could give no + satisfactory answer. + </p> + <p> + We find indeed sometimes that we can take an interest in a personal + quality which does not involve any interest of external condition, + provided this quality makes us capable of participating in the condition + in case reason were to effect the allotment; that is to say, the mere + being worthy of happiness can interest of itself even without the motive + of participating in this happiness. This judgement, however, is in fact + only the effect of the importance of the moral law which we before + presupposed (when by the idea of freedom we detach ourselves from every + empirical interest); but that we ought to detach ourselves from these + interests, i.e., to consider ourselves as free in action and yet as + subject to certain laws, so as to find a worth simply in our own person + which can compensate us for the loss of everything that gives worth to our + condition; this we are not yet able to discern in this way, nor do we see + how it is possible so to act- in other words, whence the moral law derives + its obligation. + </p> + <p> + It must be freely admitted that there is a sort of circle here from which + it seems impossible to escape. In the order of efficient causes we assume + ourselves free, in order that in the order of ends we may conceive + ourselves as subject to moral laws: and we afterwards conceive ourselves + as subject to these laws, because we have attributed to ourselves freedom + of will: for freedom and self-legislation of will are both autonomy and, + therefore, are reciprocal conceptions, and for this very reason one must + not be used to explain the other or give the reason of it, but at most + only logical purposes to reduce apparently different notions of the same + object to one single concept (as we reduce different fractions of the same + value to the lowest terms). + </p> + <p> + One resource remains to us, namely, to inquire whether we do not occupy + different points of view when by means of freedom we think ourselves as + causes efficient a priori, and when we form our conception of ourselves + from our actions as effects which we see before our eyes. + </p> + <p> + It is a remark which needs no subtle reflection to make, but which we may + assume that even the commonest understanding can make, although it be + after its fashion by an obscure discernment of judgement which it calls + feeling, that all the "ideas" that come to us involuntarily (as those of + the senses) do not enable us to know objects otherwise than as they affect + us; so that what they may be in themselves remains unknown to us, and + consequently that as regards "ideas" of this kind even with the closest + attention and clearness that the understanding can apply to them, we can + by them only attain to the knowledge of appearances, never to that of + things in themselves. As soon as this distinction has once been made + (perhaps merely in consequence of the difference observed between the + ideas given us from without, and in which we are passive, and those that + we produce simply from ourselves, and in which we show our own activity), + then it follows of itself that we must admit and assume behind the + appearance something else that is not an appearance, namely, the things in + themselves; although we must admit that as they can never be known to us + except as they affect us, we can come no nearer to them, nor can we ever + know what they are in themselves. This must furnish a distinction, however + crude, between a world of sense and the world of understanding, of which + the former may be different according to the difference of the sensuous + impressions in various observers, while the second which is its basis + always remains the same, Even as to himself, a man cannot pretend to know + what he is in himself from the knowledge he has by internal sensation. For + as he does not as it were create himself, and does not come by the + conception of himself a priori but empirically, it naturally follows that + he can obtain his knowledge even of himself only by the inner sense and, + consequently, only through the appearances of his nature and the way in + which his consciousness is affected. At the same time beyond these + characteristics of his own subject, made up of mere appearances, he must + necessarily suppose something else as their basis, namely, his ego, + whatever its characteristics in itself may be. Thus in respect to mere + perception and receptivity of sensations he must reckon himself as + belonging to the world of sense; but in respect of whatever there may be + of pure activity in him (that which reaches consciousness immediately and + not through affecting the senses), he must reckon himself as belonging to + the intellectual world, of which, however, he has no further knowledge. To + such a conclusion the reflecting man must come with respect to all the + things which can be presented to him: it is probably to be met with even + in persons of the commonest understanding, who, as is well known, are very + much inclined to suppose behind the objects of the senses something else + invisible and acting of itself. They spoil it, however, by presently + sensualizing this invisible again; that is to say, wanting to make it an + object of intuition, so that they do not become a whit the wiser. + </p> + <p> + Now man really finds in himself a faculty by which he distinguishes + himself from everything else, even from himself as affected by objects, + and that is reason. This being pure spontaneity is even elevated above the + understanding. For although the latter is a spontaneity and does not, like + sense, merely contain intuitions that arise when we are affected by things + (and are therefore passive), yet it cannot produce from its activity any + other conceptions than those which merely serve to bring the intuitions of + sense under rules and, thereby, to unite them in one consciousness, and + without this use of the sensibility it could not think at all; whereas, on + the contrary, reason shows so pure a spontaneity in the case of what I + call ideas [ideal conceptions] that it thereby far transcends everything + that the sensibility can give it, and exhibits its most important function + in distinguishing the world of sense from that of understanding, and + thereby prescribing the limits of the understanding itself. + </p> + <p> + For this reason a rational being must regard himself qua intelligence (not + from the side of his lower faculties) as belonging not to the world of + sense, but to that of understanding; hence he has two points of view from + which he can regard himself, and recognise laws of the exercise of his + faculties, and consequently of all his actions: first, so far as he + belongs to the world of sense, he finds himself subject to laws of nature + (heteronomy); secondly, as belonging to the intelligible world, under laws + which being independent of nature have their foundation not in experience + but in reason alone. + </p> + <p> + As a rational being, and consequently belonging to the intelligible world, + man can never conceive the causality of his own will otherwise than on + condition of the idea of freedom, for independence of the determinate + causes of the sensible world (an independence which reason must always + ascribe to itself) is freedom. Now the idea of freedom is inseparably + connected with the conception of autonomy, and this again with the + universal principle of morality which is ideally the foundation of all + actions of rational beings, just as the law of nature is of all phenomena. + </p> + <p> + Now the suspicion is removed which we raised above, that there was a + latent circle involved in our reasoning from freedom to autonomy, and from + this to the moral law, viz.: that we laid down the idea of freedom because + of the moral law only that we might afterwards in turn infer the latter + from freedom, and that consequently we could assign no reason at all for + this law, but could only [present] it as a petitio principii which well + disposed minds would gladly concede to us, but which we could never put + forward as a provable proposition. For now we see that, when we conceive + ourselves as free, we transfer ourselves into the world of understanding + as members of it and recognise the autonomy of the will with its + consequence, morality; whereas, if we conceive ourselves as under + obligation, we consider ourselves as belonging to the world of sense and + at the same time to the world of understanding. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + How is a Categorical Imperative Possible? + </h2> + <p> + Every rational being reckons himself qua intelligence as belonging to the + world of understanding, and it is simply as an efficient cause belonging + to that world that he calls his causality a will. On the other side he is + also conscious of himself as a part of the world of sense in which his + actions, which are mere appearances [phenomena] of that causality, are + displayed; we cannot, however, discern how they are possible from this + causality which we do not know; but instead of that, these actions as + belonging to the sensible world must be viewed as determined by other + phenomena, namely, desires and inclinations. If therefore I were only a + member of the world of understanding, then all my actions would perfectly + conform to the principle of autonomy of the pure will; if I were only a + part of the world of sense, they would necessarily be assumed to conform + wholly to the natural law of desires and inclinations, in other words, to + the heteronomy of nature. (The former would rest on morality as the + supreme principle, the latter on happiness.) Since, however, the world of + understanding contains the foundation of the world of sense, and + consequently of its laws also, and accordingly gives the law to my will + (which belongs wholly to the world of understanding) directly, and must be + conceived as doing so, it follows that, although on the one side I must + regard myself as a being belonging to the world of sense, yet on the other + side I must recognize myself as subject as an intelligence to the law of + the world of understanding, i.e., to reason, which contains this law in + the idea of freedom, and therefore as subject to the autonomy of the will: + consequently I must regard the laws of the world of understanding as + imperatives for me and the actions which conform to them as duties. + </p> + <p> + And thus what makes categorical imperatives possible is this, that the + idea of freedom makes me a member of an intelligible world, in consequence + of which, if I were nothing else, all my actions would always conform to + the autonomy of the will; but as I at the same time intuite myself as a + member of the world of sense, they ought so to conform, and this + categorical "ought" implies a synthetic a priori proposition, inasmuch as + besides my will as affected by sensible desires there is added further the + idea of the same will but as belonging to the world of the understanding, + pure and practical of itself, which contains the supreme condition + according to reason of the former will; precisely as to the intuitions of + sense there are added concepts of the understanding which of themselves + signify nothing but regular form in general and in this way synthetic a + priori propositions become possible, on which all knowledge of physical + nature rests. + </p> + <p> + The practical use of common human reason confirms this reasoning. There is + no one, not even the most consummate villain, provided only that he is + otherwise accustomed to the use of reason, who, when we set before him + examples of honesty of purpose, of steadfastness in following good maxims, + of sympathy and general benevolence (even combined with great sacrifices + of advantages and comfort), does not wish that he might also possess these + qualities. Only on account of his inclinations and impulses he cannot + attain this in himself, but at the same time he wishes to be free from + such inclinations which are burdensome to himself. He proves by this that + he transfers himself in thought with a will free from the impulses of the + sensibility into an order of things wholly different from that of his + desires in the field of the sensibility; since he cannot expect to obtain + by that wish any gratification of his desires, nor any position which + would satisfy any of his actual or supposable inclinations (for this would + destroy the pre-eminence of the very idea which wrests that wish from + him): he can only expect a greater intrinsic worth of his own person. This + better person, however, he imagines himself to be when be transfers + himself to the point of view of a member of the world of the + understanding, to which he is involuntarily forced by the idea of freedom, + i.e., of independence on determining causes of the world of sense; and + from this point of view he is conscious of a good will, which by his own + confession constitutes the law for the bad will that he possesses as a + member of the world of sense- a law whose authority he recognizes while + transgressing it. What he morally "ought" is then what he necessarily + "would," as a member of the world of the understanding, and is conceived + by him as an "ought" only inasmuch as he likewise considers himself as a + member of the world of sense. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + Of the Extreme Limits of all Practical Philosophy. + </h2> + <p> + All men attribute to themselves freedom of will. Hence come all judgements + upon actions as being such as ought to have been done, although they have + not been done. However, this freedom is not a conception of experience, + nor can it be so, since it still remains, even though experience shows the + contrary of what on supposition of freedom are conceived as its necessary + consequences. On the other side it is equally necessary that everything + that takes place should be fixedly determined according to laws of nature. + This necessity of nature is likewise not an empirical conception, just for + this reason, that it involves the motion of necessity and consequently of + a priori cognition. But this conception of a system of nature is confirmed + by experience; and it must even be inevitably presupposed if experience + itself is to be possible, that is, a connected knowledge of the objects of + sense resting on general laws. Therefore freedom is only an idea of + reason, and its objective reality in itself is doubtful; while nature is a + concept of the understanding which proves, and must necessarily prove, its + reality in examples of experience. + </p> + <p> + There arises from this a dialectic of reason, since the freedom attributed + to the will appears to contradict the necessity of nature, and placed + between these two ways reason for speculative purposes finds the road of + physical necessity much more beaten and more appropriate than that of + freedom; yet for practical purposes the narrow footpath of freedom is the + only one on which it is possible to make use of reason in our conduct; + hence it is just as impossible for the subtlest philosophy as for the + commonest reason of men to argue away freedom. Philosophy must then assume + that no real contradiction will be found between freedom and physical + necessity of the same human actions, for it cannot give up the conception + of nature any more than that of freedom. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless, even though we should never be able to comprehend how + freedom is possible, we must at least remove this apparent contradiction + in a convincing manner. For if the thought of freedom contradicts either + itself or nature, which is equally necessary, it must in competition with + physical necessity be entirely given up. + </p> + <p> + It would, however, be impossible to escape this contradiction if the + thinking subject, which seems to itself free, conceived itself in the same + sense or in the very same relation when it calls itself free as when in + respect of the same action it assumes itself to be subject to the law of + nature. Hence it is an indispensable problem of speculative philosophy to + show that its illusion respecting the contradiction rests on this, that we + think of man in a different sense and relation when we call him free and + when we regard him as subject to the laws of nature as being part and + parcel of nature. It must therefore show that not only can both these very + well co-exist, but that both must be thought as necessarily united in the + same subject, since otherwise no reason could be given why we should + burden reason with an idea which, though it may possibly without + contradiction be reconciled with another that is sufficiently established, + yet entangles us in a perplexity which sorely embarrasses reason in its + theoretic employment. This duty, however, belongs only to speculative + philosophy. The philosopher then has no option whether he will remove the + apparent contradiction or leave it untouched; for in the latter case the + theory respecting this would be bonum vacans, into the possession of which + the fatalist would have a right to enter and chase all morality out of its + supposed domain as occupying it without title. + </p> + <p> + We cannot however as yet say that we are touching the bounds of practical + philosophy. For the settlement of that controversy does not belong to it; + it only demands from speculative reason that it should put an end to the + discord in which it entangles itself in theoretical questions, so that + practical reason may have rest and security from external attacks which + might make the ground debatable on which it desires to build. + </p> + <p> + The claims to freedom of will made even by common reason are founded on + the consciousness and the admitted supposition that reason is independent + of merely subjectively determined causes which together constitute what + belongs to sensation only and which consequently come under the general + designation of sensibility. Man considering himself in this way as an + intelligence places himself thereby in a different order of things and in + a relation to determining grounds of a wholly different kind when on the + one hand he thinks of himself as an intelligence endowed with a will, and + consequently with causality, and when on the other he perceives himself as + a phenomenon in the world of sense (as he really is also), and affirms + that his causality is subject to external determination according to laws + of nature. Now he soon becomes aware that both can hold good, nay, must + hold good at the same time. For there is not the smallest contradiction in + saying that a thing in appearance (belonging to the world of sense) is + subject to certain laws, of which the very same as a thing or being in + itself is independent, and that he must conceive and think of himself in + this twofold way, rests as to the first on the consciousness of himself as + an object affected through the senses, and as to the second on the + consciousness of himself as an intelligence, i.e., as independent on + sensible impressions in the employment of his reason (in other words as + belonging to the world of understanding). + </p> + <p> + Hence it comes to pass that man claims the possession of a will which + takes no account of anything that comes under the head of desires and + inclinations and, on the contrary, conceives actions as possible to him, + nay, even as necessary which can only be done by disregarding all desires + and sensible inclinations. The causality of such actions lies in him as an + intelligence and in the laws of effects and actions [which depend] on the + principles of an intelligible world, of which indeed he knows nothing more + than that in it pure reason alone independent of sensibility gives the + law; moreover since it is only in that world, as an intelligence, that he + is his proper self (being as man only the appearance of himself), those + laws apply to him directly and categorically, so that the incitements of + inclinations and appetites (in other words the whole nature of the world + of sense) cannot impair the laws of his volition as an intelligence. Nay, + he does not even hold himself responsible for the former or ascribe them + to his proper self, i.e., his will: he only ascribes to his will any + indulgence which he might yield them if he allowed them to influence his + maxims to the prejudice of the rational laws of the will. + </p> + <p> + When practical reason thinks itself into a world of understanding, it does + not thereby transcend its own limits, as it would if it tried to enter it + by intuition or sensation. The former is only a negative thought in + respect of the world of sense, which does not give any laws to reason in + determining the will and is positive only in this single point that this + freedom as a negative characteristic is at the same time conjoined with a + (positive) faculty and even with a causality of reason, which we designate + a will, namely a faculty of so acting that the principle of the actions + shall conform to the essential character of a rational motive, i.e., the + condition that the maxim have universal validity as a law. But were it to + borrow an object of will, that is, a motive, from the world of + understanding, then it would overstep its bounds and pretend to be + acquainted with something of which it knows nothing. The conception of a + world of the understanding is then only a point of view which reason finds + itself compelled to take outside the appearances in order to conceive + itself as practical, which would not be possible if the influences of the + sensibility had a determining power on man, but which is necessary unless + he is to be denied the consciousness of himself as an intelligence and, + consequently, as a rational cause, energizing by reason, that is, + operating freely. This thought certainly involves the idea of an order and + a system of laws different from that of the mechanism of nature which + belongs to the sensible world; and it makes the conception of an + intelligible world necessary (that is to say, the whole system of rational + beings as things in themselves). But it does not in the least authorize us + to think of it further than as to its formal condition only, that is, the + universality of the maxims of the will as laws, and consequently the + autonomy of the latter, which alone is consistent with its freedom; + whereas, on the contrary, all laws that refer to a definite object give + heteronomy, which only belongs to laws of nature and can only apply to the + sensible world. + </p> + <p> + But reason would overstep all its bounds if it undertook to explain how + pure reason can be practical, which would be exactly the same problem as + to explain how freedom is possible. + </p> + <p> + For we can explain nothing but that which we can reduce to laws, the + object of which can be given in some possible experience. But freedom is a + mere idea, the objective reality of which can in no wise be shown + according to laws of nature, and consequently not in any possible + experience; and for this reason it can never be comprehended or + understood, because we cannot support it by any sort of example or + analogy. It holds good only as a necessary hypothesis of reason in a being + that believes itself conscious of a will, that is, of a faculty distinct + from mere desire (namely, a faculty of determining itself to action as an + intelligence, in other words, by laws of reason independently on natural + instincts). Now where determination according to laws of nature ceases, + there all explanation ceases also, and nothing remains but defence, i.e., + the removal of the objections of those who pretend to have seen deeper + into the nature of things, and thereupon boldly declare freedom + impossible. We can only point out to them that the supposed contradiction + that they have discovered in it arises only from this, that in order to be + able to apply the law of nature to human actions, they must necessarily + consider man as an appearance: then when we demand of them that they + should also think of him qua intelligence as a thing in itself, they still + persist in considering him in this respect also as an appearance. In this + view it would no doubt be a contradiction to suppose the causality of the + same subject (that is, his will) to be withdrawn from all the natural laws + of the sensible world. But this contradiction disappears, if they would + only bethink themselves and admit, as is reasonable, that behind the + appearances there must also lie at their root (although hidden) the things + in themselves, and that we cannot expect the laws of these to be the same + as those that govern their appearances. + </p> + <p> + The subjective impossibility of explaining the freedom of the will is + identical with the impossibility of discovering and explaining an interest + * which man can take in the moral law. Nevertheless he does actually take + an interest in it, the basis of which in us we call the moral feeling, + which some have falsely assigned as the standard of our moral judgement, + whereas it must rather be viewed as the subjective effect that the law + exercises on the will, the objective principle of which is furnished by + reason alone. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Interest is that by which reason becomes practical, i.e., + a cause determining the will. Hence we say of rational + beings only that they take an interest in a thing; + irrational beings only feel sensual appetites. Reason takes + a direct interest in action then only when the universal + validity of its maxims is alone sufficient to determine the + will. Such an interest alone is pure. But if it can + determine the will only by means of another object of desire + or on the suggestion of a particular feeling of the subject, + then reason takes only an indirect interest in the action, + and, as reason by itself without experience cannot discover + either objects of the will or a special feeling actuating + it, this latter interest would only be empirical and not a + pure rational interest. The logical interest of reason + (namely, to extend its insight) is never direct, but + presupposes purposes for which reason is employed. +</pre> + <p> + In order indeed that a rational being who is also affected through the + senses should will what reason alone directs such beings that they ought + to will, it is no doubt requisite that reason should have a power to + infuse a feeling of pleasure or satisfaction in the fulfilment of duty, + that is to say, that it should have a causality by which it determines the + sensibility according to its own principles. But it is quite impossible to + discern, i.e., to make it intelligible a priori, how a mere thought, which + itself contains nothing sensible, can itself produce a sensation of + pleasure or pain; for this is a particular kind of causality of which as + of every other causality we can determine nothing whatever a priori; we + must only consult experience about it. But as this cannot supply us with + any relation of cause and effect except between two objects of experience, + whereas in this case, although indeed the effect produced lies within + experience, yet the cause is supposed to be pure reason acting through + mere ideas which offer no object to experience, it follows that for us men + it is quite impossible to explain how and why the universality of the + maxim as a law, that is, morality, interests. This only is certain, that + it is not because it interests us that it has validity for us (for that + would be heteronomy and dependence of practical reason on sensibility, + namely, on a feeling as its principle, in which case it could never give + moral laws), but that it interests us because it is valid for us as men, + inasmuch as it had its source in our will as intelligences, in other + words, in our proper self, and what belongs to mere appearance is + necessarily subordinated by reason to the nature of the thing in itself. + </p> + <p> + The question then, "How a categorical imperative is possible," can be + answered to this extent, that we can assign the only hypothesis on which + it is possible, namely, the idea of freedom; and we can also discern the + necessity of this hypothesis, and this is sufficient for the practical + exercise of reason, that is, for the conviction of the validity of this + imperative, and hence of the moral law; but how this hypothesis itself is + possible can never be discerned by any human reason. On the hypothesis, + however, that the will of an intelligence is free, its autonomy, as the + essential formal condition of its determination, is a necessary + consequence. Moreover, this freedom of will is not merely quite possible + as a hypothesis (not involving any contradiction to the principle of + physical necessity in the connexion of the phenomena of the sensible + world) as speculative philosophy can show: but further, a rational being + who is conscious of causality through reason, that is to say, of a will + (distinct from desires), must of necessity make it practically, that is, + in idea, the condition of all his voluntary actions. But to explain how + pure reason can be of itself practical without the aid of any spring of + action that could be derived from any other source, i.e., how the mere + principle of the universal validity of all its maxims as laws (which would + certainly be the form of a pure practical reason) can of itself supply a + spring, without any matter (object) of the will in which one could + antecedently take any interest; and how it can produce an interest which + would be called purely moral; or in other words, how pure reason can be + practical- to explain this is beyond the power of human reason, and all + the labour and pains of seeking an explanation of it are lost. + </p> + <p> + It is just the same as if I sought to find out how freedom itself is + possible as the causality of a will. For then I quit the ground of + philosophical explanation, and I have no other to go upon. I might indeed + revel in the world of intelligences which still remains to me, but + although I have an idea of it which is well founded, yet I have not the + least knowledge of it, nor an I ever attain to such knowledge with all the + efforts of my natural faculty of reason. It signifies only a something + that remains over when I have eliminated everything belonging to the world + of sense from the actuating principles of my will, serving merely to keep + in bounds the principle of motives taken from the field of sensibility; + fixing its limits and showing that it does not contain all in all within + itself, but that there is more beyond it; but this something more I know + no further. Of pure reason which frames this ideal, there remains after + the abstraction of all matter, i.e., knowledge of objects, nothing but the + form, namely, the practical law of the universality of the maxims, and in + conformity with this conception of reason in reference to a pure world of + understanding as a possible efficient cause, that is a cause determining + the will. There must here be a total absence of springs; unless this idea + of an intelligible world is itself the spring, or that in which reason + primarily takes an interest; but to make this intelligible is precisely + the problem that we cannot solve. + </p> + <p> + Here now is the extreme limit of all moral inquiry, and it is of great + importance to determine it even on this account, in order that reason may + not on the one hand, to the prejudice of morals, seek about in the world + of sense for the supreme motive and an interest comprehensible but + empirical; and on the other hand, that it may not impotently flap its + wings without being able to move in the (for it) empty space of + transcendent concepts which we call the intelligible world, and so lose + itself amidst chimeras. For the rest, the idea of a pure world of + understanding as a system of all intelligences, and to which we ourselves + as rational beings belong (although we are likewise on the other side + members of the sensible world), this remains always a useful and + legitimate idea for the purposes of rational belief, although all + knowledge stops at its threshold, useful, namely, to produce in us a + lively interest in the moral law by means of the noble ideal of a + universal kingdom of ends in themselves (rational beings), to which we can + belong as members then only when we carefully conduct ourselves according + to the maxims of freedom as if they were laws of nature. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0013" id="link2H_4_0013"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CONCLUDING REMARK + </h2> + <p> + The speculative employment of reason with respect to nature leads to the + absolute necessity of some supreme cause of the world: the practical + employment of reason with a view to freedom leads also to absolute + necessity, but only of the laws of the actions of a rational being as + such. Now it is an essential principle of reason, however employed, to + push its knowledge to a consciousness of its necessity (without which it + would not be rational knowledge). It is, however, an equally essential + restriction of the same reason that it can neither discern the necessity + of what is or what happens, nor of what ought to happen, unless a + condition is supposed on which it is or happens or ought to happen. In + this way, however, by the constant inquiry for the condition, the + satisfaction of reason is only further and further postponed. Hence it + unceasingly seeks the unconditionally necessary and finds itself forced to + assume it, although without any means of making it comprehensible to + itself, happy enough if only it can discover a conception which agrees + with this assumption. It is therefore no fault in our deduction of the + supreme principle of morality, but an objection that should be made to + human reason in general, that it cannot enable us to conceive the absolute + necessity of an unconditional practical law (such as the categorical + imperative must be). It cannot be blamed for refusing to explain this + necessity by a condition, that is to say, by means of some interest + assumed as a basis, since the law would then cease to be a supreme law of + reason. And thus while we do not comprehend the practical unconditional + necessity of the moral imperative, we yet comprehend its + incomprehensibility, and this is all that can be fairly demanded of a + philosophy which strives to carry its principles up to the very limit of + human reason. + </p> + <h3> + THE END + </h3> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE METAPHYSIC OF MORALS *** + +This file should be named 5682-h.htm or 5682-h.zip + +Etext prepared by Matthew Stapleton + +HTML file produced by David Widger + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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