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diff --git a/old/55800-8.txt b/old/55800-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ef0d494..0000000 --- a/old/55800-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8924 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and -History, by Various - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and History - -Author: Various - -Editor: Paige W. Christiansen - Frank E. Kottlowski - -Release Date: October 24, 2017 [EBook #55800] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC OF NEW MEXICO'S SCENERY *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside_) - COVER: Redondo Peak, from Jemez Canyon - -_Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past Series:_ - - No. 1--Santa Fe, New Mexico - No. 2--Taos--Red River--Eagle Nest, New Mexico, Circle Drive - No. 3--Roswell--Capitan--Ruidoso and Bottomless Lakes State Park, New - Mexico - No. 4--Southern Zuni Mountains, New Mexico - No. 5--Silver City--Santa Rita--Hurley, New Mexico - No. 6--Trail Guide to Geology of the Upper Pecos, New Mexico - No. 7--High Plains Northeastern New Mexico, Raton--Capulin - Mountain--Clayton - No. 8--Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and History - No. 9--Albuquerque--Its Mountains, Valleys, Water, and Volcanoes - No. 10--Southwestern New Mexico - No. 11--Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad - No. 12--The Story of Mining in New Mexico - No. 13--Espaņola--Chama--Taos - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Robert W. Talbott_) - Whitewater Canyon near Glenwood] - - - - - SCENIC TRIPS TO THE GEOLOGIC PAST - NO. 8 - - - - - _Mosaic of New Mexico's - Scenery, Rocks, and History_ - - - _edited by_ - PAIGE W. CHRISTIANSEN - _and_ - FRANK E. KOTTLOWSKI - - - NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES - 1972 - - NEW MEXICO INSTITUTE OF MINING & TECHNOLOGY - Kenneth W. Ford, _President_ - - NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES - Frank E. Kottlowski, _Director_ - George S. Austin, _Deputy Director_ - - - BOARD OF REGENTS - Ex Officio - Bruce King, _Governor of New Mexico_ - Leonard DeLayo, _Superintendent of Public Instruction_ - - Appointed - Steve Torres, President, 1967-1985, _Socorro_ - Dave Rice, Secretary-Treasurer, 1972-1983, _Carlsbad_ - William G. Abbott, 1961-1985, _Hobbs_ - Judy Floyd, 1977-1987, _Las Cruces_ - Owen Lopez, 1977-1983, _Santa Fe_ - - - BUREAU STAFF - Full Time - - Marla D. Adkins, _Assistant Editor_ - Orin J. Anderson, _Geologist_ - Ruben Archuleta, _Technician I_ - Robert A. Bieberman, _Senior Petrol. Geologist_ - Steve Blodgett, _Assistant Editor_ - Lynn A. Brandvold, _Chemist_ - James Brannan, _Drafter_ - Corale Brierley, _Chemical Microbiologist_ - Ron Broadhead, _Petroleum Geologist_ - Brenda R. Broadwell, _Assoc. Lab Geoscientist_ - Jane A. Calvert, _Assistant Editor_ - Frank Campbell, _Coal Geologist_ - Richard Chamberlin, _Economic Geologist_ - Charles E. Chapin, _Senior Geologist_ - Jeanette Chavez, _Admin. Secretary I_ - Richard R. Chavez, _Assistant Head, Petroleum_ - Ruben A. Crespin, _Laboratory Technician II_ - Lois M. Devlin, _Director, Bus.-Pub. Office_ - Amelia Dondero, _Metallurgist_ - Kathy C. Eden, _Editorial Technician_ - Robert W. Eveleth, _Mining Engineer_ - K. Babette Faris, _X-ray Lab. Manager_ - Rousseau H. Flower, _Sr. Emeritus Paleontologist_ - John W. Hawley, _Senior Env. Geologist_ - Cindy Howell, _Staff Secretary_ - Robert W. Kelley, _Editor & Geologist_ - Arleen Lindsey, _Staff Secretary_ - Mark Logsdon, _Industrial Minerals Geologist_ - David W. Love, _Environmental Geologist_ - Wess Mauldin, _Driller_ - Virginia McLemore, _Geologist_ - Lynne McNeil, _Staff Secretary_ - Norma J. Meeks, _Department Secretary_ - David Menzie, _Geologist_ - Teresa Mueller, _Drafter_ - Robert M. North, _Mineralogist_ - Keith O'Brien, _Hydrologist_ - JoAnne C. Osburn, _Coal Geologist_ - Glenn R. Osburn, _Volcanologist_ - Barbara R. Popp, _Lab. Biotechnologist_ - Marshall A. Reiter, _Senior Geophysicist_ - Jacques R. Renault, _Senior Geologist_ - James M. Robertson, _Mining Geologist_ - Gretchen H. Roybal, _Coal Geologist_ - Amy Shacklett, _Asst. Lab Biotechnologist_ - Jackie H. Smith, _Laboratory Technician IV_ - William J. Stone, _Hydrogeologist_ - Samuel Thompson III, _Senior Petrol. Geologist_ - Judy M. Vaiza, _Executive Secretary_ - Debra Vetterman, _Drafter_ - Robert H. Weber, _Senior Geologist_ - Betsy Wilson, _Receptionist/Clerk Typist_ - Donald Wolberg, _Vertebrate Paleontologist_ - Michael W. Wooldridge, _Scientific Illustrator_ - - Part Time - - Christina L. Balk, _Geologist_ - Howard B. Nickelson, _Coal Geologist_ - Beverly Ohline, _Acting Director, Info. Services_ - Thomas E. Zimmerman, _Chief Security Officer_ - - Graduate Students - - Danny Bobrow - James T. Boyle - Gerry W. Clarkson - Mike Davidson - David R. Guilinger - Terry Jensen - Douglas L. Heath - Adrian Hunt - Ingrid Klich - Ione Lindley - Curtis Verpleough - John M. Wakefield - Mary Lynne Yates - John Young - - Plus about 50 undergraduate assistants - - - _Third edition, 4th printing_ - - -Published by Authority of State of New Mexico, NMSA 1953 Sec. 63-1-4 - -Printed by University of New Mexico Printing Plant, Albuquerque, April -1982 - -Available from New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources, Socorro, -NM 87801 $4.00 - - - - - Contents - - - 3 Of Indians, Spaniards, and Americans, _Paige W. Christiansen_ - 16 The exotic plants of New Mexico, _Ross Calvin_ - 26 Dwellers in the hills and plains, _Levon Lee_ - 33 Rocks that shape the enchanting landscapes, _Frank E. - Kottlowski_ - 54 Before Coronado, _Robert H. Weber_ - 64 Frontier forts of New Mexico, _Robert A. Bieberman_ - 75 Our National Heritage - 75 New Mexico's big share of the National Park System, _H. V. - Reeves, Jr._ - 93 Forest lands above the desert, _Ruth Bush Jones_ - 104 The State Also Preserves - 104 New Mexico State Monuments, _Museum of New Mexico Staff_ - 107 New Mexico State Parks, _The Editors_ - 113 Angling in the desert's waters, _Fred A. Thompson_ - 119 The Indians of New Mexico, _Paige W. Christiansen_ - 133 Reminders of the past, _Paige W. Christiansen_ - 145 Derricks and mines, _George B. Griswold_ - 154 Enchanting landscapes, _Frank E. Kottlowski_ - 165 Index - - [Illustration: New Mexico] - - - - - Preface - - -Previous _Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past_ have emphasized scenic -tours of local areas in New Mexico. This book lays out a mosaic of facts -and fancies concerning the state's landscapes, the rocks that underlie -and make up the landscapes, and the history of the people now living or -who have lived amid New Mexico's exciting and varied scenery. We hope -these short articles will help you enjoy our state, whether you are a -tourist driving through at seventy miles an hour, a visitor with a -little time to explore, or an old-timer who remembers the cattle drives. - -The idea for this publication grew out of a booklet, _New Mexico Mosaic -of Science and History_, that was written for the 1963 National Science -Fair-International held in Albuquerque. The National Science Fair -booklet was directed specifically to the Fair participants and -emphasized their tours to famous scientific installations in New Mexico, -areas of scenic geologic wonders, and points of historic and archeologic -importance. The booklet had only limited distribution; subsequent -interest in this kind of publication about New Mexico led to the -preparation of this book. - -Scenic Trips No. 8 is in two major parts. First, there are articles of -general statewide interest to acquaint visitor and resident alike with -the Land of Enchantment--its history, flora and fauna, geology, and -scenic beauty. Second, there are articles describing specific scenic, -geologic, historic, and recreational places to give a depth of -understanding and a more intimate view of New Mexico. The entire mosaic -of New Mexico thus presented is a permanent record to recall vistas of -New Mexico's enchanting land and fascinating history. - - - Acknowledgments - -Many people have contributed their time and talents to this co-operative -undertaking. We thank each of the authors of the articles; where their -affiliation is not given, they are staff members of the New Mexico -Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources division of the New Mexico -Institute of Mining and Technology. Professor Christiansen is a member -of the Humanities Department of the Institute's College division. This -book would have been incomplete without the co-operation of the New -Mexico Department of Game and Fish, the Museum of New Mexico, the New -Mexico Department of Development, the State Park Commission, the U.S. -Park Service, and the Forest Service, Southwestern Region, U.S. -Department of Agriculture. Our special appreciation goes to Dr. Ross -Calvin for his interpretative description of New Mexico's unique flora. - -Black and white photographs were contributed by Robert Bieberman, Roy -Foster, and Teri Ray of the Bureau of Mines staff and by the authors or -their agencies. Some of the drawings were made by David H. Moneypenny. -Acknowledgment is also made to Mr. Elliott S. Barker and the Forest -Service for their willing loan of color transparencies. - -Among the numerous personnel of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and -Technology who aided in preparation of this book, appreciation is due -Helen Waxler, Lois Devlin, Lola White, Mary Ann Grandjean, and Sharon -Ballenger for typing of manuscripts and William Arnold, Robert Price, -and Raymond Molina for drafting maps and figures. Teri Ray deserves -special mention for her interest and editorial advice and for nursing -the material from rough manuscripts into printed pages. - - -PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION - -The kind reception given our attempt to provide a brief but -comprehensive guide to New Mexico's scenery, rocks, and history resulted -in distribution of 5000 copies in two years, and led to this second -edition. In this revision, we have incorporated changes that have -occurred during these two years, especially the addition of State Parks, -and Teri Ray has added an index to make the book more usable. Each -author has re-edited his article and made changes where necessary. -William Arnold added much material to the index map; typing of the -revision manuscript was carefully done by Lois Devlin. Alfred Coulloudon -and Wayne Bera supplied additional photographs. Teri Ray initiated -revision of the first edition, worked with authors, and guided the -manuscript from the authors to the final copy. - - -PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION - -The first edition appeared in 1964, the second in 1967, and a reprint in -1968. In the present edition front matter has been re-styled, printed -matter has been altered on the inside and outside of the covers, a -footnote added to page 104, and a less bulky paper used. - - - - - Of Indians, Spaniards, and Americans - - - _by_ Paige W. Christiansen - -In the world of the twentieth century with its tumultuous ovation for -each discovery of science, with its language of non-Euclidian space, -with new heroes who leave the earth, not discover it--sometimes it is -refreshing to look back on other days, to see other heroes, and to seek -romance and excitement which was equally spectacular in times past. Yet -there is a close affinity and a spiritual link among the heroes of the -past, the present, and the future, and the reaction of their -contemporaries to their feats of glory is not so different. Heroes are -those who seek the unknown, who risk life and position to expand the -frontiers of man's universe and mind. But heroes can only lead an age, -never surpass it. History, then, is people and their catalyst, ideas. - -The history of New Mexico, like twentieth century science, is -multi-dimensional. Its complex cultural patterns fit with the intricate -variety of its geologic wonders and its flora and fauna. In reality, New -Mexico is a part of a broader concept, the Southwest. This vast region, -which includes western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, southern California, -part of southern Colorado, and southern Utah, has given rise to some of -man's greatest achievements. Here prehistoric man rose above his animal -heritage to take control of these lands. Here, also, many millennia -later, man achieved one of his greatest scientific wonders, the -successful release of atomic energy. The story of the years between -these events, so far separated in time, is a wondrous tale. - - -INDIAN BEGINNINGS - -Before the coming of the white man, this land belonged to nature's -children, the Indian. Centuries before European nations came into -existence, peoples from Asia, crossing by the Bering waters, had -discovered, explored, and settled the American continents from Alaska to -Tierra del Fuego. They mastered the plains, the northern forests, the -jungles of Central and South America, and the arid regions. In the -deserts and mountains of the Southwest, they conquered elements and -terrain, first to survive and then slowly to ascend the ladder of -culture. - -At first they were foragers, living on what nature provided. At the time -of Christ, several groups could be distinguished: In the Colorado River -drainage, south of the Grand Canyon, were the Yuman Foragers; in -southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico were the Mogollon -people; in the Four Corners area (where the states of Utah, Colorado, -Arizona, and New Mexico meet) and in the Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico -was a complex of cave sites that evidenced a forager type of culture. -But, as man always aspires to rise above his environment, the Indian -slowly and painfully learned to make tools, developed new techniques, -and finally made the great step upward; he domesticated plants. -Agriculture, based primarily on the growing of corn, came to the Four -Corners before the Christian era. Gradually, out of the primitive -foragers, there developed across the Southwest a complex pattern of -agricultural societies; peaceful farmers intent upon harvesting the -utmost from a harsh land. In Arizona, the Hohokam peoples created a -culture based upon irrigation. In the valleys of the upper Gila and -Mimbres rivers of southwestern New Mexico, several branches of the -Mogollon culture grew and prospered. In the Four Corners area and in the -upper Rio Grande Valley, the Mesa Verde, the Gran Chaco, and later the -Rio Grande branches developed, at first in the cliffs of the high -country, then in open villages along the main tributaries of the Rio -Grande. That there were numerous and varied cultures is attested to by -the ruins one finds scattered throughout the Southwest. Along now dry -arroyos, on buttes overlooking rivers or dry river beds, among cliffs in -the mountain fastnesses and in caves wherever they appear, there are -thousands of sites whose people and history are lost in antiquity. - - [Illustration: Prehistoric Indian cliff dwelling] - -And these people were builders. They lived in caves at first, then in -crude pit houses. Finally they moved above the ground and evolved -building techniques and styles of architecture that stood the ravages of -time and still serve the people of the Southwest. In the city of Santa -Fe, the Palace of the Governors was built upon the ruins of an Indian -pueblo (village), the name of which has disappeared even from tradition, -and its massive walls of puddled adobe, laid down before the art of -making bricks was introduced by the Spanish, may be seen under glass in -some of the rooms of the Palace at the present time. Perhaps most -spectacular are the great houses of Chaco Canyon, some of which must -have sheltered from one to two thousand people each, and which as -achievements in building, both from the standpoint of durability and -graceful construction, rival the structures of the historic valleys and -plateaus of the ancient eastern world. - -In addition to agriculture and building, the Indian of the Southwest -achieved great heights in artistic forms. The ceramics of the American -Southwest become increasingly important when compared with products of -the Old World. The Indians of America and the Southwest are a race of -artists. Their aesthetic culture towers above anything achieved by the -white man, with the general exception of ancient Greece and Renaissance -Italy. - -As impressive as his achievements in domesticating plants, in building -massive structures, and in developing symbolism and aesthetic values to -match his material advances, the Indian's greatest heights were reached -in his philosophy on nature and life. He conceived himself to be, not -master of creation, but a single factor in the scheme of things. He -shared with all things--beasts, birds, rocks, trees, everything in -nature--a life principle which permeated all, a gift conferred by the -mighty powers of earth and sky. He observed orderly procession of -natural phenomena and ordered his own life in harmony therewith. His was -no egocentric point of view which has become so much a part of the -philosophic base of the European mentality. His natural philosophy -entered into every facet of his life--his daily work, his art, his -ceramics, his religion. In short, this singularly fine outlook upon the -world helps to account for his success in conquering the diverse -elements of earth and sky which constantly threatened his very -existence. - -But this fine culture did not survive in the fullness of its bloom. What -eventually destroyed the vast and complicated agricultural system was -not the rigors of Mother Nature but a migration of new people into the -flow of Southwest history. Sometime after 1000 A.D., a nonfarming, -nomadic, warlike people entered the Southwest. The peaceful farmers, -weakened by drouth, were unable to cope with this new force. Gradually -they fell back, leaving behind their homes, their fields, their culture. -By 1300, only a small remnant remained, that located in the Rio Grande -Valley of north-central New Mexico. Across the rest of the Southwest the -nomadic tribes, technically called _Athapascan_ from their linguistic -affiliation but better known by their modern name, _Apache_, had -replaced the farming cultures. The picturesque Indian pueblos we see -today in the valleys of northern New Mexico are the direct descendants -of the great cultures that existed at Mesa Verde, Gran Chaco, Frijoles, -and other centers of cultural achievement. - -The Indians of the Rio Grande Valley and the Apache who controlled most -of the Southwest managed an uneasy coexistence. The Pueblo Indians -remained basically farmers, holding fast to the cultural advances made -by their ancestors during the millennium preceding 1300. The Apache, for -the most part, remained nomadic predators, living off nature's bounty, -or better still, raiding the pueblos for food. The Apache groups began -to take on names and traditional areas which they called their own. In -northern New Mexico were the Jicarilla Apache and in the southeast, the -Lipan, the Mescalero, and the Natage Apache. In northeastern Arizona -were the Navajo and in the drainage of the Gila River, the Chiricahua, -the Gila, and other groups of the Western Apache. Each of these groups -made its mark upon the face of the land. - - -SPANISH CONTRIBUTIONS - -This was the situation in the Southwest when the sixteenth century -opened, but a new force was abroad which would grow and strengthen and -leave a deep imprint on New Mexico. Beginning on the wild islands of the -Caribbean and then fanning out into the heart of Mexico and the South -American continent, this new force spread across the face of America. -Europeans, more exactly, Spaniards, came bent upon conquest for its own -reward, for the glory of God, and for gold. These sturdy men from the -Iberian peninsula with weapons vastly superior to the Indians', with the -horse which made them highly mobile and devastating in battle, and with -tactics and precision in warfare unknown among the Indians, were to -sweep without serious setback across the great cultures of Mexico and -Central and South America. By 1540, they were ready to take their next -leap forward. - -On the west coast of Mexico, at a place called Culiacan, a colorful host -gathered. In their ears rang the words of the legend of the Seven Cities -of Cibola, seven golden cities, a legend which had been popular in Spain -for many generations. Mexico City had produced wealth, and the Spanish -were ready to believe that other fabulous cities existed. One Spaniard -had already crossed part of North America and had heard from the Indians -tales of the rich cities. His name was Cabeza de Vaca, and the -exuberance of his tales fired the imagination of the Spaniards. - -The soldiers and adventurers gathering in Mexico, commanded by Francisco -Vasquez de Coronado, were the first Europeans to organize an expedition -to the American Southwest. Leaving from Culiacan in 1540, they went up -the west coast of Mexico into modern Arizona, then east into New Mexico. -The seven golden cities turned out to be the pueblos around Zuni, New -Mexico, and not golden at all. The expedition, although discouraged, -marched into the Rio Grande Valley and visited most of the pueblos -there. Still they failed to find the treasure they sought. In a final -desperate attempt, they explored onto the Great Plains, eventually -reaching central Kansas. Broken in spirit and body, they struggled back -to the Rio Grande Valley, and then retraced their route to Mexico. In -all, the expedition covered a two-year span. A failure? Yes, in terms of -wealth and treasure found. Yes, in terms of conquest, for nothing had -been conquered. No, in terms of human resources, for the Indians -Coronado met were to be the incentive that would bring the Spaniard back -to New Mexico. While the Spaniard did seek gold and glory, he also -burned with a missionary zeal and sought souls for his deep-running -religion, Roman Catholicism. - - [Illustration: Mesa top pueblo] - -For fifty-five years after Coronado, interest in New Mexico and the -Southwest was spotty. Other things occupied the Spanish--primarily -silver discoveries in the central valleys of Mexico. But men did not -forget New Mexico and saw there an opportunity for missionary activity -and exploitation. Also, other nations of Europe were beginning to take -an interest in the North American continent, and New Mexico began to -look attractive to the Spanish as a frontier defensive outpost. The -frontier line pushed ever northward from central Mexico. By 1595, the -Spanish were ready to push a salient into New Mexico. - -From among the mining communities of northern Mexico, a force of two -hundred colonists was assembled by Don Juan Oņate who had a contract to -colonize New Mexico. After countless delays due to politics and supply -shortages, the Oņate expedition left Chihuahua in 1598. The route went -north across the desert to the Rio Grande near El Paso del Norte (modern -Juarez), thence up the Rio Grande into New Mexico. On August 18, 1598, -they arrived at San Juan, and there founded the first capital of New -Mexico, San Juan de los Caballeros. These lands of the Southwest so long -colored by the Indian now received a new imprint, one that would alter -the direction and flow of culture and change it from the Indian to the -Spanish Southwest. - -From San Juan, and later (1610) from Santa Fe, Oņate, his men, and his -colonists brought New Mexico under the Spanish yoke. In co-operation -with the Franciscan Order, which had been assigned the task of -converting the Indian, Oņate supervised the building of missions and -mission churches at many of the pueblos of New Mexico. At the same time, -Spanish towns developed, the most important being the new capital at -Santa Fe. By 1628, New Mexico was solidly in the hands of her new -masters. - -The period from 1628 to 1680 was one of internal conflict and isolation -for New Mexico. It lay far out on the frontier, alone and distant from -its source of supplies. It lacked many of the items necessary for -frontier life, particularly hardware and clothing. Its population was -small, and in constant fear of Indian uprising, and its officials were -too weak to act with vigor. Finally, there was a lack of genuine -interest on the part of the central authorities. All these problems led -to internal conflicts between soldier and colonist; between colonist and -Indian; between colonist and official; and, perhaps most bitter of all, -between church and state. This latter conflict would erupt time after -time, openly, and with bitterness and denunciation from both sides. -Governors were excommunicated as heretics; Franciscans were accused of -all sorts of crimes and improper behavior. This, plus the other -conflicts, gave rise to growing disrespect by the Indians for their -European conquerors. The superiority of Christianity was questioned by -the Indians as they watched the attacks and counterattacks made by -priest and governor. The whole system of Spanish rule seemed a mockery. -In 1680, the Indians decided their way was best after all and rose in -rebellion. - -Led by Po-pé from Taos, the various pueblos banded together in a mighty -effort to remove the Spanish from traditional Indian lands. For the -first time the pueblos came together, united by a single purpose. There -were two exceptions; Isleta, just south of Albuquerque, and the Piro -villages farther south (Socorro) remained loyal to the Spanish. Up and -down the Rio Grande Valley, the Spaniards fell before the pent-up anger -of the Indians. Survivors gathered at Santa Fe, but their water supply -was cut, and they were forced to retreat south. At Isleta and later at -the Piro villages, they received aid before continuing south to El Paso -del Norte. With them went their Indian allies from Isleta and Socorro. -It was a total defeat for the Spanish, and the Indian again was master -of New Mexico. - -But not for long, for at El Paso there gathered a force dedicated to -revenge for their comrades who had died before the Indian onslaught. -Ably led by Diego de Vargas, this expedition moved into New Mexico in -1692. The Indians, who had achieved such unity for the moment in 1680, -were again badly divided. De Vargas, instead of having to subdue an -alliance, had only to deal with one pueblo at a time. Very quickly New -Mexico was returned to a mission area and frontier military post. The -Pueblo Indians became permanently subjected to European domination. -Their one and only attempt at unity had, in the final analysis, failed. - -During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, New Mexico was the -heart of the Spanish empire in the Southwest. Only in southwestern -Arizona, western Texas, and California did the Spanish hold any land -other than in the upper Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico. During these -centuries, this valley complex played out its dual role of mission area -and military outpost. Its only connection with the resources and ideas -of the world was a long hazardous road that stretched from Santa Fe to -Chihuahua City and then south to Mexico City. This was New Mexico's -Royal Road, and over it moved everything needed by soldier, priest, and -civilian. The trade was dominated by the merchants of Chihuahua, and New -Mexico suffered. The tale of New Mexico during this period was one of -poverty, hardship, and warfare. And several vital forces moved across -the land. - -One of these forces had long been in the Southwest, but latent. The -Spanish adopted an Indian word meaning _enemy_ to describe it--Apache! -The Spanish brought with them domesticated animals which quickly adapted -to conditions of the New World and became available to the Indian. Most -important was the horse, at least as far as the Apache was concerned. By -the early eighteenth century, the Apache, and other groups on the -plains, had adapted to the use of the horse. While dangerous as foot -soldiers, the Apache became vastly more dangerous as mounted warriors. -Whereas they had been satisfied with minor raids against the pueblos and -the Spanish holdings prior to 1700, they exploded on a wave of terrorism -during the eighteenth century which very nearly drove the Spanish from -the frontier. Late in the century, the conflict between the Apache and -the Spanish became increasingly bitter. The history of the Southwest -became the history of incessant Indian incursions and Spanish attempts -to control the raiders. The missions declined and in many instances gave -way entirely to the presidio or fort. In New Mexico the military came to -dominate the missionary, and only through the heroic efforts of the -meager force at the Presidio of Santa Fe did the Spanish manage to hold -New Mexico from total collapse. A poor province became poorer, -population declined, both among the Spanish and Indian, and the future -looked dark indeed. - -Far from New Mexico, other forces were stirring which would have a -profound effect on the province and the Southwest. Spain and the Spanish -empire were in trouble. Spain had failed to develop the supply -capability to keep her colonies alive and was forced to spend her wealth -in other areas of Europe. After two and a half centuries, the cumbersome -and inefficient colonial administrative machinery was breaking down. -While Spain's star was descending, other European nations were on the -move. England, France, Holland, and Russia were contesting with Spain -for control of the New World. England and France were digging in on the -east coast of North America; Holland was penetrating the islands of the -Caribbean, and Russia was pushing down the Pacific Coast from Alaska. -The weakness of Spain and the failure of her colonial government, plus -help from Napoleon by way of his invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in -1808, brought about the collapse of the Spanish empire. In America, -patriots, inspired by the earlier success of the American Revolution and -afire with the ideas of the French Revolution, struck out at the -remnants of Spanish rule. By 1825, all the Spanish colonies but the -islands of the Caribbean were free and independent nations. New Mexico -and the Southwest became part of the Mexican state. - -Almost immediately, Mexico, without leaders, without a political -heritage to lead it to stability, and torn by power struggles large and -small, was plunged into a period of political anarchy and civil war -which would last for half a century. The problems and dangers of a -far-flung frontier were lost in the din of conflict, and New Mexico -became a forgotten province. Its claims as a mission area were so weak -as to be almost nonexistent. It was no longer needed as a military -outpost, for the danger to Mexico was not external, but internal. Its -reasons for being were forgotten, at least for the moment, and New -Mexico had to survive on her own initiative. But for one very important -fact, the Spanish salient into the Southwest might have collapsed under -the weight of poverty and Indian attacks. That fact was the opening of -the Santa Fe Trail in 1821, a trail which linked the Spanish world with -the Anglo-Saxon world then pushing its frontiers out from Missouri. This -trail, so rich in lore and adventure, so much a part of the history of -both the American west and the Spanish north, was the door through which -passed the characters for the final act in the history of the Southwest. - -Before the final act, however, it is vital and necessary to set down the -contribution of two hundred fifty years of Spanish occupation and rule. -The coming of the Spaniard to the Southwest began a mixture of white and -red races which resulted in a new mixed race. The first generation of -those who came up from Mexico were Caucasians; their descendants were -usually not. They came seeking wealth and security, but there was -neither wealth nor security in New Mexico, and they remained poor, very -poor. The society that evolved was to be based upon farming and stock -raising, and its organization was to be feudal in nature. There would be -no education; hence, there could be no intellectual advance. The world -began to go ahead of the people of New Mexico. Only in the house of the -rico was there any sign of the wealth and grandeur of Spain; everywhere -else was poverty. Farming was left in the hands of the Indian, while the -Spaniard chose to be a man on horseback, a cattleman, an aristocrat. In -the final analysis, Spanish New Mexico would not develop as democratic -and agricultural, but aristocratic and feudal. The hacienda was a part -of old Spain in exile. The rico tried vainly to hold to his idea of -chivalry and to a decorum suitable to his position. But what chance was -there in the face of the increasing poverty, the constant danger to life -and property, and time that did not move? While individual courage of -the upper class remained, discipline and industry died. When the -American army marched into the Southwest, the sons of the conquistadores -could offer no armed resistance. Perhaps the most amazing thing about -the society of the ricos in New Mexico was that it failed to contribute -any lasting monument. It left no art, no music, no great highways, no -adequate governmental system. - -But many elements of Spanish culture were to persist, and these arose -from the collective consciousness of the people of New Mexico. Around -the great haciendas were small villages with their artisans and workers. -It was among these people that the heritage of Spain clung to this land. -Many of these towns yet remain and are not much different from those of -two hundred years ago. To a large degree, their Spanish culture seems -hidden and undiscovered, but the people, their loves and hates, -pleasures and hopes, beliefs and fears, are governed by tradition, a -tradition that finds its roots deep in the soil of Spain. - - [Illustration: Old mission church at Isleta Pueblo] - -Today, when we look at the cultural scene in New Mexico, we can see -direct evidence of Spanish occupation. The language of half the people -in the state is Spanish, in some areas still the Spanish of the -sixteenth century. Roman Catholicism, of which the Spanish were the most -Catholic, dominates the religious scene. The Spanish heritage in -political attitudes, in building and architecture, and in the legal -tradition of the state is apparent. New Mexico, of all the states in the -United States, is the only one that can claim a truly Spanish heritage. - - -ANGLO-AMERICAN VIGOR - -While Spain lost its empire and New Mexico and the Southwest sank into -poverty and decay, yet another force was on the march, a force that -welled up in an Anglo-American people clinging to the Atlantic Coast of -North America. As these people developed a nation, they also discovered -a sense of destiny which turned their faces to the west and their -footsteps toward the sunset. With them moved their culture. At first, it -was a trickle, a few traders bent on profit, crossing the plains on the -Santa Fe Trail. Then the trickle became a flood. For New Mexico, these -men came as saviors. The Missouri traders broke the Chihuahua monopoly -and goods from all parts of the world began to flow into New Mexico, -resulting in higher standards of living. These Yankee traders, sensing a -good thing, also penetrated the markets of Mexico, using New Mexico's -Royal Road to gain entrance. - -Again there was conflict, not Spanish and Indian, but Latin and -Anglo-American. Mexico owned the lands of the Southwest and intended to -keep them. But this American, with his gaze glued on western skies, -refused to turn aside, and he strode on, grinding the feeble efforts of -Mexican resistance into the desert sands. The Mexican War in 1846, -suddenly transferred ownership of Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, -Arizona, and California from Mexico to the United States. This was -nearly half the territory of Mexico. New Mexico, with her already -complex cultural pattern, was subjected to still another influence. - -The history of the American occupation of the Southwest is as complex -and diverse as its predecessors. Its ingredients include cattle, mining, -railroads, agriculture, science, and the Indian. All these, and others, -combined to give an Anglo-American slant to the Southwest. The Indian -culture did not disappear, nor did the Spanish, but rather a new stratum -was cast that was to complete the mosaic. - -When the American arrived in New Mexico, he found a poor, backward area, -hungry for trade and outside contacts. He found the Indians of the -Southwest in open rebellion against the white men. The Navajo and other -Apache groups, the Comanche, and some of the Pueblos were the primary -offenders. This was to be the main problem occupying the time and energy -of the American settler and soldier for forty years after 1846. Until -the Indian situation was stabilized, there would be little economic and -social development. - -The method evolved for containing the vicious raids against friendly -Indian, Spanish, and American communities was a series of forts placed -at strategic passes or trails surrounding the traditional lands of the -Apache. The Indian strongholds were located primarily in the mountainous -regions of southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. The line of -forts stretched along the Rio Grande south of Socorro to the vicinity of -Las Cruces, and west along the southern edge of the mountain escarpment -into Arizona. Then the defense complex ran north across the desert to an -irregular line running east from Flagstaff through Gallup and back to -the Rio Grande. These forts were well garrisoned and provisioned and -began to carry the fight to the Indian. Early success was halted by the -conflict generated by the American Civil War. - -The center of the Civil War in the west was in New Mexico. There was -conflict, argument, and some small degree of fighting in other western -states and territories as settlers from the north or south struggled to -carry this territory or that state into the Union or the Confederacy. -These were, however, local matters and as much political as military. In -New Mexico, there was a war and there were battles, battles which -deserve to be a part of the general Civil War story but that are usually -forgotten in the smoke and roar of eastern cannon. - -Two major battles were fought in New Mexico, the first a Confederate -victory, the second a Union victory which saved New Mexico, and the -west, for the Union. The aim of the Confederate forces was to capture, -intact if possible, the forts in New Mexico and Arizona with their great -store of military provisions, provisions badly needed by the Confederate -army. Also, there was a feeling among southern leaders that success in -New Mexico might also lead to success in California, badly split on the -question of secession, and in Colorado, rich in silver and gold. An army -recruited in Texas and commanded by General Henry Sibley was sent to -accomplish Confederate aims. - -This army entered New Mexico along the traditional route, moving up the -Rio Grande from El Paso. It quickly subdued the forts and Union troops -in southern New Mexico and continued up-river. On February 21, 1862, it -met a Union army commanded by Colonel E. R. S. Canby at Valverde, a -small community about twenty miles south of Socorro, New Mexico. Kit -Carson, New Mexico's famous trapper and scout, commanded the New Mexico -Volunteers, a part of the Union force. Canby's troops were beaten and -dispersed at the Battle of Val Verde, leaving the upper Rio Grande -Valley virtually without defense. Within a few weeks, the Texans had -taken Albuquerque and Santa Fe. But one stronghold in New Mexico -remained in the hands of the Union forces. Fort Union, northeast of Las -Vegas, New Mexico, became the focal point of action by both north and -south. Sibley, marching from Santa Fe, knew success depended on the fall -of Fort Union. The Union forces, equally aware of the importance of the -fort, hurriedly reinforced it with a number of volunteers from Colorado. - -Within Fort Union, a crisis developed over differing opinions on -strategy. The fort commander wanted to keep the garrison at full -strength and fight the Confederates from within the fort. The Colorado -Volunteers wanted to go out and meet the enemy. The latter won and a -Union force moved into the passes of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains to -meet the Confederates in a fateful battle that would decide control of -the west. It was fought at Glorieta Pass on March 28, 1862. Despite the -fact that the two armies met on this field, the contest was not decided -there. Early on the morning of March 28, a force of 400 Colorado -Volunteers, commanded by Colonel John M. Chivington, began a flanking -action in hopes of hitting the Confederate rear. This group moved out of -the Pass into the mountains, and by a very difficult route moved back -toward the Pass behind the Confederate force. On a ridge overlooking -Apache Canyon, they saw below them the entire Confederate supply train -and cavalry horse herd. In a lightning hit-and-run attack, the supply -train and horses were destroyed. When word of this reached Sibley at -Glorieta Pass, there was little for him to do but to retire from the -field. The Confederate force never recovered from this disaster and -gradually retreated to Santa Fe, then back down the Rio Grande into -Texas. - -With the end of the Civil War, New Mexico and the Southwest returned, -not to peace, but to war, war against the Apache. It took twenty years -for the American with all his modern weapons and tactics to bring the -Apache under control. For the Apache, it ended on September 3, 1886, -when Geronimo and his few ragged followers surrendered to General Miles -in Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. Under the weight of steel and increasing -numbers of white men, the Apache was doomed. Though civilization would -swallow the Apache, as it has always succeeded against the barbarian, -the Apache made a spectacular defense of his lands and his way of life -against both Spaniard and American. He made himself master of the -desert, and only the gods of science succeeded in overcoming him and his -desert gods. - - -INDUSTRIAL BOOM - -With the Indian situation settled, New Mexico underwent a boom in two -important areas, mining and cattle raising. These industries, so much a -part of the history of the American West, did and still play an -important role in the well-being of the Southwest. Mining camps sprang -up along the mountain fringes as new discoveries of silver and gold came -to light. Around Socorro and Magdalena, in the Mogollon Mountains, at -Hillsboro and Kingston in the Black Range, and hundreds of other places -in New Mexico and the Southwest, men hungry for quick wealth swarmed -over the hills and mountains and built their roaring camps. While miners -were tapping the subsurface wealth, cattlemen were staking out their -claims to the grasslands, both on the eastern plains and in the high -mountain meadows. Cattle empires grew to staggering proportions, -sometimes erupting into violent conflict over grazing and water rights, -such as the Lincoln County War made famous by the participation of Billy -the Kid. - - [Illustration: Feature of the Old West] - -The character of the Southwest still bears the stamp of the miner and -the cattleman. Although the cattle and grazing industry has declined, as -has the traditional mining camp, the past importance of these activities -has had a tremendous impact upon the character of Southwest folklore, -law, and music and on the thought of the people. - -Other influences affected New Mexico as a result of the American -occupation, things inherent in the American culture. Ribbons of steel -across a continent, buildings of steel and stone, business and commerce, -technology, common law, the English language, the Protestant religion, -and, above all, the American-brought driving desire to dominate, to win. -Certainly the American had to adapt his culture to the desert lands, but -he did it in his own way, not in the way of the Indian or Spaniard. So -Anglo-American culture became superimposed upon a Spanish culture that -was superimposed upon an Indian culture. - -_Disinherited_, that is the word that best describes contemporary New -Mexico culture. A stronger race came and took away the inheritance of -the Indian, though there did result a blood mixture. Only in superficial -matters did the Spanish adopt any of the Indian ways. The Spanish, too, -succumbed to a stronger people and have been denied the privilege -commonly accorded to conquered peoples, that of mixing their blood with -that of the conquerors. One finds today in New Mexico three distinct -people--Indian, Spanish, and Anglo-American--as sharply contrasted as -the strands in a Navajo blanket. There is pure red alongside white, and -only rarely do the colors blend into pinks or grays. This is why we must -say that New Mexico is a mosaic, not a synthesis, of many elements, -clearly defined. - -Across the span of time, great men, people, and ideas have molded New -Mexico and Southwest history. Indian, Spanish, American--vital forces -that are today working toward a genuinely unique culture in New Mexico. -The modern world may well give to the Southwest the idea or catalyst -that will blend these elements into a single force. Science, techniques, -ideas are things of the present and are for the present to assess and -synthesize. The Indian gods of air, earth, and sky and the white man's -gods of morality and science do not differ a great deal in their -aspirations for their chosen people, and perhaps they will decree a -splendid and unique synthesis from the cultural mosaic. Through -understanding comes knowledge; from knowledge, creation. - - - - - The Exotic Plants of New Mexico - - - _by_ Ross Calvin - -The problem of discussing plant life becomes complicated, for some of -those arriving in New Mexico may be compound microscope botanists, some -collectors, others pathologists, still others geneticists. Some will be -chemists or mathematicians, some others untrained in the ways of growing -things and mainly interested in seeing while they tour. But one thing is -fairly certain--most visitors will come from a distance, so it may be -useful to invite them to observe what they can readily see on the way -hither, which will be a relatively painless method of amassing some -information. - -Yet the method of arrival itself suggests choices, options, and -exercises in probability. Do visitors come in covered wagons, or in jet -planes; by bus, car, train, or some other way? The most convenient way, -doubtless, is by plane traveling six hundred miles an hour at a height -of some thirty thousand feet; but the most rewarding way is by saddle or -on foot as the early collectors came. - -Since one cannot know his own country well if he knows no other, a -visitor from the east arriving at an altitude of five miles will -probably be more conscious than others of drastic changes in the -landscape when he first looks down on New Mexico. Instead of the -universal green of the east, he will note the earth as an unaccustomed -tawny, reddish brown expanse, and this will be its common color through -most months of the year. He will note the absence of rivers, but the -presence of mountains which generally ring the horizon. He will wonder, -after traversing the border counties at the western edge of the Great -Plains, at the infrequency of plowlands, and will promptly conclude that -New Mexico is one vast, bare desert--an impression that will be -corrected rapidly when he visits the dark National Forests where the -slim, crowded spruces and firs tower skyward. - -The visitor from El Paso, as the Chihuahua desert (the name is fairly -deserved) slides backward underneath him, will be amazed at the -serpentine stripe of vivid verdure below, all completely leveled, and -all marked off by geometrical lines and tightly bordered by pale hills -where the vegetation is reduced to tiny dots not tall enough to cast a -shadow. Still proceeding north, he will presently be above a ninety-mile -stretch where the vegetation is so skimpy and the river so closely boxed -in by desolate hills that Spanish explorers bestowed on it the sinister -name _Jornada del Muerto_--Dead Man's Journey, which is -self-explanatory. - -But on the other hand, a visitor descending into New Mexico from the -northland in wintertime above this same Rio Grande will traverse a -featureless jumble of peaks on which the black coniferous forest no -longer shows as black at all but, snow-encased, gleams as white as the -naked snowfields themselves. And he will find incredible the immense -range of climate spanned in a flight only an hour long. - -The jet traveler approaching from the west beholds the greatest, most -spectacular panorama of all, the true wasteland of the desert, with vast -blocks uplifted from out of earth's crust, plateaus dissected by giant -empty canyons whose walls are seared to utter nudity by ages of the most -intense sunshine on our continent. Here the architecture of nature is -all designed on a gigantic scale, and the climate exhibits influences of -a mighty ocean, of towering mountain chains, and the range of wandering -planetary winds which created the desert. From the altitude of a -cruising jet, the distances, the speed, the color, and the light are -indescribably exhilarating. - -Since the traveler arriving from any direction can see for -identification only a few species, it will suffice to point out only two -of the harbingers of eastern New Mexico, both of which are dominant on -that area of the Great Plains: the blue grama grass, which in fall and -winter bears the graceful sickle-shaped head, and the small _Yucca -glauca_ which cannot be mistaken for anything else. - -Along the northern line, the visitor should look for the somber, almost -black, forest of spruce and fir with its white patches of aspen on the -10,000-foot slopes. Descending farther southward, even a casual observer -will note that these species give way first to the yellow pines, then to -the junipers ("cedars") and dwarf pines or piņons. The visitor arriving -from the south will find most conspicuous of all the olive-green -creosote bush in its summer-winter foliage, next, the omnipresent -mesquite (_Prosopis_), then the various _Opuntia_ cacti (chollas and -prickly pears), and the yuccas. - -As he comes in from Arizona, the splendid saguaros will beckon him -toward the gateway of New Mexico, but they will nowhere enter it -themselves. The vase-shaped body of the ocotillo consisting of -unbranching, ten-foot wands should be recognized at a glance, as -likewise should the various yuccas and agaves. And in early springtime, -a low tree with a rounded mass of golden bloom will joyously proclaim -its identity as a paloverde. - -The desert plants thus enumerated can be recognized along various -stretches of U.S. 66 as one holds his speed at a conservative ninety or, -even better, at a conservative sixty. - -The amateur scientist will need to do some homework before he learns -much systematic botany or plant physiology. It takes considerable study -to comprehend the slow, age-long process which has resulted in the -evolution of all this grotesque vegetation: the interaction of extreme -aridity, high temperature, low humidity, high evaporation, infrequent -precipitation, the hostility of numerous chemical solutions, and the -natural rapacity of the animal population. Each plant must have an -adaptation of its own, from the tiny winter annual, which must race -through its course from a tender rosette to ripened seed before the -searing sunshine arrives, on up through the series to the stoic saguaro, -which seems able to scorn nature's enmity. - -A final warning to the air traveler. He should be sure before deplaning -that he has observed a _bajada_. It is a must. Bajada is one name, -outwash slope is another, alluvial fan is still another. The stewardess -should inquire of each student, and if his answer is "no," she should -reply, "Then you've just flunked the course." A bajada is the most -characteristic single feature of all in the sloping, stony topography of -the desert--and remember that the surface of the desert is regularly -sloping and stony. The Spanish word itself means only a down slope, but -it has come to have a semitechnical sense--a fan-shaped apron of rocky -debris at the foot of a mountain where it has settled out of the summer -torrents and there keeps accumulating in successive floods. As the mass -builds up, the bigger fragments drop out closest to the parent crag, -then the small ones, finally the coarse gravel, and lowest of all on the -slope the fine sand. Thus the fragments are graduated in size, in -distance traveled, and in the nature of soil resulting. As the fan -increases in size and laps up higher and higher on the mountain's flank, -the geologists often describe the result by saying that the mountain "is -burying itself under its own debris." From the air, the lines of -drainage will be seen to have assumed the form of a tree with its trunk -downward, its branches high in air. But the most interesting aspect of a -bajada is the nice proportion which nature works out between the plant -species and their location on the curve. - - -FROM SAGEBRUSH TO SPRUCE TREES - -The traveler who has viewed the Southwestern panorama of nature from its -sagebrush to its spruce trees has indeed seen most of it. The spruce -which grows wild only well up on the higher mountains is familiar to -everybody because it has become a favorite in formal planting -everywhere. But the sages--who knows them? To the tenderfoot, almost any -gray plant is "sage." To my friends the cowmen, sage means commonly -saltbush. To my friends the foresters, sage means an artemisia. But -there are romantics to whom "purple sage" is Apache plume, which is a -member of the wild rose family. - -Some popular education would seem to be desirable. And this applies, -too, to the cacti, for there is more misinformation about them than -anything else that grows, runs, or creeps--except rattlesnakes. The -clever people who design travel folders and pictorial maps almost always -put saguaros in New Mexico. But saguaros do not grow in New Mexico. That -is final! And the yucca is not a cactus. That also is final. Nor yet the -ocotillo--that defiant, splendid denizen of the desert which flaunts the -scarlet torch of flowers. The question that is always on the surface as -one writes of plant life in the Southwest is, "Who wants to know?" The -picnicker wants to know the names--and nothing much besides--of the wild -flowers. My friend the cowman already has the names; that is, the common -ones. If I chance to mention blue grama grass, he gently corrects me, -"black grama." Then if I mention black grama, he says, "no, white -grama." But at least he is concerned about something more important than -nonscientific names. He wants to know if the plant is something that a -lean old cow can eat, whether it stays green in winter, and if it will -hold the soil in place. The tourist who pilots car and passengers some -six hundred miles between breakfast and bedtime asks only what he was -looking at. The rest of us who go into the mountains often enough to be -impressed by the layer-cake succession of plants on their slopes can, -with the aid of some reading, amass a store of knowledge where others -amass only mileage. On a tour, it is mileage or knowledge. One has to -choose. - -Actually, our New Mexico desert is not dominated by sage. That honor is -held by the creosote bush, called by some of the old-timers -_greasewood_, _Covillea glutinosa_, by some of the scientists--along -with five other synonyms. Like the mesquite with which it shares the -same general habitat but _does not intermix_, it occupies an immense -spread of territory, roughly from Texas to California. Since no -livestock will eat it and the ground it occupies is equally useless for -agriculture because of aridity and stoniness, creosote is a veritable -coyote for survival. The traveler descending from Taos to Santa Fe need -not look for it. The sage of that locality, which gives the landscape -its singularly mournful aspect, is a true sage. With good reason the -cowboys call it _black sage_. - -In 1846, Lieutenant Emory, as he rode southward with the Army of the -West, first encountered the creosote as he approached Socorro. The -northward extension of the plant is at the same point today, and the -range of mesquite extends only a few miles farther north. These two -remarkable plants are the main markers of the Lower Sonoran Zone. In the -same arid, stony, broken country, the traveler will find an abundance of -cacti, and these plants are usually supposed to be the most tenacious of -all tenacious growing things. Actually, in southwestern Arizona and -neighboring parts of California there are whole areas where the aridity -is too severe for cacti, but for our state--let it stand. Everybody, of -course, has noted the grotesque shape of the plants, but not everybody -has noted that the shape was chosen with a canny intelligence. A globe -exposes less surface (that is, the vulnerable area for evaporation) than -any other solid of equal volume. And a cylinder is second best. Another -thing--cacti being succulents are filled with a watery sap or juice -which quickly coagulates after a wound and stops the waste of moisture. -Furthermore, the plant's aggressive root system is arranged so as to -capture the grounds scanty moisture most quickly and completely after -rains. - -Cacti of more than sixty species occur within our state, but more than -nine tenths of the plants seen along the highway--unless they are -brought together for a garden collection--can be grouped into one genus, -the _Opuntia_. The family likeness is shown not by the shape or general -appearance but by the fact that all are jointed. Both the cane cactus -(also called cholla and elkhorn) and the pancaked prickly pear, unlike -the big barrel cactus and the numerous small species which resemble it -in shape, have joints and may therefore be rightly called opuntias. The -"pancakes," it may be remarked, are not leaves but divisions of the -stem. A cactus gets along without leaves. So a good rough-and-ready test -is this: if it has leaves, it is not a cactus--which eliminates -ocotillo, yucca, agave, sotol, and so on. - -The barrel cactus is sure to be seen growing beside service stations in -the southern part of the state. Its name as well as its size identifies -it. The flowers and the large lemon-shaped fruits are worth a glance. If -they do not occur on the south side of the plant, it has been -transplanted and turned. The evidence is as trustworthy as the presence -of moss on the north side of a tree in the forest. - -The barrel cacti, the opuntias, acacias, the ocotillos, along with the -creosote and mesquite already mentioned, have a way of growing along -together in what is called a plant society. These all belong in the -bottom layer of the cake called the Lower Sonoran Zone, which is best -seen on the Rio Grande mesas near El Paso. - -The layer next above it comprises the foothill country of the Upper -Sonoran Zone, which includes most of the state of New Mexico. Some of -its common markers are juniper, piņon, oak of various species including -live oak, mountain mahogany, mescal, yucca, beargrass, and the famous -blue grama grass. It is exhibited all along the Continental Divide in -the southwest part of the state but nowhere so well as in the Fort -Bayard Reservation. There a tract, protected for three generations from -woodcutting, fires, and intensive grazing, offers a large-scale picture -of the lovely land that once was New Mexico. There the character and -amount of vegetation astounds the visitor who is familiar with only the -close-picked, parched aspect of the landscape that generally borders the -main highways. When seen from the air, the very color of the -grass-mantled earth is many shades lighter than that of the bare -overgrazed ranges a few miles to the south. And the difference can be -seen by anybody. - -The foothills are dotted, not covered, with juniper and piņon. The -dwarfed, rounded little junipers (properly enough called cedars) leave -the traveler unprepared to believe that they will anywhere become -respectable forest trees. Yet in the Burro Mountains, the alligator-bark -species, finest of them all, reaches a diameter of five feet and an age -of about 1000 years. The wood has an extraordinary fragrance, and its -smoke tells the neighbors for blocks around that you are warming -yourself at the fireplace. Another notable thing about the wood is its -resistance to decay in the earth. I have removed pieces of it from -subterranean ruins of the Mimbres culture which, according to the best -archaeological opinion, are some eight hundred years old. - -The yuccas deserve a story by themselves. One small, unimpressive -species greets you on the meadows at the foot of Raton Pass; others have -to be searched out along high limestone ridges where the foothills are -deciding to become mountains. The one chosen for our state flower is the -tall yucca (_Yucca elata_), a superb species best seen along the -Continental Divide near Silver City. The genus reaches its greatest size -in the grotesque Joshua tree, which never fails to attract the eye on -the Mohave desert in California. - -The century plant has a name that always gets attention. But let us be -sure we mean the same thing. Rightly, it means the mescal, the favorite -food of the Mescalero Apaches. Besides these two names, it is called -also maguey and, no doubt, Spanish dagger along with various other -spine-tipped plants. All of which clinches the argument for a name which -for all users is a certain designation for one object and only one. It -is not just because botanists like to appear learned that they call this -plant _Agave parryi_. That title is as descriptive as middle C for one -key on the piano, and in the same way international. - - [Illustration: Yucca plants] - -Everyone inquires about the century plant's life expectancy. An -insurance man might make an inference from the name. The plant is a big -compact cluster or rosette of rigid, upward-pointing, spadelike leaves, -each four or five inches in width and each tipped with a vicious, stout -thorn. Year after year the plant just sits there by a boulder, -unnoticed. I question whether anything alive on the desert has a better -life expectancy. As far as my observations go, it has no diseases. It is -invincible to drouth. Freezing does not harm it, and fire cannot burn -it--although a yucca even when green will flame up like a torch. No -hungry old cow can crop it, and no rodent gnaws it, at least not enough -to do harm. And since the Indians have gone on reservations, no human -uses it. So it stays there. - -In fact, nothing less than a caterpillar can leave a dent on it--not, of -course, the caterpillar that eats young tomato plants, but the -Caterpillar that pulls heavy road machinery. The plant just does not die -before maturity, it would seem. A remarkable organism, indeed! But after -many, many years, depending on the amount of moisture it receives, it -makes up its mind to flower. In one tremendous effort, it shoots up a -twelve-foot flower stalk at the rate of several inches a day. The -blossoming is a final, dramatic, beautiful gesture, for by the time the -flowers have withered, the great tenacious plant has turned to a ghastly -purple and is dead. - -On the high slopes where the last yuccas end and only a few junipers -remain in the race for survival, the yellow pines come in to mark off -what is called the Transition Zone. The pines need no description, no -printed promotion. The traveler, any traveler, can appreciate them -although he might not be stirred to the slightest interest by the lovely -yuccas. Since the beginning of time, the pines, fragrant, cheerful, -companionable, have been man's best friend. Among the ponderosa pines -takes place most of the hunting, most of the camping, much of the -picnicking. There is no danger that the tourist will overlook the pine -belt and the pines for they are probably the most numerous tree in New -Mexico. - - [Illustration: Piņon needles] - -Above them, the classifications are less clearly defined and ecologists -are less inclined to agree on zonation. The Canadian Zone, if we settle -on that name, occurs only in small areas on the map, and most of them -north of Santa Fe. These are high ridges and island peaks that tower -high enough to tempt the Engelmann spruces. Yet some of these islands -occur as far south as the Mogollon Mountains and thus bring Canadian -Zone scenes almost to the Mexican border. For hardy ecologists who want -to explore high ridges and horns of bare stone which rise as clean as a -hound's tooth clear up into the Arctic-alpine Zone, it is necessary to -enter Colorado. - -Engelmann spruce forests may be associated with the 10,000-foot level. -The blue spruce is very similar, perhaps only a subspecies, but it comes -in a little lower. The Engelmann makes a dense forest hardly allowing -invaders, but the blue is more tolerant, less austere. It loves the -water and is the natural companion of chill, cascading trout streams. -Though fond of shadow, it seems to grow equally well where the narrow -canyons widen and admit the sunshine upon the tiny meadows of lush -grass, cranesbill, velvety red cinquefoils, lupines, and yellow -columbines. And when one of these miniature openings is fringed with -spruces whose pointed tips rise sharp against a curtain of azure with -its white cumulus clouds, there you have the loveliest vista in the -mountains. - - -OUR VISIBLE IMPACT ON THE PLANT LIFE - -Though nature lovers usually find the life zones more fascinating than -any other aspect of plants in the mountains, there is one other much -more important. It is the misuse, injury, and destruction of native -plant life. Because scientists are generally alert to the conservation -of what is useful and beautiful in natural resources, I venture to bring -up the matter here. - -A useful case history is provided by Silver City, New Mexico. It was -founded in the early seventies as a silver camp, which would fairly -guarantee a certain amount of reckless haste and rowdy carelessness. -Point two was its location on a foothill watershed only twenty-seven -square miles in area. Point three was an extreme concentration of -livestock near the town. Point four was the fact that the annual -rainfall was crowded mainly into July, August, and a part of September. - -Mines are naturally users of timber. Obviously, shafts and tunnels have -to be timbered. More than that, little smelters nestled back among the -hills were also hungry for wood. And since coal was expensive and hard -to get, most of the adobe cottages were heated many years by juniper, -oak, and piņon firewood. All these matters were naturally, if not -actually, inevitable under the circumstances. - -The massive ore wagons and freight wagons had to be drawn by four- to -ten-horse teams--and the horses kept on eating. Then because it was also -a ranching country, each cowboy had to keep a _remuda_ of saddle -horses--and they ate too. Also, the few cows that provided milk for the -children grazed hungrily over the stony slopes. Most of all, the range -cattle, which had no provender at all except that which the competitive, -half-starved steers could provide for themselves, overgrazed every -square foot of pasturage down to the bare soil. The government's -open-range policy made overgrazing inevitable because no ranchman could -protect his pasturage since it was all unfenced. The cow that got there -first got the grass. That passed as land management, which proves that -some statesmen then were about as wise as some of the Wizards of -Washington now. But the advent of fences caused the cutting of millions -of fence posts where none should have been cut. - - [Illustration: Elk] - -When the grass went, its roots went, and when its roots went, there was -nothing to hold the soil, and then it, too, started to go. And go it -did. A deep hole formed in Main Street, as it is still called on the -Silver City town plat. The best explanation I can find of that hole is -that earth was taken out of it to form adobe bricks for the walls of -houses and corrals (that clay did make good adobe!). Meanwhile, the -woodhaulers' wagons had greedily carted away the trees from each little -canyon, while the narrow steel tires cut deep ruts which formed two deep -gullies at the first heavy rain. Then the parallel gullies proceeded to -wash out deeper and create a middle ridge or high center on which axles -got stuck. Since there was nobody responsible for making a new road, -there was no choice except to move over and form another track and use -it until in turn it became unusable. (By this simple kind of -destruction, the old Santa Fe Trail, it is said, reached a width of a -hundred feet.) - -But the water descending the slope kept increasing its destructive -velocity as the denuded ground approached the bareness of a tin roof. -Villagers observed that the hole in their Main Street was becoming a -waterfall after each rain, and that the ruin was passing into a big-time -operation. The town built a dam to restrain the floods. It washed out in -the first one. Soon Main Street followed it down the drain, which by -this time was already a hideous gash in the earth many miles long and -twenty feet deep. Then the water began on a really different scale of -destruction. One furious flood washed away the cabin in which Billy the -Kid's mother lived. More than that, it washed away the wall of Judge -Newcomb's house and abducted his Steinway from the second floor. A few -yards from the spot, an old photograph taken in 1891 shows a -woodhauler's ox team lying in the street there. It gives no hint at that -time of the famous Big Ditch--the only name that Main Street, Silver -City has had now for the last forty years. - -By 1927, after many other attempts had been made to tame the floods a -steel bridge about one hundred feet long and thirty feet above the floor -of the "canyon" was swung into place. In 1935-1936, the Soil -Conservation Service went to work in earnest, made the watershed a -demonstration area, and spent a third of a million dollars there in a -short time. - -In the _New Mexico Magazine_ for August 1934, the really incredible -story of the Big Ditch is exactly documented with old photographs and -newspaper clippings. After a friendship of many years with old-time -miners and ranchers at Silver City, I would not point an accusing finger -at one of them. I appeal, however, for a greater vigilance over plant -life and soils nowadays from everybody. In such protected areas as the -Fort Bayard Reservation, the U.S. National Forest enclosures, and the -frontier cemeteries, the imagination can visualize a New Mexico that is -far different from what is here today--a close-picked, hard-used land -where unwise woodcutting has continued through much of the last three -centuries and where the thin ranges have been required to support in the -last century alone perhaps more than one hundred million cows, sheep, -and horses. The magnitude of the cause accounts for the magnitude of the -effect. - -A good many years ago, I wrote as the concluding paragraph to _Sky -Determines_ what seemed to some exaggerated praise for my adopted -homeland. There is now less and less cavil from any readers. I believed -the words true in 1934, and I stand my ground now. - - Perhaps nowhere in the world is the natural setting nobler than in New - Mexico--more beautiful with spacious desert, sky, mountain; more - varied in rich, energizing climate, more dramatic in its human - procession, more mellow with age-old charm. Endowed with sunshine that - stimulates, and winter chill that toughens; with silence and majestic - desert color that offer a spiritual companionship, it has enough. - Here, if anywhere is air, earth, sky fit to constitute a gracious - homeland, not alone for those who study and create, but as well for - those who play, for those who sit still to brood and dream. - - [Illustration: Tyuonyi Pueblo ruin - - This large ruin in Bandelier National Monument lies along the banks - of El Rito de los Frijoles. Narrow-leaf cottonwoods line the stream, - and shrubs of the Upper Sonoran Zone cover the hillside slopes.] - - - - - Dwellers in the Hills and Plains - - - _by_ Levon Lee[1] - -The vast sweep of New Mexico's 77 million acres, which ranges all the -way from the Alpine tundra of the tallest mountains down to the heat of -the lower Sonoran desert, offers a home and sanctuary for many kinds of -wild life. - -Some of these animals are considered game animals; others may be pests, -since they prey upon or destroy what mankind regards as its own. The -coyote which takes a sheep from the small herder is wicked indeed in the -eyes of the sheepman. Predatoriness on all living things by other things -has gone on since time began and will continue--mankind being not the -least predator. - -A good definition is that composed by the late Judge C. M. Botts who -defined a predator as "a critter that takes another critter that I -want." - -New Mexico's immense topographic and geologic differences make for a -very wide range of habitats preferred by the various species. The elk -and deer, being highly adaptable, may be found from the Alpine tundra of -the higher mountains clear out into the creosote desert. Deer occur in -four separate subspecies: the Rocky Mountain and the desert mule deer, -the western whitetail, and the Sonoran fantail deer, which is also a -whitetail. These animals may be found all the way from the dense -coniferous forests of the north with perpetual gloom and cold to the -sun-scorched granite mountains such as the Florida and the Organ -mountains of southern New Mexico; from great towering granite spires to -the folded blocks of limestone such as comprise the Big Hatchets, the -Guadalupe, and the San Andres mountains. - -The javelina, or little wild pig, lives along the watercourses in the -south west part of the state. Its thin spiky hair gives it little or no -protection against cold, and only in the balmier parts of New Mexico -does it feel at home. - -The desert bighorn sheep, as distinguished from his cousin the Rocky -Mountain bighorn, goes around on a sun-scorched, ocotillo-covered -limestone-rubble slope in the full glare of the sun and lies down to -take his afternoon siesta. The Rocky Mountain bighorn, on the other -hand, with his preference for cooler climates does not shun even the -dense spruce timber at the very top of the Sandia Mountains as the -hideout for his afternoon rest. - -This adaptability by New Mexico's species to the tremendous differences -in altitude, rainfall, and temperature makes them all the more valuable -as a resource for the pleasure and enjoyment of everyone. - - [Illustration: (_Photo courtesy of Forest Service_, U.S.D.A.) - Pack train on a wilderness trail] - -The most popular big game animals in New Mexico are the mule deer in -either of the two subspecies. Every fall, beginning in late October and -extending ordinarily through December, more than 100,000 hunters take to -the woods for their 50-50 chance of bringing home the sought-after mule -deer. A hunter may shoot his mule deer at the Alpine tundra timber line, -out in the blazing heat of the creosote desert, or among the rock crags -of some of the southern desert mountains. He will find his quarry a -worthy opponent. Shy, wild, and with terrific eyesight and hearing, -these animals provide a true challenge. - -Elk and antelope, as well as bighorn sheep, are hunted by special -licenses only, since their numbers do not warrant a general open season. -These special licenses are much sought after and are ordinarily made -available by application and a public drawing in the fall. The javelina, -confined to our southwestern counties, is also hunted by special -license. It is noteworthy that although New Mexico had protected them -for many years, the javelina did not increase its numbers. As a matter -of fact, the natural losses applied against any game species are going -to be in effect no matter whether hunting is permitted or not, the -hunting being merely subtracted from what would be lost to nature -anyhow. - -Our state mammal, the black bear, is found throughout the wooded areas -of the state and occasionally wanders out into the plains or down into -the desert mountains of the south. Bears are hunted avidly in the fall -by sportsmen with dog packs before the regular big game seasons begin, -when the use of dogs is prohibited. They are again hunted during the big -game seasons by anyone bearing the proper license, but no packs of dogs -are allowed. This is to prohibit the possibility of dogs being used to -pursue elk, deer, or wild turkey, an illegal act in New Mexico. - -New Mexico is fortunate in having a tremendous diversity of both upland -game and waterfowl, and big game and small game for her people. -Importantly, the game resources are spread out through every county in -the state. - -The state's richness of bird life is varied and extensive. New Mexico -ranks among the first five in the total number of birds found within its -boundaries. More than 400 species of birds live within the state. These -range all the way from the tiny mites of the bird kingdom, the -hummingbirds, weighing less than an ounce, to the great white whistling -swan, weighing up to 25 pounds, or the Merriam turkey, which may weigh -close to 30. Of the six species of quail found in the United States, New -Mexico has four and may possess the fifth, since the mountain quail of -the western coast have been introduced into this state and still occur -on the west slopes of the Sacramento Mountains near Tularosa. Five -species of doves found throughout the state from the highest coniferous -forest down into the scorching heat of the creosote desert are the Inca -dove, ground dove, mourning dove, white-winged dove, and the bandtail -pigeon, all of them close relatives. Of these, only two, the mourning -dove and the white-winged dove, are commonly hunted as game species. - -An unexplained and precipitous decline struck the bandtail pigeon about -ten or twelve years ago, from which it apparently has never recovered. -Although hunting was undoubtedly part of the pressure exercised against -these birds, it in no way accounted for their sudden and dramatic -decline in numbers. This decline may gradually be reversed, since more -and more of these birds are being seen. It is well known that animals -with a high reproductive capacity can endure much heavier losses to -their population than can those with low or very limited reproduction, -such as the bandtail, which normally lays only a single egg. The -mourning dove, on the other hand, lays two eggs at a time and may raise -as many as five or more broods in one year. Take this one step further -with the scaled or Gambel quail, which may lay up to 12 or 15 eggs, and -it can readily be seen that the population of bandtail pigeons can never -endure the losses that the much more prolific mourning dove and quail -can. The same might be said by comparison of elk and deer. Elk do not -bear their first young until their third year, and then the cow may not -bear young but alternate years until her seventh or eighth year; by that -time she has begun to decline in vigor; in her total life she may not -produce more than four or five calves. The mule deer, on the other hand, -start bearing at the age of two, with their first birth normally single; -from then on, twins are usual for the rest of the doe's life. Thus, deer -have a considerably greater reproductive potential than do elk or -bighorn sheep, which have one young at a time. - -The fleet-footed antelope of the open rolling plains is another example -of fairly high reproductive capacity, since they breed earlier than do -deer and normally bear twins. Antelope are confined to the more open -country where their prodigious running ability and marvelous eyesight -stand in good stead in protecting them against their natural enemies. - -The wild turkey, classified by law in New Mexico as big game, is found -throughout the mountainous areas of the state, not excepting some of the -desert ranges. New Mexico is one of two states fortunate enough to -possess three of the five forms of the wild turkey known to the United -States: the Merriam turkey, found in the higher elevations of the -mountainous areas, usually the ponderosa forest; the Rio Grande turkey, -confined to the watercourses of the eastern plains; and the fairly rare -Mexican turkey, found in the Animas and Peloncillo mountains of extreme -southwestern New Mexico. In Hildalgo County these mountains are actually -largely Mexican in both flora and fauna. Some of the rarest, most -beautiful birds of North America are also found in this area and nowhere -else in the United States with the exception of southeastern Arizona. - -Our most abundant game bird, the mourning dove, is found in every county -of the state and nests from the coniferous forests of the north and the -higher mountains of the south clear out into the plains where there is -not a tree in sight for miles. Doves are extremely adaptable and very -prolific. They provide the finest kind of sport shooting and are avidly -sought, particularly by shotgun enthusiasts of the eastern and southern -parts of the state. - -Scaled quail are found throughout New Mexico, being absent only in -elevations above 7000 feet. Even there, they periodically occur but are -ordinarily driven back by winter snow. Gambel quail are found throughout -the river courses of the Rio Grande Valley, the San Juan Valley, and the -southwestern watercourses. The Mearns' quail is found in the southern -half of the state in the higher mountain elevations, whereas the -bob-white quail occupies the grassy rolling sandhills of the eastern -counties where it is commonly found together with scaled quail. - -Quail hunting is one of the most popular sports in New Mexico and many -thousands of hunters can hardly wait from one season to the next. New -Mexico is in the heart of the scaled quail country and provides some of -the finest shooting to be had anywhere. - -Migratory waterfowl, while not considered abundant, are not uncommon in -this state, known more for its aridity than for its rivers and lakes. -The two main fly ways are the Rio Grande Valley and the Pecos Valley, -with the Pecos Valley being somewhat ahead in total numbers. - -Ducks commonly found in New Mexico in abundance are teal, both -green-winged and blue-winged as well as the lesser-known cinnamon teal, -mallards, widgeon, pintails, gadwall, scaups, canvasbacks, redheads, and -other species. - -In addition, New Mexico plays winter home to many thousands of the -lesser sandhill crane which is confined to the river valleys and open -plains of the eastern part of the state, particularly the southeastern -counties. A smaller population of the greater sandhill crane is found in -the Rio Grande Valley and near Columbus. Flocks of the small -Richardson's goose are found in the northeastern counties, in -particular, and along river courses throughout the state. The small snow -goose is likewise confined mostly to major river courses. The larger -Canada geese are found particularly in the middle Rio Grande Valley -where extensive development has been made by both state and federal -agencies to encourage the use and the presence of bands of geese. - -New Mexico is unique in that it was the first state in many years to be -able to open a hunting season on the lesser sandhill crane. This bird is -comparatively abundant, the total population probably being in excess of -200,000, with the vast majority of these birds wintering in west Texas, -New Mexico, and Mexico. They occasionally cause heavy depredation to -grain crops in the southeastern part of the state, and hunting has been -partly justified on the basis that the large wintering flocks might be -broken up and depredation spread over a larger area for less individual -effect. These birds are tall, wild, and shy. They are hard to hunt, even -more so than geese, and although strenuous efforts have been made, not -too many of them are bagged. - -One should not overlook the tremendous opportunity for sport hunting of -unprotected species, such as the various rabbits, the mountain lions and -bobcats, and coyotes. - -The wolf is now very rare in New Mexico. Only occasionally do wolves -come out of Mexico into the southwestern counties, usually in Hidalgo, -Luna, and Doņa Ana. Wolves are large, effective predators and are -incompatible with the cattle-raising industry. Since they have a -fondness for beef, the hand of the cattleman is raised against them. - -The mountain lion prefers his natural prey of deer, mule deer being the -principal victims. The bobcat preys on deer and on many of the small -wild animals, rabbits in particular. These predators, when run and -hunted with a pack of dogs, provide a fascinating sport which is growing -in popularity. - -The use of calls to attract animals to a "victim" has become widespread. -The calls imitate the distressed cry of rabbits and other creatures -which to the predator means a meal close at hand. Everything from -mountain lions to red-tailed hawks have been hunted by this procedure, -and it can be very successful in bagging quarry. This type of hunting -has value in that it can be enjoyed at any time of the year throughout -the state and with a minimum of time and effort. - -Hunting is a conservation practice that, wisely administered, results in -wholesome out-of-door recreation and brings many tons of high protein -food of highest quality to the table. Nature nowhere in her economy -locks up a resource and throws away the key--we should be no less wise. - -Long gone are the buffalo which once roamed the High Plains of eastern -New Mexico. Exotic animals, imported and stocked along the rugged canyon -of the Canadian River above Conchas Reservoir, are the Barbary sheep -with their magnificent coiled horns. Beavers dam some of the mountain -streams, badgers and skunks can be seen from the highways, and amid the -forests are squirrels and porcupines, while high on rock slopes, the -Rocky Mountain woodchuck and the gray rock cony dash from ledge to -ledge. The white-tailed ptarmigan also haunts these high crags, and -lower down the mountain, bluebirds nest. Hawks, eagles, magpies, jays, -ravens, orioles, wrens, sparrows, warblers, finches, and many other -birds of endless variety soar over canyon, forest, and sand-dune desert. - -Most notable of all is the crested roadrunner, the chapparal cock or -paisano of Mexico and the state bird. In between racing with horsemen or -automobiles, the slender roadrunner cocks his head, strikes swiftly and -victoriously, then swallows his victim, which can be a small -rattlesnake, whole. - -Snakes there are aplenty. Mostly, they are nonpoisonous, such as the -garter snake, glass snake, puff adder, ring-necked snake, the coachwhip, -the Mexican blacksnake, and the large western bullsnake. The small but -very venomous coral snake is rare, but common among rocks and near -streams are the large western diamondback rattlesnake, the prairie -rattlers, and the less common green or blacktailed rattlesnake. Every -sun-warmed rock has its scampering lizard, and nearby are horned toads, -dry-land terrapins, tortoises, tarantulas, centipedes, vinegarroons, -scorpions, and spiders. Of these latter desert animals, only the black -widow spider is poisonous. - -Contrast in the influence of environments is shown by the animals that -inhabit the "malpais," the recent flows of black, rough-surfaced lava, -compared with similar animals found among the white gypsum dunes of -White Sands. Black or darkly colored subspecies of mice, plains wood -rats, kangaroo rats, and rock squirrels live on the black lava, whereas -white or pale counterparts of these animals live among the white gypsum -dunes. - - [Illustration: Sketch of roadrunner, New Mexico state bird] - -The dwellers in the hills and plains of New Mexico are as varied as the -hills and plains; they add their color and movement to the scenes of the -Land of Enchantment. - - - - - Rocks That Shape the Enchanting Landscape - - - _by_ Frank E. Kottlowski - -"As old as the hills." How much more ancient can anything be? Yet New -Mexico's hills, its enchanting landscapes, were built in but the most -recent "minute" of geologic time. Merely one geologic era ago, marine -waters covered the state, and storm-tossed waves ruled where now the hot -sun beats down on dry sands and cacti a mile above sea level. - -What determined the Land of Enchantment's landscapes? Shaping these land -forms are the rocks of the earth's crust, the structure of those rocks, -and the endless battle between the rocks and the atmosphere. A story -spelled out in stone, the geologic history. The rocks determine. - -Eons ago, it began; one billion, two billion, or perhaps even more -billions of years ago. A history whose beginnings have been lost owing -to destruction of its earliest records. A history, written in the rocks, -that is divided into four general parts (fig. 1). The oldest rocks, more -than 600 m.y. (million years) old, almost devoid of traces of life, are -the Precambrian rocks. The Paleozoic rocks, 230 to 600 m.y. old, are -marked by ancient (_paleo_-) life. This was the Period of Invertebrates, -animals without backbones. Mesozoic rocks, 70 to 230 m.y. old, formed in -the Era of Dinosaurs and contain types of life that are intermediate -(_meso_-) between the ancient and modern animals. And rocks of the -Cenozoic Era, 70 m.y. ago to the present, make up the latest (_ceno_-, -recent) chapter of the earth's history. - -Events of the Cenozoic Era have had the greatest influence on New -Mexico's landscapes. So let us begin the story at the dawn of the -Cenozoic, and return to the earlier geologic chapters later. - - -CENOZOIC ERA - -The mountains, the plains, the rivers, and the lakes all are transitory -features of the landscape, created during the recent part of the -Cenozoic Era, and all doomed to destruction in the near future, -geologically speaking. Even so, some of the plains and mountains may -predate man's evolution onto the earth scene. - -Gone were the late Mesozoic seas; never again during our lifetime nor -the lifetime of many future generations will marine waters roll over New -Mexico, and sea-spawned creatures rule. For the first two thirds of the -Cenozoic, the Paleogene Period (25 to 70 m.y. ago), New Mexico suffered -from the dying effects of the great Laramide upheaval of the earth's -crust. Large areas were exposed to the harsh erosion of stream and wind. -The landscape looked as parts of southwestern New Mexico do today--tall -rugged mountain ranges scattered in isolated patches amid wide gravelly -plains. But the climate was more humid, and while no large through -rivers are known, local great swamps and lakes lay on the plains in -debris-trapping lowlands. - - [Illustration: Figure 1. Table of geologic time] - - _Scale of geologic time - in millions of years_ - _Era_ _Rocks_ _Dominant life_ - _Geologic age_ - - 70 CENOZOIC - Neogene - Pleistocene Bandelier volcanic ash, Man - basalts, sand dunes, river - gravels, glacial & lake beds. - 1 my - Pliocene Volcanic rocks of Mt. Mammals - Taylor, early Valle Grande & - Gila region; Santa Fe, Gila, - and Ogallala Fms. - 11 my - Miocene - 25 my - Paleogene - Oligocene Datil, Espinaso, and other - volcanic rocks. - 40 my - Eocene Baca, Animas, Nacimiento, - San Jose, Raton, Poison - Canyon, Galisteo El Rito, - Blanco Basin, & Cub Mountain - Fms. - 60 my - Paleocene - 160 MESOZOIC - Cretaceous Upper sandstone, shale, & Dinosaurs - coal. Mesaverde, Pierre, & - Niobrara, Dakota Ss. and - Mancos Sh. - Volcanic rocks, limestone, - sandstone, and conglomerate. - 135 my - Jurassic Morrison Fm., Summerville - Fm., Zuni Ss., Todilto Ls. & - gypsum, Entrada Ss. - 180 my - Triassic Wingate Ss., Dockum Fm., - Chinle Fm., Santa Rosa Ss., - Moenkopi Fm. - 370 PALEOZOIC - Permian Rustler Dolomite; redbeds Amphibians - Castile gypsum, Salado Salt. - Artesia Grp.--Capitan reef - San Andres Ls.--Goat Seep - reef - Glorieta Sandstone - Yeso Fm.--Bone Spring Fm. - Abo Redbeds--Hueco Ls. - 280 my - Pennsylvanian Mostly limestone; beds of - shale & sandstone; lenses of - gypsum, salt, and coal. - 310 my - Mississippian Helms & Paradise Fms. Fish - Rancheria Ls. - Lake Valley & Escabrosa Lss. - Arroyo Penasco & Tererro Fms. - 345 my - Devonian Percha Shale, Ouray Ls. - northern dol., ss, and sh. - erosion - 400 my - Silurian Fusselman Dolomite - erosion - 425 my - Ordovician Montoya Dolomite Invertebrates - El Paso Limestone - Bliss - 500 my - Cambrian Sandstone - erosion - 1500+ - PRECAMBRIAN quartzite, gneiss, rhyolite, Simple - andesite, granite, primitive forms - pegmatite, schist, - greenstone. - - [Illustration: Figure 2. New Mexico during Paleogene time] - -Scenery in north-central New Mexico (fig. 2) may have been similar to -today's, with mountains in the same general areas as the present-day -Sangre de Cristo, Nacimiento, San Juan, and Brazos ranges. -Coarse-grained gravels were stacked up at the edges of the mountains, -but out in the adjoining lowlands, floodplain sands and varicolored -lake-bed clays settled. Three low areas were "basins" of deposition -where thick masses of sediments accumulated--the Raton and Poison Canyon -formations in the Raton Basin near Raton, the Animas, Nacimiento, and -San Jose formations in the San Juan Basin north and northwest of Cuba, -seen along N.M. Highway 44, with thinner deposits of the El Rito and -Blanco Basin formations to the northeast of Cuba, and the Galisteo -Formation in the Galisteo Basin south and southwest of Santa Fe. -Volcanic rocks, the Espinaso beds, overlie the Galisteo but are not much -younger in age. Reddish rocks of the Galisteo Formation crop out along -U.S. Highway 85 at La Bajada Hill about twenty miles southwest of Santa -Fe. The Sandia Mountains' area appears to have been a lowland. - -Silicified wood, chiefly of pines but with some oak and poplar, is -abundant in the Galisteo Formation. Large logs, up to 6 feet in diameter -and 135 feet long, have been found. In the great swamps of the Raton -Basin, where the climate was much like that of Georgia today, tall -reeds, water lilies, fig trees, palm trees, magnolias, and sycamores -grew in profusion, and contributed to the thick coal beds now mined -there. The early ages of the Cenozoic saw the spectacular rise of the -mammals to dominance over reptiles on land; numerous remains of the -early mammals are found in the Nacimiento and San Jose formations, -including the famous Puerco and Torrejon faunas--as well as many clams, -snails, fish, turtles, crocodiles, snakes, and birds. - -Southeastern New Mexico appears to have been relatively level with only -local hills and vast regions of featureless, stagnant but high plains -where erosion slowly ate downward, deposition was slight, and most of -the detritus was carried eastward far beyond the state's borders. The -redbeds of the Baca Formation were laid down on the north flank of low -mountains that extended intermittently from somewhere near Quemado -toward Socorro. Some ancient hills near present-day Sierra Blanca shed -rock fragments that accumulated near Capitan as the varicolored Cub -Mountain Formation. Deeply eroded uplands northwest of Elephant Butte -Reservoir supplied gravels and sands that mingled with andesitic -volcanic debris as the upper part of the McRae Formation in central -Sierra County. Many of the weathered greenish and purplish volcanic -rocks in southwestern New Mexico were extruded at this time, and beneath -the surface these molten magmas (hot liquefied rocks) cut into older -rocks. Vapors and hot solutions from the magmas are believed to have -emplaced some of New Mexico's vast ore deposits during this time. - -The last phase of the Paleogene Period, about 25 to 40 m.y. ago, was an -earth-shaking time in New Mexico--and the first explosion of an atomic -bomb in 1945 on the Jornada del Muerto between Socorro and Carrizozo was -a relatively low-energy-yield event compared with the late Paleogene -earth movements. Almost the entire southwestern quarter of the state -literally exploded, with volcanic eruptions on a grand scale. These lava -flows, rock breccias, ashes, pumice, and associated intrusives (molten -rocks that did not make it to the surface) form the Datil-Mogollon -plateau--at least 100 miles in diameter--as part of the Datil Formation, -which locally is miles thick, and made up the main mass of many other -ranges near the Mexican border. Sierra Blanca (12,003 feet altitude) -northeast of Alamogordo is a huge, isolated volcanic mass of late -Paleogene age. - - [Illustration: Figure 3. East-west cross section of Rio Grande - graben near Santa Fe] - -This widespread volcanic activity continued into the Neogene Period -which began about 25 m.y. ago. Rhyolites, pumice, and perlite in the -southwest, as well as in other parts of the state, covered wide areas. -Mount Taylor, towering up to 11,389 feet near Grants and visible on the -western skyline from Albuquerque, is a Neogene volcanic pile, as are -parts of the Sangre de Cristo range northeast of Taos. Shiprock and -Cabezon Peak, landmarks in northwestern New Mexico, are volcanic -necks--the eroded cores of ancient volcanoes. - -Valle Grande caldera makes up the center of the Jemez Mountains west of -Los Alamos and is a late Neogene volcanic mass with the central crater -sixteen miles in diameter--one of the world's largest calderas. -Bandelier National Monument headquarters is within a canyon carved from -Valle Grande's ashes. Volcanic ash scattered over the western parts of -Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas was blown from this volcano. Capulin -Mountain, east of Raton, is a huge recent cinder cone and is surrounded -by numerous basaltic lava flows that cap the High Plains from Raton -eastward to Clayton. The very fresh black basalt flows near Carrizozo -and in the valley of Rio San Jose near Grants are probably less than -1000 years old. Numerous mesas along the Rio Grande Valley from the -Colorado line to El Paso are capped by black basalt flows of late -Neogene age. - -Many of the present-day mountains were uplifted in early Neogene time, -following the climax of the great volcanic eruptions. This uplifting, in -many instances, took place along one side of huge mountain masses, -forming tilted fault blocks like the Sandia, Manzano, San Andres, and -Sacramento mountains. Rock beds in the Sandia Mountains, for example, -dip to the east, but were uplifted along a west-bounding fault zone--a -huge break in the earth's crust--as much as four miles! This was an -earth-shaking event! However, the uplifting took place slowly, and -indeed is continuing today as the Albuquerque area, along with the Rio -Grande Valley southward to Socorro, is one of the most active earthquake -areas in the state. - -Concurrent with uplift, other blocks of the earth's crust sank, forming -graben basins which were flooded with rock debris from the adjoining -uplifts. A tremendous irregular graben, now followed by the Rio Grande, -cut north-south across the state. Geologists label it the _Rio Grande -structural depression_ (fig. 3). Mountains on the east are the Sangre de -Cristo, Sandia, Manzano, Los Pinos, Fra Cristobal, and Caballo ranges; -those to the west include the Brazos, Jemez, Ladron, Socorro, Magdalena, -and San Mateo mountains. Within this complex graben, and around the -bordering ranges, the colorful sandstones and siltstones of the Santa Fe -Group were deposited--these red, yellow, orange, and cream rocks are -eroded in many places, such as near Santa Fe, to "badlands" -characteristic of the landscapes along the Rio Grande Valley from -Espanola southward to El Paso. Much brightly tinted silicified wood is -found in these beds, and literally freight-car loads of mammalian -remains have been shipped to museums from outcrops near Espanola. - -In the basins amid the mountains of southwestern New Mexico, similar -sands and gravels of the Gila Conglomerate filled low areas. East of the -mountains of central New Mexico that form a north-south chain of ranges -from Raton to Carlsbad, thin gravels of the Ogallala Formation were -dumped onto the western edges of the High Plains. They now cap the -plains as well as make picturesque bluffs east of the Pecos River and -southeast of Tucumcari--the "caprock" of that area. In northwestern New -Mexico, isolated mesas are topped by the Chuska and Bidahochi -formations; similar sands, silts, and clays washed from adjoining -highlands. - -The final episodes of landscape formation occurred during the -Pleistocene Epoch, the recent glacial period. Mountain valley glaciers -occupied some of the higher parts of the state, as far southward as -Sierra Blanca; large lakes filled many of the closed basins, such as -those near Estancia and south of Lordsburg; the Carrizozo and Grants -basalt flows were extruded; the final tremendous explosions of Valle -Grande spread volcanic ash over large regions; sands, gravels, and clays -were eroded and deposited by streams and in lakes; and sand dunes were -heaped up in many areas. The glistening white gypsum dunes (fig. 4) of -White Sands National Monument, built up into 50-foot-high mounds -windward of gypsiferous Lake Lucero, are spectacular products of the -wind. - -The Rio Grande, in its present valley, probably is only as old as -mid-Pleistocene, born during late uplift of its headwater mountains, the -San Juan and Sangre de Cristo ranges in southern Colorado and northern -New Mexico--initiated by floods of meltwaters from waning mountain -glaciers. Some of the lower terraces (benches) along the Rio Grande are -very young, being dated by radiocarbon methods at 2600 b.p. (before -present). Until shackled by Elephant Butte Dam in 1916, and smaller dams -up and down the valley, the Rio Grande switched its course with every -large springtime flood. Even with these man-made controls, the Rio -carves new channels during floods and covers flooded fields with silt as -the high waters recede. - - -PRECAMBRIAN ERA - -The highest points in New Mexico are in the north-central region. Here, -along the backbone of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, tower Wheeler Peak -(13,160 feet above sea level), northeast of Taos, and South Truchas Peak -(13,102 feet), northeast of Santa Fe. Snow lingers on these lofty spires -all year around except during an especially hot August. Highest -peaks--they must be capped by the youngest rocks. But no, the quartzites -and gneisses, hard rocks made up of quartz and feldspar, that hold up -these pinnacles against the attack of water and ice are among the oldest -rocks known in the Southwest--perhaps as much as two billion years old. -These Precambrian rocks lay deep beneath the earth's surface from early -Paleozoic time (500 m.y. ago?) until early Neogene time, then were -uplifted along great breaks in the earth's crust, uplifted slowly and -intermittently during the span of time from about 20 m.y. ago to perhaps -1 m.y. ago. - - [Illustration: Figure 4. Gypsum dunes of White Sands] - -How did these ancient rocks form? What did New Mexico look like during -the dawn of geologic history? The record in stone is fragmentary. But -about two billion or so years back, thick masses of quartz sandstone -were laid down in north-central New Mexico, as well as vast lenses of -mud, and some beds of feldspar-rich sandstone. Volcanic activity was -intense; huge flows of rhyolite and andesite were poured out over most -of the state, and these in turn, along with the muddy and sandy -sediments, were intruded by enormous masses of hot granite. Mile-high -mountains were formed, and during the stretch of this early geologic -time, called the Precambrian Era, the high peaks were eroded by rain, -wind, and sun until some were worn down to featureless plains sloping -toward the ancient ancestral oceans. - - [Illustration: Figure 5. Staurolite twin crystals in mica schist] - -These Precambrian rocks now make up the cores of such mountain ranges as -the Sandias east of Albuquerque, the Sangre de Cristo range near Santa -Fe, the Pedernal Hills south of Clines Corners, the Burro Mountains -southwest of Silver City, the Brazos Range east of Tierra Amarilla, the -Zuni Mountains southwest of Grants, and the San Andres Mountains west of -White Sands. As seen in Tijeras Canyon east of Albuquerque, the bulk of -the ancient rocks are gray to pinkish granite and granite gneiss, -speckled by crystals of biotite, microcline, orthoclase, and quartz. -Quartzites (hardened sandstones), greenstone, and foliated mica schists -(fig. 5) are the older rocks that were intruded by granitic magmas about -1350 million years ago--as indicated by dating of radioactive isotopes, -K-Ar and Rb-Sr. Locally, pegmatite dikes, a late-cooling, large-crystal -stage of the granites, crisscross the granite and contain excellent -crystals of quartz, feldspar, and mica, as well as less common minerals. -The famous Harding pegmatite near Dixon, about forty miles north of -Santa Fe, contains beryl, columbite-tantalite, lepidolite mica, -spodumene, and other rare minerals. Some of these crystals are ten feet -in length! - - -PALEOZOIC ERA - -There are some primitive types of plant and animal life known from -Precambrian rocks outside of New Mexico but the earliest beds that -contain abundant fossils are those of Cambrian age, 500 to 600 m.y. old. -Cambrian rocks in New Mexico are in the Bliss Sandstone, a reddish brown -iron-rich bed, 50 to 200 feet thick, that occurs only in the southern -part of the state. There it can be seen, for example, along the bold -east-facing escarpment of the San Andres Mountains or the west-facing -cliffs of the Caballo Mountains, as a dark band resting on the pinkish -Precambrian granitic rocks. It is a shallow-sea sand, deposited on the -northeastern edge of the Cambrian seas. Scattered amid the brown-stained -quartz, red hematite, and green glauconite are broken shells of -trilobites and primitive brachiopods. Northern New Mexico was a low, -broad island during Cambrian time, a source of some of the sands in the -Bliss Sandstone. - -During the Ordovician Period, 425 to 500 m.y. ago, upper sands of the -Bliss as well as overlying limestones and dolomites were deposited in -the shallow warm seas of southern New Mexico; these latter rocks are the -El Paso Limestone and Montoya Dolomite. The Ordovician seas teemed with -invertebrate life. Fifteen-foot-long cephalopods, as much as a foot in -diameter, ruled the shallow salt-water bottoms, munching on the abundant -trilobites and the moss animals, the bryozoans. Numerous brachiopods, -corals, snails, and clams also thrived, with many of the Ordovician -carbonate-rock beds literally being made up of these fossil remains. -Near El Paso, these limy fossiliferous beds are nearly 2000 feet thick, -but they thin northward to a knife edge in thickness near Mockingbird -Gap at the north end of the San Andres Mountains. Parts of northwestern -New Mexico may have been low islands exposed to the sun and erosion -during Ordovician time, but most of the state was probably within an -extensive shallow ocean. Later, erosion removed the Ordovician rocks -from central and northern New Mexico. - -Silurian strata, the brown Fusselman Dolomite, deposited during the -middle of that period (400 to 425 m.y. ago), remain only in the southern -and southeastern parts of the state, thinning out northward from the -1000-foot-thick bed near El Paso. The extent of these middle Silurian -seas is not known, but most of central and northern New Mexico was -undergoing erosion during late Silurian time. The northward thinning of -the Fusselman Dolomite is due chiefly to this erosion, evidenced by the -knobby, ridged and channeled top surface of the Fusselman. Brachiopods -and corals are the most abundant fossils in the Fusselman Dolomite; -elsewhere, Silurian rocks are known for the sea scorpions or -eurypterids, which attained a length of nine feet, and for the complete -remains of primitive fishes. - -During early and middle Devonian time (345 to 400 m.y. ago), most of New -Mexico was a lowland rotting beneath the sun. Fossiliferous Devonian -rocks are unknown in the north-central part of the state but occur -beneath the surface in the Four Corners region of northwestern New -Mexico and the adjoining states. These rocks are of late Devonian age -and consist of lower dolomite and sandstone, middle shale and dolomite, -and the upper Ouray Limestone. - -In southern New Mexico, a uniform blanket of dark limy muds, called the -Percha Shale, was deposited during late Devonian time. This shale marks -a great change from the limestones of earlier ages. In part, it is of -black muds deposited in widespread or in local stagnant basins and in -part calcareous fossiliferous muds in which abundant invertebrate life -was buried. The clay and quartz silt that make up the rocks were a -weathered residuum that had accumulated, during the long period of late -Silurian and early and middle Devonian times, on the lowland of central -and northern New Mexico. - -Except in the stagnant basins, invertebrate life was prolific, -brachiopods, bryozoans, and corals being especially numerous. Fossil -fish remnants, chiefly teeth, are abundant in some of the sandy units, -and outside of New Mexico the earliest amphibians occur in upper -Devonian rocks. The oldest definitely known assemblage of land plants -occurs in the Devonian, and forests containing forty-foot-high trees -spread over the uplands. Such tree ferns, horsetail rushes, and lycopods -(spiked-leafed trees) may have grown in profusion on the swampy lowlands -near Albuquerque's and Santa Fe's present sites, far north of the muddy -Devonian seas of southern New Mexico. - - Figure 6. Fossil specimens - - [Illustration: Brachiopod - _Marginifera._] - - [Illustration: Crinoid - stem fragment.] - - [Illustration: Crinoid - restoration of a crinoid.] - -Mississippian rocks (310 to 345 m.y. old) probably were deposited over -most of New Mexico. Subsequent erosion removed much of the Mississippian -beds in northern New Mexico. The remnants, less than 100 feet thick in -most places, are of lower sandy and shaly beds overlain by massive -crinoidal limestones, the Arroyo Penasco Formation of the Nacimiento and -Sandia mountains and the Tererro Formation of the Sangre de Cristo range -east of Santa Fe. - -In southern New Mexico, the Mississippian beds are thick and widespread, -being more than 1000 feet in thickness in the southwestern panhandle. -There the rock units are the Escabrosa Limestone of the southwest or the -Lake Valley Limestone of the south-central part of the state. These are -massive fossiliferous limestones precipitated in shallow extensive seas -abounding with invertebrate life. Huge gardens of the sea lilies, -crinoids, spread over the area, their remains mingled with those of lacy -moss animals, the bryozoans, and with brachiopods and corals. Locally, -as in the region of the Sacramento and San Andres mountains and Black -Range, moundlike fossil reefs, called bioherms, were built. Some of -these bioherms in the Sacramento Mountains are mounds of fossiliferous -limestones 350 feet high and several thousand feet in diameter. Beds on -their flanks dip as much as 35 degrees and are made up of broken "fossil -hash" calcite sands. One can stand at the base of these huge limestone -hills and almost hear the ancient waves breaking against the reef and -see the dying struggle of the brachiopod (fig. 6) that left his shell in -the reef-flank sands. - -To the south, beginning near the present site of White Sands, dark -cherty limestones were laid down in stagnant waters, to become the -Rancheria Limestone. This black to reddish brown siliceous limestone is -more than 300 feet thick near El Paso. There its thin beds break down -into slabs that resemble a jumbled woodpile. - -Northern New Mexico was above sea level during late Mississippian time; -in some areas caves developed in the porous limestones, and in other -places the limestones were eroded to a residuum of chert and red clay. -The land must have looked like the karst areas of Indiana, Kentucky, and -Illinois today--with lost rivers flowing into sink holes, numerous -caves, and many underground rivers. Only the southernmost part of the -state was awash in the late Mississippian seas, and in these salt -waters, rocks of the Helms and Paradise formations settled. They are -typical nearshore beds of yellowish limy sandstone, green limy shales, -and brown sandy oolitic limestones. Plant fossils occur intermingled -with marine animal remains; the plant fragments were washed into the -shallow seas from the land areas of the central and northern parts of -the state. - -The Pennsylvanian Period (280 to 310 m.y. ago) was a time of change. -Previously, northern New Mexico had been an emergent lowland or barely -awash in shallow waters, while to the south shallow but extensive seas -held sway, the spawning ground of the vertebrates and invertebrates that -evolved between 310 and 600 m.y. B.C. But mountains were built during -the Pennsylvanian, and the whole pattern of land and sea was altered. -The sun rose on north-south aligned ranges interspersed with -north-south-trending seas (fig. 7). Somewhere north of Albuquerque a -mighty range of mountains, the Uncompahgre Range, arose to shed rock -debris into adjoining ocean basins. To the southeast, a lower but -prominent range, the Pedernal Mountains, stretched from the present-day -Pedernal Hills southward to somewhere near Ruidoso and Piņon. Rocks -eroded from this landmass were dumped westward into the Orogrande basin -which occupied the region near the present-day White Sands; there as -much as 3000 feet of beds accumulated--impure sandstones, dark shales, -fragmental limestones, and even some gypsum during the end phase of -Pennsylvanian sedimentation. - -Rocks filled the Delaware basin in southeastern New Mexico--limestones, -sandstones, and black shales that now produce oil and gas. In -northwestern New Mexico west of Grants and mostly west of the Zuni -Mountains, a low land area, the Zuni Islands, was the source of eroded -residuum released into an ocean channelway that ran north-northwest -through central New Mexico from El Paso to Farmington. And in the -northeast, granite hills of the Sierra Grande Arch stood above the -shallow Pennsylvanian seas. - -In the Four Corners region, broken rock from the Uncompahgre Range was -rushed westward into the Pennsylvanian-age Paradox Basin. Amid the -clastic limestones, black shale, gypsum, and salt of this basin are -oil-bearing lenses. Today, oil wells pump this black "gold" from the -ancient rocks--wells almost in the shadow of Shiprock's famous spire. - -The Pennsylvanian Period was a time of coal making on the greatest scale -in the earth's history. Extensive swamps and marshes, the habitat of -peat and ultimately coal, were almost lacking in New Mexico. Thus, only -thin scattered lenses of coal occur in the Pennsylvanian beds of the -state. The lands of this period were covered by tree ferns, scale trees, -horsetail rushes, and primitive conifers. In the shallow seas, the -dominant invertebrates were fusulinids (fig. 8), small-shelled -protozoans shaped like grains of wheat. Abundant cockroaches, large -dragonflies, and spiders swarmed over the land. - - [Illustration: Figure 7. New Mexico during Pennsylvanian time] - - - Permian Rocks - -The Permian Period (230 to 280 m.y. ago) dawned with renewed rising of -the highlands in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. Floods of -red sand and clay, washed from the rotting hills, wiped out the seas of -northern and central New Mexico, and intertongued southward with marine -limestones. These early Permian rocks are the Hueco Limestone near El -Paso, there 2200 feet thick, the Abo Redbeds near Albuquerque, and the -upper Sangre de Cristo Redbeds southeast of Santa Fe. Wherever the -redbeds crop out, their dark reddish brown hue, speckled and striped -with spots and streaks of green, enlivens the drab gray-and-brown -landscape. Some of the reddish coloring is from angular grains of red to -orange feldspar, but most is in thin brilliantly tinted skins of -hematite that coat the sand grains and saturate the clays. In northern -and central New Mexico, amphibians and other primitive vertebrate -animals lived amid the red soils and sands; their bones and imprints -have been preserved on thin flat slabs of sandstone that now decorate -sidewalks and patios. - - Figure 8. Fossil specimens - - [Illustration: Bryozoan - _Fenestrellina._] - - [Illustration: Fusulinid - _Fusulina._] - - [Illustration: Coral - _Lophophyllidium._] - -The early Permian seashore, where limy muds beyond the surf intermingled -with red sandy muds swept from the north, vacillated somewhere north of -Alamogordo with each sea-level change. Amid the breakers, and as -submarine banks in the shallow waters, reefs grew--moundlike masses of -shell debris and calcite mud trapped among frondlike calcareous algae. -Near Tularosa, these algal "bioherms" are sixty feet high and extend -within broad belts half a mile wide. In southeastern New Mexico, these -buried "Abo" reefs have yielded much oil. - -By the middle of Permian time, the southern Colorado mountains had been -worn down to low hills that lay north of an extensive sea covering most -of New Mexico. From Santa Fe south to White Sands and southeastward -almost to Carlsbad, very shallow marine waters were alternately stifled -by pale-red sandy muds or evaporated by the sun. The results were -alternating beds of pale-red sandstone, gypsum, and silty dolomitic -limestone, called the Yeso Formation. Locally, as near Carrizozo, thick -deposits of rock salt also were precipitated, and the Yeso there is -about 4000 feet thick. At this time, the Delaware basin of southeastern -New Mexico saw the beginning of its most spectacular events, the -building of the Capitan and Goat Seep reefs. This basin--a huge oval -south of Carlsbad and east of Carlsbad Caverns--had been "deep" sea -during most of Pennsylvanian time, but it was a more distinct geographic -feature during the Permian. While the pale-red sands, gypsum, halite, -and dolomitic limestones of the Yeso Formation were laid down to the -north and northwest, the Delaware basin was rimmed by a low, broad bank -of fossil-hash calcite sand, now called the Victorio Peak Limestone. In -the basin, in deep stagnant waters, black sandy limestone and black -shale of the Bone Spring Formation were deposited. - -A sheet of white quartz sand filled the late Yeso seas; the resulting -Glorieta Sandstone, about 200 feet thick, prominently caps Glorieta -Mesa. Its cliffs are a familiar sight to travelers on the Santa Fe -Railway at Glorieta Pass. The Coconino Sandstone in the Grand Canyon -area of Arizona is the western part of the Glorieta. This "clean" -sand--lacking intermixed mud--marks the continued lowering of the -southern Colorado uplands. Broad seas then spread over all but northern -New Mexico and a thick (600 to 1000 feet) persistent marine unit, the -San Andres Limestone, was laid down. Much oil is produced in -southeastern New Mexico from this dark-gray unit of limestones and -dolomites. The rich agricultural region stretching from Roswell to -Artesia depends on underground water gained from the San Andres -Limestone, water that falls as rain and snow on the Sacramento -Mountains, seeps underground into the cracks and caverns within the San -Andres, and flows eastward downslope to the Pecos Valley. - -The delicate balance between land and sea swung upward at the end of San -Andres time as these late Permian seas retreated to southern New Mexico. -The deep Delaware basin was the only persistent marine body of water. It -was rimmed by magnificent towering barrier reefs, the Goat Seep and -Capitan reefs that now are host to Carlsbad Caverns. These reefs were -similar to the present-day Great Barrier Reef of Australia, except that -the Capitan and Goat Seep reefs surrounded an inland sea whereas the -Australian reef borders a continent. The Capitan reef is about 400 miles -long, and other than oceanward channels cut through to the south, -completely encircled the 10,000-square-mile Delaware basin. At its -heyday, the Capitan reef was barely awash, and teeming with life, in -contrast to the silent, stagnant deeps of the Delaware basin which were -about 2000 feet below sea level only a few miles away from the barrier -reef. On the steep slope into the basin, huge slump blocks of -fossiliferous reef limestone slid, mingling with fossil-hash sand. These -"flank" beds dip steeply from the massive reef core to interfinger with -the black sandy limestones of the basin. - -The Delaware basin was a marine feature throughout Late Paleozoic time; -its northwestern border is now marked by the southeast-trending front of -the Guadalupe Mountains southeast of Carlsbad; its north edge was -east-northeast of Carlsbad, and it extended southward into West Texas. - -Shallow "shelf" seas reached irregularly and intermittently northward -and northwestward from the Capitan reef and mingled with low islands -throughout all but southeastern New Mexico. Landward, away from the -Delaware basin, the rocks change from massive, thick, light-gray -limestones of the reefs into thin units of thin-bedded dolomite, then -abruptly into alternating beds of gypsum and redbeds, the Artesia Group -of rocks, and finally, marking the distant shorelines, into thin units -of red mudstone and red sandstone, the Bernal Formation. Evaporation of -sea water was excessive, and average temperatures high; the climate -varied from semiarid in northwestern New Mexico to subtropical in the -Delaware basin area--a contrast and a similarity to today's climate. - - [Illustration: Figure 9. Castile gypsum sample] - -Latest Permian time saw the dramatic end of the Paleozoic Era. Most of -New Mexico was uplifted above sea level, with only the Delaware basin -remaining as a land-locked sea, much like the Caspian Sea today, but -with channels open periodically southward to the ocean. The rocks of -this waning part of the Permian are called the _Ochoan Series_; they -show an abrupt and striking change from the underlying Carlsbad reef -limestones and associated black basin-filling limestones up into the -laminated gypsum-anhydrite of the basal Ochoan rocks, the Castile -formation. Normal marine conditions ended almost instantaneously. Excess -of evaporation lowered the water level of the inland sea; the -accumulated brine (concentrated salty sea water) killed the life on and -near the Capitan reef, and thick beds of anhydrite were precipitated. -The lowest beds of the Ochoan Series, the Castile Anhydrite, and the -overlying Salado Salt, mostly filled the deep depression that was the -Delaware basin; the upper beds, the Rustler Dolomite and Dewey Lake -Redbeds, lap over the edges of the basin and in places rest irregularly -upon the Capitan limestone. - -These are unusual rocks. The Castile (about 1800 feet thick) is thinly -banded, with thicker bands (laminae, thin layers) of light-gray -gypsum-anhydrite alternating with thin laminae of dark-brown calcite -(fig. 9). This lamination is believed due to annual changes, the brown -calcite being precipitated during the summer and the gray anhydrite -during the winter. On the surface, the calcium sulfate mineral is -gypsum, but at depths of about 600 feet, these laminae are anhydrite. -Addition of water to anhydrite has changed it to gypsum wherever ground -water penetrated the laminae. - -The Salado Salt, about 2000 feet thick, is almost entirely of rock salt -(halite), with important interbeds of potassium-rich minerals--red -sylvite, gray langbeinite, brownish bitter-tasting carnallite, and -pale-red polyhalite. As all these salts are highly soluble in water, the -Salado Salt nowhere "crops out" at the surface. East of Carlsbad, -however, the potash-rich beds are mined underground, and supply about -ninety per cent of the United States' production--used chiefly as -fertilizer. - -The arid period of Salado Salt evaporation changed slightly as the -dolomites and anhydrites of the Rustler Dolomite were laid down in the -last drying moments (geologically speaking) of the Permian. Then as the -seas retreated to the south, the fine-grained red sands and silts of the -Dewey Lake Redbeds were spread as a thin blanket over the low lands -basking under the hot Permian sun. This was a time of dying; whole races -of vertebrate and invertebrate animals were wiped out, to be known today -only from their fossil remains. As the dim unmarked episode of latest -Permian time merged into the Triassic, an inkling of coming life was -recorded in the rocks. The amphibians were more modern types, and they -gave rise to the most striking of early land animals, the reptiles. This -was the beginning of the conquest of the land by the reptiles, which -culminated later in the dinosaurs, and was aided by the retreat of -shallow seas from the continents, a change survived chiefly by the -species adapted to living on land. - - -MESOZOIC ERA - -The Mesozoic Era dawned in New Mexico on extensive plains, except for a -northwest-trending range in the extreme north-central part of the state. -During this, the early part of the Triassic Period (180 to 230 m.y. -ago), sands and muds eroded from New Mexico were carried westward to -northeastern Arizona where they now form the Moenkopi Formation, the -brilliant reds and purples of the Painted Desert region. Uplands arose -in late Triassic time in southwestern New Mexico. Along with mountains -in south-central Colorado, these highlands were torn apart by water and -wind, and the detritus was swept into sheets of brightly colored sand -and shale. These beds are thickest (about 2000 feet) along the New -Mexico--Texas line east of Roswell and in west-central New Mexico (near -Grants) extending westward into northeastern Arizona. The eastern -Triassic rocks are the redbeds of the Dockum Group with the lower Santa -Rosa Sandstone and the upper Chinle beds. The northwestern rocks are the -Chinle Formation overlain by the redbeds of the Wingate Sandstone. - -The Chinle Formation is of special scenic interest as its beds contain -the silicified trees so well shown at Petrified Forest National -Monument. These varicolored rocks--red, purple, green, and gray--also -decorate the Painted Desert area, the wide valley of Rio San Jose east -of Laguna, and flank Interstate 40 (U.S. Highway 66) from the Texas line -westward almost to Clines Corners. As some beds are weathered "ash" -beds, the highlands were sites of volcanoes that spread their dust over -much of the Southwest. In contrast to the underlying marine Paleozoic -rocks, these Triassic beds were deposited on land by streams and in -shallow lakes. Thus the beasts that roamed New Mexico were -amphibians--such as the thick-skulled stegocephalians--and reptiles of -the crocodilelike clan, the phytosaurs. The silicified trees in the -Chinle are mostly primitive pines; some grew to heights of more than 100 -feet and measure 7 feet in diameter. - -New Mexico was featureless rolling prairie, with scattered low hills in -the northwest, during most of Jurassic time (135 to 180 m.y. ago). In -the late part of the period, the Sundance-Curtis sea and its shoreline -lagoons spread down from the north into northwestern New Mexico. Sand -dunes on its southeastern shores consolidated into the cross-bedded -Entrada Sandstone; its reddish brown cliffs rim the Rio San Jose Valley -near Grants and Gallup. In an extensive lagoon, or salt-water lake that -covered most of northwestern and north-central New Mexico, the gypsum -and limestone of the Todilto Formation were precipitated; this gypsum is -the bed mined near Rosario siding (seen between Albuquerque and Santa -Fe) by the Kaiser Gypsum Company, and near San Ysidro on White Mesa by -the American Gypsum Company. The Todilto salty basin was overwhelmed by -reddish sands and silts of the Summerville Formation, washed chiefly -from the south, and by the multicolored sands of the Zuni Sandstone -(exposed at El Morro), and then the stream and wind-blown sands and -clays of the varicolored Morrison Formation were laid down in northern -New Mexico. Petrified wood and bone fragments are abundant in the -Morrison beds--along with uranium--but no fossil finds in New Mexico -equal those in the Morrison Formation of Dinosaur National Park, Utah. - -Much of North America, including southern New Mexico, was land during -the Jurassic. In the streams and lakes were many kinds of fishes, -amphibians, reptiles, snails, crustaceans, and water bugs; on dry land -were hordes of reptiles, small primitive mammals, and ants; in the air -were flying reptiles, the earliest known birds, moths, and butterflies. -The earth was ruled by the reptiles, with the dinosaurs dominant--some -being the most ponderous land animals of all earth history. Such were -Stegosaurus and Brachiosaurus, the latter 85 feet long and weighing 50 -tons. - -The Cretaceous Period (70 to 135 m.y. ago) was one of great contrast in -New Mexico. During Early Cretaceous time, most of the central and -northern parts of the state were low lands torn by erosion, while thick -piles of conglomerate, sandstone, and shale accumulated in depressions -in the southwestern corner. Huge volcanoes near Lordsburg added their -hot ashes, bombs, and flows to the sedimentary detritus, and thick -fossiliferous limestones were laid down in muddy and sandy waters of the -sea--the shoreline fluctuated over tens of miles in areas south of -Lordsburg, Deming, and El Paso. These Early Cretaceous beds total 20,000 -feet in thickness in some areas. In eastern and northeastern New Mexico, -in contrast, thin sheets of quartz sand were deposited by streams on the -edge of a shallow sea, and black muds in local lagoons. - -Rock beds thousands of feet thick were laid down in northern and central -New Mexico during Late Cretaceous time, whereas most of the southern -part of the state was above sea level and was being eroded by tireless -winds and streams. The shorelines made parallel northwest-trending bands -across the state. These are now marked by beach sands, some of which are -speckled by black minerals, high in rare elements titanium, niobium, and -zirconium. Northwestern and central New Mexico was a battleground of the -land and sea, with the beaches advancing and retreating fifty or a -hundred miles during an instant of geologic time. Stream sands and coal -beds lie landward from the beach sands which, in turn, mingle seaward -with black limy shales that were flushed into the seas. The lowest of -these rocks is the Dakota Sandstone--famous as an artesian aquifer in -the High Plains areas of states to the northeast--Colorado, the Dakotas, -Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming, and Montana. Above is the black Mancos Shale, -which in turn is overlain by the Mesaverde Group. - -The transitions from coal swamps and stream sands to beach deposits and -then into marine black shales is characteristic of the Mesaverde in -northwestern and north-central New Mexico. To the northeast, beds of the -same age were laid down in an extensive muddy sea that stretched far to -the east; the Pierre Shale and Niobrara chalky limestone that underlie -the plains northeast of Las Vegas are typical. The cliff-forming -sandstones and coal beds near Gallup are part of the Mesaverde Group and -rim the entire San Juan Basin. Above are similar rocks such as the -Kirtland Shale, Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, and Fruitland Formation that -underlie valleys cut in the shales and cliffs carved from the sandstones -in the northwest corner of New Mexico near Farmington. - -Toward the end of the Cretaceous, the Laramide "revolution" began, and -New Mexico along with most of North America emerged from beneath the -seas, to be high and dry to the present. The revolution, an extensive -upheaval of the earth's crust, saw uplift of the San Juan Mountains area -in southwestern Colorado and large volcanoes spouting fire and ashes -nearby. Fragments of the eroded mountains and debris from these -andesitic volcanoes were flushed southward by streams and steam to -settle as thick piles of mud, sandstone, and conglomerate, the McDermott -and Animas formations in the San Juan Basin. The last moment of -Cretaceous time, if we could be so precise, was ushered out almost -unnoticed--with mountains rising to the north and the andesitic-quartz -detritus being laid down to the south in the upper beds of the Animas -Formation. - -Similarly, mountains arose during Late Cretaceous time in north-central -New Mexico and south-central Colorado, about on the site of the -present-day Sangre de Cristo range northeast of Taos, and shed erosional -gravels and muds into the Raton Basin area. Alluvial fan gravels and -sands grade eastward into dark muds and coals laid down in swamps and on -floodplains. These rocks now cap the rugged mesas seen northwest of the -Santa Fe Railway from Raton southward--the cliff-forming Trinidad -Sandstone and the dark siltstones, sandstones, black shales, and coal -beds of the Vermejo and Raton formations. The Kaiser Steel Corporation -mine near Koehler extracts coal from these beds. Again, the exact end of -the Cretaceous is marked only by some obscure boundary between beds, in -that area within the Raton Formation. - -During the Cretaceous Period, the deciduous trees--such as the oak, -maple, poplar, and elm that dominate today's flora--became common. The -covered-seed plants, the angiosperms, are the most notable of the -Cretaceous plants, but the development of the modern floras was an -antecedent to the great expansion of mammals and birds during the -following Cenozoic Era. Reptiles ruled the earth, led by the dinosaurs -(fig. 10) and their distinctive group, the horned large-skulled -ceratopsians such as Triceratops. The small, hairy, warm-blooded mammals -were still insignificant creatures that ran from their huge dinosaur -lords, but they ate reptile eggs, and so excelled the sluggish reptiles -in mental and physical activity that they adapted swiftly to the -changing environments of the Laramide revolution--and became dominant as -the pea-brained reptiles were unable to stand the changes. - -The shallow seas of the Cretaceous swarmed with invertebrate life; -foraminifers (unicellular protozoans) in uncountable billions make up -large parts of the chalky limestones. Mollusks, particularly clams like -oysters and the heavy ribbed Inoceramus, and complexly sutured -cephalopods, the ammonites, as well as the internal-shelled belemnoids -(that look like cigars), were most numerous among larger marine animals. -Reef builders in southwestern New Mexico were the peculiarly corallike -clams, the rudistids. Widespread warm humid climates seem to have -prevailed throughout the state during most of the Cretaceous. - - -LANDSCAPES AND MINERAL RESOURCES - -Thus as the Cretaceous seas withdrew from New Mexico, the Cenozoic Era -dawned, and never again have marine waters shaped the landscapes. The -rocks, Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and their ancient -movements determine New Mexico's spectacular landscapes. They tell tales -of the endless war between erosion and hard rock, show the deposition of -sediments, their uplift, and their eventual destruction. The result is -striking scenery--volcanic mountains, as Mount Taylor, Sierra Blanca, -Valle Grande--fresh lava flows near Carrizozo and Grants--volcanic necks -like Shiprock and Cabezon--White Sands, the work of the wind--El Morro, -Enchanted Mesa, Acoma, and badlands near Santa Fe, the result of -weathering and erosion--great fault-line escarpments of the Sandia, -Manzano, San Andres, and Sacramento mountains--the work of underground -waters at Carlsbad Caverns. And man adds his erosive powers--the huge -open-pit copper mine at Santa Rita and countless excavations for rock to -build homes, to straighten highways. - - [Illustration: Figure 10. Make way for 'is lordship, the Dinosaur!] - -The sun can be harsh and hot, the rain sparse, the winter nights fierce -cold. But within the rocks are natural resources undreamed of by the -early Indians, almost untouched by the Spanish, and with potential -beyond vision for the future. Water, being scarce, is one of the more -important resources. With an average yearly precipitation of only -fifteen inches, and more than half of the state receiving less than that -average, water is a problem! Farming must depend upon irrigation, the -water being drawn from streams or "mined" from underground "pools" where -it had been accumulating for centuries. - -Forests, game, and fish are lucrative resources somewhat unexpected in a -semiarid state; sheep and cattle--in this the stronghold of the cowboy, -famous in gunfighter lore--each total more than a million. New Mexico's -1965 mineral production, valued at $781.9 million, ranked seventh among -the states. Principal commodities won from the rocks, in order of value, -were oil, potash, natural gas, uranium, copper, sand and gravel, zinc, -coal, crushed stone, and perlite. Sizeable quantities of barite, beryl, -carbon dioxide, cement, clays, gem stones, gold, gypsum, helium, iron -ore, lead, limestone, magnesium compounds, manganese, mica, molybdenum, -pumice, salt, silver, sulfur, and vanadium were also mined. The huge -open-pit copper mine at Santa Rita, the many uranium mines near Grants, -the underground potash mines near Carlsbad, and the thousands of oil and -gas wells in the northwestern and southeastern parts of the state are -typical of man-made landscape features attributable to mineral -exploitation in New Mexico. Numerous old mine dumps, rotting mine -shafts, and spooky ghost towns are reminders of past fortunes won and -lost. - -The rocks, the work of water, wind, and sun, and the not insignificant -upheavals by man have shaped New Mexico's landscapes. Blended with its -blue skies, warm sun, and the products of three cultures--Indian, -Spanish, and American--the rocks and their movements have made the -landscapes a land of enchantment. - - Earth wears a mantle rich with lore, - of storied fabric finely spun, - That tells of kingdoms come and gone, - of legions lost and battles won. - No seer no monarch can divine, - the cryptic writings; he alone, - Who humbly speaks the tongue of earth, - can find a story in a stone. - - - - - Before Coronado - - - _by_ Robert H. Weber - -The cultural heritage of New Mexico is a rich and colorful one, blending -as it does the three separate traditions of Indian, Spanish, and -Anglo-American. Of these, the lifeways of the Indian, ancient and -modern, are of particular interest to both the visitor and resident. -These were the first inhabitants of the New World, whose roots extend -back in time many thousands of years before the first European set foot -here. People who had adapted themselves to the varied and often harsh -environments of desert, plain, valley, canyon, and mountain; who -witnessed the disappearance of the large mammals of the Pleistocene Ice -Age and concomitant changes in climate and vegetation; the first -prospectors and miners seeking flint, obsidian, turquoise, clay, salt, -and mineral pigments; early traders exchanging valued minerals and -handicrafts for shells of the coastal regions; hunters and farmers, -architects and builders, civic and religious leaders, philosophers and -critics, skilled craftsmen and artists, explorers and soldiers--all -ancient counterparts of those who were to follow. - -In 1540, when the train of soldiers in the company of Coronado's Spanish -Expedition entered the unknown lands later called New Mexico, four -groups of native Americans were established residents in the area. Along -the arable valley of the Rio Grande and its tributaries, and in several -outlying areas were the adobe and stone apartment-house villages of the -Pueblo Indians, whose livelihood was based largely on agriculture. East -of the mountains were scattered bands of Plains Indians, Eastern -Apaches, who were nomadic hunters following the herds of buffalo that -ranged across the vast grasslands of the High Plains. Western Apaches -were dispersed in small bands of hunters and gatherers of wild foods -through the mountainous country to the west of the Rio Grande. A related -group, the Navajo, augmented the necessities of life gained by hunting -and gathering with subordinate agricultural crops in the Plateau region -to the northwest. - -Early contacts of the _conquistadores_ were largely with the Pueblo -Indians, although they had limited knowledge of the Apaches and Navajos -in outlying districts. There was little to suggest to the Spanish -invaders, except for the ruins of long-abandoned Pueblo villages, that -the fragmentary record of thousands of years of human prehistory lay -scattered in the dust beneath their feet. Undoubtedly they would have -dismissed as utter nonsense any notion that men armed with stone-tipped -spears had here slain elephants in a marsh 12,000 years old that now lay -buried beneath shifting sands of a desert landscape. Indeed, it was not -until the last quarter of the 1800's that serious attempts were made to -decipher the prehistoric traces of the Pueblo Indians, whereas concrete -evidence that man had hunted long-extinct Pleistocene big game in -America was not discovered until less than forty years ago. - - -EARLY HUNTERS - -The year 1926 was marked by the first of a series of important -archeological finds in New Mexico that were eventually to demonstrate -that man had occupied this area as much as 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. -During this period, Late Pleistocene ice sheets of continental glaciers -still blanketed parts of the northern tier of states in the vicinity of -the Great Lakes, and elephants (both mammoths and mastodons), horses, -camels, giant bison, tapirs, and ground sloths roamed the Southwest. -Excavations begun in 1926 near the small town of Folsom, in northeastern -New Mexico (fig. 1), disclosed a number of fossil skeletons of a large -form of extinct bison, forerunners of the modern bison or buffalo. Among -these bones were dart or spear points of distinctive form and -workmanship, characterized by broad, shallow flutes or channels on each -face (fig. 2). These artifacts, now known as Folsom points, have since -been recovered from a number of sites in New Mexico and elsewhere in -North America, commonly in association with the remains of extinct -bison. Evidently Folsom "Man" (whose skeletal remains have not been -discovered) was a nomadic hunter particularly dependent upon the bison -for his food supply, much as were the later Plains Indians of historic -time. Ages of from 10,000 to 11,000 years have been obtained from -charcoal and other organic remains at Folsom camp sites by the -radiocarbon method. - -Succeeding years have seen an increasing number of valuable -archeological discoveries at camp and game-kill sites of Folsom Man and -other Early Hunters. Unquestionably, the most important of these sites -is the Blackwater Draw locality between Clovis and Portales in extreme -eastern New Mexico, where excavations for gravel disclosed a stratified -sequence of sediments that were deposited in an ancient pond and spring. -Here, too, were the characteristic Folsom points in association with the -bones of fossil bison. Below the Folsom layer, still older deposits -contained the fossil bones of mammoth, horse, camel, and bison -associated with fluted spear points that resembled those from Folsom but -were generally larger and less skillfully chipped and fluted. These -points, now known as Clovis points, are so commonly found beside the -remains of mammoths in a number of sites in the High Plains and the -Southwest that their makers are believed to have been adept at hunting -these extinct elephants. Radiocarbon dates place Clovis points in a time -range of from 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. - -In a layer above that containing Folsom points at Blackwater Draw, -several varieties of unfluted lanceolate points were found to be -associated with the bones of fossil bison. These points have been -identified by various specific names such as Plainview, Milnesand, Eden, -and Scottsbluff from excavated sites elsewhere in the High Plains -region, and probably range in age from 8000 to 10,000 years. Although -the giant bison still survived into this level of stratigraphy and time, -the elephant, camel, and horse of the Clovis level had disappeared from -the area. - - [Illustration: Figure 1. Index map of New Mexico showing locations - of significant archeological sites, modern Indian pueblos, and - Navajo, Ute, and Apache reservations] - - Early Hunter Sites - 1. Folsom State Monument - 2. Sandia Cave - 3. San Jon - 4. Blackwater Draw - 5. Manzano Cave - 6. Lucy - 7. Milnesand - 8. Burnet Cave - Prehistoric Pueblo and Cliff-Dwelling Ruins - 9. Aztec Ruins National Monument - 10. Chaco Canyon National Monument - 11. Puye Cliff Dwellings - 12. Bandelier National Monument (Tyuonyi) - 13. Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument - Historic Pueblo Ruins - 14. Jemez State Monument - 15. Pecos State Monument - 16. Coronado State Monument (Kuaua) - 17. Paako State Monument - 18. Quarai State Monument - 19. Abo State Monument - 20. Gran Quivira National Monument - Modern Pueblos - 21. Taos - 22. San Lorenzo (Picurís) - 23. San Juan - 24. Santa Clara - 25. San Ildefonso - 26. Nambé - 27. Tesuque - 28. Cochiti - 29. Santo Domingo - 30. San Felipe - 31. Sandia - 32. Santa Ana - 33. Zia - 34. Jemez - 35. Isleta - 36. Laguna - 37. Acoma - 38. Zuni - 39. Ojo Caliente - Navajo, Ute, and Apache Reservations - 40. Navajo Indian Reservation - 41. Ute Mountain Indian Reservation - 42. Jicarilla Apache Indian Reservation - 43. Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation - - Modern pueblos - Historic pueblo ruins - Prehistoric pueblo and cliff-dwelling ruins - Early Hunter sites - -Another important discovery was made in Sandia Cave northeast of -Albuquerque. Below cave deposits containing Folsom points was an earlier -type of point among the bones of mammoth, horse, camel, and other large -Pleistocene mammals. Now identified as Sandia points, these projectile -tips are distinguished by an asymmetric stemmed form with a shoulder on -one side. The age of the Sandia points has been a subject of some -controversy, but the latest available data from charcoal in Sandia Cave -indicates an age of nearly 12,000 years, which is within the accepted -range of the Clovis points. - - [Illustration: Figure 2. Folsom point recovered from among rib bones - of fossil bison at Folsom, New Mexico (Photograph of plastic - replica. Original point in collection of Denver Museum of Natural - History.)] - -Clovis, Sandia, and Folsom points, together with related stone -implements, are at many places enclosed in sediments deposited in or -adjacent to ponds, lakes, streams, and wet meadows. These environments -indicate a former cool and more humid climate in areas that are now -semiarid. The food requirements of many of the large herbivores that -lived at this time also suggest more abundant vegetation and surface -water than prevails here today. It is not unreasonable, then, to presume -that climatic conditions contributing to the advance of continental -glaciers in the Great Lakes region, and to valley glaciers in the Rocky -Mountains, should have been reflected in lower summer temperatures and -higher rainfall in non-glaciated areas. The ultimate extinction of the -large Pleistocene mammals and the similar time of disappearance of the -hunters who preyed upon them may both be related to the climatic changes -that followed the end of the Ice Age in America. - - -HUNTERS AND GATHERERS - -Groups of people dependent upon a different way of life from that of the -Early Hunters are known to have occupied much of the present area of New -Mexico. Although there is some suggestion of overlap in time of these -people with the Early Hunters, they appear to have become prominent -during the several thousand warm, dry years following the end of the -Pleistocene. Adapted, as they were, to a fuller utilization of the -resources of the area through the hunting and trapping of smaller game -and an emphasis on the gathering of a wide variety of wild plant foods, -these people ranged extensively across the varied terrain of the state. -Similar patterns of subsistence and artifacts are known from the Great -Basin region west of the Rocky Mountains, where they have been -categorized under the term _Desert Culture_. Local manifestations of the -Desert Culture in southeastern Arizona, extending eastward into western -and southern New Mexico, are identified as the Cochise Culture. Other -groups showing similarities with Archaic cultures to the east penetrated -the northeastern part of New Mexico at a time when the area was still -populated by Pleistocene bison. - -Habitation sites of these gatherers are distributed in open situations -and in shelter caves. Such sites are commonly marked by milling stones -that characterize the preparation of wild foods (fig. 3), hearths, -chopping and scraping implements, and stemmed projectile points markedly -different from those used by the Early Hunters. These points were -affixed to dart shafts that were propelled with a spear thrower or -_atlatl_, a device that preceded the bow and arrow in America but is -still used by Australian Aborigines. - -Seasonal changes in the local availability of wild foods must have -necessitated a nomadic or seminomadic way of life. The development of -agricultural techniques in the later years before the beginning of the -Christian Era, however, probably contributed to the development of a -semisedentary existence that was eventually to lead to the village life -of the later periods. The exact time of introduction of the principal -agricultural crops, corn, squash, and beans, is unknown, but evidence -from west-central New Mexico indicates their use by the Cochise people -by 2500 B.C. - - -PUEBLOAN FARMERS - -Having acquired the techniques of deliberately planting and raising food -crops that could be stored against future needs, local populations of -Hunters and Gatherers became less dependent upon the gathering of wild -foods and began to construct clusters of more permanent dwellings near -cultivable land. Among the earliest recognized houses of this period are -the semisubterranean pit houses of the early Mogollon people in the San -Francisco River drainage of west-central New Mexico (fig. 4) and of the -Anasazi Basketmakers in the San Juan River drainage of northwestern New -Mexico. These cultural advances, together with the acquisition of -techniques for the manufacture of fired pottery, foreshadowed the -development of the Mogollon and Pueblo cultures at a time beginning -perhaps as early as 300 B.C. for the Mogollon area and at least by 1 -A.D. for the Anasazi area. - - [Illustration: Figure 3. Milling stones of the type used by the - Cochise People - Plant foods were ground in a shallow basin metate with the small - one-hand mano (hand stone). Socorro, New Mexico.] - -These two cultural groups, the Mogollon in southwestern and southern New -Mexico, whose roots extend back through the ancestral Cochise to before -6000 B.C., and the Anasazi in the Four Corners region of northwestern -New Mexico, probably developed independently during the early years. -From about 500 A.D., however, there is increasing evidence of trade -relationships and eventual fusion of traits. Other groups to the west, -such as the Hohokam of Arizona, were sources of cultural influence on -the indigenous people of New Mexico. In the Mogollon and San Juan -Anasazi heartlands and in the Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico, a -pattern of village life with elaboration of social and religious -organization emerged from the relatively simple cultures of the early -years. Villages began to assume organized form, dwellings were combined -in rows of adobe and stone structures containing a number of contiguous -rooms, and subterranean ceremonial chambers or _kivas_ assumed larger -and more specialized architectural distinctiveness from the ancestral -pit-house dwellings. In the Mogollon area, the characteristic brownware -pottery of the Mogollons was used side by side with decorated -black-on-white pottery of Anasazi origin. The bow and arrow slowly -replaced the less efficient _atlatl_ and dart. The significance of these -early stages in the evolution of the Pueblo Culture in the San Juan and -upper Rio Grande areas is indicated by their designation as the -Developmental Pueblo period (Pueblo I and II). - - [Illustration: (_Photograph of museum diorama courtesy of the - Chicago Natural History Museum_) - Figure 4. Mogollon pit-house village of the period 200 B.C.] - -The climax of these developments occurred in the interval between 1050 -and 1300 A.D. in the Classic or Great Pueblo period (Pueblo III). Among -the most impressive manifestations of this period are large -stone-masonry apartment houses, some rising to five stories in height -and housing hundreds of people. Dwellings of this type are highlights of -several well-known tourist attractions, among which are the cliff -dwellings of Mesa Verde in southwestern Colorado and the monumental -ruins of Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon (fig. 5), both products of the -ingenuity of the Anasazi Indians. - -At the very apex of the cultural efflorescence of the Great Pueblo -period, some unknown circumstance or series of events caused abandonment -of most of the urban centers of the San Juan Anasazi and Mogollon areas. -A prolonged drouth is recorded by tree rings formed during the period -from 1276 to 1299 A.D. Surely a drouth of this magnitude would have had -serious effects on people as dependent upon agriculture as were the -Pueblo Indians. There are some indications that alien and perhaps enemy -people were drifting into these areas at about this time, perhaps -predecessors of the modern Navajos and Apaches. The congested living -conditions of Pueblo villages undoubtedly contributed to unsanitary -conditions and social pressures that also may have contributed to shifts -in population. Many of these migrants moved into the homeland of the Rio -Grande Anasazi in the upper Rio Grande Valley, and to a lesser extent in -the central Rio Grande Valley. Some may have relocated at Zuni and other -areas along the Little Colorado River drainage extending westward into -Arizona. - - [Illustration: (_Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service_) - Figure 5. Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon National Monument - A multistory pueblo containing 800 rooms.] - -During the Great Pueblo period, another group showing characteristics of -both the Anasazi and of non-Puebloan people occupied an area on both -sides of the Continental Divide along the eastern margin of the San Juan -Basin. This cultural phase, known as the Largo-Gallina because of the -distribution of sites in the Largo and Gallina drainage basins, is -represented by pit houses, surface rooms, and towerlike structures with -some similarities to the dwellings of the Anasazi. The black-on-white -pottery also suggests Puebloan relationships, whereas the culinary -vessels resemble those of the Navajo. - -Beginning at about 1300 A.D. or shortly thereafter, a different cultural -group began to move westward from the Texas Panhandle into the plains of -northeastern New Mexico. These people of the Panhandle Aspect built -single-room structures and contiguous room pueblos resembling those in -use by the Anasazi of the Rio Grande and were skilled bison hunters, -farmers, and traders. This combination of traits suggests both Puebloan -and eastern traditions. Panhandle Aspect villages were abandoned -suddenly not long after 1400, perhaps as a result of the drouth recorded -by tree rings for the period from 1439 to 1454. - -Following the shift in population of the Pueblo region, cultural changes -occurred that have led to the designation Regressive Pueblo period -(Pueblo IV) for the interval between 1300 and 1700 A.D. Noteworthy -changes during this period include a tendency toward enlargement of -villages and the creation of new styles of pottery, accompanied by some -deterioration of the artistic creativity of the Classic period. Major -ruins of this period that are readily accessible to the public include -Puye Cliff Dwellings, Tyuonyi Pueblo in Bandelier National Monument, and -Pecos Pueblo in Pecos National Monument. - -At the time of Coronado's _entrada_ in 1540, there were from 60 to 70 -Pueblo villages in New Mexico, most of which contained fewer than 400 -inhabitants. Four or five mutually unintelligible languages were spoken, -each with several dialects, making communication between Spanish and -Indian extremely difficult. Language barriers contributed to an -inadequate documentation of the Pueblo way of life during the early -years of Spanish contact, so that we must continue to depend upon the -archeological record during the first century of Spanish colonization of -the area. The beginning of the Historic Pueblo period (Pueblo V) -accordingly is commonly set at 1700 A.D. - - -APACHES AND NAVAJOS - -Little is known concerning the origin of these two related groups, who -differ markedly from the Pueblo Indians in language and cultural traits. -Their closest ties are with other Athapaskan-speaking tribes in -northwestern Canada, and available evidence indicates that they are -comparative newcomers to the Southwest. A correlation between the -abandonment of sections of the Pueblo region and pressures exerted by -ancestral Apaches and Navajos has been suggested, but definite proof of -this is still lacking. Raids against the eastern pueblos of the Galisteo -Basin are reported to have occurred in 1525. Coronado's expedition -encountered nomadic hunters in the plains east of Pecos in 1541, -observing that they followed the movements of herds of bison or buffalo -on whom they were highly dependent for food and shelter, lived in -portable tents of tanned buffalo hides supported by a framework of -poles, and used dogs as beasts of burden. Trade contacts with the Rio -Grande pueblos included exchange of hide "cloaks" for corn grown by the -Pueblo Indians. - -Related groups in western and northwestern New Mexico are even more -poorly known, as there was still less contact between them and the -Spanish explorers. Evidently some agriculture was practiced as a -supplement to a subsistence based largely on hunting and gathering, a -pattern of livelihood reminiscent of that of the pre-Puebloan Cochise -people. - -The succeeding years of Spanish and American colonization of New Mexico -were to be highly influenced by the Apaches and Navajos, and also by -another group of Plains Indians, the Comanches. The events of this -period, however, are discussed in a separate article. - - - - - Frontier Forts of New Mexico - - - _by_ Robert A. Bieberman - -Following President Polk's declaration of war against Mexico in May -1846, a United States Army force was sent from Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas -Territory, against the Mexican provinces of New Mexico and California. -This army, known as "The Army of the West," was led by Gen. Stephen W. -Kearny. Upon his arrival in Santa Fe in August 1846, General Kearny -issued a proclamation which informed the citizens that New Mexico was -now a part of the United States and that he and his army and the forces -to follow would protect them and their property. General Kearny remained -in Santa Fe only one month, but during that month he appointed a -governor, judges, and other officials, started construction of a fort in -Santa Fe, and sent troops against the Navajo Indians in fulfillment of -his promise to protect the people. Kearny and his "Army of the West" -left Santa Fe in September 1846 to conquer California, leaving behind a -detachment of troops under the command of Col. Alexander W. Doniphan. -Thus began the role of the U.S. Army, which was to continue for the next -half century, in securing the frontier in what we now know as the State -of New Mexico. - -History has shown that the troops stationed in New Mexico were called -upon to participate in the Mexican War and the Civil War and to protect -the newly established border between Mexico and New Mexico from -violations from both sides. However, the basic role of the military, the -role which continued for fifty years, was to protect the traveler, the -farmer, the miner, and the settler from Indian attack. Its task was made -no less difficult by the changing, unrealistic, discriminatory Indian -policies which came out of Washington during this period. When relative -calm was established, promises were forgotten and violence erupted anew. - -The defense policy in New Mexico did not follow a set plan but gradually -evolved. Military posts were established at different places when the -need arose and were abandoned when the need diminished. A few of the -posts were occupied and used by the army throughout most of this period. -Others existed but a few months or years. - - -FORTS - - - Fort Union - -Located twenty-seven miles northeast of Las Vegas, Fort Union became the -most important and most famous fort in the New Mexico Territory. -Established on the Santa Fe Trail in 1851, it served as supply depot for -the territory and as a base for troops engaged in the protection of -traffic along the Santa Fe Trail and of the settlements in the area from -the depredations of the Apaches, Utes, Comanches, and Kiowas. The site -can be reached by traveling eight miles of paved road which leaves U.S. -Highway 85 one mile north of Watrous. - -During its forty-year history, Fort Union occupied three different -sites, all within the same general area. The original fort was of log -construction which rapidly fell into disrepair. In August 1861, amid -rumors of the possible invasion of the territory by Confederate forces, -construction was begun on a new fort. This fort was of earthworks, in -the form of an eight-pointed star. It was here that the troops waited -for the attack which never came. With the passing of the Confederate -threat, work was begun in 1863 on the third fort, the remains of which -are seen today. - -Fort Union soon became the largest fort in the territory. It was -constructed in two sections, one for the garrison and one for the supply -depot. The garrison area consisted of four infantry and two cavalry -barracks facing a row of nine officers' quarters across the parade -ground. A sixty-bed hospital was constructed. The depot area included -five warehouses, mechanics corral, transportation corral, and -administration buildings. An arsenal was built about one mile from the -fort proper. - -The buildings were constructed of adobe on stone foundations. The roofs -were flat and the walls were capped with brick copings in what has -become the territorial style of architecture. - - [Illustration: (_Photo courtesy of National Park Service_) - Ruins of Fort Union] - -Fort Union was a community within itself and a lively social center. -Weary travelers on the Santa Fe Trail eagerly anticipated their arrival. -Few complaints were heard when soldiers were transferred to Fort Union, -for this was a popular assignment. - -With the coming of the railroad and peace at last descending on the -frontier in the 1880's, the need for the fort diminished. But it clung -to life for a few more years, mainly because of the fond memories which -lived in the hearts of the military leaders who had been stationed -there. Finally, the end came and Fort Union was abandoned in February -1891. - -New life came to the fort in 1955 when it became a National Monument. -The ruins have been excavated and stabilized and a fine visitors' center -and museum has been established. Fort Union has at last assumed its -rightful place as a shrine of history. Stand on the parade ground and -survey the majesty that was Fort Union, listen for the sounds, the bugle -calls, the barklike commands of close-order drill, the creak of wagons, -and the thunder of horses' hooves. These are the sounds of Fort Union. -They are still there if one will only pause and listen. - - - Fort Marcy - -Fort Marcy was established in 1846 at Santa Fe and was named for the -then Secretary of War, W. L. Marcy. The fort was located on a hill -overlooking the city some 1000 yards northeast of the plaza. A deep -ditch or moat surrounded the massive adobe walls of the fort and a -blockhouse, within musket range, protected the only entrance. At the -time of Colonel Manfield's inspection trip in August 1853, the troops -were quartered in public buildings in Santa Fe, there being no quarters -provided at the fort; however, it could be occupied on a moment's -notice. The original Fort Marcy was abandoned in 1867 and a new one was -constructed a short distance to the west. This new site is now occupied -by business and residential properties. The War Department abandoned -Fort Marcy in October 1894, the troops and equipment being moved to Fort -Sill, Oklahoma. The site was turned over to the city of Santa Fe in -1897. - -Fort Marcy played an important role during the military occupation of -New Mexico. It served as a base of operations against marauding Indians, -was captured and occupied for a short time by Confederate forces in -1862, served as headquarters for the Ninth Military Department (changed -to Department of New Mexico in 1853) throughout most of this period, and -was a center for the social life of Santa Fe. Only low mounds of earth -now mark the site of Fort Marcy. - - - Fort Wingate - -Fort Wingate, at the site known today, was established in 1868. It is -located on the site of a pre-existing fort at Ojo del Oso (Bear Springs) -about twelve miles east of Gallup and three miles south of U.S. Highway -66. - -Fort Fauntleroy was established in August 1860 and was named for the -then Department Commander, Col. T. T. Fauntleroy. The name was changed -to Fort Lyon in September 1861 after Colonel Fauntleroy resigned his -commission and joined the Confederate forces. The fort was abandoned in -December 1861 as troops were concentrated at other posts to meet the -threat of invasion of the territory by Confederate forces from the -south. With the defeat of Confederate troops early in 1862, the military -returned to the Indian problem and established a post some sixty miles -to the east on the Rio de Gallo near San Rafael. This post was named -Fort Wingate in honor of Capt. Benjamin Wingate who died of wounds -received during the battle with the Confederate forces at Val Verde. The -post proved to be too far from the Navajo country for effective control -and, in 1868, was abandoned and a new Fort Wingate established at Ojo -del Oso on the site occupied earlier by Fort Fauntleroy. - -The physical plant of the new Fort Wingate consisted of barracks, -officers' quarters, hospital, guard house, storehouse, employees' -quarters, corrals, barns, and various repair and storage sheds, all -bordering the traditional rectangular parade ground. Some of these -buildings are in use today. - -In 1914, 4000 Mexican refugees lived in a tent city at Fort Wingate -until peace was restored after Pancho Villa's revolution in Mexico. -Following World War I, it became an ordnance storage depot, and new -administrative and living quarters were built several miles west of the -original fort enclosure. This installation is known today as Fort -Wingate Ordnance Depot, and the long rows of concrete ammunition storage -bunkers can be seen from U.S. Highway 66. In 1925, the original fort -enclosure was transferred to the Department of the Interior for use as -an Indian school. Today, the parade ground is a playground and the -barracks are dormitories for the children who attend this school. The -missile age came to Fort Wingate in 1963 when a portion of the military -reservation became the launching site for test rockets which impact at -the White Sands Missile Range 200 miles to the south. - -Fort Wingate has seen many changes during its long and colorful history. -It served well during its first 100 years and continues to serve today. - - - Fort Craig - -Fort Craig was established in the spring of 1854 on the abandonment of -Fort Conrad, nine miles north. It was named in honor of Col. L. S. Craig -who was killed by an army deserter on June 6, 1852. The remains of Fort -Craig are located on the west bank of the Rio Grande about thirty-four -miles south of Socorro and five miles, by dirt road, east of U.S. -Highway 85. The fort was established to afford protection against the -many bands of Apaches that roamed this part of the territory. - -Fort Craig was well built and became one of the best-garrisoned military -posts in New Mexico. Built on the usual rectangular plan, the parade -ground was bordered on the northeast by two double officers' quarters; -on the northwest by the guard house, prison room, and sallyport; on the -southwest by three soldiers' barracks each in the form of a hollow -square enclosing a patio; and on the southeast by various workshops, -storerooms, stables, and corrals. The commanding officers' quarters -occupied the west corner of the parade ground and the hospital the east -corner. Behind the commanding officers' quarters there were three large -bombproof storerooms. The entire installation was enclosed within a high -wall, beyond which a ditch encircled the fort. Gun bastions projected -from the north and south corners. - - [Illustration: Remnants of guard house, Fort Craig (built of basalt - blocks)] - -Fort Craig was one of the most important military posts in New Mexico. -Its troops participated in many engagements with the Indian. In the fall -of 1861, troops from other posts were concentrated at Fort Craig to meet -the threatened invasion of Confederate forces from the south. In -February 1862, these troops were defeated by the Confederate invaders in -the battle of Val Verde which took place about four miles north of the -fort. Upon the withdrawal of Confederate forces from the territory later -in 1862, the troops at Fort Craig returned to the Indian problem. In -March 1885, the fort was relinquished by the army and the improvements -sold. The last soldier left in August 1885 after government property was -removed and sent to Forts Bliss and Stanton. The buildings were sold at -public auction on April 30, 1894, to the Valverde Land and Irrigation -Company for $1070.50. - -Fort Craig is now a ruin, but the outlines of most of the buildings can -still be seen. Portions of the plastered walls of the commanding -officers' quarters remain, as do portions of the hospital and stone -guard house. The wall and ditch surrounding the fort, gun bastions, -storehouses, and cemetery are still much in evidence. Coal marks the -blacksmith's shop and broken bottles the sutler's store. Another -frontier fort has passed into history. - - - Fort Stanton - -Fort Stanton was established in May 1855 on the Rio Bonito at a site -located approximately four miles east of present-day Capitan and three -miles south of U.S. Highway 380. The fort was an attempt to control the -Mescalero and White Mountain Apaches and was named for Capt. H. W. -Stanton who had been killed by Apache Indians earlier that year. Many a -soldier stationed at Fort Stanton gave up his life to an Apache during -the Indian wars. - - [Illustration: Map of New Mexico showing location of frontier forts] - -The original fort was little more than a stockade, with few buildings -and little equipment. In August 1861, the government stores were burned -and the troops moved to Albuquerque in the face of the Confederate -invasion. Confederate troops occupied the site one month later but -promptly left after a few encounters with the Apache. The site was -reoccupied by Union troops October 1862 and, later, substantial -buildings were erected, most of which still stand. - -With the passing of the frontier, Fort Stanton was abandoned as a -military post in August 1896, and in 1899, the installation passed to -the U.S. Public Health Service for use as a merchant marine hospital for -the treatment of tuberculosis. During World War II, a German prisoner of -war camp was established at the fort. In 1953, the hospital was closed -by the federal government because of the high cost of running the -establishment. Fort Stanton is now a state tuberculosis hospital -operated by the New Mexico Department of Public Welfare. - -Col. Kit Carson used the fort as a base of operations while rounding up -the Mescalero and White Mountain Apaches in late 1862 and early 1863. In -1881, the famous outlaw, Billy the Kid, was confined in the building now -used as a dental clinic while on his way to the gallows in Lincoln, -which never claimed him. Gen. John J. Pershing, as a young lieutenant, -was stationed for a time at Fort Stanton. - - - Fort Selden - -Fort Selden was established in 1865 and named for Capt. Henry R. Selden -(later colonel) who distinguished himself at the battle of Val Verde, -February 21, 1862. The fort was beside the Rio Grande nine miles north -of the settlement of Doņa Ana. The site is located along U.S. Highway 85 -about seventeen miles north of present-day Las Cruces. - -Fort Selden was one of a chain of forts established to control the -Apaches. It was on the Butterfield Trail and provided protection for the -government rope ferry which crossed the Rio Grande at nearby Leasburg. -The summit of Mt. Robledo, across the river to the west, was used as a -heliograph station, flashing messages between Fort Selden and Fort Bliss -at Franklin (El Paso, Texas). - -The buildings of the fort were one-story adobe structures with walls two -feet thick. The installation included barracks for enlisted men, two -double officers' quarters, a ten-bed hospital, stone guard house, -storehouses, workshop, bake shop, corrals, and a magazine with stone -walls three feet thick. The fort was rectangular in ground plan, the -buildings enclosing a parade ground. - -Fort Selden was abandoned in 1879 when the railroads began to draw -travel away from the overland trails. It was reoccupied in 1881 when the -Apache Chiefs Victorio, Nana, and later Geronimo were on the warpath. -With the passing of the Indian problem, Fort Selden was permanently -abandoned in 1892. During World War I, the grounds of the fort were used -for cavalry maneuvers by units stationed at Fort Bliss. - -A rather famous American once lived at Fort Selden. Gen. Douglas -MacArthur, as a child of four, moved with his family to the fort in -1884, following the assignment of his father, then an infantry captain, -to that post. The family remained at Fort Selden until late in 1886. - -Now only crumbling adobe walls mark the site of Fort Selden, once a -welcome sight to travelers in southern New Mexico. The wind, rain, and -sun have taken their toll, aided in no small way by man himself. In -1963, through the efforts of the Doņa Ana Historical Society, Fort -Selden was made a State Monument by the New Mexico legislature. It is to -be hoped that the fort will now be protected from further weathering and -vandalism so that the remnants of this old outpost will stand for many -years to come as a monument to the men who once manned it. - - - Fort Cummings - -Fort Cummings was established in October 1863 in what is now Luna -County, New Mexico. It was located at Cooke's Spring, an important -watering stop on the Butterfield Trail, at the eastern edge of Cooke's -Canyon. Prior to the establishment of Fort Cummings, the Apaches made -frequent and fatal attacks upon travelers as they passed through the -four miles of Cooke's Canyon or stopped at the spring. Cooke's Canyon -was one of the most dangerous stretches on the Butterfield Trail. The -fort was named for Maj. Joseph Cummings who was killed by Navajo Indians -in August 1863. Its ruins can be reached by turning off State Highway 26 -at Florida, sixteen miles northeast of Deming, and traveling seven miles -to the west. - -Fort Cummings was the most elaborate and best-walled fort in New Mexico. -It covered an area 365 x 320 feet and was completely surrounded by a -twelve-foot-high adobe wall. The main entrance was topped by a guard -tower. Officers' quarters occupied the west side of the parade ground, -the hospital the north side, and soldiers' quarters the east side. The -various workshops, storerooms, offices, stables, and corrals extended -along the south side of the fort. - -Abandoned in August 1873, Fort Cummings was reoccupied in 1880, and then -again abandoned in October 1886. Later it was used as a cattle corral by -the Carpenter-Stanley Cattle Company. The spring was walled and covered, -and the water piped to Florida. - -Little remains of Fort Cummings today. A few weathered walls here and -there among the mesquite and creosote bushes mark the site. The spring -still flows, supplying water for the stock which now graze upon this -"protector of the trail." - - - Fort Bayard - -Fort Bayard, established in 1865 to protect the miners and settlers -moving into the area following the Civil War, allowed the orderly -development of what was to become New Mexico's most important -mineral-producing area. Named for Capt. George D. Bayard who was wounded -repeatedly during Indian forays and who died of wounds received in the -Battle of Fredricksburg (Va.) during the Civil War, the fort was located -about five miles southeast of Pinos Altos and about midway between the -mining towns of Pinos Altos and Santa Rita. The site is about nine miles -east of present-day Silver City, just north of State Highway 90. - -The original fort consisted of log and adobe buildings forming a square -around the parade ground. During its thirty-four year history as an army -post, many changes and additions were made to the fort, including the -building of two-storied officers' quarters. In 1899, the line troops -were removed and the fort was officially designated as a U.S. Army -General Hospital to treat tubercular soldiers. In 1920, the hospital was -turned over to the Public Health Department; in 1922, to the U.S. -Veterans Administration; and again, in 1966, to the State Health -Department as a facility for the care of the aged and of tuberculosis -cases. It can now accommodate more than 300 patients. The modern -buildings are a far cry from the dirt-floored log and adobe buildings of -the original fort. - - -HISTORY - - - _Pre-Civil War Period._ - -The period 1846 to 1861 was characterized by constant Indian warfare. -Treaties were made, then broken. Forts were established, then abandoned, -and new forts built as the military tried in vain to cope with the -problem. Punitive expeditions proved ineffective as the Indians -separated into small and predatory bands which overran the country. - -Forts Union, Marcy, Fauntleroy, Craig, and Stanton were established -during this period. Additional forts, whose sites have returned to the -desert, are Fort Conrad (1851), on the Rio Grande about twenty-five -miles south of Socorro; Fort Thorn (1853), on the Rio Grande about five -miles north of Hatch; Fort Fillmore (1851), on the Rio Grande about -seven miles south of Las Cruces; Fort Webster (1852), on the Mimbres -River about one and one-half miles northwest of San Lorenzo; Fort McLane -(1860), at Apache Tejo about four miles south of Hurley; and Fort Floyd -(1857), on the Gila River about two miles south of Cliff. - - - _Civil War Period._ - -The outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 created a new problem on the -frontier in New Mexico. Confederate military leaders moved quickly to -seize control of the Southwest and California to cut off the supply of -gold to the North and divert it to the Confederacy. Confederate troops -under Col. J. B. Baylor occupied abandoned Fort Bliss at Franklin (El -Paso), Texas on July 1, 1861. Baylor began his move northward along the -Rio Grande on July 23 and quickly occupied Mesilla. Nearby Fort Fillmore -was abandoned and the Union forces retreated toward Fort Stanton, but -they were soon captured by Baylor's troops. Upon the fall of Fort -Fillmore, Fort Stanton was hastily abandoned on August 2 and was taken -over by the Confederates shortly thereafter. - -Gen. H. H. Sibley arrived at Fort Bliss in December 1861 to assume -command of the Confederate forces. Sibley's troops moved northward along -the Rio Grande and were engaged in battle by Union troops from Fort -Craig, under Gen. E. R. S. Canby, as they attempted to bypass the -well-garrisoned post. The Battle of Val Verde took place four miles -north of Fort Craig on February 21, 1862. After a day of bloody -fighting, Sibley emerged the victor. He occupied Albuquerque on March 2, -1862, and Santa Fe on March 23. The Confederate forces then moved toward -Fort Union in an attempt to gain complete control of the territory. On -March 27 and 28, they were met by Union forces sent out from Fort Union -and were defeated in battle near present-day Glorieta. Sibley then -retreated to Fort Bliss. - - [Illustration: The Confederate campaign in New Mexico, 1861-1862] - -While Sibley was thus engaged, another part of his army moved across -what is now southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona and -occupied Tucson (Arizona). Gen. J. H. Carleton and his California Column -left Los Angeles on April 13 and cleared this area of Confederate -troops, reaching the Rio Grande on August 7. Carleton reoccupied Fort -Bliss, which had been abandoned by the Confederate troops in their -retreat. - - - _Post-Civil War Period._ - -While the Union troops were preoccupied with the Confederates, the -Indians stepped up their raids and depredations. With the passing of the -Confederate threat, attention was once more focused on the Indian -problem. A new plan was formulated which called for the capturing of the -Indians and confining them to reservations. A reservation (Bosque -Redondo) was established late in 1862 near present-day Fort Sumner, New -Mexico, to which were eventually confined several thousand Navajos and -Mescalero Apaches. This resettlement was not a success since the Apaches -ran off and the Navajos suffered greatly from sickness and disease. A -treaty was signed with the Navajos in 1868, and they were allowed to -return to their homes, no longer a threat to the frontier. The Mescalero -Apaches were finally settled on a reservation in their own country south -of Fort Stanton, and the Jicarillas on a reservation west of Tierra -Amarilla. - -The Mimbreno, Mogollon, and Warm Springs Apaches of southwestern New -Mexico were more of a problem. In 1871, a reservation and Fort Tularosa -were established near present-day Aragon in western New Mexico. After a -futile attempt to keep the Indians there, they were moved in 1874 to a -new reservation and military post at Ojo Caliente, about forty miles -northwest of present-day Truth or Consequences. This, too, proved a -failure and the Apaches were moved to the San Carlos Reservation in what -is now Arizona. During these attempts to locate the Apaches on -reservations, various rebellious bands of Apaches led by Victorio, Nana, -and Geronimo continued on the warpath. Geronimo and his band surrendered -in 1886 and were imprisoned in Florida. After Geronimo's surrender, -relative peace descended upon the frontier in New Mexico. - -Established in the post-Civil War period were Forts Wingate (old and -new), Selden, Cummings, and Bayard, as well as Fort Lowell (1868), near -Tierra Amarilla; Fort Bascom (1863), on the Canadian River about eight -miles north of Tucumcari; Fort Sumner (1862), on the Pecos River about -five miles southeast of present-day Fort Sumner; Fort McRae (1863), on -the Rio Grande about ten miles northeast of Truth or Consequences; and -Fort West (1863), on the Gila River about two miles south of Cliff. - -With the arrival of the railroad and cessation of hostilities with the -Indians, a new era was begun. One by one, the old forts were abandoned: -their need had passed. The colorful frontier forts of New Mexico are -just a memory now. - - - - - Our National Heritage - - -National Forests in the so-called "desert" state of New Mexico cover -more than 8.5 million acres, about 11 per cent of the state's area. -National Monuments and Carlsbad Caverns National Park only extend over -about 430 square miles but cover ten of New Mexico's most scenic areas -that are of national geologic, archeologic, and historic interest. These -are our national heritage, set aside by the federal government for the -perpetual equal use of all Americans. - -The forests cap the higher ranges of the state, except on windblown -peaks that extend above the timberline. They provide protection for the -watersheds that feed New Mexico's rivers, supply about 125 million board -feet of cut timber each year, and yield forage for more than 150,000 -cattle and sheep. Picnic nooks and camp grounds are plentiful, fish -abound in the rushing mountain streams, and big game awaits the hunter -throughout the forest lands. The primitive virgin wilderness is -preserved in its natural state, accessible only by pack trip, in the -Gila Wilderness area of the Diablo and Mogollon mountains north of -Silver City and the Pecos Wilderness area east of Santa Fe in the Sangre -de Cristo Mountains. - -Incomparable Carlsbad Caverns is in the state's only National Park. -National Monuments include the glistening gypsum dunes of White Sands, -the volcanic cone of Capulin Mountain, the prehistoric ruins of Chaco -Canyon, Aztec Ruins, Bandelier, and Gila Cliff Dwellings, the Spanish -ruins at Gran Quivira, Inscription Rock at El Morro, and the crumbling -walls of old Fort Union. In the near future, Valle Grande may be added -to the National Park System and will include Valle Caldera, one of the -world's largest volcanic calderas, a mountainous jumble with cool -streams, thick coniferous forests, and lush high meadows. - - -NEW MEXICO'S BIG SHARE OF THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM - - _by_ H. V. Reeves, Jr.[2] - -In contemplating the growth of cities and towns, the insatiable suburbs, -congested streets and highways, the acres of dump yards for discarded -automobiles, legions of billboards upstaging mountain ranges and -seashores, and the melancholy predictions of demographers who say that -within thirty years there will be twice as many of us, consider this: -for New Mexico in particular, the outlook is not utterly bleak. - -Some ninety years ago, without anything approaching the present-day -horrible example before them, some farsighted, selfless, tireless -individuals began to work to set aside areas of outstanding scenic, -scientific, and historical interest so that they would not be engulfed -by humanity. Often against strong opposition, these benefactors -succeeded in bringing about legislation that bounded many such areas and -defined laws to protect them. The areas became national parks, -monuments, and historic sites. And in 1916, the National Park Service, -an agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior, was established to -administer the units of the National Park System. - -Today, other selfless individuals are contributing their time and effort -to bring additional areas into the National Park System before they are -lost forever. For example, Pecos ruins became a National Monument in -late 1966 (see page 106). - -Not every suggested area possesses the qualities that merit -preservation, qualities of national significance. Proposed areas receive -careful study before they are recommended for inclusion within the -system--recommended to the Congress by the Secretary of the Interior. -The Secretary's recommendations are based on those received from the -Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and -Monuments. This board is composed of eleven private citizens, each of -whom is competent in one or more of the following fields: history, -natural history, archeology, architecture, conservation, and recreation. - -Diverse in character, New Mexico's ten units of the National Park System -are of geologic, scenic, archeological, and historical interest. A visit -to each unit will disclose the qualities that have been judged to be of -national significance. - - - Carlsbad Caverns National Park - -Incomparable Carlsbad Caverns, in southeastern New Mexico, includes a -single underground chamber so expansive that its floor could accommodate -fourteen football fields and its ceiling could hold a 22-story building; -other chambers that contain countless cave formations of great variety -of shape and color; cool and naturally circulating fresh air; and a -system of lighting that reveals the beauty and spaciousness most -effectively. - -Since the temperature within the Caverns remains at about 56°F the year -round, warm clothing is needed. Comfortable shoes, too, for the -four-hour, three-mile complete tour, which starts at the natural -entrance. Shorter trips, the Big Room tours that start at the elevators -in the visitor center, take in only a part of the underground chambers. -All tours are under leadership of competent park guides who answer -questions and explain the earth processes that have resulted in the -caverns and their amazing decorations. - -From the natural entrance, the immense main corridor of the Caverns is -followed downward 829 feet for one and three-quarters miles. This brings -visitors to the most scenic rooms (the Green Lake Room, King's Palace, -Queen's Chamber, and Papoose Room), where the stalactites, stalagmites, -and helictites reach their peak in numbers, shapes, and delicate -coloring. The trail leads upward 80 feet from the Papoose Room to the -lunchroom. Near the lunchroom is the Big Room, the most majestic of the -Caverns' chambers. The trail around its perimeter, one and a quarter -miles long, encompasses a floor space of fourteen acres. - - [Illustration: Hall of Giants in Carlsbad Caverns National Park] - -Completing the circuit of the Big Room and returning to the lunchroom, -visitors may either walk or board an elevator and ride smoothly back to -the surface. - -How were the Caverns formed? The story began about 240 million years -ago, during the Permian Period. At that time, the two limestone -formations in which the caverns occur--the Tansill Formation and Capitan -Limestone--were deposited as part of an organic reef complex at the edge -of a warm shallow sea. - -During subsequent periods, other seas brought in sedimentary material -that covered the reef. About 60 million years ago, earth movements, -which were responsible for the uplift of the area, fractured the reef -and permitted surrounding ground water to enter along fracture lines and -begin work in fashioning the caverns. The water at first dissolved small -crevices in the limestone. As more water came in, the crevices enlarged -to cavities, called solution pockets. Then the walls, floors, and -ceilings of the pockets dissolved and collapsed, joining the pockets, -while the solution process continued, eventually forming the huge rooms -seen today. - -Beginning about 3 million years ago and into recent times, the uplift of -the local Guadalupe Mountains and changing climates lowered the water -table. Water that had been inside the caverns drained away and was -replaced by air. Most solution stopped, but large sections of partly -dissolved walls and ceilings collapsed under their own weight. Stability -was finally achieved, however, and probably no rock has fallen within -the caverns during the last several thousand years. - -Even before the collapsing ended, another phase of cavern development -had begun. Rain water and snow melt slowly seeped into the caverns. -Droplets of water, each holding a minute quantity of dissolved -limestone, appeared upon the ceilings. Exposed to the air, the droplets -evaporated and left their mineral content as calcite and -aragonite--crystalline forms of limestone. Over centuries, this process -of evaporation and deposition has built a myriad of crystalline -stalactites of all shapes and sizes. Water that dripped to the floor -evaporated and deposited the calcite and aragonite to build stalagmites. -When joined together, stalactites and stalagmites become columns, or -pillars. In the scenic rooms, conditions existed that brought about the -creation of helictites--twisted formations that seem to defy gravity in -their growth. Color in the cave formations, shades of brown, red, and -yellow, result from the presence of small amounts of iron oxide and -other minerals. - -Carlsbad Caverns National Park offers more than the caverns themselves. -Each evening from April to October, bats in incredible numbers spiral -upward out of the Caverns' entrance and fly southward over the rim of -the escarpment to feed in the valleys of the Black and Pecos rivers. -They return just before dawn, diving swiftly and from high altitudes -into the entrance. Flying directly to the bat cave, they spend each day -hanging head downward in dense clusters from the walls and ceilings. The -bat cave itself is not open to visitors. A park naturalist explains the -bat flight and discusses the bats in detail in a talk given at the -entrance to the Caverns each evening before the flight begins. - -The nature trail, a half mile loop that begins and ends near the -entrance to the Caverns, guides the visitor to many of the desert plants -of the region. The park is visited by more than half a million people -each year, and yet the delicate cave formations and the natural beauties -remain unmarred. - - - White Sands National Monument - -White Sands National Monument, fifteen miles southwest of Alamogordo, is -another area of great interest to the geologist and biologist. But its -strangeness, the graceful contours of its snow-white dunes, and the -peculiar adaptations of some of the plants and animals that live among -its dunes are appreciated as fully by the nonscientist. More than -370,000 visitors come to marvel at the White Sands each year. - -The Monument, some 230 square miles in extent, preserves the most -impressive part of the world's largest gypsum desert. This is a -glistening sea of pure gypsum sand that the wind has drifted into huge -dunes that are almost bare of vegetation except along the fringes. -Wavelike, the restive dunes move slowly before the prevailing winds, -covering and uncovering the few plants that lie in their way. And -wavelike, their surfaces trace the vagaries of indecisive breezes in -tiny parallel ripplelike ridges. - -Because of the almost constant wind and resulting gradual advance of the -dunes, most of the plants that are able to establish themselves in the -open flats between the dunes eventually become buried. A few species, -however, are able to survive the irresistible march of the sand. Through -rapid growth and elongation of the stems, the struggling crowns remain -on top of the rising crests of the dunes. Plants with stems more than -forty feet long have been found. As the dunes continue forward under the -pressure of the wind, they leave the plants elevated on columns of -compacted gypsum bound by their adventitious roots. - -Animals, too, have become adapted to their unusual surroundings. The -small creatures, lizards, mice, and others, are picked off easily by -such predators as foxes, coyotes, and hawks when they are conspicuous. -Thus, through the centuries, only the lighter-colored individuals have -survived among the dunes and, through many generations, have developed -pale and elusive animals that blend inconspicuously with their white -surroundings. Pocket mice are a good example of this. Among the white -dunes, the pocket mice are white; in the nearby red hills, they are a -rusty color; and on the beds of black lava a few miles north of the -sand, the pocket mice are very dark. - -A visitor to White Sands National Monument should stop at the visitor -center, where exhibits explain the geology of the duneland and others -describe the plants and animals that are able to live there. - -But how and from where did this natural wonder come? The dunes of gypsum -lie in the Tularosa Basin, which stretches for more than 100 miles -between two north-south mountain ranges. All sides of the valley slope -gently inward, forming the basin, with Lake Lucero, its lowest point, at -the southwest end of the Monument. This valley was formed hundreds of -centuries ago, when a great section of the earth's crust settled to form -the type of basin known geologically as a graben. - -High above the basin floor, beds of gypsum are found to the north in the -mountain ranges flanking the valley. Similar gypsum beds lie far beneath -the floor of the basin. Thus, it was once a part of the high plateau, a -great blocklike section that slowly sank to form the basin at its -present level. - -Percolating water from seasonal rains and melting snow carries tons of -gypsum, in solution, from the highlands at the north end of the basin -into Lake Lucero. During much of the year, cloudless skies and warm dry -winds evaporate Lake Lucero, and it shrinks to a crystal-encrusted -marsh. Capillarity draws the gypsum-laden underground water to the -surface; it, too, evaporates, depositing its burden of gypsum throughout -the extensive "alkali flats." The persistent southwest wind picks up the -particles of gypsum and whirls them away, adding them to the gleaming -white dunes, the accumulation of centuries. - -The best ways to see the dunes are by car and by foot. Along the drive -that leads into the heart of the duneland are numbered posts that -correspond to numbered paragraphs in the Monument's informational -folder. These paragraphs explain the features that are of particular -significance. At pull-outs along the drive, park the car and walk among -the dunes. - - [Illustration: Capulin Mountain National Monument] - - - Capulin Mountain National Monument - -Capulin Mountain National Monument, in the northeast part of the state, -is an area of geologic interest that presents still another aspect of -the science of the earth. It contains the cone of an extinct volcano, -one of the most symmetrical of the geologically recent cinder cones in -the United States. Its conical form rises more than 1000 feet above its -base. The irregular rim is about one mile in circumference, and the -crater is about 415 feet in depth, as measured from the highest part of -the rim. Some 40,000 people a year visit the Monument. - -The mountain consists chiefly of loose cinders, ash, and other rock -debris of volcanic explosions. These materials were spewed out by a -series of successive eruptions, probably of considerable duration. The -coarse materials fell back around the vent, piling up to form the -conical mound. Dust and other fine materials were carried away by the -wind. After the eruptions, vegetation gained a foothold on the steep, -unstable flanks of the cone, so that in time the slopes became -stabilized. Geological studies indicate that the volcano probably was -active about 7000 years ago. - -Capulin Mountain is of special interest, partly because it represents -the last stages of a great period of volcanic activity that was -widespread throughout western North America. Evidences of this older and -more intense activity can be seen from the top of Capulin Mountain in -the scores of other nearby volcanic hills and peaks. The largest of -these is the Sierra Grande, an extinct volcano rising 4000 feet above -the surrounding plain; it is ten miles to the southeast. Northwest of -Capulin are a number of mesas that are capped with black lava, the -largest of which are Barella, Raton, and Johnson. Fishers Peak, south of -Trinidad, Colorado, is on a similar mesa. The famous Spanish Peaks, -northwest of Trinidad, are a pair of extinct volcanoes. - -In this great volcanic area, the lava erupted in a succession of flows. -The series of eruptions were separated by long periods of inactivity. -During these inactive times, erosion cut valleys and wore down parts of -the old lava sheets. This action formed new channels and lower terrain -over which succeeding lava flows spread. This process was repeated at -least three times. The oldest lavas, which have been exposed by erosion, -are found on the tops of the highest mesas. The last series of eruptions -created Capulin Mountain; they were ejections mostly of cinders and ash, -with less lava flow than in the preceding volcanic activity. These -cinder-and-ash eruptions were so recent, geologically, that some of the -nearby, bare, steep-sided cinder cones appear as if they had just -cooled. - -The National Park Service has constructed a road up the mountain to the -rim of the crater. And from the parking area at the rim, two trails lead -to the most interesting points on the mountain. One trail, self-guiding, -makes the complete one-mile circuit of the crater along the rim. A guide -booklet, keyed to numbered stakes that have been set at places along the -trail, explains the features of particular significance--both on the -mountain and in the distance. The other trail, less scenic, provides a -rare opportunity to see a volcanic mountain from the inside out, for it -leads down to the bottom of the crater. - - [Illustration: View of Chaco Canyon National Monument] - - - Chaco Canyon National Monument - -Rich in areas of geological interest, New Mexico is equally rich in -areas of archeological interest. Four of these are preserved as units of -the National Park System. - -Chaco Canyon National Monument, in the northwestern part of the state, -contains more than a dozen large prehistoric ruins and hundreds of -smaller archeological sites. These ruins are considered to be without -equal north of central Mexico. No other archeological area in the -Southwest exhibits such a high development of prehistoric Pueblo -civilization. Most of the sites lie within a strip of land about eight -miles long and two miles wide, through which Chaco Canyon runs. Although -the Monument is relatively isolated, it is open year around and is -visited by about 22,000 people annually. - -The most imposing and best known of the ruins is Pueblo Bonito. Built -between 800 and 900 years ago, this 4- and 5-story village covered more -than three acres and contained about 800 rooms and 32 kivas, or -ceremonial chambers. Archeologist Neil M. Judd, of the National Museum, -who conducted some of the late excavations, has said that Pueblo Bonito -was the largest apartment house built anywhere in the world prior to -1887, estimating that at one time it housed 1200 people. - -Earliest of the Chaco sites, small villages of crude pit houses were -occupied during 600 to 800 A.D. Archeologists, studying changes in -masonry style, pottery types, and other remains, have pieced together -the development of the culture of the inhabitants of Chaco Canyon over a -period of six centuries. - -After Chaco Canyon's cultural high point was reached in the 1100's, a -gradual decline set in. The population decreased, and in the 1200's, the -region was abandoned. During this same century, other Pueblo centers -within the San Juan Basin were also deserted. - -Various theories have been advanced to explain this exodus: soil -erosion, warlike enemies, poor facilities for urban sanitation, drought, -and intervillage warfare. One or a combination of these factors might -have been instrumental in bringing about the abandonment of the region. - - - Aztec Ruins National Monument - -Aztec Ruins National Monument, at Aztec in the northwestern corner of -the state, was set aside to preserve an outstanding example of classical -Pueblo construction, one of the largest pre-Spanish villages in the -Southwest. More than 40,000 visitors come to the Monument each year. - -Tree-ring dates indicate that most of the big central pueblo was rapidly -constructed during the period 1106 to 1121. At this time, the people of -Aztec were influenced by the cultural center to the south, Chaco Canyon. -During the last half of the 1100's, after the decline of Chaco Canyon -had begun, the people of Aztec began to look toward the north, and by -1200, Mesa Verde ideas dominated the region. Aztec was abandoned by -about 1300, as was the rest of the general region. - -Of particular interest at Aztec Ruins National Monument is the -reconstructed Great Kiva. The Pueblo Indians built separate rooms, now -known as kivas, for ceremonial purposes. During the period of Chaco -influence, the people at Aztec constructed a very large circular -building, 48 feet in diameter, in their plaza. Its features differ from -those of the small kivas and establish it as a Great Kiva, similar to -those at Chaco. The Great Kivas represent the peak of religious -architecture among the Pueblos. The Great Kiva at Aztec was completely -restored in 1934 by Earl H. Morris, of the American Museum of Natural -History. - - - Bandelier National Monument - -Bandelier National Monument, forty-six miles west of Santa Fe, preserves -the ruins of dwellings and other structures that were erected by Indians -who lived in the area until about 1550 A.D. Almost 100,000 people visit -the Monument each year. - -When many of the ancient Pueblo Indian centers were abandoned in the -late thirteenth century, the people moved to locations where the water -supply was more constant. A favorable area was the upper Rio Grande -Valley in what is now New Mexico. One of the later flowerings of Pueblo -culture occurred here. The ruins within Bandelier are representative of -this phase of Pueblo development. - -In Frijoles Canyon, the Indians chose the location of their homes well. -The creek that runs through the canyon flows all year. On the canyon -floor and mesa top there was land suitable to the cultivation of crops. -And the canyon walls of soft tuff (consolidated volcanic ash) could -easily be hollowed out by the Indians with their harder stone tools in -fashioning storage rooms behind dwellings built against the cliff. - -Cliff ruins, or talus villages, extend along the base of the northern -wall of the canyon for about two miles. Other ruins are located on the -floor of the canyon. The houses of stone masonry were irregularly -terraced, from one to three stories in height. Some hollowed recesses at -the base of the cliff also were used for dwelling rooms. - -Like the other pueblo dwellers, the Frijoles inhabitants were farmers, -raising the usual corn, beans, and squash. They used cotton cloth, which -has been found in the ruins and which suggests that they had the loom. -Since the growing season in the high Frijoles country is short, they -probably obtained their cotton by trade with Indians who lived farther -south. They made pottery decorated with glaze paint. - -For a few centuries, the Indian farmers lived in the canyons, built -villages, honeycombed the cliffs with artificial caves, and tilled the -soil. But with the passing years, drought, soil-eroding floods, soil -depletion, famine, and possibly disease--singly or in -combination--forced the canyon dwellers again to seek new homes. -Descendants of these Indians still live in nearby modern pueblos along -the Rio Grande. - - [Illustration: Cliff houses in Frijoles Canyon, Bandelier National - Monument] - -About ninety per cent of Bandelier National Monument is, and will -remain, a wilderness. The rugged and scenic back country is accessible -by about sixty miles of maintained trails, leading to such features as -Alamo Canyon, the Stone Lions, Painted Cave, the Pueblo ruins of San -Miguel and Yapashi, and White Rock Canyon of the Rio Grande. - - - Valle Grande - -Another area has been considered as an addition to the National Park -System in New Mexico. A 1963 bill introduced in Congress would establish -Valle Grande-Bandelier National Park, about forty-six miles west of -Santa Fe. Valle Grande is part of the Valle Caldera, which is among the -world's largest and has been the site of extensive studies of calderas -(the collapsed summits of volcanoes). Lessons learned there have been -applied in recognizing and investigating calderas in other places. -Bandelier National Monument, primarily of archeological significance, -lies to the east of the canyon-cut rim of the caldera. As written, the -bill would have incorporated the Monument in the proposed national park. - - [Illustration: Part of Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument] - - - Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument - -Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, forty-seven miles north of -Silver City and at the edge of the Gila Wilderness Area, contains a -series of ruins that portray the development of the agricultural Indians -who lived south of the Mogollon Mountains. Specifically, the ruins -represent a branch of the generalized culture known as Mogollon. -Although part of the road to the Monument was paved in 1963, the last -four-mile stretch is still primitive and should not be attempted in an -ordinary passenger car except during the summer and in dry weather. In -spite of the difficult road, more than 23,000 people visited the -Monument during 1965. The last four miles of the road have been recently -paved. - -The earliest ruin yet found within the Monument is a Mogollon pit house -of a type that was made about 500 A.D. It is roundish and, on the east -side, has a narrow ramplike entrance some two feet wide and ten feet -long. The people of this period did only a little farming (corn and -beans), a little hunting, and gathered much uncultivated plant food. -They made a fairly good plain-brown pottery and undoubtedly were skilled -in a number of crafts whose products have since disappeared. Such things -as nets and snares, baskets, and wooden tools last but a short time in -open sites. - -Other, later, pit house types may be seen in the Monument. Pit houses -were prevalent in the area until about 1000 A.D., when influences from -the Anasazi (Pueblo) Indians of the northern part of the Southwest began -to affect the Mogollon people. - -Square houses, built above the ground, became the style; some were of -masonry, some of adobe construction, and some were built of wattle -(wooden rods and twigs). A new type of pottery was also introduced at -about the same time: white with black designs. - -The principal ruins in the Monument are the cliff dwellings, which were -built during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They, too, reflect -the northern pueblo influence. About forty rooms, remarkably well -preserved, are fitted into a series of chambers, or caves, in a low -cliff of Gila Conglomerate. By about the beginning of the fifteenth -century, the area was abandoned by the farming Indians. - - - Gran Quivira National Monument - -Significant chapters in the absorbing history of New Mexico were written -at three sites that have been made units of the National Park System. - -Gran Quivira National Monument, near the center of the state southeast -of Mountainair, preserves the ruins of a frontier Spanish mission that -had been built, used, and abandoned by 1675. The Monument contains -twenty-one ruined house mounds of Indian pueblos and ruins of two -mission churches. It was the presence of the Indians at this location, -of course, that attracted the Franciscan missionaries. - - [Illustration: A look at ruins of Gran Quivira] - -The earliest Indian pueblo in the Monument was founded about 1300 A.D.; -by the 1600's, the village, with several structures, had become the -largest in the region. It was conveniently located on the south side of -a hill near the cultivated fields in the surrounding lowlands. Water was -a problem then as now. The Indians solved this as best they could by -digging shallow wells at the base of the hill, about one mile west of -the pueblo. - -The first known specific reference to Gran Quivira was made in 1630 by -Fray Alonso de Benavides, a Franciscan missionary. He called the pueblo -the "Village of the Humanas," and referred to the church there as having -been built by Father Francisco Letrado in 1629 and dedicated to San -Isidro. Humanas, now misnamed "Gran Quivira," was later administered -from the mission of San Gregorio de Abo, some forty miles to the north. -In 1659, Father Diego de Santander was assigned to Humanas. Construction -of the mission buildings, which he rededicated to San Buenaventura, was -completed by him. - -The Franciscans had a pronounced influence upon the Pueblo Indians. They -stimulated trade with Mexico and the pueblos farther north. They -imported wine grapes and cultivated them, and they introduced -domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, and horses. - -Sometime between 1672 and 1675, the pueblo and mission at Humanas were -abandoned because of Apache raids, drought, and crop failures. The -people first moved to the Rio Grande near the present town of Socorro. A -few continued to El Paso del Norte, where, in 1680, they were joined by -those from Socorro, who had fled with the Spaniards from the Pueblo -Revolt of that year. - - - El Morro National Monument - -El Morro National Monument, southwest of Grants near Ramah, was -established to preserve the famous Inscription Rock, register of -Indians, Spaniards, and westward-moving pioneers. About 22,000 people -now visit the Monument each year. - -El Morro, or Inscription Rock, is a massive mesa point of sandstone. -Rising some 200 feet above the valley floor, it forms a striking -landmark. From its summit, rain and melted snow drain into a natural -basin at the foot of the cliff, creating a constant and dependable -supply of water in a region where water is scarce. The route from Acoma -to the Zuni pueblos led directly past the mesa. It was a regular camping -place for Spanish _conquistadores_ and, later, for travelers from the -east. - -On the top of El Morro lie ruins of Indian pueblos, abandoned long -before the coming of the Spaniards. And carved in the sandstone are -numerous petroglyphs left by these ancient people, ancestors of the -modern Zunis. Perhaps it was the petroglyphs that prompted later -travelers to record their names and thoughts on the rock. - -The first known historical mention of El Morro is found in the journal -of Diego Pérez de Luxán, chronicler of the Espejo Expedition of 1583. -Luxán stopped there for water on March 11 of that year. - - [Illustration: Part of the pool and cliff at El Morro] - -The oldest dated inscription at El Morro was made in 1605 by don Juan de -Oņate, first governor of New Mexico. Returning from an expedition to the -mouth of the Colorado River, he camped at El Morro and carved this -inscription in Spanish: "Passed by here the Adelantado Don Juan de Oņate -from the discovery of the Sea of the South, the 16th of April of 1605." -The "Sea of the South" was the Gulf of California. - -If don Diego de Vargas, the most famous Spanish governor of New Mexico, -seems boastful in the message he left at El Morro, who can blame him? -His words, in English, read, "Here was the General Don Diego de Vargas, -who conquered for our Holy Faith and for the Royal Crown all of New -Mexico at his own expense, year of 1692." Twelve years earlier, the -great Pueblo Indian Revolt had driven the Spaniards from New Mexico. -More than 400, including 23 priests, had lost their lives, and the -surviving Spaniards, some 1100, had fled to El Paso del Norte. De Vargas -restored order, without further bloodshed, in 1692. - -After the occupation of Santa Fe by the army of Gen. Stephen W. Kearny -in August 1846, details of United States troops were dispatched to -explore various parts of New Mexico. Probably the first to visit El -Morro was Lt. J. H. Simpson, accompanied by the artist R. H. Kern, who -copied some of the early inscriptions in September 1849. Then the names -of other soldiers, traders, Indian agents, surveyors, emigrants who were -traveling westward, and settlers were added to the rock. - -Since the establishment of the Monument by Presidential proclamation in -1906, inscribing on the face of the cliff has been prohibited. If the -Monument had not been established and the law not passed, this -fascinating part of the history of the Southwest would surely have been -lost. - - - Fort Union National Monument - -Fort Union National Monument, twenty-six miles northeast of Las Vegas -and on the route of the old Santa Fe Trail where the mountains meet the -plains, preserves the ruins of a famous frontier Army post. As a base of -operations for military and civilian ventures in New Mexico from 1851 to -1891, Fort Union helped to direct the course of events in the formative -years of the Southwest. More than 11,000 visitors come to the Monument -each year. - -Five years after the conquest of New Mexico by the United States in the -war with Mexico, Col. E. V. Sumner moved some of his troops from Fort -Marcy, in Santa Fe, to the site of Fort Union and there began -construction of log buildings on the west side of Coyote Creek. This was -the first Fort Union. - -The first post took an active part in protecting settlers and traders -from Indian raids during the 1850's. Mounted patrols of dragoons made -many expeditions into the mountains against the warring Apaches and Utes -and out onto the plains to pursue Comanche war parties. - -Fort Union was also charged with supply and support of many outlying -military posts, such as Fort Defiance and Fort Craig. The Quartermaster -Depot at Fort Union in later years came to be the hub of all Army supply -services in the Southwest. - -During the first three decades of its life, Fort Union saw the great -Conestoga wagons and prairie schooners of the Santa Fe Trail caravans -pass in increasing numbers. By the outbreak of the Civil War, -enterprising traders were hauling more than ten million dollars' worth -of goods from Missouri each year. The fort provided escorts for caravans -and when requested by apprehensive company or postal officials, escorts -for stage-coaches of the Independence-Santa Fe Mail. Century-old tracks -of the Santa Fe Trail can be still seen near Fort Union. - -The start of the Civil War in 1861 brought new activity to the fort. -Immediate invasion of New Mexico by Confederate forces from Texas was -expected. Gen. E. R. S. Canby, commanding Union troops in the territory, -began construction of an earthwork fortification in a defensive position -about a mile from the original fort. The ditches, parapets, and -bomb-proofs of this redoubt were completed late in 1861. - -The Texas column was not slow in coming. By March 1862, these invaders -under Gen. Henry H. Sibley had defeated a Union force at Val Verde, had -frightened the defenders from Albuquerque and Santa Fe into inaction, -and were marching eastward across the mountains toward the final -stronghold, Fort Union. On March 10, the First Regiment of Colorado -Volunteers, under Col. J. P. Slough, arrived at Fort Union as -reinforcements. And on March 22, Colonel Slough led his 1342 men out of -the fort to meet the advancing Confederates. In a two-day battle fought -in Apache Canyon and Glorieta Pass, the Union forces defeated the -Confederates, thus saving Fort Union for the federal cause. - -From 1863 to 1869, the garrisons at Fort Union were chiefly occupied in -a construction program that produced most of the adobe-walled buildings -whose ruins may now be seen. Fort Union then returned to its earlier -mission of a base for Indian fighting. - -The usefulness of Fort Union was reduced with the final submission of -the Indians and with the arrival of the railhead at Las Vegas in 1879. -The huge fort was demoted to caretaker status in the 1880's and was -abandoned in 1891. - - -At each of these New Mexico units of the National Park System, as at -other units throughout the nation, trained personnel of the National -Park Service--archeologists, historians, naturalists, and park -rangers--are on duty. Their purpose is to make the visitor's trip -rewarding. This they do through museum exhibits, guided walks and -self-guiding trails, campfire talks, and publications. - -Here in New Mexico, then, escape the irritations that seem to go with -progress. Awaiting the traveler are unspoiled places where he can -surround himself with the quiet majesty of nature, walk the paths made -by prehistoric people, camp where the Spanish _conquistadores_ camped, -stroll among the ruins of buildings erected by the men who helped to -fashion the Southwest. - - -FOREST LANDS ABOVE THE DESERT - - by Ruth Bush Jones[3] - -Today, as in earlier times, people of New Mexico look to their mountains -with a new and greater appreciation of their forest land heritage. -Today, also, people seek aesthetic values of peace, beauty, and serenity -found in nature's solitudes, in addition to forest products for economic -use. Basic to the enjoyment of the high country are the forest treasures -of clear, pure water ... of wild game and birds ... of trees for shade -and solitude, fuel, shelter, and forest products ... of grass and browse -for cattle, sheep, horses, and wildlife ... of magnificent grandeur and -panoramic vistas. These basic treasures coupled with understanding of -the purposes and many benefits of the National Forests bring true -recreation to the visitor. - -The high country of New Mexico, much of it in the National Forests, is -entrusted by law to the care and administration of the U.S. Forest -Service, an agency of the Department of Agriculture. These vast public -properties located in several sections of the state are administered as -Carson, Santa Fe, Cibola, Lincoln, Gila, Apache, and Coronado National -Forests, the latter two lying primarily in Arizona and being directed -from there rather than from New Mexico. Visitors to New Mexico traveling -along main highways see the high forest country outlining the horizon -and often regard the lofty masses of rugged rock as unapproachable and -lacking in friendliness. - -"Not so," says the Forest Ranger. There are broad highways welcoming the -traveler into the high country where forest trees stretch to the sky. -There are cool invigorating streams sparkling clear and clean from -mountain fastnesses and developed campgrounds and picnic areas ready for -use. Outdoor recreation from simple relaxing and picnicking under a pine -tree to the most strenuous of wilderness backpacking or horseback -riding, winter sports, and skiing awaits the visitor. There is fishing -in mountain streams and in big open lakes or in precious, secluded -mountain lakes. And for those who like their surroundings interpreted -for them, there are nature trails and/or forest naturalists to explain -local rock formations, vegetation, and the natural and human history of -the immediate country. - -The Forest Ranger asks only that each visitor do his share in cleaning -up a camp or picnic site and being _sure_ that camp fires, matches, and -cigarettes are thoroughly extinguished: "Keep Your National Forest Green -and Clean!" - - - Carson National Forest - -Located in north-central New Mexico, with headquarters at Taos, the -Carson National Forest nurtures and cradles the Rio Grande as it leaves -its birthplace in Colorado en route to the south. Carrying water from -high country snow melt, the Carson adds precious, clear water from its -high mountain streams and lakes to the Rio Grande in support of the -prosperous communities along its way. The Carson includes some of the -highest water-producing lands in the state and is the source of several -permanent streams and lakes. - - [Illustration: Map of National Forests in New Mexico] - -Named in honor of Kit Carson, the noted scout, Carson National Forest -offers some of the most spectacular mountain scenery in the Southwest, -including the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Red River Canyon, and Wheeler -Peak, which at 13,160 feet is the highest point in New Mexico. Part of -the famed Pecos Wilderness Area and the Wheeler Peak Wild Area are -included in this Forest and are available to those willing and able to -hike, ride a horse, or pack into the rugged mountain country. For the -winter sports enthusiast, the Red River Ski Area, Sipapu Winter Sports -Area, and Taos Ski Valley operate in part within the Carson National -Forest and offer some of the finest alpine skiing in the Southwest. - -Good roads lead the visitor to Spanish and Indian villages where life -and culture are almost unchanged since the ancient and comparatively -recent days of settlement. Towns with singing-sounding names like -Picurís, Taos Pueblo, Las Trampas, Truchas, Santa Barbara, and Tres -Ritos nestle along forest streams and add charm and beauty to a scenic -trip in the northern Sangre de Cristo range (name given to the mountains -by early Spanish settlers, meaning _Blood of Christ_. The analogy -relates to the reddish glow that sometimes colors the mountains at -sunset.). Radiating from Taos are roads leading into the eastern half of -the Forest, bringing the traveler into fascinating and colorful country. -Taos Canyon, Arroyo Hondo, Questa, and the Red River country abound in -old mining ghost towns, Indian ruins, and legendary Spanish villages -located in canyons and on mountain tops. - -The high range rising between the Rio Grande and the Chama River to the -west is the major part of the western half of the Carson National -Forest. Tres Piedras, El Rito, La Madera, Canjilon, Lagunitas, and San -Antonio are a few of the picturesque communities here. Farther to the -west is the Jicarilla Division of the Carson, the high mountain country -adjacent to the Jicarilla Apache Reservation. Bisected by State Highway -17 between Farmington and Chama, this section is a test of true -pioneering skill for the traveler who is willing to follow dim tracks of -roads and trails to enjoy the Forest. However, modern civilization is -introduced by the 150 oil and gas wells in this area, even though the -country is rugged and broken. - -Carson National Forest is a trout fisherman's delight. For the hunter, -Rocky Mountain mule deer, elk, and antelope are found in all parts of -the Forest. Small game is plentiful, and rabbits provide many hours of -hunting pleasure. Beaver, muskrat, mink, weasel, marten, and skunk are -the principal fur bearers, and turkey, grouse, ducks, geese, quail, and -doves make up the game bird population. Predators include the mountain -lion, bobcat, coyote, and fox. - -More than 40 developed camp and picnic grounds, most of which are -accessible year round, welcome the visitor. Among them, Echo -Amphitheater picnic ground on U.S. Highway 84, south of Canjilon, is a -striking natural echo chamber formed by centuries of wind and water -erosion in the rugged sandstone rock. "If you stand near the chamber, -you only have to whisper, and your words come back in a spooky echo." - -About five miles south on U.S. Highway 84 is the Ghost Ranch Museum, -with live native Southwestern animals and conservation exhibits, -including a living and growing display showing on-the-ground Forest -Service Multiple Use Management of the mythical Beaver National Forest, -the "smallest National Forest in the world." - -Ranger stations at Canjilon, El Rito, Gobernador, Penasco, Questa, Taos, -and Tres Piedras provide local information and recreation maps. - - [Illustration: Echo Amphitheater surrounds part of the trail to - campground] - - - Santa Fe National Forest - -The Santa Fe National Forest, with headquarters in Santa Fe, lies -directly south of the Carson National Forest on both sides of the Rio -Grande and is the center of a region rich in natural resources as well -as historic and geologic interests. The two divisions of the Forest -contain the high mountains to the east and west in the central section -of the state. The Pecos Division to the east of the Rio Grande is the -location of the major part of the Pecos Wilderness Area, one of the -earliest of such areas to be established. - -The Pecos Division is so named because the Pecos River, which later -joins the Rio Grande in Texas, heads among its towering mountains in a -beautiful alpine basin sometimes called the _Pecos Horseshoe_. The Pecos -River is one of the state's largest streams and supplies some of its -most important irrigation projects. This division of the Forest includes -the southern part of the Sangre de Cristo range and was first known as -the Pecos River Forest Reserve, established in 1892--the oldest National -Forest in the Southwest. The division abounds in clear, cold mountain -lakes and streams. Truchas Lakes, Pecos Baldy, Stewart Lake, Spirit -Lake, and Lost Lake, as well as many mountain streams, lure not only the -fisherman but the hiker and camper to their wilderness beauty. - -Twenty-three developed campgrounds and picnic areas located in cool -glades are ready for the visitor along roads leading into the Forest -from Santa Fe, Pecos, Glorieta, Las Vegas, and other communities. Skiing -and winter sports are available at the Santa Fe Ski Basin northeast of -Santa Fe; the chair lift operates year around for those who wish merely -to view the spectacular scenery. The Pecos Division watersheds of the -Santa Fe National Forest, like the eastern section of the Carson, -contribute generously to the water flow of the Rio Grande. - -Wild game, game birds, and fishing attract visitors at all times of the -year, while the golden hues of the aspen in the autumn tempt artists and -photographers to record on canvas and film nature's fall colors. A trip -just before the winter snows to the aspen country of the Santa Fe -National Forest is a must. Ranger stations are located at Santa Fe, Las -Vegas, and Pecos. - - [Illustration: An Izaak Walton along the Pecos river] - -West of the Rio Grande are the Jemez Mountains, which form the Jemez -Division of the Santa Fe National Forest. The Jemez country is a -favorite area for fishermen and hunters. For the sturdy hiker and -picnicker, there are hundreds of fascinating points to visit and peaks -to climb. Capulin Peak, Dead Man's Peak, Nacimiento Peak, and Cerro -Pedernal are a few of the exciting ones. The Jemez country contains the -San Pedro Parks Wild Area, northeast of Cuba where San Gregorio Lake is -waiting for the fisherman or hiker willing to walk or ride horseback. -This section abounds in unique geologic formations--Battleship Rock, -Tent Rocks, Teakettle Rock, to name a few. - -Eighteen developed camping and picnicking areas welcome the visitor to -the Jemez Division. Youth groups also favor the Jemez for their summer -camping. Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, YMCA, and others have -camps adjacent to the Santa Fe National Forest. Timber production, -wildlife habitat management, livestock grazing, and watershed protection -are among the activities of the Jemez Division, while visitors and -travelers enjoy the forest, the streams, and the unique scenery. Ranger -stations are at Jemez Springs, Cuba, Espanola, and Coyote. - - - Cibola National Forest - -A mountain playground for people who live or visit near U.S. Highway 66 -is Cibola National Forest, with headquarters in Albuquerque. Embracing -the Sandias, Manzanos, and Gallinas Peak areas east of the Rio Grande in -central New Mexico, this Forest also includes most of the mountain -ranges in the west-central section of the state, the San Mateo -Mountains, with 11,389-foot Mount Taylor, and the Datil, Magdalena, and -Zuni ranges. - -Outdoor recreation is the fastest growing use of the Cibola National -Forest and more than a million visits are made each year to this popular -Forest. The name is a Zuni Indian word, pronounced SEE-bo-lah, meaning -_buffalo_. Buffalo may have roamed the Cibola in years past, but today's -big game animals making the Cibola their home are the Rocky Mountain -bighorn sheep, Rocky Mountain mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, -antelope, and bear. Game birds include turkey, grouse, quail, and dove; -spring and fall migrations of ducks and geese use the Cibola as a -resting place. There are 18 campgrounds with 249 family units and 14 -picnic grounds with 382 family units scattered through the vast domain -of the Cibola National Forest. - -Sandia Crest in the Sandia Mountains east of Albuquerque is a goal for -many travelers. Here on this 10,678-foot mountain top, there is a -breathtaking view of the middle Rio Grande Valley and the Estancia -Valley--a jet age view of nearly 10,000 square miles. The visitor stands -on rocks which in eons past were under the sea, as indicated by fossils -found on the peak. Recent recreation developments have been made at the -Sandia Ski Area where a new 7450-foot double chair lift will carry 700 -riders an hour on a 1650-foot vertical rise to the restaurant and upper -terminal on Sandia Crest. A tramway ascends the west face of the Sandias -to meet the Ski Area chair lift at the Crest. - -The fabled Manzano Mountains rising above the plains to the west of -State Highway 10 and south of U.S. Highway 66 are fast becoming a haven -for the camper, picnicker, or sightseer willing to follow secondary -roads to find the perfect spot to enjoy the forest. Capillo Peak, 9368 -feet high, Mosca Peak, Cerro Blanco, and Manzano Peak lure the mountain -climber. Legends surrounding the old Spanish communities of Tajique, -Torreon, and Manzano are exciting campfire stories after a day spent -exploring the high country. - -West of the Rio Grande, the San Mateo Mountains north of Grants and the -Zuni Mountains forming the backbone of the Continental Divide southeast -of Gallup can be a new experience in outdoor recreation. McGaffey Lake -recreation area, not too far from the route of the _conquistadore_ Juan -de Oņate, is a cool retreat after crossing the desert and lava flow. - -West of Socorro on U.S. Highway 60, with Magdalena as headquarters, the -high Datil, Gallinas, and Magdalena mountains and another San Mateo -range rise above the San Agustin Plains, an ancient lake bed. Mt. -Withington and Mt. Baldy, 10,787 feet high, dominate the landscape. Good -roads and developed campgrounds are available. Hunting for wild game as -well as for unusual gem stones and geologic finds are favored activities -in this western section of the Cibola. District ranger stations are at -Grants, Gallup, Magdalena, Mountainair, and Tijeras. - - - Lincoln National Forest - -Named for the great president, the Lincoln National Forest, with -headquarters at Alamogordo, has characteristics distinguishing it from -all other National Forests in the state. The high mountains and canyons -of the Sacramento, Guadalupe, Capitan, and White mountains, rising -between the Tularosa and Pecos basins, were the backdrop and often the -prize of the Indian and cattle wars. Stories and legends of early day -happenings in the Tularosa Basin, mining operations, battles between -rival cattle ranchers, large timber operations providing lumber, poles, -mine props, and railroad ties are warp and woof of the Lincoln country. -This Forest includes the high mountains north and south of the Mescalero -Apache Indian Reservation. - -During the last decade, the Lincoln National Forest gained new fame as -the birthplace of the world-renowned Smokey the Bear, symbol of forest -fire prevention. In the Capitan Mountains, travelers like to visit -Smokey's birthplace near Capitan Pass, and in the community of Capitan -on U.S. Highway 380 is a log museum which features the activities of the -bear cub found near there during a disastrous fire. - -For the outdoor enthusiast, the Forest offers superb beauty, graceful -and majestic snow-covered peaks, and the peace and serenity of a forest -sanctuary. Each year, thousands of visitors from the plains seek its -cool refuge from desert heat in summer and its readily accessible sports -area in the winter. Ten campgrounds with many picnicking and camping -sites are provided. Canyons, mountains, and streams in many instances -feature anglicized names--Big Dog Canyon, Mule Peak, Bug Scuffle -Hill--though the influence of the early Spanish settler still remains in -names such as Sacramento, Agua Chiquita, Ruidoso, and Rio Penasco. - -Lincoln National Forest abounds in points of interest; Monjeau Lookout -overlooks the headwaters of the Bonito, Eagle, and Ruidoso creeks as -well as the tall slopes of Sierra Blanca to the southwest. Sierra -Blanca, 12,003 feet high, is the most southerly mountain of that -elevation in the continental United States. Just north of the peak is -the Sierra Blanca Recreation Area, with one of the finest and -best-equipped skiing facilities in the country. The restaurant and -gondola lift operate during summer months, and from Lookout Mountain -observation site, near the gondola's upper terminal, the traveler can -view White Sands, the Malpais (lava flow), and the 28,000-acre White -Mountain Wild Area. - -Hunters find deer of three distinct types in this Forest--the Rocky -Mountain mule deer, the desert mule deer, and the Texas white-tailed -deer--and, of course, black bear from which family Smokey the Bear came. -Game birds like wild turkey, quail, and chukkar partridge challenge the -hunter. Fishing the Lincoln's lakes and streams is a recurring delight -to the angler. Aspens and oaks flaunt their brilliant autumn coloring -against the warm green of pines and spruces, heralding the advent of -winter snows and provoking numerous aspencades for those who wish a -share in this ever new pageant of nature's beauty. - -Like all the National Forests, the Lincoln is managed for the production -and wise use of water, timber, and forage for livestock and wildlife and -outdoor recreation. District ranger stations are at Cloudcroft, -Carlsbad, Mayhill, Ruidoso, Sacramento, and Capitan. - - [Illustration: "_Anybody for a run?_" at Sierra Blanca ski area] - - - Gila National Forest - -The Gila National Forest, with headquarters in Silver City, is a big, -wild, wonderful country in the southwestern section of the state. It has -been scarcely affected by the hustle and bustle of modern living. Within -its boundaries are 2.7 million acres of public-owned forest and range -land, with almost a quarter of it devoted to wilderness and primitive -areas. It includes the famous Gila Wilderness, the first such area set -aside in the United States and the largest in the Southwest. Most of the -Gila National Forest is north of Silver City, though part of it lies in -the high country between Silver City and Lordsburg. - -The Gila is an exciting and exhilarating place to explore, sightsee, -hunt, fish, and just enjoy. Indian ruins are evident almost everywhere, -but the Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, adjacent to the Gila -Primitive Area, is the best preserved. Ancient tree stumps and abandoned -Indian ruins record the history of man; old mine dumps contain ores and -minerals not known nor appreciated in the heyday of local mining; -microscopic plants and forest grasses which may hold the key to man's -future health abound; and the traveler may experience great delight in -finding a dried root or branch to add to a native rock garden; the -majestic peaks, deer and other wild game, and cool, splashing waters of -a mountain creek delight the camera hobbyist. - -One of the most beautiful and spectacular box canyons in the Southwest -is on Whitewater Creek about four miles northeast of Glenwood. A catwalk -built against the rock walls of the canyon enables the traveler to -thrill at the unusual beauty and colors of the canyon and the cool -depths of the trout stream below (_see_ Frontispiece). - -Good roads lead into the Gila National Forest at Reserve and Alma from -U.S. Highway 260. An enjoyable loop trip which touches the Gila -Wilderness at Willow Creek can be taken on State Highway 78 from Alma. -Another beautiful trip is through the Black Range from the junction of -State Highway 180 and U.S. Highway 85 to Silver City. Approach to the -Gila from the north can be made through Beaverhead, Apache Creek, and -Reserve, where good roads lead into the Forest. - -Fifteen developed recreation areas provide camping and picnicking for -the hiker, horseback rider, and motorist and are complete with -fireplaces, tables, and benches. Elk, deer, antelope, bear, javelina, -and game birds are plentiful, and fishing in the high mountain creeks is -usually rewarded with a satisfying catch. - -District ranger stations are at Magdalena, Truth or Consequences, -Reserve, Glenwood, and Mimbres. - - - Apache and Coronado Forests - -Although small parts of these forests lie in New Mexico, they belong to -forests in Arizona. Apache National Forest touches the northern edge of -the Gila and its attractions are much like those of the latter. The -Coronado National Forest, which is in the extreme southwest corner of -New Mexico, lies in an area of aridity and is difficult to reach from -New Mexico. It is surrounded by Sonoran desert, at least in its -environment in this state. - - [Illustration: Gila Hunters with Happy Thanksgiving (_wild - turkeys_)] - - -These far-flung public lands in New Mexico provide many resources -besides varied kinds of outdoor recreation: timber for industry, water -for city and farm, forage for livestock and wildlife. As long as our -National Forests are protected and developed--used but not abused--they -will continue to yield rich harvests, both tangible and intangible, -forever. - - [Illustration: Lake Roberts - This 70-acre lake thirty miles northeast of Silver City on State - Highway 25 lies in the Gila National Forest.] - - - - - The State Also Preserves[4] - - -State Monuments have been established to preserve some of New Mexico's -historic and archeologic sites of importance. These include the mission -ruins of Abo, Quarai, Pecos, and Jemez, the Palace of the Governors in -Santa Fe, pueblo ruins at Coronado State Monument, the old Lincoln -County Courthouse, the archeologic site at Folsom Man State Monument, -the plaza and nearby Mexican Colonial-style buildings in La Mesilla, and -Fort Selden. The history recorded at these sites dates from 10,000 B.C. -of Clovis Man to 1878 of the cattlemen's Lincoln County War. - -State parks cover areas of scenic beauty, geologic wonders, and historic -interest. Reservoir lakes yielding necessary water, good fishing, -swimming, and boating include Conchas, Storrie, Bluewater, El Vado, Ute, -Elephant Butte, Caballo, Alamogordo, Clayton, Morphy, and Bottomless -Lakes. The latter are natural sink holes east of Roswell. Hyde Memorial -Park and Santa Fe River Park, near and in Santa Fe, provide scenic -picnic spots, as do Rock Hound State Park near Deming and Oasis State -Park near Portales and Clovis. Picnicking, fishing, and spectacular -canyons attract the visitor at Rio Grande Gorge Park west of Taos. Weird -erosional figures carved from volcanic layers distinguish City of Rocks -State Park near Deming. Pancho Villa State Park at Columbus and Kit -Carson Memorial at Taos mark historic sites. Valley of Fires State Park -west of Carrizozo preserves the black twisted lava of a relatively -recent volcanic flow. - - -NEW MEXICO STATE MONUMENTS - - _by_ Museum of New Mexico Staff - -The State of New Mexico, recognizing the depth and color of its own -history, has established a number of state monuments preserving -important historical or archeological sites. These are administered by -the Museum of New Mexico located in Santa Fe. Any mosaic of New Mexico -would be incomplete without including these important landmarks. - - - El Palacio, Palace of the Governors - -The main facility of the Museum of New Mexico is El Palacio. The Palace -of the Governors, on the plaza in the heart of Santa Fe, is the oldest -public building in the United States. Built in 1610, it was the seat of -Spanish government in New Mexico until 1821, of the Mexican government -until 1846, and the residence of the governors appointed by the -President of the United States until 1910, when it became a unit of the -Museum of New Mexico. - -It presently contains exhibits relating to New Mexico's past, ranging -from the Indians, who arrived after crossing the Bering Sea, to the -Spanish, who came seeking gold and glory on horseback, to the wagon -trains from the east, whose goal was the end of the Santa Fe Trail, -which is directly in front of El Palacio. - -El Palacio was the capitol of New Mexico for 300 years and was the seat -of residence for more than one hundred of New Mexico's governors. During -that time it was captured and held by the Indians from 1680 to 1692. The -Army of the Confederacy captured it for a few days during the Civil War, -and one of its occupants, Territorial Governor Lew. Wallace, wrote his -famous novel, _Ben Hur_, within its walls. - -There are other fascinating units connected with the Museum of New -Mexico in Santa Fe. Among these are the Fine Arts Museum, emphasizing -the art and artists of the great Southwest; the International Folk Art -Museum; and the Hall of Ethnology, devoted primarily to the peoples of -the Southwest. - - - Abo State Monument - -Off U.S. Highway 60, nine miles west of Mountainair is Abo State -Monument. - -The ruins of the ancient mission church of San Gregorio de Abo and its -pueblo, built of red sandstone, are in a broad, natural amphitheater -rimmed on the north and west by the blue Manzano Mountains, which -contrast strikingly with the reddish hues of the Abo sandstone. This is -one of the Saline Missions, so called because of the nearby salt -deposits in the Estancia Basin. - -It was built during the seventeenth century by Indians under the -supervision of the Franciscans, led by the venerable Fray Francisco de -Acevedo. The inhabitants of Abo were very friendly to the Spaniards. -They were forced to abandon their pueblo about 1673 because of drought -and the raids of the Apaches and Comanches. They then moved south to El -Paso del Norte where they joined in founding Isleta del Sur. - -The walls of the pueblo have disintegrated with time into low mounds -which lie adjacent to the mission. The ecclesiastical structures have -been excavated and repaired for permanent preservation. - - - Quarai State Monument - -This monument is near Punta de Agua, eight miles north of Mountainair -off State Highway 10. - -The ruins of the mission church of the Immaculate Conception at Quarai -are unsurpassed in grandeur of architecture or setting by any that -survive from the labors of the early Franciscans in New Mexico. Built of -red sandstone masonry about 1628, at the Pueblo of Quarai, it was -abandoned along with the pueblo about 1674, chiefly because of Apache -depredations. - -One of the most venerated of the Franciscan missionaries, Fray Geronimo -de la Llana, worked and died at Quarai, beloved by his Indian charges. -His remains now rest in a crypt in the wall of St. Francis Cathedral in -Santa Fe. The ruins have been excavated and repaired for permanent -preservation. - - - Coronado State Monument - -This pueblo ruin is on the west bank of the Rio Grande, one mile from -the town of Bernalillo, seventeen miles north of Albuquerque, and one -mile off U.S. Highway 85, between Albuquerque and Santa Fe. - -The Pueblo of Kuaua was one of the several towns of the ancient Tiguex -province. At or near Kuaua, the Coronado expedition maintained -headquarters from about 1540 to 1542 A.D. During excavation of the -ancient pueblo, more than 1200 ground-floor rooms were found and five -kivas, or underground ceremonial chambers, were uncovered. - -In one of the kivas was found a highly important group of ancient wall -paintings. This kiva has been reconstructed and the paintings restored. - -The old walls of Kuaua have been rebuilt to a few feet in height so that -the structure can be seen. A museum has been erected on the site to -exhibit the material found during the excavation and to portray life in -the Tiguex province. The Coronado State Monument and Museum commemorates -the meeting, more than four hundred years ago, of the elements that -influenced the culture of New Mexico--the Indian and the -_conquistadore_. - -A curator-custodian is on duty at the Coronado Museum headquarters, -which is open all year. - - - Pecos State Monument - -Off U.S. Highway 84-85, three miles south of Pecos, is this State -Monument. It became a National Monument during late 1966. - -This mission, the Church of Nuestra Senora de los Angeles de Porciuncula -at Pecos, dates from the year 1617. It is fitting that this mission, -which was one of the first two, with Jemez, established by the -Franciscans in New Mexico, should bear the name "Our Lady of the Angels -of Porciuncula," for with his own hands, St. Francis, founder of the -Order, rebuilt the decaying chapel of Our Lady of Angels at Assisi, -which he called his Porciuncula or "Little Inheritance," and there -established the headquarters of the Franciscan Order. - -Pecos was well fortified because of its location on the eastern edge of -the pueblo area and its contact with the Plains Indians. It resisted the -raids for many years, but when a smallpox epidemic in 1838 reduced the -population to seventeen survivors, they moved to Jemez Pueblo, -abandoning Pecos. - -A part of the massive adobe walls of the ruined mission has been -excavated and repaired, as have some of the rubble masonry walls. - - - Jemez State Monument - -This Monument is at Jemez Springs, sixty miles north of Albuquerque on -State Highway 4. - -One of the finest early mission churches was established at Giusewa -Pueblo. _Giusewa_ means "place of the boiling waters" in the language of -the Jemez Indians, and refers to the famous Jemez Hot Springs nearby. -The mission, with Pecos, was one of the two earliest in New Mexico. -These were founded one hundred and fifty-two years before the first -California missions. - -The original settlement of the Giusewa Pueblo goes back hundreds of -years before Columbus' discovery of America, as does the settlement of -the other pueblos, Quarai, Abo, and Pecos. - -Guisewa Pueblo became extinct during the last quarter of the seventeenth -century, a result of the consolidation of several pueblos of the Jemez -province into fewer and larger towns. Only one town, the present Jemez -Pueblo, survives from that time. Excavation and repairs have been made -in the ruins of both the pueblo and the mission church. - - - La Mesilla State Monument - -This colorful State Monument consists of the plaza in the village of -Mesilla, near Las Cruces, and the buildings nearby. The Monument -preserves an aspect of the Mexican Colonial culture and architecture -which flourished here in the early nineteenth century. The Gadsden -Purchase of 1853 was celebrated in the Mesilla Plaza and the famous -desperado, Billy the Kid, once stood trial here for his life. During the -Civil War, Mesilla was briefly the Confederate capitol of the Territory -of Arizona. - - - Lincoln State Monument - -Located in Lincoln, on U.S. Highway 380, and known as the Old Lincoln -County Courthouse, the first floor of this Monument was the mercantile -store of L. G. Murphy & Co. in the 1870's, during the Lincoln County -War. The second floor was purchased in 1870 by the county for a court -house. - -It was from this building that Billy the Kid made his daring escape on -April 28, 1881, after killing his two guards. A caretaker and a museum -attendant are on duty at all times. Mementos of the infamous Lincoln -County cattle war are featured. - - - Fort Selden State Monument - -The crumbling adobe walls of Fort Selden lie about seventeen miles north -of Las Cruces just west of Interstate Highway 25. The history of this -fort, given in the article on _Frontier Forts_, was highlighted by the -brief stay of General Douglas MacArthur, who spent some of his childhood -within the fort's walls and played in the adjoining green valley of the -Rio Grande. - - -NEW MEXICO STATE PARKS - - _by_ The Editors - -New Mexico is blessed with a wealth of natural resources and perhaps -most important is the abundance of sites with outstanding scenic and -recreational facilities. The contrasts apparent in the mosaic of New -Mexico are also seen in the pattern of its state parks. They range from -desert regions with sparse and exotic flora and fauna to the high -mountain canyons choked with Douglas fir and aspen where even in the -summer evenings one huddles close to the fire for warmth. And the mosaic -shifts from waterless areas amid geologic wonders to wide expanses of -open water well stocked with trout. The parks are administered by the -New Mexico State Park and Recreation Commission. Wherever possible, -areas have been set aside for the permanent enjoyment of the people of -New Mexico and their visitors. - - - Bottomless Lakes State Park - -Bottomless Lakes State Park, established in 1936, was one of the first -of the New Mexico state parks. It is surprising to find this treasure of -great natural beauty in an area so dominated by aridity. There are six -small lakes in the park, of which Lea Lake is the largest with about 15 -acres of surface area. The water of the lakes is crystal clear and -varies in depth from 45 feet in the shallow lakes to about 100 feet in -the deeper ones. They were created as "sink holes" when water dissolved -large areas of underground gypsum, resulting in cave-ins. The lakes now -offer extensive recreational facilities for the people of New Mexico and -for tourists passing through or visiting the area. Camping, swimming, -and boating are available. Pecos "diamonds," small quartz crystals, can -be found in the neighboring hills. - - - Conchas Lake State Park - - [Illustration: Sketch of Bottomless Lake] - -Conchas Lake is one of the largest sustained bodies of water in New -Mexico. Conchas Dam, which holds the water of the Canadian River, forms -the lake. The main dam is 235 feet above the roadway and is 1250 feet in -length. At capacity it holds 600,000 acre-feet of water. The reservoir -serves many purposes: flood control, local irrigation, camping and -boating facilities, and fishing and water skiing. - -The Canadian River has its origin on Raton Mesa and flows southward to -Conchas Dam, then turns abruptly eastward. On its way across the High -Plains, it cuts into some of the oldest rocks that can be seen on the -western edge of the plains, the Dockum Group of Late Triassic age. The -best place to view the earth-building processes of this region is where -State Highway 120 crosses the gorge of the Canadian River between Wagon -Mound and Roy. - - - Hyde Memorial State Park - -Here, at an elevation of 9000 feet, among tall pines and aspens is one -of the most scenic of all New Mexico's parks. High in the Sangre de -Cristo Mountains, eight miles northeast of Santa Fe, the park offers an -excellent example of the scenic beauty in New Mexico rarely seen by most -travelers passing through the state. Easily accessible from Santa Fe, -Hyde Park gives a few moments, or a few days, respite in the cool -refreshment of a mountain forest. Excellent picnic and camping -facilities are available. For those who want to penetrate the mountain -vastness even farther, there are a number of well-marked trails for -hiking. - - - Navajo Lake State Park - -Navajo Dam on the San Juan River lies twenty-five miles east of Aztec at -an elevation of 6200 feet in a region of spectacular scenic beauty. -Camping, picnicking, boating, fishing, and water skiing facilities are -available, and a lodge is under construction. This is expected to be one -of the most important sports and recreational centers in northwest New -Mexico in coming years. - - - Pancho Villa State Park - -Named for the famous Mexican bandit and revolutionary leader, the park -is located near Columbus, New Mexico, site of Villa's most infamous -raid. In the dead of the night on March 10, 1916, Villa and his men -entered the town of Columbus and did their bloody work. When they left, -seventeen local people were dead, including eight soldiers and nine -civilians. The Mexican force suffered heavy casualties, perhaps as many -as 125 killed. The town of Columbus was badly damaged and has only -recently begun to recover from the blow. The expedition of General -Pershing, then on duty along the Mexican border, was organized to hunt -down Villa and his men. Pershing and a United States military unit spent -three months inside Mexico, only to return to the United States -empty-handed. The park commemorates one of the most interesting and -tragic episodes in New Mexico history. Within the park, one can see -excellent examples of Sonoran desert flora. Picnic facilities and -camping sites are available. - - - El Vado Lake State Park - -El Vado Dam is a part of the complex Rio Grande Conservancy District -flood and irrigation project. It holds the water of the Chama River, -which flows west, south, and then east into the Rio Grande. The country -surrounding El Vado Lake is beautiful and contains some of the finest -trout fishing streams in the state. At the lake itself there are camping -facilities, including trailer spaces (no hookups for water or -electricity). The lake is at an elevation of 7000 feet and is one of the -important flood-control bodies of water in New Mexico. - - - Bluewater State Park - -Bluewater Lake, at an elevation of 7460 feet, is a spot of spectacular -beauty. Adjacent is a 160-acre wooded park. The area offers boating, -fishing, and swimming. The lake was formed by impounding the waters from -the Zuni Mountains' watershed, and it fills three great depressions in -high tablelands. The dam, built across two lofty natural walls of solid -rock, the San Andres Limestone, holds a lake a mile wide and seven and a -half miles long. Bluewater Lake State Park was the first of New Mexico's -parks, so designated in 1929. - - - Storrie Lake State Park - -Storrie Lake State Park surrounds a small lake north of Las Vegas, New -Mexico. It lies on the west edge of the High Plains and is an excellent -recreation area. The lake is at an elevation of 6400 feet and has a -limited number of picnic and camping facilities. It is stocked with -rainbow and brown trout and crappies. - - - City of Rocks State Park - -This is one of the most unusual of the state parks, and one of the -finest for picnicking and for camping. Located in the unusual rock -formation known as the Sugarlump Welded Rhyolite Tuff northwest of -Deming, it is a source of wonder to all visitors. Suddenly, in a -seemingly flat, desert plain, one comes upon these grotesque outcrops. -In the coolness of the shade of these ancient rocks one can survey -vistas under an azure sky that are almost breathless. This is the desert -Southwest at its very best; not the harsh, unfriendly desert of movies -and fiction, but a lovely spot in which to enjoy to the fullest the -wonders of nature. - - - Kit Carson Memorial Park - -This 20-acre plot of grass, flower beds, trees, and picnic tables lies -on the northeast edge of Taos and contains the graves of Kit Carson and -Padre José Martinez. Not far away is the Kit Carson House, a group of -adobe buildings surrounding a patio, that was Carson's headquarters, -office, and home from 1858 to 1866. This Indian fighter, trapper, -hunter, and trader is most famous for defeating the Navajos in Canyon de -Chelly and marching 7000 of these Indians across New Mexico to a -reservation at Bosque Redondo near Fort Sumner. However, during his -eight years as Indian agent, Carson worked continuously for the welfare -of his charges. - - - Oasis State Park - -One of the state's newest parks, Oasis is seven miles northeast of -Portales along State Highway 467. This shady place of cottonwood trees -amid sand dunes has long been a favorite picnic spot. The sand dunes -form an irregular ridge separating Portales Valley to the south from -Blackwater Draw to the north. In Blackwater Draw have been found bones -of ancient animals and the weapons used by early man some 12,000 years -ago. Portales Valley is the sand-filled remnant of the early Pleistocene -Brazos River Valley that once drained eastward into Texas. About 800,000 -years ago, the Pecos River to the west "captured" the headwaters of this -former Brazos River and left the Portales Valley high and dry. - - - Valley of Fires State Park - -This park, about five miles west of Carrizozo on U.S. Highway 380, -features picnic tables amid the Carrizozo lava flow, or malpais, one of -the youngest in the United States. The lava flowed out of Little Black -Peak about 1000 years ago in a series of individual "rivers" of hot -black basalt. The composite flow is 44 miles long, 0.5 to 6 miles wide, -and is made up of about 1 cubic mile of basalt; it moved southward down -the lowest part of the northern Tularosa Basin. - -Climb around on the lava and note the ropy nature of the surface -(_pahoehoe_ of the Hawaiians), the many frozen gas bubbles in the rocks -(vesicles), the squeeze-ups where once-liquid lava protrudes through -cracks in the hardened crust, the pressure ridges where the hardened -crust arched and broke, and collapsed lava tunnels where the outer lava -froze and the molten interior ran out, leaving an open tube or cave. - - - Ute Lake State Park - -Ute Dam, two miles southwest of Logan, provides a 4200-acre reservoir -along the Canadian River and Ute Creek stocked with rainbow trout, bass, -crappie, and catfish. Camping, picnicking, and boating facilities are -available along the valley walls, which are cut in the brown Santa Rosa -Sandstone and overlying maroon to green Chinle shales. - - - Santa Fe River State Park - -Bordering the Santa Fe River in downtown Santa Fe, this city park merges -with the State Capitol grounds. It provides picnic tables and benches in -the shade of tall trees amid the picturesque ancient city. - - - Elephant Butte Lake State Park - -The giant Elephant Butte Reservoir, impounded behind the dam five miles -east of Truth or Consequences, provides year-around fishing, boating, -water skiing, and camping. Built in brown to gray Cretaceous sandstone -and shale, the dam is overlooked by the brownish-black volcanic neck -that is Elephant Butte. Eastern shores are carved from the purplish and -maroon McRae layers. This is the main storage reservoir for the water -that irrigates the lush Rio Grande Valley to the south near Las Cruces -and El Paso. - - - Caballo Lake State Park - -Caballo Reservoir, downstream from Elephant Butte, offers excellent -facilities for water sports, its bass and crappie fishing being notable. -The State Park is fourteen miles south of Truth or Consequences and six -miles north of the dam. The spectacular rugged front of the Caballo -Mountains looms to the east, with sharp canyons and ribbed cliffs along -the valley walls cut in the tan layers of the Santa Fe Formation. - - - Rio Grande Gorge State Park - -From Velarde (twelve miles north of Espanola) for seventy miles -northward to the Colorado state line, the Rio Grande Gorge is carved 500 -to 800 feet into black basalt flows and tan Santa Fe Formation layers. -Fishing is exciting in the fast waters, although the northern part of -the gorge is difficult to reach. Foot and horseback trails lead to the -bottom at the mouth of Red River west of Questa where picnic units have -been built. - - - Alamogordo Lake State Park - -The dam of Alamogordo Reservoir blocks the Pecos River and Alamogordo -Creek northwest of Fort Sumner. Picnic, camp, and water sports -facilities lie along U.S. Highway 84 about sixteen miles northwest of -Fort Sumner. Juniper trees dot the low valley walls where the maroon to -green shale and sandstone of the Chinle Formation crop out. - - - Rock Hound State Park - -Lying on the west flank of the Little Florida Mountains, Rock Hound -State Park, twelve miles southeast of Deming, offers camping and -picnicking facilities and many varieties of agate in the volcanic rocks. -A few miles to the south tower cliffs of the Florida Mountains, a -landmark of southwestern New Mexico and also happy hunting grounds for -rock hounds. - - - Clayton Lake State Park - -Serving the northeast corner of New Mexico, Clayton Lake State Park lies -twelve miles north of Clayton on State Highway 370, impounded by a dam -across Cieneguilla Creek. The stream bed cuts brown Dakota Sandstone, -and rolling grassy hills to the south overlie weathered basalt flows. - - - Morphy Lake State Park - -Morphy Lake, backed up from a dam across Rito Morphy, lies three miles -west of Ledoux in southwestern Mora County and thirty-one miles north of -Las Vegas off State Highway 94. The 15-acre lake provides fine trout -fishing and picnicking amid stately ponderosa pines, with the canyon -walls formed by tier upon tier of Pennsylvanian limestones. - - - - - Angling in the Desert's Waters - - - _by_ Fred A. Thompson[5] - -Water in the great Southwest, of which the State of New Mexico is a -part, has made for a colorful and historical background. Water, perhaps -more than anything else, has molded the lives of all inhabitants of the -area from the pueblo and lodge of the early Indian to the civilization -we know today. The fish and wildlife resources as related to water have -played an important part in everyday living and economy. - -From data gathered by archeologists there are indications that the early -Indian used fish as part of his diet. Fish bones are found in excavated -ruins, and fish pictures are occasionally found as petroglyphs and on -pottery (fig. 1). Although the use of fish was limited, it was -widespread throughout the Southwest, not being confined to one Indian -tribe or nation. - - [Illustration: Figure 1. Bowl depicting fish, found in ruins of - Mimbres Indians] - -The use of fish by the white settler was likewise restricted, but it -increased as time progressed and knowledge and equipment improved. There -is only limited reference to fish for either food or sport fishing until -after the middle of the nineteenth century. Early explorers made records -of fish in various waters of New Mexico and in most instances described -the new species. - -Originally, the waters of the desert also could be described as fish -deserts. Only three recognized kinds of food fish, as we know them -today, inhabited the waters of this region. The trout was limited to the -cutthroat species or subspecies. These were found as one subspecies in -the Rio Grande drainage and the other subspecies in the Arkansas River -drainage. The latter is reduced in numbers but a few remnants remain in -the headwaters. The former is being artificially propagated and is being -maintained successfully. The trout found in the Gila River drainage, -originally thought to be a cutthroat, then a rainbow, has been recently -described as a separate species. These trout, like the Arkansas River -fish, remain as remnants in the headwaters. For the most part, the -native trout have had a difficult time surviving in recent years because -of the change in water and land use; the habitat has become exceedingly -restricted. - -Channel catfish were originally found in the Rio Grande drainage and -continue to maintain themselves satisfactorily. Water and land -manipulation, however, present a serious threat, even to this hardy -fish. - -There are records that the gulf eel once came up the Rio Grande during -part of its life cycle. This fish of the ocean has long since -disappeared--the fate of many migrating fish when confronted with -man-made obstructions in the watercourses. - -Waterfowl were in great abundance once, in both the upper Rio Grande and -the Pecos River drainages. These birds utilized the vast marsh areas of -the valleys during spring and fall migrations. It is presumed that there -was very little nesting of waterfowl in the early years. - -The mammals that live in or near the water, principally fur bearers, -were in abundance as long as water habitat was abundant and prior to -unrestricted trapping. With the exception of the beaver (since restocked -and protected), many of the fur bearers once numerous are now extremely -limited in numbers or approaching extinction. There is only an -occasional sighting of the otter which was once relatively plentiful. - -Habitat for the various water mammals, birds, and fish is found in the -drainage systems. The major system is the Rio Grande that flows through -the center of the state; the Pecos River is its tributary. In this -system are six of the seven life zones and conditions of habitat -suitable to almost any form of water-dwelling life. - -There is a noticeable habitat change due to several causes, such as -ranching, irrigation, urban development, and a general minor change in -climatic conditions. Many variations are in direct relation, such as -improper grazing, unscreened irrigation diversions, dams, and sewage -disposal, to mention a few. There is an indication of a long-term -warming of the general Southwest, and though this change is fractional, -it does have a basic effect on habitat. - -The effect of habitat change can be noted in the life of the cutthroat -trout. Early records reveal that this trout, liking cool clear water, -was once caught in the Rio Grande in the lower part of the box canyon -north of Peņablanca. It was also caught near the town of Pecos. The fish -can no longer survive in the changed water conditions and is found now -only in the headwaters. Even the catfish has difficulty surviving in -some sections of the rivers for lack of water. In the lower Pecos, the -catfish finds difficulty in reproducing because of the high salt content -of the river water. - -As has already been noted, the fish that are recognized as game fish -today were in short supply a hundred years ago. It was not until the -railroads entered New Mexico that fish were imported to supplement the -native supply. In an unpublished report by the author, it was pointed -out that almost every kind of fish propagated in the United States has -been imported and stocked in waters of New Mexico. Of these, some have -survived beyond expectations and others have disappeared entirely. - -When the railroads entered New Mexico, there were already requests for -fish in the hands of the United States Fish Commission. Fish were -delivered in especially designed fish-distribution cars and the -consignee met the cars at designated rail sidings. From the distribution -cars, the fish were further transported by wagons in water containers of -various descriptions, usually wooden barrels or watertight wooden boxes, -to streams or lakes as assigned. Because of the mode of travel at the -time, the quantities of fish so stocked were limited, but they did -provide seed stock from which their population could grow. Fish were -packed on back and on horses into relatively inaccessible areas. The -procedures and techniques of fish transportation have evolved to the -present highly specialized equipment and methods of operation. - -It is interesting to note that the quantities of fish imported and -planted increased in relation to the improved transportation. The early -records indicate the numbers in the hundreds and in just a few -locations; later plantings increased both in numbers stocked and in -waters stocked. The first fish imported to supplement the native fish -was the German carp. In fact, this was the only fish imported for eight -consecutive years, 1883-1890. These early plantings were followed by -catfish, German brown trout, brook trout, yellow perch, largemouth black -bass, crappie, rock bass, tench, rainbow trout, strawberry bass, black -spotted trout, bream, smallmouth bass, salmon, white bass, and walleyed -pike. - -All the fish imported are classed as game fish except carp and tench -(the latter did not survive). The various species met their habitat -requirements, and although there were no survivals in some locations, -they did acclimate in others and have developed into a substantial -fishery. Some species are predominant while others, like the rock bass, -are remnant and taken only occasionally. The fish most sought now and -predominant in the fishery are rainbow (fig. 2) and brown trout, -catfish, largemouth bass, crappie, and walleyed pike. - - [Illustration: Figure 2. Joy of the fisherman, rainbow trout] - -Management of the fishery has progressed with technical development. -When fish were planted in early years, very little thought was given -about the habitat except that it was water. There was little known of -the requirements of fish. As a result, fish were placed in waters only -to perish. To maintain a fish population now, all techniques available -are employed and fish are stocked where water and species are -compatible. - -Water in the desert is always at a premium for the inhabitants. The -early Indian cultures used water for irrigation, and there are still -vestiges of canals used by Indians to convey water to their crops. The -use of water by the Indians then had little or no effect on fish life, -but as irrigation development increased, a new habitat was formed. The -once free-flowing rivers became dry in places, and new waters were -developed in the drainage ditches in the Rio Grande Valley. The -competition for water is very keen and fish and wildlife uses come after -domestic, commercial, and irrigation purposes. - -The water requirements are so great, in fact, that it has been necessary -to control water and its use by laws. The law of 1876 provided that -water could not be refused a traveler. Community ditch commissioners -were established by law in 1895. The basic laws governing water rights -were established in 1907. These laws have been amended or added to as -conditions dictate. Conservancy districts were recognized by law in -1927, and underground waters came under law in 1931. The Interstate -Stream Commission was created in 1935. At present, New Mexico water laws -are considered some of the best in the nation; however, it has been only -recently that water for fish and wildlife has been recognized as one of -the beneficial uses. - -Converse to the use of water to the detriment of fish and wildlife, -there are several areas in which water has been developed and impounded -to the benefit of the fishery. Although some impoundments were -single-purpose developments, they supply habitat in conservation pools -or during years of abundant water supply. - - [Illustration: Figure 3. Find the elephant!--at Elephant Butte - reservoir] - -Waters impounded by man but used as a fishery are Elephant Butte -Reservoir (fig. 3), 40,096 surface acres when full. It contains -largemouth black bass, crappie, walleyed pike, catfish, and sunfish. -This lake has not been full for many years; but like Alamogordo -Reservoir (4650 surface acres), Caballo Reservoir (11,532 surface -acres), McMillan Reservoir (2500 surface acres), Conchas Reservoir -(16,640 surface acres), and Avalon Reservoir (950 surface acres), it has -produced excellent fishing. These are large irrigation lakes and are all -stocked generally with the same species of fish. - -The lakes built for irrigation but utilized for trout are usually much -smaller. The principal ones are Navajo Reservoir (15,600 surface acres) -and El Vado (3500 surface acres). There are also Miami Lake (190 surface -acres) and several others of small size. - -In addition, several small lakes have been built or acquired for the -primary purpose of providing fishing. A few of these are Hopewell Lake -(14 surface acres), Lake Roberts (73 surface acres), and Charette Lakes -(400 surface acres). There are many more varying in size. The smaller -lakes are primarily for trout fishing, but a few in the southern part of -the state do have species usually found in warmer waters. - -In the process of reservoir construction, waterfowl habitat and resting -areas are created. These new lakes, however, are a poor substitute for -the natural marshes and potholes originally frequented by ducks and -geese. Water mammals, likewise, find the artificial impoundments -undesirable in comparison, and the increased water has added very little -to this resource. - -Every water development has with it the appeal of recreation other than -fishing. Now a lake must have such facilities as picnic and camping -areas, launching ramps, good accessibility, boat rentals, and a -concessionaire. There is no single-purpose reservoir in respect to -recreation. - -Finally, it is concluded that the old adage, "fishing ain't what it used -to be," should no longer be true for New Mexico. The fishing water has -been added to greatly and the fish are managed better. The only problem -is one of increased human population. Where there was one fisherman -fifty years ago, there are a thousand now. - -Truly, the water of the desert is used to the limit. - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._) - The past living today--San Miguel, early mission church still used - daily in Santa Fe] - - - - - The Indians of New Mexico - - - _by_ Paige W. Christiansen - -People entering New Mexico today find Indian cultures and Indian -villages with traditions and ways of life that have changed little in -many centuries. In this respect, man in the twentieth century shares an -experience in common with Coronado, Oņate, and all the other -_conquistadores_ who visited New Mexico so many generations ago. They, -too, found the ancient Indian cultures strangely magnetic and exciting. -If we could but remove the asphalt highways, the billboards, the -telephone poles, and fences that seem always to surround us, the Indian -villages in many parts of the state would look very much as they looked -to the early Spanish explorers who were the first Europeans to see them. -To meet the Indians of New Mexico and to visit their homes, if possible, -is one of the greatest experiences available to residents and visitors -alike. Although words are inadequate to give the true flavor and -excitement of the Indian and his way of life, they are all we have to -introduce the various people who make up the Indian population of New -Mexico. - -There are two main groups that should be known. First, the Pueblo -Indians, those who developed sedentary village life and who are the -descendants of the first Americans in New Mexico. Second, the -"newcomers" to the state, those who, for some reason or other, moved -into the state to replace earlier cultures. Let us, then, visit some of -these people's homes. - - - Acoma Pueblo - -Acoma Indian Pueblo, the Sky City, is famous in both history and legend. -Built on the top of a lofty, almost inaccessible, redrock mesa some 357 -feet high, it is one of the most picturesque of all New Mexico Indian -pueblos. No other pueblo gives one such a clear sense of living in -ancestral times. The movements of the people up and down the steep -trails, the untiring vistas, and the ancient homesites are reminiscent -of the life and times of the cliff dwellers. Here the archeologists can -search out the secrets of ancient life by direct observation. Here, too, -is brought forth in the fullness of its bloom an Indian culture of -outstanding achievement. - -The Indians of Acoma participated in the great Pueblo Revolt of 1680. -They killed their priest, Fray Lucas Maldonado, in the first frenzy of -the rebellion. Because of their isolation and the inaccessibility of the -village, they were spared the vengeance of the Spaniards under de Vargas -during the reconquest in 1692. There was an attempt by the Spanish in -1696 to take Acoma, but they succeeded only in destroying the crops and -in capturing five Acoma warriors. The Indians held out until July 6, -1699, when they submitted to the Spanish governor of New Mexico, -Governor Cubero. Thereafter, Acoma became an integral part of the -mission complex established in New Mexico by the Spanish. - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Starr Jenkins_) - Aspen Basin in Sangre de Cristo Mountains near Santa Fe] - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside_) - Tent Rocks in Jemez Mountains] - -Acoma is noted for its excellent pottery. The ware is fashioned from -clay of fine quality, is very well fired, and is carefully decorated in -typical Acoma designs. Here is an excellent example of Indian artistic -ability. Some weaving, such as belts and headbands, is engaged in and a -few baskets are produced, but Acoma is most famous for its pottery. - -One of the landmarks at Acoma is the great church which brave Fray Juan -Ramirez toiled to create in the early seventeenth century. Surely there -are few memorials of the Spanish epoch in the Southwest that present -such a picture of dauntless faith in spiritual ideals as does this -fortress church silhouetted high against the sky above the bare-rock -mesa. It measures 150 feet in length and has walls that are 60 feet high -and 10 feet thick. Timbers 40 feet long and 14 inches through support -the roof and make a handsome ceiling. There are, of course, no seats and -little decoration. And what a location for so magnificent a spiritual -center it is! From there one may lift his eyes in rapt admiration of the -splendid panorama of the great plain and the encircling mountains, and -thereby appreciate more fully the work of the Deity. - -The Acoma are agriculturists, cultivating their lands by irrigation; -they raise corn, wheat, melons, squashes, and hay. Now, however, most of -the people of Acoma do not live on their mesa which protected them for -so many centuries. The dangers of attack are no longer present, and the -farmers find it more advantageous to live closer to their irrigated -plots. The result is that the people of Acoma are now scattered -throughout several villages. Their great culture, their traditions, -their fierce pride, and their deep reverence for their spectacular -history is visible in their faces and manners. Acoma, the Sky City, -remains the eternal city of New Mexico. - - - Cochiti Pueblo - -The Indians of Cochiti Pueblo claim the famed cave dwellings and ruins -of the Rito de Frijoles (Bandelier National Monument) as their ancestral -home. Failure of timber and water resources plus the constant attack of -the various Apache Indian tribes over several centuries caused the -residents of the Rito de Frijoles to seek a better home. This probably -occurred about 1200 A.D. In 1598, when Juan de Oņate, colonizer of New -Mexico, arrived, the Indians of Cochiti were living in their present -village. For a short time following the reconquest of New Mexico by de -Vargas after the Pueblo Revolt, the people of Cochiti lived in Caņada de -Cochiti, which was in a better position for defense against Spanish -reconquest. In 1694, de Vargas took the canyon village by storm, burned -it, and forced the people to return to the older village of Cochiti -where they remain to this day. - -The population of the village is slightly more than 300, and there has -been little growth in the past thirty years. Like the other New Mexico -pueblos, the main occupation is agriculture. Their ancient traditions -are well preserved, among them the well-known Rain Dance held during the -annual festival of San Buenaventura in July. - -Located at the pueblo is the ancient and beautiful Spanish mission, San -Buenaventura de Cochiti, built in the early seventeenth century. To step -into this church is to return to the Spanish days of yore. There are no -seats, women kneel on one side, the men on the other, and the services -are a mixture of old world orthodoxy and new world Indian traditions. -Cochiti represents one of the finest examples of modern Pueblo Indian -life. - - - Isleta Pueblo - -Isleta Pueblo is the southernmost of the pueblos lying along the green -and lush Rio Grande Valley today. It stands on the same site it occupied -when Coronado came in 1540 and was a stopping place for every Spanish -explorer and traveler who passed through New Mexico. It did not take -part in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, but rather joined the Spanish in the -retreat to El Paso del Norte (modern Juarez, Mexico). There they founded -a new village just to the south of modern El Paso which they called -Isleta del Sur. The main village of Isleta, in New Mexico, remained -deserted until 1709 when it was re-established by Fray Juan de la Peņa. - -Two different missions were built at Isleta Pueblo. The first, San -Antonio de Isleta, was constructed about 1629. The church was burned in -1680, and in 1681 was being used as a sheep corral. Between 1680 and the -completion of the reconquest, it was completely destroyed. The second -mission, still remaining at Isleta, called San Agustin de Isleta, was -built in 1709 on the old site. - -Agriculture is the primary pursuit of the Indians of Isleta, although -they do considerable stock grazing. The population of Isleta is nearly -2000 persons. The annual fiesta takes place in late August. - - - Jemez Pueblo - -The Jemez Indians were first seen by Europeans in 1541 when they were -visited by Captain Francisco de Barrio-Nuevo, of Coronado's expedition. -He counted seven villages, naming them Aguas Calientes because of the -many hot springs in the canyon of the Jemez River. The ancient pueblos -are now all in ruins, with one preserved as the Jemez State Monument. -The present pueblo, built on the mesa where the Jemez River leaves the -mountains, was constructed after the Pueblo Revolt. The Jemez people -fled their older villages during the reconquest and for a time lived -with the Navajo, whom they disliked but preferred to the Spanish. - -There have been four notable missions among the Jemez Indians. The -first, San Diego de Jemez Mission, was built in the early seventeenth -century. It was one of the most successful of the New Mexico missions; -reportedly, more than 6000 converts were made among the Jemez Indians -before 1622. Because of the constant attacks of the Navajo, the -traditional enemies of the Jemez people, the ancient pueblos gradually -declined and were finally completely abandoned after Jemez participation -in the Pueblo Revolt. The ruins of this church, now the Jemez State -Monument, are among the most picturesque in all New Mexico. Its walls -are three feet thick and were put together with intricate care. In its -time, it must have been a beautiful building. - -The second, San Juan de Los Jemez Mission, was built in 1617 at a -village located near the junction of the Guadalupe and Jemez rivers, six -miles north of the present pueblo. The ruins are faint but still -visible. The mission was abandoned in 1680. - -The third mission had a very brief history. It was called San Jose de -los Jemez Mission and was located near San Juan de Los Jemez, of which -it was a _visita_. Like San Juan, San Jose was abandoned in 1680. - -The present mission was founded early in the eighteenth century and is -one of the interesting things to visit at Jemez Pueblo. This old church -is the center of the annual festival held at Jemez on November 12. - -Jemez is noted for its splendid presentation of the Buffalo Dance in the -winter and for its Corn Dances during the November festival. - - - Laguna Pueblo - -Laguna Pueblo is the youngest and second largest of the pueblos in New -Mexico. Built in 1697, shortly after the reconquest by de Vargas, the -name was derived from a large lake which existed at one time just west -of the village. In addition to the main village, a number of small -settlements have developed where the terrain is suitable for -agriculture, the main occupation of the Lagunas. The most important of -these villages are Paguate, Encinal, Paraje, Mesita, Seama, and Casa -Blanca. The Laguna Indians are of mixed origin, composed of four -linguistic stocks: Tano, Keres, Shoshone, and Zuni. - - [Illustration: Rock-walled Santa Maria mission, Laguna Reservation] - -Although the occupation of the pueblo was traditionally agriculture, in -recent years a moderate revolution has been visible. The people of -Laguna are in the middle of one of the richest uranium mining areas in -the world, and many of them have been employed in mining activities. -Also, the pueblo lies on the main line of the Santa Fe Railway, allowing -some employment with the railroad. Laguna Pueblo is one of the most -progressive of all the Indian groups in New Mexico. It has a population -well in excess of 3000. - -Located at Laguna is the San Jose de Laguna mission, built in 1699. The -plaster on the building is native earth. Indian symbols are painted on -the ceiling of the chancel, and a large picture of St. Joseph done on -elk skin hangs on the reredos. The halos on the saints are triangular -rather than circular. The altar is covered with animal skins painted -with Christian symbols. - - - Nambé Pueblo - -Nambé is one of the smallest of the pueblos but is located in an area -noted for its scenic beauty and climate. Its population is less than -200. It was not always so small; during the eighteenth and nineteenth -centuries, the population was greatly reduced by intertribal war and -witchcraft executions. The Nambé people played an active role in the -pueblo rebellion of 1680, murdering their priest and destroying their -church. - -The original church at Nambé was one of the first missions founded after -the establishment of the first European settlement of San Gabriel at San -Juan in 1598. Destroyed in 1680, it was rebuilt in 1696. In 1729, the -converts had increased to such numbers that a new church was required. -This church remained in use until 1909 when, because of carelessness in -keeping it in repair, the roof collapsed during a storm. The annual -Nambé fiesta is held in early October. - - - Picurís Pueblo - -Picurís is seldom visited by the tourist, for it lies in the mountains -forty miles north of Santa Fe and can only be reached over a gravel -road. The people of Picurís were among the most warlike of the normally -peaceful pueblo peoples. They participated actively in the pueblo -rebellion in 1680, killing their priest and all the Spaniards in the -vicinity. They also participated in the battle for Santa Fe which broke -Spanish power in New Mexico until 1692. After the revolt, fear of the -Spanish caused them to abandon their village until they were induced to -return in 1706. The population of Picurís is very small, being slightly -more than 100. - -One of the few old missions left in New Mexico, the San Lorenzo de -Picurís church shows the strange mixture of Spanish and Indian -traditions. Near the door is a human skull covered with an old cloth, -but unfortunately, its story is lost to antiquity. - -An interesting feature at Picurís is the unusual construction seen in -some of the buildings. Made of puddled adobe, they are the oldest still -standing of any pueblo in the Rio Grande Valley. The buildings were made -by pouring adobe mud into wall forms. This is the same kind of -construction that is found at Casa Grande, Arizona, one of the -significant prehistoric ruins in the United States. - - - Pojoaque Pueblo - -Pojoaque, though still listed among the Indian villages of New Mexico, -is no longer populated by Indians. Two missions were established at -Pojoaque in the early Spanish days, the first shortly after 1600. This -was destroyed in the rebellion in 1680. Later, in 1706, a new church was -constructed which is still in use. The Indian population of Pojoaque was -gradually reduced until, in 1900, the few remaining families abandoned -the village. Since that time, Spanish-American families have occupied -the buildings. It is a picturesque village seldom seen, for it is hidden -from the passing tourist by a hill. Yet some of the buildings in this -ancient village date back to pre-Coronado times and are a significant -part of the romance of New Mexico. - - - Sandia Pueblo - -Sandia Pueblo is a remnant of the Tiguex villages visited by Coronado in -1540. A mission was created at Sandia shortly after the colonization by -Oņate, and it was an important mission center until the Pueblo Revolt. -After the revolt, Sandia peoples scattered rather than again submit to -Spanish control. Many of them went to live with the Hopi and there -founded the village of Payupki on the middle mesa, the walls of which -can still be found. After 62 years, in 1742, a few families returned to -the Rio Grande Valley to found the modern pueblo. The old mission -remains visible, although reduced to a rubble of adobe. Sandia Pueblo -remains a small village, containing less than 150 people. - - - San Felipe Pueblo - -San Felipe is one of the most conservative of the pueblos and has -retained much of its Indian heritage despite the impact of Spanish and -American influences. It has a close affinity with its neighbors, -particularly Santo Domingo only five miles distant. San Felipe was a -well-established village when the Spanish first arrived. Its people -joined in heartily when the pueblo uprising began in 1680 but abandoned -their village during a Spanish counteroffensive in 1681 (which failed). -When reconquest was completed in 1692, the people returned to their -village. Thereafter, they remained friendly to the Spanish and suffered -many attacks from the Navajo, who hated them for this loyalty. - -One of the finest remaining structures showing early Franciscan mission -architecture can be seen at the San Felipe church. The present church is -not the original mission, for three different churches were located at -San Felipe over the centuries. The first was built in 1605 and destroyed -during the Pueblo Revolt. The second was built in a new part of the -village in 1694, but shortly after 1700, the village was moved and a new -church constructed. The latter church is the one now in use at San -Felipe. On May 1, the nearly 1000 people of the pueblo celebrate their -annual fiesta. - - - San Ildefonso Pueblo - -San Ildefonso has gained fame throughout the world because of the -excellence of its pottery. The high quality and general acceptance of -this commodity has made the village prosperous. It boasts some of the -most famous Indian artists and artisans in the United States, among them -Julian and Maria Martinez, perhaps the best-known potters in the world. - -San Ildefonso participated in the Pueblo Revolt but did not contest the -reconquest, at least not at first. In 1694, when de Vargas began to wage -war on the northern pueblos, San Ildefonso did take part. The people -fortified themselves on Black Mesa, a high, steep mesa of volcanic -origin near the pueblo. There they successfully withstood Spanish -efforts to dislodge them. Notwithstanding their initial success, they -were ultimately conquered and brought into the Spanish system. Today -there are several hundred people living in the village, and they are -among the friendliest of the pueblo peoples. San Ildefonso is easily -accessible from Santa Fe. - -The mission church dates back to the 1890's, although earlier churches -at the pueblo played an important role in bringing Christianity to the -Pueblo Indian world. The older churches are long since gone. - - - San Juan Pueblo - -San Juan Pueblo is best noted for its close association with the first -Spanish settlement in New Mexico in 1598. Oņate, colonizer of New -Mexico, selected a site for his first headquarters which was a part of -the ancient Pueblo of San Juan. The natives living in that part of the -village willingly gave up their homes to the Spaniards and were taken in -by the remainder of the people of San Juan. Oņate, in appreciation for -this hospitality, bestowed upon the pueblo the name _San Juan de los -Caballeros_, a name which the pueblo is still proud to bear. - -Yet this same friendly people also contributed Po-pé, the great leader -of the Pueblo Revolt, to the history of New Mexico. While Po-pé shared -with many other pueblo leaders a hatred of the Spanish conqueror, he was -the spiritual force and the organizer of the rebellion that broke the -control of the Spaniard for twelve years and returned New Mexico to the -Indian. This great rebellion stands as one of the significant efforts in -the history of the world of a people to cast off the bonds of foreign -control. - -San Juan cannot claim a church dating back to the _conquistadores_, but -it does have one of the great landmark churches in the Southwest. In -1890, the chapel of Our Lady of Lourdes was dedicated at San Juan. It -was constructed of red volcanic rock found west of the Rio Grande. This -beautiful structure is an architectural jewel set in desert -surroundings. - -The nearly 700 people of San Juan welcome visitors to their homes; their -undecorated burnished black pottery is particularly distinctive and -popular. The pueblo's annual festival is held in June. - - - Santa Ana Pueblo - -Santa Ana Pueblo lies along the banks of the Rio Jemez, which enters the -Rio Grande from the west. The pueblo was visited by Oņate and a mission -was built there about 1600, shortly after his visit. The people of Santa -Ana joined in the Pueblo Revolt, and since there was no priest serving -their church in 1680, they joined with the Indians of Santo Domingo and -San Felipe to massacre the padres at San Felipe. In 1687, during one of -the Spanish efforts to reconquer New Mexico, Santa Ana was destroyed and -her people fled. Later, at the urging of de Vargas, the modern pueblo -was established, along with the church now standing there. The -population of Santa Ana is nearly 400. Its annual festival takes place -in August. It is often difficult to find many of the people at the main -pueblo for they spend most of the growing season at El Ranchito, to the -east in the Rio Grande Valley. - - - Santa Clara Pueblo - -Santa Clara Pueblo is near the mouth of Santa Clara Creek, a year-round -stream flowing out of the Jemez Mountains into the Rio Grande. To the -west of the pueblo, on lands owned by Santa Clara, are the famous Puye -Cliff Dwellings ruins. The people of Santa Clara claim these natural -cliff homes as their ancestral dwelling places, a fact which has been -substantiated by archeologists. The Santa Clara Indians represent, then, -an important living Indian group in which one can observe institutions -and traditions that can be linked to traditions of the cultures that -lived in the caves and abandoned cities of Southwest antiquity. - -Like most of the pueblo people, Santa Clara joined the Pueblo Revolt, -but this action did not seriously harm the pueblo. The real damage was -done to Santa Clara in the late eighteenth century when intertribal -warfare over witchcraft, plus the ravages of disease, took nearly 500 -lives in the village. The current population is about 500. - -The church at Santa Clara is quite modern, having been constructed in -the twentieth century. The old church, built in 1760, was caught up in -the modernization craze that swept through the pueblo world in the early -1900's. Perhaps one of the most substantial and beautiful of all pueblo -churches, the old church collapsed during a storm in 1909 (the same -storm that destroyed the church at Nambé); it had been structurally -weakened by the removal of the roof for remodeling. - -The village has excellent agricultural lands and supplements its income -by manufacturing an excellent and distinctive pure black pottery. Its -annual festival is in mid-August. - - - Santo Domingo Pueblo - -Santo Domingo is one of the largest of the pueblos, having a population -of nearly 1500. It is also the most conservative in retention of its -native culture. This makes its dances and dress of particular interest -to the visitor to New Mexico. The present pueblo was established after -the reconquest in 1692. The Indians of Santo Domingo took a particularly -active part in the Pueblo Revolt, killing three padres resident at the -pueblo. When de Vargas moved to retake Santo Domingo, he found the -people had abandoned the village. They had constructed a village in the -Jemez Mountains to the west, and it was there that de Vargas defeated -them. Even then, the people of Santo Domingo did not give up the fight, -and only after a long series of defeats and serious loss of life did -they surrender and again return to the vicinity of their original -village. - -The church at Santo Domingo is not so old as many other pueblo edifices, -but its qualities remain among the most typical aspects of early New -Mexico mission architecture. In early August, during the great annual -festival, the Indians completely clean and whitewash the church. Two -large horses are painted on the front of the building by native artists. -The dances during the Santo Domingo festival are among the most colorful -and authentic in New Mexico. - - - Taos Pueblo - -Taos represents the northernmost of the pueblos in New Mexico. It is -also one of the most scenic, lying at the foot of the Taos Mountains, a -spur of the mighty Sangre de Cristo range. It is a prosperous village of -about 900 persons. There is no finer example of pueblo apartment -architecture in New Mexico. The main pueblo building rises five stories -above the mesa. One must be careful not to confuse the Spanish town, don -Fernando de Taos, and the old Indian farming center, Ranchos de Taos, -with the pueblo, San Geronimo de Taos. It is the latter that is Indian -and is, therefore, by far the oldest of the three. - -The ruins of the old San Geronimo mission at Taos represent one of the -most historic and fateful in all the Southwest. It was there that two -priests were murdered in 1680 during the first days of the Pueblo -Revolt. It was there that Po-pé sowed the first seeds of that rebellion. -Again in 1696, the Taos Indians sought to free themselves from Spanish -control by killing their priests and other Spaniards in the vicinity. -Again they were subdued. In 1847, when the Americans annexed New Mexico, -the Taos Indians tried once more to gain their independence. Inflamed by -Mexican citizens who refused to accept American authority, they attacked -the Americans at Fernando de Taos, killing nine of them. Governor -Charles Bent, builder of the famous Bent's Fort on the Santa Fe Trail, -was among those killed. On February 3, 1847, the American army in New -Mexico laid siege to the village and the Indians fortified themselves in -the mission. It became the Alamo of the Taos people. American artillery -was brought to bear, and the walls of the ancient church were battered -down; the Indians fled, first to the village and then into the -mountains, leaving behind 150 dead and many wounded. They were finally -forced to surrender, and their leaders were hung. Those so hung remain -martyrs to this day. The ruins of the Taos mission, built three and a -quarter centuries ago, still can be seen. They are a stark landmark to -the stubborn independence of the people of Taos. - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._) - Souvenir of the American army's work in 1847: Taos Pueblo mission] - -The traditions and ceremonials of Taos are well preserved. Their arts -and crafts, however, have declined and are not of the high quality found -in some of the other pueblos. Their ceremonials are excellent and are -noted for their beauty and precision. The feast day of San Geronimo, -September 30, is the most important event of the year. - - - Tesuque Pueblo - -Tesuque is a small village, perhaps numbering no more than 150 persons. -Even though it has always been small, it holds a major place in the -history of New Mexico. It was at Tesuque that the first blood was shed -in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. On August 9, Cristobal de Herrera was -murdered, and two Tesuque Indians rushed to Santa Fe to warn the Spanish -governor of the impending rebellion. The Indian leaders, now aware that -their plot was known, moved the date of the revolt from August 13 to -August 10. On August 10, Father Pio, in charge of the Tesuque mission, -went out from Santa Fe to say Mass and also was murdered. - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._) - Most-painted church in America?... Ranchos de Taos] - -Although its handicrafts are of poor quality, the Tesuque Indian -ceremonials are colorful and authentic. The people have retained much of -their early culture while living in proximity to the white man (Santa Fe -is only nine miles distant). The pueblo's most important festival falls -on November 12. - - - Zia Pueblo - -The story of Zia is one of tragedy and difficult problems of existence. -Located on a basalt flow on the north bank of the Jemez River some -fifteen miles above its junction with the Rio Grande, Zia has poor land -and a limited supply of irrigation water. Agriculture is the main -economic pursuit, but the pueblo's unfortunate location makes trading -for part of its food supply necessary. - -Oņate reported Zia to be a large pueblo. However, it suffered greatly -because of its participation in the Pueblo Revolt. Some historians -estimate that during the reconquest, nearly 600 of the people of Zia -were killed defending themselves from the Spanish. Continued wars and -pestilence reduced the pueblo to a very few families. Over the past -century, the group has again showed signs of growth and now has a -population of more than 300. - -The church at Zia dates from 1692, and thus represents one of the fine -examples of ancient Franciscan architecture in New Mexico. The annual -festival, dedicated to Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion, is celebrated with -an excellent Corn Dance on August 15. - - - Zuni Pueblo - -Zuni has the distinction of being the first of the pueblos seen or -visited by Europeans. Seen from a distance by Fray Marcos de Niza in -1539, it was reported as a rich and extensive city. Nearby were six -other pueblos, and the Spanish immediately associated the Zuni complex -with an old Spanish legend about seven golden cities, the Seven Cities -of Cibola. The expedition of Coronado was formed to explore and conquer -the rich pueblos of New Mexico. His first contact was at Zuni, then -called _Hawikuh_. It was neither golden nor rich. - -Although Zuni was an important stopping place on the early trails to -Mexico, it managed to remain least influenced by European ideas. The -Spanish concentrated their efforts in the Rio Grande Valley and Zuni -went its own way most of the time. While there were missionary efforts -from time to time, by the nineteenth century, the stout resistance to -such activity caused it to cease. In recent years, sporadic missionary -activity has been evident, but it has not been notably successful. - -The most famous of all New Mexico Indian ceremonial dances is held at -Zuni each year. The Shalako, which occurs in early December, is -authentic and spectacular. The dancers, carrying huge ceremonial figures -on their shoulders, must train and practice constantly during the entire -year. - -Zuni is the largest of the pueblos in New Mexico, with a population -numbering more than 5000 persons. The main occupation is agriculture. -The Zunis supplement their income by manufacturing silver inlay jewelry -that shows great creative skill and is beautiful to behold. - - - Other New Mexico Indians - -In addition to the well-known Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, there are -four other areas of Indian lands. Three of these belong to peoples of -Athapascan origin, sometimes better known as Apache Indians. By name, -they are the Jicarilla Apache, the Mescalero Apache, and Navajo. The -fourth group is the Ute Indian. - -The Apache tribes were relative newcomers to the Southwest. Their origin -was the plains area between the northern Rocky Mountains and Hudson Bay -in Canada. About 1000 A.D., a part of these northern Plains Indians -began a migration that ultimately brought them to New Mexico. Down the -High Plains across the western Dakotas, western Nebraska, Kansas, and -finally to western Texas and eastern New Mexico, these people came. At -about the latitude of Albuquerque, the migration split. Part of the -group continued south, across the Staked Plains, into southeastern New -Mexico, west Texas, and northern Coahuila and Chihuahua, Mexico. Here -they divided into the Lipan, the Mescalero, and the Natage Apache. -Today, in south-central New Mexico are the descendants of the Mescalero. -The Mescalero Apache reservation is crossed by U.S. Highway 70, a scenic -drive through pine forests. The tribe operates the Sierra Blanca ski -area, one of the southernmost ski areas in the United States. Its annual -Crown Dance and coming-of-age ceremonials are held July 1 to 4, followed -by an Apache rodeo. The Lipan and the Natage have virtually disappeared. - -The second group of the migration discovered for the first time in their -long trek down the eastern fringes of the Rockies that the country -opened up to the west. They poured through the passes and entered the -areas traditionally controlled by pueblo farmers. Gradually, they took -over these lands for themselves, driving out the farmers. By the time -the Spanish came on the scene, most of the peaceful farmers had given -way before the onslaught of the warlike Athapascan savages. Only one -group remained, the pueblos of the central Rio Grande Valley. The -migration that moved into the desert and mountain lands divided into a -number of groups which are known by modern names: the Chiricahua, White -Mountain, Western, and Jicarilla Apache and the Navajo. The Jicarilla -Apache reside mainly in north-central New Mexico on reservation lands, -and the Navajo reservation lies partly in extreme northwestern New -Mexico. Most of the Navajo land and all the lands of the others are in -Arizona. - -The Ute Indians, driven from the plains by stronger tribes, settled in -the central Rocky Mountain area. There they raided the wealthy (at least -in their eyes) pueblos to the south. They fought sporadically against -white penetration but were finally subdued and placed on reservation -lands in the Four Corners area, part of which lies in New Mexico. - -While the history of these peoples is fascinating and full of romance, -there is little besides scenery to be seen when visiting their -reservations. The populations are often scattered over many hundreds of -square miles, and the people have only rudimentary handicrafts. The -exception is the Navajo, and a trip to the Navajo reservation is -worthwhile. These Indians have developed techniques of weaving and -silversmithing that contribute significant art forms to Southwest -handicrafts. - - -The outstanding Indian event of the year in New Mexico is the -Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial at Gallup, held during mid-August. Some -thirty tribes from the Southwest and Midwest meet to compete in arts, -crafts, and ceremonial dancing. - - - - - Reminders of the Past - - - _by_ Paige W. Christiansen - -When driving across New Mexico or when visiting some part of the state, -one should be aware of the wealth of history that is always close at -hand. Many people, when faced with what seems like endless miles of -empty country, fail to realize that the very emptiness is one of the -charms of the state. They also do not recognize that in the vast -expanses of mountain and desert, people of the ancient past or a recent -past have lived and worked and died. Sometimes the fruits of their labor -are clear and evident and live on in cities and towns. In many -instances, however, the mountains and desert have reclaimed their own -and the works of man have succumbed. A mental picture must be cast over -the landscape on which great historical events took place but which is -almost empty of signs of man's efforts. If travelers are fortunate, -there may still be some sign--a ghost town, a ruined ranch, some old -artifacts--to tell the story; if not, imagination must be given rein. -The search is the adventure, and to give aid in that search, the -following might suffice as a faint guiding light. - -To simplify the descriptions of these reminders of the past, New Mexico -is divided into seven geographical regions which a traveler might well -visit: - - 1. _North from Santa Fe_, including U.S. Highways 64, 285, and 84, and - connecting state highways. - - 2. _The northeast_, including U.S. 85 from Santa Fe to Raton, U.S. 66 - east from Albuquerque to the Texas line, U.S. 56 from Springer to the - state line, and connecting state highways. - - 3. _The northwest_, including U.S. 66 west from Albuquerque to the - Arizona line, U.S. 666 north from Gallup to Colorado, and State - Highway 44 from Bernalillo to Farmington. - - 4. _East-central_, including U.S. 60 east from Bernardo, U.S. 380 east - from San Antonio, U.S. 70 from the Mescalero Indian Reservation to the - Texas line, U.S. 285 from Clines Corners to Roswell, U.S. 54 from - Three Rivers to Santa Rosa, and connecting state highways. - - 5. _West-central_, including U.S. 60 west of Socorro, U.S. 180-260 and - State Highway 12 in Catron County, U.S. 85 from Los Lunas to Elephant - Butte, and connecting state highways. - - 6. _Southeast_, including U.S. 70 from Las Cruces to the Mescalero - Indian Reservation, U.S. 54 from El Paso to Three Rivers, U.S. 62 from - Hobbs to the Texas line, U.S. 285 from Roswell to the Texas line, and - numerous state roads. - - 7. _Southwest_, including U.S. 85 from Truth or Consequences to El - Paso, U.S. 180 north from Deming to the Catron county line, U.S. 70-80 - west from Las Cruces to Arizona, and state roads. - - - North From Santa Fe - -The country north of Santa Fe is the heart of Indian and Spanish New -Mexico. Here, if he looks beyond the narrow boundaries of the highway -right-of-way, the traveler can see Indian and Spanish villages which -have not changed significantly in two and a half centuries. Along the -lush green of the Rio Grande Valley or of its tributaries dashing out of -the Sangre de Cristo range to the east, these sleepy concentrations of -people reveal cultural and language patterns which smack of the -_conquistadores_ of the sixteenth century or of the ancient cliff -dwellers. It is a slow and easy world, perhaps most representative of -the "land of maņana." In a region already worked for centuries for what -it can produce, there is no hurry. It will be there tomorrow and -forever. The people of this region are typically New Mexican. The hills -are dotted with piņon and juniper trees which give a greenish to black -cast to the land. This, too, is typically New Mexican. - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._) - Cool drive on a summer day, Red River Canyon] - -There is one short trip that would be fruitful for him who wants to know -New Mexico, to feel the romance of Spanish culture, and to seek -adventure off the beaten track. Just north of Espaņola, State Highway 76 -strikes east from U.S. 64. Nowhere in the state can be found so much of -old world charm or spectacular scenic beauty. Heading east, the traveler -passes through Chimayó, a village famed throughout the world for its -weaving, though seldom visited, then on through Truchas and Las Trampas -to Penasco, heart of the Penitente country. The Penitentes were a -religious sect growing out of long isolation from the main threads of -Roman Catholicism. They gradually reverted to relatively primitive -Christian practices without guidance from main church centers but within -the past few years have returned to the Church. The many white crosses -that can be seen in the area attest to their former activity. From -Penasco, the traveler can return to U.S. 64 via State Highway 75. - -The area northwest of Santa Fe, stretching some thirty or forty miles on -the southeast flanks of the Jemez Mountains, is the noted Pajarito -Plateau, the home of great numbers of Indian cultures, living and dead. -Many of the modern Indian pueblos will be found in this region. Also, -some of the most significant ancient Indian ruins are found here, such -as the Frijoles Canyon (Bandelier National Monument) and Puye Cliff -Dwellings. - -The entire area north of Santa Fe, then, is alive with history. In every -village, in every canyon, there is something that will add to the -romance of Spanish-Indian New Mexico. In our Southwest, the heritage -handed down by these two great cultures is held dear by the people. To -the traveler will come a greater appreciation and a greater -understanding of New Mexico and the Southwest if these are but -understood. - - - Northeast New Mexico - -The section designated as northeast New Mexico is an area of mountains -and plains, and its historical mosaic shows elements of both: the rugged -Sandia Mountains near Albuquerque and the southernmost parts of the -extensive Sangre de Cristo range, which thrusts north from U.S. Highway -85 far into Colorado, and part of the famed buffalo plains. The area is -drained by two main river systems; the Canadian River flows east to join -the Arkansas and the Mississippi and the Pecos River flows south to join -the Rio Grande. - -Through this vast area ran one of Americas greatest highways, the Santa -Fe Trail. Beginning in Missouri communities, the Trail hurled itself -into the intricate patterns of the Great Plains with all of their -dangers--Indians, boredom, violent storms, treacherous rivers, and -prairie grass fires. Then on into the foothills of the mighty Rocky -Mountains and the steep and backbreaking approaches to Raton Pass in New -Mexico. The new highway across this pass (U.S. 85) and the nature of our -vehicles have made this an easy passage. But the traveler should pause -at some high point, or perhaps leave the main highway for a moment, and -try to imagine crossing this rugged land in Conestoga wagons. From -Raton, the Santa Fe Trail continued south to Las Vegas and thence into -Santa Fe via Glorieta Pass (current route of U.S. 85). Over this trail -passed the goods of the world. In part, these were intended for the -people of New Mexico, but over other trails they also found markets in -Mexico and in California. For the curious and adventurous, sections of -the Santa Fe Trail can still be seen. Local inquiry will elicit -directions to remaining parts of the wide rutted Trail, scene of so much -of the American westward movement. - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._) - How To see the Rio Grande Valley--from Sandia Crest] - -While passing through the mountains between Santa Fe and Las Vegas, the -traveler should be aware that a critical Civil War battle was waged in -the fastness of these passes. In 1862, Confederate forces, which came up -the Rio Grande from Texas and won a series of victories over Union -troops, met a combined force of Colorado Volunteers and New Mexico Union -troops in a decisive contest over the control of the American Southwest. -The Union troops were successful, preserving New Mexico and the West for -the Union. - -These, then, are some of the things to look for in this region of plains -and mountains. Picture buffalo by the tens of thousands pushing up the -Canadian River, or long lines of wagons winding their way along the -Santa Fe Trail carrying goods and people into new lands, or the Blue and -the Gray locked in deadly combat far from the thunder of the main Civil -War battles. The mosaic here is sharp and vividly different. - - - Northwest New Mexico - -Northwest New Mexico is typified as ancient Indian country. While -seemingly a harsh land, it is only this to the uninitiated, to those who -lock their minds to beauties of history and lands unlike their own. The -Indian found this country good and productive. Some of the finest ruins -of Indian antiquity are in this region--Chaco Canyon and Aztec, both -National Monuments, and hundreds more that remain unnamed. The Indians -of the Four Corners area (named thus because New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, -and Arizona meet here, the only place in the United States where the -lines of four states intersect) created levels of culture unsurpassed in -what is the continental United States; only the Indians of Mexico and -Peru claim a higher culture. This is a land whose ancient people reached -their great peak at the same time as the later Romans, as Charlemagne in -ancient Frankish Europe, and as Mohammed and his successors in the -Middle East. - -But ancient Indians hold no monopoly on this vast region. Today many of -the Indians of New Mexico still find homes here. The Navajo Reservation -lies between Gallup and the Colorado line. Part of the Ute Reservation -lies along the northern edge of New Mexico, and the Jicarilla -Reservation is in the eastern part of this region. Many of the pueblo -people are found between Albuquerque and Santa Fe. At Gallup each year, -the famed Indian Ceremonials bring together peoples from many of the -tribes in the United States. - -This region is also renowned as an oil and natural gas producer and is -one of the booming areas in New Mexico. But this is only one aspect of -the mineral riches of the northwest; the mines near Grants, between -Albuquerque and Gallup, produce tremendous quantities of uranium ores. -The atomic energy capability of the United States begins at Grants. And -near Gallup and Fruitland are huge open-pit coal mines. - -The northwest is drained by the San Juan River, a tributary of the -Colorado River, and is therefore a part of the Pacific watershed. The -Navajo Dam project, just east of Farmington, is a part of this drainage -pattern. - -Thus the region is characterized by Indians old and new, ancient things -buried deep beneath the earth, and great beauty in pastel colors and -subtle contrasts--the mosaic of the land. - - - East-Central New Mexico - -East-central New Mexico, like the northeast, is an area of plains and -mountains. Here the buffalo roamed, and in their place, cattle now -utilize the hardy and nutritious grasses of the High Plains. Mountains -are the Manzano, southeast of Albuquerque, and Sierra Blanca, near -Carrizozo, as well as numerous minor ranges. Also in this region is some -harsh and desolate country, seared by the southwestern sun and lacking -in rainfall, but supporting the exotic plants and wildlife typical of -the Sonoran desert regions. - -While the desert regions may not be attractive to the eye, they should -be appreciated for their part in the historical mosaic. In the area east -of the Rio Grande is the northern half of the well-known White Sands -Missile Range, one of the significant test centers in the rocket and -space age. It was also in this arid region that the first atomic bomb -was exploded (southeast of Socorro). - -The early use of this desert, however, emphasized its harshness. For -centuries, the Spanish suffered across this waterless waste on their way -from Chihuahua in Old Mexico to Santa Fe, for this was the Jornada del -Muerto, journey of death, the hardest and most dangerous part of the -trip over the Camino Real. The Camino Real was the lifeline of New -Mexico from 1598 until the Santa Fe Trail was opened in 1821, and all -visitors during that period were obliged to cross this arid section. A -modern rocket crosses in mere seconds what took the Spaniards many days. - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._) - Who says this is desert country?... Sierra Blanca from U.S. 70] - -In the Manzano Mountains, there are numerous Indian ruins which -represent the eastern fringes of the pueblo-building Indians of New -Mexico. These ruined villages have been given the name by historians of -"cities that died of fear," fear of the vicious Apache and Comanche -tribes. For centuries, these brave village people tilled their crops and -lived peacefully on the land. Then, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and -fifteenth centuries, the great migrations of Plains Indians that pushed -into the Southwest gradually did their deadly work. One by one the -villages succumbed, until by 1700 few people remained, and these were -ultimately killed or driven into the sanctuary of the Rio Grande -pueblos. It is awesome to stand mid the rubble of one of those ancient -cities and imagine the circumstances of its demise. - -In the eastern part of this section was the heart of the High Plains -cattle empires. Here is a land that once belonged to the great cattle -barons, a land of free range, the home of the cowboy. Although it is -fenced today, it is still a land of cattle and is still very close to -the early days of the cattleman. - -Again, there is an intricate and varied mosaic. No simple land this, but -a complexity of plains, mountains, and desert, all of which color its -history. The Indians no longer inhabit their villages, the Spanish no -longer struggle along the Jornada del Muerto, and the free range of the -cattle baron is gone, but if the traveler sees it through its historical -past, it will again come alive. - - - West-Central New Mexico - -This section is a complex and colorful mass of landforms scattered -helter-skelter across the western part of the state. It stretches from -the green Rio Grande Valley, with its irrigated lands, quaint farms, and -picturesque agricultural villages, up the Valley's steep western slopes -to the rolling grassland and mesas and alluvial fans, ending in -precipitous and treacherous canyons in the rugged mountains. Socorro -Mountain, the Magdalenas, the San Mateos, the Ladrones, and countless -others seem always to ring the horizon. Some of them are timbered and -abound in cool, refreshing shade and springs; some are harsh and dry. In -the west, the famed San Agustin Plains stretch to the sunset, a wide -carpet fringed by black, timbered hills, site of fabulous cattle drives -of a bygone day. The complexity of the region's geology, scenery, and -terrain is matched by an equally complex history. - -The history is a mosaic of many hues, some harsh and stark like its dry -desert mountains, some inviting like the shade and coolness of its -timbered canyons and mountain springs. First were the many diverse and -sometimes hostile Indian cultures. There were peaceful pueblo peoples -tilling their lands, using the Rio Grande's flowing water to produce -abundance. Also, prehistoric village dwellers struggled to create -agricultural societies along the banks of now-dry rivers in the western -part of the region. And there were the fearsome Apache Indians who -founded their homes in the broken mountain fastnesses and added their -excitement and tragedy to the mosaic. So, too, did the Spaniard make his -mark and the Mexican who followed close behind. The place names of the -eastern part of the region are primarily Spanish, although the Spanish -found the area a difficult one in which to maintain themselves. And then -the American came to dominate this land, adding realism and technology. - -Finally, two major economic factors left a profound imprint: stock -raising and mining. The first began with the Spanish, was continued by -the Mexicans, and commercialized by the Americans. Everywhere are signs -of this heritage. Mining also played a dominant role, although of a -shorter duration. One can hardly lift his eyes to the hills without -seeing signs of the prospectors shovel or the miner's work. One can -hardly converse with local citizens without discussing mines of the past -or mines of the future. Livestock and minerals, then, are woven through -the historical pattern and are never far from any part of the story. - -Let the traveler be aware of several important facts when he passes -through this region. First, this is empty country, an area that has -fewer people now than it had eighty years ago. Its mines are mostly -closed and the towns that grew with the mines are ghosts. One of the -most famous of these is the town of Kelly, a short distance from the -community of Magdalena. Another is Mogollon, off U.S. Highway 180 in the -southwestern part of this region. Either of these will give to the -viewer a vivid picture of the mining camps of the nineteenth century. - -To the average tourist crossing the San Agustin Plains, they seem -desolate and uninteresting. To the traveler with imagination and -knowledge of the history of this once great inland lake, the trip can be -exciting. He pictures this great basin full of water, forty-five miles -long and fifteen miles wide, and sees mountains covered with blue spruce -surrounding the great lake. His mental motion picture rolls on thousands -of years, watching the water evaporate and the forest of spruce die, to -be replaced eventually by the piņon and juniper now dotting the hills. -Grass grew in the old lake bed, except in the last areas to evaporate, -for these had an alkali content too high for most grasses. The traveler -then watches the Indian enter the scene--not the pueblo builder, except -as a transient, for no water is available. The nomadic warrior uses the -pathway later. In 1774 and in 1776, he sees several important battles -between the Spanish and the Apaches fought on these Plains. Later, the -American cattleman dominates them, as he does today.... - -And so the mosaic grows--Indians, Spanish, Americans, cattle, and -mines--and the spectacular vistas and the vast emptiness add color and -excitement for the traveler who sees the past with the present. - - - Southeast New Mexico - -Much of southeast New Mexico is an extension of the Great Plains, but it -has some rugged mountains and a severe desert in the middle of which lie -White Sands National Monument and the White Sands Missile Range. -Mountain ranges include the Sacramento east of Alamogordo and the -Guadalupe Mountains, in which are located Carlsbad Caverns. - -The plains part of this region are devoted to cattle, potash, and oil. -Like the other plains regions of New Mexico, the heritage passed on from -the great cattle empires of bygone days is very strong and detectable in -the people. Since the early 1930's, oil has come to play an increasingly -important part in the history of this section. This is especially true -near Hobbs. - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._) - Anyone for a hike?... in the Guadalupe Mountains] - -The desert region in the western part of this section has clearly -defined aspects of the old and the new. The southern part of the dread -Jornado del Muerto swept across this arid land and only returned to the -river near modern Hatch, or sometimes farther south, near modern Las -Cruces, according to the whim of the river. Here also lies the White -Sands National Monument, a desert spot of unusual beauty and interest. -Near the Monument, the White Sands Missile Range stands as an advanced -scientific test center for the most modern of vehicles, the rocket. Near -Alamogordo, another advanced space development and testing facility is -located at Holloman Air Force Base. So the desert is useful, and it is -beautiful, and it is full of tragic history. - -This is also Indian land. East of Tularosa is the Mescalero Apache -Indian Reservation. In a way, this region has always belonged to the -Apache, at least since he migrated into New Mexico. The area contained -no sedentary groups and the Apache appropriated it as his own. His -strongholds were in the Guadalupe and Sacramento mountains. The forts -along the Rio Grande, like Forts Fillmore and Selden, were located to -control the Mescalero and other Apache groups. All that remains today -are the Mescaleros. - -There was little Spanish influence in this area except near El Paso and -in the Rio Grande Valley. The Spanish were more attracted to the upper -Rio Grande Valley because of the sedentary nature of the Indians of that -region. The southeast underwent its greatest development in the American -period. - -Again, sense the mosaic: These are not blends of land and history; they -are sharp and distinct, each with its own character. Search for the -history and the beauty, for they do not come automatically. - - - Southwest New Mexico - -Finally, the southwest, another region of harsh desert and cool -refreshing mountains, part of New Mexico's unusual contrast. The country -south of U.S. 70 is Sonoran desert, thinly populated and poorly watered. -To the north of the highway lies one of the most spectacular beauty -spots in the Southwest, the mountains and forests forming the headwaters -of the Gila River. The Gila River flows west across Arizona until it -joins the Colorado River which empties into the Gulf of California. - -The Indians in this part of the state fall into two distinct categories: -The builders, known as the Mimbres culture, constructed homes in caves -and along the watercourses of the Gila and Mimbres rivers. They reached -extremely high levels of culture, and then they disappeared. The Apache -Indians, who entered this country at the same time as they did the rest -of New Mexico, were responsible for the end of the farmers and builders, -at least in part. The Apaches were predators and the farmers were -peaceful, unversed in the arts of war. Finally the Apache ruled supreme, -and this region became the most important single stronghold of the -Indian. It was here that Geronimo found sanctuary. But the Apaches, too, -were forced to surrender their claims and were placed on reservations -outside this area. - -Mining is and has been the main source of wealth. The great open-pit -operation of Kennecott Copper Company is at Santa Rita, east of Silver -City. This is one of the largest open-pit copper mines in North America. -To look into that huge man-made pit is a thrilling experience. This mine -was first opened in 1803 by the Spanish who needed copper badly as a -circulating currency in New Spain (Mexico). For a number of years, the -coins used for money in Mexico were from copper mined in southwestern -New Mexico. - -Copper represents only a part of the mining activity in this region. -Famous mining districts in earlier days were at Kingston and Hillsboro, -just east of the Black Range on State Highway 90. These areas produced -considerable quantities of silver. There is some activity yet, but the -boom has long since passed them by, although they are interesting towns -to visit. The trip from U.S. 85 to Silver City via State Highway 90 is -one of the most scenic routes in the state. - -In the region north of Silver City lies high mountain country, much of -it preserved as the Gila Wilderness Area. Here a person who wishes the -solitude of forest and mountain, the thrill of trout fishing in a clear -cold stream, and a wealth of wildlife can find his heart's desire. In -the heart of this wilderness, the traveler might well find some of the -ancient homes of the Mimbres people. History and recreation blend into -one. - - -These complete the mosaic. Everywhere one travels in New Mexico is -enchanting history, in the land and/or in the people. This has not been -an effort to acquaint anyone with the intricate detail of all the -history of every nook and cranny of this land, but these broad strokes -made on the canvas may help the traveler, transient or native, to enjoy -himself. Let him accept the challenge, stop to investigate, search out -evidence of the history that is there in the colorful and changing land -itself, the Indian heritage, the Spanish past, the cattleman's range, -the miner's endless search--and become enchanted. - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside_) - Wheeler Peak near Taos--highest point in New Mexico, 13,160 feet - above sea level] - - [Illustration: (_Courtesy Elliott S. Barker_) - Ghost Ranch Mountain north of Abiquiu] - - - - - Derricks and Mines - - - _by_ George B. Griswold - -New Mexico is a mineral-rich state. The gross production value of oil, -gas, and minerals was $671 million during 1963, making the state the -sixth ranking mineral producer in the nation. New Mexico ranks among -other states as follows: first in the production of potash, uranium, -perlite, and carbon dioxide; third in helium; fourth in copper; fifth in -natural gas and liquids; and seventh in petroleum. Important amounts of -zinc, lead, gold, silver, magnesium compounds, coal, gypsum, pumice, and -salt are also produced from deposits within New Mexico. The oil and gas -industry holds a dominant position in the state, accounting for almost -two thirds of the value of minerals produced. - - -OIL AND GAS - -Most of New Mexico's oil and gas are produced in the southeastern part, -south and east of Roswell. The bustling towns of Hobbs, Artesia, and -Lovington, as well as Roswell, are headquarters for the many oil -companies and the associated service and supply organizations operating -in the area. Oil and gas are produced from numerous reservoirs, called -_fields_ or _pools_, in Paleozoic sediments ranging from Ordovician to -Permian in age. From the standpoint of production, the Eunice-Monument -field (lying between these two towns) is the largest, having produced -more than 250 million barrels of oil. Other important fields are Hobbs, -Vacuum, Langlie Mattix, Denton, and Jalmat. All these fields produce a -considerable amount of gas associated directly with the oil. - -When driving an automobile through southeast New Mexico, a layman finds -it difficult to comprehend the immensity of the petroleum industry of -that region. This is due to the scattering of wells over a large area. -Seldom are wells spaced closer than one to every ten acres, even in the -most productive fields. There are, in fact, some 16,000 wells in this -part of New Mexico, ranging in depth from less than 1000 feet to 17,555 -feet. - -The other oil- and gas-producing area of the state is in the northwest, -in the San Juan Basin. Farmington serves as the base of operations for -most of this activity. In 1962, there were 7378 wells in the area, 1770 -of which were producing oil and gas and 5608 producing gas only. Most of -the San Juan Basin production is from Cretaceous sandstones, in contrast -to the southeast where the oil and gas are derived from Paleozoic -sediments. The development of the San Juan Basin production is -relatively new; most of the wells have been drilled since World War II. -The petroleum industry can be proud of the great help it has given to -the development of this once-almost-forgotten part of the state. - - [Illustration: (_Courtesy El Paso Natural Gas Co._) - There's the way to refine oil! Look at those mesas, near Gallup] - -The methods of finding and producing oil and gas have come a long way -from the "boom town" days when wells were drilled for the most part on -pure hunches and hopes. The exploration and exploitation of petroleum -are now highly specialized technologies. All branches of the geologic -and geophysical sciences are brought into play to piece together a -comprehensive picture of all the factors which may have made a certain -area favorable for the accumulation of oil or gas. These factors include -such things as the age, thickness, and permeability of the sedimentary -rocks, the structure, old shorelines, and buried reefs. Once a target is -selected, a drilling rig is moved onto the location to prove or disprove -the theory. This is the costly step of finding oil. A single 10,000-foot -hole may cost $350,000, and some individual wells in New Mexico have -cost more than $1 million to drill. If the well is in a completely -untested area, it is called a "wildcat." Once a discovery is made, then -the land around the wildcat is explored by "offset" wells until the -complete extent of the new field is proved. - -During 1962, 1666 wells were drilled to an average depth of 5153 feet. -The average drilling cost was $71,000 a well, representing a total -investment of almost $120 million in a single year! Most of these wells -were of the development (offset) type, but even then, 27 per cent were -dry. During 1962, 295 true wildcats were drilled; of these, only 46 -found oil or gas--about two out of every thirteen. - -The story of oil just begins with the discovery of a well. Various -special "completion" operations are applied to the oil-producing horizon -so as to increase the flow into the well. The most common techniques are -either by "acidizing," pumping acid into the formation to increase flow -by enlarging the pores in the rock, or by "hydrafracing," whereby actual -cracks are induced in the formation by pumping oil from the surface back -into the well under very high pressure. After the well is "completed," -it may be a natural-flowing well if sufficient gas is associated with -the oil. If sufficient gas is not present, then the well is pumped. - -In recent years, considerable success has been achieved in revitalizing -old fields where production had dropped below the point of economic -operation. These fields are reactivated by forcing either water or gas -down selected wells within the field, thereby forcing stagnated oil -within the producing zone toward the other wells. This technique is -called _secondary recovery_. Many fields will produce more oil under the -secondary recovery program than they did during their primary life. - - [Illustration: Here's a wildcat for you!] - -Once the oil is on the surface, it passes through separators to remove -any admixed gas from the oil. The gas is sent into pipelines while the -oil is sent to storage tanks called _tank batteries_. Periodically, the -oil is drawn from the tank batteries where it is transported by pipeline -or rail to refineries. The great bulk of the crude oil leaves New Mexico -for refining via a major pipeline network extending through Texas to -both the Gulf and East coasts. Some oil is refined in New Mexico, -however. Oil refineries in Artesia, Bloomfield, Ciniza, Farmington, and -Monument have a combined capacity to treat some 30,000 barrels (42 -gallons a barrel) of crude oil a day. On the other hand, practically all -the natural gas is treated in New Mexico so as to recover its liquid -petroleum constituents before sending it out of the state by pipeline. - - -MINING - -The mining industry of New Mexico dates back to the days of Spanish -rule. Copper was mined from the Santa Rita mine as early as 1800 for -shipment to Mexico for use in coinage. Significant mining in New Mexico -did not commence, however, until the late 1800's. There are three major -centers today: Carlsbad, potash; Silver City area, copper, zinc, and -lead; and Grants, uranium. - - [Illustration: Question: where are the other oil pumps and tanks in - the San Juan Basin?] - -The potash mining east of Carlsbad, a $75 million-a-year industry -employing more than 3600 persons, is the largest operation of its kind -in the world. Six mining companies are active in the area, and a seventh -is developing yet another mine. _Potash_ is a word used to denote -various potassium compounds. The principal ore mineral at Carlsbad is -sylvanite, a mixture of potassium chloride and sodium chloride (common -salt). The ore contains the equivalent of 21 to 25 per cent potassium -oxide (K_2O).[6] Another ore mineral, known as _langbeinite_, a double -salt of potassium and magnesium sulfate, is also mined. - -The potash ores occur as horizontal beds sandwiched between thick salt -and anhydrite layers. These beds are the result of evaporation of large -quantities of salt waters during the latter part of the Permian period -some 240 million years ago. The potash-bearing horizons now are buried -from 900 to 1800 feet below the surface. The discovery of potash in -southeast New Mexico was almost by accident. In 1925, the Snowden and -McSweeny Company drilled a wildcat oil test a few miles east of -Carlsbad. The hole was dry, but potash minerals were detected in the -drill cuttings. The discovery generated considerable interest because -the United States was forced to import most of its potash prior to this -time. Further drilling proved the existence of tremendous deposits of -potassium salts in that area. - -The potash mines are among the most highly mechanized of the mineral -industry. Access to the buried deposits is gained by vertical shafts. -Actual mining is now done to a large extent by continuous miners, -machines which bore or rip the potash ore from the face and load it into -shuttle cars in one continuous operation. The shuttle cars then -transport the ore to conveyor belts which move it to the shafts for -hoisting. Working conditions and safety are excellent and have led to -high productivity from these mines. - -The potash ore is refined or processed by fractional crystallation or -flotation. These plants remove most of the unwanted sodium chloride and -other gangue minerals to produce high-quality potassium chloride or -sulfate. After processing, the potash salts are stored in giant bins to -await shipment by rail to the major agriculture areas of the United -States. The Carlsbad mines produce some 15 million tons of ore a year -which, when refined, produces 4 million tons of marketable potassium -salts having a K_2O equivalent of 2.5 million tons. - - [Illustration: (_Courtesy International Minerals & Chemical Corp._) - Crunch!... continuous mining machine at work] - -Uranium mining is the newest major industry in New Mexico. The boom -started in 1950 with the discovery of uranium ore west of Grants by a -Navajo sheep rancher named Paddy Martinez. This discovery started one of -the most extensive exploration and development campaigns in all mining -history. By 1957, the area had proved uranium reserves accounting for -more than half of the entire reserve of the nation. These discoveries -will make this country self-sufficient in this vital atomic energy metal -for years to come. Five mills were built that are capable of producing -"yellow cake" (almost pure uranium oxide) from uranium ores containing -as little as 0.20 per cent U_3O_8. Four mills are located in the Grants -area, ranging in capacity from 1500 to 4000 tons a day. The fifth mill, -rated at 500 tons a day, is at Shiprock. - -There are numerous mines, ranging from tiny two-man operations up to -great mines producing more than 1000 tons a day. The most prolific -producing area is the Ambrosia Lake District north of Grants; most of -these mines are underground. Probably the largest single uranium mine, -however, is the open-pit Jackpile-Paguate mine of the Anaconda Company -on the Laguna Indian Reservation some thirty miles east of Grants. The -mine uses electric shovels capable of loading eight cubic yards of ore -at a time into large diesel trucks. - -Copper is produced from the Chino mine located at Santa Rita, about -fifteen miles east of Silver City. This mine, operated by Kennecott -Copper Corporation, is the showpiece of the New Mexico minerals -industry. The copper ore is low grade, containing only sixteen pounds a -ton of the red metal, but the deposit is immense, allowing the mining of -22,500 tons a day. The Chino is by far the largest single mining -operation in the state. A large concentrator and smelter are located at -Hurley, about ten miles southwest of the pit. - -The Chino pit is a spectacular sight for its scenic setting and its -sheer size. The deposit is located below the Kneeling Nun, a famous -natural statue formed by the erosion of a rhyolite flow which caps a -high mesa. The pit covers almost one square mile and is 800 feet deep. -The mining is highly mechanized. Large rotary drills make blast holes -twelve inches in diameter into which explosives are loaded. A single -blast may break 100,000 tons of rock. The ore is loaded with -8-cubic-yard shovels into large trucks carrying from 25 to 65 tons each. -The trucks transport the ore to an inclined skipway on the west end of -the pit. The skip then carries the ore up to the train level where it is -transferred into railroad cars for shipment to the mill. Waste rock, too -low-grade to justify sending to the mill, is transported to the very top -of the skip way, where it is trucked to the dumps. At Chino, much of the -waste rock contains some copper. The amount is small, but a part of it -can be recovered by leaching-percolating water down through the rock to -dissolve the copper. At the bottom of the dumps, the copper-rich water -is collected and sent through precipitating tanks containing scrap iron. -The copper plates out on the iron, forming metallic copper. The -dump-leaching program alone at Chino is a substantial enterprise. - -The concentrator and smelter at Hurley is the facility which reduces the -low-grade ore into pure metal. The concentrator first crushes and grinds -the ore, then recovers the copper-bearing minerals (principally -chalcocite and chalcopyrite) by flotation. The concentrate of these -copper sulfides is taken to the smelter to make metallic copper. - -North and west of the Chino mine are important deposits of zinc and -lead. Two underground mines are now active: the Hanover of the New -Jersey Zinc Company and the Kearney--Pewabic of American--Peru Mining -Company. Although dwarfed by the Chino mine, these are important -producers. - - [Illustration: (_Courtesy The Anaconda Co._) - Man, dig this hole!... Jackpile open-pit uranium mine near Laguna] - - [Illustration: (_Courtesy Kennecott Copper Corp._) - "Just scoop up copper ore, take it to the skipway...." up the side - of the Chino Mine at Santa Rita] - -Copper, potash, and uranium are not the only mining operations of New -Mexico. Perlite is recovered from deposits near No Agua in Taos County -and just north of Grants. Two new gypsum plants are now operating -northeast of Albuquerque, and a cement plant is located east of that -city. High-grade copper veins are worked south of Lordsburg. Coal mining -is being reactivated, with producing mines near Gallup, Fruitland, and -Raton. A new molybdenum mine is under development east of Questa. New -Mexico's mineral industry is on a broad and firm base. - -Mines and derricks are ever-present aspects of New Mexico's landscapes; -they are seen by every citizen of the state and every tourist as he -travels across the plains, valleys, and mountains. The derricks and the -mine openings are merely surface features through which the vast wealth -of the underground is exploited, but they are a monetarily important -part of New Mexico's scenery, rocks, and history. - - - - - Enchanting Landscapes - - - _by_ Frank E. Kottlowski - -The visitor and the native may be well acquainted with the more famous -scenic places in New Mexico. Most of these are National or State Parks -or Monuments--glistening dunes of White Sands, sandstone cliffs of El -Morro, canyons eroded in volcanic rocks of Bandelier, the recent volcano -of Capulin Mountain, multicolored sinkholes at Bottomless Lakes, -grotesque carvings of volcanic rocks at City of Rocks, and the black -tongues of cooled lava in the Valley of Fires State Park near Carrizozo. - -Many of the lesser-known spectacular scenic areas are off the beaten -path, far from the seventy-mile-an-hour Interstate highways. Even a -brief description of all would fill a thick book. But near the most -traveled routes are numerous enchanting landscapes. The traveler from -the midwest or east, driving U.S. Highway 66 (Interstate 40) breaks over -the edge of the "caprock" a few miles east of the New Mexico--Texas -line. Atop the caprock is Llano Estacado, the Staked Plains, a level -surface stretching along the southeast edge of New Mexico eastward into -Texas. As seen south of Tucumcari near Ragland, east of Fort Sumner near -Taiban, or east of Roswell near Kenna and Caprock, the bluffs of the -Llano Estacado are topped by caprock, a cliff of white caliche-limestone -as much as forty feet thick in places. Below, on gentle to steep slopes -reaching northward toward Tucumcari or westward toward Fort Sumner and -Roswell, are the varicolored red, purple, green, and gray shales and -sandstones of Triassic age. Red Lake near Taiban on U.S. Highway 60-84 -lies in the red muds of these Triassic rocks. - -South of Tucumcari, rising boldly from the red-earth lowlands draining -to the Canadian River, are Tucumcari Mountain and Mesa Redonda, and to -the northwest the long buff cliffs of Mesa Rica. The latter mesa lies -north of Interstate 40 as far west as Newkirk. Patches of the white -caprock caliche-limestone cap these eastern New Mexico sentinels, -whereas in other localities, the brown Dakota Sandstone tops the buttes -and is underlain by pink Jurassic sandstones, with the mesa bases made -up of the Triassic redbeds. - -Near Santa Rosa, Interstate 40 dips down into the narrow green valley of -Rio Pecos. Roadcuts lining the steep hills into the city show the red -and brown sandstones and shales of the Triassic beds. - -Driving westward from Santa Rosa, one crosses rolling hills near Clines -Corners, then dips gently down into the northern part of the Estancia -Basin near Moriarty. To the north on the horizon are the snow-capped -peaks of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. From Moriarty, Interstate 40 -pulls slowly upward toward Edgewood into the eastern foothills of the -Sandia Mountains, the grassy plains giving way to juniper and piņon -groves. - -From the downgrade into Tijeras Canyon, State Highway 10 leads north to -San Antonito and the turnoff to Sandia Crest. The crest road winds up -canyon walls, on sloping limestone mesas, up through thick stands of -ponderosa pine, aspen, and, near the top, Engelmann spruce and corkbark -fir. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep may be seen off the road on the high -crags. From Sandia Crest, 10,678 feet above sea level, much of -north-central New Mexico is visible; Mount Taylor to the west, the -Nacimiento and Jemez mountains to the northwest, the mighty Sangre de -Cristo Mountains to the northeast, and countless ranges to the south and -southwest. The city of Albuquerque is spread out at the base of the -Sandias, and the twisting north-south channel of the Rio Grande -stretches, glistening, as far left and right as one can see. - -From Tijeras, Interstate 40 plunges into Tijeras Canyon, slicing through -vertical roadcuts in Pennsylvanian limestones and shales, then through -the ancient Precambrian granite. At the canyons mouth, the road levels -off on the broad alluvial plain on which much of east Albuquerque is -built, although the "downtown" is really down, in the valley of the Rio -Grande. - -Westward, Interstate 40 rolls up out of the valley, crosses windswept -plains spotted with black volcanic cones, in and out of the shallow -brown valley of Rio Puerco, and then to the red-cliff-bordered valley of -Rio San Jose. Cliffs are of brown, buff, and light-gray Jurassic -sandstones, with the valley carved in Triassic redbeds. Near Laguna, on -the north side of the valley, white gypsum of the Todilto Formation -crops out. Then through the pink Jurassic cliffs the canyon winds, and -near New Laguna, the highway is bordered by the varicolored, -uranium-bearing Morrison beds, which are overlain by brown sandstones -and black shales of Cretaceous age. - -But as Interstate 40 approaches Grants, the dominant feature is black -frozen lava. The mesas surrounding Mount Taylor are capped by black -basalt, built up in many layers, each individual flows, and loose blocks -tumble down on the hillsides. Young basalt, twisted and wrinkled as if -it were still hot, winds along the valley; just east of Grants, a huge -"field" of this recent basalt stretches southward beyond the horizon. -And above all looms Mount Taylor, remnant of an ancient volcano, -snow-capped in winter, towering 11,389 feet above sea level. - -At Casa Blanca, southeast of Mount Taylor, State Road 23 leads south to -Acoma Pueblo. Eleven miles to the southwest, Enchanted Mesa, _Katsim_ as -it is called by the Acomas, towers 450 feet above the surrounding valley -floor. This sheer-cliffed rock is built by layers of (from the base to -the top) pink and white Entrada Sandstone, gray Todilto limestone, pink -and green Summerville beds, a massive cliff of light-tan Zuni Sandstone, -and a cap of yellow-brown Dakota Sandstone. - -The top of Enchanted Mesa is inaccessible by normal means. Legend has it -that once the Acomas lived there, and there are Indian ruins up on the -isolated rim. A terrific rain and lightning storm, one summer day, sent -huge waterfalls down the sides of the mesa, tearing away large blocks of -sandstone, and destroyed the trail to the top, a series of narrow zigzag -ledges and toeholds in crevasses. Thus the Acoma Indians moved a few -miles to the southwest to Acoma, onto the top of another sheer cliff, a -rock fortress carved in Zuni Sandstone and capped by Dakota Sandstone. - - [Illustration: Talk about wide open spaces ... around the Enchanted - Mesa] - -Southwest of Grants, the forested Zuni Mountains rise, bordered on the -north by a valley cut in Triassic redbeds and on the east by the recent -black basalt flows. The hurrying traveler will follow Interstate 40 to -Gallup around the north edge of the Zuni dome, flanked on the north by -the spectacular pink, red, brown, and gray cliffs of Jurassic and -Cretaceous sandstones. If one has time, take the low road, State -Highways 53 and 36, around the southern edge of the Zunis. For almost -twenty miles, passing through San Rafael, the paved highway parallels -the west edge of the Grants black basalt flow; then up over low ridges -and past black cinder cones toward El Morro. In the lava tunnels, -perpetual ice stays hidden from the sun; these can be visited at Ice -Caves. - -El Morro, Inscription Rock, with its towering cliffs of Zuni Sandstone, -overlooks peaceful green valleys; farther west, the red and brown -sandstones are carved into many mesas and buttes near Zuni Pueblo. Then -northward to Gallup, swinging around the west edge of the Zuni -Mountains, the roller-coaster highway, State 36, cuts through ponderosa -pine country, bordered by Cretaceous brown sandstones, black shales, and -coal beds. - -Northeast of Gallup eight miles is Kit Carson's Cave, a gaping door on -the face of a massive cliff of Jurassic sandstone. A pool of cool water -lies along its floor. The three-and-a-half-mile drive north of -Interstate 40 is through a vast broken country of sandstone spires, -pyramids, cliffs, and ledges carved in the Jurassic rocks. Near Gallup, -the drab coal-bearing Cretaceous beds form the landscapes, but westward -near the Arizona line, erosion has cut down again to the brilliantly -colored Jurassic rocks, and Interstate 40 is escorted westward into the -Grand Canyon State by cliffs of white and pink sandstone. - -Californians crossing New Mexico in the winter are likely to travel U.S. -Highway 70-80 (Interstate 10) eastward. New Mexico is entered just -before Steins Pass, which is channeled through the tan and green -volcanic rocks of the Peloncillo Mountains. Then down across the mud and -salt marshes of Alkali Flats lying in the Animas Valley and up onto the -north edge of the Pyramid Mountains into Lordsburg. Mine dumps dot the -Pyramids, and the ghost mining town of Shakespeare lies amid the purple -volcanic rocks. - -Eastward from Lordsburg for 118 miles are the Antelope Plains; plains, -plains, plains. Steers graze on the sparse grass, yucca clumps border -the highway, and here and there sand dunes flee before the restless -winds. Mountain ranges, like islands on the sea of grass, yucca, and -creosote bush, rise in the distance. West of Deming, the low Victorio -Mountains lie south of the highway, made up of dolomite, limestone, and -andesite ridges. Southeast of Deming are the lofty Florida Mountains, -their northern toe crossed by Interstate 10. Volcanic hills dot the -landscape east of Las Cruces, Sierra de las Uvas' purple slopes to the -north, and the Potrillo Mountains and Mount Riley to the south. The -latter are part of a spectacular volcanic field where black cinder cones -and basalt flows cover hundreds of square miles, and craters such as -Kilbourne Hole are sunk below the plains. - -The descent into the Rio Grande Valley is awesome, especially if the -late afternoon sun is dancing on the spires and cliffs of the Organ -Mountains to the east. From across the brown plains, Interstate 10 winds -down into the green Mesilla Valley, a different world of cotton and -alfalfa fields, pecan and cottonwood groves, and red-tile-roofed Spanish -homes. The view of the Organ Mountains alone is worth the trip. - -At Las Cruces, a city booming on cotton, rockets, and tourists, -Interstate 10 turns south to parallel the east side of the Rio Grande -Valley down to Texas and El Paso. If one prefers a quiet scenic route, -State Highway 28 winds its way along the west side of the Valley amid -fields and groves, through peaceful villages, to end at the bridge over -the Rio Grande on the edge of El Paso. Here, to the south, is El Cristo -Rey, a cone of massive andesite, flanked by steeply tilted beds of -limestone and shale, Early Cretaceous in age, cut in two by the New -Mexico-Mexico border. Atop the peak is a 29-foot-high, 40-ton, limestone -statue of Christ; a winding path leads upward from the base for those -strong enough of limb to make the climb. Beyond, to the south, Ciudad -Juarez lies, famous for its bordertown flavor, markets, cathedrals, and -bull rings. - -The traveler to the east should stay on U.S. 62-180 from El Paso. This -highway cuts through the Hueco Mountains via Powwow Canyon, a gash -carved from Pennsylvanian and Permian limestones, crosses the Diablo -Plateau, rolls past the white patches of Salt Flat lakes, then winds up -to the summit of Guadalupe Pass between the Delaware Mountains on the -south and the towering Guadalupe Mountains on the north. Looking north -from the Pass, Guadalupe Peak, highest point in Texas, and El Capitan -are unforgettable sights, their steep lower slopes ribbed brown and -green, overshadowed by the 1000-foot limestone cliffs of the peaks. The -limestone-hewn Guadalupe Mountains parallel the highway in New Mexico -and are pitted with many caves, with Carlsbad Caverns the largest known -in the range. Eastward beyond the Pecos Valley stretches the Great -Plains and Texas. - -A side trip, near Carlsbad, over black-topped and gravel roads leads -from Seven Rivers, up Rocky Arroyo on State Road 137, into the northern -foothills of the Guadalupe Mountains to Sitting Bull Falls. Here, cool -spring waters cascade over limestone ledges to join in green pools lying -amid the cottonwood groves of the canyon floor. - -Lake McMillan, a reservoir along the Pecos River north of Carlsbad, and -the many potash mines east of Carlsbad are parts of the enchanting -landscapes of this southeastern corner. Northward, following the green -cotton fields bordering the Pecos River, U.S. Highway 285 leads through -Artesia with its oil refineries to modern booming Roswell, second city -of the state. East of Roswell, bordering the east side of the Pecos -Valley, is Bottomless Lakes, azure blue pools spotted in sink holes. - -Eastward from Roswell, on either U.S. Highway 70 or 380, redbeds of -Permian and Triassic age lie half hidden by pinkish sands up to the edge -of the caprock; beyond are the fertile grazing and crop lands of the -Llano Estacado, with its queen cities of Clovis and Portales. Here, deep -wells pump underground waters to irrigate lush fields that produce -peanuts, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, melons, strawberries, cucumbers, and -grapes. On the plains beyond the reach of the wells, wheat, maize, and -broomcorn are grown. Southeastward, oil derricks dot the plains, -surrounding Hobbs and Lovington. - -Westward from Roswell, U.S. Highways 70 and 380 run together up the -rolling limestone hills west of the Pecos Valley before plunging down -Picacho Hill into the narrow canyon of Rio Hondo. At Hondo they divide. -U.S. Highway 380 leads northwestward through Lincoln town, Billy the -Kid's shooting grounds, into Capitan, over Indian Divide, and down into -sleepy Carrizozo--paralleled by the forested peaks of Capitan Mountains -to the north and overshadowed by mighty Sierra Blanca to the southwest. -U.S. Highway 70 runs up the green canyon of Rio Ruidoso, past Ruidoso -Downs, past State Highway 37 which leads to Ruidoso and the Sierra -Blanca Ski Area, up into the ponderosa pines, crossing the divide at -Apache Summit, then westward and downhill past Mescalero, paralleling -Rio Tularosa. Suddenly the canyon widens, and ahead is the dry Tularosa -Basin with the White Sands glistening in the far distance. - - [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._) - Now this is what is meant by forest.... from Monjeau Lookout] - -From Tularosa to Alamogordo, U.S. Highway 70 is along the west edge of -the Sacramento Mountains wherein tier upon tier of dolomite and -limestone cliffs rise to the high peaks near Cloudcroft. Southwestward -from Alamogordo, the highway cuts diagonally across the Tularosa Basin, -skirting the southern edge of the White Sands, and passing through White -Sands Missile Range. Ahead lie the fabulous spires of the Organ -Mountains; to the right, the notched cliffs of the San Andres Mountains -stretch northward to rounded Salinas Peak and beyond the horizon. -Steeply, the highway rises to cross San Augustin Pass between the Organ -and San Andres mountains, past the village of Organ with its crumbling -mining dumps, before plunging downward onto the southern end of Jornada -del Muerto, and finally, on the east edge of Las Cruces, leaves the -creosote bush plains to dip into the green Mesilla Valley of the Rio -Grande. - -West of Carrizozo, U.S. 380 crosses the black basalt flows of Valley of -Fires State Park, curves over the Carrizozo dome and up the dip slopes -of Chupadera Mesa, crosses in red roadcuts the northern tip of Sierra -Oscura, then westward through sand dunes of the northern Jornada del -Muerto. Coal beds crop out at Cerro Colorado before the highway sweeps -down into the Rio Grande Valley to San Antonio. - -U.S. Highway 60 enters the state from the east on the Staked Plains near -booming Clovis, crosses Rio Pecos Valley at Fort Sumner--near Billy the -Kid's grave--goes straight as a beeline over the plains to Vaughn, then -crosses the low southern end of the Pedernal Hills where tan Permian -sandstones lie abruptly on Precambrian granite, quartzite, and schists. -Near Willard, the highway crosses the southern end of the Estancia -Valley, with the salt lakes of Laguna del Perro mere remnants of the -huge Pleistocene lake that once filled the Valley. West from -Mountainair, Abo redbeds border the highway; limestone walls of Gran -Quivira lie to the south and the red sandstone church ruins of Abo and -Quarai are to the north. Through Abo Pass between the Manzano and Los -Pinos mountains the highway runs, then down the long alluvial fan slopes -to the Rio Grande Valley at Bernardo. From Bernardo to Socorro, U.S. -Highway 60 joins Interstate 25; westward from Socorro, the road climbs -out of the Valley onto Snake Ranch Flats, parallels the snow-tipped -Magdalena Mountains to Magdalena, then crosses the north end of the -grassy San Agustin Plains. Westward to Datil and Quemado, the highway is -always in sight of volcanic mountains, up and down winding canyons, and -across intermontane plains. - -Still westward into Arizona along U.S. Highway 60 are Springerville, -fabulous Salt River Canyon, the mining cities of Globe, Miami, and -Superior, and booming Phoenix. - -Into this west-central New Mexico country of volcanic peaks and grassy -plains comes U.S. Highway 180 from Deming northwestward. Along the -scenic, winding route are City of Rocks, the copper smelter at Hurley, -Santa Rita's huge open-pit copper mine, famous Silver City, colorful -canyons of the Gila and San Francisco rivers, and, crossed by passes or -bordering all routes, the rugged rhyolite, andesite, and basalt ledges -and cliffs. - -From El Paso to Raton Pass, 515 miles, U.S. Highway 85 (Interstate 25) -crosses New Mexico from south to north, from Mexico to Colorado. As far -as La Bajada Hill, between Albuquerque and Santa Fe, the highway -parallels the Rio Grande. Northward from El Paso, past Las Cruces to -Radium Springs and old Fort Selden, the green Mesilla Valley borders the -route; then through Selden Canyon into the Hatch Valley near San Diego -Mountain, and along the west side of the bold cliffs of the Caballo -Mountains, past Caballo Reservoir to Truth or Consequences (old Hot -Springs). Eastward lies Elephant Butte Dam and reservoir; the road cuts -across alluvial plains to the west of the Rio Grande all the way to -Albuquerque, with the mountains to the west the San Mateo, Magdalena, -Socorro, and Ladron and to the east, the Fra Cristobal, Los Pinos, and -Manzano. - -Intersecting Interstate 40 at Albuquerque, the Pan-American Central -Highway, Interstate 25 crosses to the east side of the Rio Grande, the -sheer cliffs of the Sandia Mountains to the east and the distant dark -green Jemez Mountains to the northwest. Crossing Galisteo Creek -northeast of Santo Domingo Pueblo, Interstate 25 turns toward the -northeast, climbs La Bajada Hill, onto the green plains sloping from -Santa Fe. Santa Fe, the ancient capital city, is nestled on the edge of -the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Southeastward and eastward, U.S. Highway -85 (to be Interstate 25 here) rolls, skirting the southern end of the -Sangre de Cristo Mountains, wedged in by the north-facing cliffs of -Glorieta Mesa, through Glorieta Pass, where the Confederates lost the -battle for the Southwest, across the upper reaches of Rio Pecos, and -around to Las Vegas. Then in straight lines across the western edges of -the Great Plains where they lap up onto the Sangre de Cristo ranges, -through Wagon Mound and Springer to Raton. The climb up-canyon to Raton -Pass, through roadcuts of brown sandstone, shale, and coal, leads into -Colorado, with a view of much of southern Colorado from the Pass. - -Many routes lead northward from ancient Santa Fe. U.S. Highway 285 -crosses the high divide near Bishop's Lodge, follows Rio Tesuque to -Pojoaque, crosses the Rio Grande near Espanola amid varicolored badlands -cut in the Santa Fe rocks, then heads northward on the black basalt -plateau toward Colorado. Black Mesa, a volcanic neck, lies south of -Espanola, overlooking the green Rio Grande Valley; atop this height, -Pueblo Indians once defied Spanish guns until they starved. Northward, -near Tres Piedras, the Ortega and Brazos ranges tower to the west, the -perlite-rich hills of No Agua lie to the northeast, and across the -basalt plains cut by the Rio Grande, the lofty, snow-capped Sangre de -Cristo Mountains loom. - -At Pojoaque, State Road 4 leads westward, across Otowi bridge of the Rio -Grande, then winds up into the canyon and mesa country bordering the -Jemez Mountains. Herein lie Bandelier and Los Alamos, one with ancient -abandoned pueblos, the other the atomic city. Farther west, the road -crosses the rim of an ancient volcano into Valle Grande, the crater of -that volcano--some 16 miles across. When this volcano spewed forth hot -ashes about a million years ago, the volcanic dust was wind-blown as far -as Kansas and Nebraska! - -At Espanola, U.S. Highway 84 breaks away to the northwest to follow Rio -Chama in its canyon carved from redbeds near Abiquiu, past the -interesting museum at Ghost Ranch--where bones of Triassic dinosaurs are -collected--Echo Amphitheater, El Vado Lake, through Chama, and on up -into the San Juan Mountains country of southern Colorado. - -Near Espanola, U.S. Highway 64 splits off to the northeast; this is the -high road of north-central New Mexico. Paralleling the canyon of the Rio -Grande to Pilar, the highway climbs up onto the Taos plateau to Taos, -turns eastward to cut through the Sangre de Cristo Mountains over Palo -Flechado Pass, down into the grassy Moreno Valley to Eagle Nest and -Eagle Nest Lake, then eastward again following the narrow canyon of the -Cimarron River to Cimarron and Raton. A loop trip northward from Eagle -Nest on State 38 goes through ghost town Elizabethtown, over Red River -Pass, and down the varicolored canyon of Red River to Questa, before -turning southward toward Taos. - - [Illustration: (_U.S. Park Service_) - Subdivision living, pueblo style--at Aztec National Monument] - -And there is the northwest, the Four Corners region, land of Navajos and -gas wells, presided over by magnificent Shiprock. State Highway 44 -leaves Interstate 25 at Bernalillo, follows Rio Salado to San Ysidro, -which nestles at the south tip of the Nacimiento Mountains below White -Mesa, thence northwestward past Cabezon Peak and coaly La Ventana to -Cuba in the valley of Rio Puerco. Then, up and down, the winding highway -cuts transversely across the San Juan Basin, through pine groves at the -Continental Divide, past the side road to Chaco Canyon National Monument -at Blanco Trading Post, and among the multicolored Tertiary beds carved -into badlands. At Bloomfield, oil and gas wells lie all about, and the -mesa-and-canyon country gives way to the valley of the San Juan River. -At Aztec, State Road 44 joins U.S. Highway 550 in the narrow valley of -the Animas River--a clear cold stream sent rushing down from the icy -lakes of the San Juan Mountains to the north. Eastward a few miles lies -Navajo Lake along the San Juan River; northward, U. S. 550 winds up the -Animas Valley toward Durango, high Silverton, and Mesa Verde National -Park. Aztec Ruins National Monument is just to the northwest of Aztec. - -Westward from Aztec, U.S. Highway 550 follows the Animas River to its -junction with the San Juan River, then past the huge Navajo coal mine, a -long open cut near Fruitland, to junction with U.S. Highway 666 at -Shiprock. - -Shiprock! A buttressed needle, towering 1450 vertical feet above -Navajo-land, with walls of black igneous rock radiating from its feet -like spokes on a wheel. This dark-colored spire once filled the throat -of a volcano. Where are piles of rocks, hundreds of feet thick, that -once surrounded it? Down the river they went, down the San Juan to the -Colorado River, and thence to the ocean. - -To the west, as a background, are the forested Carrizo, Lukachukai, and -Chuska mountains. Off to the east lies Hogback Mountain, an upturned -ridge of sedimentary rocks producing oil--the petroleum geologist's -favorite haunt, an anticline. - -Southward from Shiprock, U.S. 666 passes other volcanic necks such as -Bennett Peak and Ford Butte. North of Gallup, State Road 68 leads -westward to Window Rock (Arizona), the Indian Headquarters of the Navajo -Reservation. Near Gallup, coal beds of Late Cretaceous age crop out, -Gamerco once being a booming coal-mining town. Now huge dragline shovels -scoop out the coal from open pits to the northwest of Gallup. And at -Gallup, the Indian Capital, a loop drive around the San Juan Basin is -completed; Interstate 40, old U.S. Highway 66, goes eastward to -Albuquerque, St. Louis, and Chicago, and westward to Grand Canyon, Los -Angeles, and the blue Pacific. - -Many other scenic places dot the Land of Enchantment; local hosts, -rancher or city dweller, know of these. Mountain meadows, rushing -streams, rocky peaks, desert valleys, badlands, grassy plains, thick -forests, spectacular chasms, needle rocks, and brilliant colors--they -are all here in New Mexico. - - - - - Footnotes - - -[1]New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. - -[2]National Park Service. - -[3]Forest Service, Southwestern Region, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. - -[4]Information on monuments and parks developed since this publication - was first printed may be obtained from The New Mexico State Park and - Recreation Commission, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501. - -[5]New Mexico Department of Game and Fish. - -[6]K_2O is the common unit used in pricing and assaying potassium salts. - However, the potash is sold as purified potassium chloride or - sulfate. - - - _Composition_: Linotype Fairfield - Text--10/11 - Index--8/9 (reduced to 6/7) - Display heads--18 pt. Bulmer italic - _Presswork_: 38" Miehle Single Color Offset - 29" Harris Single Color Offset - _Binding_: Smyth sewn and glued - _Paper_: Text--70# white matte - Cover--12 pt. Kivar - - - - - _Index_ - - - A - Abiquiu, 145, 162 - Abo, 104; - church, 161; - Pass, 161; - Pueblo, 107; - Redbeds, 44, 104, 161; - State Monument, 105 - Acevedo, Fray Francisco de, 105 - Acoma, 51; - Indian, 157; - Pueblo, 89, 120, 122, 156 - agave, 17, 20, 21 - agriculture, 4, 12, 19, 53, 54, 58, 61, 62, 122, 124, 125, 131, - 132, 150 - Agua Chiquita, 99 - Aguas Calientes, 123 - Alamo Canyon, 85 - Alamogordo, 36, 45, 78, 99, 141, 143, 159, 160; - Creek, 112; - Lake State Park, 104, 112; - Reservoir, 112 - Albuquerque, 8, 13, 37, 40, 42, 43, 44-45, 49, 57, 70, 73, 92, 98, - 106, 132, 134, 136, 138, 154, 156, 161, 162, 164 - alfalfa, 158 - algae, 45 - Alkali Flats, 158 - alluvial fan, 18, 50, 140, 156, 161 - Alma, 101 - Alpine [Zone], 22, 26, 28 - Ambrosia Lake District, 151 - American Gypsum Company, 49 - ammonites, 51 - amphibians, 41, 45, 48, 49 - Anasazi, 60, 61, 62; - Basketmakers, 59; - Indians, 60, 86 - andesite, 39, 158, 161 - anhydrite, 47, 48, 49 - Animas - Formation, 35, 50 - Mountains, 29 - River, 163, 164 - Valley, 158, 164 - antelope, 28, 29, 95, 98, 101 - Apache, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 54, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71, - 74, 89, 90, 105, 122, 132, 139, 140, 141, 143 (_see also_ - under tribal names); - Canyon, 13, 92; - Creek, 101; - National Forest, 101, 103; - plume, 18; - Reservation, map 56; - Summit, 159; - Tejo, 72 - Aragon, 74 - aragonite, 78 - archeological sites, map 56 - Arctic-alpine Zone, 22 (_see also_ Alpine) - Arkansas River, 114, 136 - Army of the West, 19, 64 - Arroyo Hondo, 95 - Arroyo Penasco Formation, 42 - artemisia, 18 - Artesia, 46, 146, 148, 159; - Group, 46 - aspen, 17, 97, 100, 107, 109, illus. 121, 156 - Athapascan, 5, 62, 132, 133 - _atlatl_, 58, 60 - Avalon Reservoir, 118 - Aztec, 82, 109, 138, 163, 164; - Ruins National Monument, 75, 82, 84, illus. 163, 164 - - - B - Baca Formation, 36 - badger, 31 - bajada, 18 - Bandelier National Monument, illus. 25, 37, 62, 75, 84-85, illus. - 85, 122, 136, 155, 162 - bandtail pigeon (_see_ doves) - barite, 53 - Barella Mesa, 81 - basalt, 37, 38, 111, 112, 131, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162 - basin, 35, 41, 45, 49, 79, 89, 96, 141 (_see also_ under proper - names: Delaware, Galisteo, Gallina, Great, Largo, - Orogrande, Paradox, San Juan, Tularosa) - bass, 111, 112, 115, 117 - bats, 78 - Battle of Val Verde, 13, 68, 70, 73, 92 - Battleship Rock, 98 - Baylor, Col. J. B., 72 - beans, 58, 84, 86 - bear, 28, 98, 100, 101; - state mammal, 28 - beargrass, 20 - beaver, 31, 95, 114 - Beaverhead, 101 - Beaver National Forest, 95 - belemnoids, 51 - Benavides, Fray Alonso de, 89 - _Ben Hur_, 105 - Bennett Peak, 164 - Bent, Governor Charles, 129; - Bent's Fort, 129 - Bernal Formation, 47 - Bernalillo, 106, 134, 163 - Bernardo, 134, 161 - beryl, 40, 53 - Bidahochi Formation, 38 - Big Dog Canyon, 99 - Big Hatchet Mountains, 26 - Billy the Kid, 14, 24, 70, 107, 159, 161 - bioherm, 42, 45 - biotite, 40 - birds, 29-31, 36, 49, 51, 95, 98 - Bishop's Lodge, 162 - bison, 55, 58, 62 - black "gold," 43 - Black - Mesa, 127, 162 - Range, 14, 42, 101, 144 - River Valley, 78 - Blackwater Draw, 55, 111 - Blanco Basin Formation, 36 - Blanco Trading Post, 163 - Bliss Sandstone, 40, 41 - Bloomfield, 148, 163 - bluebird, 31 - blue spruce, 22, 141 - Bluewater Lake, 104, 110; - State Park, 110 - bobcat, 30, 31, 95 - Bone Spring Formation, 46 - Bonito Creek, 99 - Bosque Redondo, 74, 110 - Bottomless Lakes, 104, illus. 108, 159; - State Park, 108, 155 - Botts, Judge C. M., 26 - brachiopods, 40, 41, 42, illus. 42 - Brachiosaurus, 49 - Brazos Mountains, 35, 38, 40, 162 - Brazos River Valley, 111 - bream, 115 - broomcorn, 159 - bryozoans, 41, 42, illus. 45 - buffalo, 31, 54, 55, 62, 98, 136, 137, 138 - Buffalo Dance, 124 - Bug Scuffle Hill, 99 - Burro Mountains, 20, 40 - Butterfield Trail, 70, 71 - - - C - Caballo - Lake State Park, 104, 112 - Mountains, 38, 40, 112, 161 - Reservoir, 112, 117, 161 - Cabeza de Vaca, 6 - Cabezon Peak, 37, 51, 163 - cacti, 17, 18, 19, 20, 33 - calcite, 42, 46, 47, 78 - caldera, 37, 75, 85, 86 - California Column, 73-74 - camels, 55, 57 - Cambrian, 40; - rocks, 40 - Camino Real (_see_ Royal Road) - Canadian River, 31, 74, 108, 109, 111, 136, 137, 155 - Canadian Zone, 22 - Canby, Col. E. R. S., 13, 73, 92 - Canjilon, 95 - Canyon de Chelly, 110 - Capillo Peak, 98 - Capitan, 36, 69, 99, 100, 159; - limestone, 47, 77; - Mountains, 99, 159; - Pass, 99; - Reef, 45, 46, 47 - caprock, 38, 155, 159 - Caprock [N. Mex.], 155 - Capulín Mountain, 37, 75; - National Monument, illus. 80, 81-82, 155 - Capulin Peak, 97 - carbon dioxide, 53, 146 - Carlsbad, 38, 45, 46, 48, 53, 148, 149, 150, 159; - reef limestones, 47 - Carlsbad Caverns, 46, 51, 141, 159; - National Park, 75, 76-78, illus. 77 - Carleton, Gen. J. H., 73, 74 - carnallite, 48 - carp, 115 - Carrizo Mountains, 164 - Carrizozo, 36, 37, 38, 45, 104, 111, 138, 155, 159, 161; - dome, 161 - Carson, Kit, 13, 70, 94, 110 (_see also_ under Kit) - Carson National Forest, 93-95, 96, 97 - Casa Blanca, 156 - Casa Grande [Ariz.], 126 - Castile Anhydrite, 47; - gypsum sample, illus. 47 - catfish, 111, 114, 115, 117 - Catron County, 134, 135 - cattle, 12, 14, 15, 23, 24, 31, 53, 75, 89, 93, 99, 140, 141 - cedar, 20, 21 - cement, 53, 154 - Cenozoic Era, 33-38, 51; - rocks, 51 - centipede, 31 - century plant, 20 - cephalopods, 41, 51 - Cerro - Blanco, 98 - Colorado, 161 - Pedernal, 97 - Chaco Canyon, 5, 60, 75, 82, 84, 138; - National Monument, 61, 82, illus. 83, 163 - chalcocite, 151 - chalcopyrite, 151 - Chama, 95, 162; - River, 95, 110 - Charette Lakes, 118 - chert, 43 - Chihuahua [Mexico], 7, 9, 11, 132, 139 - Chihuahua desert, 16 - Chimayó, 136 - Chinle Formation, 48, 49, 111, 112 - Chino mine, 151, illus. 153 - Chiricahua Apache, 6, 133 - Chivington, Col. John M., 13 - chollas, 17, 19 - Chupadera Mesa, 161 - Chuska - Formation, 38 - Mountains, 164 - Cibola National Forest, 98-99 - Cieneguilla Creek, 112 - Cimarron, 163; - River, 163 - Ciniza, 148 - "cities that died of fear," 139 - City of Rocks State Park, 104, 110, 155, 161 - Civil War, 12, 13, 64, 71, 72-74, 92, 105, 107, 137 - clams, 36, 41, 51 - clay, 35, 38, 41, 43, 44, 45, 49, 53, 54 - Clayton, 37, 112; - Lake State Park, 104, 112 - Cliff, 72, 74 - Clines Corners, 40, 49, 134, 155 - Cloudcroft, 100, 160 - Clovis, 55, 104, 159, 161; - Man, 104; - points, 55, 57 - coal, 23, 36, 43, 50, 51, 53, 69, 138, 146, 154, 157, 158, 161, - 162, 164 - Cochise Culture, 58, 59, 63 - Cochiti, Caņada de, 122; - Pueblo, 122-123 - Coconino Sandstone, 46 - Colorado - River, 3, 90, 138, 143, 164 - state line, 112 - Volunteers, 13, 92, 137 - columbite-tantalite, 40 - Columbus [N. Mex.], 30, 104, 109 - Comanche, 12, 63, 65, 90, 105, 139 - Conchas - Dam, 104, 108, 109 - Lake State Park, 108-109 - Reservoir, 31, 118 - Confederate, 12, 13, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 92, 105, 107, - 137, 162; - campaign, map 73 - conglomerate, 49, 50 - conifers, 44 - _conquistadore_, 10, 54, 89, 92, 99, 106, 120, 127, 135 - Continental Divide, 20, 61, 99, 163 - continuous miner, 150, illus. 150 - cony, 31 - Cooke's Canyon; Spring, 71 - copper, 51, 53, 143, 144, 146, 148, 151, 153, 154, 161 - corals, 41, 42, illus. 45 - corn, 4, 58, 62, 84, 86, 122 - Corn Dance, 124, 132 - Coronado (Francisco Vasquez de), 6, 7, 54, 62, 106, 120, 123, 126, - 132 - Coronado - National Forest, 101, 103 - State Monument, 104, 106 - cotton, 84, 158, 159 - cottonwood, illus. 25, 158, 159 - coyote, 19, 26, 30, 79, 95 - Coyote [N. Mex.], 98 - Coyote Creek, 90 - crane, 30 - crappies, 110, 111, 112, 115, 117 - creosote bush, 17, 19, 20, 26, 28, 71, 158, 161 - Cretaceous, 50, 112, 146, 156, 158, 164; - beds, 49, 158; - Period, 49, 51; - sandstone, 157; - seas, 51; - time, 49, 50 - crinoid, 42, illus. 42 - crocodiles, 36 - Crown Dance, 133 - Cuba [N. Mex.], 35, 36, 98, 163 - Cub Mountain Formation, 36 - cucumbers, 159 - Culiacan [Mexico], 6 - Culture - Archaic, 58; - Cochise, 58; - Desert, 58; - Pueblo, 59, 60 - - - D - Dakota Sandstone, 50, 112, 155, 156, 157 - Datil, 161; - Formation, 36; - Mountains, 98, 99 - Datil-Mogollon plateau, 36 - Dead Man's Peak, 97 - deer, 26, 28, 29, 31, 100, 101; - desert mule, 26, 100; - mule, 28, 29, 31; - Rocky Mountain mule, 26, 95, 98, 100; - Sonoran fantail, 26; - whitetail, 26, 98, 100 - de la Llana, Fray Geronimo, 105 - Delaware - basin, 43, 45, 46, 47 - Mountains, 159 - Deming, 49, 71, 104, 110, 112, 135, 158, 161 - de Niza, Fray Marcos, 132 - de Vargas, don Diego, 8, 90, 120, 122, 124, 127, 128, 129 - Devonian, 42; - rocks, 41; - seas, 42; - time, 41 - Dewey Lake Redbeds, 47, 48 - Diablo - Mountains, 75 - Plateau, 159 - dinosaur, 48, 49, 51, illus. 52, 162 - Dixon, 40 - Dockum Group, 48, 109 - dolomite, 41, 46, 48, 158, 159 - Doņa Ana, 70; - County, 30; - Historical Society, 71 - Doniphan, Col. Alexander W., 64 - doves, 28, 29, 95, 98 - dragonflies, 44 - ducks, 30, 95, 98, 118 - - - E - eagle, 31 - Eagle Creek, 99 - Nest, 162, 163; - Lake, 163 - Early Hunters, 55, 58 - earthquake, 37 - Echo Amphitheater, 95, illus. 96, 162 - Edgewood, 155 - eel, 114 - El Capitan, 159 - El Cristo Rey, 158 - Elephant Butte, 112, 134; - Dam, 38, 111, 161; - Lake State Park, 104, 111, 112; - Reservoir, 36, 111, 117, illus. 117 - elephants, 54, 55 - Elizabethtown, 163 - elk, illus. 23, 26, 28, 29, 95, 98, 101 - elkhorn (cacti), 19 - elm, 51 - El Morro, 49, 51, 75, 89, 157; - National Monument, 89-90, illus. 91, 155 - El Palacio [State Monument], 104-105 - (_see also_ Palace of the Governors) - El Paso [Tex.], 13, 16, 20, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, 49, 70, 72, - 112, 123, 134, 135, 143, 158, 161 - El Paso del Norte, 7, 8, 89, 90, 105, 123 - El Paso Limestone, 41 - El Ranchito, 128 - El Rito, 95; - de los Frijoles, illus. 25; - Formation, 36 - El Vado Dam, 110 - Lake, 104, 110, 118, 162; - State Park, 110 - Reservoir, 118 - Emory, Lieutenant, 19 - Enchanted Mesa, 51, 156, illus. 157 - Engelmann spruce, 22, 156 - Entrada Sandstone, 49, 156 - Escabrosa Limestone, 42 - Espanola, 38, 98, 112, 136, 162 - Espejo Expedition, 89 - Espinaso beds, 36 - Estancia, 38; - Basin, 98, 105, 155, 161 - Eunice, 146 - eurypterids, 41 - - - F - Farmington, 43, 50, 95, 134, 138, 146, 148 - feldspar, 39, 40, 45 - ferns, 42, 43 - fig trees, 36 - finch, 31 - fir, 16, 17; - corkbark, 156; - Douglas, 108 - fish, 36, 41, 49, 53, 75, 101, 104, 113-118, illus. 113 - Fishers Peak, 81 - flint, 54 - Florida Mountains, 26, 112, 158 - Folsom, 55, 57; - Man, 55; - State Monument, 104; - points, 55, 57, illus. 57 - foraminifers, 51 - Ford Butte, 164 - fort, 9, 12, 13, 64-74, map 69, 90, 92, 107, 143 - Fort (_see also individual listing_) - Bascom, 74 - Defiance [Ariz.], 90 - Floyd, 72 - Lowell, 74 - Lyon, 67 - McLane, 72 - McRae, 74 - Thorn, 72 - Tularosa, 74 - Webster, 72 - West, 74 - Fort Bayard, 71-72, 74; - Reservation, 20, 24 - Fort Bliss [Texas], 68, 70, 72, 73, 74 - Fort Conrad, 67, 72 - Fort Craig, 67-69, illus. 68, 72, 73, 90 - Fort Cummings, 71, 74 - Fort Fauntleroy, 66-67, 72 - Fort Fillmore, 72, 143 - Fort Marcy, 66, 72, 90 - Fort Selden, 70-71, 74, 104, 107, 143, 161; - State Monument, 104, 107 - Fort Stanton, 68, 69-70, 72, 74 - Fort Sumner, 74, 111, 112, 155, 161 - Fort Union, 13, 64-66, illus. 65, 72, 73, 75, 92; - National Monument, 66, 90, 92 - Fort Wingate, 66-67, 74; - Ordnance Depot, 67 - fossil, 41, illus. 42, 43, illus. 45, 48, 49, 55, 98; - fish, 41; - hash, 42, 46; - reefs, 42 - Four Corners, 3, 4, 41, 43, 59, 133, 138, 163 - fox, 79, 95 - Fra Cristobal Mountains, 38, 162 - Franciscan, 8, 89, 105, 106, 126; - missionaries, 86, 89, 105; - Order, 7, 106 - Franklin (_see_ El Paso, Texas) - Frijoles Canyon, 5, 84, illus. 85, 136 - Fruitland, 138, 154, 164; - Formation, 50 - Fusselman Dolomite, 41 - fusulinids, 44, illus. 45 - - - G - Gadsden Purchase, 107 - gas, 43, 53, 95, 138, 146-148, 163 - Galisteo Basin, 36, 62 - Creek, 162 - Formation, 36 - Gallina basin, 61 - Gallinas Mountains, 99 - Peak, 98 - Gallup, 12, 49, 50, 66, 99, 133, 134, 138, 147, 154, 157, 158, 164 - Gamerco, 164 - geese, 30, 95, 98, 118 - gem stones, 53 - geologic history, 33-53 - time table, 34, 39, 50 - Geronimo, 14, 70, 74, 143 - Ghost Ranch, 162; - Mountain, illus. 145; - Museum, 95 - ghost towns, 53, 95, 141, 158, 163 - Gila - Apache, 6 - Cliff Dwellings (National Monument), 75, 86, illus. 87, 101 - Conglomerate, 38, 86 - National Forest, 101 - River, 4, 6, 72, 74, 114, 143, 161 - Wilderness (Area), 75, 86, 101, 144 - Giusewa Pueblo, 106, 107 - glacier, 38, 55, 57 - glauconite, 40 - Glenwood, 101 - Glorieta, 73, 97; - Mesa, 46, 162; - Pass, 13, 46, 92, 137, 162; - Sandstone, 46 - gneiss, 39, 40 - goats, 89 - Goat Seep Reef, 45, 46 - Gobernador, 95 - gold, 6, 7, 13, 14, 53, 72, 104, 146 - graben, 37, 38, 79 - grama grass, 17, 18, 20 - Gran Chaco, 4, 5 - granite, 39, 40, 43, 156, 161 - Gran Quivira, 75, 161; - National Monument, 86, illus. 88, 89 - Grants, 37, 38, 40, 43, 48, 49, 53, 89, 99, 138, 148, 150, 151, - 153, 156, 157 - grapes, 89, 159 - gravel, 35, 36, 38, 50, 53 - greasewood, 19 - Great - Barrier Reef, 46, 141 - Basin, 58 - Kiva, 84 - Lakes, 55, 57 - Plains, 6, 16, 17, 136, 159, 162 - greenstone, 40 - grouse, 95, 98 - Guadalupe - Mountains, 26, 46, 77, 99, 141, illus. 142, 143, 159 - Pass, 159 - Peak, 159 - River, 124 - Gulf of California, 90, 143 - gypsum, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 53, 79, 146, 153, 156; - --anhydrite, 47; - dunes, 31, 32, 38, illus. 39, 75, 78 - - - H - halite, 45, 48 - Hall of Giants, illus. 77 - Hanover mine, 151 - Harding pegmatite, 40 - Hatch, 72, 142; - Valley, 161 - hawk, 31, 79 - hay, 122 - helictites, 76, 78 - heliograph station, 70 - helium, 53, 146 - Helms Formation, 43 - hematite, 40, 45 - Herrera, Cristobal de, 130 - Hidalgo County, 29, 30 - High Plains, 31, 37, 38, 50, 54, 55, 109, 110, 133, 138, 140 - Hillsboro, 14, 144 - Hobbs, 134, 142, 146, 159 - Hogback Mountain, 164 - Hohokam people, 4, 59 - Holloman Air Force Base, 143 - Hondo, 159 - Hopewell Lake, 118 - horse, 6, 9, 13, 23, 55, 57, 89, 93, 115, 129 - Hopi, 126 - Hot Springs [N. Mex.] (_see_ Truth or Consequences) - Hueco - Limestone, 44 - Mountains, 158 - hummingbirds, 28 - Hunters and Gatherers, 58 - Hurley, 72, 151, 161 - Hyde Memorial State Park, 104, 109 - - - I - Ice Caves, 157 - Immaculate Conception (church), 105 - Indian, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 21, 53, 54-63, 64, - 66, 67, 68, 72, 74, 84, 86, 89, 90, 95, 99, 101, 104, 105, - 106, 110, 113, 116, 120-133, 135, 136, 138, 140, 141, 143, - 164; - Divide, 159; - pueblo, 4, 5, map 56, 86, 89, 120-133, 136; - reservations, map 56 - Inscription Rock (_see_ El Morro) - Interstate Highway - 10: 158 - 25: 107, 161, 162, 163 - 40: 48, 155, 156, 157, 162, 164 - Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial, 133, 138 - iron, 53, 78 - Isleta - del Sur, 105, 123 - Pueblo, 8, 11, 123 - San Agustin de, 123 - San Antonio de, 123 - - - J - Jackpile-Paguate mine, 151, illus. 152 - javelina, 26, 28, 101 - jay, 31 - Jemez, 106; - Division, 97, 98; - Indians, 107; - Mission, 104, - San Diego de, 123, - San Jose de los, 124, - San Juan de Los, 124; - Mountains, 37, 38, 97, 121, 128, 129, 136, 156, 162; - Pueblo, 106, 123-124; - River, 123, 124, 128, 131; - Springs, 98, 106, 107; - State Monument, 106-107, 123, 124 - Jicarilla - Apache, 6, 74, 132, 133 - Division, 95 - Indian Reservation, 95, 138 - Johnson Mesa, 81 - Jornada del Muerto, 16, 36, 139, 140, 142, 160-161 - Joshua tree, 20 - Juárez [Mexico], 7, 123, 158 - juniper, 20, 21, 23, 135, 141, 155 - Jurassic - rocks, 158 - sandstones, 155, 156, 157 - time, 49 - - - K - Kaiser Gypsum Company, 49 - Kaiser Steel Corporation, 51 - kangaroo rats, 32 - Kearny, Gen. Stephen W., 64, 90 - Kelly, 141 - Kenna, 155 - Kennecott Copper Company, 143, 151 - Keres, 124 - Kern, R. H., 90 - Kilbourne Hole, 158 - Kingston, 14, 144 - Kiowas, 65 - Kirtland Shale, 50 - Kit Carson Memorial State Park, 104, 110 - (_see also_ under Carson) - Kit Carson's Cave, 157 - kiva, 59, 84, 106 - Kneeling Nun, 151 - Koehler, 51 - Kuaua, 106 - - - L - La Bajada Hill, 36, 161, 162 - Ladron Mountains, 38, 140, 162 - Laguna, 48, 152, 156; - del Perro, 161; - Indians, 124; - Mission, San Jose de, 125; - Santa Maria, illus. 124; - Pueblo, 124-125; - Reservation, 124, 151 - Lagunitas, 95 - Lakes and/or Reservoirs (_see_ individual entries: Alamogordo, - Avalon, Bluewater, Bottomless, Caballo, Charette, Clayton, - Conchas, Eagle Nest, Elephant Butte, El Vado, Hopewell, - Lea, Lost, Lucero, McGaffey, McMillan, Miami, Morphy, - Navajo, Red, Roberts, San Gregorio, Stewart, Storrie, - Truchas, Ute) - Lake Lucero, 38, 79 - Lake Roberts, illus. 103, 118 - Lake Valley Limestone, 42 - La Madera, 95 - La Mesilla State Monument, 104, 107 - lanceolate points, 55 - langbeinite, 48, 149 - Laramide revolution, 33, 50 - Largo basin, 61 - Las Cruces, 12, 70, 72, 107, 112, 134, 135, 142, 158, 161 - Las Trampas, 95, 136 - Las Vegas [N. Mex.], 13, 50, 64, 90, 92, 97, 110, 112, 137, 162 - lava, 31, 32, 36, 37, 51, 79, 81, 99, 100, 104, 111, 155, 156 - La Ventana, 163 - lead, 53, 146, 148, 151 - Lea Lake, 108 - Leasburg, 70 - Ledoux [N. Mex.], 112 - lepidolite mica, 40 - Letrado, Father Francisco, 89 - limestone, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 51, 53, 77, 78, 155, 156, - 158, 159, 160, 161 - Lincoln, 70, 107, 159; - County Courthouse, 104, 107; - County War, 14, 104, 107; - National Forest, 99-100; - State Monument, 107 - Lipan Apache, 6, 132, 133 - Little Black Peak, 111 - Little Colorado River, 61 - Little Florida Mountains, 112 - livestock, 19, 23, 98, 100, 103, 141 - lizard, 31, 79 - Llano Estacado (_see_ Staked Plains) - Logan, 111 - Lookout Mountain, 100 - Lordsburg, 38, 49, 101, 154, 158 - Los Alamos, 37, 162 - Los Lunas, 134 - Los Pinos Mountains, 38, 162 - Lost Lake, 96 - Lovington, 146, 159 - Lukachukai Mountains, 164 - Luna County, 30, 71 - Luxán, Diego Pérez de, 89 - - - M - MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 70-71, 107 - McDermott Formation, 50 - McGaffey Lake, 99 - McMillan Reservoir, 117, 159 - McRae Formation, 36, 112 - Magdalena, 14, 99, 101, 141, 161-162; - Mountains, 38, 98, 99, 140, 161 - magma, 36, 40 - magnesium compounds, 53, 146 - magnolia trees, 36 - magpie, 31 - maguey, 21 - maize, 159 - Maldonado, Fray Lucas, 120 - malpais, 31, 100, 111 - mammals, 26-32, 36, 49, 51, 57, 58, 95, 98, 114; - prehistoric, 49, 51, 55 - mammoth, 55, 57 - manganese, 53 - Mancos Shale, 50 - mano, illus. 59 - Manzano, 99; - Mountains, 37, 38, 51, 98, 105, 138, 139, 161, 162; - Peak, 98 - maple, 51 - marten, 95 - Martinez, Julian and Maria, 127 - Martinez, Paddy, 150 - Martinez, Padre José, 110 - mastodon, 55 - Mayhill, 100 - melons, 122, 159 - Mesa - Redonda, 155 - Rica, 155 - Verde [Colo.], 4, 5, 60, 84; - National Park, 164 - Mesaverde Group, 50 - mescal, 20, 21 - Mescalero, 159; - Apache, 6, 21, 69, 70, 74, 132; - Indian Reservation, 99, 133, 134, 143 - Mesilla, 72, 107; - Valley, 158, 161 - Mesozoic - Era, 48-51 - rocks, 33, 51 - seas, 33 - mesquite, 17, 19, 20, 71 - metate, illus. 59 - Mexican, 140, 141; - Colonial, 104, 107; - War, 12, 64 - Mexico, 6, 7, 10, 12, 30, 31, 64, 67, 89, 90, 132, 137, 138, 139, - 144, 148, 158, 161; - City, 6, 9 - Miami Lake, 118 - mica, 40, 53; - schist, illus. 40 - mice, 31, 79 - microcline, 40 - Miles, General, 14 - Mimbreno Apache, 74 - Mimbres, 101, 144; - culture, 20, 143; - River, 4, 72, 143 - minerals, 40, 53, 146 ff. - mink, 95 - mining, 12, 14, 15, 23, 53, 72, 95, 99, 101, 125, 141, 143, 144, - 146, 148-154, 160, 161 - mission(s), 8, 9, 86, 89, 126; - churches, 8, illus. 11, 86, 105, 106, 107, illus. 119, 122, - 123, 127; - ruins, 104 - Mississippian - rocks, 42 - seas, 43 - time, 43 - Mockingbird Gap, 41 - Moenkopi Formation, 48 - Mogollon, 141; - Apache, 74; - culture, 4, 59, 86; - Mountains, 14, 22, 75, 86; - people, 3, 59, 60, 86 - mollusks, 51 - molybdenum, 53, 154 - Monjeau Lookout, 99, illus. 160 - Montoya Dolomite, 41 - Monument, 146, 148 - Mora County, 112 - Moreno Valley, 162 - Moriarty, 155 - Morphy Lake, 112; - State Park, 104, 112 - Morrison Formation, 49 - Mosca Peak, 98 - Mountainair, 86, 99, 105, 161 - mountain lion, 30, 31, 95 - mountain mahogany, 20 - mountains (_see_ under proper name: Animas, Big Hatchet, Black - Range, Brazos, Burro, Caballo, Capitan, Carrizo, Chuska, - Datil, Delaware, Diablo, Florida, Fra Cristobal, Gallinas, - Guadalupe, Hueco, Jemez, Ladron, Little Florida, Los - Pinos, Lukachukai, Magdalena, Manzano, Mogollon, - Nacimiento, Organ, Ortega, Pedernal Hills, Peloncillo, - Potrillo, Pyramid, Rocky, Sacramento, San Andres, Sandia, - Sangre de Cristo, San Juan, San Mateo, Taos, Victorio, - Zuní) - Mount - Baldy, 99 - Riley, 158 - Robledo, 70 - Taylor, 37, 51, 98, 156 - Withington, 99 - Mule Peak, 99 - museum, 104, 105 - muskrat, 95 - - - N - Nacimiento - Formation, 35, 36 - Mountains, 35, 42, 156, 163 - Peak, 97 - Nambé, 128; - mission, 125; - Pueblo, 125 - Nana, 70, 74 - Natage Apache, 6, 132, 133 - National Forests, 16, 24, 75, 93-103, map 94 (_see also_ under - proper names: Apache, Beaver, Carson, Cibola, Coronado, - Gila, Lincoln, Santa Fe) - National Monuments, 75-92, 138, 155 (_see also_ under proper - names: Aztec Ruins, Bandelier, Carlsbad Caverns (Park), - Capulin Mountain, Chaco Canyon, El Morro, Fort Union, Gila - Cliff Dwellings, Gran Quivira, Pecos, Valle Grande, White - Sands) - National Park System, 75, 76, 82, 85, 86, 92; - Service, 76, 81 - Navajo, 6, 12, 15, 54, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 71, 74, 110, 123, 126, - 132, 133, 163, 164; - Dam, 109, 138; - Indian Reservation, map 56, 133, 138, 164; - Lake, 163; - State Park, 109; - Reservoir, 118 - Neogene - Period, 37 - time, 39 - Newkirk, 155 - New Mexico Department of Public Welfare, 70 - New Mexico Volunteers, 13 - niobium, 50 - Niobrara limestone, 50 - No Agua, 153, 162 - - - O - oak, 20, 23, 36, 51, 100 - Oasis State Park, 104, 111 - obsidian, 54 - Ochoan - rocks, 47 - Series, 47 - ocotillo, 17, 18, 20, 26 - Ogallala Formation, 38 - oil, 43, 45, 46, 53, 95, 138, 141, 146-148, 159, 163, 164; - fields, 146; - pumps, illus. 149; - refinery, illus. 147, 159; - secondary recovery, 148 - Ojo Caliente, 74 - Ojo del Oso (Bear Springs), 66, 67 - Oņate (Don Juan), 7, 8, 90, 99, 120, 122, 126, 127, 128, 131 - opuntia, 17, 19, 20 - Ordovician, 146; - Period, 40; - rocks, 41; - seas, 41; - time, 41 - Organ [N. Mex.], 160 - Organ Mountains, 26, 158, 160 - oriole, 31 - Orogrande basin, 43 - Ortega Mountains, 162 - orthoclase, 40 - Otowi bridge, 162 - otter, 114 - Ouray Limestone, 41 - Our Lady of Lourdes (chapel), 127 - oysters, 51 - - - P - Painted Cave, 85 - Painted Desert, 48 - Pajarito Plateau, 136 - Palace of the Governors, 4, 5, 104 - (_see also_ El Palacio) - Paleogene - Period, 33, 36 - time, map 35 - Paleozoic, 146; - Era, 40-48; - rocks, 33, 49, 51; - time, 39, 46 - palm trees, 36 - Palo Flechado Pass, 162 - paloverde, 17 - Pan-American Central Highway, 162 - Pancho Villa, 67, 109; - State Park, 104, 109 - Panhandle Aspect, 62 - Paradise Formation, 43 - Paradox Basin, 43 - partridge, 100 - peanuts, 159 - pecan, 158 - Pecos, 97, 106, 115; - Baldy, 96; - Basin, 99; - "diamonds," 108; - Division, 96, 97; - Horseshoe, 96; - mission, 104, 107; - National Monument, 62, 76, 106; - Pueblo, 62, 107; - River, 38, 74, 96, illus. 97, 111, 112, 114, 136, 155, 159, - 162, - Forest Reserve, 96; - State Monument, 106; - Valley, 30, 46, 78, 159, 161; - Wilderness (Area), 75, 94, 96 - Pedernal Hills, 40, 43, 161 - pegmatite, 40 - Peloncillo Mountains, 29, 158 - Peņa, Fray Juan de la, 123 - Peņablanca, 115 - Penasco, 95, 136 - Penitente, 136 - Pennsylvanian - limestone, 112 - Period, 43, 156, 159 - time, map 44, 45 - perch, 115 - Percha Shale, 41 - perlite, 37, 53, 146, 153, 162 - Permian, 45, 48, 146, 159, 161; - Period, 44, 77, 149; - rocks, 44-48; - seas, 46; - time, 45, 47 - Pershing, Gen. John J., 70, 109 - Petrified Forest National Monument, 48 - petrified wood, 49 - petroglyphs, 89, 113 - petroleum, 146, 147, 164 - Phoenix [Ariz.], 161 - phytosaur, 49 - Picacho Hill, 159 - Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, 50 - Picurís, 95; - Pueblo, 125-126; - San Lorenzo de, 125 - Pierre Shale, 50 - pike, 115, 117 - Pilar, 162 - pine, 22, 36, 49, 93, 100, 109, 163; - dwarf, 17; - ponderosa, 17, 21, 29, 112, 156, 157, 159; - yellow, 17, 21 - piņon, 17, 20, illus. 22, 23, 135, 141, 155 - Piņon, 43 - Pinos Altos, 72 - Piro, 8 - pit houses, 4, 59, illus. 60, 61, 82, 86 - Plains Indians, 54, 55, 63, 106, 132, 140 - Pleistocene, 54, 55, 57, 111, 161; - Epoch, 38; - Ice Age, 54, 58 - Poison Canyon Formation, 35 - Pojoaque, 162; - Pueblo, 126 - polyhalite, 48 - Po-pé, 8, 127, 129 - poplar, 36, 51 - Porciuncula, Church of ... de, 106 - porcupine, 31 - Portales, 55, 104, 111, 159; - Valley, 111 - potash, 48, 53, 141, 146, 148, 149, 150, 153, 159 - potatoes, 159 - Potrillo Mountains, 158 - pottery, 62, 82, 84, 86, 113, illus. 113, 122, 127, 128; - black-on-white, 60, 61; - brown, 86; - brownware, 59; - white with black, 86 - Powwow Canyon, 158 - Precambrian, 156, 161; - Era, 38-40; - rocks, 33, 39, 40, 51 - Presidio of Santa Fe, 9 - prickly pears, 17, 19 - protozoans, 44, 51 - ptarmigan, 31 - Pueblo - Bonito, 60, illus. 61, 82 - Indians, 5, 8, 12, 54, 61, 62, 84, 86, 89, 120 ff., 162 - periods: - Classic (or Great), 60, 61, 62, 82 - Developmental, 60 - Historic, 62 - prehistoric, 82 - Regressive, 62 - Revolt, 8, 89, 90, 120, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, - 130, 131 - ruins, 104 - pumice, 36, 37, 53, 146 - Punta de Agua, 105 - Puye Cliff Dwellings, 62, 128, 136 - Pyramid Mountains, 158 - - - Q - quail, 28, 29, 30, 95, 98, 100 - Quarai, 104 - church, 161 - Pueblo, 107 - State Monument, 105 - quartz, 39, 40, 41, 46, 50, 108 - quartzites, 40, 161 - Quemado, 36, 161 - Questa, 95, 112, 154, 163 - - - R - rabbit, 30, 31, 95 - Radium Springs, 161 - Ragland, 155 - rattlesnakes, 18, 31 - railroads, 12, 66, 70, 74, 92, 99, 115, 125, 151 - Rain Dance, 123 - Ramah [N. Mex.], 89 - Ramirez, Fray Juan, 122 - Rancheria Limestone, 42 - Raton, 35, 37, 38, 50, 134, 136, 162, 163 - Basin, 35, 36, 50 - Formation, 35, 51 - Mesa, 81, 109 - Pass, 20, 136, 161, 162 - raven, 31 - redbeds, 36, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 155, 156, 157, 159, 161, 162 - Red Lake, 155 - Redondo Peak, cover - Red River, 95 (town), 112, 163 (river) - Canyon, 94, illus. 135 - Pass, 163 - Ski Area, 94 - reeds, 36 - reef, 42, 45, 46, 51, 77, 147 - reptiles, 31, 36, 48, 49, 51 - Reserve, 101 - Reservoirs (_see under_ Lakes for individual listing) - rhyolite, 37, 39, 161 - Rio - Bonito, 69 - Chama, 162 - de Gallo, 67 - Grande (_see_ separate entry) - Hondo, 159 - Penasco, 99 - Puerco, 156, 163 - Ruidoso, 159 - Salado, 163 - San Jose, 37, 48, 156 - Valley, 49 - Tesuque, 162 - Tularosa, 159 - Rio Grande, 4, 7, 12, 13, 16, 20, 38, 54, 60, 62, 67, 70, 72, 74, - 84, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 106, 107, 110, 114, - 115, 127, 128, 131, 136, 137, 139, 143, 156, 158, 161, 162 - Gorge, 112, - State Park, 104, 112 - graben, illus. 37 - pueblos, 62, 140 - Valley, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 30, 37, 38, 54, 59, 61, 84, 98, - 112, 117, 123, 125, 126, 128, 132, 133, 135, 137, 140, - 143, 158, 161, 162 - Rito de Frijoles, 122 - Rito Morphy, 112 - roadrunner (chapparal), 31, illus. 32 - state bird, 31 - rocks (_see_ under proper name: Cambrian, Cenozoic, Devonian, - Jurassic, Mesozoic, Mississippian, Ochoan, Ordovician, - Paleozoic, Permian, Precambrian, Silurian, Triassic, - volcanic) - Rock Hound State Park, 104, 112 - Rocky Mountains, 57, 58, 132, 133, 136 - Rocky Arroyo, 159 - Roswell, 46, 48, 104, 134, 146, 155, 159 - Roy, 109 - Royal Road (Camino Real), 9, 12, 139 - rudistids, 51 - Ruidoso, 43, 99, 100, 159 - Creek, 99 - Downs, 159 - ruins, 4, 60, 62, 65, 68, 75, 82, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 92, 95, 101, - 104, 105, 106, 113, 128, 129, 136, 138, 139, 156, 161 - rushes, 42, 43-44 - Rustler Dolomite, 47, 48 - - - S - Sacramento Mountains, 28, 37, 42, 46, 51, 99, 141, 143, 159 - Sacramento [N. Mex.], 99, 100 - sage, 18, 19 - saguaros, 17, 18 - Saint Francis, 106 - Saint Joseph, 125 - Salado Salt, 47, 48 - Salinas Peak, 160 - Saline Missions, 105 - salmon, 115 - salt, 43, 45, 53, 54, 105, 115, 146, 149 - saltbush, 18 - Salt Flat lakes, 159 - San Agustin Plains, 99, 140, 141, 161 - San Andres - Limestone, 46, 110 - Mountains, 26, 37, 40, 41, 42, 51, 160 - San Antonio, 95, 134, 161 - San Antonito, 155 - San Augustin Pass, 160 - San Buenaventura, 89 - de Cochiti, 122 - sand, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 79, 111, - 159 - Sandia - Cave, 55, 57 - Crest, 98, illus. 137, 156 - Mountains, 26, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 51, 98, 136, 155, 156, 162 - points, 57 - Pueblo, 126 - Ski Area, 98 - San Diego Mountain, 161 - sandstone, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 50, 51, 89, 95, 105, - 146, 155, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162 - San Felipe, 128 - church, 126 - Pueblo, 126-127 - San Francisco River, 59, 161 - San Gabriel, 125 - San Geronimo, 130 - Sangre de Cristo Mountains, 13, 35, 37, 38, 40, 42, 50, 75, 94, - 95, 96, 109, 121, 129, 135, 136, 155, 156, 162 - Sangre de Cristo Redbeds, 45 - San Gregorio - de Abo, 89, 105 - Lake, 98 - San Ildefonso, pottery, 127 - Pueblo, 127 - San Isidro, 89 - San Jose Formation, 35, 36 - San Juan, 7, 60, 125 - Basin, 35, 50, 61, 82, 146, 149, 163, 164 - de los Caballeros, 7, 127 - Mountains, 35, 38, 50, 162, 163 - Pueblo, 127-128 - River, 59, 109, 138, 163, 164 - Valley, 30 - San Lorenzo, 72 - San Mateo Mountains, 38, 98, 99, 140, 161 - San Miguel - mission church, illus. 119 - Pueblo ruins, 85 - San Pedro Wild Area, 97-98 - San Rafael, 67, 157 - Santa Ana Pueblo, 128 - Santa Barbara [N. Mex.], 95 - Santa Clara - Creek, 128 - Pueblo, 128 - Santa Fe, 4, 7, 8, 9, 13, 19, 22, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 45, 49, 51, - 64, 66, 73, 75, 84, 85, 90, 92, 96, 97, 104, 105, 106, - 109, 111, 119, 121, 125, 127, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136, - 137, 138, 139, 161, 162 - Formation, 112 - Group, 38 - National Forest, 96-98 - Railway, 46, 50, 125 - River State Park, 104, 111 - Ski Basin, 97 - Trail, 10, 11, 24, 64, 66, 90, 92, 104, 129, 136, 137, 139 - Santa Maria mission, illus. 124 - Santander, Father Diego de, 89 - Santa Rita, 51, 53, 72, 143, 148, 151, 153, 161 - Santa Rosa, 134, 155 - Sandstone, 48, 111 - Santo Domingo, 128; - Pueblo, 126, 128-129, 162 - San Ysidro, 49, 163 - schist, 40, 161 - science, 12, 15, 67, 139, 143, 147 - scorpion, 31 - sea, 41 - sea lilies, 42 - secondary recovery (oil), 148 - Selden Canyon, 161 - Seven Cities of Cibola, 6, 132 - Seven Rivers, 159 - Shalako dances, 132 - Shakespeare, 158 - shale, 41, 43, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 155, 156, 157, 158, 162 - sheep, 26, 53, 75, 89, 93 - Barbary, 31 - bighorn, 28, 29; - desert, 26; - Rocky Mountain, 26, 98, 156 - shells, 54 - Shiprock, 37, 43, 51, 151, 163, 164 - Shoshone, 124 - Sibley, General Henry H., 13, 72, 73 - Sierra Blanca, 36, 38, 51, 100, 138, illus. 139, 159 - Ski Area, illus. 100, 133, 159 - Sierra - County, 36 - de las Uvas, 158 - Grande, 81 - Arch, 43 - Oscura, 161 - silicified wood, 36, 38, 49 - silt, 38,41, 48, 49 - siltstone, 38, 51 - Silurian, 41 - rocks, 41 - silver, 7, 13, 14, 23, 53, 132, 144, 146 - Silver City, 20, 23, 24, 40, 72, 75, 86, 101, 143, 144, 148, 151, - 161 - Simpson, Lt. J. H., 90 - Sipapu Winter Sports Area, 94-95 - Sitting Bull Falls, 159 - skipway, 151, illus. 153 - skunk, 31, 95 - Sky City (_see_ Acoma Pueblo) - sloths, 55 - Slough, Col. J. P., 92 - Smokey the Bear, 99, 100 - snails, 36, 41, 49 - Snake Ranch Flats, 161 - snakes, 18, 31, 36 - Socorro, 8, 12, 13, 14, 19, 36, 37, 59, 72, 89, 99, 134, 139, 161 - Mountain, 38, 140 - sodium chloride, 149, 150 - Sonoran - desert, 26, 103, 109, 138, 143 - Lower Zone, 19, 20 - Upper Zone, 20, illus. 25 - sotol, 20 - South Truchas Peak, 38 - Spain, 6, 9, 10, 11 - Spanish, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18, 53, 54, 62, 63, - 86, 89, 92, 95, 99, 104, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 128, - 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 139, 140, 141, 143, - 148, 158, 162 - dagger, 21 - Peaks, 81 - sparrow, 31 - spider, 31, 44 - Spirit Lake, 96 - spodumene, 40 - Springer, 134, 162 - spruce, 16, 17, 18, 26, 100; - blue, 22, 141; - Engelmann, 22, 156 - squash, 58, 84, 122 - squirrel, 31, 32 - Staked Plains (Llano Estacado), 132, 155, 159, 161 - stalactites, 76, 78 - stalagmites, 76, 78 - state - bird, 31 - Capitol, 111 - flower, 20 - mammal, 28 - State Highway - 4: 106, 162 - 10: 98, 105, 156 - 12: 134 - 17: 95 - 23: 156 - 25: illus. 103 - 26: 71 - 28: 158 - 36: 157 - 37: 159 - 38: 163 - 44: 36, 134, 163 - 53: 157 - 68: 164 - 75: 136 - 76: 136 - 78: 101 - 90: 72, 144 - 94: 112 - 120: 109 - 137: 159 - 180: 101 - 370: 112 - 467: 111 - State Monuments, 104-107, 155 - (_see also_ under proper names: Abo, Coronado, El Palacio, - Folsom Man, Gran Quivira, Jemez, La Mesilla, Lincoln - (County Courthouse), Pecos, Quarai, Selden) - State Parks, 104, 107-112, 155 - (_see also_ under proper names: Alamogordo Lake, Bluewater - Lake, Bottomless Lakes, Caballo Lake, City of Rocks, - Clayton Lake, Conchas Lake, Elephant Butte Lake, El Vado - Lake, Hyde Memorial, Kit Carson Memorial, Morphy Lake, - Navajo Lake, Oasis, Pancho Villa, Rio Grande Gorge, Rock - Hound, Santa Fe River, Storrie Lake, Ute Lake, Valley of - Fires) - staurolite, illus. 40 - Stegosaurus, 49 - Stein's Pass, 158 - Stewart Lake, 96 - Stone Lions, 85 - Storrie Lake, 104; - State Park, 110 - strawberries, 159 - Sugarlump Welded Rhyolite Tuff, 110 - sulfur, 53 - Summerville - beds, 156 - Formation, 49 - sunfish, 117 - swan, 28 - sycamore trees, 36 - sylvanite, 149 - sylvite, 48 - - - T - Taiban, 155 - Tajique, 99 - Tano, 124 - Tansill Formation, 77 - Taos, 8, 19, 37, 38, 50, 93, 95, 104, 110, 145, 162, 163; - Canyon, 95; - County, 153; - don Fernando de, 129; - Indians, 129; - mission, 129, illus. 130; - Mountains, 129; - Pueblo, 95, 129-130; - Ranchos de, 129, illus. 130; - San Geronimo de, 129; - Ski Valley, 95 - tapirs, 55 - tarantula, 31 - Teakettle Rock, 98 - tench, 115 - Tent Rocks, 98, illus. 121 - Tererro Formation, 42 - terrapin, 31 - Tertiary, 163 - Tesuque - Indians, 130 - Pueblo, 130-131 - River, 162 - Three Rivers, 134 - Tierra Amarilla, 40, 74 - Tiguex, 106, 126 - Tijeras, 99, 156; - Canyon, 40, 156 - timber, 75, 99, 100, 103, 122 - titanium, 50 - toad, 31 - Todilto Formation, 49, 156 - tomatoes, 159 - Torreon, 99 - tortoise, 31 - tramway, 98 - Transition Zone, 21 - Tres Piedras, 95, 162 - Tres Ritos, 95 - Triassic, 48, 159, 162; - age, 109, 155; - Period, 48; - redbeds, 49, 155, 156, 157; - rocks, 48, 155; - time, 48 - Triceratops, 51 - trilobite, 40, 41 - Trinidad Sandstone, 50 - trout, 95, 101, 108, 110, 111, 112, 118, 144; - black spotted, 115; - brook, 115; - brown, 110, 115; - German brown, 115; - cutthroat, 114, 115; - rainbow, 110, 111, 114, 115, illus. 116 - Truchas, 95, 136; - Lakes, 96 - Truth or Consequences, 74, 101, 111, 135, 161 - Tucumcari, 38, 74, 155; - Mountain, 155 - tuff, 82 - Tularosa, 28, 45, 143, 159; - Basin, 79, 99, 111, 159, 160 - turkey (wild), 28, 29, 95, 98, 100, illus. 102 - turquoise, 54 - turtles, 36 - Tyuonyi Pueblo ruin, illus. 25, 62 - - - U - Uncompahgre Range, 43 - Union [forces], 12, 13, 70, 72, 73, 74, 92, 137 - U.S. Highway - 54: 134 - 56: 134 - 60: 99, 105, 134, 155, 161 - 62: 134, 158 - 64: 134, 136, 162 - 66: 17, 48, 66, 67, 98, 134, 155, 164 - 70: 133, 134, 135, 143, 158, 159 - 80: 135, 158 - 84: 95, 106, 112, 134, 155, 162 - 85: 36, 65, 67, 70, 101, 106, 134, 135, 136, 137, 144, 161, - 162 - 180: 134, 135, 141, 158, 161 - 260: 101, 134, 161 - 285: 134, 159, 162 - 380: 69, 99, 107, 111, 134, 159, 161 - 550: 163, 164 - 666: 134, 164 - U.S. Public Health Service, 70, 72 - uranium, 49, 53, 125, 138, 146, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156 - Ute, 65, 90; - Creek, 111; - Dam, 111; - Indian, 132, 133; - Lake State Park, 104, 111; - Reservation, map 56, 133, 138 - - - V - Valle Grande, 38, 51, 75, 85-86, 162; - --Bandelier National Park, 85; - caldera, 37, 75, 85 - Valley of Fires State Park, 104, 111, 155, 161 - Valverde [N. Mex.], 13, 67 - Valverde Land and Irrigation Company, 68 - vanadium, 53 - Vaughn, 161 - Velarde, 112 - Vermejo Formation, 51 - vertebrate, 43, 45, 48 - Victorio, 70, 74; - Mountains, 158; - Peak Limestone, 46 - "Village of the Humanas," 89 - vinegarroon, 31 - volcanic - activity, 36, 37, 38, 39, 81 - neck, 37, 51, 112, 162, 164 - rocks, 36, 104, 112 - volcano, 37, 49, 50, 81, 104, 156, 162 - - - W - Wagon Mound, 109, 162 - Wallace, Gov. Lew., 105 - warbler, 31 - Warm Springs Apache, 74 - water, 53, 84, 89, 93, 100, 103, 104, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, - 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 122; - laws, 117; - lilies, 36 - waterfowl, 114, 118 - Watrous, 65 - weasel, 95 - wheat, 122, 159 - Wheeler Peak, 38, 94, illus. 145; - Wild Area, 94 - White - Mesa, 49, 163 - Mountain Apache, 69, 70, 133 - Mountains, 99; - Wild Area, 100 - Rock Canyon, 85 - White Sands, 31, illus. 39, 40, 42, 43, 45, 51, 75, 100, 159, 160; - Missile Range, 67, 139, 141, 143, 160; - National Monument, 38, 78-79, 141, 142-143, 155 - Whitewater Canyon, frontispiece; Creek, 101 - wildcat, 147, illus. 148, 149 - wildlife, 26-32, 93, 97, 98, 100, 103, 113, 117, 138, 144 - Wilderness trail (illus.), 27 - Willard, 161 - Willow Creek, 101 - Wingate Sandstone, 48 - wolf, 30 - woodchuck, 31 - wood rats, 31 - World War I, 67, 70; - II, 70, 146 - wren, 31 - - - Y - Yankee traders, 12 - Yapashi Pueblo ruins, 85 - "yellow cake," 151 - Yeso Formation, 45, 46 - yucca, 17, 18, 20, illus. 21; - state flower, 20 - Yuman Foragers, 3 - - - Z - Zia Pueblo, 131-132 - zinc, 53, 146, 148, 151 - zirconium, 50 - Zuni, 61, 98; - Mountains, 40, 43, 98, 99, 110, 157; - Pueblo, 6, 89, 132, 157; - Sandstone, 49, 156, 157 - - - - - _Traveler's-Eye View of New Mexico_ - - -A truly representative picture of New Mexico is presented in this guide -for visitor and resident. The traveler gains a background knowledge of -the State's centuries-old history, desert-to-alpine flora and fauna, -geological past, ancient Indians, and frontier forts. He learns of the -numerous recreational and scenic attractions of its nine National -Monuments, seven Forests, and one Park and nine State Monuments and -twenty-one Parks. Unusual features such as the Antelope Plains, Ghost -Ranch Museum, Sitting Bull Falls, Jackpile open-pit uranium mine, -Jornada del Muerto, and Abo Pass redbeds are described, as are nineteen -Indian pueblos. Routes given include both major highways and good -secondary roads; all are well designated and easy to follow on the -full-color general map. - - - NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES - - - - - Transcriber's Notes - - ---Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - ---Corrected a few palpable typos. - ---In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, -and History, by Various - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC OF NEW MEXICO'S SCENERY *** - -***** This file should be named 55800-8.txt or 55800-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/8/0/55800/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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