NormalizeHEADmain

84 files changed, 17 insertions, 26086 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7b82bc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+*.txt text eol=lf
+*.htm text eol=lf
+*.html text eol=lf
+*.md text eol=lf
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb64001
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #55800 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55800)
diff --git a/old/55800-0.txt b/old/55800-0.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index a336e7a..0000000
--- a/old/55800-0.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,8918 +0,0 @@
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and
-History, by Various
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and History
-
-Author: Various
-
-Editor: Paige W. Christiansen
-        Frank E. Kottlowski
-
-Release Date: October 24, 2017 [EBook #55800]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC OF NEW MEXICO'S SCENERY ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-    (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside_)
-    COVER: Redondo Peak, from Jemez Canyon
-
-_Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past Series:_
-
-  No. 1—Santa Fe, New Mexico
-  No. 2—Taos—Red River—Eagle Nest, New Mexico, Circle Drive
-  No. 3—Roswell—Capitan—Ruidoso and Bottomless Lakes State Park, New
-          Mexico
-  No. 4—Southern Zuni Mountains, New Mexico
-  No. 5—Silver City—Santa Rita—Hurley, New Mexico
-  No. 6—Trail Guide to Geology of the Upper Pecos, New Mexico
-  No. 7—High Plains Northeastern New Mexico, Raton—Capulin
-          Mountain—Clayton
-  No. 8—Mosaic of New Mexico’s Scenery, Rocks, and History
-  No. 9—Albuquerque—Its Mountains, Valleys, Water, and Volcanoes
-  No. 10—Southwestern New Mexico
-  No. 11—Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad
-  No. 12—The Story of Mining in New Mexico
-  No. 13—Española—Chama—Taos
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Robert W. Talbott_)
-    Whitewater Canyon near Glenwood]
-
-
-
-
-                   SCENIC TRIPS TO THE GEOLOGIC PAST
-                                 NO. 8
-
-
-
-
-                        _Mosaic of New Mexico’s
-                      Scenery, Rocks, and History_
-
-
-                              _edited by_
-                         PAIGE W. CHRISTIANSEN
-                                 _and_
-                          FRANK E. KOTTLOWSKI
-
-
-            NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES
-                                  1972
-
-              NEW MEXICO INSTITUTE OF MINING & TECHNOLOGY
-                      Kenneth W. Ford, _President_
-
-             NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES
-                    Frank E. Kottlowski, _Director_
-                  George S. Austin, _Deputy Director_
-
-
-                            BOARD OF REGENTS
-                               Ex Officio
-                  Bruce King, _Governor of New Mexico_
-         Leonard DeLayo, _Superintendent of Public Instruction_
-
-                               Appointed
-             Steve Torres, President, 1967-1985, _Socorro_
-         Dave Rice, Secretary-Treasurer, 1972-1983, _Carlsbad_
-                 William G. Abbott, 1961-1985, _Hobbs_
-                  Judy Floyd, 1977-1987, _Las Cruces_
-                   Owen Lopez, 1977-1983, _Santa Fe_
-
-
-                              BUREAU STAFF
-                               Full Time
-
-  Marla D. Adkins, _Assistant Editor_
-  Orin J. Anderson, _Geologist_
-  Ruben Archuleta, _Technician I_
-  Robert A. Bieberman, _Senior Petrol. Geologist_
-  Steve Blodgett, _Assistant Editor_
-  Lynn A. Brandvold, _Chemist_
-  James Brannan, _Drafter_
-  Corale Brierley, _Chemical Microbiologist_
-  Ron Broadhead, _Petroleum Geologist_
-  Brenda R. Broadwell, _Assoc. Lab Geoscientist_
-  Jane A. Calvert, _Assistant Editor_
-  Frank Campbell, _Coal Geologist_
-  Richard Chamberlin, _Economic Geologist_
-  Charles E. Chapin, _Senior Geologist_
-  Jeanette Chavez, _Admin. Secretary I_
-  Richard R. Chavez, _Assistant Head, Petroleum_
-  Ruben A. Crespin, _Laboratory Technician II_
-  Lois M. Devlin, _Director, Bus.-Pub. Office_
-  Amelia Dondero, _Metallurgist_
-  Kathy C. Eden, _Editorial Technician_
-  Robert W. Eveleth, _Mining Engineer_
-  K. Babette Faris, _X-ray Lab. Manager_
-  Rousseau H. Flower, _Sr. Emeritus Paleontologist_
-  John W. Hawley, _Senior Env. Geologist_
-  Cindy Howell, _Staff Secretary_
-  Robert W. Kelley, _Editor & Geologist_
-  Arleen Lindsey, _Staff Secretary_
-  Mark Logsdon, _Industrial Minerals Geologist_
-  David W. Love, _Environmental Geologist_
-  Wess Mauldin, _Driller_
-  Virginia McLemore, _Geologist_
-  Lynne McNeil, _Staff Secretary_
-  Norma J. Meeks, _Department Secretary_
-  David Menzie, _Geologist_
-  Teresa Mueller, _Drafter_
-  Robert M. North, _Mineralogist_
-  Keith O’Brien, _Hydrologist_
-  JoAnne C. Osburn, _Coal Geologist_
-  Glenn R. Osburn, _Volcanologist_
-  Barbara R. Popp, _Lab. Biotechnologist_
-  Marshall A. Reiter, _Senior Geophysicist_
-  Jacques R. Renault, _Senior Geologist_
-  James M. Robertson, _Mining Geologist_
-  Gretchen H. Roybal, _Coal Geologist_
-  Amy Shacklett, _Asst. Lab Biotechnologist_
-  Jackie H. Smith, _Laboratory Technician IV_
-  William J. Stone, _Hydrogeologist_
-  Samuel Thompson III, _Senior Petrol. Geologist_
-  Judy M. Vaiza, _Executive Secretary_
-  Debra Vetterman, _Drafter_
-  Robert H. Weber, _Senior Geologist_
-  Betsy Wilson, _Receptionist/Clerk Typist_
-  Donald Wolberg, _Vertebrate Paleontologist_
-  Michael W. Wooldridge, _Scientific Illustrator_
-
-                               Part Time
-
-  Christina L. Balk, _Geologist_
-  Howard B. Nickelson, _Coal Geologist_
-  Beverly Ohline, _Acting Director, Info. Services_
-  Thomas E. Zimmerman, _Chief Security Officer_
-
-                           Graduate Students
-
-  Danny Bobrow
-  James T. Boyle
-  Gerry W. Clarkson
-  Mike Davidson
-  David R. Guilinger
-  Terry Jensen
-  Douglas L. Heath
-  Adrian Hunt
-  Ingrid Klich
-  Ione Lindley
-  Curtis Verpleough
-  John M. Wakefield
-  Mary Lynne Yates
-  John Young
-
-                 Plus about 50 undergraduate assistants
-
-
-                     _Third edition, 4th printing_
-
-
-Published by Authority of State of New Mexico, NMSA 1953 Sec. 63-1-4
-
-Printed by University of New Mexico Printing Plant, Albuquerque, April
-1982
-
-Available from New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources, Socorro,
-NM 87801      $4.00
-
-
-
-
-                                Contents
-
-
-  3 Of Indians, Spaniards, and Americans, _Paige W. Christiansen_
-  16 The exotic plants of New Mexico, _Ross Calvin_
-  26 Dwellers in the hills and plains, _Levon Lee_
-  33 Rocks that shape the enchanting landscapes, _Frank E.
-          Kottlowski_
-  54 Before Coronado, _Robert H. Weber_
-  64 Frontier forts of New Mexico, _Robert A. Bieberman_
-  75 Our National Heritage
-      75 New Mexico’s big share of the National Park System, _H. V.
-          Reeves, Jr._
-      93 Forest lands above the desert, _Ruth Bush Jones_
-  104 The State Also Preserves
-      104 New Mexico State Monuments, _Museum of New Mexico Staff_
-      107 New Mexico State Parks, _The Editors_
-  113 Angling in the desert’s waters, _Fred A. Thompson_
-  119 The Indians of New Mexico, _Paige W. Christiansen_
-  133 Reminders of the past, _Paige W. Christiansen_
-  145 Derricks and mines, _George B. Griswold_
-  154 Enchanting landscapes, _Frank E. Kottlowski_
-  165 Index
-
-    [Illustration: New Mexico]
-
-
-
-
-                                Preface
-
-
-Previous _Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past_ have emphasized scenic
-tours of local areas in New Mexico. This book lays out a mosaic of facts
-and fancies concerning the state’s landscapes, the rocks that underlie
-and make up the landscapes, and the history of the people now living or
-who have lived amid New Mexico’s exciting and varied scenery. We hope
-these short articles will help you enjoy our state, whether you are a
-tourist driving through at seventy miles an hour, a visitor with a
-little time to explore, or an old-timer who remembers the cattle drives.
-
-The idea for this publication grew out of a booklet, _New Mexico Mosaic
-of Science and History_, that was written for the 1963 National Science
-Fair-International held in Albuquerque. The National Science Fair
-booklet was directed specifically to the Fair participants and
-emphasized their tours to famous scientific installations in New Mexico,
-areas of scenic geologic wonders, and points of historic and archeologic
-importance. The booklet had only limited distribution; subsequent
-interest in this kind of publication about New Mexico led to the
-preparation of this book.
-
-Scenic Trips No. 8 is in two major parts. First, there are articles of
-general statewide interest to acquaint visitor and resident alike with
-the Land of Enchantment—its history, flora and fauna, geology, and
-scenic beauty. Second, there are articles describing specific scenic,
-geologic, historic, and recreational places to give a depth of
-understanding and a more intimate view of New Mexico. The entire mosaic
-of New Mexico thus presented is a permanent record to recall vistas of
-New Mexico’s enchanting land and fascinating history.
-
-
-                            Acknowledgments
-
-Many people have contributed their time and talents to this co-operative
-undertaking. We thank each of the authors of the articles; where their
-affiliation is not given, they are staff members of the New Mexico
-Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources division of the New Mexico
-Institute of Mining and Technology. Professor Christiansen is a member
-of the Humanities Department of the Institute’s College division. This
-book would have been incomplete without the co-operation of the New
-Mexico Department of Game and Fish, the Museum of New Mexico, the New
-Mexico Department of Development, the State Park Commission, the U.S.
-Park Service, and the Forest Service, Southwestern Region, U.S.
-Department of Agriculture. Our special appreciation goes to Dr. Ross
-Calvin for his interpretative description of New Mexico’s unique flora.
-
-Black and white photographs were contributed by Robert Bieberman, Roy
-Foster, and Teri Ray of the Bureau of Mines staff and by the authors or
-their agencies. Some of the drawings were made by David H. Moneypenny.
-Acknowledgment is also made to Mr. Elliott S. Barker and the Forest
-Service for their willing loan of color transparencies.
-
-Among the numerous personnel of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and
-Technology who aided in preparation of this book, appreciation is due
-Helen Waxler, Lois Devlin, Lola White, Mary Ann Grandjean, and Sharon
-Ballenger for typing of manuscripts and William Arnold, Robert Price,
-and Raymond Molina for drafting maps and figures. Teri Ray deserves
-special mention for her interest and editorial advice and for nursing
-the material from rough manuscripts into printed pages.
-
-
-PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
-
-The kind reception given our attempt to provide a brief but
-comprehensive guide to New Mexico’s scenery, rocks, and history resulted
-in distribution of 5000 copies in two years, and led to this second
-edition. In this revision, we have incorporated changes that have
-occurred during these two years, especially the addition of State Parks,
-and Teri Ray has added an index to make the book more usable. Each
-author has re-edited his article and made changes where necessary.
-William Arnold added much material to the index map; typing of the
-revision manuscript was carefully done by Lois Devlin. Alfred Coulloudon
-and Wayne Bera supplied additional photographs. Teri Ray initiated
-revision of the first edition, worked with authors, and guided the
-manuscript from the authors to the final copy.
-
-
-PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION
-
-The first edition appeared in 1964, the second in 1967, and a reprint in
-1968. In the present edition front matter has been re-styled, printed
-matter has been altered on the inside and outside of the covers, a
-footnote added to page 104, and a less bulky paper used.
-
-
-
-
-                  Of Indians, Spaniards, and Americans
-
-
-                       _by_ Paige W. Christiansen
-
-In the world of the twentieth century with its tumultuous ovation for
-each discovery of science, with its language of non-Euclidian space,
-with new heroes who leave the earth, not discover it—sometimes it is
-refreshing to look back on other days, to see other heroes, and to seek
-romance and excitement which was equally spectacular in times past. Yet
-there is a close affinity and a spiritual link among the heroes of the
-past, the present, and the future, and the reaction of their
-contemporaries to their feats of glory is not so different. Heroes are
-those who seek the unknown, who risk life and position to expand the
-frontiers of man’s universe and mind. But heroes can only lead an age,
-never surpass it. History, then, is people and their catalyst, ideas.
-
-The history of New Mexico, like twentieth century science, is
-multi-dimensional. Its complex cultural patterns fit with the intricate
-variety of its geologic wonders and its flora and fauna. In reality, New
-Mexico is a part of a broader concept, the Southwest. This vast region,
-which includes western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, southern California,
-part of southern Colorado, and southern Utah, has given rise to some of
-man’s greatest achievements. Here prehistoric man rose above his animal
-heritage to take control of these lands. Here, also, many millennia
-later, man achieved one of his greatest scientific wonders, the
-successful release of atomic energy. The story of the years between
-these events, so far separated in time, is a wondrous tale.
-
-
-INDIAN BEGINNINGS
-
-Before the coming of the white man, this land belonged to nature’s
-children, the Indian. Centuries before European nations came into
-existence, peoples from Asia, crossing by the Bering waters, had
-discovered, explored, and settled the American continents from Alaska to
-Tierra del Fuego. They mastered the plains, the northern forests, the
-jungles of Central and South America, and the arid regions. In the
-deserts and mountains of the Southwest, they conquered elements and
-terrain, first to survive and then slowly to ascend the ladder of
-culture.
-
-At first they were foragers, living on what nature provided. At the time
-of Christ, several groups could be distinguished: In the Colorado River
-drainage, south of the Grand Canyon, were the Yuman Foragers; in
-southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico were the Mogollon
-people; in the Four Corners area (where the states of Utah, Colorado,
-Arizona, and New Mexico meet) and in the Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico
-was a complex of cave sites that evidenced a forager type of culture.
-But, as man always aspires to rise above his environment, the Indian
-slowly and painfully learned to make tools, developed new techniques,
-and finally made the great step upward; he domesticated plants.
-Agriculture, based primarily on the growing of corn, came to the Four
-Corners before the Christian era. Gradually, out of the primitive
-foragers, there developed across the Southwest a complex pattern of
-agricultural societies; peaceful farmers intent upon harvesting the
-utmost from a harsh land. In Arizona, the Hohokam peoples created a
-culture based upon irrigation. In the valleys of the upper Gila and
-Mimbres rivers of southwestern New Mexico, several branches of the
-Mogollon culture grew and prospered. In the Four Corners area and in the
-upper Rio Grande Valley, the Mesa Verde, the Gran Chaco, and later the
-Rio Grande branches developed, at first in the cliffs of the high
-country, then in open villages along the main tributaries of the Rio
-Grande. That there were numerous and varied cultures is attested to by
-the ruins one finds scattered throughout the Southwest. Along now dry
-arroyos, on buttes overlooking rivers or dry river beds, among cliffs in
-the mountain fastnesses and in caves wherever they appear, there are
-thousands of sites whose people and history are lost in antiquity.
-
-    [Illustration: Prehistoric Indian cliff dwelling]
-
-And these people were builders. They lived in caves at first, then in
-crude pit houses. Finally they moved above the ground and evolved
-building techniques and styles of architecture that stood the ravages of
-time and still serve the people of the Southwest. In the city of Santa
-Fe, the Palace of the Governors was built upon the ruins of an Indian
-pueblo (village), the name of which has disappeared even from tradition,
-and its massive walls of puddled adobe, laid down before the art of
-making bricks was introduced by the Spanish, may be seen under glass in
-some of the rooms of the Palace at the present time. Perhaps most
-spectacular are the great houses of Chaco Canyon, some of which must
-have sheltered from one to two thousand people each, and which as
-achievements in building, both from the standpoint of durability and
-graceful construction, rival the structures of the historic valleys and
-plateaus of the ancient eastern world.
-
-In addition to agriculture and building, the Indian of the Southwest
-achieved great heights in artistic forms. The ceramics of the American
-Southwest become increasingly important when compared with products of
-the Old World. The Indians of America and the Southwest are a race of
-artists. Their aesthetic culture towers above anything achieved by the
-white man, with the general exception of ancient Greece and Renaissance
-Italy.
-
-As impressive as his achievements in domesticating plants, in building
-massive structures, and in developing symbolism and aesthetic values to
-match his material advances, the Indian’s greatest heights were reached
-in his philosophy on nature and life. He conceived himself to be, not
-master of creation, but a single factor in the scheme of things. He
-shared with all things—beasts, birds, rocks, trees, everything in
-nature—a life principle which permeated all, a gift conferred by the
-mighty powers of earth and sky. He observed orderly procession of
-natural phenomena and ordered his own life in harmony therewith. His was
-no egocentric point of view which has become so much a part of the
-philosophic base of the European mentality. His natural philosophy
-entered into every facet of his life—his daily work, his art, his
-ceramics, his religion. In short, this singularly fine outlook upon the
-world helps to account for his success in conquering the diverse
-elements of earth and sky which constantly threatened his very
-existence.
-
-But this fine culture did not survive in the fullness of its bloom. What
-eventually destroyed the vast and complicated agricultural system was
-not the rigors of Mother Nature but a migration of new people into the
-flow of Southwest history. Sometime after 1000 A.D., a nonfarming,
-nomadic, warlike people entered the Southwest. The peaceful farmers,
-weakened by drouth, were unable to cope with this new force. Gradually
-they fell back, leaving behind their homes, their fields, their culture.
-By 1300, only a small remnant remained, that located in the Rio Grande
-Valley of north-central New Mexico. Across the rest of the Southwest the
-nomadic tribes, technically called _Athapascan_ from their linguistic
-affiliation but better known by their modern name, _Apache_, had
-replaced the farming cultures. The picturesque Indian pueblos we see
-today in the valleys of northern New Mexico are the direct descendants
-of the great cultures that existed at Mesa Verde, Gran Chaco, Frijoles,
-and other centers of cultural achievement.
-
-The Indians of the Rio Grande Valley and the Apache who controlled most
-of the Southwest managed an uneasy coexistence. The Pueblo Indians
-remained basically farmers, holding fast to the cultural advances made
-by their ancestors during the millennium preceding 1300. The Apache, for
-the most part, remained nomadic predators, living off nature’s bounty,
-or better still, raiding the pueblos for food. The Apache groups began
-to take on names and traditional areas which they called their own. In
-northern New Mexico were the Jicarilla Apache and in the southeast, the
-Lipan, the Mescalero, and the Natage Apache. In northeastern Arizona
-were the Navajo and in the drainage of the Gila River, the Chiricahua,
-the Gila, and other groups of the Western Apache. Each of these groups
-made its mark upon the face of the land.
-
-
-SPANISH CONTRIBUTIONS
-
-This was the situation in the Southwest when the sixteenth century
-opened, but a new force was abroad which would grow and strengthen and
-leave a deep imprint on New Mexico. Beginning on the wild islands of the
-Caribbean and then fanning out into the heart of Mexico and the South
-American continent, this new force spread across the face of America.
-Europeans, more exactly, Spaniards, came bent upon conquest for its own
-reward, for the glory of God, and for gold. These sturdy men from the
-Iberian peninsula with weapons vastly superior to the Indians’, with the
-horse which made them highly mobile and devastating in battle, and with
-tactics and precision in warfare unknown among the Indians, were to
-sweep without serious setback across the great cultures of Mexico and
-Central and South America. By 1540, they were ready to take their next
-leap forward.
-
-On the west coast of Mexico, at a place called Culiacan, a colorful host
-gathered. In their ears rang the words of the legend of the Seven Cities
-of Cibola, seven golden cities, a legend which had been popular in Spain
-for many generations. Mexico City had produced wealth, and the Spanish
-were ready to believe that other fabulous cities existed. One Spaniard
-had already crossed part of North America and had heard from the Indians
-tales of the rich cities. His name was Cabeza de Vaca, and the
-exuberance of his tales fired the imagination of the Spaniards.
-
-The soldiers and adventurers gathering in Mexico, commanded by Francisco
-Vasquez de Coronado, were the first Europeans to organize an expedition
-to the American Southwest. Leaving from Culiacan in 1540, they went up
-the west coast of Mexico into modern Arizona, then east into New Mexico.
-The seven golden cities turned out to be the pueblos around Zuni, New
-Mexico, and not golden at all. The expedition, although discouraged,
-marched into the Rio Grande Valley and visited most of the pueblos
-there. Still they failed to find the treasure they sought. In a final
-desperate attempt, they explored onto the Great Plains, eventually
-reaching central Kansas. Broken in spirit and body, they struggled back
-to the Rio Grande Valley, and then retraced their route to Mexico. In
-all, the expedition covered a two-year span. A failure? Yes, in terms of
-wealth and treasure found. Yes, in terms of conquest, for nothing had
-been conquered. No, in terms of human resources, for the Indians
-Coronado met were to be the incentive that would bring the Spaniard back
-to New Mexico. While the Spaniard did seek gold and glory, he also
-burned with a missionary zeal and sought souls for his deep-running
-religion, Roman Catholicism.
-
-    [Illustration: Mesa top pueblo]
-
-For fifty-five years after Coronado, interest in New Mexico and the
-Southwest was spotty. Other things occupied the Spanish—primarily silver
-discoveries in the central valleys of Mexico. But men did not forget New
-Mexico and saw there an opportunity for missionary activity and
-exploitation. Also, other nations of Europe were beginning to take an
-interest in the North American continent, and New Mexico began to look
-attractive to the Spanish as a frontier defensive outpost. The frontier
-line pushed ever northward from central Mexico. By 1595, the Spanish
-were ready to push a salient into New Mexico.
-
-From among the mining communities of northern Mexico, a force of two
-hundred colonists was assembled by Don Juan Oñate who had a contract to
-colonize New Mexico. After countless delays due to politics and supply
-shortages, the Oñate expedition left Chihuahua in 1598. The route went
-north across the desert to the Rio Grande near El Paso del Norte (modern
-Juarez), thence up the Rio Grande into New Mexico. On August 18, 1598,
-they arrived at San Juan, and there founded the first capital of New
-Mexico, San Juan de los Caballeros. These lands of the Southwest so long
-colored by the Indian now received a new imprint, one that would alter
-the direction and flow of culture and change it from the Indian to the
-Spanish Southwest.
-
-From San Juan, and later (1610) from Santa Fe, Oñate, his men, and his
-colonists brought New Mexico under the Spanish yoke. In co-operation
-with the Franciscan Order, which had been assigned the task of
-converting the Indian, Oñate supervised the building of missions and
-mission churches at many of the pueblos of New Mexico. At the same time,
-Spanish towns developed, the most important being the new capital at
-Santa Fe. By 1628, New Mexico was solidly in the hands of her new
-masters.
-
-The period from 1628 to 1680 was one of internal conflict and isolation
-for New Mexico. It lay far out on the frontier, alone and distant from
-its source of supplies. It lacked many of the items necessary for
-frontier life, particularly hardware and clothing. Its population was
-small, and in constant fear of Indian uprising, and its officials were
-too weak to act with vigor. Finally, there was a lack of genuine
-interest on the part of the central authorities. All these problems led
-to internal conflicts between soldier and colonist; between colonist and
-Indian; between colonist and official; and, perhaps most bitter of all,
-between church and state. This latter conflict would erupt time after
-time, openly, and with bitterness and denunciation from both sides.
-Governors were excommunicated as heretics; Franciscans were accused of
-all sorts of crimes and improper behavior. This, plus the other
-conflicts, gave rise to growing disrespect by the Indians for their
-European conquerors. The superiority of Christianity was questioned by
-the Indians as they watched the attacks and counterattacks made by
-priest and governor. The whole system of Spanish rule seemed a mockery.
-In 1680, the Indians decided their way was best after all and rose in
-rebellion.
-
-Led by Po-pé from Taos, the various pueblos banded together in a mighty
-effort to remove the Spanish from traditional Indian lands. For the
-first time the pueblos came together, united by a single purpose. There
-were two exceptions; Isleta, just south of Albuquerque, and the Piro
-villages farther south (Socorro) remained loyal to the Spanish. Up and
-down the Rio Grande Valley, the Spaniards fell before the pent-up anger
-of the Indians. Survivors gathered at Santa Fe, but their water supply
-was cut, and they were forced to retreat south. At Isleta and later at
-the Piro villages, they received aid before continuing south to El Paso
-del Norte. With them went their Indian allies from Isleta and Socorro.
-It was a total defeat for the Spanish, and the Indian again was master
-of New Mexico.
-
-But not for long, for at El Paso there gathered a force dedicated to
-revenge for their comrades who had died before the Indian onslaught.
-Ably led by Diego de Vargas, this expedition moved into New Mexico in
-1692. The Indians, who had achieved such unity for the moment in 1680,
-were again badly divided. De Vargas, instead of having to subdue an
-alliance, had only to deal with one pueblo at a time. Very quickly New
-Mexico was returned to a mission area and frontier military post. The
-Pueblo Indians became permanently subjected to European domination.
-Their one and only attempt at unity had, in the final analysis, failed.
-
-During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, New Mexico was the
-heart of the Spanish empire in the Southwest. Only in southwestern
-Arizona, western Texas, and California did the Spanish hold any land
-other than in the upper Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico. During these
-centuries, this valley complex played out its dual role of mission area
-and military outpost. Its only connection with the resources and ideas
-of the world was a long hazardous road that stretched from Santa Fe to
-Chihuahua City and then south to Mexico City. This was New Mexico’s
-Royal Road, and over it moved everything needed by soldier, priest, and
-civilian. The trade was dominated by the merchants of Chihuahua, and New
-Mexico suffered. The tale of New Mexico during this period was one of
-poverty, hardship, and warfare. And several vital forces moved across
-the land.
-
-One of these forces had long been in the Southwest, but latent. The
-Spanish adopted an Indian word meaning _enemy_ to describe it—Apache!
-The Spanish brought with them domesticated animals which quickly adapted
-to conditions of the New World and became available to the Indian. Most
-important was the horse, at least as far as the Apache was concerned. By
-the early eighteenth century, the Apache, and other groups on the
-plains, had adapted to the use of the horse. While dangerous as foot
-soldiers, the Apache became vastly more dangerous as mounted warriors.
-Whereas they had been satisfied with minor raids against the pueblos and
-the Spanish holdings prior to 1700, they exploded on a wave of terrorism
-during the eighteenth century which very nearly drove the Spanish from
-the frontier. Late in the century, the conflict between the Apache and
-the Spanish became increasingly bitter. The history of the Southwest
-became the history of incessant Indian incursions and Spanish attempts
-to control the raiders. The missions declined and in many instances gave
-way entirely to the presidio or fort. In New Mexico the military came to
-dominate the missionary, and only through the heroic efforts of the
-meager force at the Presidio of Santa Fe did the Spanish manage to hold
-New Mexico from total collapse. A poor province became poorer,
-population declined, both among the Spanish and Indian, and the future
-looked dark indeed.
-
-Far from New Mexico, other forces were stirring which would have a
-profound effect on the province and the Southwest. Spain and the Spanish
-empire were in trouble. Spain had failed to develop the supply
-capability to keep her colonies alive and was forced to spend her wealth
-in other areas of Europe. After two and a half centuries, the cumbersome
-and inefficient colonial administrative machinery was breaking down.
-While Spain’s star was descending, other European nations were on the
-move. England, France, Holland, and Russia were contesting with Spain
-for control of the New World. England and France were digging in on the
-east coast of North America; Holland was penetrating the islands of the
-Caribbean, and Russia was pushing down the Pacific Coast from Alaska.
-The weakness of Spain and the failure of her colonial government, plus
-help from Napoleon by way of his invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in
-1808, brought about the collapse of the Spanish empire. In America,
-patriots, inspired by the earlier success of the American Revolution and
-afire with the ideas of the French Revolution, struck out at the
-remnants of Spanish rule. By 1825, all the Spanish colonies but the
-islands of the Caribbean were free and independent nations. New Mexico
-and the Southwest became part of the Mexican state.
-
-Almost immediately, Mexico, without leaders, without a political
-heritage to lead it to stability, and torn by power struggles large and
-small, was plunged into a period of political anarchy and civil war
-which would last for half a century. The problems and dangers of a
-far-flung frontier were lost in the din of conflict, and New Mexico
-became a forgotten province. Its claims as a mission area were so weak
-as to be almost nonexistent. It was no longer needed as a military
-outpost, for the danger to Mexico was not external, but internal. Its
-reasons for being were forgotten, at least for the moment, and New
-Mexico had to survive on her own initiative. But for one very important
-fact, the Spanish salient into the Southwest might have collapsed under
-the weight of poverty and Indian attacks. That fact was the opening of
-the Santa Fe Trail in 1821, a trail which linked the Spanish world with
-the Anglo-Saxon world then pushing its frontiers out from Missouri. This
-trail, so rich in lore and adventure, so much a part of the history of
-both the American west and the Spanish north, was the door through which
-passed the characters for the final act in the history of the Southwest.
-
-Before the final act, however, it is vital and necessary to set down the
-contribution of two hundred fifty years of Spanish occupation and rule.
-The coming of the Spaniard to the Southwest began a mixture of white and
-red races which resulted in a new mixed race. The first generation of
-those who came up from Mexico were Caucasians; their descendants were
-usually not. They came seeking wealth and security, but there was
-neither wealth nor security in New Mexico, and they remained poor, very
-poor. The society that evolved was to be based upon farming and stock
-raising, and its organization was to be feudal in nature. There would be
-no education; hence, there could be no intellectual advance. The world
-began to go ahead of the people of New Mexico. Only in the house of the
-rico was there any sign of the wealth and grandeur of Spain; everywhere
-else was poverty. Farming was left in the hands of the Indian, while the
-Spaniard chose to be a man on horseback, a cattleman, an aristocrat. In
-the final analysis, Spanish New Mexico would not develop as democratic
-and agricultural, but aristocratic and feudal. The hacienda was a part
-of old Spain in exile. The rico tried vainly to hold to his idea of
-chivalry and to a decorum suitable to his position. But what chance was
-there in the face of the increasing poverty, the constant danger to life
-and property, and time that did not move? While individual courage of
-the upper class remained, discipline and industry died. When the
-American army marched into the Southwest, the sons of the conquistadores
-could offer no armed resistance. Perhaps the most amazing thing about
-the society of the ricos in New Mexico was that it failed to contribute
-any lasting monument. It left no art, no music, no great highways, no
-adequate governmental system.
-
-But many elements of Spanish culture were to persist, and these arose
-from the collective consciousness of the people of New Mexico. Around
-the great haciendas were small villages with their artisans and workers.
-It was among these people that the heritage of Spain clung to this land.
-Many of these towns yet remain and are not much different from those of
-two hundred years ago. To a large degree, their Spanish culture seems
-hidden and undiscovered, but the people, their loves and hates,
-pleasures and hopes, beliefs and fears, are governed by tradition, a
-tradition that finds its roots deep in the soil of Spain.
-
-    [Illustration: Old mission church at Isleta Pueblo]
-
-Today, when we look at the cultural scene in New Mexico, we can see
-direct evidence of Spanish occupation. The language of half the people
-in the state is Spanish, in some areas still the Spanish of the
-sixteenth century. Roman Catholicism, of which the Spanish were the most
-Catholic, dominates the religious scene. The Spanish heritage in
-political attitudes, in building and architecture, and in the legal
-tradition of the state is apparent. New Mexico, of all the states in the
-United States, is the only one that can claim a truly Spanish heritage.
-
-
-ANGLO-AMERICAN VIGOR
-
-While Spain lost its empire and New Mexico and the Southwest sank into
-poverty and decay, yet another force was on the march, a force that
-welled up in an Anglo-American people clinging to the Atlantic Coast of
-North America. As these people developed a nation, they also discovered
-a sense of destiny which turned their faces to the west and their
-footsteps toward the sunset. With them moved their culture. At first, it
-was a trickle, a few traders bent on profit, crossing the plains on the
-Santa Fe Trail. Then the trickle became a flood. For New Mexico, these
-men came as saviors. The Missouri traders broke the Chihuahua monopoly
-and goods from all parts of the world began to flow into New Mexico,
-resulting in higher standards of living. These Yankee traders, sensing a
-good thing, also penetrated the markets of Mexico, using New Mexico’s
-Royal Road to gain entrance.
-
-Again there was conflict, not Spanish and Indian, but Latin and
-Anglo-American. Mexico owned the lands of the Southwest and intended to
-keep them. But this American, with his gaze glued on western skies,
-refused to turn aside, and he strode on, grinding the feeble efforts of
-Mexican resistance into the desert sands. The Mexican War in 1846,
-suddenly transferred ownership of Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada,
-Arizona, and California from Mexico to the United States. This was
-nearly half the territory of Mexico. New Mexico, with her already
-complex cultural pattern, was subjected to still another influence.
-
-The history of the American occupation of the Southwest is as complex
-and diverse as its predecessors. Its ingredients include cattle, mining,
-railroads, agriculture, science, and the Indian. All these, and others,
-combined to give an Anglo-American slant to the Southwest. The Indian
-culture did not disappear, nor did the Spanish, but rather a new stratum
-was cast that was to complete the mosaic.
-
-When the American arrived in New Mexico, he found a poor, backward area,
-hungry for trade and outside contacts. He found the Indians of the
-Southwest in open rebellion against the white men. The Navajo and other
-Apache groups, the Comanche, and some of the Pueblos were the primary
-offenders. This was to be the main problem occupying the time and energy
-of the American settler and soldier for forty years after 1846. Until
-the Indian situation was stabilized, there would be little economic and
-social development.
-
-The method evolved for containing the vicious raids against friendly
-Indian, Spanish, and American communities was a series of forts placed
-at strategic passes or trails surrounding the traditional lands of the
-Apache. The Indian strongholds were located primarily in the mountainous
-regions of southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. The line of
-forts stretched along the Rio Grande south of Socorro to the vicinity of
-Las Cruces, and west along the southern edge of the mountain escarpment
-into Arizona. Then the defense complex ran north across the desert to an
-irregular line running east from Flagstaff through Gallup and back to
-the Rio Grande. These forts were well garrisoned and provisioned and
-began to carry the fight to the Indian. Early success was halted by the
-conflict generated by the American Civil War.
-
-The center of the Civil War in the west was in New Mexico. There was
-conflict, argument, and some small degree of fighting in other western
-states and territories as settlers from the north or south struggled to
-carry this territory or that state into the Union or the Confederacy.
-These were, however, local matters and as much political as military. In
-New Mexico, there was a war and there were battles, battles which
-deserve to be a part of the general Civil War story but that are usually
-forgotten in the smoke and roar of eastern cannon.
-
-Two major battles were fought in New Mexico, the first a Confederate
-victory, the second a Union victory which saved New Mexico, and the
-west, for the Union. The aim of the Confederate forces was to capture,
-intact if possible, the forts in New Mexico and Arizona with their great
-store of military provisions, provisions badly needed by the Confederate
-army. Also, there was a feeling among southern leaders that success in
-New Mexico might also lead to success in California, badly split on the
-question of secession, and in Colorado, rich in silver and gold. An army
-recruited in Texas and commanded by General Henry Sibley was sent to
-accomplish Confederate aims.
-
-This army entered New Mexico along the traditional route, moving up the
-Rio Grande from El Paso. It quickly subdued the forts and Union troops
-in southern New Mexico and continued up-river. On February 21, 1862, it
-met a Union army commanded by Colonel E. R. S. Canby at Valverde, a
-small community about twenty miles south of Socorro, New Mexico. Kit
-Carson, New Mexico’s famous trapper and scout, commanded the New Mexico
-Volunteers, a part of the Union force. Canby’s troops were beaten and
-dispersed at the Battle of Val Verde, leaving the upper Rio Grande
-Valley virtually without defense. Within a few weeks, the Texans had
-taken Albuquerque and Santa Fe. But one stronghold in New Mexico
-remained in the hands of the Union forces. Fort Union, northeast of Las
-Vegas, New Mexico, became the focal point of action by both north and
-south. Sibley, marching from Santa Fe, knew success depended on the fall
-of Fort Union. The Union forces, equally aware of the importance of the
-fort, hurriedly reinforced it with a number of volunteers from Colorado.
-
-Within Fort Union, a crisis developed over differing opinions on
-strategy. The fort commander wanted to keep the garrison at full
-strength and fight the Confederates from within the fort. The Colorado
-Volunteers wanted to go out and meet the enemy. The latter won and a
-Union force moved into the passes of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains to
-meet the Confederates in a fateful battle that would decide control of
-the west. It was fought at Glorieta Pass on March 28, 1862. Despite the
-fact that the two armies met on this field, the contest was not decided
-there. Early on the morning of March 28, a force of 400 Colorado
-Volunteers, commanded by Colonel John M. Chivington, began a flanking
-action in hopes of hitting the Confederate rear. This group moved out of
-the Pass into the mountains, and by a very difficult route moved back
-toward the Pass behind the Confederate force. On a ridge overlooking
-Apache Canyon, they saw below them the entire Confederate supply train
-and cavalry horse herd. In a lightning hit-and-run attack, the supply
-train and horses were destroyed. When word of this reached Sibley at
-Glorieta Pass, there was little for him to do but to retire from the
-field. The Confederate force never recovered from this disaster and
-gradually retreated to Santa Fe, then back down the Rio Grande into
-Texas.
-
-With the end of the Civil War, New Mexico and the Southwest returned,
-not to peace, but to war, war against the Apache. It took twenty years
-for the American with all his modern weapons and tactics to bring the
-Apache under control. For the Apache, it ended on September 3, 1886,
-when Geronimo and his few ragged followers surrendered to General Miles
-in Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. Under the weight of steel and increasing
-numbers of white men, the Apache was doomed. Though civilization would
-swallow the Apache, as it has always succeeded against the barbarian,
-the Apache made a spectacular defense of his lands and his way of life
-against both Spaniard and American. He made himself master of the
-desert, and only the gods of science succeeded in overcoming him and his
-desert gods.
-
-
-INDUSTRIAL BOOM
-
-With the Indian situation settled, New Mexico underwent a boom in two
-important areas, mining and cattle raising. These industries, so much a
-part of the history of the American West, did and still play an
-important role in the well-being of the Southwest. Mining camps sprang
-up along the mountain fringes as new discoveries of silver and gold came
-to light. Around Socorro and Magdalena, in the Mogollon Mountains, at
-Hillsboro and Kingston in the Black Range, and hundreds of other places
-in New Mexico and the Southwest, men hungry for quick wealth swarmed
-over the hills and mountains and built their roaring camps. While miners
-were tapping the subsurface wealth, cattlemen were staking out their
-claims to the grasslands, both on the eastern plains and in the high
-mountain meadows. Cattle empires grew to staggering proportions,
-sometimes erupting into violent conflict over grazing and water rights,
-such as the Lincoln County War made famous by the participation of Billy
-the Kid.
-
-    [Illustration: Feature of the Old West]
-
-The character of the Southwest still bears the stamp of the miner and
-the cattleman. Although the cattle and grazing industry has declined, as
-has the traditional mining camp, the past importance of these activities
-has had a tremendous impact upon the character of Southwest folklore,
-law, and music and on the thought of the people.
-
-Other influences affected New Mexico as a result of the American
-occupation, things inherent in the American culture. Ribbons of steel
-across a continent, buildings of steel and stone, business and commerce,
-technology, common law, the English language, the Protestant religion,
-and, above all, the American-brought driving desire to dominate, to win.
-Certainly the American had to adapt his culture to the desert lands, but
-he did it in his own way, not in the way of the Indian or Spaniard. So
-Anglo-American culture became superimposed upon a Spanish culture that
-was superimposed upon an Indian culture.
-
-_Disinherited_, that is the word that best describes contemporary New
-Mexico culture. A stronger race came and took away the inheritance of
-the Indian, though there did result a blood mixture. Only in superficial
-matters did the Spanish adopt any of the Indian ways. The Spanish, too,
-succumbed to a stronger people and have been denied the privilege
-commonly accorded to conquered peoples, that of mixing their blood with
-that of the conquerors. One finds today in New Mexico three distinct
-people—Indian, Spanish, and Anglo-American—as sharply contrasted as the
-strands in a Navajo blanket. There is pure red alongside white, and only
-rarely do the colors blend into pinks or grays. This is why we must say
-that New Mexico is a mosaic, not a synthesis, of many elements, clearly
-defined.
-
-Across the span of time, great men, people, and ideas have molded New
-Mexico and Southwest history. Indian, Spanish, American—vital forces
-that are today working toward a genuinely unique culture in New Mexico.
-The modern world may well give to the Southwest the idea or catalyst
-that will blend these elements into a single force. Science, techniques,
-ideas are things of the present and are for the present to assess and
-synthesize. The Indian gods of air, earth, and sky and the white man’s
-gods of morality and science do not differ a great deal in their
-aspirations for their chosen people, and perhaps they will decree a
-splendid and unique synthesis from the cultural mosaic. Through
-understanding comes knowledge; from knowledge, creation.
-
-
-
-
-                    The Exotic Plants of New Mexico
-
-
-                            _by_ Ross Calvin
-
-The problem of discussing plant life becomes complicated, for some of
-those arriving in New Mexico may be compound microscope botanists, some
-collectors, others pathologists, still others geneticists. Some will be
-chemists or mathematicians, some others untrained in the ways of growing
-things and mainly interested in seeing while they tour. But one thing is
-fairly certain—most visitors will come from a distance, so it may be
-useful to invite them to observe what they can readily see on the way
-hither, which will be a relatively painless method of amassing some
-information.
-
-Yet the method of arrival itself suggests choices, options, and
-exercises in probability. Do visitors come in covered wagons, or in jet
-planes; by bus, car, train, or some other way? The most convenient way,
-doubtless, is by plane traveling six hundred miles an hour at a height
-of some thirty thousand feet; but the most rewarding way is by saddle or
-on foot as the early collectors came.
-
-Since one cannot know his own country well if he knows no other, a
-visitor from the east arriving at an altitude of five miles will
-probably be more conscious than others of drastic changes in the
-landscape when he first looks down on New Mexico. Instead of the
-universal green of the east, he will note the earth as an unaccustomed
-tawny, reddish brown expanse, and this will be its common color through
-most months of the year. He will note the absence of rivers, but the
-presence of mountains which generally ring the horizon. He will wonder,
-after traversing the border counties at the western edge of the Great
-Plains, at the infrequency of plowlands, and will promptly conclude that
-New Mexico is one vast, bare desert—an impression that will be corrected
-rapidly when he visits the dark National Forests where the slim, crowded
-spruces and firs tower skyward.
-
-The visitor from El Paso, as the Chihuahua desert (the name is fairly
-deserved) slides backward underneath him, will be amazed at the
-serpentine stripe of vivid verdure below, all completely leveled, and
-all marked off by geometrical lines and tightly bordered by pale hills
-where the vegetation is reduced to tiny dots not tall enough to cast a
-shadow. Still proceeding north, he will presently be above a ninety-mile
-stretch where the vegetation is so skimpy and the river so closely boxed
-in by desolate hills that Spanish explorers bestowed on it the sinister
-name _Jornada del Muerto_—Dead Man’s Journey, which is self-explanatory.
-
-But on the other hand, a visitor descending into New Mexico from the
-northland in wintertime above this same Rio Grande will traverse a
-featureless jumble of peaks on which the black coniferous forest no
-longer shows as black at all but, snow-encased, gleams as white as the
-naked snowfields themselves. And he will find incredible the immense
-range of climate spanned in a flight only an hour long.
-
-The jet traveler approaching from the west beholds the greatest, most
-spectacular panorama of all, the true wasteland of the desert, with vast
-blocks uplifted from out of earth’s crust, plateaus dissected by giant
-empty canyons whose walls are seared to utter nudity by ages of the most
-intense sunshine on our continent. Here the architecture of nature is
-all designed on a gigantic scale, and the climate exhibits influences of
-a mighty ocean, of towering mountain chains, and the range of wandering
-planetary winds which created the desert. From the altitude of a
-cruising jet, the distances, the speed, the color, and the light are
-indescribably exhilarating.
-
-Since the traveler arriving from any direction can see for
-identification only a few species, it will suffice to point out only two
-of the harbingers of eastern New Mexico, both of which are dominant on
-that area of the Great Plains: the blue grama grass, which in fall and
-winter bears the graceful sickle-shaped head, and the small _Yucca
-glauca_ which cannot be mistaken for anything else.
-
-Along the northern line, the visitor should look for the somber, almost
-black, forest of spruce and fir with its white patches of aspen on the
-10,000-foot slopes. Descending farther southward, even a casual observer
-will note that these species give way first to the yellow pines, then to
-the junipers (“cedars”) and dwarf pines or piñons. The visitor arriving
-from the south will find most conspicuous of all the olive-green
-creosote bush in its summer-winter foliage, next, the omnipresent
-mesquite (_Prosopis_), then the various _Opuntia_ cacti (chollas and
-prickly pears), and the yuccas.
-
-As he comes in from Arizona, the splendid saguaros will beckon him
-toward the gateway of New Mexico, but they will nowhere enter it
-themselves. The vase-shaped body of the ocotillo consisting of
-unbranching, ten-foot wands should be recognized at a glance, as
-likewise should the various yuccas and agaves. And in early springtime,
-a low tree with a rounded mass of golden bloom will joyously proclaim
-its identity as a paloverde.
-
-The desert plants thus enumerated can be recognized along various
-stretches of U.S. 66 as one holds his speed at a conservative ninety or,
-even better, at a conservative sixty.
-
-The amateur scientist will need to do some homework before he learns
-much systematic botany or plant physiology. It takes considerable study
-to comprehend the slow, age-long process which has resulted in the
-evolution of all this grotesque vegetation: the interaction of extreme
-aridity, high temperature, low humidity, high evaporation, infrequent
-precipitation, the hostility of numerous chemical solutions, and the
-natural rapacity of the animal population. Each plant must have an
-adaptation of its own, from the tiny winter annual, which must race
-through its course from a tender rosette to ripened seed before the
-searing sunshine arrives, on up through the series to the stoic saguaro,
-which seems able to scorn nature’s enmity.
-
-A final warning to the air traveler. He should be sure before deplaning
-that he has observed a _bajada_. It is a must. Bajada is one name,
-outwash slope is another, alluvial fan is still another. The stewardess
-should inquire of each student, and if his answer is “no,” she should
-reply, “Then you’ve just flunked the course.” A bajada is the most
-characteristic single feature of all in the sloping, stony topography of
-the desert—and remember that the surface of the desert is regularly
-sloping and stony. The Spanish word itself means only a down slope, but
-it has come to have a semitechnical sense—a fan-shaped apron of rocky
-debris at the foot of a mountain where it has settled out of the summer
-torrents and there keeps accumulating in successive floods. As the mass
-builds up, the bigger fragments drop out closest to the parent crag,
-then the small ones, finally the coarse gravel, and lowest of all on the
-slope the fine sand. Thus the fragments are graduated in size, in
-distance traveled, and in the nature of soil resulting. As the fan
-increases in size and laps up higher and higher on the mountain’s flank,
-the geologists often describe the result by saying that the mountain “is
-burying itself under its own debris.” From the air, the lines of
-drainage will be seen to have assumed the form of a tree with its trunk
-downward, its branches high in air. But the most interesting aspect of a
-bajada is the nice proportion which nature works out between the plant
-species and their location on the curve.
-
-
-FROM SAGEBRUSH TO SPRUCE TREES
-
-The traveler who has viewed the Southwestern panorama of nature from its
-sagebrush to its spruce trees has indeed seen most of it. The spruce
-which grows wild only well up on the higher mountains is familiar to
-everybody because it has become a favorite in formal planting
-everywhere. But the sages—who knows them? To the tenderfoot, almost any
-gray plant is “sage.” To my friends the cowmen, sage means commonly
-saltbush. To my friends the foresters, sage means an artemisia. But
-there are romantics to whom “purple sage” is Apache plume, which is a
-member of the wild rose family.
-
-Some popular education would seem to be desirable. And this applies,
-too, to the cacti, for there is more misinformation about them than
-anything else that grows, runs, or creeps—except rattlesnakes. The
-clever people who design travel folders and pictorial maps almost always
-put saguaros in New Mexico. But saguaros do not grow in New Mexico. That
-is final! And the yucca is not a cactus. That also is final. Nor yet the
-ocotillo—that defiant, splendid denizen of the desert which flaunts the
-scarlet torch of flowers. The question that is always on the surface as
-one writes of plant life in the Southwest is, “Who wants to know?” The
-picnicker wants to know the names—and nothing much besides—of the wild
-flowers. My friend the cowman already has the names; that is, the common
-ones. If I chance to mention blue grama grass, he gently corrects me,
-“black grama.” Then if I mention black grama, he says, “no, white
-grama.” But at least he is concerned about something more important than
-nonscientific names. He wants to know if the plant is something that a
-lean old cow can eat, whether it stays green in winter, and if it will
-hold the soil in place. The tourist who pilots car and passengers some
-six hundred miles between breakfast and bedtime asks only what he was
-looking at. The rest of us who go into the mountains often enough to be
-impressed by the layer-cake succession of plants on their slopes can,
-with the aid of some reading, amass a store of knowledge where others
-amass only mileage. On a tour, it is mileage or knowledge. One has to
-choose.
-
-Actually, our New Mexico desert is not dominated by sage. That honor is
-held by the creosote bush, called by some of the old-timers
-_greasewood_, _Covillea glutinosa_, by some of the scientists—along with
-five other synonyms. Like the mesquite with which it shares the same
-general habitat but _does not intermix_, it occupies an immense spread
-of territory, roughly from Texas to California. Since no livestock will
-eat it and the ground it occupies is equally useless for agriculture
-because of aridity and stoniness, creosote is a veritable coyote for
-survival. The traveler descending from Taos to Santa Fe need not look
-for it. The sage of that locality, which gives the landscape its
-singularly mournful aspect, is a true sage. With good reason the cowboys
-call it _black sage_.
-
-In 1846, Lieutenant Emory, as he rode southward with the Army of the
-West, first encountered the creosote as he approached Socorro. The
-northward extension of the plant is at the same point today, and the
-range of mesquite extends only a few miles farther north. These two
-remarkable plants are the main markers of the Lower Sonoran Zone. In the
-same arid, stony, broken country, the traveler will find an abundance of
-cacti, and these plants are usually supposed to be the most tenacious of
-all tenacious growing things. Actually, in southwestern Arizona and
-neighboring parts of California there are whole areas where the aridity
-is too severe for cacti, but for our state—let it stand. Everybody, of
-course, has noted the grotesque shape of the plants, but not everybody
-has noted that the shape was chosen with a canny intelligence. A globe
-exposes less surface (that is, the vulnerable area for evaporation) than
-any other solid of equal volume. And a cylinder is second best. Another
-thing—cacti being succulents are filled with a watery sap or juice which
-quickly coagulates after a wound and stops the waste of moisture.
-Furthermore, the plant’s aggressive root system is arranged so as to
-capture the grounds scanty moisture most quickly and completely after
-rains.
-
-Cacti of more than sixty species occur within our state, but more than
-nine tenths of the plants seen along the highway—unless they are brought
-together for a garden collection—can be grouped into one genus, the
-_Opuntia_. The family likeness is shown not by the shape or general
-appearance but by the fact that all are jointed. Both the cane cactus
-(also called cholla and elkhorn) and the pancaked prickly pear, unlike
-the big barrel cactus and the numerous small species which resemble it
-in shape, have joints and may therefore be rightly called opuntias. The
-“pancakes,” it may be remarked, are not leaves but divisions of the
-stem. A cactus gets along without leaves. So a good rough-and-ready test
-is this: if it has leaves, it is not a cactus—which eliminates ocotillo,
-yucca, agave, sotol, and so on.
-
-The barrel cactus is sure to be seen growing beside service stations in
-the southern part of the state. Its name as well as its size identifies
-it. The flowers and the large lemon-shaped fruits are worth a glance. If
-they do not occur on the south side of the plant, it has been
-transplanted and turned. The evidence is as trustworthy as the presence
-of moss on the north side of a tree in the forest.
-
-The barrel cacti, the opuntias, acacias, the ocotillos, along with the
-creosote and mesquite already mentioned, have a way of growing along
-together in what is called a plant society. These all belong in the
-bottom layer of the cake called the Lower Sonoran Zone, which is best
-seen on the Rio Grande mesas near El Paso.
-
-The layer next above it comprises the foothill country of the Upper
-Sonoran Zone, which includes most of the state of New Mexico. Some of
-its common markers are juniper, piñon, oak of various species including
-live oak, mountain mahogany, mescal, yucca, beargrass, and the famous
-blue grama grass. It is exhibited all along the Continental Divide in
-the southwest part of the state but nowhere so well as in the Fort
-Bayard Reservation. There a tract, protected for three generations from
-woodcutting, fires, and intensive grazing, offers a large-scale picture
-of the lovely land that once was New Mexico. There the character and
-amount of vegetation astounds the visitor who is familiar with only the
-close-picked, parched aspect of the landscape that generally borders the
-main highways. When seen from the air, the very color of the
-grass-mantled earth is many shades lighter than that of the bare
-overgrazed ranges a few miles to the south. And the difference can be
-seen by anybody.
-
-The foothills are dotted, not covered, with juniper and piñon. The
-dwarfed, rounded little junipers (properly enough called cedars) leave
-the traveler unprepared to believe that they will anywhere become
-respectable forest trees. Yet in the Burro Mountains, the alligator-bark
-species, finest of them all, reaches a diameter of five feet and an age
-of about 1000 years. The wood has an extraordinary fragrance, and its
-smoke tells the neighbors for blocks around that you are warming
-yourself at the fireplace. Another notable thing about the wood is its
-resistance to decay in the earth. I have removed pieces of it from
-subterranean ruins of the Mimbres culture which, according to the best
-archaeological opinion, are some eight hundred years old.
-
-The yuccas deserve a story by themselves. One small, unimpressive
-species greets you on the meadows at the foot of Raton Pass; others have
-to be searched out along high limestone ridges where the foothills are
-deciding to become mountains. The one chosen for our state flower is the
-tall yucca (_Yucca elata_), a superb species best seen along the
-Continental Divide near Silver City. The genus reaches its greatest size
-in the grotesque Joshua tree, which never fails to attract the eye on
-the Mohave desert in California.
-
-The century plant has a name that always gets attention. But let us be
-sure we mean the same thing. Rightly, it means the mescal, the favorite
-food of the Mescalero Apaches. Besides these two names, it is called
-also maguey and, no doubt, Spanish dagger along with various other
-spine-tipped plants. All of which clinches the argument for a name which
-for all users is a certain designation for one object and only one. It
-is not just because botanists like to appear learned that they call this
-plant _Agave parryi_. That title is as descriptive as middle C for one
-key on the piano, and in the same way international.
-
-    [Illustration: Yucca plants]
-
-Everyone inquires about the century plant’s life expectancy. An
-insurance man might make an inference from the name. The plant is a big
-compact cluster or rosette of rigid, upward-pointing, spadelike leaves,
-each four or five inches in width and each tipped with a vicious, stout
-thorn. Year after year the plant just sits there by a boulder,
-unnoticed. I question whether anything alive on the desert has a better
-life expectancy. As far as my observations go, it has no diseases. It is
-invincible to drouth. Freezing does not harm it, and fire cannot burn
-it—although a yucca even when green will flame up like a torch. No
-hungry old cow can crop it, and no rodent gnaws it, at least not enough
-to do harm. And since the Indians have gone on reservations, no human
-uses it. So it stays there.
-
-In fact, nothing less than a caterpillar can leave a dent on it—not, of
-course, the caterpillar that eats young tomato plants, but the
-Caterpillar that pulls heavy road machinery. The plant just does not die
-before maturity, it would seem. A remarkable organism, indeed! But after
-many, many years, depending on the amount of moisture it receives, it
-makes up its mind to flower. In one tremendous effort, it shoots up a
-twelve-foot flower stalk at the rate of several inches a day. The
-blossoming is a final, dramatic, beautiful gesture, for by the time the
-flowers have withered, the great tenacious plant has turned to a ghastly
-purple and is dead.
-
-On the high slopes where the last yuccas end and only a few junipers
-remain in the race for survival, the yellow pines come in to mark off
-what is called the Transition Zone. The pines need no description, no
-printed promotion. The traveler, any traveler, can appreciate them
-although he might not be stirred to the slightest interest by the lovely
-yuccas. Since the beginning of time, the pines, fragrant, cheerful,
-companionable, have been man’s best friend. Among the ponderosa pines
-takes place most of the hunting, most of the camping, much of the
-picnicking. There is no danger that the tourist will overlook the pine
-belt and the pines for they are probably the most numerous tree in New
-Mexico.
-
-    [Illustration: Piñon needles]
-
-Above them, the classifications are less clearly defined and ecologists
-are less inclined to agree on zonation. The Canadian Zone, if we settle
-on that name, occurs only in small areas on the map, and most of them
-north of Santa Fe. These are high ridges and island peaks that tower
-high enough to tempt the Engelmann spruces. Yet some of these islands
-occur as far south as the Mogollon Mountains and thus bring Canadian
-Zone scenes almost to the Mexican border. For hardy ecologists who want
-to explore high ridges and horns of bare stone which rise as clean as a
-hound’s tooth clear up into the Arctic-alpine Zone, it is necessary to
-enter Colorado.
-
-Engelmann spruce forests may be associated with the 10,000-foot level.
-The blue spruce is very similar, perhaps only a subspecies, but it comes
-in a little lower. The Engelmann makes a dense forest hardly allowing
-invaders, but the blue is more tolerant, less austere. It loves the
-water and is the natural companion of chill, cascading trout streams.
-Though fond of shadow, it seems to grow equally well where the narrow
-canyons widen and admit the sunshine upon the tiny meadows of lush
-grass, cranesbill, velvety red cinquefoils, lupines, and yellow
-columbines. And when one of these miniature openings is fringed with
-spruces whose pointed tips rise sharp against a curtain of azure with
-its white cumulus clouds, there you have the loveliest vista in the
-mountains.
-
-
-OUR VISIBLE IMPACT ON THE PLANT LIFE
-
-Though nature lovers usually find the life zones more fascinating than
-any other aspect of plants in the mountains, there is one other much
-more important. It is the misuse, injury, and destruction of native
-plant life. Because scientists are generally alert to the conservation
-of what is useful and beautiful in natural resources, I venture to bring
-up the matter here.
-
-A useful case history is provided by Silver City, New Mexico. It was
-founded in the early seventies as a silver camp, which would fairly
-guarantee a certain amount of reckless haste and rowdy carelessness.
-Point two was its location on a foothill watershed only twenty-seven
-square miles in area. Point three was an extreme concentration of
-livestock near the town. Point four was the fact that the annual
-rainfall was crowded mainly into July, August, and a part of September.
-
-Mines are naturally users of timber. Obviously, shafts and tunnels have
-to be timbered. More than that, little smelters nestled back among the
-hills were also hungry for wood. And since coal was expensive and hard
-to get, most of the adobe cottages were heated many years by juniper,
-oak, and piñon firewood. All these matters were naturally, if not
-actually, inevitable under the circumstances.
-
-The massive ore wagons and freight wagons had to be drawn by four- to
-ten-horse teams—and the horses kept on eating. Then because it was also
-a ranching country, each cowboy had to keep a _remuda_ of saddle
-horses—and they ate too. Also, the few cows that provided milk for the
-children grazed hungrily over the stony slopes. Most of all, the range
-cattle, which had no provender at all except that which the competitive,
-half-starved steers could provide for themselves, overgrazed every
-square foot of pasturage down to the bare soil. The government’s
-open-range policy made overgrazing inevitable because no ranchman could
-protect his pasturage since it was all unfenced. The cow that got there
-first got the grass. That passed as land management, which proves that
-some statesmen then were about as wise as some of the Wizards of
-Washington now. But the advent of fences caused the cutting of millions
-of fence posts where none should have been cut.
-
-    [Illustration: Elk]
-
-When the grass went, its roots went, and when its roots went, there was
-nothing to hold the soil, and then it, too, started to go. And go it
-did. A deep hole formed in Main Street, as it is still called on the
-Silver City town plat. The best explanation I can find of that hole is
-that earth was taken out of it to form adobe bricks for the walls of
-houses and corrals (that clay did make good adobe!). Meanwhile, the
-woodhaulers’ wagons had greedily carted away the trees from each little
-canyon, while the narrow steel tires cut deep ruts which formed two deep
-gullies at the first heavy rain. Then the parallel gullies proceeded to
-wash out deeper and create a middle ridge or high center on which axles
-got stuck. Since there was nobody responsible for making a new road,
-there was no choice except to move over and form another track and use
-it until in turn it became unusable. (By this simple kind of
-destruction, the old Santa Fe Trail, it is said, reached a width of a
-hundred feet.)
-
-But the water descending the slope kept increasing its destructive
-velocity as the denuded ground approached the bareness of a tin roof.
-Villagers observed that the hole in their Main Street was becoming a
-waterfall after each rain, and that the ruin was passing into a big-time
-operation. The town built a dam to restrain the floods. It washed out in
-the first one. Soon Main Street followed it down the drain, which by
-this time was already a hideous gash in the earth many miles long and
-twenty feet deep. Then the water began on a really different scale of
-destruction. One furious flood washed away the cabin in which Billy the
-Kid’s mother lived. More than that, it washed away the wall of Judge
-Newcomb’s house and abducted his Steinway from the second floor. A few
-yards from the spot, an old photograph taken in 1891 shows a
-woodhauler’s ox team lying in the street there. It gives no hint at that
-time of the famous Big Ditch—the only name that Main Street, Silver City
-has had now for the last forty years.
-
-By 1927, after many other attempts had been made to tame the floods a
-steel bridge about one hundred feet long and thirty feet above the floor
-of the “canyon” was swung into place. In 1935-1936, the Soil
-Conservation Service went to work in earnest, made the watershed a
-demonstration area, and spent a third of a million dollars there in a
-short time.
-
-In the _New Mexico Magazine_ for August 1934, the really incredible
-story of the Big Ditch is exactly documented with old photographs and
-newspaper clippings. After a friendship of many years with old-time
-miners and ranchers at Silver City, I would not point an accusing finger
-at one of them. I appeal, however, for a greater vigilance over plant
-life and soils nowadays from everybody. In such protected areas as the
-Fort Bayard Reservation, the U.S. National Forest enclosures, and the
-frontier cemeteries, the imagination can visualize a New Mexico that is
-far different from what is here today—a close-picked, hard-used land
-where unwise woodcutting has continued through much of the last three
-centuries and where the thin ranges have been required to support in the
-last century alone perhaps more than one hundred million cows, sheep,
-and horses. The magnitude of the cause accounts for the magnitude of the
-effect.
-
-A good many years ago, I wrote as the concluding paragraph to _Sky
-Determines_ what seemed to some exaggerated praise for my adopted
-homeland. There is now less and less cavil from any readers. I believed
-the words true in 1934, and I stand my ground now.
-
-  Perhaps nowhere in the world is the natural setting nobler than in New
-  Mexico—more beautiful with spacious desert, sky, mountain; more varied
-  in rich, energizing climate, more dramatic in its human procession,
-  more mellow with age-old charm. Endowed with sunshine that stimulates,
-  and winter chill that toughens; with silence and majestic desert color
-  that offer a spiritual companionship, it has enough. Here, if anywhere
-  is air, earth, sky fit to constitute a gracious homeland, not alone
-  for those who study and create, but as well for those who play, for
-  those who sit still to brood and dream.
-
-    [Illustration: Tyuonyi Pueblo ruin
-
-    This large ruin in Bandelier National Monument lies along the banks
-    of El Rito de los Frijoles. Narrow-leaf cottonwoods line the stream,
-    and shrubs of the Upper Sonoran Zone cover the hillside slopes.]
-
-
-
-
-                    Dwellers in the Hills and Plains
-
-
-                           _by_ Levon Lee[1]
-
-The vast sweep of New Mexico’s 77 million acres, which ranges all the
-way from the Alpine tundra of the tallest mountains down to the heat of
-the lower Sonoran desert, offers a home and sanctuary for many kinds of
-wild life.
-
-Some of these animals are considered game animals; others may be pests,
-since they prey upon or destroy what mankind regards as its own. The
-coyote which takes a sheep from the small herder is wicked indeed in the
-eyes of the sheepman. Predatoriness on all living things by other things
-has gone on since time began and will continue—mankind being not the
-least predator.
-
-A good definition is that composed by the late Judge C. M. Botts who
-defined a predator as “a critter that takes another critter that I
-want.”
-
-New Mexico’s immense topographic and geologic differences make for a
-very wide range of habitats preferred by the various species. The elk
-and deer, being highly adaptable, may be found from the Alpine tundra of
-the higher mountains clear out into the creosote desert. Deer occur in
-four separate subspecies: the Rocky Mountain and the desert mule deer,
-the western whitetail, and the Sonoran fantail deer, which is also a
-whitetail. These animals may be found all the way from the dense
-coniferous forests of the north with perpetual gloom and cold to the
-sun-scorched granite mountains such as the Florida and the Organ
-mountains of southern New Mexico; from great towering granite spires to
-the folded blocks of limestone such as comprise the Big Hatchets, the
-Guadalupe, and the San Andres mountains.
-
-The javelina, or little wild pig, lives along the watercourses in the
-south west part of the state. Its thin spiky hair gives it little or no
-protection against cold, and only in the balmier parts of New Mexico
-does it feel at home.
-
-The desert bighorn sheep, as distinguished from his cousin the Rocky
-Mountain bighorn, goes around on a sun-scorched, ocotillo-covered
-limestone-rubble slope in the full glare of the sun and lies down to
-take his afternoon siesta. The Rocky Mountain bighorn, on the other
-hand, with his preference for cooler climates does not shun even the
-dense spruce timber at the very top of the Sandia Mountains as the
-hideout for his afternoon rest.
-
-This adaptability by New Mexico’s species to the tremendous differences
-in altitude, rainfall, and temperature makes them all the more valuable
-as a resource for the pleasure and enjoyment of everyone.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Photo courtesy of Forest Service_, U.S.D.A.)
-    Pack train on a wilderness trail]
-
-The most popular big game animals in New Mexico are the mule deer in
-either of the two subspecies. Every fall, beginning in late October and
-extending ordinarily through December, more than 100,000 hunters take to
-the woods for their 50-50 chance of bringing home the sought-after mule
-deer. A hunter may shoot his mule deer at the Alpine tundra timber line,
-out in the blazing heat of the creosote desert, or among the rock crags
-of some of the southern desert mountains. He will find his quarry a
-worthy opponent. Shy, wild, and with terrific eyesight and hearing,
-these animals provide a true challenge.
-
-Elk and antelope, as well as bighorn sheep, are hunted by special
-licenses only, since their numbers do not warrant a general open season.
-These special licenses are much sought after and are ordinarily made
-available by application and a public drawing in the fall. The javelina,
-confined to our southwestern counties, is also hunted by special
-license. It is noteworthy that although New Mexico had protected them
-for many years, the javelina did not increase its numbers. As a matter
-of fact, the natural losses applied against any game species are going
-to be in effect no matter whether hunting is permitted or not, the
-hunting being merely subtracted from what would be lost to nature
-anyhow.
-
-Our state mammal, the black bear, is found throughout the wooded areas
-of the state and occasionally wanders out into the plains or down into
-the desert mountains of the south. Bears are hunted avidly in the fall
-by sportsmen with dog packs before the regular big game seasons begin,
-when the use of dogs is prohibited. They are again hunted during the big
-game seasons by anyone bearing the proper license, but no packs of dogs
-are allowed. This is to prohibit the possibility of dogs being used to
-pursue elk, deer, or wild turkey, an illegal act in New Mexico.
-
-New Mexico is fortunate in having a tremendous diversity of both upland
-game and waterfowl, and big game and small game for her people.
-Importantly, the game resources are spread out through every county in
-the state.
-
-The state’s richness of bird life is varied and extensive. New Mexico
-ranks among the first five in the total number of birds found within its
-boundaries. More than 400 species of birds live within the state. These
-range all the way from the tiny mites of the bird kingdom, the
-hummingbirds, weighing less than an ounce, to the great white whistling
-swan, weighing up to 25 pounds, or the Merriam turkey, which may weigh
-close to 30. Of the six species of quail found in the United States, New
-Mexico has four and may possess the fifth, since the mountain quail of
-the western coast have been introduced into this state and still occur
-on the west slopes of the Sacramento Mountains near Tularosa. Five
-species of doves found throughout the state from the highest coniferous
-forest down into the scorching heat of the creosote desert are the Inca
-dove, ground dove, mourning dove, white-winged dove, and the bandtail
-pigeon, all of them close relatives. Of these, only two, the mourning
-dove and the white-winged dove, are commonly hunted as game species.
-
-An unexplained and precipitous decline struck the bandtail pigeon about
-ten or twelve years ago, from which it apparently has never recovered.
-Although hunting was undoubtedly part of the pressure exercised against
-these birds, it in no way accounted for their sudden and dramatic
-decline in numbers. This decline may gradually be reversed, since more
-and more of these birds are being seen. It is well known that animals
-with a high reproductive capacity can endure much heavier losses to
-their population than can those with low or very limited reproduction,
-such as the bandtail, which normally lays only a single egg. The
-mourning dove, on the other hand, lays two eggs at a time and may raise
-as many as five or more broods in one year. Take this one step further
-with the scaled or Gambel quail, which may lay up to 12 or 15 eggs, and
-it can readily be seen that the population of bandtail pigeons can never
-endure the losses that the much more prolific mourning dove and quail
-can. The same might be said by comparison of elk and deer. Elk do not
-bear their first young until their third year, and then the cow may not
-bear young but alternate years until her seventh or eighth year; by that
-time she has begun to decline in vigor; in her total life she may not
-produce more than four or five calves. The mule deer, on the other hand,
-start bearing at the age of two, with their first birth normally single;
-from then on, twins are usual for the rest of the doe’s life. Thus, deer
-have a considerably greater reproductive potential than do elk or
-bighorn sheep, which have one young at a time.
-
-The fleet-footed antelope of the open rolling plains is another example
-of fairly high reproductive capacity, since they breed earlier than do
-deer and normally bear twins. Antelope are confined to the more open
-country where their prodigious running ability and marvelous eyesight
-stand in good stead in protecting them against their natural enemies.
-
-The wild turkey, classified by law in New Mexico as big game, is found
-throughout the mountainous areas of the state, not excepting some of the
-desert ranges. New Mexico is one of two states fortunate enough to
-possess three of the five forms of the wild turkey known to the United
-States: the Merriam turkey, found in the higher elevations of the
-mountainous areas, usually the ponderosa forest; the Rio Grande turkey,
-confined to the watercourses of the eastern plains; and the fairly rare
-Mexican turkey, found in the Animas and Peloncillo mountains of extreme
-southwestern New Mexico. In Hildalgo County these mountains are actually
-largely Mexican in both flora and fauna. Some of the rarest, most
-beautiful birds of North America are also found in this area and nowhere
-else in the United States with the exception of southeastern Arizona.
-
-Our most abundant game bird, the mourning dove, is found in every county
-of the state and nests from the coniferous forests of the north and the
-higher mountains of the south clear out into the plains where there is
-not a tree in sight for miles. Doves are extremely adaptable and very
-prolific. They provide the finest kind of sport shooting and are avidly
-sought, particularly by shotgun enthusiasts of the eastern and southern
-parts of the state.
-
-Scaled quail are found throughout New Mexico, being absent only in
-elevations above 7000 feet. Even there, they periodically occur but are
-ordinarily driven back by winter snow. Gambel quail are found throughout
-the river courses of the Rio Grande Valley, the San Juan Valley, and the
-southwestern watercourses. The Mearns’ quail is found in the southern
-half of the state in the higher mountain elevations, whereas the
-bob-white quail occupies the grassy rolling sandhills of the eastern
-counties where it is commonly found together with scaled quail.
-
-Quail hunting is one of the most popular sports in New Mexico and many
-thousands of hunters can hardly wait from one season to the next. New
-Mexico is in the heart of the scaled quail country and provides some of
-the finest shooting to be had anywhere.
-
-Migratory waterfowl, while not considered abundant, are not uncommon in
-this state, known more for its aridity than for its rivers and lakes.
-The two main fly ways are the Rio Grande Valley and the Pecos Valley,
-with the Pecos Valley being somewhat ahead in total numbers.
-
-Ducks commonly found in New Mexico in abundance are teal, both
-green-winged and blue-winged as well as the lesser-known cinnamon teal,
-mallards, widgeon, pintails, gadwall, scaups, canvasbacks, redheads, and
-other species.
-
-In addition, New Mexico plays winter home to many thousands of the
-lesser sandhill crane which is confined to the river valleys and open
-plains of the eastern part of the state, particularly the southeastern
-counties. A smaller population of the greater sandhill crane is found in
-the Rio Grande Valley and near Columbus. Flocks of the small
-Richardson’s goose are found in the northeastern counties, in
-particular, and along river courses throughout the state. The small snow
-goose is likewise confined mostly to major river courses. The larger
-Canada geese are found particularly in the middle Rio Grande Valley
-where extensive development has been made by both state and federal
-agencies to encourage the use and the presence of bands of geese.
-
-New Mexico is unique in that it was the first state in many years to be
-able to open a hunting season on the lesser sandhill crane. This bird is
-comparatively abundant, the total population probably being in excess of
-200,000, with the vast majority of these birds wintering in west Texas,
-New Mexico, and Mexico. They occasionally cause heavy depredation to
-grain crops in the southeastern part of the state, and hunting has been
-partly justified on the basis that the large wintering flocks might be
-broken up and depredation spread over a larger area for less individual
-effect. These birds are tall, wild, and shy. They are hard to hunt, even
-more so than geese, and although strenuous efforts have been made, not
-too many of them are bagged.
-
-One should not overlook the tremendous opportunity for sport hunting of
-unprotected species, such as the various rabbits, the mountain lions and
-bobcats, and coyotes.
-
-The wolf is now very rare in New Mexico. Only occasionally do wolves
-come out of Mexico into the southwestern counties, usually in Hidalgo,
-Luna, and Doña Ana. Wolves are large, effective predators and are
-incompatible with the cattle-raising industry. Since they have a
-fondness for beef, the hand of the cattleman is raised against them.
-
-The mountain lion prefers his natural prey of deer, mule deer being the
-principal victims. The bobcat preys on deer and on many of the small
-wild animals, rabbits in particular. These predators, when run and
-hunted with a pack of dogs, provide a fascinating sport which is growing
-in popularity.
-
-The use of calls to attract animals to a “victim” has become widespread.
-The calls imitate the distressed cry of rabbits and other creatures
-which to the predator means a meal close at hand. Everything from
-mountain lions to red-tailed hawks have been hunted by this procedure,
-and it can be very successful in bagging quarry. This type of hunting
-has value in that it can be enjoyed at any time of the year throughout
-the state and with a minimum of time and effort.
-
-Hunting is a conservation practice that, wisely administered, results in
-wholesome out-of-door recreation and brings many tons of high protein
-food of highest quality to the table. Nature nowhere in her economy
-locks up a resource and throws away the key—we should be no less wise.
-
-Long gone are the buffalo which once roamed the High Plains of eastern
-New Mexico. Exotic animals, imported and stocked along the rugged canyon
-of the Canadian River above Conchas Reservoir, are the Barbary sheep
-with their magnificent coiled horns. Beavers dam some of the mountain
-streams, badgers and skunks can be seen from the highways, and amid the
-forests are squirrels and porcupines, while high on rock slopes, the
-Rocky Mountain woodchuck and the gray rock cony dash from ledge to
-ledge. The white-tailed ptarmigan also haunts these high crags, and
-lower down the mountain, bluebirds nest. Hawks, eagles, magpies, jays,
-ravens, orioles, wrens, sparrows, warblers, finches, and many other
-birds of endless variety soar over canyon, forest, and sand-dune desert.
-
-Most notable of all is the crested roadrunner, the chapparal cock or
-paisano of Mexico and the state bird. In between racing with horsemen or
-automobiles, the slender roadrunner cocks his head, strikes swiftly and
-victoriously, then swallows his victim, which can be a small
-rattlesnake, whole.
-
-Snakes there are aplenty. Mostly, they are nonpoisonous, such as the
-garter snake, glass snake, puff adder, ring-necked snake, the coachwhip,
-the Mexican blacksnake, and the large western bullsnake. The small but
-very venomous coral snake is rare, but common among rocks and near
-streams are the large western diamondback rattlesnake, the prairie
-rattlers, and the less common green or blacktailed rattlesnake. Every
-sun-warmed rock has its scampering lizard, and nearby are horned toads,
-dry-land terrapins, tortoises, tarantulas, centipedes, vinegarroons,
-scorpions, and spiders. Of these latter desert animals, only the black
-widow spider is poisonous.
-
-Contrast in the influence of environments is shown by the animals that
-inhabit the “malpais,” the recent flows of black, rough-surfaced lava,
-compared with similar animals found among the white gypsum dunes of
-White Sands. Black or darkly colored subspecies of mice, plains wood
-rats, kangaroo rats, and rock squirrels live on the black lava, whereas
-white or pale counterparts of these animals live among the white gypsum
-dunes.
-
-    [Illustration: Sketch of roadrunner, New Mexico state bird]
-
-The dwellers in the hills and plains of New Mexico are as varied as the
-hills and plains; they add their color and movement to the scenes of the
-Land of Enchantment.
-
-
-
-
-               Rocks That Shape the Enchanting Landscape
-
-
-                        _by_ Frank E. Kottlowski
-
-“As old as the hills.” How much more ancient can anything be? Yet New
-Mexico’s hills, its enchanting landscapes, were built in but the most
-recent “minute” of geologic time. Merely one geologic era ago, marine
-waters covered the state, and storm-tossed waves ruled where now the hot
-sun beats down on dry sands and cacti a mile above sea level.
-
-What determined the Land of Enchantment’s landscapes? Shaping these land
-forms are the rocks of the earth’s crust, the structure of those rocks,
-and the endless battle between the rocks and the atmosphere. A story
-spelled out in stone, the geologic history. The rocks determine.
-
-Eons ago, it began; one billion, two billion, or perhaps even more
-billions of years ago. A history whose beginnings have been lost owing
-to destruction of its earliest records. A history, written in the rocks,
-that is divided into four general parts (fig. 1). The oldest rocks, more
-than 600 m.y. (million years) old, almost devoid of traces of life, are
-the Precambrian rocks. The Paleozoic rocks, 230 to 600 m.y. old, are
-marked by ancient (_paleo_-) life. This was the Period of Invertebrates,
-animals without backbones. Mesozoic rocks, 70 to 230 m.y. old, formed in
-the Era of Dinosaurs and contain types of life that are intermediate
-(_meso_-) between the ancient and modern animals. And rocks of the
-Cenozoic Era, 70 m.y. ago to the present, make up the latest (_ceno_-,
-recent) chapter of the earth’s history.
-
-Events of the Cenozoic Era have had the greatest influence on New
-Mexico’s landscapes. So let us begin the story at the dawn of the
-Cenozoic, and return to the earlier geologic chapters later.
-
-
-CENOZOIC ERA
-
-The mountains, the plains, the rivers, and the lakes all are transitory
-features of the landscape, created during the recent part of the
-Cenozoic Era, and all doomed to destruction in the near future,
-geologically speaking. Even so, some of the plains and mountains may
-predate man’s evolution onto the earth scene.
-
-Gone were the late Mesozoic seas; never again during our lifetime nor
-the lifetime of many future generations will marine waters roll over New
-Mexico, and sea-spawned creatures rule. For the first two thirds of the
-Cenozoic, the Paleogene Period (25 to 70 m.y. ago), New Mexico suffered
-from the dying effects of the great Laramide upheaval of the earth’s
-crust. Large areas were exposed to the harsh erosion of stream and wind.
-The landscape looked as parts of southwestern New Mexico do today—tall
-rugged mountain ranges scattered in isolated patches amid wide gravelly
-plains. But the climate was more humid, and while no large through
-rivers are known, local great swamps and lakes lay on the plains in
-debris-trapping lowlands.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 1. Table of geologic time]
-
- _Scale of geologic time
- in millions of years_
-        _Era_                        _Rocks_             _Dominant life_
-           _Geologic age_
-
-    70  CENOZOIC
-           Neogene
-        Pleistocene       Bandelier volcanic ash,        Man
-                          basalts, sand dunes, river
-                          gravels, glacial & lake beds.
-                     1 my
-        Pliocene          Volcanic rocks of Mt.          Mammals
-                          Taylor, early Valle Grande &
-                          Gila region; Santa Fe, Gila,
-                          and Ogallala Fms.
-                    11 my
-        Miocene
-                    25 my
-           Paleogene
-        Oligocene         Datil, Espinaso, and other
-                          volcanic rocks.
-                    40 my
-        Eocene            Baca, Animas, Nacimiento,
-                          San Jose, Raton, Poison
-                          Canyon, Galisteo El Rito,
-                          Blanco Basin, & Cub Mountain
-                          Fms.
-                    60 my
-        Paleocene
-   160  MESOZOIC
-           Cretaceous     Upper sandstone, shale, &      Dinosaurs
-                          coal. Mesaverde, Pierre, &
-                          Niobrara, Dakota Ss. and
-                          Mancos Sh.
-                          Volcanic rocks, limestone,
-                          sandstone, and conglomerate.
-                   135 my
-           Jurassic       Morrison Fm., Summerville
-                          Fm., Zuni Ss., Todilto Ls. &
-                          gypsum, Entrada Ss.
-                   180 my
-           Triassic       Wingate Ss., Dockum Fm.,
-                          Chinle Fm., Santa Rosa Ss.,
-                          Moenkopi Fm.
-   370  PALEOZOIC
-           Permian        Rustler Dolomite; redbeds      Amphibians
-                          Castile gypsum, Salado Salt.
-                          Artesia Grp.—Capitan reef
-                          San Andres Ls.—Goat Seep reef
-                          Glorieta Sandstone
-                          Yeso Fm.—Bone Spring Fm.
-                          Abo Redbeds—Hueco Ls.
-                   280 my
-           Pennsylvanian  Mostly limestone; beds of
-                          shale & sandstone; lenses of
-                          gypsum, salt, and coal.
-                   310 my
-           Mississippian  Helms & Paradise Fms.          Fish
-                          Rancheria Ls.
-                          Lake Valley & Escabrosa Lss.
-                          Arroyo Penasco & Tererro Fms.
-                   345 my
-           Devonian       Percha Shale, Ouray Ls.
-                          northern dol., ss, and sh.
-                          erosion
-                   400 my
-           Silurian       Fusselman Dolomite
-                          erosion
-                   425 my
-           Ordovician     Montoya Dolomite               Invertebrates
-                          El Paso Limestone
-                          Bliss
-                   500 my
-           Cambrian       Sandstone
-                          erosion
- 1500+
-        PRECAMBRIAN       quartzite, gneiss, rhyolite,   Simple
-                          andesite, granite,             primitive forms
-                          pegmatite, schist,
-                          greenstone.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 2. New Mexico during Paleogene time]
-
-Scenery in north-central New Mexico (fig. 2) may have been similar to
-today’s, with mountains in the same general areas as the present-day
-Sangre de Cristo, Nacimiento, San Juan, and Brazos ranges.
-Coarse-grained gravels were stacked up at the edges of the mountains,
-but out in the adjoining lowlands, floodplain sands and varicolored
-lake-bed clays settled. Three low areas were “basins” of deposition
-where thick masses of sediments accumulated—the Raton and Poison Canyon
-formations in the Raton Basin near Raton, the Animas, Nacimiento, and
-San Jose formations in the San Juan Basin north and northwest of Cuba,
-seen along N.M. Highway 44, with thinner deposits of the El Rito and
-Blanco Basin formations to the northeast of Cuba, and the Galisteo
-Formation in the Galisteo Basin south and southwest of Santa Fe.
-Volcanic rocks, the Espinaso beds, overlie the Galisteo but are not much
-younger in age. Reddish rocks of the Galisteo Formation crop out along
-U.S. Highway 85 at La Bajada Hill about twenty miles southwest of Santa
-Fe. The Sandia Mountains’ area appears to have been a lowland.
-
-Silicified wood, chiefly of pines but with some oak and poplar, is
-abundant in the Galisteo Formation. Large logs, up to 6 feet in diameter
-and 135 feet long, have been found. In the great swamps of the Raton
-Basin, where the climate was much like that of Georgia today, tall
-reeds, water lilies, fig trees, palm trees, magnolias, and sycamores
-grew in profusion, and contributed to the thick coal beds now mined
-there. The early ages of the Cenozoic saw the spectacular rise of the
-mammals to dominance over reptiles on land; numerous remains of the
-early mammals are found in the Nacimiento and San Jose formations,
-including the famous Puerco and Torrejon faunas—as well as many clams,
-snails, fish, turtles, crocodiles, snakes, and birds.
-
-Southeastern New Mexico appears to have been relatively level with only
-local hills and vast regions of featureless, stagnant but high plains
-where erosion slowly ate downward, deposition was slight, and most of
-the detritus was carried eastward far beyond the state’s borders. The
-redbeds of the Baca Formation were laid down on the north flank of low
-mountains that extended intermittently from somewhere near Quemado
-toward Socorro. Some ancient hills near present-day Sierra Blanca shed
-rock fragments that accumulated near Capitan as the varicolored Cub
-Mountain Formation. Deeply eroded uplands northwest of Elephant Butte
-Reservoir supplied gravels and sands that mingled with andesitic
-volcanic debris as the upper part of the McRae Formation in central
-Sierra County. Many of the weathered greenish and purplish volcanic
-rocks in southwestern New Mexico were extruded at this time, and beneath
-the surface these molten magmas (hot liquefied rocks) cut into older
-rocks. Vapors and hot solutions from the magmas are believed to have
-emplaced some of New Mexico’s vast ore deposits during this time.
-
-The last phase of the Paleogene Period, about 25 to 40 m.y. ago, was an
-earth-shaking time in New Mexico—and the first explosion of an atomic
-bomb in 1945 on the Jornada del Muerto between Socorro and Carrizozo was
-a relatively low-energy-yield event compared with the late Paleogene
-earth movements. Almost the entire southwestern quarter of the state
-literally exploded, with volcanic eruptions on a grand scale. These lava
-flows, rock breccias, ashes, pumice, and associated intrusives (molten
-rocks that did not make it to the surface) form the Datil-Mogollon
-plateau—at least 100 miles in diameter—as part of the Datil Formation,
-which locally is miles thick, and made up the main mass of many other
-ranges near the Mexican border. Sierra Blanca (12,003 feet altitude)
-northeast of Alamogordo is a huge, isolated volcanic mass of late
-Paleogene age.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 3. East-west cross section of Rio Grande
-    graben near Santa Fe]
-
-This widespread volcanic activity continued into the Neogene Period
-which began about 25 m.y. ago. Rhyolites, pumice, and perlite in the
-southwest, as well as in other parts of the state, covered wide areas.
-Mount Taylor, towering up to 11,389 feet near Grants and visible on the
-western skyline from Albuquerque, is a Neogene volcanic pile, as are
-parts of the Sangre de Cristo range northeast of Taos. Shiprock and
-Cabezon Peak, landmarks in northwestern New Mexico, are volcanic
-necks—the eroded cores of ancient volcanoes.
-
-Valle Grande caldera makes up the center of the Jemez Mountains west of
-Los Alamos and is a late Neogene volcanic mass with the central crater
-sixteen miles in diameter—one of the world’s largest calderas. Bandelier
-National Monument headquarters is within a canyon carved from Valle
-Grande’s ashes. Volcanic ash scattered over the western parts of Texas,
-Oklahoma, and Kansas was blown from this volcano. Capulin Mountain, east
-of Raton, is a huge recent cinder cone and is surrounded by numerous
-basaltic lava flows that cap the High Plains from Raton eastward to
-Clayton. The very fresh black basalt flows near Carrizozo and in the
-valley of Rio San Jose near Grants are probably less than 1000 years
-old. Numerous mesas along the Rio Grande Valley from the Colorado line
-to El Paso are capped by black basalt flows of late Neogene age.
-
-Many of the present-day mountains were uplifted in early Neogene time,
-following the climax of the great volcanic eruptions. This uplifting, in
-many instances, took place along one side of huge mountain masses,
-forming tilted fault blocks like the Sandia, Manzano, San Andres, and
-Sacramento mountains. Rock beds in the Sandia Mountains, for example,
-dip to the east, but were uplifted along a west-bounding fault zone—a
-huge break in the earth’s crust—as much as four miles! This was an
-earth-shaking event! However, the uplifting took place slowly, and
-indeed is continuing today as the Albuquerque area, along with the Rio
-Grande Valley southward to Socorro, is one of the most active earthquake
-areas in the state.
-
-Concurrent with uplift, other blocks of the earth’s crust sank, forming
-graben basins which were flooded with rock debris from the adjoining
-uplifts. A tremendous irregular graben, now followed by the Rio Grande,
-cut north-south across the state. Geologists label it the _Rio Grande
-structural depression_ (fig. 3). Mountains on the east are the Sangre de
-Cristo, Sandia, Manzano, Los Pinos, Fra Cristobal, and Caballo ranges;
-those to the west include the Brazos, Jemez, Ladron, Socorro, Magdalena,
-and San Mateo mountains. Within this complex graben, and around the
-bordering ranges, the colorful sandstones and siltstones of the Santa Fe
-Group were deposited—these red, yellow, orange, and cream rocks are
-eroded in many places, such as near Santa Fe, to “badlands”
-characteristic of the landscapes along the Rio Grande Valley from
-Espanola southward to El Paso. Much brightly tinted silicified wood is
-found in these beds, and literally freight-car loads of mammalian
-remains have been shipped to museums from outcrops near Espanola.
-
-In the basins amid the mountains of southwestern New Mexico, similar
-sands and gravels of the Gila Conglomerate filled low areas. East of the
-mountains of central New Mexico that form a north-south chain of ranges
-from Raton to Carlsbad, thin gravels of the Ogallala Formation were
-dumped onto the western edges of the High Plains. They now cap the
-plains as well as make picturesque bluffs east of the Pecos River and
-southeast of Tucumcari—the “caprock” of that area. In northwestern New
-Mexico, isolated mesas are topped by the Chuska and Bidahochi
-formations; similar sands, silts, and clays washed from adjoining
-highlands.
-
-The final episodes of landscape formation occurred during the
-Pleistocene Epoch, the recent glacial period. Mountain valley glaciers
-occupied some of the higher parts of the state, as far southward as
-Sierra Blanca; large lakes filled many of the closed basins, such as
-those near Estancia and south of Lordsburg; the Carrizozo and Grants
-basalt flows were extruded; the final tremendous explosions of Valle
-Grande spread volcanic ash over large regions; sands, gravels, and clays
-were eroded and deposited by streams and in lakes; and sand dunes were
-heaped up in many areas. The glistening white gypsum dunes (fig. 4) of
-White Sands National Monument, built up into 50-foot-high mounds
-windward of gypsiferous Lake Lucero, are spectacular products of the
-wind.
-
-The Rio Grande, in its present valley, probably is only as old as
-mid-Pleistocene, born during late uplift of its headwater mountains, the
-San Juan and Sangre de Cristo ranges in southern Colorado and northern
-New Mexico—initiated by floods of meltwaters from waning mountain
-glaciers. Some of the lower terraces (benches) along the Rio Grande are
-very young, being dated by radiocarbon methods at 2600 b.p. (before
-present). Until shackled by Elephant Butte Dam in 1916, and smaller dams
-up and down the valley, the Rio Grande switched its course with every
-large springtime flood. Even with these man-made controls, the Rio
-carves new channels during floods and covers flooded fields with silt as
-the high waters recede.
-
-
-PRECAMBRIAN ERA
-
-The highest points in New Mexico are in the north-central region. Here,
-along the backbone of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, tower Wheeler Peak
-(13,160 feet above sea level), northeast of Taos, and South Truchas Peak
-(13,102 feet), northeast of Santa Fe. Snow lingers on these lofty spires
-all year around except during an especially hot August. Highest
-peaks—they must be capped by the youngest rocks. But no, the quartzites
-and gneisses, hard rocks made up of quartz and feldspar, that hold up
-these pinnacles against the attack of water and ice are among the oldest
-rocks known in the Southwest—perhaps as much as two billion years old.
-These Precambrian rocks lay deep beneath the earth’s surface from early
-Paleozoic time (500 m.y. ago?) until early Neogene time, then were
-uplifted along great breaks in the earth’s crust, uplifted slowly and
-intermittently during the span of time from about 20 m.y. ago to perhaps
-1 m.y. ago.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 4. Gypsum dunes of White Sands]
-
-How did these ancient rocks form? What did New Mexico look like during
-the dawn of geologic history? The record in stone is fragmentary. But
-about two billion or so years back, thick masses of quartz sandstone
-were laid down in north-central New Mexico, as well as vast lenses of
-mud, and some beds of feldspar-rich sandstone. Volcanic activity was
-intense; huge flows of rhyolite and andesite were poured out over most
-of the state, and these in turn, along with the muddy and sandy
-sediments, were intruded by enormous masses of hot granite. Mile-high
-mountains were formed, and during the stretch of this early geologic
-time, called the Precambrian Era, the high peaks were eroded by rain,
-wind, and sun until some were worn down to featureless plains sloping
-toward the ancient ancestral oceans.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 5. Staurolite twin crystals in mica schist]
-
-These Precambrian rocks now make up the cores of such mountain ranges as
-the Sandias east of Albuquerque, the Sangre de Cristo range near Santa
-Fe, the Pedernal Hills south of Clines Corners, the Burro Mountains
-southwest of Silver City, the Brazos Range east of Tierra Amarilla, the
-Zuni Mountains southwest of Grants, and the San Andres Mountains west of
-White Sands. As seen in Tijeras Canyon east of Albuquerque, the bulk of
-the ancient rocks are gray to pinkish granite and granite gneiss,
-speckled by crystals of biotite, microcline, orthoclase, and quartz.
-Quartzites (hardened sandstones), greenstone, and foliated mica schists
-(fig. 5) are the older rocks that were intruded by granitic magmas about
-1350 million years ago—as indicated by dating of radioactive isotopes,
-K-Ar and Rb-Sr. Locally, pegmatite dikes, a late-cooling, large-crystal
-stage of the granites, crisscross the granite and contain excellent
-crystals of quartz, feldspar, and mica, as well as less common minerals.
-The famous Harding pegmatite near Dixon, about forty miles north of
-Santa Fe, contains beryl, columbite-tantalite, lepidolite mica,
-spodumene, and other rare minerals. Some of these crystals are ten feet
-in length!
-
-
-PALEOZOIC ERA
-
-There are some primitive types of plant and animal life known from
-Precambrian rocks outside of New Mexico but the earliest beds that
-contain abundant fossils are those of Cambrian age, 500 to 600 m.y. old.
-Cambrian rocks in New Mexico are in the Bliss Sandstone, a reddish brown
-iron-rich bed, 50 to 200 feet thick, that occurs only in the southern
-part of the state. There it can be seen, for example, along the bold
-east-facing escarpment of the San Andres Mountains or the west-facing
-cliffs of the Caballo Mountains, as a dark band resting on the pinkish
-Precambrian granitic rocks. It is a shallow-sea sand, deposited on the
-northeastern edge of the Cambrian seas. Scattered amid the brown-stained
-quartz, red hematite, and green glauconite are broken shells of
-trilobites and primitive brachiopods. Northern New Mexico was a low,
-broad island during Cambrian time, a source of some of the sands in the
-Bliss Sandstone.
-
-During the Ordovician Period, 425 to 500 m.y. ago, upper sands of the
-Bliss as well as overlying limestones and dolomites were deposited in
-the shallow warm seas of southern New Mexico; these latter rocks are the
-El Paso Limestone and Montoya Dolomite. The Ordovician seas teemed with
-invertebrate life. Fifteen-foot-long cephalopods, as much as a foot in
-diameter, ruled the shallow salt-water bottoms, munching on the abundant
-trilobites and the moss animals, the bryozoans. Numerous brachiopods,
-corals, snails, and clams also thrived, with many of the Ordovician
-carbonate-rock beds literally being made up of these fossil remains.
-Near El Paso, these limy fossiliferous beds are nearly 2000 feet thick,
-but they thin northward to a knife edge in thickness near Mockingbird
-Gap at the north end of the San Andres Mountains. Parts of northwestern
-New Mexico may have been low islands exposed to the sun and erosion
-during Ordovician time, but most of the state was probably within an
-extensive shallow ocean. Later, erosion removed the Ordovician rocks
-from central and northern New Mexico.
-
-Silurian strata, the brown Fusselman Dolomite, deposited during the
-middle of that period (400 to 425 m.y. ago), remain only in the southern
-and southeastern parts of the state, thinning out northward from the
-1000-foot-thick bed near El Paso. The extent of these middle Silurian
-seas is not known, but most of central and northern New Mexico was
-undergoing erosion during late Silurian time. The northward thinning of
-the Fusselman Dolomite is due chiefly to this erosion, evidenced by the
-knobby, ridged and channeled top surface of the Fusselman. Brachiopods
-and corals are the most abundant fossils in the Fusselman Dolomite;
-elsewhere, Silurian rocks are known for the sea scorpions or
-eurypterids, which attained a length of nine feet, and for the complete
-remains of primitive fishes.
-
-During early and middle Devonian time (345 to 400 m.y. ago), most of New
-Mexico was a lowland rotting beneath the sun. Fossiliferous Devonian
-rocks are unknown in the north-central part of the state but occur
-beneath the surface in the Four Corners region of northwestern New
-Mexico and the adjoining states. These rocks are of late Devonian age
-and consist of lower dolomite and sandstone, middle shale and dolomite,
-and the upper Ouray Limestone.
-
-In southern New Mexico, a uniform blanket of dark limy muds, called the
-Percha Shale, was deposited during late Devonian time. This shale marks
-a great change from the limestones of earlier ages. In part, it is of
-black muds deposited in widespread or in local stagnant basins and in
-part calcareous fossiliferous muds in which abundant invertebrate life
-was buried. The clay and quartz silt that make up the rocks were a
-weathered residuum that had accumulated, during the long period of late
-Silurian and early and middle Devonian times, on the lowland of central
-and northern New Mexico.
-
-Except in the stagnant basins, invertebrate life was prolific,
-brachiopods, bryozoans, and corals being especially numerous. Fossil
-fish remnants, chiefly teeth, are abundant in some of the sandy units,
-and outside of New Mexico the earliest amphibians occur in upper
-Devonian rocks. The oldest definitely known assemblage of land plants
-occurs in the Devonian, and forests containing forty-foot-high trees
-spread over the uplands. Such tree ferns, horsetail rushes, and lycopods
-(spiked-leafed trees) may have grown in profusion on the swampy lowlands
-near Albuquerque’s and Santa Fe’s present sites, far north of the muddy
-Devonian seas of southern New Mexico.
-
-                       Figure 6. Fossil specimens
-
-    [Illustration: Brachiopod
-    _Marginifera._]
-
-    [Illustration: Crinoid
-    stem fragment.]
-
-    [Illustration: Crinoid
-    restoration of a crinoid.]
-
-Mississippian rocks (310 to 345 m.y. old) probably were deposited over
-most of New Mexico. Subsequent erosion removed much of the Mississippian
-beds in northern New Mexico. The remnants, less than 100 feet thick in
-most places, are of lower sandy and shaly beds overlain by massive
-crinoidal limestones, the Arroyo Penasco Formation of the Nacimiento and
-Sandia mountains and the Tererro Formation of the Sangre de Cristo range
-east of Santa Fe.
-
-In southern New Mexico, the Mississippian beds are thick and widespread,
-being more than 1000 feet in thickness in the southwestern panhandle.
-There the rock units are the Escabrosa Limestone of the southwest or the
-Lake Valley Limestone of the south-central part of the state. These are
-massive fossiliferous limestones precipitated in shallow extensive seas
-abounding with invertebrate life. Huge gardens of the sea lilies,
-crinoids, spread over the area, their remains mingled with those of lacy
-moss animals, the bryozoans, and with brachiopods and corals. Locally,
-as in the region of the Sacramento and San Andres mountains and Black
-Range, moundlike fossil reefs, called bioherms, were built. Some of
-these bioherms in the Sacramento Mountains are mounds of fossiliferous
-limestones 350 feet high and several thousand feet in diameter. Beds on
-their flanks dip as much as 35 degrees and are made up of broken “fossil
-hash” calcite sands. One can stand at the base of these huge limestone
-hills and almost hear the ancient waves breaking against the reef and
-see the dying struggle of the brachiopod (fig. 6) that left his shell in
-the reef-flank sands.
-
-To the south, beginning near the present site of White Sands, dark
-cherty limestones were laid down in stagnant waters, to become the
-Rancheria Limestone. This black to reddish brown siliceous limestone is
-more than 300 feet thick near El Paso. There its thin beds break down
-into slabs that resemble a jumbled woodpile.
-
-Northern New Mexico was above sea level during late Mississippian time;
-in some areas caves developed in the porous limestones, and in other
-places the limestones were eroded to a residuum of chert and red clay.
-The land must have looked like the karst areas of Indiana, Kentucky, and
-Illinois today—with lost rivers flowing into sink holes, numerous caves,
-and many underground rivers. Only the southernmost part of the state was
-awash in the late Mississippian seas, and in these salt waters, rocks of
-the Helms and Paradise formations settled. They are typical nearshore
-beds of yellowish limy sandstone, green limy shales, and brown sandy
-oolitic limestones. Plant fossils occur intermingled with marine animal
-remains; the plant fragments were washed into the shallow seas from the
-land areas of the central and northern parts of the state.
-
-The Pennsylvanian Period (280 to 310 m.y. ago) was a time of change.
-Previously, northern New Mexico had been an emergent lowland or barely
-awash in shallow waters, while to the south shallow but extensive seas
-held sway, the spawning ground of the vertebrates and invertebrates that
-evolved between 310 and 600 m.y. B.C. But mountains were built during
-the Pennsylvanian, and the whole pattern of land and sea was altered.
-The sun rose on north-south aligned ranges interspersed with
-north-south-trending seas (fig. 7). Somewhere north of Albuquerque a
-mighty range of mountains, the Uncompahgre Range, arose to shed rock
-debris into adjoining ocean basins. To the southeast, a lower but
-prominent range, the Pedernal Mountains, stretched from the present-day
-Pedernal Hills southward to somewhere near Ruidoso and Piñon. Rocks
-eroded from this landmass were dumped westward into the Orogrande basin
-which occupied the region near the present-day White Sands; there as
-much as 3000 feet of beds accumulated—impure sandstones, dark shales,
-fragmental limestones, and even some gypsum during the end phase of
-Pennsylvanian sedimentation.
-
-Rocks filled the Delaware basin in southeastern New Mexico—limestones,
-sandstones, and black shales that now produce oil and gas. In
-northwestern New Mexico west of Grants and mostly west of the Zuni
-Mountains, a low land area, the Zuni Islands, was the source of eroded
-residuum released into an ocean channelway that ran north-northwest
-through central New Mexico from El Paso to Farmington. And in the
-northeast, granite hills of the Sierra Grande Arch stood above the
-shallow Pennsylvanian seas.
-
-In the Four Corners region, broken rock from the Uncompahgre Range was
-rushed westward into the Pennsylvanian-age Paradox Basin. Amid the
-clastic limestones, black shale, gypsum, and salt of this basin are
-oil-bearing lenses. Today, oil wells pump this black “gold” from the
-ancient rocks—wells almost in the shadow of Shiprock’s famous spire.
-
-The Pennsylvanian Period was a time of coal making on the greatest scale
-in the earth’s history. Extensive swamps and marshes, the habitat of
-peat and ultimately coal, were almost lacking in New Mexico. Thus, only
-thin scattered lenses of coal occur in the Pennsylvanian beds of the
-state. The lands of this period were covered by tree ferns, scale trees,
-horsetail rushes, and primitive conifers. In the shallow seas, the
-dominant invertebrates were fusulinids (fig. 8), small-shelled
-protozoans shaped like grains of wheat. Abundant cockroaches, large
-dragonflies, and spiders swarmed over the land.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 7. New Mexico during Pennsylvanian time]
-
-
-                             Permian Rocks
-
-The Permian Period (230 to 280 m.y. ago) dawned with renewed rising of
-the highlands in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. Floods of
-red sand and clay, washed from the rotting hills, wiped out the seas of
-northern and central New Mexico, and intertongued southward with marine
-limestones. These early Permian rocks are the Hueco Limestone near El
-Paso, there 2200 feet thick, the Abo Redbeds near Albuquerque, and the
-upper Sangre de Cristo Redbeds southeast of Santa Fe. Wherever the
-redbeds crop out, their dark reddish brown hue, speckled and striped
-with spots and streaks of green, enlivens the drab gray-and-brown
-landscape. Some of the reddish coloring is from angular grains of red to
-orange feldspar, but most is in thin brilliantly tinted skins of
-hematite that coat the sand grains and saturate the clays. In northern
-and central New Mexico, amphibians and other primitive vertebrate
-animals lived amid the red soils and sands; their bones and imprints
-have been preserved on thin flat slabs of sandstone that now decorate
-sidewalks and patios.
-
-                       Figure 8. Fossil specimens
-
-    [Illustration: Bryozoan
-    _Fenestrellina._]
-
-    [Illustration: Fusulinid
-    _Fusulina._]
-
-    [Illustration: Coral
-    _Lophophyllidium._]
-
-The early Permian seashore, where limy muds beyond the surf intermingled
-with red sandy muds swept from the north, vacillated somewhere north of
-Alamogordo with each sea-level change. Amid the breakers, and as
-submarine banks in the shallow waters, reefs grew—moundlike masses of
-shell debris and calcite mud trapped among frondlike calcareous algae.
-Near Tularosa, these algal “bioherms” are sixty feet high and extend
-within broad belts half a mile wide. In southeastern New Mexico, these
-buried “Abo” reefs have yielded much oil.
-
-By the middle of Permian time, the southern Colorado mountains had been
-worn down to low hills that lay north of an extensive sea covering most
-of New Mexico. From Santa Fe south to White Sands and southeastward
-almost to Carlsbad, very shallow marine waters were alternately stifled
-by pale-red sandy muds or evaporated by the sun. The results were
-alternating beds of pale-red sandstone, gypsum, and silty dolomitic
-limestone, called the Yeso Formation. Locally, as near Carrizozo, thick
-deposits of rock salt also were precipitated, and the Yeso there is
-about 4000 feet thick. At this time, the Delaware basin of southeastern
-New Mexico saw the beginning of its most spectacular events, the
-building of the Capitan and Goat Seep reefs. This basin—a huge oval
-south of Carlsbad and east of Carlsbad Caverns—had been “deep” sea
-during most of Pennsylvanian time, but it was a more distinct geographic
-feature during the Permian. While the pale-red sands, gypsum, halite,
-and dolomitic limestones of the Yeso Formation were laid down to the
-north and northwest, the Delaware basin was rimmed by a low, broad bank
-of fossil-hash calcite sand, now called the Victorio Peak Limestone. In
-the basin, in deep stagnant waters, black sandy limestone and black
-shale of the Bone Spring Formation were deposited.
-
-A sheet of white quartz sand filled the late Yeso seas; the resulting
-Glorieta Sandstone, about 200 feet thick, prominently caps Glorieta
-Mesa. Its cliffs are a familiar sight to travelers on the Santa Fe
-Railway at Glorieta Pass. The Coconino Sandstone in the Grand Canyon
-area of Arizona is the western part of the Glorieta. This “clean”
-sand—lacking intermixed mud—marks the continued lowering of the southern
-Colorado uplands. Broad seas then spread over all but northern New
-Mexico and a thick (600 to 1000 feet) persistent marine unit, the San
-Andres Limestone, was laid down. Much oil is produced in southeastern
-New Mexico from this dark-gray unit of limestones and dolomites. The
-rich agricultural region stretching from Roswell to Artesia depends on
-underground water gained from the San Andres Limestone, water that falls
-as rain and snow on the Sacramento Mountains, seeps underground into the
-cracks and caverns within the San Andres, and flows eastward downslope
-to the Pecos Valley.
-
-The delicate balance between land and sea swung upward at the end of San
-Andres time as these late Permian seas retreated to southern New Mexico.
-The deep Delaware basin was the only persistent marine body of water. It
-was rimmed by magnificent towering barrier reefs, the Goat Seep and
-Capitan reefs that now are host to Carlsbad Caverns. These reefs were
-similar to the present-day Great Barrier Reef of Australia, except that
-the Capitan and Goat Seep reefs surrounded an inland sea whereas the
-Australian reef borders a continent. The Capitan reef is about 400 miles
-long, and other than oceanward channels cut through to the south,
-completely encircled the 10,000-square-mile Delaware basin. At its
-heyday, the Capitan reef was barely awash, and teeming with life, in
-contrast to the silent, stagnant deeps of the Delaware basin which were
-about 2000 feet below sea level only a few miles away from the barrier
-reef. On the steep slope into the basin, huge slump blocks of
-fossiliferous reef limestone slid, mingling with fossil-hash sand. These
-“flank” beds dip steeply from the massive reef core to interfinger with
-the black sandy limestones of the basin.
-
-The Delaware basin was a marine feature throughout Late Paleozoic time;
-its northwestern border is now marked by the southeast-trending front of
-the Guadalupe Mountains southeast of Carlsbad; its north edge was
-east-northeast of Carlsbad, and it extended southward into West Texas.
-
-Shallow “shelf” seas reached irregularly and intermittently northward
-and northwestward from the Capitan reef and mingled with low islands
-throughout all but southeastern New Mexico. Landward, away from the
-Delaware basin, the rocks change from massive, thick, light-gray
-limestones of the reefs into thin units of thin-bedded dolomite, then
-abruptly into alternating beds of gypsum and redbeds, the Artesia Group
-of rocks, and finally, marking the distant shorelines, into thin units
-of red mudstone and red sandstone, the Bernal Formation. Evaporation of
-sea water was excessive, and average temperatures high; the climate
-varied from semiarid in northwestern New Mexico to subtropical in the
-Delaware basin area—a contrast and a similarity to today’s climate.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 9. Castile gypsum sample]
-
-Latest Permian time saw the dramatic end of the Paleozoic Era. Most of
-New Mexico was uplifted above sea level, with only the Delaware basin
-remaining as a land-locked sea, much like the Caspian Sea today, but
-with channels open periodically southward to the ocean. The rocks of
-this waning part of the Permian are called the _Ochoan Series_; they
-show an abrupt and striking change from the underlying Carlsbad reef
-limestones and associated black basin-filling limestones up into the
-laminated gypsum-anhydrite of the basal Ochoan rocks, the Castile
-formation. Normal marine conditions ended almost instantaneously. Excess
-of evaporation lowered the water level of the inland sea; the
-accumulated brine (concentrated salty sea water) killed the life on and
-near the Capitan reef, and thick beds of anhydrite were precipitated.
-The lowest beds of the Ochoan Series, the Castile Anhydrite, and the
-overlying Salado Salt, mostly filled the deep depression that was the
-Delaware basin; the upper beds, the Rustler Dolomite and Dewey Lake
-Redbeds, lap over the edges of the basin and in places rest irregularly
-upon the Capitan limestone.
-
-These are unusual rocks. The Castile (about 1800 feet thick) is thinly
-banded, with thicker bands (laminae, thin layers) of light-gray
-gypsum-anhydrite alternating with thin laminae of dark-brown calcite
-(fig. 9). This lamination is believed due to annual changes, the brown
-calcite being precipitated during the summer and the gray anhydrite
-during the winter. On the surface, the calcium sulfate mineral is
-gypsum, but at depths of about 600 feet, these laminae are anhydrite.
-Addition of water to anhydrite has changed it to gypsum wherever ground
-water penetrated the laminae.
-
-The Salado Salt, about 2000 feet thick, is almost entirely of rock salt
-(halite), with important interbeds of potassium-rich minerals—red
-sylvite, gray langbeinite, brownish bitter-tasting carnallite, and
-pale-red polyhalite. As all these salts are highly soluble in water, the
-Salado Salt nowhere “crops out” at the surface. East of Carlsbad,
-however, the potash-rich beds are mined underground, and supply about
-ninety per cent of the United States’ production—used chiefly as
-fertilizer.
-
-The arid period of Salado Salt evaporation changed slightly as the
-dolomites and anhydrites of the Rustler Dolomite were laid down in the
-last drying moments (geologically speaking) of the Permian. Then as the
-seas retreated to the south, the fine-grained red sands and silts of the
-Dewey Lake Redbeds were spread as a thin blanket over the low lands
-basking under the hot Permian sun. This was a time of dying; whole races
-of vertebrate and invertebrate animals were wiped out, to be known today
-only from their fossil remains. As the dim unmarked episode of latest
-Permian time merged into the Triassic, an inkling of coming life was
-recorded in the rocks. The amphibians were more modern types, and they
-gave rise to the most striking of early land animals, the reptiles. This
-was the beginning of the conquest of the land by the reptiles, which
-culminated later in the dinosaurs, and was aided by the retreat of
-shallow seas from the continents, a change survived chiefly by the
-species adapted to living on land.
-
-
-MESOZOIC ERA
-
-The Mesozoic Era dawned in New Mexico on extensive plains, except for a
-northwest-trending range in the extreme north-central part of the state.
-During this, the early part of the Triassic Period (180 to 230 m.y.
-ago), sands and muds eroded from New Mexico were carried westward to
-northeastern Arizona where they now form the Moenkopi Formation, the
-brilliant reds and purples of the Painted Desert region. Uplands arose
-in late Triassic time in southwestern New Mexico. Along with mountains
-in south-central Colorado, these highlands were torn apart by water and
-wind, and the detritus was swept into sheets of brightly colored sand
-and shale. These beds are thickest (about 2000 feet) along the New
-Mexico—Texas line east of Roswell and in west-central New Mexico (near
-Grants) extending westward into northeastern Arizona. The eastern
-Triassic rocks are the redbeds of the Dockum Group with the lower Santa
-Rosa Sandstone and the upper Chinle beds. The northwestern rocks are the
-Chinle Formation overlain by the redbeds of the Wingate Sandstone.
-
-The Chinle Formation is of special scenic interest as its beds contain
-the silicified trees so well shown at Petrified Forest National
-Monument. These varicolored rocks—red, purple, green, and gray—also
-decorate the Painted Desert area, the wide valley of Rio San Jose east
-of Laguna, and flank Interstate 40 (U.S. Highway 66) from the Texas line
-westward almost to Clines Corners. As some beds are weathered “ash”
-beds, the highlands were sites of volcanoes that spread their dust over
-much of the Southwest. In contrast to the underlying marine Paleozoic
-rocks, these Triassic beds were deposited on land by streams and in
-shallow lakes. Thus the beasts that roamed New Mexico were
-amphibians—such as the thick-skulled stegocephalians—and reptiles of the
-crocodilelike clan, the phytosaurs. The silicified trees in the Chinle
-are mostly primitive pines; some grew to heights of more than 100 feet
-and measure 7 feet in diameter.
-
-New Mexico was featureless rolling prairie, with scattered low hills in
-the northwest, during most of Jurassic time (135 to 180 m.y. ago). In
-the late part of the period, the Sundance-Curtis sea and its shoreline
-lagoons spread down from the north into northwestern New Mexico. Sand
-dunes on its southeastern shores consolidated into the cross-bedded
-Entrada Sandstone; its reddish brown cliffs rim the Rio San Jose Valley
-near Grants and Gallup. In an extensive lagoon, or salt-water lake that
-covered most of northwestern and north-central New Mexico, the gypsum
-and limestone of the Todilto Formation were precipitated; this gypsum is
-the bed mined near Rosario siding (seen between Albuquerque and Santa
-Fe) by the Kaiser Gypsum Company, and near San Ysidro on White Mesa by
-the American Gypsum Company. The Todilto salty basin was overwhelmed by
-reddish sands and silts of the Summerville Formation, washed chiefly
-from the south, and by the multicolored sands of the Zuni Sandstone
-(exposed at El Morro), and then the stream and wind-blown sands and
-clays of the varicolored Morrison Formation were laid down in northern
-New Mexico. Petrified wood and bone fragments are abundant in the
-Morrison beds—along with uranium—but no fossil finds in New Mexico equal
-those in the Morrison Formation of Dinosaur National Park, Utah.
-
-Much of North America, including southern New Mexico, was land during
-the Jurassic. In the streams and lakes were many kinds of fishes,
-amphibians, reptiles, snails, crustaceans, and water bugs; on dry land
-were hordes of reptiles, small primitive mammals, and ants; in the air
-were flying reptiles, the earliest known birds, moths, and butterflies.
-The earth was ruled by the reptiles, with the dinosaurs dominant—some
-being the most ponderous land animals of all earth history. Such were
-Stegosaurus and Brachiosaurus, the latter 85 feet long and weighing 50
-tons.
-
-The Cretaceous Period (70 to 135 m.y. ago) was one of great contrast in
-New Mexico. During Early Cretaceous time, most of the central and
-northern parts of the state were low lands torn by erosion, while thick
-piles of conglomerate, sandstone, and shale accumulated in depressions
-in the southwestern corner. Huge volcanoes near Lordsburg added their
-hot ashes, bombs, and flows to the sedimentary detritus, and thick
-fossiliferous limestones were laid down in muddy and sandy waters of the
-sea—the shoreline fluctuated over tens of miles in areas south of
-Lordsburg, Deming, and El Paso. These Early Cretaceous beds total 20,000
-feet in thickness in some areas. In eastern and northeastern New Mexico,
-in contrast, thin sheets of quartz sand were deposited by streams on the
-edge of a shallow sea, and black muds in local lagoons.
-
-Rock beds thousands of feet thick were laid down in northern and central
-New Mexico during Late Cretaceous time, whereas most of the southern
-part of the state was above sea level and was being eroded by tireless
-winds and streams. The shorelines made parallel northwest-trending bands
-across the state. These are now marked by beach sands, some of which are
-speckled by black minerals, high in rare elements titanium, niobium, and
-zirconium. Northwestern and central New Mexico was a battleground of the
-land and sea, with the beaches advancing and retreating fifty or a
-hundred miles during an instant of geologic time. Stream sands and coal
-beds lie landward from the beach sands which, in turn, mingle seaward
-with black limy shales that were flushed into the seas. The lowest of
-these rocks is the Dakota Sandstone—famous as an artesian aquifer in the
-High Plains areas of states to the northeast—Colorado, the Dakotas,
-Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming, and Montana. Above is the black Mancos Shale,
-which in turn is overlain by the Mesaverde Group.
-
-The transitions from coal swamps and stream sands to beach deposits and
-then into marine black shales is characteristic of the Mesaverde in
-northwestern and north-central New Mexico. To the northeast, beds of the
-same age were laid down in an extensive muddy sea that stretched far to
-the east; the Pierre Shale and Niobrara chalky limestone that underlie
-the plains northeast of Las Vegas are typical. The cliff-forming
-sandstones and coal beds near Gallup are part of the Mesaverde Group and
-rim the entire San Juan Basin. Above are similar rocks such as the
-Kirtland Shale, Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, and Fruitland Formation that
-underlie valleys cut in the shales and cliffs carved from the sandstones
-in the northwest corner of New Mexico near Farmington.
-
-Toward the end of the Cretaceous, the Laramide “revolution” began, and
-New Mexico along with most of North America emerged from beneath the
-seas, to be high and dry to the present. The revolution, an extensive
-upheaval of the earth’s crust, saw uplift of the San Juan Mountains area
-in southwestern Colorado and large volcanoes spouting fire and ashes
-nearby. Fragments of the eroded mountains and debris from these
-andesitic volcanoes were flushed southward by streams and steam to
-settle as thick piles of mud, sandstone, and conglomerate, the McDermott
-and Animas formations in the San Juan Basin. The last moment of
-Cretaceous time, if we could be so precise, was ushered out almost
-unnoticed—with mountains rising to the north and the andesitic-quartz
-detritus being laid down to the south in the upper beds of the Animas
-Formation.
-
-Similarly, mountains arose during Late Cretaceous time in north-central
-New Mexico and south-central Colorado, about on the site of the
-present-day Sangre de Cristo range northeast of Taos, and shed erosional
-gravels and muds into the Raton Basin area. Alluvial fan gravels and
-sands grade eastward into dark muds and coals laid down in swamps and on
-floodplains. These rocks now cap the rugged mesas seen northwest of the
-Santa Fe Railway from Raton southward—the cliff-forming Trinidad
-Sandstone and the dark siltstones, sandstones, black shales, and coal
-beds of the Vermejo and Raton formations. The Kaiser Steel Corporation
-mine near Koehler extracts coal from these beds. Again, the exact end of
-the Cretaceous is marked only by some obscure boundary between beds, in
-that area within the Raton Formation.
-
-During the Cretaceous Period, the deciduous trees—such as the oak,
-maple, poplar, and elm that dominate today’s flora—became common. The
-covered-seed plants, the angiosperms, are the most notable of the
-Cretaceous plants, but the development of the modern floras was an
-antecedent to the great expansion of mammals and birds during the
-following Cenozoic Era. Reptiles ruled the earth, led by the dinosaurs
-(fig. 10) and their distinctive group, the horned large-skulled
-ceratopsians such as Triceratops. The small, hairy, warm-blooded mammals
-were still insignificant creatures that ran from their huge dinosaur
-lords, but they ate reptile eggs, and so excelled the sluggish reptiles
-in mental and physical activity that they adapted swiftly to the
-changing environments of the Laramide revolution—and became dominant as
-the pea-brained reptiles were unable to stand the changes.
-
-The shallow seas of the Cretaceous swarmed with invertebrate life;
-foraminifers (unicellular protozoans) in uncountable billions make up
-large parts of the chalky limestones. Mollusks, particularly clams like
-oysters and the heavy ribbed Inoceramus, and complexly sutured
-cephalopods, the ammonites, as well as the internal-shelled belemnoids
-(that look like cigars), were most numerous among larger marine animals.
-Reef builders in southwestern New Mexico were the peculiarly corallike
-clams, the rudistids. Widespread warm humid climates seem to have
-prevailed throughout the state during most of the Cretaceous.
-
-
-LANDSCAPES AND MINERAL RESOURCES
-
-Thus as the Cretaceous seas withdrew from New Mexico, the Cenozoic Era
-dawned, and never again have marine waters shaped the landscapes. The
-rocks, Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and their ancient
-movements determine New Mexico’s spectacular landscapes. They tell tales
-of the endless war between erosion and hard rock, show the deposition of
-sediments, their uplift, and their eventual destruction. The result is
-striking scenery—volcanic mountains, as Mount Taylor, Sierra Blanca,
-Valle Grande—fresh lava flows near Carrizozo and Grants—volcanic necks
-like Shiprock and Cabezon—White Sands, the work of the wind—El Morro,
-Enchanted Mesa, Acoma, and badlands near Santa Fe, the result of
-weathering and erosion—great fault-line escarpments of the Sandia,
-Manzano, San Andres, and Sacramento mountains—the work of underground
-waters at Carlsbad Caverns. And man adds his erosive powers—the huge
-open-pit copper mine at Santa Rita and countless excavations for rock to
-build homes, to straighten highways.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 10. Make way for ’is lordship, the Dinosaur!]
-
-The sun can be harsh and hot, the rain sparse, the winter nights fierce
-cold. But within the rocks are natural resources undreamed of by the
-early Indians, almost untouched by the Spanish, and with potential
-beyond vision for the future. Water, being scarce, is one of the more
-important resources. With an average yearly precipitation of only
-fifteen inches, and more than half of the state receiving less than that
-average, water is a problem! Farming must depend upon irrigation, the
-water being drawn from streams or “mined” from underground “pools” where
-it had been accumulating for centuries.
-
-Forests, game, and fish are lucrative resources somewhat unexpected in a
-semiarid state; sheep and cattle—in this the stronghold of the cowboy,
-famous in gunfighter lore—each total more than a million. New Mexico’s
-1965 mineral production, valued at $781.9 million, ranked seventh among
-the states. Principal commodities won from the rocks, in order of value,
-were oil, potash, natural gas, uranium, copper, sand and gravel, zinc,
-coal, crushed stone, and perlite. Sizeable quantities of barite, beryl,
-carbon dioxide, cement, clays, gem stones, gold, gypsum, helium, iron
-ore, lead, limestone, magnesium compounds, manganese, mica, molybdenum,
-pumice, salt, silver, sulfur, and vanadium were also mined. The huge
-open-pit copper mine at Santa Rita, the many uranium mines near Grants,
-the underground potash mines near Carlsbad, and the thousands of oil and
-gas wells in the northwestern and southeastern parts of the state are
-typical of man-made landscape features attributable to mineral
-exploitation in New Mexico. Numerous old mine dumps, rotting mine
-shafts, and spooky ghost towns are reminders of past fortunes won and
-lost.
-
-The rocks, the work of water, wind, and sun, and the not insignificant
-upheavals by man have shaped New Mexico’s landscapes. Blended with its
-blue skies, warm sun, and the products of three cultures—Indian,
-Spanish, and American—the rocks and their movements have made the
-landscapes a land of enchantment.
-
-  Earth wears a mantle rich with lore,
-      of storied fabric finely spun,
-  That tells of kingdoms come and gone,
-      of legions lost and battles won.
-  No seer no monarch can divine,
-      the cryptic writings; he alone,
-  Who humbly speaks the tongue of earth,
-      can find a story in a stone.
-
-
-
-
-                            Before Coronado
-
-
-                          _by_ Robert H. Weber
-
-The cultural heritage of New Mexico is a rich and colorful one, blending
-as it does the three separate traditions of Indian, Spanish, and
-Anglo-American. Of these, the lifeways of the Indian, ancient and
-modern, are of particular interest to both the visitor and resident.
-These were the first inhabitants of the New World, whose roots extend
-back in time many thousands of years before the first European set foot
-here. People who had adapted themselves to the varied and often harsh
-environments of desert, plain, valley, canyon, and mountain; who
-witnessed the disappearance of the large mammals of the Pleistocene Ice
-Age and concomitant changes in climate and vegetation; the first
-prospectors and miners seeking flint, obsidian, turquoise, clay, salt,
-and mineral pigments; early traders exchanging valued minerals and
-handicrafts for shells of the coastal regions; hunters and farmers,
-architects and builders, civic and religious leaders, philosophers and
-critics, skilled craftsmen and artists, explorers and soldiers—all
-ancient counterparts of those who were to follow.
-
-In 1540, when the train of soldiers in the company of Coronado’s Spanish
-Expedition entered the unknown lands later called New Mexico, four
-groups of native Americans were established residents in the area. Along
-the arable valley of the Rio Grande and its tributaries, and in several
-outlying areas were the adobe and stone apartment-house villages of the
-Pueblo Indians, whose livelihood was based largely on agriculture. East
-of the mountains were scattered bands of Plains Indians, Eastern
-Apaches, who were nomadic hunters following the herds of buffalo that
-ranged across the vast grasslands of the High Plains. Western Apaches
-were dispersed in small bands of hunters and gatherers of wild foods
-through the mountainous country to the west of the Rio Grande. A related
-group, the Navajo, augmented the necessities of life gained by hunting
-and gathering with subordinate agricultural crops in the Plateau region
-to the northwest.
-
-Early contacts of the _conquistadores_ were largely with the Pueblo
-Indians, although they had limited knowledge of the Apaches and Navajos
-in outlying districts. There was little to suggest to the Spanish
-invaders, except for the ruins of long-abandoned Pueblo villages, that
-the fragmentary record of thousands of years of human prehistory lay
-scattered in the dust beneath their feet. Undoubtedly they would have
-dismissed as utter nonsense any notion that men armed with stone-tipped
-spears had here slain elephants in a marsh 12,000 years old that now lay
-buried beneath shifting sands of a desert landscape. Indeed, it was not
-until the last quarter of the 1800’s that serious attempts were made to
-decipher the prehistoric traces of the Pueblo Indians, whereas concrete
-evidence that man had hunted long-extinct Pleistocene big game in
-America was not discovered until less than forty years ago.
-
-
-EARLY HUNTERS
-
-The year 1926 was marked by the first of a series of important
-archeological finds in New Mexico that were eventually to demonstrate
-that man had occupied this area as much as 11,000 to 12,000 years ago.
-During this period, Late Pleistocene ice sheets of continental glaciers
-still blanketed parts of the northern tier of states in the vicinity of
-the Great Lakes, and elephants (both mammoths and mastodons), horses,
-camels, giant bison, tapirs, and ground sloths roamed the Southwest.
-Excavations begun in 1926 near the small town of Folsom, in northeastern
-New Mexico (fig. 1), disclosed a number of fossil skeletons of a large
-form of extinct bison, forerunners of the modern bison or buffalo. Among
-these bones were dart or spear points of distinctive form and
-workmanship, characterized by broad, shallow flutes or channels on each
-face (fig. 2). These artifacts, now known as Folsom points, have since
-been recovered from a number of sites in New Mexico and elsewhere in
-North America, commonly in association with the remains of extinct
-bison. Evidently Folsom “Man” (whose skeletal remains have not been
-discovered) was a nomadic hunter particularly dependent upon the bison
-for his food supply, much as were the later Plains Indians of historic
-time. Ages of from 10,000 to 11,000 years have been obtained from
-charcoal and other organic remains at Folsom camp sites by the
-radiocarbon method.
-
-Succeeding years have seen an increasing number of valuable
-archeological discoveries at camp and game-kill sites of Folsom Man and
-other Early Hunters. Unquestionably, the most important of these sites
-is the Blackwater Draw locality between Clovis and Portales in extreme
-eastern New Mexico, where excavations for gravel disclosed a stratified
-sequence of sediments that were deposited in an ancient pond and spring.
-Here, too, were the characteristic Folsom points in association with the
-bones of fossil bison. Below the Folsom layer, still older deposits
-contained the fossil bones of mammoth, horse, camel, and bison
-associated with fluted spear points that resembled those from Folsom but
-were generally larger and less skillfully chipped and fluted. These
-points, now known as Clovis points, are so commonly found beside the
-remains of mammoths in a number of sites in the High Plains and the
-Southwest that their makers are believed to have been adept at hunting
-these extinct elephants. Radiocarbon dates place Clovis points in a time
-range of from 11,000 to 12,000 years ago.
-
-In a layer above that containing Folsom points at Blackwater Draw,
-several varieties of unfluted lanceolate points were found to be
-associated with the bones of fossil bison. These points have been
-identified by various specific names such as Plainview, Milnesand, Eden,
-and Scottsbluff from excavated sites elsewhere in the High Plains
-region, and probably range in age from 8000 to 10,000 years. Although
-the giant bison still survived into this level of stratigraphy and time,
-the elephant, camel, and horse of the Clovis level had disappeared from
-the area.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 1. Index map of New Mexico showing locations
-    of significant archeological sites, modern Indian pueblos, and
-    Navajo, Ute, and Apache reservations]
-
-  Early Hunter Sites
-    1. Folsom State Monument
-    2. Sandia Cave
-    3. San Jon
-    4. Blackwater Draw
-    5. Manzano Cave
-    6. Lucy
-    7. Milnesand
-    8. Burnet Cave
-  Prehistoric Pueblo and Cliff-Dwelling Ruins
-    9. Aztec Ruins National Monument
-    10. Chaco Canyon National Monument
-    11. Puye Cliff Dwellings
-    12. Bandelier National Monument (Tyuonyi)
-    13. Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument
-  Historic Pueblo Ruins
-    14. Jemez State Monument
-    15. Pecos State Monument
-    16. Coronado State Monument (Kuaua)
-    17. Paako State Monument
-    18. Quarai State Monument
-    19. Abo State Monument
-    20. Gran Quivira National Monument
-  Modern Pueblos
-    21. Taos
-    22. San Lorenzo (Picurís)
-    23. San Juan
-    24. Santa Clara
-    25. San Ildefonso
-    26. Nambé
-    27. Tesuque
-    28. Cochiti
-    29. Santo Domingo
-    30. San Felipe
-    31. Sandia
-    32. Santa Ana
-    33. Zia
-    34. Jemez
-    35. Isleta
-    36. Laguna
-    37. Acoma
-    38. Zuni
-    39. Ojo Caliente
-  Navajo, Ute, and Apache Reservations
-    40. Navajo Indian Reservation
-    41. Ute Mountain Indian Reservation
-    42. Jicarilla Apache Indian Reservation
-    43. Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation
-
-  Modern pueblos
-  Historic pueblo ruins
-  Prehistoric pueblo and cliff-dwelling ruins
-  Early Hunter sites
-
-Another important discovery was made in Sandia Cave northeast of
-Albuquerque. Below cave deposits containing Folsom points was an earlier
-type of point among the bones of mammoth, horse, camel, and other large
-Pleistocene mammals. Now identified as Sandia points, these projectile
-tips are distinguished by an asymmetric stemmed form with a shoulder on
-one side. The age of the Sandia points has been a subject of some
-controversy, but the latest available data from charcoal in Sandia Cave
-indicates an age of nearly 12,000 years, which is within the accepted
-range of the Clovis points.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 2. Folsom point recovered from among rib bones
-    of fossil bison at Folsom, New Mexico (Photograph of plastic
-    replica. Original point in collection of Denver Museum of Natural
-    History.)]
-
-Clovis, Sandia, and Folsom points, together with related stone
-implements, are at many places enclosed in sediments deposited in or
-adjacent to ponds, lakes, streams, and wet meadows. These environments
-indicate a former cool and more humid climate in areas that are now
-semiarid. The food requirements of many of the large herbivores that
-lived at this time also suggest more abundant vegetation and surface
-water than prevails here today. It is not unreasonable, then, to presume
-that climatic conditions contributing to the advance of continental
-glaciers in the Great Lakes region, and to valley glaciers in the Rocky
-Mountains, should have been reflected in lower summer temperatures and
-higher rainfall in non-glaciated areas. The ultimate extinction of the
-large Pleistocene mammals and the similar time of disappearance of the
-hunters who preyed upon them may both be related to the climatic changes
-that followed the end of the Ice Age in America.
-
-
-HUNTERS AND GATHERERS
-
-Groups of people dependent upon a different way of life from that of the
-Early Hunters are known to have occupied much of the present area of New
-Mexico. Although there is some suggestion of overlap in time of these
-people with the Early Hunters, they appear to have become prominent
-during the several thousand warm, dry years following the end of the
-Pleistocene. Adapted, as they were, to a fuller utilization of the
-resources of the area through the hunting and trapping of smaller game
-and an emphasis on the gathering of a wide variety of wild plant foods,
-these people ranged extensively across the varied terrain of the state.
-Similar patterns of subsistence and artifacts are known from the Great
-Basin region west of the Rocky Mountains, where they have been
-categorized under the term _Desert Culture_. Local manifestations of the
-Desert Culture in southeastern Arizona, extending eastward into western
-and southern New Mexico, are identified as the Cochise Culture. Other
-groups showing similarities with Archaic cultures to the east penetrated
-the northeastern part of New Mexico at a time when the area was still
-populated by Pleistocene bison.
-
-Habitation sites of these gatherers are distributed in open situations
-and in shelter caves. Such sites are commonly marked by milling stones
-that characterize the preparation of wild foods (fig. 3), hearths,
-chopping and scraping implements, and stemmed projectile points markedly
-different from those used by the Early Hunters. These points were
-affixed to dart shafts that were propelled with a spear thrower or
-_atlatl_, a device that preceded the bow and arrow in America but is
-still used by Australian Aborigines.
-
-Seasonal changes in the local availability of wild foods must have
-necessitated a nomadic or seminomadic way of life. The development of
-agricultural techniques in the later years before the beginning of the
-Christian Era, however, probably contributed to the development of a
-semisedentary existence that was eventually to lead to the village life
-of the later periods. The exact time of introduction of the principal
-agricultural crops, corn, squash, and beans, is unknown, but evidence
-from west-central New Mexico indicates their use by the Cochise people
-by 2500 B.C.
-
-
-PUEBLOAN FARMERS
-
-Having acquired the techniques of deliberately planting and raising food
-crops that could be stored against future needs, local populations of
-Hunters and Gatherers became less dependent upon the gathering of wild
-foods and began to construct clusters of more permanent dwellings near
-cultivable land. Among the earliest recognized houses of this period are
-the semisubterranean pit houses of the early Mogollon people in the San
-Francisco River drainage of west-central New Mexico (fig. 4) and of the
-Anasazi Basketmakers in the San Juan River drainage of northwestern New
-Mexico. These cultural advances, together with the acquisition of
-techniques for the manufacture of fired pottery, foreshadowed the
-development of the Mogollon and Pueblo cultures at a time beginning
-perhaps as early as 300 B.C. for the Mogollon area and at least by 1
-A.D. for the Anasazi area.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 3. Milling stones of the type used by the
-    Cochise People
-    Plant foods were ground in a shallow basin metate with the small
-    one-hand mano (hand stone). Socorro, New Mexico.]
-
-These two cultural groups, the Mogollon in southwestern and southern New
-Mexico, whose roots extend back through the ancestral Cochise to before
-6000 B.C., and the Anasazi in the Four Corners region of northwestern
-New Mexico, probably developed independently during the early years.
-From about 500 A.D., however, there is increasing evidence of trade
-relationships and eventual fusion of traits. Other groups to the west,
-such as the Hohokam of Arizona, were sources of cultural influence on
-the indigenous people of New Mexico. In the Mogollon and San Juan
-Anasazi heartlands and in the Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico, a
-pattern of village life with elaboration of social and religious
-organization emerged from the relatively simple cultures of the early
-years. Villages began to assume organized form, dwellings were combined
-in rows of adobe and stone structures containing a number of contiguous
-rooms, and subterranean ceremonial chambers or _kivas_ assumed larger
-and more specialized architectural distinctiveness from the ancestral
-pit-house dwellings. In the Mogollon area, the characteristic brownware
-pottery of the Mogollons was used side by side with decorated
-black-on-white pottery of Anasazi origin. The bow and arrow slowly
-replaced the less efficient _atlatl_ and dart. The significance of these
-early stages in the evolution of the Pueblo Culture in the San Juan and
-upper Rio Grande areas is indicated by their designation as the
-Developmental Pueblo period (Pueblo I and II).
-
-    [Illustration: (_Photograph of museum diorama courtesy of the
-    Chicago Natural History Museum_)
-     Figure 4. Mogollon pit-house village of the period 200 B.C.]
-
-The climax of these developments occurred in the interval between 1050
-and 1300 A.D. in the Classic or Great Pueblo period (Pueblo III). Among
-the most impressive manifestations of this period are large
-stone-masonry apartment houses, some rising to five stories in height
-and housing hundreds of people. Dwellings of this type are highlights of
-several well-known tourist attractions, among which are the cliff
-dwellings of Mesa Verde in southwestern Colorado and the monumental
-ruins of Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon (fig. 5), both products of the
-ingenuity of the Anasazi Indians.
-
-At the very apex of the cultural efflorescence of the Great Pueblo
-period, some unknown circumstance or series of events caused abandonment
-of most of the urban centers of the San Juan Anasazi and Mogollon areas.
-A prolonged drouth is recorded by tree rings formed during the period
-from 1276 to 1299 A.D. Surely a drouth of this magnitude would have had
-serious effects on people as dependent upon agriculture as were the
-Pueblo Indians. There are some indications that alien and perhaps enemy
-people were drifting into these areas at about this time, perhaps
-predecessors of the modern Navajos and Apaches. The congested living
-conditions of Pueblo villages undoubtedly contributed to unsanitary
-conditions and social pressures that also may have contributed to shifts
-in population. Many of these migrants moved into the homeland of the Rio
-Grande Anasazi in the upper Rio Grande Valley, and to a lesser extent in
-the central Rio Grande Valley. Some may have relocated at Zuni and other
-areas along the Little Colorado River drainage extending westward into
-Arizona.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service_)
-    Figure 5. Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon National Monument
-    A multistory pueblo containing 800 rooms.]
-
-During the Great Pueblo period, another group showing characteristics of
-both the Anasazi and of non-Puebloan people occupied an area on both
-sides of the Continental Divide along the eastern margin of the San Juan
-Basin. This cultural phase, known as the Largo-Gallina because of the
-distribution of sites in the Largo and Gallina drainage basins, is
-represented by pit houses, surface rooms, and towerlike structures with
-some similarities to the dwellings of the Anasazi. The black-on-white
-pottery also suggests Puebloan relationships, whereas the culinary
-vessels resemble those of the Navajo.
-
-Beginning at about 1300 A.D. or shortly thereafter, a different cultural
-group began to move westward from the Texas Panhandle into the plains of
-northeastern New Mexico. These people of the Panhandle Aspect built
-single-room structures and contiguous room pueblos resembling those in
-use by the Anasazi of the Rio Grande and were skilled bison hunters,
-farmers, and traders. This combination of traits suggests both Puebloan
-and eastern traditions. Panhandle Aspect villages were abandoned
-suddenly not long after 1400, perhaps as a result of the drouth recorded
-by tree rings for the period from 1439 to 1454.
-
-Following the shift in population of the Pueblo region, cultural changes
-occurred that have led to the designation Regressive Pueblo period
-(Pueblo IV) for the interval between 1300 and 1700 A.D. Noteworthy
-changes during this period include a tendency toward enlargement of
-villages and the creation of new styles of pottery, accompanied by some
-deterioration of the artistic creativity of the Classic period. Major
-ruins of this period that are readily accessible to the public include
-Puye Cliff Dwellings, Tyuonyi Pueblo in Bandelier National Monument, and
-Pecos Pueblo in Pecos National Monument.
-
-At the time of Coronado’s _entrada_ in 1540, there were from 60 to 70
-Pueblo villages in New Mexico, most of which contained fewer than 400
-inhabitants. Four or five mutually unintelligible languages were spoken,
-each with several dialects, making communication between Spanish and
-Indian extremely difficult. Language barriers contributed to an
-inadequate documentation of the Pueblo way of life during the early
-years of Spanish contact, so that we must continue to depend upon the
-archeological record during the first century of Spanish colonization of
-the area. The beginning of the Historic Pueblo period (Pueblo V)
-accordingly is commonly set at 1700 A.D.
-
-
-APACHES AND NAVAJOS
-
-Little is known concerning the origin of these two related groups, who
-differ markedly from the Pueblo Indians in language and cultural traits.
-Their closest ties are with other Athapaskan-speaking tribes in
-northwestern Canada, and available evidence indicates that they are
-comparative newcomers to the Southwest. A correlation between the
-abandonment of sections of the Pueblo region and pressures exerted by
-ancestral Apaches and Navajos has been suggested, but definite proof of
-this is still lacking. Raids against the eastern pueblos of the Galisteo
-Basin are reported to have occurred in 1525. Coronado’s expedition
-encountered nomadic hunters in the plains east of Pecos in 1541,
-observing that they followed the movements of herds of bison or buffalo
-on whom they were highly dependent for food and shelter, lived in
-portable tents of tanned buffalo hides supported by a framework of
-poles, and used dogs as beasts of burden. Trade contacts with the Rio
-Grande pueblos included exchange of hide “cloaks” for corn grown by the
-Pueblo Indians.
-
-Related groups in western and northwestern New Mexico are even more
-poorly known, as there was still less contact between them and the
-Spanish explorers. Evidently some agriculture was practiced as a
-supplement to a subsistence based largely on hunting and gathering, a
-pattern of livelihood reminiscent of that of the pre-Puebloan Cochise
-people.
-
-The succeeding years of Spanish and American colonization of New Mexico
-were to be highly influenced by the Apaches and Navajos, and also by
-another group of Plains Indians, the Comanches. The events of this
-period, however, are discussed in a separate article.
-
-
-
-
-                      Frontier Forts of New Mexico
-
-
-                        _by_ Robert A. Bieberman
-
-Following President Polk’s declaration of war against Mexico in May
-1846, a United States Army force was sent from Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas
-Territory, against the Mexican provinces of New Mexico and California.
-This army, known as “The Army of the West,” was led by Gen. Stephen W.
-Kearny. Upon his arrival in Santa Fe in August 1846, General Kearny
-issued a proclamation which informed the citizens that New Mexico was
-now a part of the United States and that he and his army and the forces
-to follow would protect them and their property. General Kearny remained
-in Santa Fe only one month, but during that month he appointed a
-governor, judges, and other officials, started construction of a fort in
-Santa Fe, and sent troops against the Navajo Indians in fulfillment of
-his promise to protect the people. Kearny and his “Army of the West”
-left Santa Fe in September 1846 to conquer California, leaving behind a
-detachment of troops under the command of Col. Alexander W. Doniphan.
-Thus began the role of the U.S. Army, which was to continue for the next
-half century, in securing the frontier in what we now know as the State
-of New Mexico.
-
-History has shown that the troops stationed in New Mexico were called
-upon to participate in the Mexican War and the Civil War and to protect
-the newly established border between Mexico and New Mexico from
-violations from both sides. However, the basic role of the military, the
-role which continued for fifty years, was to protect the traveler, the
-farmer, the miner, and the settler from Indian attack. Its task was made
-no less difficult by the changing, unrealistic, discriminatory Indian
-policies which came out of Washington during this period. When relative
-calm was established, promises were forgotten and violence erupted anew.
-
-The defense policy in New Mexico did not follow a set plan but gradually
-evolved. Military posts were established at different places when the
-need arose and were abandoned when the need diminished. A few of the
-posts were occupied and used by the army throughout most of this period.
-Others existed but a few months or years.
-
-
-FORTS
-
-
-                               Fort Union
-
-Located twenty-seven miles northeast of Las Vegas, Fort Union became the
-most important and most famous fort in the New Mexico Territory.
-Established on the Santa Fe Trail in 1851, it served as supply depot for
-the territory and as a base for troops engaged in the protection of
-traffic along the Santa Fe Trail and of the settlements in the area from
-the depredations of the Apaches, Utes, Comanches, and Kiowas. The site
-can be reached by traveling eight miles of paved road which leaves U.S.
-Highway 85 one mile north of Watrous.
-
-During its forty-year history, Fort Union occupied three different
-sites, all within the same general area. The original fort was of log
-construction which rapidly fell into disrepair. In August 1861, amid
-rumors of the possible invasion of the territory by Confederate forces,
-construction was begun on a new fort. This fort was of earthworks, in
-the form of an eight-pointed star. It was here that the troops waited
-for the attack which never came. With the passing of the Confederate
-threat, work was begun in 1863 on the third fort, the remains of which
-are seen today.
-
-Fort Union soon became the largest fort in the territory. It was
-constructed in two sections, one for the garrison and one for the supply
-depot. The garrison area consisted of four infantry and two cavalry
-barracks facing a row of nine officers’ quarters across the parade
-ground. A sixty-bed hospital was constructed. The depot area included
-five warehouses, mechanics corral, transportation corral, and
-administration buildings. An arsenal was built about one mile from the
-fort proper.
-
-The buildings were constructed of adobe on stone foundations. The roofs
-were flat and the walls were capped with brick copings in what has
-become the territorial style of architecture.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Photo courtesy of National Park Service_)
-    Ruins of Fort Union]
-
-Fort Union was a community within itself and a lively social center.
-Weary travelers on the Santa Fe Trail eagerly anticipated their arrival.
-Few complaints were heard when soldiers were transferred to Fort Union,
-for this was a popular assignment.
-
-With the coming of the railroad and peace at last descending on the
-frontier in the 1880’s, the need for the fort diminished. But it clung
-to life for a few more years, mainly because of the fond memories which
-lived in the hearts of the military leaders who had been stationed
-there. Finally, the end came and Fort Union was abandoned in February
-1891.
-
-New life came to the fort in 1955 when it became a National Monument.
-The ruins have been excavated and stabilized and a fine visitors’ center
-and museum has been established. Fort Union has at last assumed its
-rightful place as a shrine of history. Stand on the parade ground and
-survey the majesty that was Fort Union, listen for the sounds, the bugle
-calls, the barklike commands of close-order drill, the creak of wagons,
-and the thunder of horses’ hooves. These are the sounds of Fort Union.
-They are still there if one will only pause and listen.
-
-
-                               Fort Marcy
-
-Fort Marcy was established in 1846 at Santa Fe and was named for the
-then Secretary of War, W. L. Marcy. The fort was located on a hill
-overlooking the city some 1000 yards northeast of the plaza. A deep
-ditch or moat surrounded the massive adobe walls of the fort and a
-blockhouse, within musket range, protected the only entrance. At the
-time of Colonel Manfield’s inspection trip in August 1853, the troops
-were quartered in public buildings in Santa Fe, there being no quarters
-provided at the fort; however, it could be occupied on a moment’s
-notice. The original Fort Marcy was abandoned in 1867 and a new one was
-constructed a short distance to the west. This new site is now occupied
-by business and residential properties. The War Department abandoned
-Fort Marcy in October 1894, the troops and equipment being moved to Fort
-Sill, Oklahoma. The site was turned over to the city of Santa Fe in
-1897.
-
-Fort Marcy played an important role during the military occupation of
-New Mexico. It served as a base of operations against marauding Indians,
-was captured and occupied for a short time by Confederate forces in
-1862, served as headquarters for the Ninth Military Department (changed
-to Department of New Mexico in 1853) throughout most of this period, and
-was a center for the social life of Santa Fe. Only low mounds of earth
-now mark the site of Fort Marcy.
-
-
-                              Fort Wingate
-
-Fort Wingate, at the site known today, was established in 1868. It is
-located on the site of a pre-existing fort at Ojo del Oso (Bear Springs)
-about twelve miles east of Gallup and three miles south of U.S. Highway
-66.
-
-Fort Fauntleroy was established in August 1860 and was named for the
-then Department Commander, Col. T. T. Fauntleroy. The name was changed
-to Fort Lyon in September 1861 after Colonel Fauntleroy resigned his
-commission and joined the Confederate forces. The fort was abandoned in
-December 1861 as troops were concentrated at other posts to meet the
-threat of invasion of the territory by Confederate forces from the
-south. With the defeat of Confederate troops early in 1862, the military
-returned to the Indian problem and established a post some sixty miles
-to the east on the Rio de Gallo near San Rafael. This post was named
-Fort Wingate in honor of Capt. Benjamin Wingate who died of wounds
-received during the battle with the Confederate forces at Val Verde. The
-post proved to be too far from the Navajo country for effective control
-and, in 1868, was abandoned and a new Fort Wingate established at Ojo
-del Oso on the site occupied earlier by Fort Fauntleroy.
-
-The physical plant of the new Fort Wingate consisted of barracks,
-officers’ quarters, hospital, guard house, storehouse, employees’
-quarters, corrals, barns, and various repair and storage sheds, all
-bordering the traditional rectangular parade ground. Some of these
-buildings are in use today.
-
-In 1914, 4000 Mexican refugees lived in a tent city at Fort Wingate
-until peace was restored after Pancho Villa’s revolution in Mexico.
-Following World War I, it became an ordnance storage depot, and new
-administrative and living quarters were built several miles west of the
-original fort enclosure. This installation is known today as Fort
-Wingate Ordnance Depot, and the long rows of concrete ammunition storage
-bunkers can be seen from U.S. Highway 66. In 1925, the original fort
-enclosure was transferred to the Department of the Interior for use as
-an Indian school. Today, the parade ground is a playground and the
-barracks are dormitories for the children who attend this school. The
-missile age came to Fort Wingate in 1963 when a portion of the military
-reservation became the launching site for test rockets which impact at
-the White Sands Missile Range 200 miles to the south.
-
-Fort Wingate has seen many changes during its long and colorful history.
-It served well during its first 100 years and continues to serve today.
-
-
-                               Fort Craig
-
-Fort Craig was established in the spring of 1854 on the abandonment of
-Fort Conrad, nine miles north. It was named in honor of Col. L. S. Craig
-who was killed by an army deserter on June 6, 1852. The remains of Fort
-Craig are located on the west bank of the Rio Grande about thirty-four
-miles south of Socorro and five miles, by dirt road, east of U.S.
-Highway 85. The fort was established to afford protection against the
-many bands of Apaches that roamed this part of the territory.
-
-Fort Craig was well built and became one of the best-garrisoned military
-posts in New Mexico. Built on the usual rectangular plan, the parade
-ground was bordered on the northeast by two double officers’ quarters;
-on the northwest by the guard house, prison room, and sallyport; on the
-southwest by three soldiers’ barracks each in the form of a hollow
-square enclosing a patio; and on the southeast by various workshops,
-storerooms, stables, and corrals. The commanding officers’ quarters
-occupied the west corner of the parade ground and the hospital the east
-corner. Behind the commanding officers’ quarters there were three large
-bombproof storerooms. The entire installation was enclosed within a high
-wall, beyond which a ditch encircled the fort. Gun bastions projected
-from the north and south corners.
-
-    [Illustration: Remnants of guard house, Fort Craig (built of basalt
-    blocks)]
-
-Fort Craig was one of the most important military posts in New Mexico.
-Its troops participated in many engagements with the Indian. In the fall
-of 1861, troops from other posts were concentrated at Fort Craig to meet
-the threatened invasion of Confederate forces from the south. In
-February 1862, these troops were defeated by the Confederate invaders in
-the battle of Val Verde which took place about four miles north of the
-fort. Upon the withdrawal of Confederate forces from the territory later
-in 1862, the troops at Fort Craig returned to the Indian problem. In
-March 1885, the fort was relinquished by the army and the improvements
-sold. The last soldier left in August 1885 after government property was
-removed and sent to Forts Bliss and Stanton. The buildings were sold at
-public auction on April 30, 1894, to the Valverde Land and Irrigation
-Company for $1070.50.
-
-Fort Craig is now a ruin, but the outlines of most of the buildings can
-still be seen. Portions of the plastered walls of the commanding
-officers’ quarters remain, as do portions of the hospital and stone
-guard house. The wall and ditch surrounding the fort, gun bastions,
-storehouses, and cemetery are still much in evidence. Coal marks the
-blacksmith’s shop and broken bottles the sutler’s store. Another
-frontier fort has passed into history.
-
-
-                              Fort Stanton
-
-Fort Stanton was established in May 1855 on the Rio Bonito at a site
-located approximately four miles east of present-day Capitan and three
-miles south of U.S. Highway 380. The fort was an attempt to control the
-Mescalero and White Mountain Apaches and was named for Capt. H. W.
-Stanton who had been killed by Apache Indians earlier that year. Many a
-soldier stationed at Fort Stanton gave up his life to an Apache during
-the Indian wars.
-
-    [Illustration: Map of New Mexico showing location of frontier forts]
-
-The original fort was little more than a stockade, with few buildings
-and little equipment. In August 1861, the government stores were burned
-and the troops moved to Albuquerque in the face of the Confederate
-invasion. Confederate troops occupied the site one month later but
-promptly left after a few encounters with the Apache. The site was
-reoccupied by Union troops October 1862 and, later, substantial
-buildings were erected, most of which still stand.
-
-With the passing of the frontier, Fort Stanton was abandoned as a
-military post in August 1896, and in 1899, the installation passed to
-the U.S. Public Health Service for use as a merchant marine hospital for
-the treatment of tuberculosis. During World War II, a German prisoner of
-war camp was established at the fort. In 1953, the hospital was closed
-by the federal government because of the high cost of running the
-establishment. Fort Stanton is now a state tuberculosis hospital
-operated by the New Mexico Department of Public Welfare.
-
-Col. Kit Carson used the fort as a base of operations while rounding up
-the Mescalero and White Mountain Apaches in late 1862 and early 1863. In
-1881, the famous outlaw, Billy the Kid, was confined in the building now
-used as a dental clinic while on his way to the gallows in Lincoln,
-which never claimed him. Gen. John J. Pershing, as a young lieutenant,
-was stationed for a time at Fort Stanton.
-
-
-                              Fort Selden
-
-Fort Selden was established in 1865 and named for Capt. Henry R. Selden
-(later colonel) who distinguished himself at the battle of Val Verde,
-February 21, 1862. The fort was beside the Rio Grande nine miles north
-of the settlement of Doña Ana. The site is located along U.S. Highway 85
-about seventeen miles north of present-day Las Cruces.
-
-Fort Selden was one of a chain of forts established to control the
-Apaches. It was on the Butterfield Trail and provided protection for the
-government rope ferry which crossed the Rio Grande at nearby Leasburg.
-The summit of Mt. Robledo, across the river to the west, was used as a
-heliograph station, flashing messages between Fort Selden and Fort Bliss
-at Franklin (El Paso, Texas).
-
-The buildings of the fort were one-story adobe structures with walls two
-feet thick. The installation included barracks for enlisted men, two
-double officers’ quarters, a ten-bed hospital, stone guard house,
-storehouses, workshop, bake shop, corrals, and a magazine with stone
-walls three feet thick. The fort was rectangular in ground plan, the
-buildings enclosing a parade ground.
-
-Fort Selden was abandoned in 1879 when the railroads began to draw
-travel away from the overland trails. It was reoccupied in 1881 when the
-Apache Chiefs Victorio, Nana, and later Geronimo were on the warpath.
-With the passing of the Indian problem, Fort Selden was permanently
-abandoned in 1892. During World War I, the grounds of the fort were used
-for cavalry maneuvers by units stationed at Fort Bliss.
-
-A rather famous American once lived at Fort Selden. Gen. Douglas
-MacArthur, as a child of four, moved with his family to the fort in
-1884, following the assignment of his father, then an infantry captain,
-to that post. The family remained at Fort Selden until late in 1886.
-
-Now only crumbling adobe walls mark the site of Fort Selden, once a
-welcome sight to travelers in southern New Mexico. The wind, rain, and
-sun have taken their toll, aided in no small way by man himself. In
-1963, through the efforts of the Doña Ana Historical Society, Fort
-Selden was made a State Monument by the New Mexico legislature. It is to
-be hoped that the fort will now be protected from further weathering and
-vandalism so that the remnants of this old outpost will stand for many
-years to come as a monument to the men who once manned it.
-
-
-                             Fort Cummings
-
-Fort Cummings was established in October 1863 in what is now Luna
-County, New Mexico. It was located at Cooke’s Spring, an important
-watering stop on the Butterfield Trail, at the eastern edge of Cooke’s
-Canyon. Prior to the establishment of Fort Cummings, the Apaches made
-frequent and fatal attacks upon travelers as they passed through the
-four miles of Cooke’s Canyon or stopped at the spring. Cooke’s Canyon
-was one of the most dangerous stretches on the Butterfield Trail. The
-fort was named for Maj. Joseph Cummings who was killed by Navajo Indians
-in August 1863. Its ruins can be reached by turning off State Highway 26
-at Florida, sixteen miles northeast of Deming, and traveling seven miles
-to the west.
-
-Fort Cummings was the most elaborate and best-walled fort in New Mexico.
-It covered an area 365 × 320 feet and was completely surrounded by a
-twelve-foot-high adobe wall. The main entrance was topped by a guard
-tower. Officers’ quarters occupied the west side of the parade ground,
-the hospital the north side, and soldiers’ quarters the east side. The
-various workshops, storerooms, offices, stables, and corrals extended
-along the south side of the fort.
-
-Abandoned in August 1873, Fort Cummings was reoccupied in 1880, and then
-again abandoned in October 1886. Later it was used as a cattle corral by
-the Carpenter-Stanley Cattle Company. The spring was walled and covered,
-and the water piped to Florida.
-
-Little remains of Fort Cummings today. A few weathered walls here and
-there among the mesquite and creosote bushes mark the site. The spring
-still flows, supplying water for the stock which now graze upon this
-“protector of the trail.”
-
-
-                              Fort Bayard
-
-Fort Bayard, established in 1865 to protect the miners and settlers
-moving into the area following the Civil War, allowed the orderly
-development of what was to become New Mexico’s most important
-mineral-producing area. Named for Capt. George D. Bayard who was wounded
-repeatedly during Indian forays and who died of wounds received in the
-Battle of Fredricksburg (Va.) during the Civil War, the fort was located
-about five miles southeast of Pinos Altos and about midway between the
-mining towns of Pinos Altos and Santa Rita. The site is about nine miles
-east of present-day Silver City, just north of State Highway 90.
-
-The original fort consisted of log and adobe buildings forming a square
-around the parade ground. During its thirty-four year history as an army
-post, many changes and additions were made to the fort, including the
-building of two-storied officers’ quarters. In 1899, the line troops
-were removed and the fort was officially designated as a U.S. Army
-General Hospital to treat tubercular soldiers. In 1920, the hospital was
-turned over to the Public Health Department; in 1922, to the U.S.
-Veterans Administration; and again, in 1966, to the State Health
-Department as a facility for the care of the aged and of tuberculosis
-cases. It can now accommodate more than 300 patients. The modern
-buildings are a far cry from the dirt-floored log and adobe buildings of
-the original fort.
-
-
-HISTORY
-
-
-                        _Pre-Civil War Period._
-
-The period 1846 to 1861 was characterized by constant Indian warfare.
-Treaties were made, then broken. Forts were established, then abandoned,
-and new forts built as the military tried in vain to cope with the
-problem. Punitive expeditions proved ineffective as the Indians
-separated into small and predatory bands which overran the country.
-
-Forts Union, Marcy, Fauntleroy, Craig, and Stanton were established
-during this period. Additional forts, whose sites have returned to the
-desert, are Fort Conrad (1851), on the Rio Grande about twenty-five
-miles south of Socorro; Fort Thorn (1853), on the Rio Grande about five
-miles north of Hatch; Fort Fillmore (1851), on the Rio Grande about
-seven miles south of Las Cruces; Fort Webster (1852), on the Mimbres
-River about one and one-half miles northwest of San Lorenzo; Fort McLane
-(1860), at Apache Tejo about four miles south of Hurley; and Fort Floyd
-(1857), on the Gila River about two miles south of Cliff.
-
-
-                          _Civil War Period._
-
-The outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 created a new problem on the
-frontier in New Mexico. Confederate military leaders moved quickly to
-seize control of the Southwest and California to cut off the supply of
-gold to the North and divert it to the Confederacy. Confederate troops
-under Col. J. B. Baylor occupied abandoned Fort Bliss at Franklin (El
-Paso), Texas on July 1, 1861. Baylor began his move northward along the
-Rio Grande on July 23 and quickly occupied Mesilla. Nearby Fort Fillmore
-was abandoned and the Union forces retreated toward Fort Stanton, but
-they were soon captured by Baylor’s troops. Upon the fall of Fort
-Fillmore, Fort Stanton was hastily abandoned on August 2 and was taken
-over by the Confederates shortly thereafter.
-
-Gen. H. H. Sibley arrived at Fort Bliss in December 1861 to assume
-command of the Confederate forces. Sibley’s troops moved northward along
-the Rio Grande and were engaged in battle by Union troops from Fort
-Craig, under Gen. E. R. S. Canby, as they attempted to bypass the
-well-garrisoned post. The Battle of Val Verde took place four miles
-north of Fort Craig on February 21, 1862. After a day of bloody
-fighting, Sibley emerged the victor. He occupied Albuquerque on March 2,
-1862, and Santa Fe on March 23. The Confederate forces then moved toward
-Fort Union in an attempt to gain complete control of the territory. On
-March 27 and 28, they were met by Union forces sent out from Fort Union
-and were defeated in battle near present-day Glorieta. Sibley then
-retreated to Fort Bliss.
-
-    [Illustration: The Confederate campaign in New Mexico, 1861-1862]
-
-While Sibley was thus engaged, another part of his army moved across
-what is now southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona and
-occupied Tucson (Arizona). Gen. J. H. Carleton and his California Column
-left Los Angeles on April 13 and cleared this area of Confederate
-troops, reaching the Rio Grande on August 7. Carleton reoccupied Fort
-Bliss, which had been abandoned by the Confederate troops in their
-retreat.
-
-
-                        _Post-Civil War Period._
-
-While the Union troops were preoccupied with the Confederates, the
-Indians stepped up their raids and depredations. With the passing of the
-Confederate threat, attention was once more focused on the Indian
-problem. A new plan was formulated which called for the capturing of the
-Indians and confining them to reservations. A reservation (Bosque
-Redondo) was established late in 1862 near present-day Fort Sumner, New
-Mexico, to which were eventually confined several thousand Navajos and
-Mescalero Apaches. This resettlement was not a success since the Apaches
-ran off and the Navajos suffered greatly from sickness and disease. A
-treaty was signed with the Navajos in 1868, and they were allowed to
-return to their homes, no longer a threat to the frontier. The Mescalero
-Apaches were finally settled on a reservation in their own country south
-of Fort Stanton, and the Jicarillas on a reservation west of Tierra
-Amarilla.
-
-The Mimbreno, Mogollon, and Warm Springs Apaches of southwestern New
-Mexico were more of a problem. In 1871, a reservation and Fort Tularosa
-were established near present-day Aragon in western New Mexico. After a
-futile attempt to keep the Indians there, they were moved in 1874 to a
-new reservation and military post at Ojo Caliente, about forty miles
-northwest of present-day Truth or Consequences. This, too, proved a
-failure and the Apaches were moved to the San Carlos Reservation in what
-is now Arizona. During these attempts to locate the Apaches on
-reservations, various rebellious bands of Apaches led by Victorio, Nana,
-and Geronimo continued on the warpath. Geronimo and his band surrendered
-in 1886 and were imprisoned in Florida. After Geronimo’s surrender,
-relative peace descended upon the frontier in New Mexico.
-
-Established in the post-Civil War period were Forts Wingate (old and
-new), Selden, Cummings, and Bayard, as well as Fort Lowell (1868), near
-Tierra Amarilla; Fort Bascom (1863), on the Canadian River about eight
-miles north of Tucumcari; Fort Sumner (1862), on the Pecos River about
-five miles southeast of present-day Fort Sumner; Fort McRae (1863), on
-the Rio Grande about ten miles northeast of Truth or Consequences; and
-Fort West (1863), on the Gila River about two miles south of Cliff.
-
-With the arrival of the railroad and cessation of hostilities with the
-Indians, a new era was begun. One by one, the old forts were abandoned:
-their need had passed. The colorful frontier forts of New Mexico are
-just a memory now.
-
-
-
-
-                         Our National Heritage
-
-
-National Forests in the so-called “desert” state of New Mexico cover
-more than 8.5 million acres, about 11 per cent of the state’s area.
-National Monuments and Carlsbad Caverns National Park only extend over
-about 430 square miles but cover ten of New Mexico’s most scenic areas
-that are of national geologic, archeologic, and historic interest. These
-are our national heritage, set aside by the federal government for the
-perpetual equal use of all Americans.
-
-The forests cap the higher ranges of the state, except on windblown
-peaks that extend above the timberline. They provide protection for the
-watersheds that feed New Mexico’s rivers, supply about 125 million board
-feet of cut timber each year, and yield forage for more than 150,000
-cattle and sheep. Picnic nooks and camp grounds are plentiful, fish
-abound in the rushing mountain streams, and big game awaits the hunter
-throughout the forest lands. The primitive virgin wilderness is
-preserved in its natural state, accessible only by pack trip, in the
-Gila Wilderness area of the Diablo and Mogollon mountains north of
-Silver City and the Pecos Wilderness area east of Santa Fe in the Sangre
-de Cristo Mountains.
-
-Incomparable Carlsbad Caverns is in the state’s only National Park.
-National Monuments include the glistening gypsum dunes of White Sands,
-the volcanic cone of Capulin Mountain, the prehistoric ruins of Chaco
-Canyon, Aztec Ruins, Bandelier, and Gila Cliff Dwellings, the Spanish
-ruins at Gran Quivira, Inscription Rock at El Morro, and the crumbling
-walls of old Fort Union. In the near future, Valle Grande may be added
-to the National Park System and will include Valle Caldera, one of the
-world’s largest volcanic calderas, a mountainous jumble with cool
-streams, thick coniferous forests, and lush high meadows.
-
-
-NEW MEXICO’S BIG SHARE OF THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM
-
-                       _by_ H. V. Reeves, Jr.[2]
-
-In contemplating the growth of cities and towns, the insatiable suburbs,
-congested streets and highways, the acres of dump yards for discarded
-automobiles, legions of billboards upstaging mountain ranges and
-seashores, and the melancholy predictions of demographers who say that
-within thirty years there will be twice as many of us, consider this:
-for New Mexico in particular, the outlook is not utterly bleak.
-
-Some ninety years ago, without anything approaching the present-day
-horrible example before them, some farsighted, selfless, tireless
-individuals began to work to set aside areas of outstanding scenic,
-scientific, and historical interest so that they would not be engulfed
-by humanity. Often against strong opposition, these benefactors
-succeeded in bringing about legislation that bounded many such areas and
-defined laws to protect them. The areas became national parks,
-monuments, and historic sites. And in 1916, the National Park Service,
-an agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior, was established to
-administer the units of the National Park System.
-
-Today, other selfless individuals are contributing their time and effort
-to bring additional areas into the National Park System before they are
-lost forever. For example, Pecos ruins became a National Monument in
-late 1966 (see page 106).
-
-Not every suggested area possesses the qualities that merit
-preservation, qualities of national significance. Proposed areas receive
-careful study before they are recommended for inclusion within the
-system—recommended to the Congress by the Secretary of the Interior. The
-Secretary’s recommendations are based on those received from the
-Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and
-Monuments. This board is composed of eleven private citizens, each of
-whom is competent in one or more of the following fields: history,
-natural history, archeology, architecture, conservation, and recreation.
-
-Diverse in character, New Mexico’s ten units of the National Park System
-are of geologic, scenic, archeological, and historical interest. A visit
-to each unit will disclose the qualities that have been judged to be of
-national significance.
-
-
-                     Carlsbad Caverns National Park
-
-Incomparable Carlsbad Caverns, in southeastern New Mexico, includes a
-single underground chamber so expansive that its floor could accommodate
-fourteen football fields and its ceiling could hold a 22-story building;
-other chambers that contain countless cave formations of great variety
-of shape and color; cool and naturally circulating fresh air; and a
-system of lighting that reveals the beauty and spaciousness most
-effectively.
-
-Since the temperature within the Caverns remains at about 56°F the year
-round, warm clothing is needed. Comfortable shoes, too, for the
-four-hour, three-mile complete tour, which starts at the natural
-entrance. Shorter trips, the Big Room tours that start at the elevators
-in the visitor center, take in only a part of the underground chambers.
-All tours are under leadership of competent park guides who answer
-questions and explain the earth processes that have resulted in the
-caverns and their amazing decorations.
-
-From the natural entrance, the immense main corridor of the Caverns is
-followed downward 829 feet for one and three-quarters miles. This brings
-visitors to the most scenic rooms (the Green Lake Room, King’s Palace,
-Queen’s Chamber, and Papoose Room), where the stalactites, stalagmites,
-and helictites reach their peak in numbers, shapes, and delicate
-coloring. The trail leads upward 80 feet from the Papoose Room to the
-lunchroom. Near the lunchroom is the Big Room, the most majestic of the
-Caverns’ chambers. The trail around its perimeter, one and a quarter
-miles long, encompasses a floor space of fourteen acres.
-
-    [Illustration: Hall of Giants in Carlsbad Caverns National Park]
-
-Completing the circuit of the Big Room and returning to the lunchroom,
-visitors may either walk or board an elevator and ride smoothly back to
-the surface.
-
-How were the Caverns formed? The story began about 240 million years
-ago, during the Permian Period. At that time, the two limestone
-formations in which the caverns occur—the Tansill Formation and Capitan
-Limestone—were deposited as part of an organic reef complex at the edge
-of a warm shallow sea.
-
-During subsequent periods, other seas brought in sedimentary material
-that covered the reef. About 60 million years ago, earth movements,
-which were responsible for the uplift of the area, fractured the reef
-and permitted surrounding ground water to enter along fracture lines and
-begin work in fashioning the caverns. The water at first dissolved small
-crevices in the limestone. As more water came in, the crevices enlarged
-to cavities, called solution pockets. Then the walls, floors, and
-ceilings of the pockets dissolved and collapsed, joining the pockets,
-while the solution process continued, eventually forming the huge rooms
-seen today.
-
-Beginning about 3 million years ago and into recent times, the uplift of
-the local Guadalupe Mountains and changing climates lowered the water
-table. Water that had been inside the caverns drained away and was
-replaced by air. Most solution stopped, but large sections of partly
-dissolved walls and ceilings collapsed under their own weight. Stability
-was finally achieved, however, and probably no rock has fallen within
-the caverns during the last several thousand years.
-
-Even before the collapsing ended, another phase of cavern development
-had begun. Rain water and snow melt slowly seeped into the caverns.
-Droplets of water, each holding a minute quantity of dissolved
-limestone, appeared upon the ceilings. Exposed to the air, the droplets
-evaporated and left their mineral content as calcite and
-aragonite—crystalline forms of limestone. Over centuries, this process
-of evaporation and deposition has built a myriad of crystalline
-stalactites of all shapes and sizes. Water that dripped to the floor
-evaporated and deposited the calcite and aragonite to build stalagmites.
-When joined together, stalactites and stalagmites become columns, or
-pillars. In the scenic rooms, conditions existed that brought about the
-creation of helictites—twisted formations that seem to defy gravity in
-their growth. Color in the cave formations, shades of brown, red, and
-yellow, result from the presence of small amounts of iron oxide and
-other minerals.
-
-Carlsbad Caverns National Park offers more than the caverns themselves.
-Each evening from April to October, bats in incredible numbers spiral
-upward out of the Caverns’ entrance and fly southward over the rim of
-the escarpment to feed in the valleys of the Black and Pecos rivers.
-They return just before dawn, diving swiftly and from high altitudes
-into the entrance. Flying directly to the bat cave, they spend each day
-hanging head downward in dense clusters from the walls and ceilings. The
-bat cave itself is not open to visitors. A park naturalist explains the
-bat flight and discusses the bats in detail in a talk given at the
-entrance to the Caverns each evening before the flight begins.
-
-The nature trail, a half mile loop that begins and ends near the
-entrance to the Caverns, guides the visitor to many of the desert plants
-of the region. The park is visited by more than half a million people
-each year, and yet the delicate cave formations and the natural beauties
-remain unmarred.
-
-
-                     White Sands National Monument
-
-White Sands National Monument, fifteen miles southwest of Alamogordo, is
-another area of great interest to the geologist and biologist. But its
-strangeness, the graceful contours of its snow-white dunes, and the
-peculiar adaptations of some of the plants and animals that live among
-its dunes are appreciated as fully by the nonscientist. More than
-370,000 visitors come to marvel at the White Sands each year.
-
-The Monument, some 230 square miles in extent, preserves the most
-impressive part of the world’s largest gypsum desert. This is a
-glistening sea of pure gypsum sand that the wind has drifted into huge
-dunes that are almost bare of vegetation except along the fringes.
-Wavelike, the restive dunes move slowly before the prevailing winds,
-covering and uncovering the few plants that lie in their way. And
-wavelike, their surfaces trace the vagaries of indecisive breezes in
-tiny parallel ripplelike ridges.
-
-Because of the almost constant wind and resulting gradual advance of the
-dunes, most of the plants that are able to establish themselves in the
-open flats between the dunes eventually become buried. A few species,
-however, are able to survive the irresistible march of the sand. Through
-rapid growth and elongation of the stems, the struggling crowns remain
-on top of the rising crests of the dunes. Plants with stems more than
-forty feet long have been found. As the dunes continue forward under the
-pressure of the wind, they leave the plants elevated on columns of
-compacted gypsum bound by their adventitious roots.
-
-Animals, too, have become adapted to their unusual surroundings. The
-small creatures, lizards, mice, and others, are picked off easily by
-such predators as foxes, coyotes, and hawks when they are conspicuous.
-Thus, through the centuries, only the lighter-colored individuals have
-survived among the dunes and, through many generations, have developed
-pale and elusive animals that blend inconspicuously with their white
-surroundings. Pocket mice are a good example of this. Among the white
-dunes, the pocket mice are white; in the nearby red hills, they are a
-rusty color; and on the beds of black lava a few miles north of the
-sand, the pocket mice are very dark.
-
-A visitor to White Sands National Monument should stop at the visitor
-center, where exhibits explain the geology of the duneland and others
-describe the plants and animals that are able to live there.
-
-But how and from where did this natural wonder come? The dunes of gypsum
-lie in the Tularosa Basin, which stretches for more than 100 miles
-between two north-south mountain ranges. All sides of the valley slope
-gently inward, forming the basin, with Lake Lucero, its lowest point, at
-the southwest end of the Monument. This valley was formed hundreds of
-centuries ago, when a great section of the earth’s crust settled to form
-the type of basin known geologically as a graben.
-
-High above the basin floor, beds of gypsum are found to the north in the
-mountain ranges flanking the valley. Similar gypsum beds lie far beneath
-the floor of the basin. Thus, it was once a part of the high plateau, a
-great blocklike section that slowly sank to form the basin at its
-present level.
-
-Percolating water from seasonal rains and melting snow carries tons of
-gypsum, in solution, from the highlands at the north end of the basin
-into Lake Lucero. During much of the year, cloudless skies and warm dry
-winds evaporate Lake Lucero, and it shrinks to a crystal-encrusted
-marsh. Capillarity draws the gypsum-laden underground water to the
-surface; it, too, evaporates, depositing its burden of gypsum throughout
-the extensive “alkali flats.” The persistent southwest wind picks up the
-particles of gypsum and whirls them away, adding them to the gleaming
-white dunes, the accumulation of centuries.
-
-The best ways to see the dunes are by car and by foot. Along the drive
-that leads into the heart of the duneland are numbered posts that
-correspond to numbered paragraphs in the Monument’s informational
-folder. These paragraphs explain the features that are of particular
-significance. At pull-outs along the drive, park the car and walk among
-the dunes.
-
-    [Illustration: Capulin Mountain National Monument]
-
-
-                   Capulin Mountain National Monument
-
-Capulin Mountain National Monument, in the northeast part of the state,
-is an area of geologic interest that presents still another aspect of
-the science of the earth. It contains the cone of an extinct volcano,
-one of the most symmetrical of the geologically recent cinder cones in
-the United States. Its conical form rises more than 1000 feet above its
-base. The irregular rim is about one mile in circumference, and the
-crater is about 415 feet in depth, as measured from the highest part of
-the rim. Some 40,000 people a year visit the Monument.
-
-The mountain consists chiefly of loose cinders, ash, and other rock
-debris of volcanic explosions. These materials were spewed out by a
-series of successive eruptions, probably of considerable duration. The
-coarse materials fell back around the vent, piling up to form the
-conical mound. Dust and other fine materials were carried away by the
-wind. After the eruptions, vegetation gained a foothold on the steep,
-unstable flanks of the cone, so that in time the slopes became
-stabilized. Geological studies indicate that the volcano probably was
-active about 7000 years ago.
-
-Capulin Mountain is of special interest, partly because it represents
-the last stages of a great period of volcanic activity that was
-widespread throughout western North America. Evidences of this older and
-more intense activity can be seen from the top of Capulin Mountain in
-the scores of other nearby volcanic hills and peaks. The largest of
-these is the Sierra Grande, an extinct volcano rising 4000 feet above
-the surrounding plain; it is ten miles to the southeast. Northwest of
-Capulin are a number of mesas that are capped with black lava, the
-largest of which are Barella, Raton, and Johnson. Fishers Peak, south of
-Trinidad, Colorado, is on a similar mesa. The famous Spanish Peaks,
-northwest of Trinidad, are a pair of extinct volcanoes.
-
-In this great volcanic area, the lava erupted in a succession of flows.
-The series of eruptions were separated by long periods of inactivity.
-During these inactive times, erosion cut valleys and wore down parts of
-the old lava sheets. This action formed new channels and lower terrain
-over which succeeding lava flows spread. This process was repeated at
-least three times. The oldest lavas, which have been exposed by erosion,
-are found on the tops of the highest mesas. The last series of eruptions
-created Capulin Mountain; they were ejections mostly of cinders and ash,
-with less lava flow than in the preceding volcanic activity. These
-cinder-and-ash eruptions were so recent, geologically, that some of the
-nearby, bare, steep-sided cinder cones appear as if they had just
-cooled.
-
-The National Park Service has constructed a road up the mountain to the
-rim of the crater. And from the parking area at the rim, two trails lead
-to the most interesting points on the mountain. One trail, self-guiding,
-makes the complete one-mile circuit of the crater along the rim. A guide
-booklet, keyed to numbered stakes that have been set at places along the
-trail, explains the features of particular significance—both on the
-mountain and in the distance. The other trail, less scenic, provides a
-rare opportunity to see a volcanic mountain from the inside out, for it
-leads down to the bottom of the crater.
-
-    [Illustration: View of Chaco Canyon National Monument]
-
-
-                     Chaco Canyon National Monument
-
-Rich in areas of geological interest, New Mexico is equally rich in
-areas of archeological interest. Four of these are preserved as units of
-the National Park System.
-
-Chaco Canyon National Monument, in the northwestern part of the state,
-contains more than a dozen large prehistoric ruins and hundreds of
-smaller archeological sites. These ruins are considered to be without
-equal north of central Mexico. No other archeological area in the
-Southwest exhibits such a high development of prehistoric Pueblo
-civilization. Most of the sites lie within a strip of land about eight
-miles long and two miles wide, through which Chaco Canyon runs. Although
-the Monument is relatively isolated, it is open year around and is
-visited by about 22,000 people annually.
-
-The most imposing and best known of the ruins is Pueblo Bonito. Built
-between 800 and 900 years ago, this 4- and 5-story village covered more
-than three acres and contained about 800 rooms and 32 kivas, or
-ceremonial chambers. Archeologist Neil M. Judd, of the National Museum,
-who conducted some of the late excavations, has said that Pueblo Bonito
-was the largest apartment house built anywhere in the world prior to
-1887, estimating that at one time it housed 1200 people.
-
-Earliest of the Chaco sites, small villages of crude pit houses were
-occupied during 600 to 800 A.D. Archeologists, studying changes in
-masonry style, pottery types, and other remains, have pieced together
-the development of the culture of the inhabitants of Chaco Canyon over a
-period of six centuries.
-
-After Chaco Canyon’s cultural high point was reached in the 1100’s, a
-gradual decline set in. The population decreased, and in the 1200’s, the
-region was abandoned. During this same century, other Pueblo centers
-within the San Juan Basin were also deserted.
-
-Various theories have been advanced to explain this exodus: soil
-erosion, warlike enemies, poor facilities for urban sanitation, drought,
-and intervillage warfare. One or a combination of these factors might
-have been instrumental in bringing about the abandonment of the region.
-
-
-                     Aztec Ruins National Monument
-
-Aztec Ruins National Monument, at Aztec in the northwestern corner of
-the state, was set aside to preserve an outstanding example of classical
-Pueblo construction, one of the largest pre-Spanish villages in the
-Southwest. More than 40,000 visitors come to the Monument each year.
-
-Tree-ring dates indicate that most of the big central pueblo was rapidly
-constructed during the period 1106 to 1121. At this time, the people of
-Aztec were influenced by the cultural center to the south, Chaco Canyon.
-During the last half of the 1100’s, after the decline of Chaco Canyon
-had begun, the people of Aztec began to look toward the north, and by
-1200, Mesa Verde ideas dominated the region. Aztec was abandoned by
-about 1300, as was the rest of the general region.
-
-Of particular interest at Aztec Ruins National Monument is the
-reconstructed Great Kiva. The Pueblo Indians built separate rooms, now
-known as kivas, for ceremonial purposes. During the period of Chaco
-influence, the people at Aztec constructed a very large circular
-building, 48 feet in diameter, in their plaza. Its features differ from
-those of the small kivas and establish it as a Great Kiva, similar to
-those at Chaco. The Great Kivas represent the peak of religious
-architecture among the Pueblos. The Great Kiva at Aztec was completely
-restored in 1934 by Earl H. Morris, of the American Museum of Natural
-History.
-
-
-                      Bandelier National Monument
-
-Bandelier National Monument, forty-six miles west of Santa Fe, preserves
-the ruins of dwellings and other structures that were erected by Indians
-who lived in the area until about 1550 A.D. Almost 100,000 people visit
-the Monument each year.
-
-When many of the ancient Pueblo Indian centers were abandoned in the
-late thirteenth century, the people moved to locations where the water
-supply was more constant. A favorable area was the upper Rio Grande
-Valley in what is now New Mexico. One of the later flowerings of Pueblo
-culture occurred here. The ruins within Bandelier are representative of
-this phase of Pueblo development.
-
-In Frijoles Canyon, the Indians chose the location of their homes well.
-The creek that runs through the canyon flows all year. On the canyon
-floor and mesa top there was land suitable to the cultivation of crops.
-And the canyon walls of soft tuff (consolidated volcanic ash) could
-easily be hollowed out by the Indians with their harder stone tools in
-fashioning storage rooms behind dwellings built against the cliff.
-
-Cliff ruins, or talus villages, extend along the base of the northern
-wall of the canyon for about two miles. Other ruins are located on the
-floor of the canyon. The houses of stone masonry were irregularly
-terraced, from one to three stories in height. Some hollowed recesses at
-the base of the cliff also were used for dwelling rooms.
-
-Like the other pueblo dwellers, the Frijoles inhabitants were farmers,
-raising the usual corn, beans, and squash. They used cotton cloth, which
-has been found in the ruins and which suggests that they had the loom.
-Since the growing season in the high Frijoles country is short, they
-probably obtained their cotton by trade with Indians who lived farther
-south. They made pottery decorated with glaze paint.
-
-For a few centuries, the Indian farmers lived in the canyons, built
-villages, honeycombed the cliffs with artificial caves, and tilled the
-soil. But with the passing years, drought, soil-eroding floods, soil
-depletion, famine, and possibly disease—singly or in combination—forced
-the canyon dwellers again to seek new homes. Descendants of these
-Indians still live in nearby modern pueblos along the Rio Grande.
-
-    [Illustration: Cliff houses in Frijoles Canyon, Bandelier National
-    Monument]
-
-About ninety per cent of Bandelier National Monument is, and will
-remain, a wilderness. The rugged and scenic back country is accessible
-by about sixty miles of maintained trails, leading to such features as
-Alamo Canyon, the Stone Lions, Painted Cave, the Pueblo ruins of San
-Miguel and Yapashi, and White Rock Canyon of the Rio Grande.
-
-
-                              Valle Grande
-
-Another area has been considered as an addition to the National Park
-System in New Mexico. A 1963 bill introduced in Congress would establish
-Valle Grande-Bandelier National Park, about forty-six miles west of
-Santa Fe. Valle Grande is part of the Valle Caldera, which is among the
-world’s largest and has been the site of extensive studies of calderas
-(the collapsed summits of volcanoes). Lessons learned there have been
-applied in recognizing and investigating calderas in other places.
-Bandelier National Monument, primarily of archeological significance,
-lies to the east of the canyon-cut rim of the caldera. As written, the
-bill would have incorporated the Monument in the proposed national park.
-
-    [Illustration: Part of Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument]
-
-
-                 Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument
-
-Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, forty-seven miles north of
-Silver City and at the edge of the Gila Wilderness Area, contains a
-series of ruins that portray the development of the agricultural Indians
-who lived south of the Mogollon Mountains. Specifically, the ruins
-represent a branch of the generalized culture known as Mogollon.
-Although part of the road to the Monument was paved in 1963, the last
-four-mile stretch is still primitive and should not be attempted in an
-ordinary passenger car except during the summer and in dry weather. In
-spite of the difficult road, more than 23,000 people visited the
-Monument during 1965. The last four miles of the road have been recently
-paved.
-
-The earliest ruin yet found within the Monument is a Mogollon pit house
-of a type that was made about 500 A.D. It is roundish and, on the east
-side, has a narrow ramplike entrance some two feet wide and ten feet
-long. The people of this period did only a little farming (corn and
-beans), a little hunting, and gathered much uncultivated plant food.
-They made a fairly good plain-brown pottery and undoubtedly were skilled
-in a number of crafts whose products have since disappeared. Such things
-as nets and snares, baskets, and wooden tools last but a short time in
-open sites.
-
-Other, later, pit house types may be seen in the Monument. Pit houses
-were prevalent in the area until about 1000 A.D., when influences from
-the Anasazi (Pueblo) Indians of the northern part of the Southwest began
-to affect the Mogollon people.
-
-Square houses, built above the ground, became the style; some were of
-masonry, some of adobe construction, and some were built of wattle
-(wooden rods and twigs). A new type of pottery was also introduced at
-about the same time: white with black designs.
-
-The principal ruins in the Monument are the cliff dwellings, which were
-built during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They, too, reflect
-the northern pueblo influence. About forty rooms, remarkably well
-preserved, are fitted into a series of chambers, or caves, in a low
-cliff of Gila Conglomerate. By about the beginning of the fifteenth
-century, the area was abandoned by the farming Indians.
-
-
-                     Gran Quivira National Monument
-
-Significant chapters in the absorbing history of New Mexico were written
-at three sites that have been made units of the National Park System.
-
-Gran Quivira National Monument, near the center of the state southeast
-of Mountainair, preserves the ruins of a frontier Spanish mission that
-had been built, used, and abandoned by 1675. The Monument contains
-twenty-one ruined house mounds of Indian pueblos and ruins of two
-mission churches. It was the presence of the Indians at this location,
-of course, that attracted the Franciscan missionaries.
-
-    [Illustration: A look at ruins of Gran Quivira]
-
-The earliest Indian pueblo in the Monument was founded about 1300 A.D.;
-by the 1600’s, the village, with several structures, had become the
-largest in the region. It was conveniently located on the south side of
-a hill near the cultivated fields in the surrounding lowlands. Water was
-a problem then as now. The Indians solved this as best they could by
-digging shallow wells at the base of the hill, about one mile west of
-the pueblo.
-
-The first known specific reference to Gran Quivira was made in 1630 by
-Fray Alonso de Benavides, a Franciscan missionary. He called the pueblo
-the “Village of the Humanas,” and referred to the church there as having
-been built by Father Francisco Letrado in 1629 and dedicated to San
-Isidro. Humanas, now misnamed “Gran Quivira,” was later administered
-from the mission of San Gregorio de Abo, some forty miles to the north.
-In 1659, Father Diego de Santander was assigned to Humanas. Construction
-of the mission buildings, which he rededicated to San Buenaventura, was
-completed by him.
-
-The Franciscans had a pronounced influence upon the Pueblo Indians. They
-stimulated trade with Mexico and the pueblos farther north. They
-imported wine grapes and cultivated them, and they introduced
-domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, and horses.
-
-Sometime between 1672 and 1675, the pueblo and mission at Humanas were
-abandoned because of Apache raids, drought, and crop failures. The
-people first moved to the Rio Grande near the present town of Socorro. A
-few continued to El Paso del Norte, where, in 1680, they were joined by
-those from Socorro, who had fled with the Spaniards from the Pueblo
-Revolt of that year.
-
-
-                       El Morro National Monument
-
-El Morro National Monument, southwest of Grants near Ramah, was
-established to preserve the famous Inscription Rock, register of
-Indians, Spaniards, and westward-moving pioneers. About 22,000 people
-now visit the Monument each year.
-
-El Morro, or Inscription Rock, is a massive mesa point of sandstone.
-Rising some 200 feet above the valley floor, it forms a striking
-landmark. From its summit, rain and melted snow drain into a natural
-basin at the foot of the cliff, creating a constant and dependable
-supply of water in a region where water is scarce. The route from Acoma
-to the Zuni pueblos led directly past the mesa. It was a regular camping
-place for Spanish _conquistadores_ and, later, for travelers from the
-east.
-
-On the top of El Morro lie ruins of Indian pueblos, abandoned long
-before the coming of the Spaniards. And carved in the sandstone are
-numerous petroglyphs left by these ancient people, ancestors of the
-modern Zunis. Perhaps it was the petroglyphs that prompted later
-travelers to record their names and thoughts on the rock.
-
-The first known historical mention of El Morro is found in the journal
-of Diego Pérez de Luxán, chronicler of the Espejo Expedition of 1583.
-Luxán stopped there for water on March 11 of that year.
-
-    [Illustration: Part of the pool and cliff at El Morro]
-
-The oldest dated inscription at El Morro was made in 1605 by don Juan de
-Oñate, first governor of New Mexico. Returning from an expedition to the
-mouth of the Colorado River, he camped at El Morro and carved this
-inscription in Spanish: “Passed by here the Adelantado Don Juan de Oñate
-from the discovery of the Sea of the South, the 16th of April of 1605.”
-The “Sea of the South” was the Gulf of California.
-
-If don Diego de Vargas, the most famous Spanish governor of New Mexico,
-seems boastful in the message he left at El Morro, who can blame him?
-His words, in English, read, “Here was the General Don Diego de Vargas,
-who conquered for our Holy Faith and for the Royal Crown all of New
-Mexico at his own expense, year of 1692.” Twelve years earlier, the
-great Pueblo Indian Revolt had driven the Spaniards from New Mexico.
-More than 400, including 23 priests, had lost their lives, and the
-surviving Spaniards, some 1100, had fled to El Paso del Norte. De Vargas
-restored order, without further bloodshed, in 1692.
-
-After the occupation of Santa Fe by the army of Gen. Stephen W. Kearny
-in August 1846, details of United States troops were dispatched to
-explore various parts of New Mexico. Probably the first to visit El
-Morro was Lt. J. H. Simpson, accompanied by the artist R. H. Kern, who
-copied some of the early inscriptions in September 1849. Then the names
-of other soldiers, traders, Indian agents, surveyors, emigrants who were
-traveling westward, and settlers were added to the rock.
-
-Since the establishment of the Monument by Presidential proclamation in
-1906, inscribing on the face of the cliff has been prohibited. If the
-Monument had not been established and the law not passed, this
-fascinating part of the history of the Southwest would surely have been
-lost.
-
-
-                      Fort Union National Monument
-
-Fort Union National Monument, twenty-six miles northeast of Las Vegas
-and on the route of the old Santa Fe Trail where the mountains meet the
-plains, preserves the ruins of a famous frontier Army post. As a base of
-operations for military and civilian ventures in New Mexico from 1851 to
-1891, Fort Union helped to direct the course of events in the formative
-years of the Southwest. More than 11,000 visitors come to the Monument
-each year.
-
-Five years after the conquest of New Mexico by the United States in the
-war with Mexico, Col. E. V. Sumner moved some of his troops from Fort
-Marcy, in Santa Fe, to the site of Fort Union and there began
-construction of log buildings on the west side of Coyote Creek. This was
-the first Fort Union.
-
-The first post took an active part in protecting settlers and traders
-from Indian raids during the 1850’s. Mounted patrols of dragoons made
-many expeditions into the mountains against the warring Apaches and Utes
-and out onto the plains to pursue Comanche war parties.
-
-Fort Union was also charged with supply and support of many outlying
-military posts, such as Fort Defiance and Fort Craig. The Quartermaster
-Depot at Fort Union in later years came to be the hub of all Army supply
-services in the Southwest.
-
-During the first three decades of its life, Fort Union saw the great
-Conestoga wagons and prairie schooners of the Santa Fe Trail caravans
-pass in increasing numbers. By the outbreak of the Civil War,
-enterprising traders were hauling more than ten million dollars’ worth
-of goods from Missouri each year. The fort provided escorts for caravans
-and when requested by apprehensive company or postal officials, escorts
-for stage-coaches of the Independence-Santa Fe Mail. Century-old tracks
-of the Santa Fe Trail can be still seen near Fort Union.
-
-The start of the Civil War in 1861 brought new activity to the fort.
-Immediate invasion of New Mexico by Confederate forces from Texas was
-expected. Gen. E. R. S. Canby, commanding Union troops in the territory,
-began construction of an earthwork fortification in a defensive position
-about a mile from the original fort. The ditches, parapets, and
-bomb-proofs of this redoubt were completed late in 1861.
-
-The Texas column was not slow in coming. By March 1862, these invaders
-under Gen. Henry H. Sibley had defeated a Union force at Val Verde, had
-frightened the defenders from Albuquerque and Santa Fe into inaction,
-and were marching eastward across the mountains toward the final
-stronghold, Fort Union. On March 10, the First Regiment of Colorado
-Volunteers, under Col. J. P. Slough, arrived at Fort Union as
-reinforcements. And on March 22, Colonel Slough led his 1342 men out of
-the fort to meet the advancing Confederates. In a two-day battle fought
-in Apache Canyon and Glorieta Pass, the Union forces defeated the
-Confederates, thus saving Fort Union for the federal cause.
-
-From 1863 to 1869, the garrisons at Fort Union were chiefly occupied in
-a construction program that produced most of the adobe-walled buildings
-whose ruins may now be seen. Fort Union then returned to its earlier
-mission of a base for Indian fighting.
-
-The usefulness of Fort Union was reduced with the final submission of
-the Indians and with the arrival of the railhead at Las Vegas in 1879.
-The huge fort was demoted to caretaker status in the 1880’s and was
-abandoned in 1891.
-
-
-At each of these New Mexico units of the National Park System, as at
-other units throughout the nation, trained personnel of the National
-Park Service—archeologists, historians, naturalists, and park
-rangers—are on duty. Their purpose is to make the visitor’s trip
-rewarding. This they do through museum exhibits, guided walks and
-self-guiding trails, campfire talks, and publications.
-
-Here in New Mexico, then, escape the irritations that seem to go with
-progress. Awaiting the traveler are unspoiled places where he can
-surround himself with the quiet majesty of nature, walk the paths made
-by prehistoric people, camp where the Spanish _conquistadores_ camped,
-stroll among the ruins of buildings erected by the men who helped to
-fashion the Southwest.
-
-
-FOREST LANDS ABOVE THE DESERT
-
-                         by Ruth Bush Jones[3]
-
-Today, as in earlier times, people of New Mexico look to their mountains
-with a new and greater appreciation of their forest land heritage.
-Today, also, people seek aesthetic values of peace, beauty, and serenity
-found in nature’s solitudes, in addition to forest products for economic
-use. Basic to the enjoyment of the high country are the forest treasures
-of clear, pure water ... of wild game and birds ... of trees for shade
-and solitude, fuel, shelter, and forest products ... of grass and browse
-for cattle, sheep, horses, and wildlife ... of magnificent grandeur and
-panoramic vistas. These basic treasures coupled with understanding of
-the purposes and many benefits of the National Forests bring true
-recreation to the visitor.
-
-The high country of New Mexico, much of it in the National Forests, is
-entrusted by law to the care and administration of the U.S. Forest
-Service, an agency of the Department of Agriculture. These vast public
-properties located in several sections of the state are administered as
-Carson, Santa Fe, Cibola, Lincoln, Gila, Apache, and Coronado National
-Forests, the latter two lying primarily in Arizona and being directed
-from there rather than from New Mexico. Visitors to New Mexico traveling
-along main highways see the high forest country outlining the horizon
-and often regard the lofty masses of rugged rock as unapproachable and
-lacking in friendliness.
-
-“Not so,” says the Forest Ranger. There are broad highways welcoming the
-traveler into the high country where forest trees stretch to the sky.
-There are cool invigorating streams sparkling clear and clean from
-mountain fastnesses and developed campgrounds and picnic areas ready for
-use. Outdoor recreation from simple relaxing and picnicking under a pine
-tree to the most strenuous of wilderness backpacking or horseback
-riding, winter sports, and skiing awaits the visitor. There is fishing
-in mountain streams and in big open lakes or in precious, secluded
-mountain lakes. And for those who like their surroundings interpreted
-for them, there are nature trails and/or forest naturalists to explain
-local rock formations, vegetation, and the natural and human history of
-the immediate country.
-
-The Forest Ranger asks only that each visitor do his share in cleaning
-up a camp or picnic site and being _sure_ that camp fires, matches, and
-cigarettes are thoroughly extinguished: “Keep Your National Forest Green
-and Clean!”
-
-
-                         Carson National Forest
-
-Located in north-central New Mexico, with headquarters at Taos, the
-Carson National Forest nurtures and cradles the Rio Grande as it leaves
-its birthplace in Colorado en route to the south. Carrying water from
-high country snow melt, the Carson adds precious, clear water from its
-high mountain streams and lakes to the Rio Grande in support of the
-prosperous communities along its way. The Carson includes some of the
-highest water-producing lands in the state and is the source of several
-permanent streams and lakes.
-
-    [Illustration: Map of National Forests in New Mexico]
-
-Named in honor of Kit Carson, the noted scout, Carson National Forest
-offers some of the most spectacular mountain scenery in the Southwest,
-including the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Red River Canyon, and Wheeler
-Peak, which at 13,160 feet is the highest point in New Mexico. Part of
-the famed Pecos Wilderness Area and the Wheeler Peak Wild Area are
-included in this Forest and are available to those willing and able to
-hike, ride a horse, or pack into the rugged mountain country. For the
-winter sports enthusiast, the Red River Ski Area, Sipapu Winter Sports
-Area, and Taos Ski Valley operate in part within the Carson National
-Forest and offer some of the finest alpine skiing in the Southwest.
-
-Good roads lead the visitor to Spanish and Indian villages where life
-and culture are almost unchanged since the ancient and comparatively
-recent days of settlement. Towns with singing-sounding names like
-Picurís, Taos Pueblo, Las Trampas, Truchas, Santa Barbara, and Tres
-Ritos nestle along forest streams and add charm and beauty to a scenic
-trip in the northern Sangre de Cristo range (name given to the mountains
-by early Spanish settlers, meaning _Blood of Christ_. The analogy
-relates to the reddish glow that sometimes colors the mountains at
-sunset.). Radiating from Taos are roads leading into the eastern half of
-the Forest, bringing the traveler into fascinating and colorful country.
-Taos Canyon, Arroyo Hondo, Questa, and the Red River country abound in
-old mining ghost towns, Indian ruins, and legendary Spanish villages
-located in canyons and on mountain tops.
-
-The high range rising between the Rio Grande and the Chama River to the
-west is the major part of the western half of the Carson National
-Forest. Tres Piedras, El Rito, La Madera, Canjilon, Lagunitas, and San
-Antonio are a few of the picturesque communities here. Farther to the
-west is the Jicarilla Division of the Carson, the high mountain country
-adjacent to the Jicarilla Apache Reservation. Bisected by State Highway
-17 between Farmington and Chama, this section is a test of true
-pioneering skill for the traveler who is willing to follow dim tracks of
-roads and trails to enjoy the Forest. However, modern civilization is
-introduced by the 150 oil and gas wells in this area, even though the
-country is rugged and broken.
-
-Carson National Forest is a trout fisherman’s delight. For the hunter,
-Rocky Mountain mule deer, elk, and antelope are found in all parts of
-the Forest. Small game is plentiful, and rabbits provide many hours of
-hunting pleasure. Beaver, muskrat, mink, weasel, marten, and skunk are
-the principal fur bearers, and turkey, grouse, ducks, geese, quail, and
-doves make up the game bird population. Predators include the mountain
-lion, bobcat, coyote, and fox.
-
-More than 40 developed camp and picnic grounds, most of which are
-accessible year round, welcome the visitor. Among them, Echo
-Amphitheater picnic ground on U.S. Highway 84, south of Canjilon, is a
-striking natural echo chamber formed by centuries of wind and water
-erosion in the rugged sandstone rock. “If you stand near the chamber,
-you only have to whisper, and your words come back in a spooky echo.”
-
-About five miles south on U.S. Highway 84 is the Ghost Ranch Museum,
-with live native Southwestern animals and conservation exhibits,
-including a living and growing display showing on-the-ground Forest
-Service Multiple Use Management of the mythical Beaver National Forest,
-the “smallest National Forest in the world.”
-
-Ranger stations at Canjilon, El Rito, Gobernador, Penasco, Questa, Taos,
-and Tres Piedras provide local information and recreation maps.
-
-    [Illustration: Echo Amphitheater surrounds part of the trail to
-    campground]
-
-
-                        Santa Fe National Forest
-
-The Santa Fe National Forest, with headquarters in Santa Fe, lies
-directly south of the Carson National Forest on both sides of the Rio
-Grande and is the center of a region rich in natural resources as well
-as historic and geologic interests. The two divisions of the Forest
-contain the high mountains to the east and west in the central section
-of the state. The Pecos Division to the east of the Rio Grande is the
-location of the major part of the Pecos Wilderness Area, one of the
-earliest of such areas to be established.
-
-The Pecos Division is so named because the Pecos River, which later
-joins the Rio Grande in Texas, heads among its towering mountains in a
-beautiful alpine basin sometimes called the _Pecos Horseshoe_. The Pecos
-River is one of the state’s largest streams and supplies some of its
-most important irrigation projects. This division of the Forest includes
-the southern part of the Sangre de Cristo range and was first known as
-the Pecos River Forest Reserve, established in 1892—the oldest National
-Forest in the Southwest. The division abounds in clear, cold mountain
-lakes and streams. Truchas Lakes, Pecos Baldy, Stewart Lake, Spirit
-Lake, and Lost Lake, as well as many mountain streams, lure not only the
-fisherman but the hiker and camper to their wilderness beauty.
-
-Twenty-three developed campgrounds and picnic areas located in cool
-glades are ready for the visitor along roads leading into the Forest
-from Santa Fe, Pecos, Glorieta, Las Vegas, and other communities. Skiing
-and winter sports are available at the Santa Fe Ski Basin northeast of
-Santa Fe; the chair lift operates year around for those who wish merely
-to view the spectacular scenery. The Pecos Division watersheds of the
-Santa Fe National Forest, like the eastern section of the Carson,
-contribute generously to the water flow of the Rio Grande.
-
-Wild game, game birds, and fishing attract visitors at all times of the
-year, while the golden hues of the aspen in the autumn tempt artists and
-photographers to record on canvas and film nature’s fall colors. A trip
-just before the winter snows to the aspen country of the Santa Fe
-National Forest is a must. Ranger stations are located at Santa Fe, Las
-Vegas, and Pecos.
-
-    [Illustration: An Izaak Walton along the Pecos river]
-
-West of the Rio Grande are the Jemez Mountains, which form the Jemez
-Division of the Santa Fe National Forest. The Jemez country is a
-favorite area for fishermen and hunters. For the sturdy hiker and
-picnicker, there are hundreds of fascinating points to visit and peaks
-to climb. Capulin Peak, Dead Man’s Peak, Nacimiento Peak, and Cerro
-Pedernal are a few of the exciting ones. The Jemez country contains the
-San Pedro Parks Wild Area, northeast of Cuba where San Gregorio Lake is
-waiting for the fisherman or hiker willing to walk or ride horseback.
-This section abounds in unique geologic formations—Battleship Rock, Tent
-Rocks, Teakettle Rock, to name a few.
-
-Eighteen developed camping and picnicking areas welcome the visitor to
-the Jemez Division. Youth groups also favor the Jemez for their summer
-camping. Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, YMCA, and others have
-camps adjacent to the Santa Fe National Forest. Timber production,
-wildlife habitat management, livestock grazing, and watershed protection
-are among the activities of the Jemez Division, while visitors and
-travelers enjoy the forest, the streams, and the unique scenery. Ranger
-stations are at Jemez Springs, Cuba, Espanola, and Coyote.
-
-
-                         Cibola National Forest
-
-A mountain playground for people who live or visit near U.S. Highway 66
-is Cibola National Forest, with headquarters in Albuquerque. Embracing
-the Sandias, Manzanos, and Gallinas Peak areas east of the Rio Grande in
-central New Mexico, this Forest also includes most of the mountain
-ranges in the west-central section of the state, the San Mateo
-Mountains, with 11,389-foot Mount Taylor, and the Datil, Magdalena, and
-Zuni ranges.
-
-Outdoor recreation is the fastest growing use of the Cibola National
-Forest and more than a million visits are made each year to this popular
-Forest. The name is a Zuni Indian word, pronounced SEE-bo-lah, meaning
-_buffalo_. Buffalo may have roamed the Cibola in years past, but today’s
-big game animals making the Cibola their home are the Rocky Mountain
-bighorn sheep, Rocky Mountain mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk,
-antelope, and bear. Game birds include turkey, grouse, quail, and dove;
-spring and fall migrations of ducks and geese use the Cibola as a
-resting place. There are 18 campgrounds with 249 family units and 14
-picnic grounds with 382 family units scattered through the vast domain
-of the Cibola National Forest.
-
-Sandia Crest in the Sandia Mountains east of Albuquerque is a goal for
-many travelers. Here on this 10,678-foot mountain top, there is a
-breathtaking view of the middle Rio Grande Valley and the Estancia
-Valley—a jet age view of nearly 10,000 square miles. The visitor stands
-on rocks which in eons past were under the sea, as indicated by fossils
-found on the peak. Recent recreation developments have been made at the
-Sandia Ski Area where a new 7450-foot double chair lift will carry 700
-riders an hour on a 1650-foot vertical rise to the restaurant and upper
-terminal on Sandia Crest. A tramway ascends the west face of the Sandias
-to meet the Ski Area chair lift at the Crest.
-
-The fabled Manzano Mountains rising above the plains to the west of
-State Highway 10 and south of U.S. Highway 66 are fast becoming a haven
-for the camper, picnicker, or sightseer willing to follow secondary
-roads to find the perfect spot to enjoy the forest. Capillo Peak, 9368
-feet high, Mosca Peak, Cerro Blanco, and Manzano Peak lure the mountain
-climber. Legends surrounding the old Spanish communities of Tajique,
-Torreon, and Manzano are exciting campfire stories after a day spent
-exploring the high country.
-
-West of the Rio Grande, the San Mateo Mountains north of Grants and the
-Zuni Mountains forming the backbone of the Continental Divide southeast
-of Gallup can be a new experience in outdoor recreation. McGaffey Lake
-recreation area, not too far from the route of the _conquistadore_ Juan
-de Oñate, is a cool retreat after crossing the desert and lava flow.
-
-West of Socorro on U.S. Highway 60, with Magdalena as headquarters, the
-high Datil, Gallinas, and Magdalena mountains and another San Mateo
-range rise above the San Agustin Plains, an ancient lake bed. Mt.
-Withington and Mt. Baldy, 10,787 feet high, dominate the landscape. Good
-roads and developed campgrounds are available. Hunting for wild game as
-well as for unusual gem stones and geologic finds are favored activities
-in this western section of the Cibola. District ranger stations are at
-Grants, Gallup, Magdalena, Mountainair, and Tijeras.
-
-
-                        Lincoln National Forest
-
-Named for the great president, the Lincoln National Forest, with
-headquarters at Alamogordo, has characteristics distinguishing it from
-all other National Forests in the state. The high mountains and canyons
-of the Sacramento, Guadalupe, Capitan, and White mountains, rising
-between the Tularosa and Pecos basins, were the backdrop and often the
-prize of the Indian and cattle wars. Stories and legends of early day
-happenings in the Tularosa Basin, mining operations, battles between
-rival cattle ranchers, large timber operations providing lumber, poles,
-mine props, and railroad ties are warp and woof of the Lincoln country.
-This Forest includes the high mountains north and south of the Mescalero
-Apache Indian Reservation.
-
-During the last decade, the Lincoln National Forest gained new fame as
-the birthplace of the world-renowned Smokey the Bear, symbol of forest
-fire prevention. In the Capitan Mountains, travelers like to visit
-Smokey’s birthplace near Capitan Pass, and in the community of Capitan
-on U.S. Highway 380 is a log museum which features the activities of the
-bear cub found near there during a disastrous fire.
-
-For the outdoor enthusiast, the Forest offers superb beauty, graceful
-and majestic snow-covered peaks, and the peace and serenity of a forest
-sanctuary. Each year, thousands of visitors from the plains seek its
-cool refuge from desert heat in summer and its readily accessible sports
-area in the winter. Ten campgrounds with many picnicking and camping
-sites are provided. Canyons, mountains, and streams in many instances
-feature anglicized names—Big Dog Canyon, Mule Peak, Bug Scuffle
-Hill—though the influence of the early Spanish settler still remains in
-names such as Sacramento, Agua Chiquita, Ruidoso, and Rio Penasco.
-
-Lincoln National Forest abounds in points of interest; Monjeau Lookout
-overlooks the headwaters of the Bonito, Eagle, and Ruidoso creeks as
-well as the tall slopes of Sierra Blanca to the southwest. Sierra
-Blanca, 12,003 feet high, is the most southerly mountain of that
-elevation in the continental United States. Just north of the peak is
-the Sierra Blanca Recreation Area, with one of the finest and
-best-equipped skiing facilities in the country. The restaurant and
-gondola lift operate during summer months, and from Lookout Mountain
-observation site, near the gondola’s upper terminal, the traveler can
-view White Sands, the Malpais (lava flow), and the 28,000-acre White
-Mountain Wild Area.
-
-Hunters find deer of three distinct types in this Forest—the Rocky
-Mountain mule deer, the desert mule deer, and the Texas white-tailed
-deer—and, of course, black bear from which family Smokey the Bear came.
-Game birds like wild turkey, quail, and chukkar partridge challenge the
-hunter. Fishing the Lincoln’s lakes and streams is a recurring delight
-to the angler. Aspens and oaks flaunt their brilliant autumn coloring
-against the warm green of pines and spruces, heralding the advent of
-winter snows and provoking numerous aspencades for those who wish a
-share in this ever new pageant of nature’s beauty.
-
-Like all the National Forests, the Lincoln is managed for the production
-and wise use of water, timber, and forage for livestock and wildlife and
-outdoor recreation. District ranger stations are at Cloudcroft,
-Carlsbad, Mayhill, Ruidoso, Sacramento, and Capitan.
-
-    [Illustration: “_Anybody for a run?_” at Sierra Blanca ski area]
-
-
-                          Gila National Forest
-
-The Gila National Forest, with headquarters in Silver City, is a big,
-wild, wonderful country in the southwestern section of the state. It has
-been scarcely affected by the hustle and bustle of modern living. Within
-its boundaries are 2.7 million acres of public-owned forest and range
-land, with almost a quarter of it devoted to wilderness and primitive
-areas. It includes the famous Gila Wilderness, the first such area set
-aside in the United States and the largest in the Southwest. Most of the
-Gila National Forest is north of Silver City, though part of it lies in
-the high country between Silver City and Lordsburg.
-
-The Gila is an exciting and exhilarating place to explore, sightsee,
-hunt, fish, and just enjoy. Indian ruins are evident almost everywhere,
-but the Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, adjacent to the Gila
-Primitive Area, is the best preserved. Ancient tree stumps and abandoned
-Indian ruins record the history of man; old mine dumps contain ores and
-minerals not known nor appreciated in the heyday of local mining;
-microscopic plants and forest grasses which may hold the key to man’s
-future health abound; and the traveler may experience great delight in
-finding a dried root or branch to add to a native rock garden; the
-majestic peaks, deer and other wild game, and cool, splashing waters of
-a mountain creek delight the camera hobbyist.
-
-One of the most beautiful and spectacular box canyons in the Southwest
-is on Whitewater Creek about four miles northeast of Glenwood. A catwalk
-built against the rock walls of the canyon enables the traveler to
-thrill at the unusual beauty and colors of the canyon and the cool
-depths of the trout stream below (_see_ Frontispiece).
-
-Good roads lead into the Gila National Forest at Reserve and Alma from
-U.S. Highway 260. An enjoyable loop trip which touches the Gila
-Wilderness at Willow Creek can be taken on State Highway 78 from Alma.
-Another beautiful trip is through the Black Range from the junction of
-State Highway 180 and U.S. Highway 85 to Silver City. Approach to the
-Gila from the north can be made through Beaverhead, Apache Creek, and
-Reserve, where good roads lead into the Forest.
-
-Fifteen developed recreation areas provide camping and picnicking for
-the hiker, horseback rider, and motorist and are complete with
-fireplaces, tables, and benches. Elk, deer, antelope, bear, javelina,
-and game birds are plentiful, and fishing in the high mountain creeks is
-usually rewarded with a satisfying catch.
-
-District ranger stations are at Magdalena, Truth or Consequences,
-Reserve, Glenwood, and Mimbres.
-
-
-                      Apache and Coronado Forests
-
-Although small parts of these forests lie in New Mexico, they belong to
-forests in Arizona. Apache National Forest touches the northern edge of
-the Gila and its attractions are much like those of the latter. The
-Coronado National Forest, which is in the extreme southwest corner of
-New Mexico, lies in an area of aridity and is difficult to reach from
-New Mexico. It is surrounded by Sonoran desert, at least in its
-environment in this state.
-
-    [Illustration: Gila Hunters with Happy Thanksgiving (_wild
-    turkeys_)]
-
-
-These far-flung public lands in New Mexico provide many resources
-besides varied kinds of outdoor recreation: timber for industry, water
-for city and farm, forage for livestock and wildlife. As long as our
-National Forests are protected and developed—used but not abused—they
-will continue to yield rich harvests, both tangible and intangible,
-forever.
-
-    [Illustration: Lake Roberts
-    This 70-acre lake thirty miles northeast of Silver City on State
-    Highway 25 lies in the Gila National Forest.]
-
-
-
-
-                      The State Also Preserves[4]
-
-
-State Monuments have been established to preserve some of New Mexico’s
-historic and archeologic sites of importance. These include the mission
-ruins of Abo, Quarai, Pecos, and Jemez, the Palace of the Governors in
-Santa Fe, pueblo ruins at Coronado State Monument, the old Lincoln
-County Courthouse, the archeologic site at Folsom Man State Monument,
-the plaza and nearby Mexican Colonial-style buildings in La Mesilla, and
-Fort Selden. The history recorded at these sites dates from 10,000 B.C.
-of Clovis Man to 1878 of the cattlemen’s Lincoln County War.
-
-State parks cover areas of scenic beauty, geologic wonders, and historic
-interest. Reservoir lakes yielding necessary water, good fishing,
-swimming, and boating include Conchas, Storrie, Bluewater, El Vado, Ute,
-Elephant Butte, Caballo, Alamogordo, Clayton, Morphy, and Bottomless
-Lakes. The latter are natural sink holes east of Roswell. Hyde Memorial
-Park and Santa Fe River Park, near and in Santa Fe, provide scenic
-picnic spots, as do Rock Hound State Park near Deming and Oasis State
-Park near Portales and Clovis. Picnicking, fishing, and spectacular
-canyons attract the visitor at Rio Grande Gorge Park west of Taos. Weird
-erosional figures carved from volcanic layers distinguish City of Rocks
-State Park near Deming. Pancho Villa State Park at Columbus and Kit
-Carson Memorial at Taos mark historic sites. Valley of Fires State Park
-west of Carrizozo preserves the black twisted lava of a relatively
-recent volcanic flow.
-
-
-NEW MEXICO STATE MONUMENTS
-
-                    _by_ Museum of New Mexico Staff
-
-The State of New Mexico, recognizing the depth and color of its own
-history, has established a number of state monuments preserving
-important historical or archeological sites. These are administered by
-the Museum of New Mexico located in Santa Fe. Any mosaic of New Mexico
-would be incomplete without including these important landmarks.
-
-
-                  El Palacio, Palace of the Governors
-
-The main facility of the Museum of New Mexico is El Palacio. The Palace
-of the Governors, on the plaza in the heart of Santa Fe, is the oldest
-public building in the United States. Built in 1610, it was the seat of
-Spanish government in New Mexico until 1821, of the Mexican government
-until 1846, and the residence of the governors appointed by the
-President of the United States until 1910, when it became a unit of the
-Museum of New Mexico.
-
-It presently contains exhibits relating to New Mexico’s past, ranging
-from the Indians, who arrived after crossing the Bering Sea, to the
-Spanish, who came seeking gold and glory on horseback, to the wagon
-trains from the east, whose goal was the end of the Santa Fe Trail,
-which is directly in front of El Palacio.
-
-El Palacio was the capitol of New Mexico for 300 years and was the seat
-of residence for more than one hundred of New Mexico’s governors. During
-that time it was captured and held by the Indians from 1680 to 1692. The
-Army of the Confederacy captured it for a few days during the Civil War,
-and one of its occupants, Territorial Governor Lew. Wallace, wrote his
-famous novel, _Ben Hur_, within its walls.
-
-There are other fascinating units connected with the Museum of New
-Mexico in Santa Fe. Among these are the Fine Arts Museum, emphasizing
-the art and artists of the great Southwest; the International Folk Art
-Museum; and the Hall of Ethnology, devoted primarily to the peoples of
-the Southwest.
-
-
-                           Abo State Monument
-
-Off U.S. Highway 60, nine miles west of Mountainair is Abo State
-Monument.
-
-The ruins of the ancient mission church of San Gregorio de Abo and its
-pueblo, built of red sandstone, are in a broad, natural amphitheater
-rimmed on the north and west by the blue Manzano Mountains, which
-contrast strikingly with the reddish hues of the Abo sandstone. This is
-one of the Saline Missions, so called because of the nearby salt
-deposits in the Estancia Basin.
-
-It was built during the seventeenth century by Indians under the
-supervision of the Franciscans, led by the venerable Fray Francisco de
-Acevedo. The inhabitants of Abo were very friendly to the Spaniards.
-They were forced to abandon their pueblo about 1673 because of drought
-and the raids of the Apaches and Comanches. They then moved south to El
-Paso del Norte where they joined in founding Isleta del Sur.
-
-The walls of the pueblo have disintegrated with time into low mounds
-which lie adjacent to the mission. The ecclesiastical structures have
-been excavated and repaired for permanent preservation.
-
-
-                         Quarai State Monument
-
-This monument is near Punta de Agua, eight miles north of Mountainair
-off State Highway 10.
-
-The ruins of the mission church of the Immaculate Conception at Quarai
-are unsurpassed in grandeur of architecture or setting by any that
-survive from the labors of the early Franciscans in New Mexico. Built of
-red sandstone masonry about 1628, at the Pueblo of Quarai, it was
-abandoned along with the pueblo about 1674, chiefly because of Apache
-depredations.
-
-One of the most venerated of the Franciscan missionaries, Fray Geronimo
-de la Llana, worked and died at Quarai, beloved by his Indian charges.
-His remains now rest in a crypt in the wall of St. Francis Cathedral in
-Santa Fe. The ruins have been excavated and repaired for permanent
-preservation.
-
-
-                        Coronado State Monument
-
-This pueblo ruin is on the west bank of the Rio Grande, one mile from
-the town of Bernalillo, seventeen miles north of Albuquerque, and one
-mile off U.S. Highway 85, between Albuquerque and Santa Fe.
-
-The Pueblo of Kuaua was one of the several towns of the ancient Tiguex
-province. At or near Kuaua, the Coronado expedition maintained
-headquarters from about 1540 to 1542 A.D. During excavation of the
-ancient pueblo, more than 1200 ground-floor rooms were found and five
-kivas, or underground ceremonial chambers, were uncovered.
-
-In one of the kivas was found a highly important group of ancient wall
-paintings. This kiva has been reconstructed and the paintings restored.
-
-The old walls of Kuaua have been rebuilt to a few feet in height so that
-the structure can be seen. A museum has been erected on the site to
-exhibit the material found during the excavation and to portray life in
-the Tiguex province. The Coronado State Monument and Museum commemorates
-the meeting, more than four hundred years ago, of the elements that
-influenced the culture of New Mexico—the Indian and the _conquistadore_.
-
-A curator-custodian is on duty at the Coronado Museum headquarters,
-which is open all year.
-
-
-                          Pecos State Monument
-
-Off U.S. Highway 84-85, three miles south of Pecos, is this State
-Monument. It became a National Monument during late 1966.
-
-This mission, the Church of Nuestra Senora de los Angeles de Porciuncula
-at Pecos, dates from the year 1617. It is fitting that this mission,
-which was one of the first two, with Jemez, established by the
-Franciscans in New Mexico, should bear the name “Our Lady of the Angels
-of Porciuncula,” for with his own hands, St. Francis, founder of the
-Order, rebuilt the decaying chapel of Our Lady of Angels at Assisi,
-which he called his Porciuncula or “Little Inheritance,” and there
-established the headquarters of the Franciscan Order.
-
-Pecos was well fortified because of its location on the eastern edge of
-the pueblo area and its contact with the Plains Indians. It resisted the
-raids for many years, but when a smallpox epidemic in 1838 reduced the
-population to seventeen survivors, they moved to Jemez Pueblo,
-abandoning Pecos.
-
-A part of the massive adobe walls of the ruined mission has been
-excavated and repaired, as have some of the rubble masonry walls.
-
-
-                          Jemez State Monument
-
-This Monument is at Jemez Springs, sixty miles north of Albuquerque on
-State Highway 4.
-
-One of the finest early mission churches was established at Giusewa
-Pueblo. _Giusewa_ means “place of the boiling waters” in the language of
-the Jemez Indians, and refers to the famous Jemez Hot Springs nearby.
-The mission, with Pecos, was one of the two earliest in New Mexico.
-These were founded one hundred and fifty-two years before the first
-California missions.
-
-The original settlement of the Giusewa Pueblo goes back hundreds of
-years before Columbus’ discovery of America, as does the settlement of
-the other pueblos, Quarai, Abo, and Pecos.
-
-Guisewa Pueblo became extinct during the last quarter of the seventeenth
-century, a result of the consolidation of several pueblos of the Jemez
-province into fewer and larger towns. Only one town, the present Jemez
-Pueblo, survives from that time. Excavation and repairs have been made
-in the ruins of both the pueblo and the mission church.
-
-
-                       La Mesilla State Monument
-
-This colorful State Monument consists of the plaza in the village of
-Mesilla, near Las Cruces, and the buildings nearby. The Monument
-preserves an aspect of the Mexican Colonial culture and architecture
-which flourished here in the early nineteenth century. The Gadsden
-Purchase of 1853 was celebrated in the Mesilla Plaza and the famous
-desperado, Billy the Kid, once stood trial here for his life. During the
-Civil War, Mesilla was briefly the Confederate capitol of the Territory
-of Arizona.
-
-
-                         Lincoln State Monument
-
-Located in Lincoln, on U.S. Highway 380, and known as the Old Lincoln
-County Courthouse, the first floor of this Monument was the mercantile
-store of L. G. Murphy & Co. in the 1870’s, during the Lincoln County
-War. The second floor was purchased in 1870 by the county for a court
-house.
-
-It was from this building that Billy the Kid made his daring escape on
-April 28, 1881, after killing his two guards. A caretaker and a museum
-attendant are on duty at all times. Mementos of the infamous Lincoln
-County cattle war are featured.
-
-
-                       Fort Selden State Monument
-
-The crumbling adobe walls of Fort Selden lie about seventeen miles north
-of Las Cruces just west of Interstate Highway 25. The history of this
-fort, given in the article on _Frontier Forts_, was highlighted by the
-brief stay of General Douglas MacArthur, who spent some of his childhood
-within the fort’s walls and played in the adjoining green valley of the
-Rio Grande.
-
-
-NEW MEXICO STATE PARKS
-
-                            _by_ The Editors
-
-New Mexico is blessed with a wealth of natural resources and perhaps
-most important is the abundance of sites with outstanding scenic and
-recreational facilities. The contrasts apparent in the mosaic of New
-Mexico are also seen in the pattern of its state parks. They range from
-desert regions with sparse and exotic flora and fauna to the high
-mountain canyons choked with Douglas fir and aspen where even in the
-summer evenings one huddles close to the fire for warmth. And the mosaic
-shifts from waterless areas amid geologic wonders to wide expanses of
-open water well stocked with trout. The parks are administered by the
-New Mexico State Park and Recreation Commission. Wherever possible,
-areas have been set aside for the permanent enjoyment of the people of
-New Mexico and their visitors.
-
-
-                      Bottomless Lakes State Park
-
-Bottomless Lakes State Park, established in 1936, was one of the first
-of the New Mexico state parks. It is surprising to find this treasure of
-great natural beauty in an area so dominated by aridity. There are six
-small lakes in the park, of which Lea Lake is the largest with about 15
-acres of surface area. The water of the lakes is crystal clear and
-varies in depth from 45 feet in the shallow lakes to about 100 feet in
-the deeper ones. They were created as “sink holes” when water dissolved
-large areas of underground gypsum, resulting in cave-ins. The lakes now
-offer extensive recreational facilities for the people of New Mexico and
-for tourists passing through or visiting the area. Camping, swimming,
-and boating are available. Pecos “diamonds,” small quartz crystals, can
-be found in the neighboring hills.
-
-
-                        Conchas Lake State Park
-
-    [Illustration: Sketch of Bottomless Lake]
-
-Conchas Lake is one of the largest sustained bodies of water in New
-Mexico. Conchas Dam, which holds the water of the Canadian River, forms
-the lake. The main dam is 235 feet above the roadway and is 1250 feet in
-length. At capacity it holds 600,000 acre-feet of water. The reservoir
-serves many purposes: flood control, local irrigation, camping and
-boating facilities, and fishing and water skiing.
-
-The Canadian River has its origin on Raton Mesa and flows southward to
-Conchas Dam, then turns abruptly eastward. On its way across the High
-Plains, it cuts into some of the oldest rocks that can be seen on the
-western edge of the plains, the Dockum Group of Late Triassic age. The
-best place to view the earth-building processes of this region is where
-State Highway 120 crosses the gorge of the Canadian River between Wagon
-Mound and Roy.
-
-
-                        Hyde Memorial State Park
-
-Here, at an elevation of 9000 feet, among tall pines and aspens is one
-of the most scenic of all New Mexico’s parks. High in the Sangre de
-Cristo Mountains, eight miles northeast of Santa Fe, the park offers an
-excellent example of the scenic beauty in New Mexico rarely seen by most
-travelers passing through the state. Easily accessible from Santa Fe,
-Hyde Park gives a few moments, or a few days, respite in the cool
-refreshment of a mountain forest. Excellent picnic and camping
-facilities are available. For those who want to penetrate the mountain
-vastness even farther, there are a number of well-marked trails for
-hiking.
-
-
-                         Navajo Lake State Park
-
-Navajo Dam on the San Juan River lies twenty-five miles east of Aztec at
-an elevation of 6200 feet in a region of spectacular scenic beauty.
-Camping, picnicking, boating, fishing, and water skiing facilities are
-available, and a lodge is under construction. This is expected to be one
-of the most important sports and recreational centers in northwest New
-Mexico in coming years.
-
-
-                        Pancho Villa State Park
-
-Named for the famous Mexican bandit and revolutionary leader, the park
-is located near Columbus, New Mexico, site of Villa’s most infamous
-raid. In the dead of the night on March 10, 1916, Villa and his men
-entered the town of Columbus and did their bloody work. When they left,
-seventeen local people were dead, including eight soldiers and nine
-civilians. The Mexican force suffered heavy casualties, perhaps as many
-as 125 killed. The town of Columbus was badly damaged and has only
-recently begun to recover from the blow. The expedition of General
-Pershing, then on duty along the Mexican border, was organized to hunt
-down Villa and his men. Pershing and a United States military unit spent
-three months inside Mexico, only to return to the United States
-empty-handed. The park commemorates one of the most interesting and
-tragic episodes in New Mexico history. Within the park, one can see
-excellent examples of Sonoran desert flora. Picnic facilities and
-camping sites are available.
-
-
-                        El Vado Lake State Park
-
-El Vado Dam is a part of the complex Rio Grande Conservancy District
-flood and irrigation project. It holds the water of the Chama River,
-which flows west, south, and then east into the Rio Grande. The country
-surrounding El Vado Lake is beautiful and contains some of the finest
-trout fishing streams in the state. At the lake itself there are camping
-facilities, including trailer spaces (no hookups for water or
-electricity). The lake is at an elevation of 7000 feet and is one of the
-important flood-control bodies of water in New Mexico.
-
-
-                          Bluewater State Park
-
-Bluewater Lake, at an elevation of 7460 feet, is a spot of spectacular
-beauty. Adjacent is a 160-acre wooded park. The area offers boating,
-fishing, and swimming. The lake was formed by impounding the waters from
-the Zuni Mountains’ watershed, and it fills three great depressions in
-high tablelands. The dam, built across two lofty natural walls of solid
-rock, the San Andres Limestone, holds a lake a mile wide and seven and a
-half miles long. Bluewater Lake State Park was the first of New Mexico’s
-parks, so designated in 1929.
-
-
-                        Storrie Lake State Park
-
-Storrie Lake State Park surrounds a small lake north of Las Vegas, New
-Mexico. It lies on the west edge of the High Plains and is an excellent
-recreation area. The lake is at an elevation of 6400 feet and has a
-limited number of picnic and camping facilities. It is stocked with
-rainbow and brown trout and crappies.
-
-
-                        City of Rocks State Park
-
-This is one of the most unusual of the state parks, and one of the
-finest for picnicking and for camping. Located in the unusual rock
-formation known as the Sugarlump Welded Rhyolite Tuff northwest of
-Deming, it is a source of wonder to all visitors. Suddenly, in a
-seemingly flat, desert plain, one comes upon these grotesque outcrops.
-In the coolness of the shade of these ancient rocks one can survey
-vistas under an azure sky that are almost breathless. This is the desert
-Southwest at its very best; not the harsh, unfriendly desert of movies
-and fiction, but a lovely spot in which to enjoy to the fullest the
-wonders of nature.
-
-
-                        Kit Carson Memorial Park
-
-This 20-acre plot of grass, flower beds, trees, and picnic tables lies
-on the northeast edge of Taos and contains the graves of Kit Carson and
-Padre José Martinez. Not far away is the Kit Carson House, a group of
-adobe buildings surrounding a patio, that was Carson’s headquarters,
-office, and home from 1858 to 1866. This Indian fighter, trapper,
-hunter, and trader is most famous for defeating the Navajos in Canyon de
-Chelly and marching 7000 of these Indians across New Mexico to a
-reservation at Bosque Redondo near Fort Sumner. However, during his
-eight years as Indian agent, Carson worked continuously for the welfare
-of his charges.
-
-
-                            Oasis State Park
-
-One of the state’s newest parks, Oasis is seven miles northeast of
-Portales along State Highway 467. This shady place of cottonwood trees
-amid sand dunes has long been a favorite picnic spot. The sand dunes
-form an irregular ridge separating Portales Valley to the south from
-Blackwater Draw to the north. In Blackwater Draw have been found bones
-of ancient animals and the weapons used by early man some 12,000 years
-ago. Portales Valley is the sand-filled remnant of the early Pleistocene
-Brazos River Valley that once drained eastward into Texas. About 800,000
-years ago, the Pecos River to the west “captured” the headwaters of this
-former Brazos River and left the Portales Valley high and dry.
-
-
-                       Valley of Fires State Park
-
-This park, about five miles west of Carrizozo on U.S. Highway 380,
-features picnic tables amid the Carrizozo lava flow, or malpais, one of
-the youngest in the United States. The lava flowed out of Little Black
-Peak about 1000 years ago in a series of individual “rivers” of hot
-black basalt. The composite flow is 44 miles long, 0.5 to 6 miles wide,
-and is made up of about 1 cubic mile of basalt; it moved southward down
-the lowest part of the northern Tularosa Basin.
-
-Climb around on the lava and note the ropy nature of the surface
-(_pahoehoe_ of the Hawaiians), the many frozen gas bubbles in the rocks
-(vesicles), the squeeze-ups where once-liquid lava protrudes through
-cracks in the hardened crust, the pressure ridges where the hardened
-crust arched and broke, and collapsed lava tunnels where the outer lava
-froze and the molten interior ran out, leaving an open tube or cave.
-
-
-                          Ute Lake State Park
-
-Ute Dam, two miles southwest of Logan, provides a 4200-acre reservoir
-along the Canadian River and Ute Creek stocked with rainbow trout, bass,
-crappie, and catfish. Camping, picnicking, and boating facilities are
-available along the valley walls, which are cut in the brown Santa Rosa
-Sandstone and overlying maroon to green Chinle shales.
-
-
-                       Santa Fe River State Park
-
-Bordering the Santa Fe River in downtown Santa Fe, this city park merges
-with the State Capitol grounds. It provides picnic tables and benches in
-the shade of tall trees amid the picturesque ancient city.
-
-
-                     Elephant Butte Lake State Park
-
-The giant Elephant Butte Reservoir, impounded behind the dam five miles
-east of Truth or Consequences, provides year-around fishing, boating,
-water skiing, and camping. Built in brown to gray Cretaceous sandstone
-and shale, the dam is overlooked by the brownish-black volcanic neck
-that is Elephant Butte. Eastern shores are carved from the purplish and
-maroon McRae layers. This is the main storage reservoir for the water
-that irrigates the lush Rio Grande Valley to the south near Las Cruces
-and El Paso.
-
-
-                        Caballo Lake State Park
-
-Caballo Reservoir, downstream from Elephant Butte, offers excellent
-facilities for water sports, its bass and crappie fishing being notable.
-The State Park is fourteen miles south of Truth or Consequences and six
-miles north of the dam. The spectacular rugged front of the Caballo
-Mountains looms to the east, with sharp canyons and ribbed cliffs along
-the valley walls cut in the tan layers of the Santa Fe Formation.
-
-
-                      Rio Grande Gorge State Park
-
-From Velarde (twelve miles north of Espanola) for seventy miles
-northward to the Colorado state line, the Rio Grande Gorge is carved 500
-to 800 feet into black basalt flows and tan Santa Fe Formation layers.
-Fishing is exciting in the fast waters, although the northern part of
-the gorge is difficult to reach. Foot and horseback trails lead to the
-bottom at the mouth of Red River west of Questa where picnic units have
-been built.
-
-
-                       Alamogordo Lake State Park
-
-The dam of Alamogordo Reservoir blocks the Pecos River and Alamogordo
-Creek northwest of Fort Sumner. Picnic, camp, and water sports
-facilities lie along U.S. Highway 84 about sixteen miles northwest of
-Fort Sumner. Juniper trees dot the low valley walls where the maroon to
-green shale and sandstone of the Chinle Formation crop out.
-
-
-                         Rock Hound State Park
-
-Lying on the west flank of the Little Florida Mountains, Rock Hound
-State Park, twelve miles southeast of Deming, offers camping and
-picnicking facilities and many varieties of agate in the volcanic rocks.
-A few miles to the south tower cliffs of the Florida Mountains, a
-landmark of southwestern New Mexico and also happy hunting grounds for
-rock hounds.
-
-
-                        Clayton Lake State Park
-
-Serving the northeast corner of New Mexico, Clayton Lake State Park lies
-twelve miles north of Clayton on State Highway 370, impounded by a dam
-across Cieneguilla Creek. The stream bed cuts brown Dakota Sandstone,
-and rolling grassy hills to the south overlie weathered basalt flows.
-
-
-                         Morphy Lake State Park
-
-Morphy Lake, backed up from a dam across Rito Morphy, lies three miles
-west of Ledoux in southwestern Mora County and thirty-one miles north of
-Las Vegas off State Highway 94. The 15-acre lake provides fine trout
-fishing and picnicking amid stately ponderosa pines, with the canyon
-walls formed by tier upon tier of Pennsylvanian limestones.
-
-
-
-
-                     Angling in the Desert’s Waters
-
-
-                        _by_ Fred A. Thompson[5]
-
-Water in the great Southwest, of which the State of New Mexico is a
-part, has made for a colorful and historical background. Water, perhaps
-more than anything else, has molded the lives of all inhabitants of the
-area from the pueblo and lodge of the early Indian to the civilization
-we know today. The fish and wildlife resources as related to water have
-played an important part in everyday living and economy.
-
-From data gathered by archeologists there are indications that the early
-Indian used fish as part of his diet. Fish bones are found in excavated
-ruins, and fish pictures are occasionally found as petroglyphs and on
-pottery (fig. 1). Although the use of fish was limited, it was
-widespread throughout the Southwest, not being confined to one Indian
-tribe or nation.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 1. Bowl depicting fish, found in ruins of
-    Mimbres Indians]
-
-The use of fish by the white settler was likewise restricted, but it
-increased as time progressed and knowledge and equipment improved. There
-is only limited reference to fish for either food or sport fishing until
-after the middle of the nineteenth century. Early explorers made records
-of fish in various waters of New Mexico and in most instances described
-the new species.
-
-Originally, the waters of the desert also could be described as fish
-deserts. Only three recognized kinds of food fish, as we know them
-today, inhabited the waters of this region. The trout was limited to the
-cutthroat species or subspecies. These were found as one subspecies in
-the Rio Grande drainage and the other subspecies in the Arkansas River
-drainage. The latter is reduced in numbers but a few remnants remain in
-the headwaters. The former is being artificially propagated and is being
-maintained successfully. The trout found in the Gila River drainage,
-originally thought to be a cutthroat, then a rainbow, has been recently
-described as a separate species. These trout, like the Arkansas River
-fish, remain as remnants in the headwaters. For the most part, the
-native trout have had a difficult time surviving in recent years because
-of the change in water and land use; the habitat has become exceedingly
-restricted.
-
-Channel catfish were originally found in the Rio Grande drainage and
-continue to maintain themselves satisfactorily. Water and land
-manipulation, however, present a serious threat, even to this hardy
-fish.
-
-There are records that the gulf eel once came up the Rio Grande during
-part of its life cycle. This fish of the ocean has long since
-disappeared—the fate of many migrating fish when confronted with
-man-made obstructions in the watercourses.
-
-Waterfowl were in great abundance once, in both the upper Rio Grande and
-the Pecos River drainages. These birds utilized the vast marsh areas of
-the valleys during spring and fall migrations. It is presumed that there
-was very little nesting of waterfowl in the early years.
-
-The mammals that live in or near the water, principally fur bearers,
-were in abundance as long as water habitat was abundant and prior to
-unrestricted trapping. With the exception of the beaver (since restocked
-and protected), many of the fur bearers once numerous are now extremely
-limited in numbers or approaching extinction. There is only an
-occasional sighting of the otter which was once relatively plentiful.
-
-Habitat for the various water mammals, birds, and fish is found in the
-drainage systems. The major system is the Rio Grande that flows through
-the center of the state; the Pecos River is its tributary. In this
-system are six of the seven life zones and conditions of habitat
-suitable to almost any form of water-dwelling life.
-
-There is a noticeable habitat change due to several causes, such as
-ranching, irrigation, urban development, and a general minor change in
-climatic conditions. Many variations are in direct relation, such as
-improper grazing, unscreened irrigation diversions, dams, and sewage
-disposal, to mention a few. There is an indication of a long-term
-warming of the general Southwest, and though this change is fractional,
-it does have a basic effect on habitat.
-
-The effect of habitat change can be noted in the life of the cutthroat
-trout. Early records reveal that this trout, liking cool clear water,
-was once caught in the Rio Grande in the lower part of the box canyon
-north of Peñablanca. It was also caught near the town of Pecos. The fish
-can no longer survive in the changed water conditions and is found now
-only in the headwaters. Even the catfish has difficulty surviving in
-some sections of the rivers for lack of water. In the lower Pecos, the
-catfish finds difficulty in reproducing because of the high salt content
-of the river water.
-
-As has already been noted, the fish that are recognized as game fish
-today were in short supply a hundred years ago. It was not until the
-railroads entered New Mexico that fish were imported to supplement the
-native supply. In an unpublished report by the author, it was pointed
-out that almost every kind of fish propagated in the United States has
-been imported and stocked in waters of New Mexico. Of these, some have
-survived beyond expectations and others have disappeared entirely.
-
-When the railroads entered New Mexico, there were already requests for
-fish in the hands of the United States Fish Commission. Fish were
-delivered in especially designed fish-distribution cars and the
-consignee met the cars at designated rail sidings. From the distribution
-cars, the fish were further transported by wagons in water containers of
-various descriptions, usually wooden barrels or watertight wooden boxes,
-to streams or lakes as assigned. Because of the mode of travel at the
-time, the quantities of fish so stocked were limited, but they did
-provide seed stock from which their population could grow. Fish were
-packed on back and on horses into relatively inaccessible areas. The
-procedures and techniques of fish transportation have evolved to the
-present highly specialized equipment and methods of operation.
-
-It is interesting to note that the quantities of fish imported and
-planted increased in relation to the improved transportation. The early
-records indicate the numbers in the hundreds and in just a few
-locations; later plantings increased both in numbers stocked and in
-waters stocked. The first fish imported to supplement the native fish
-was the German carp. In fact, this was the only fish imported for eight
-consecutive years, 1883-1890. These early plantings were followed by
-catfish, German brown trout, brook trout, yellow perch, largemouth black
-bass, crappie, rock bass, tench, rainbow trout, strawberry bass, black
-spotted trout, bream, smallmouth bass, salmon, white bass, and walleyed
-pike.
-
-All the fish imported are classed as game fish except carp and tench
-(the latter did not survive). The various species met their habitat
-requirements, and although there were no survivals in some locations,
-they did acclimate in others and have developed into a substantial
-fishery. Some species are predominant while others, like the rock bass,
-are remnant and taken only occasionally. The fish most sought now and
-predominant in the fishery are rainbow (fig. 2) and brown trout,
-catfish, largemouth bass, crappie, and walleyed pike.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 2. Joy of the fisherman, rainbow trout]
-
-Management of the fishery has progressed with technical development.
-When fish were planted in early years, very little thought was given
-about the habitat except that it was water. There was little known of
-the requirements of fish. As a result, fish were placed in waters only
-to perish. To maintain a fish population now, all techniques available
-are employed and fish are stocked where water and species are
-compatible.
-
-Water in the desert is always at a premium for the inhabitants. The
-early Indian cultures used water for irrigation, and there are still
-vestiges of canals used by Indians to convey water to their crops. The
-use of water by the Indians then had little or no effect on fish life,
-but as irrigation development increased, a new habitat was formed. The
-once free-flowing rivers became dry in places, and new waters were
-developed in the drainage ditches in the Rio Grande Valley. The
-competition for water is very keen and fish and wildlife uses come after
-domestic, commercial, and irrigation purposes.
-
-The water requirements are so great, in fact, that it has been necessary
-to control water and its use by laws. The law of 1876 provided that
-water could not be refused a traveler. Community ditch commissioners
-were established by law in 1895. The basic laws governing water rights
-were established in 1907. These laws have been amended or added to as
-conditions dictate. Conservancy districts were recognized by law in
-1927, and underground waters came under law in 1931. The Interstate
-Stream Commission was created in 1935. At present, New Mexico water laws
-are considered some of the best in the nation; however, it has been only
-recently that water for fish and wildlife has been recognized as one of
-the beneficial uses.
-
-Converse to the use of water to the detriment of fish and wildlife,
-there are several areas in which water has been developed and impounded
-to the benefit of the fishery. Although some impoundments were
-single-purpose developments, they supply habitat in conservation pools
-or during years of abundant water supply.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 3. Find the elephant!—at Elephant Butte
-    reservoir]
-
-Waters impounded by man but used as a fishery are Elephant Butte
-Reservoir (fig. 3), 40,096 surface acres when full. It contains
-largemouth black bass, crappie, walleyed pike, catfish, and sunfish.
-This lake has not been full for many years; but like Alamogordo
-Reservoir (4650 surface acres), Caballo Reservoir (11,532 surface
-acres), McMillan Reservoir (2500 surface acres), Conchas Reservoir
-(16,640 surface acres), and Avalon Reservoir (950 surface acres), it has
-produced excellent fishing. These are large irrigation lakes and are all
-stocked generally with the same species of fish.
-
-The lakes built for irrigation but utilized for trout are usually much
-smaller. The principal ones are Navajo Reservoir (15,600 surface acres)
-and El Vado (3500 surface acres). There are also Miami Lake (190 surface
-acres) and several others of small size.
-
-In addition, several small lakes have been built or acquired for the
-primary purpose of providing fishing. A few of these are Hopewell Lake
-(14 surface acres), Lake Roberts (73 surface acres), and Charette Lakes
-(400 surface acres). There are many more varying in size. The smaller
-lakes are primarily for trout fishing, but a few in the southern part of
-the state do have species usually found in warmer waters.
-
-In the process of reservoir construction, waterfowl habitat and resting
-areas are created. These new lakes, however, are a poor substitute for
-the natural marshes and potholes originally frequented by ducks and
-geese. Water mammals, likewise, find the artificial impoundments
-undesirable in comparison, and the increased water has added very little
-to this resource.
-
-Every water development has with it the appeal of recreation other than
-fishing. Now a lake must have such facilities as picnic and camping
-areas, launching ramps, good accessibility, boat rentals, and a
-concessionaire. There is no single-purpose reservoir in respect to
-recreation.
-
-Finally, it is concluded that the old adage, “fishing ain’t what it used
-to be,” should no longer be true for New Mexico. The fishing water has
-been added to greatly and the fish are managed better. The only problem
-is one of increased human population. Where there was one fisherman
-fifty years ago, there are a thousand now.
-
-Truly, the water of the desert is used to the limit.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    The past living today—San Miguel, early mission church still used
-    daily in Santa Fe]
-
-
-
-
-                       The Indians of New Mexico
-
-
-                       _by_ Paige W. Christiansen
-
-People entering New Mexico today find Indian cultures and Indian
-villages with traditions and ways of life that have changed little in
-many centuries. In this respect, man in the twentieth century shares an
-experience in common with Coronado, Oñate, and all the other
-_conquistadores_ who visited New Mexico so many generations ago. They,
-too, found the ancient Indian cultures strangely magnetic and exciting.
-If we could but remove the asphalt highways, the billboards, the
-telephone poles, and fences that seem always to surround us, the Indian
-villages in many parts of the state would look very much as they looked
-to the early Spanish explorers who were the first Europeans to see them.
-To meet the Indians of New Mexico and to visit their homes, if possible,
-is one of the greatest experiences available to residents and visitors
-alike. Although words are inadequate to give the true flavor and
-excitement of the Indian and his way of life, they are all we have to
-introduce the various people who make up the Indian population of New
-Mexico.
-
-There are two main groups that should be known. First, the Pueblo
-Indians, those who developed sedentary village life and who are the
-descendants of the first Americans in New Mexico. Second, the
-“newcomers” to the state, those who, for some reason or other, moved
-into the state to replace earlier cultures. Let us, then, visit some of
-these people’s homes.
-
-
-                              Acoma Pueblo
-
-Acoma Indian Pueblo, the Sky City, is famous in both history and legend.
-Built on the top of a lofty, almost inaccessible, redrock mesa some 357
-feet high, it is one of the most picturesque of all New Mexico Indian
-pueblos. No other pueblo gives one such a clear sense of living in
-ancestral times. The movements of the people up and down the steep
-trails, the untiring vistas, and the ancient homesites are reminiscent
-of the life and times of the cliff dwellers. Here the archeologists can
-search out the secrets of ancient life by direct observation. Here, too,
-is brought forth in the fullness of its bloom an Indian culture of
-outstanding achievement.
-
-The Indians of Acoma participated in the great Pueblo Revolt of 1680.
-They killed their priest, Fray Lucas Maldonado, in the first frenzy of
-the rebellion. Because of their isolation and the inaccessibility of the
-village, they were spared the vengeance of the Spaniards under de Vargas
-during the reconquest in 1692. There was an attempt by the Spanish in
-1696 to take Acoma, but they succeeded only in destroying the crops and
-in capturing five Acoma warriors. The Indians held out until July 6,
-1699, when they submitted to the Spanish governor of New Mexico,
-Governor Cubero. Thereafter, Acoma became an integral part of the
-mission complex established in New Mexico by the Spanish.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Starr Jenkins_)
-    Aspen Basin in Sangre de Cristo Mountains near Santa Fe]
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside_)
-    Tent Rocks in Jemez Mountains]
-
-Acoma is noted for its excellent pottery. The ware is fashioned from
-clay of fine quality, is very well fired, and is carefully decorated in
-typical Acoma designs. Here is an excellent example of Indian artistic
-ability. Some weaving, such as belts and headbands, is engaged in and a
-few baskets are produced, but Acoma is most famous for its pottery.
-
-One of the landmarks at Acoma is the great church which brave Fray Juan
-Ramirez toiled to create in the early seventeenth century. Surely there
-are few memorials of the Spanish epoch in the Southwest that present
-such a picture of dauntless faith in spiritual ideals as does this
-fortress church silhouetted high against the sky above the bare-rock
-mesa. It measures 150 feet in length and has walls that are 60 feet high
-and 10 feet thick. Timbers 40 feet long and 14 inches through support
-the roof and make a handsome ceiling. There are, of course, no seats and
-little decoration. And what a location for so magnificent a spiritual
-center it is! From there one may lift his eyes in rapt admiration of the
-splendid panorama of the great plain and the encircling mountains, and
-thereby appreciate more fully the work of the Deity.
-
-The Acoma are agriculturists, cultivating their lands by irrigation;
-they raise corn, wheat, melons, squashes, and hay. Now, however, most of
-the people of Acoma do not live on their mesa which protected them for
-so many centuries. The dangers of attack are no longer present, and the
-farmers find it more advantageous to live closer to their irrigated
-plots. The result is that the people of Acoma are now scattered
-throughout several villages. Their great culture, their traditions,
-their fierce pride, and their deep reverence for their spectacular
-history is visible in their faces and manners. Acoma, the Sky City,
-remains the eternal city of New Mexico.
-
-
-                             Cochiti Pueblo
-
-The Indians of Cochiti Pueblo claim the famed cave dwellings and ruins
-of the Rito de Frijoles (Bandelier National Monument) as their ancestral
-home. Failure of timber and water resources plus the constant attack of
-the various Apache Indian tribes over several centuries caused the
-residents of the Rito de Frijoles to seek a better home. This probably
-occurred about 1200 A.D. In 1598, when Juan de Oñate, colonizer of New
-Mexico, arrived, the Indians of Cochiti were living in their present
-village. For a short time following the reconquest of New Mexico by de
-Vargas after the Pueblo Revolt, the people of Cochiti lived in Cañada de
-Cochiti, which was in a better position for defense against Spanish
-reconquest. In 1694, de Vargas took the canyon village by storm, burned
-it, and forced the people to return to the older village of Cochiti
-where they remain to this day.
-
-The population of the village is slightly more than 300, and there has
-been little growth in the past thirty years. Like the other New Mexico
-pueblos, the main occupation is agriculture. Their ancient traditions
-are well preserved, among them the well-known Rain Dance held during the
-annual festival of San Buenaventura in July.
-
-Located at the pueblo is the ancient and beautiful Spanish mission, San
-Buenaventura de Cochiti, built in the early seventeenth century. To step
-into this church is to return to the Spanish days of yore. There are no
-seats, women kneel on one side, the men on the other, and the services
-are a mixture of old world orthodoxy and new world Indian traditions.
-Cochiti represents one of the finest examples of modern Pueblo Indian
-life.
-
-
-                             Isleta Pueblo
-
-Isleta Pueblo is the southernmost of the pueblos lying along the green
-and lush Rio Grande Valley today. It stands on the same site it occupied
-when Coronado came in 1540 and was a stopping place for every Spanish
-explorer and traveler who passed through New Mexico. It did not take
-part in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, but rather joined the Spanish in the
-retreat to El Paso del Norte (modern Juarez, Mexico). There they founded
-a new village just to the south of modern El Paso which they called
-Isleta del Sur. The main village of Isleta, in New Mexico, remained
-deserted until 1709 when it was re-established by Fray Juan de la Peña.
-
-Two different missions were built at Isleta Pueblo. The first, San
-Antonio de Isleta, was constructed about 1629. The church was burned in
-1680, and in 1681 was being used as a sheep corral. Between 1680 and the
-completion of the reconquest, it was completely destroyed. The second
-mission, still remaining at Isleta, called San Agustin de Isleta, was
-built in 1709 on the old site.
-
-Agriculture is the primary pursuit of the Indians of Isleta, although
-they do considerable stock grazing. The population of Isleta is nearly
-2000 persons. The annual fiesta takes place in late August.
-
-
-                              Jemez Pueblo
-
-The Jemez Indians were first seen by Europeans in 1541 when they were
-visited by Captain Francisco de Barrio-Nuevo, of Coronado’s expedition.
-He counted seven villages, naming them Aguas Calientes because of the
-many hot springs in the canyon of the Jemez River. The ancient pueblos
-are now all in ruins, with one preserved as the Jemez State Monument.
-The present pueblo, built on the mesa where the Jemez River leaves the
-mountains, was constructed after the Pueblo Revolt. The Jemez people
-fled their older villages during the reconquest and for a time lived
-with the Navajo, whom they disliked but preferred to the Spanish.
-
-There have been four notable missions among the Jemez Indians. The
-first, San Diego de Jemez Mission, was built in the early seventeenth
-century. It was one of the most successful of the New Mexico missions;
-reportedly, more than 6000 converts were made among the Jemez Indians
-before 1622. Because of the constant attacks of the Navajo, the
-traditional enemies of the Jemez people, the ancient pueblos gradually
-declined and were finally completely abandoned after Jemez participation
-in the Pueblo Revolt. The ruins of this church, now the Jemez State
-Monument, are among the most picturesque in all New Mexico. Its walls
-are three feet thick and were put together with intricate care. In its
-time, it must have been a beautiful building.
-
-The second, San Juan de Los Jemez Mission, was built in 1617 at a
-village located near the junction of the Guadalupe and Jemez rivers, six
-miles north of the present pueblo. The ruins are faint but still
-visible. The mission was abandoned in 1680.
-
-The third mission had a very brief history. It was called San Jose de
-los Jemez Mission and was located near San Juan de Los Jemez, of which
-it was a _visita_. Like San Juan, San Jose was abandoned in 1680.
-
-The present mission was founded early in the eighteenth century and is
-one of the interesting things to visit at Jemez Pueblo. This old church
-is the center of the annual festival held at Jemez on November 12.
-
-Jemez is noted for its splendid presentation of the Buffalo Dance in the
-winter and for its Corn Dances during the November festival.
-
-
-                             Laguna Pueblo
-
-Laguna Pueblo is the youngest and second largest of the pueblos in New
-Mexico. Built in 1697, shortly after the reconquest by de Vargas, the
-name was derived from a large lake which existed at one time just west
-of the village. In addition to the main village, a number of small
-settlements have developed where the terrain is suitable for
-agriculture, the main occupation of the Lagunas. The most important of
-these villages are Paguate, Encinal, Paraje, Mesita, Seama, and Casa
-Blanca. The Laguna Indians are of mixed origin, composed of four
-linguistic stocks: Tano, Keres, Shoshone, and Zuni.
-
-    [Illustration: Rock-walled Santa Maria mission, Laguna Reservation]
-
-Although the occupation of the pueblo was traditionally agriculture, in
-recent years a moderate revolution has been visible. The people of
-Laguna are in the middle of one of the richest uranium mining areas in
-the world, and many of them have been employed in mining activities.
-Also, the pueblo lies on the main line of the Santa Fe Railway, allowing
-some employment with the railroad. Laguna Pueblo is one of the most
-progressive of all the Indian groups in New Mexico. It has a population
-well in excess of 3000.
-
-Located at Laguna is the San Jose de Laguna mission, built in 1699. The
-plaster on the building is native earth. Indian symbols are painted on
-the ceiling of the chancel, and a large picture of St. Joseph done on
-elk skin hangs on the reredos. The halos on the saints are triangular
-rather than circular. The altar is covered with animal skins painted
-with Christian symbols.
-
-
-                              Nambé Pueblo
-
-Nambé is one of the smallest of the pueblos but is located in an area
-noted for its scenic beauty and climate. Its population is less than
-200. It was not always so small; during the eighteenth and nineteenth
-centuries, the population was greatly reduced by intertribal war and
-witchcraft executions. The Nambé people played an active role in the
-pueblo rebellion of 1680, murdering their priest and destroying their
-church.
-
-The original church at Nambé was one of the first missions founded after
-the establishment of the first European settlement of San Gabriel at San
-Juan in 1598. Destroyed in 1680, it was rebuilt in 1696. In 1729, the
-converts had increased to such numbers that a new church was required.
-This church remained in use until 1909 when, because of carelessness in
-keeping it in repair, the roof collapsed during a storm. The annual
-Nambé fiesta is held in early October.
-
-
-                             Picurís Pueblo
-
-Picurís is seldom visited by the tourist, for it lies in the mountains
-forty miles north of Santa Fe and can only be reached over a gravel
-road. The people of Picurís were among the most warlike of the normally
-peaceful pueblo peoples. They participated actively in the pueblo
-rebellion in 1680, killing their priest and all the Spaniards in the
-vicinity. They also participated in the battle for Santa Fe which broke
-Spanish power in New Mexico until 1692. After the revolt, fear of the
-Spanish caused them to abandon their village until they were induced to
-return in 1706. The population of Picurís is very small, being slightly
-more than 100.
-
-One of the few old missions left in New Mexico, the San Lorenzo de
-Picurís church shows the strange mixture of Spanish and Indian
-traditions. Near the door is a human skull covered with an old cloth,
-but unfortunately, its story is lost to antiquity.
-
-An interesting feature at Picurís is the unusual construction seen in
-some of the buildings. Made of puddled adobe, they are the oldest still
-standing of any pueblo in the Rio Grande Valley. The buildings were made
-by pouring adobe mud into wall forms. This is the same kind of
-construction that is found at Casa Grande, Arizona, one of the
-significant prehistoric ruins in the United States.
-
-
-                            Pojoaque Pueblo
-
-Pojoaque, though still listed among the Indian villages of New Mexico,
-is no longer populated by Indians. Two missions were established at
-Pojoaque in the early Spanish days, the first shortly after 1600. This
-was destroyed in the rebellion in 1680. Later, in 1706, a new church was
-constructed which is still in use. The Indian population of Pojoaque was
-gradually reduced until, in 1900, the few remaining families abandoned
-the village. Since that time, Spanish-American families have occupied
-the buildings. It is a picturesque village seldom seen, for it is hidden
-from the passing tourist by a hill. Yet some of the buildings in this
-ancient village date back to pre-Coronado times and are a significant
-part of the romance of New Mexico.
-
-
-                             Sandia Pueblo
-
-Sandia Pueblo is a remnant of the Tiguex villages visited by Coronado in
-1540. A mission was created at Sandia shortly after the colonization by
-Oñate, and it was an important mission center until the Pueblo Revolt.
-After the revolt, Sandia peoples scattered rather than again submit to
-Spanish control. Many of them went to live with the Hopi and there
-founded the village of Payupki on the middle mesa, the walls of which
-can still be found. After 62 years, in 1742, a few families returned to
-the Rio Grande Valley to found the modern pueblo. The old mission
-remains visible, although reduced to a rubble of adobe. Sandia Pueblo
-remains a small village, containing less than 150 people.
-
-
-                           San Felipe Pueblo
-
-San Felipe is one of the most conservative of the pueblos and has
-retained much of its Indian heritage despite the impact of Spanish and
-American influences. It has a close affinity with its neighbors,
-particularly Santo Domingo only five miles distant. San Felipe was a
-well-established village when the Spanish first arrived. Its people
-joined in heartily when the pueblo uprising began in 1680 but abandoned
-their village during a Spanish counteroffensive in 1681 (which failed).
-When reconquest was completed in 1692, the people returned to their
-village. Thereafter, they remained friendly to the Spanish and suffered
-many attacks from the Navajo, who hated them for this loyalty.
-
-One of the finest remaining structures showing early Franciscan mission
-architecture can be seen at the San Felipe church. The present church is
-not the original mission, for three different churches were located at
-San Felipe over the centuries. The first was built in 1605 and destroyed
-during the Pueblo Revolt. The second was built in a new part of the
-village in 1694, but shortly after 1700, the village was moved and a new
-church constructed. The latter church is the one now in use at San
-Felipe. On May 1, the nearly 1000 people of the pueblo celebrate their
-annual fiesta.
-
-
-                          San Ildefonso Pueblo
-
-San Ildefonso has gained fame throughout the world because of the
-excellence of its pottery. The high quality and general acceptance of
-this commodity has made the village prosperous. It boasts some of the
-most famous Indian artists and artisans in the United States, among them
-Julian and Maria Martinez, perhaps the best-known potters in the world.
-
-San Ildefonso participated in the Pueblo Revolt but did not contest the
-reconquest, at least not at first. In 1694, when de Vargas began to wage
-war on the northern pueblos, San Ildefonso did take part. The people
-fortified themselves on Black Mesa, a high, steep mesa of volcanic
-origin near the pueblo. There they successfully withstood Spanish
-efforts to dislodge them. Notwithstanding their initial success, they
-were ultimately conquered and brought into the Spanish system. Today
-there are several hundred people living in the village, and they are
-among the friendliest of the pueblo peoples. San Ildefonso is easily
-accessible from Santa Fe.
-
-The mission church dates back to the 1890’s, although earlier churches
-at the pueblo played an important role in bringing Christianity to the
-Pueblo Indian world. The older churches are long since gone.
-
-
-                            San Juan Pueblo
-
-San Juan Pueblo is best noted for its close association with the first
-Spanish settlement in New Mexico in 1598. Oñate, colonizer of New
-Mexico, selected a site for his first headquarters which was a part of
-the ancient Pueblo of San Juan. The natives living in that part of the
-village willingly gave up their homes to the Spaniards and were taken in
-by the remainder of the people of San Juan. Oñate, in appreciation for
-this hospitality, bestowed upon the pueblo the name _San Juan de los
-Caballeros_, a name which the pueblo is still proud to bear.
-
-Yet this same friendly people also contributed Po-pé, the great leader
-of the Pueblo Revolt, to the history of New Mexico. While Po-pé shared
-with many other pueblo leaders a hatred of the Spanish conqueror, he was
-the spiritual force and the organizer of the rebellion that broke the
-control of the Spaniard for twelve years and returned New Mexico to the
-Indian. This great rebellion stands as one of the significant efforts in
-the history of the world of a people to cast off the bonds of foreign
-control.
-
-San Juan cannot claim a church dating back to the _conquistadores_, but
-it does have one of the great landmark churches in the Southwest. In
-1890, the chapel of Our Lady of Lourdes was dedicated at San Juan. It
-was constructed of red volcanic rock found west of the Rio Grande. This
-beautiful structure is an architectural jewel set in desert
-surroundings.
-
-The nearly 700 people of San Juan welcome visitors to their homes; their
-undecorated burnished black pottery is particularly distinctive and
-popular. The pueblo’s annual festival is held in June.
-
-
-                            Santa Ana Pueblo
-
-Santa Ana Pueblo lies along the banks of the Rio Jemez, which enters the
-Rio Grande from the west. The pueblo was visited by Oñate and a mission
-was built there about 1600, shortly after his visit. The people of Santa
-Ana joined in the Pueblo Revolt, and since there was no priest serving
-their church in 1680, they joined with the Indians of Santo Domingo and
-San Felipe to massacre the padres at San Felipe. In 1687, during one of
-the Spanish efforts to reconquer New Mexico, Santa Ana was destroyed and
-her people fled. Later, at the urging of de Vargas, the modern pueblo
-was established, along with the church now standing there. The
-population of Santa Ana is nearly 400. Its annual festival takes place
-in August. It is often difficult to find many of the people at the main
-pueblo for they spend most of the growing season at El Ranchito, to the
-east in the Rio Grande Valley.
-
-
-                           Santa Clara Pueblo
-
-Santa Clara Pueblo is near the mouth of Santa Clara Creek, a year-round
-stream flowing out of the Jemez Mountains into the Rio Grande. To the
-west of the pueblo, on lands owned by Santa Clara, are the famous Puye
-Cliff Dwellings ruins. The people of Santa Clara claim these natural
-cliff homes as their ancestral dwelling places, a fact which has been
-substantiated by archeologists. The Santa Clara Indians represent, then,
-an important living Indian group in which one can observe institutions
-and traditions that can be linked to traditions of the cultures that
-lived in the caves and abandoned cities of Southwest antiquity.
-
-Like most of the pueblo people, Santa Clara joined the Pueblo Revolt,
-but this action did not seriously harm the pueblo. The real damage was
-done to Santa Clara in the late eighteenth century when intertribal
-warfare over witchcraft, plus the ravages of disease, took nearly 500
-lives in the village. The current population is about 500.
-
-The church at Santa Clara is quite modern, having been constructed in
-the twentieth century. The old church, built in 1760, was caught up in
-the modernization craze that swept through the pueblo world in the early
-1900’s. Perhaps one of the most substantial and beautiful of all pueblo
-churches, the old church collapsed during a storm in 1909 (the same
-storm that destroyed the church at Nambé); it had been structurally
-weakened by the removal of the roof for remodeling.
-
-The village has excellent agricultural lands and supplements its income
-by manufacturing an excellent and distinctive pure black pottery. Its
-annual festival is in mid-August.
-
-
-                          Santo Domingo Pueblo
-
-Santo Domingo is one of the largest of the pueblos, having a population
-of nearly 1500. It is also the most conservative in retention of its
-native culture. This makes its dances and dress of particular interest
-to the visitor to New Mexico. The present pueblo was established after
-the reconquest in 1692. The Indians of Santo Domingo took a particularly
-active part in the Pueblo Revolt, killing three padres resident at the
-pueblo. When de Vargas moved to retake Santo Domingo, he found the
-people had abandoned the village. They had constructed a village in the
-Jemez Mountains to the west, and it was there that de Vargas defeated
-them. Even then, the people of Santo Domingo did not give up the fight,
-and only after a long series of defeats and serious loss of life did
-they surrender and again return to the vicinity of their original
-village.
-
-The church at Santo Domingo is not so old as many other pueblo edifices,
-but its qualities remain among the most typical aspects of early New
-Mexico mission architecture. In early August, during the great annual
-festival, the Indians completely clean and whitewash the church. Two
-large horses are painted on the front of the building by native artists.
-The dances during the Santo Domingo festival are among the most colorful
-and authentic in New Mexico.
-
-
-                              Taos Pueblo
-
-Taos represents the northernmost of the pueblos in New Mexico. It is
-also one of the most scenic, lying at the foot of the Taos Mountains, a
-spur of the mighty Sangre de Cristo range. It is a prosperous village of
-about 900 persons. There is no finer example of pueblo apartment
-architecture in New Mexico. The main pueblo building rises five stories
-above the mesa. One must be careful not to confuse the Spanish town, don
-Fernando de Taos, and the old Indian farming center, Ranchos de Taos,
-with the pueblo, San Geronimo de Taos. It is the latter that is Indian
-and is, therefore, by far the oldest of the three.
-
-The ruins of the old San Geronimo mission at Taos represent one of the
-most historic and fateful in all the Southwest. It was there that two
-priests were murdered in 1680 during the first days of the Pueblo
-Revolt. It was there that Po-pé sowed the first seeds of that rebellion.
-Again in 1696, the Taos Indians sought to free themselves from Spanish
-control by killing their priests and other Spaniards in the vicinity.
-Again they were subdued. In 1847, when the Americans annexed New Mexico,
-the Taos Indians tried once more to gain their independence. Inflamed by
-Mexican citizens who refused to accept American authority, they attacked
-the Americans at Fernando de Taos, killing nine of them. Governor
-Charles Bent, builder of the famous Bent’s Fort on the Santa Fe Trail,
-was among those killed. On February 3, 1847, the American army in New
-Mexico laid siege to the village and the Indians fortified themselves in
-the mission. It became the Alamo of the Taos people. American artillery
-was brought to bear, and the walls of the ancient church were battered
-down; the Indians fled, first to the village and then into the
-mountains, leaving behind 150 dead and many wounded. They were finally
-forced to surrender, and their leaders were hung. Those so hung remain
-martyrs to this day. The ruins of the Taos mission, built three and a
-quarter centuries ago, still can be seen. They are a stark landmark to
-the stubborn independence of the people of Taos.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Souvenir of the American army’s work in 1847: Taos Pueblo mission]
-
-The traditions and ceremonials of Taos are well preserved. Their arts
-and crafts, however, have declined and are not of the high quality found
-in some of the other pueblos. Their ceremonials are excellent and are
-noted for their beauty and precision. The feast day of San Geronimo,
-September 30, is the most important event of the year.
-
-
-                             Tesuque Pueblo
-
-Tesuque is a small village, perhaps numbering no more than 150 persons.
-Even though it has always been small, it holds a major place in the
-history of New Mexico. It was at Tesuque that the first blood was shed
-in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. On August 9, Cristobal de Herrera was
-murdered, and two Tesuque Indians rushed to Santa Fe to warn the Spanish
-governor of the impending rebellion. The Indian leaders, now aware that
-their plot was known, moved the date of the revolt from August 13 to
-August 10. On August 10, Father Pio, in charge of the Tesuque mission,
-went out from Santa Fe to say Mass and also was murdered.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Most-painted church in America?... Ranchos de Taos]
-
-Although its handicrafts are of poor quality, the Tesuque Indian
-ceremonials are colorful and authentic. The people have retained much of
-their early culture while living in proximity to the white man (Santa Fe
-is only nine miles distant). The pueblo’s most important festival falls
-on November 12.
-
-
-                               Zia Pueblo
-
-The story of Zia is one of tragedy and difficult problems of existence.
-Located on a basalt flow on the north bank of the Jemez River some
-fifteen miles above its junction with the Rio Grande, Zia has poor land
-and a limited supply of irrigation water. Agriculture is the main
-economic pursuit, but the pueblo’s unfortunate location makes trading
-for part of its food supply necessary.
-
-Oñate reported Zia to be a large pueblo. However, it suffered greatly
-because of its participation in the Pueblo Revolt. Some historians
-estimate that during the reconquest, nearly 600 of the people of Zia
-were killed defending themselves from the Spanish. Continued wars and
-pestilence reduced the pueblo to a very few families. Over the past
-century, the group has again showed signs of growth and now has a
-population of more than 300.
-
-The church at Zia dates from 1692, and thus represents one of the fine
-examples of ancient Franciscan architecture in New Mexico. The annual
-festival, dedicated to Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion, is celebrated with
-an excellent Corn Dance on August 15.
-
-
-                              Zuni Pueblo
-
-Zuni has the distinction of being the first of the pueblos seen or
-visited by Europeans. Seen from a distance by Fray Marcos de Niza in
-1539, it was reported as a rich and extensive city. Nearby were six
-other pueblos, and the Spanish immediately associated the Zuni complex
-with an old Spanish legend about seven golden cities, the Seven Cities
-of Cibola. The expedition of Coronado was formed to explore and conquer
-the rich pueblos of New Mexico. His first contact was at Zuni, then
-called _Hawikuh_. It was neither golden nor rich.
-
-Although Zuni was an important stopping place on the early trails to
-Mexico, it managed to remain least influenced by European ideas. The
-Spanish concentrated their efforts in the Rio Grande Valley and Zuni
-went its own way most of the time. While there were missionary efforts
-from time to time, by the nineteenth century, the stout resistance to
-such activity caused it to cease. In recent years, sporadic missionary
-activity has been evident, but it has not been notably successful.
-
-The most famous of all New Mexico Indian ceremonial dances is held at
-Zuni each year. The Shalako, which occurs in early December, is
-authentic and spectacular. The dancers, carrying huge ceremonial figures
-on their shoulders, must train and practice constantly during the entire
-year.
-
-Zuni is the largest of the pueblos in New Mexico, with a population
-numbering more than 5000 persons. The main occupation is agriculture.
-The Zunis supplement their income by manufacturing silver inlay jewelry
-that shows great creative skill and is beautiful to behold.
-
-
-                        Other New Mexico Indians
-
-In addition to the well-known Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, there are
-four other areas of Indian lands. Three of these belong to peoples of
-Athapascan origin, sometimes better known as Apache Indians. By name,
-they are the Jicarilla Apache, the Mescalero Apache, and Navajo. The
-fourth group is the Ute Indian.
-
-The Apache tribes were relative newcomers to the Southwest. Their origin
-was the plains area between the northern Rocky Mountains and Hudson Bay
-in Canada. About 1000 A.D., a part of these northern Plains Indians
-began a migration that ultimately brought them to New Mexico. Down the
-High Plains across the western Dakotas, western Nebraska, Kansas, and
-finally to western Texas and eastern New Mexico, these people came. At
-about the latitude of Albuquerque, the migration split. Part of the
-group continued south, across the Staked Plains, into southeastern New
-Mexico, west Texas, and northern Coahuila and Chihuahua, Mexico. Here
-they divided into the Lipan, the Mescalero, and the Natage Apache.
-Today, in south-central New Mexico are the descendants of the Mescalero.
-The Mescalero Apache reservation is crossed by U.S. Highway 70, a scenic
-drive through pine forests. The tribe operates the Sierra Blanca ski
-area, one of the southernmost ski areas in the United States. Its annual
-Crown Dance and coming-of-age ceremonials are held July 1 to 4, followed
-by an Apache rodeo. The Lipan and the Natage have virtually disappeared.
-
-The second group of the migration discovered for the first time in their
-long trek down the eastern fringes of the Rockies that the country
-opened up to the west. They poured through the passes and entered the
-areas traditionally controlled by pueblo farmers. Gradually, they took
-over these lands for themselves, driving out the farmers. By the time
-the Spanish came on the scene, most of the peaceful farmers had given
-way before the onslaught of the warlike Athapascan savages. Only one
-group remained, the pueblos of the central Rio Grande Valley. The
-migration that moved into the desert and mountain lands divided into a
-number of groups which are known by modern names: the Chiricahua, White
-Mountain, Western, and Jicarilla Apache and the Navajo. The Jicarilla
-Apache reside mainly in north-central New Mexico on reservation lands,
-and the Navajo reservation lies partly in extreme northwestern New
-Mexico. Most of the Navajo land and all the lands of the others are in
-Arizona.
-
-The Ute Indians, driven from the plains by stronger tribes, settled in
-the central Rocky Mountain area. There they raided the wealthy (at least
-in their eyes) pueblos to the south. They fought sporadically against
-white penetration but were finally subdued and placed on reservation
-lands in the Four Corners area, part of which lies in New Mexico.
-
-While the history of these peoples is fascinating and full of romance,
-there is little besides scenery to be seen when visiting their
-reservations. The populations are often scattered over many hundreds of
-square miles, and the people have only rudimentary handicrafts. The
-exception is the Navajo, and a trip to the Navajo reservation is
-worthwhile. These Indians have developed techniques of weaving and
-silversmithing that contribute significant art forms to Southwest
-handicrafts.
-
-
-The outstanding Indian event of the year in New Mexico is the
-Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial at Gallup, held during mid-August. Some
-thirty tribes from the Southwest and Midwest meet to compete in arts,
-crafts, and ceremonial dancing.
-
-
-
-
-                         Reminders of the Past
-
-
-                       _by_ Paige W. Christiansen
-
-When driving across New Mexico or when visiting some part of the state,
-one should be aware of the wealth of history that is always close at
-hand. Many people, when faced with what seems like endless miles of
-empty country, fail to realize that the very emptiness is one of the
-charms of the state. They also do not recognize that in the vast
-expanses of mountain and desert, people of the ancient past or a recent
-past have lived and worked and died. Sometimes the fruits of their labor
-are clear and evident and live on in cities and towns. In many
-instances, however, the mountains and desert have reclaimed their own
-and the works of man have succumbed. A mental picture must be cast over
-the landscape on which great historical events took place but which is
-almost empty of signs of man’s efforts. If travelers are fortunate,
-there may still be some sign—a ghost town, a ruined ranch, some old
-artifacts—to tell the story; if not, imagination must be given rein. The
-search is the adventure, and to give aid in that search, the following
-might suffice as a faint guiding light.
-
-To simplify the descriptions of these reminders of the past, New Mexico
-is divided into seven geographical regions which a traveler might well
-visit:
-
-  1. _North from Santa Fe_, including U.S. Highways 64, 285, and 84, and
-  connecting state highways.
-
-  2. _The northeast_, including U.S. 85 from Santa Fe to Raton, U.S. 66
-  east from Albuquerque to the Texas line, U.S. 56 from Springer to the
-  state line, and connecting state highways.
-
-  3. _The northwest_, including U.S. 66 west from Albuquerque to the
-  Arizona line, U.S. 666 north from Gallup to Colorado, and State
-  Highway 44 from Bernalillo to Farmington.
-
-  4. _East-central_, including U.S. 60 east from Bernardo, U.S. 380 east
-  from San Antonio, U.S. 70 from the Mescalero Indian Reservation to the
-  Texas line, U.S. 285 from Clines Corners to Roswell, U.S. 54 from
-  Three Rivers to Santa Rosa, and connecting state highways.
-
-  5. _West-central_, including U.S. 60 west of Socorro, U.S. 180-260 and
-  State Highway 12 in Catron County, U.S. 85 from Los Lunas to Elephant
-  Butte, and connecting state highways.
-
-  6. _Southeast_, including U.S. 70 from Las Cruces to the Mescalero
-  Indian Reservation, U.S. 54 from El Paso to Three Rivers, U.S. 62 from
-  Hobbs to the Texas line, U.S. 285 from Roswell to the Texas line, and
-  numerous state roads.
-
-  7. _Southwest_, including U.S. 85 from Truth or Consequences to El
-  Paso, U.S. 180 north from Deming to the Catron county line, U.S. 70-80
-  west from Las Cruces to Arizona, and state roads.
-
-
-                          North From Santa Fe
-
-The country north of Santa Fe is the heart of Indian and Spanish New
-Mexico. Here, if he looks beyond the narrow boundaries of the highway
-right-of-way, the traveler can see Indian and Spanish villages which
-have not changed significantly in two and a half centuries. Along the
-lush green of the Rio Grande Valley or of its tributaries dashing out of
-the Sangre de Cristo range to the east, these sleepy concentrations of
-people reveal cultural and language patterns which smack of the
-_conquistadores_ of the sixteenth century or of the ancient cliff
-dwellers. It is a slow and easy world, perhaps most representative of
-the “land of mañana.” In a region already worked for centuries for what
-it can produce, there is no hurry. It will be there tomorrow and
-forever. The people of this region are typically New Mexican. The hills
-are dotted with piñon and juniper trees which give a greenish to black
-cast to the land. This, too, is typically New Mexican.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Cool drive on a summer day, Red River Canyon]
-
-There is one short trip that would be fruitful for him who wants to know
-New Mexico, to feel the romance of Spanish culture, and to seek
-adventure off the beaten track. Just north of Española, State Highway 76
-strikes east from U.S. 64. Nowhere in the state can be found so much of
-old world charm or spectacular scenic beauty. Heading east, the traveler
-passes through Chimayó, a village famed throughout the world for its
-weaving, though seldom visited, then on through Truchas and Las Trampas
-to Penasco, heart of the Penitente country. The Penitentes were a
-religious sect growing out of long isolation from the main threads of
-Roman Catholicism. They gradually reverted to relatively primitive
-Christian practices without guidance from main church centers but within
-the past few years have returned to the Church. The many white crosses
-that can be seen in the area attest to their former activity. From
-Penasco, the traveler can return to U.S. 64 via State Highway 75.
-
-The area northwest of Santa Fe, stretching some thirty or forty miles on
-the southeast flanks of the Jemez Mountains, is the noted Pajarito
-Plateau, the home of great numbers of Indian cultures, living and dead.
-Many of the modern Indian pueblos will be found in this region. Also,
-some of the most significant ancient Indian ruins are found here, such
-as the Frijoles Canyon (Bandelier National Monument) and Puye Cliff
-Dwellings.
-
-The entire area north of Santa Fe, then, is alive with history. In every
-village, in every canyon, there is something that will add to the
-romance of Spanish-Indian New Mexico. In our Southwest, the heritage
-handed down by these two great cultures is held dear by the people. To
-the traveler will come a greater appreciation and a greater
-understanding of New Mexico and the Southwest if these are but
-understood.
-
-
-                          Northeast New Mexico
-
-The section designated as northeast New Mexico is an area of mountains
-and plains, and its historical mosaic shows elements of both: the rugged
-Sandia Mountains near Albuquerque and the southernmost parts of the
-extensive Sangre de Cristo range, which thrusts north from U.S. Highway
-85 far into Colorado, and part of the famed buffalo plains. The area is
-drained by two main river systems; the Canadian River flows east to join
-the Arkansas and the Mississippi and the Pecos River flows south to join
-the Rio Grande.
-
-Through this vast area ran one of Americas greatest highways, the Santa
-Fe Trail. Beginning in Missouri communities, the Trail hurled itself
-into the intricate patterns of the Great Plains with all of their
-dangers—Indians, boredom, violent storms, treacherous rivers, and
-prairie grass fires. Then on into the foothills of the mighty Rocky
-Mountains and the steep and backbreaking approaches to Raton Pass in New
-Mexico. The new highway across this pass (U.S. 85) and the nature of our
-vehicles have made this an easy passage. But the traveler should pause
-at some high point, or perhaps leave the main highway for a moment, and
-try to imagine crossing this rugged land in Conestoga wagons. From
-Raton, the Santa Fe Trail continued south to Las Vegas and thence into
-Santa Fe via Glorieta Pass (current route of U.S. 85). Over this trail
-passed the goods of the world. In part, these were intended for the
-people of New Mexico, but over other trails they also found markets in
-Mexico and in California. For the curious and adventurous, sections of
-the Santa Fe Trail can still be seen. Local inquiry will elicit
-directions to remaining parts of the wide rutted Trail, scene of so much
-of the American westward movement.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    How To see the Rio Grande Valley—from Sandia Crest]
-
-While passing through the mountains between Santa Fe and Las Vegas, the
-traveler should be aware that a critical Civil War battle was waged in
-the fastness of these passes. In 1862, Confederate forces, which came up
-the Rio Grande from Texas and won a series of victories over Union
-troops, met a combined force of Colorado Volunteers and New Mexico Union
-troops in a decisive contest over the control of the American Southwest.
-The Union troops were successful, preserving New Mexico and the West for
-the Union.
-
-These, then, are some of the things to look for in this region of plains
-and mountains. Picture buffalo by the tens of thousands pushing up the
-Canadian River, or long lines of wagons winding their way along the
-Santa Fe Trail carrying goods and people into new lands, or the Blue and
-the Gray locked in deadly combat far from the thunder of the main Civil
-War battles. The mosaic here is sharp and vividly different.
-
-
-                          Northwest New Mexico
-
-Northwest New Mexico is typified as ancient Indian country. While
-seemingly a harsh land, it is only this to the uninitiated, to those who
-lock their minds to beauties of history and lands unlike their own. The
-Indian found this country good and productive. Some of the finest ruins
-of Indian antiquity are in this region—Chaco Canyon and Aztec, both
-National Monuments, and hundreds more that remain unnamed. The Indians
-of the Four Corners area (named thus because New Mexico, Colorado, Utah,
-and Arizona meet here, the only place in the United States where the
-lines of four states intersect) created levels of culture unsurpassed in
-what is the continental United States; only the Indians of Mexico and
-Peru claim a higher culture. This is a land whose ancient people reached
-their great peak at the same time as the later Romans, as Charlemagne in
-ancient Frankish Europe, and as Mohammed and his successors in the
-Middle East.
-
-But ancient Indians hold no monopoly on this vast region. Today many of
-the Indians of New Mexico still find homes here. The Navajo Reservation
-lies between Gallup and the Colorado line. Part of the Ute Reservation
-lies along the northern edge of New Mexico, and the Jicarilla
-Reservation is in the eastern part of this region. Many of the pueblo
-people are found between Albuquerque and Santa Fe. At Gallup each year,
-the famed Indian Ceremonials bring together peoples from many of the
-tribes in the United States.
-
-This region is also renowned as an oil and natural gas producer and is
-one of the booming areas in New Mexico. But this is only one aspect of
-the mineral riches of the northwest; the mines near Grants, between
-Albuquerque and Gallup, produce tremendous quantities of uranium ores.
-The atomic energy capability of the United States begins at Grants. And
-near Gallup and Fruitland are huge open-pit coal mines.
-
-The northwest is drained by the San Juan River, a tributary of the
-Colorado River, and is therefore a part of the Pacific watershed. The
-Navajo Dam project, just east of Farmington, is a part of this drainage
-pattern.
-
-Thus the region is characterized by Indians old and new, ancient things
-buried deep beneath the earth, and great beauty in pastel colors and
-subtle contrasts—the mosaic of the land.
-
-
-                        East-Central New Mexico
-
-East-central New Mexico, like the northeast, is an area of plains and
-mountains. Here the buffalo roamed, and in their place, cattle now
-utilize the hardy and nutritious grasses of the High Plains. Mountains
-are the Manzano, southeast of Albuquerque, and Sierra Blanca, near
-Carrizozo, as well as numerous minor ranges. Also in this region is some
-harsh and desolate country, seared by the southwestern sun and lacking
-in rainfall, but supporting the exotic plants and wildlife typical of
-the Sonoran desert regions.
-
-While the desert regions may not be attractive to the eye, they should
-be appreciated for their part in the historical mosaic. In the area east
-of the Rio Grande is the northern half of the well-known White Sands
-Missile Range, one of the significant test centers in the rocket and
-space age. It was also in this arid region that the first atomic bomb
-was exploded (southeast of Socorro).
-
-The early use of this desert, however, emphasized its harshness. For
-centuries, the Spanish suffered across this waterless waste on their way
-from Chihuahua in Old Mexico to Santa Fe, for this was the Jornada del
-Muerto, journey of death, the hardest and most dangerous part of the
-trip over the Camino Real. The Camino Real was the lifeline of New
-Mexico from 1598 until the Santa Fe Trail was opened in 1821, and all
-visitors during that period were obliged to cross this arid section. A
-modern rocket crosses in mere seconds what took the Spaniards many days.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Who says this is desert country?... Sierra Blanca from U.S. 70]
-
-In the Manzano Mountains, there are numerous Indian ruins which
-represent the eastern fringes of the pueblo-building Indians of New
-Mexico. These ruined villages have been given the name by historians of
-“cities that died of fear,” fear of the vicious Apache and Comanche
-tribes. For centuries, these brave village people tilled their crops and
-lived peacefully on the land. Then, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and
-fifteenth centuries, the great migrations of Plains Indians that pushed
-into the Southwest gradually did their deadly work. One by one the
-villages succumbed, until by 1700 few people remained, and these were
-ultimately killed or driven into the sanctuary of the Rio Grande
-pueblos. It is awesome to stand mid the rubble of one of those ancient
-cities and imagine the circumstances of its demise.
-
-In the eastern part of this section was the heart of the High Plains
-cattle empires. Here is a land that once belonged to the great cattle
-barons, a land of free range, the home of the cowboy. Although it is
-fenced today, it is still a land of cattle and is still very close to
-the early days of the cattleman.
-
-Again, there is an intricate and varied mosaic. No simple land this, but
-a complexity of plains, mountains, and desert, all of which color its
-history. The Indians no longer inhabit their villages, the Spanish no
-longer struggle along the Jornada del Muerto, and the free range of the
-cattle baron is gone, but if the traveler sees it through its historical
-past, it will again come alive.
-
-
-                        West-Central New Mexico
-
-This section is a complex and colorful mass of landforms scattered
-helter-skelter across the western part of the state. It stretches from
-the green Rio Grande Valley, with its irrigated lands, quaint farms, and
-picturesque agricultural villages, up the Valley’s steep western slopes
-to the rolling grassland and mesas and alluvial fans, ending in
-precipitous and treacherous canyons in the rugged mountains. Socorro
-Mountain, the Magdalenas, the San Mateos, the Ladrones, and countless
-others seem always to ring the horizon. Some of them are timbered and
-abound in cool, refreshing shade and springs; some are harsh and dry. In
-the west, the famed San Agustin Plains stretch to the sunset, a wide
-carpet fringed by black, timbered hills, site of fabulous cattle drives
-of a bygone day. The complexity of the region’s geology, scenery, and
-terrain is matched by an equally complex history.
-
-The history is a mosaic of many hues, some harsh and stark like its dry
-desert mountains, some inviting like the shade and coolness of its
-timbered canyons and mountain springs. First were the many diverse and
-sometimes hostile Indian cultures. There were peaceful pueblo peoples
-tilling their lands, using the Rio Grande’s flowing water to produce
-abundance. Also, prehistoric village dwellers struggled to create
-agricultural societies along the banks of now-dry rivers in the western
-part of the region. And there were the fearsome Apache Indians who
-founded their homes in the broken mountain fastnesses and added their
-excitement and tragedy to the mosaic. So, too, did the Spaniard make his
-mark and the Mexican who followed close behind. The place names of the
-eastern part of the region are primarily Spanish, although the Spanish
-found the area a difficult one in which to maintain themselves. And then
-the American came to dominate this land, adding realism and technology.
-
-Finally, two major economic factors left a profound imprint: stock
-raising and mining. The first began with the Spanish, was continued by
-the Mexicans, and commercialized by the Americans. Everywhere are signs
-of this heritage. Mining also played a dominant role, although of a
-shorter duration. One can hardly lift his eyes to the hills without
-seeing signs of the prospectors shovel or the miner’s work. One can
-hardly converse with local citizens without discussing mines of the past
-or mines of the future. Livestock and minerals, then, are woven through
-the historical pattern and are never far from any part of the story.
-
-Let the traveler be aware of several important facts when he passes
-through this region. First, this is empty country, an area that has
-fewer people now than it had eighty years ago. Its mines are mostly
-closed and the towns that grew with the mines are ghosts. One of the
-most famous of these is the town of Kelly, a short distance from the
-community of Magdalena. Another is Mogollon, off U.S. Highway 180 in the
-southwestern part of this region. Either of these will give to the
-viewer a vivid picture of the mining camps of the nineteenth century.
-
-To the average tourist crossing the San Agustin Plains, they seem
-desolate and uninteresting. To the traveler with imagination and
-knowledge of the history of this once great inland lake, the trip can be
-exciting. He pictures this great basin full of water, forty-five miles
-long and fifteen miles wide, and sees mountains covered with blue spruce
-surrounding the great lake. His mental motion picture rolls on thousands
-of years, watching the water evaporate and the forest of spruce die, to
-be replaced eventually by the piñon and juniper now dotting the hills.
-Grass grew in the old lake bed, except in the last areas to evaporate,
-for these had an alkali content too high for most grasses. The traveler
-then watches the Indian enter the scene—not the pueblo builder, except
-as a transient, for no water is available. The nomadic warrior uses the
-pathway later. In 1774 and in 1776, he sees several important battles
-between the Spanish and the Apaches fought on these Plains. Later, the
-American cattleman dominates them, as he does today....
-
-And so the mosaic grows—Indians, Spanish, Americans, cattle, and
-mines—and the spectacular vistas and the vast emptiness add color and
-excitement for the traveler who sees the past with the present.
-
-
-                          Southeast New Mexico
-
-Much of southeast New Mexico is an extension of the Great Plains, but it
-has some rugged mountains and a severe desert in the middle of which lie
-White Sands National Monument and the White Sands Missile Range.
-Mountain ranges include the Sacramento east of Alamogordo and the
-Guadalupe Mountains, in which are located Carlsbad Caverns.
-
-The plains part of this region are devoted to cattle, potash, and oil.
-Like the other plains regions of New Mexico, the heritage passed on from
-the great cattle empires of bygone days is very strong and detectable in
-the people. Since the early 1930’s, oil has come to play an increasingly
-important part in the history of this section. This is especially true
-near Hobbs.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Anyone for a hike?... in the Guadalupe Mountains]
-
-The desert region in the western part of this section has clearly
-defined aspects of the old and the new. The southern part of the dread
-Jornado del Muerto swept across this arid land and only returned to the
-river near modern Hatch, or sometimes farther south, near modern Las
-Cruces, according to the whim of the river. Here also lies the White
-Sands National Monument, a desert spot of unusual beauty and interest.
-Near the Monument, the White Sands Missile Range stands as an advanced
-scientific test center for the most modern of vehicles, the rocket. Near
-Alamogordo, another advanced space development and testing facility is
-located at Holloman Air Force Base. So the desert is useful, and it is
-beautiful, and it is full of tragic history.
-
-This is also Indian land. East of Tularosa is the Mescalero Apache
-Indian Reservation. In a way, this region has always belonged to the
-Apache, at least since he migrated into New Mexico. The area contained
-no sedentary groups and the Apache appropriated it as his own. His
-strongholds were in the Guadalupe and Sacramento mountains. The forts
-along the Rio Grande, like Forts Fillmore and Selden, were located to
-control the Mescalero and other Apache groups. All that remains today
-are the Mescaleros.
-
-There was little Spanish influence in this area except near El Paso and
-in the Rio Grande Valley. The Spanish were more attracted to the upper
-Rio Grande Valley because of the sedentary nature of the Indians of that
-region. The southeast underwent its greatest development in the American
-period.
-
-Again, sense the mosaic: These are not blends of land and history; they
-are sharp and distinct, each with its own character. Search for the
-history and the beauty, for they do not come automatically.
-
-
-                          Southwest New Mexico
-
-Finally, the southwest, another region of harsh desert and cool
-refreshing mountains, part of New Mexico’s unusual contrast. The country
-south of U.S. 70 is Sonoran desert, thinly populated and poorly watered.
-To the north of the highway lies one of the most spectacular beauty
-spots in the Southwest, the mountains and forests forming the headwaters
-of the Gila River. The Gila River flows west across Arizona until it
-joins the Colorado River which empties into the Gulf of California.
-
-The Indians in this part of the state fall into two distinct categories:
-The builders, known as the Mimbres culture, constructed homes in caves
-and along the watercourses of the Gila and Mimbres rivers. They reached
-extremely high levels of culture, and then they disappeared. The Apache
-Indians, who entered this country at the same time as they did the rest
-of New Mexico, were responsible for the end of the farmers and builders,
-at least in part. The Apaches were predators and the farmers were
-peaceful, unversed in the arts of war. Finally the Apache ruled supreme,
-and this region became the most important single stronghold of the
-Indian. It was here that Geronimo found sanctuary. But the Apaches, too,
-were forced to surrender their claims and were placed on reservations
-outside this area.
-
-Mining is and has been the main source of wealth. The great open-pit
-operation of Kennecott Copper Company is at Santa Rita, east of Silver
-City. This is one of the largest open-pit copper mines in North America.
-To look into that huge man-made pit is a thrilling experience. This mine
-was first opened in 1803 by the Spanish who needed copper badly as a
-circulating currency in New Spain (Mexico). For a number of years, the
-coins used for money in Mexico were from copper mined in southwestern
-New Mexico.
-
-Copper represents only a part of the mining activity in this region.
-Famous mining districts in earlier days were at Kingston and Hillsboro,
-just east of the Black Range on State Highway 90. These areas produced
-considerable quantities of silver. There is some activity yet, but the
-boom has long since passed them by, although they are interesting towns
-to visit. The trip from U.S. 85 to Silver City via State Highway 90 is
-one of the most scenic routes in the state.
-
-In the region north of Silver City lies high mountain country, much of
-it preserved as the Gila Wilderness Area. Here a person who wishes the
-solitude of forest and mountain, the thrill of trout fishing in a clear
-cold stream, and a wealth of wildlife can find his heart’s desire. In
-the heart of this wilderness, the traveler might well find some of the
-ancient homes of the Mimbres people. History and recreation blend into
-one.
-
-
-These complete the mosaic. Everywhere one travels in New Mexico is
-enchanting history, in the land and/or in the people. This has not been
-an effort to acquaint anyone with the intricate detail of all the
-history of every nook and cranny of this land, but these broad strokes
-made on the canvas may help the traveler, transient or native, to enjoy
-himself. Let him accept the challenge, stop to investigate, search out
-evidence of the history that is there in the colorful and changing land
-itself, the Indian heritage, the Spanish past, the cattleman’s range,
-the miner’s endless search—and become enchanted.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside_)
-    Wheeler Peak near Taos—highest point in New Mexico, 13,160 feet
-    above sea level]
-
-    [Illustration: (_Courtesy Elliott S. Barker_)
-    Ghost Ranch Mountain north of Abiquiu]
-
-
-
-
-                           Derricks and Mines
-
-
-                        _by_ George B. Griswold
-
-New Mexico is a mineral-rich state. The gross production value of oil,
-gas, and minerals was $671 million during 1963, making the state the
-sixth ranking mineral producer in the nation. New Mexico ranks among
-other states as follows: first in the production of potash, uranium,
-perlite, and carbon dioxide; third in helium; fourth in copper; fifth in
-natural gas and liquids; and seventh in petroleum. Important amounts of
-zinc, lead, gold, silver, magnesium compounds, coal, gypsum, pumice, and
-salt are also produced from deposits within New Mexico. The oil and gas
-industry holds a dominant position in the state, accounting for almost
-two thirds of the value of minerals produced.
-
-
-OIL AND GAS
-
-Most of New Mexico’s oil and gas are produced in the southeastern part,
-south and east of Roswell. The bustling towns of Hobbs, Artesia, and
-Lovington, as well as Roswell, are headquarters for the many oil
-companies and the associated service and supply organizations operating
-in the area. Oil and gas are produced from numerous reservoirs, called
-_fields_ or _pools_, in Paleozoic sediments ranging from Ordovician to
-Permian in age. From the standpoint of production, the Eunice-Monument
-field (lying between these two towns) is the largest, having produced
-more than 250 million barrels of oil. Other important fields are Hobbs,
-Vacuum, Langlie Mattix, Denton, and Jalmat. All these fields produce a
-considerable amount of gas associated directly with the oil.
-
-When driving an automobile through southeast New Mexico, a layman finds
-it difficult to comprehend the immensity of the petroleum industry of
-that region. This is due to the scattering of wells over a large area.
-Seldom are wells spaced closer than one to every ten acres, even in the
-most productive fields. There are, in fact, some 16,000 wells in this
-part of New Mexico, ranging in depth from less than 1000 feet to 17,555
-feet.
-
-The other oil- and gas-producing area of the state is in the northwest,
-in the San Juan Basin. Farmington serves as the base of operations for
-most of this activity. In 1962, there were 7378 wells in the area, 1770
-of which were producing oil and gas and 5608 producing gas only. Most of
-the San Juan Basin production is from Cretaceous sandstones, in contrast
-to the southeast where the oil and gas are derived from Paleozoic
-sediments. The development of the San Juan Basin production is
-relatively new; most of the wells have been drilled since World War II.
-The petroleum industry can be proud of the great help it has given to
-the development of this once-almost-forgotten part of the state.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Courtesy El Paso Natural Gas Co._)
-    There’s the way to refine oil! Look at those mesas, near Gallup]
-
-The methods of finding and producing oil and gas have come a long way
-from the “boom town” days when wells were drilled for the most part on
-pure hunches and hopes. The exploration and exploitation of petroleum
-are now highly specialized technologies. All branches of the geologic
-and geophysical sciences are brought into play to piece together a
-comprehensive picture of all the factors which may have made a certain
-area favorable for the accumulation of oil or gas. These factors include
-such things as the age, thickness, and permeability of the sedimentary
-rocks, the structure, old shorelines, and buried reefs. Once a target is
-selected, a drilling rig is moved onto the location to prove or disprove
-the theory. This is the costly step of finding oil. A single 10,000-foot
-hole may cost $350,000, and some individual wells in New Mexico have
-cost more than $1 million to drill. If the well is in a completely
-untested area, it is called a “wildcat.” Once a discovery is made, then
-the land around the wildcat is explored by “offset” wells until the
-complete extent of the new field is proved.
-
-During 1962, 1666 wells were drilled to an average depth of 5153 feet.
-The average drilling cost was $71,000 a well, representing a total
-investment of almost $120 million in a single year! Most of these wells
-were of the development (offset) type, but even then, 27 per cent were
-dry. During 1962, 295 true wildcats were drilled; of these, only 46
-found oil or gas—about two out of every thirteen.
-
-The story of oil just begins with the discovery of a well. Various
-special “completion” operations are applied to the oil-producing horizon
-so as to increase the flow into the well. The most common techniques are
-either by “acidizing,” pumping acid into the formation to increase flow
-by enlarging the pores in the rock, or by “hydrafracing,” whereby actual
-cracks are induced in the formation by pumping oil from the surface back
-into the well under very high pressure. After the well is “completed,”
-it may be a natural-flowing well if sufficient gas is associated with
-the oil. If sufficient gas is not present, then the well is pumped.
-
-In recent years, considerable success has been achieved in revitalizing
-old fields where production had dropped below the point of economic
-operation. These fields are reactivated by forcing either water or gas
-down selected wells within the field, thereby forcing stagnated oil
-within the producing zone toward the other wells. This technique is
-called _secondary recovery_. Many fields will produce more oil under the
-secondary recovery program than they did during their primary life.
-
-    [Illustration: Here’s a wildcat for you!]
-
-Once the oil is on the surface, it passes through separators to remove
-any admixed gas from the oil. The gas is sent into pipelines while the
-oil is sent to storage tanks called _tank batteries_. Periodically, the
-oil is drawn from the tank batteries where it is transported by pipeline
-or rail to refineries. The great bulk of the crude oil leaves New Mexico
-for refining via a major pipeline network extending through Texas to
-both the Gulf and East coasts. Some oil is refined in New Mexico,
-however. Oil refineries in Artesia, Bloomfield, Ciniza, Farmington, and
-Monument have a combined capacity to treat some 30,000 barrels (42
-gallons a barrel) of crude oil a day. On the other hand, practically all
-the natural gas is treated in New Mexico so as to recover its liquid
-petroleum constituents before sending it out of the state by pipeline.
-
-
-MINING
-
-The mining industry of New Mexico dates back to the days of Spanish
-rule. Copper was mined from the Santa Rita mine as early as 1800 for
-shipment to Mexico for use in coinage. Significant mining in New Mexico
-did not commence, however, until the late 1800’s. There are three major
-centers today: Carlsbad, potash; Silver City area, copper, zinc, and
-lead; and Grants, uranium.
-
-    [Illustration: Question: where are the other oil pumps and tanks in
-    the San Juan Basin?]
-
-The potash mining east of Carlsbad, a $75 million-a-year industry
-employing more than 3600 persons, is the largest operation of its kind
-in the world. Six mining companies are active in the area, and a seventh
-is developing yet another mine. _Potash_ is a word used to denote
-various potassium compounds. The principal ore mineral at Carlsbad is
-sylvanite, a mixture of potassium chloride and sodium chloride (common
-salt). The ore contains the equivalent of 21 to 25 per cent potassium
-oxide (K₂O).[6] Another ore mineral, known as _langbeinite_, a double
-salt of potassium and magnesium sulfate, is also mined.
-
-The potash ores occur as horizontal beds sandwiched between thick salt
-and anhydrite layers. These beds are the result of evaporation of large
-quantities of salt waters during the latter part of the Permian period
-some 240 million years ago. The potash-bearing horizons now are buried
-from 900 to 1800 feet below the surface. The discovery of potash in
-southeast New Mexico was almost by accident. In 1925, the Snowden and
-McSweeny Company drilled a wildcat oil test a few miles east of
-Carlsbad. The hole was dry, but potash minerals were detected in the
-drill cuttings. The discovery generated considerable interest because
-the United States was forced to import most of its potash prior to this
-time. Further drilling proved the existence of tremendous deposits of
-potassium salts in that area.
-
-The potash mines are among the most highly mechanized of the mineral
-industry. Access to the buried deposits is gained by vertical shafts.
-Actual mining is now done to a large extent by continuous miners,
-machines which bore or rip the potash ore from the face and load it into
-shuttle cars in one continuous operation. The shuttle cars then
-transport the ore to conveyor belts which move it to the shafts for
-hoisting. Working conditions and safety are excellent and have led to
-high productivity from these mines.
-
-The potash ore is refined or processed by fractional crystallation or
-flotation. These plants remove most of the unwanted sodium chloride and
-other gangue minerals to produce high-quality potassium chloride or
-sulfate. After processing, the potash salts are stored in giant bins to
-await shipment by rail to the major agriculture areas of the United
-States. The Carlsbad mines produce some 15 million tons of ore a year
-which, when refined, produces 4 million tons of marketable potassium
-salts having a K₂O equivalent of 2.5 million tons.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Courtesy International Minerals & Chemical Corp._)
-    Crunch!... continuous mining machine at work]
-
-Uranium mining is the newest major industry in New Mexico. The boom
-started in 1950 with the discovery of uranium ore west of Grants by a
-Navajo sheep rancher named Paddy Martinez. This discovery started one of
-the most extensive exploration and development campaigns in all mining
-history. By 1957, the area had proved uranium reserves accounting for
-more than half of the entire reserve of the nation. These discoveries
-will make this country self-sufficient in this vital atomic energy metal
-for years to come. Five mills were built that are capable of producing
-“yellow cake” (almost pure uranium oxide) from uranium ores containing
-as little as 0.20 per cent U₃O₈. Four mills are located in the Grants
-area, ranging in capacity from 1500 to 4000 tons a day. The fifth mill,
-rated at 500 tons a day, is at Shiprock.
-
-There are numerous mines, ranging from tiny two-man operations up to
-great mines producing more than 1000 tons a day. The most prolific
-producing area is the Ambrosia Lake District north of Grants; most of
-these mines are underground. Probably the largest single uranium mine,
-however, is the open-pit Jackpile-Paguate mine of the Anaconda Company
-on the Laguna Indian Reservation some thirty miles east of Grants. The
-mine uses electric shovels capable of loading eight cubic yards of ore
-at a time into large diesel trucks.
-
-Copper is produced from the Chino mine located at Santa Rita, about
-fifteen miles east of Silver City. This mine, operated by Kennecott
-Copper Corporation, is the showpiece of the New Mexico minerals
-industry. The copper ore is low grade, containing only sixteen pounds a
-ton of the red metal, but the deposit is immense, allowing the mining of
-22,500 tons a day. The Chino is by far the largest single mining
-operation in the state. A large concentrator and smelter are located at
-Hurley, about ten miles southwest of the pit.
-
-The Chino pit is a spectacular sight for its scenic setting and its
-sheer size. The deposit is located below the Kneeling Nun, a famous
-natural statue formed by the erosion of a rhyolite flow which caps a
-high mesa. The pit covers almost one square mile and is 800 feet deep.
-The mining is highly mechanized. Large rotary drills make blast holes
-twelve inches in diameter into which explosives are loaded. A single
-blast may break 100,000 tons of rock. The ore is loaded with
-8-cubic-yard shovels into large trucks carrying from 25 to 65 tons each.
-The trucks transport the ore to an inclined skipway on the west end of
-the pit. The skip then carries the ore up to the train level where it is
-transferred into railroad cars for shipment to the mill. Waste rock, too
-low-grade to justify sending to the mill, is transported to the very top
-of the skip way, where it is trucked to the dumps. At Chino, much of the
-waste rock contains some copper. The amount is small, but a part of it
-can be recovered by leaching-percolating water down through the rock to
-dissolve the copper. At the bottom of the dumps, the copper-rich water
-is collected and sent through precipitating tanks containing scrap iron.
-The copper plates out on the iron, forming metallic copper. The
-dump-leaching program alone at Chino is a substantial enterprise.
-
-The concentrator and smelter at Hurley is the facility which reduces the
-low-grade ore into pure metal. The concentrator first crushes and grinds
-the ore, then recovers the copper-bearing minerals (principally
-chalcocite and chalcopyrite) by flotation. The concentrate of these
-copper sulfides is taken to the smelter to make metallic copper.
-
-North and west of the Chino mine are important deposits of zinc and
-lead. Two underground mines are now active: the Hanover of the New
-Jersey Zinc Company and the Kearney—Pewabic of American—Peru Mining
-Company. Although dwarfed by the Chino mine, these are important
-producers.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Courtesy The Anaconda Co._)
-    Man, dig this hole!... Jackpile open-pit uranium mine near Laguna]
-
-    [Illustration: (_Courtesy Kennecott Copper Corp._)
-    “Just scoop up copper ore, take it to the skipway....” up the side
-    of the Chino Mine at Santa Rita]
-
-Copper, potash, and uranium are not the only mining operations of New
-Mexico. Perlite is recovered from deposits near No Agua in Taos County
-and just north of Grants. Two new gypsum plants are now operating
-northeast of Albuquerque, and a cement plant is located east of that
-city. High-grade copper veins are worked south of Lordsburg. Coal mining
-is being reactivated, with producing mines near Gallup, Fruitland, and
-Raton. A new molybdenum mine is under development east of Questa. New
-Mexico’s mineral industry is on a broad and firm base.
-
-Mines and derricks are ever-present aspects of New Mexico’s landscapes;
-they are seen by every citizen of the state and every tourist as he
-travels across the plains, valleys, and mountains. The derricks and the
-mine openings are merely surface features through which the vast wealth
-of the underground is exploited, but they are a monetarily important
-part of New Mexico’s scenery, rocks, and history.
-
-
-
-
-                         Enchanting Landscapes
-
-
-                        _by_ Frank E. Kottlowski
-
-The visitor and the native may be well acquainted with the more famous
-scenic places in New Mexico. Most of these are National or State Parks
-or Monuments—glistening dunes of White Sands, sandstone cliffs of El
-Morro, canyons eroded in volcanic rocks of Bandelier, the recent volcano
-of Capulin Mountain, multicolored sinkholes at Bottomless Lakes,
-grotesque carvings of volcanic rocks at City of Rocks, and the black
-tongues of cooled lava in the Valley of Fires State Park near Carrizozo.
-
-Many of the lesser-known spectacular scenic areas are off the beaten
-path, far from the seventy-mile-an-hour Interstate highways. Even a
-brief description of all would fill a thick book. But near the most
-traveled routes are numerous enchanting landscapes. The traveler from
-the midwest or east, driving U.S. Highway 66 (Interstate 40) breaks over
-the edge of the “caprock” a few miles east of the New Mexico—Texas line.
-Atop the caprock is Llano Estacado, the Staked Plains, a level surface
-stretching along the southeast edge of New Mexico eastward into Texas.
-As seen south of Tucumcari near Ragland, east of Fort Sumner near
-Taiban, or east of Roswell near Kenna and Caprock, the bluffs of the
-Llano Estacado are topped by caprock, a cliff of white caliche-limestone
-as much as forty feet thick in places. Below, on gentle to steep slopes
-reaching northward toward Tucumcari or westward toward Fort Sumner and
-Roswell, are the varicolored red, purple, green, and gray shales and
-sandstones of Triassic age. Red Lake near Taiban on U.S. Highway 60-84
-lies in the red muds of these Triassic rocks.
-
-South of Tucumcari, rising boldly from the red-earth lowlands draining
-to the Canadian River, are Tucumcari Mountain and Mesa Redonda, and to
-the northwest the long buff cliffs of Mesa Rica. The latter mesa lies
-north of Interstate 40 as far west as Newkirk. Patches of the white
-caprock caliche-limestone cap these eastern New Mexico sentinels,
-whereas in other localities, the brown Dakota Sandstone tops the buttes
-and is underlain by pink Jurassic sandstones, with the mesa bases made
-up of the Triassic redbeds.
-
-Near Santa Rosa, Interstate 40 dips down into the narrow green valley of
-Rio Pecos. Roadcuts lining the steep hills into the city show the red
-and brown sandstones and shales of the Triassic beds.
-
-Driving westward from Santa Rosa, one crosses rolling hills near Clines
-Corners, then dips gently down into the northern part of the Estancia
-Basin near Moriarty. To the north on the horizon are the snow-capped
-peaks of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. From Moriarty, Interstate 40
-pulls slowly upward toward Edgewood into the eastern foothills of the
-Sandia Mountains, the grassy plains giving way to juniper and piñon
-groves.
-
-From the downgrade into Tijeras Canyon, State Highway 10 leads north to
-San Antonito and the turnoff to Sandia Crest. The crest road winds up
-canyon walls, on sloping limestone mesas, up through thick stands of
-ponderosa pine, aspen, and, near the top, Engelmann spruce and corkbark
-fir. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep may be seen off the road on the high
-crags. From Sandia Crest, 10,678 feet above sea level, much of
-north-central New Mexico is visible; Mount Taylor to the west, the
-Nacimiento and Jemez mountains to the northwest, the mighty Sangre de
-Cristo Mountains to the northeast, and countless ranges to the south and
-southwest. The city of Albuquerque is spread out at the base of the
-Sandias, and the twisting north-south channel of the Rio Grande
-stretches, glistening, as far left and right as one can see.
-
-From Tijeras, Interstate 40 plunges into Tijeras Canyon, slicing through
-vertical roadcuts in Pennsylvanian limestones and shales, then through
-the ancient Precambrian granite. At the canyons mouth, the road levels
-off on the broad alluvial plain on which much of east Albuquerque is
-built, although the “downtown” is really down, in the valley of the Rio
-Grande.
-
-Westward, Interstate 40 rolls up out of the valley, crosses windswept
-plains spotted with black volcanic cones, in and out of the shallow
-brown valley of Rio Puerco, and then to the red-cliff-bordered valley of
-Rio San Jose. Cliffs are of brown, buff, and light-gray Jurassic
-sandstones, with the valley carved in Triassic redbeds. Near Laguna, on
-the north side of the valley, white gypsum of the Todilto Formation
-crops out. Then through the pink Jurassic cliffs the canyon winds, and
-near New Laguna, the highway is bordered by the varicolored,
-uranium-bearing Morrison beds, which are overlain by brown sandstones
-and black shales of Cretaceous age.
-
-But as Interstate 40 approaches Grants, the dominant feature is black
-frozen lava. The mesas surrounding Mount Taylor are capped by black
-basalt, built up in many layers, each individual flows, and loose blocks
-tumble down on the hillsides. Young basalt, twisted and wrinkled as if
-it were still hot, winds along the valley; just east of Grants, a huge
-“field” of this recent basalt stretches southward beyond the horizon.
-And above all looms Mount Taylor, remnant of an ancient volcano,
-snow-capped in winter, towering 11,389 feet above sea level.
-
-At Casa Blanca, southeast of Mount Taylor, State Road 23 leads south to
-Acoma Pueblo. Eleven miles to the southwest, Enchanted Mesa, _Katsim_ as
-it is called by the Acomas, towers 450 feet above the surrounding valley
-floor. This sheer-cliffed rock is built by layers of (from the base to
-the top) pink and white Entrada Sandstone, gray Todilto limestone, pink
-and green Summerville beds, a massive cliff of light-tan Zuni Sandstone,
-and a cap of yellow-brown Dakota Sandstone.
-
-The top of Enchanted Mesa is inaccessible by normal means. Legend has it
-that once the Acomas lived there, and there are Indian ruins up on the
-isolated rim. A terrific rain and lightning storm, one summer day, sent
-huge waterfalls down the sides of the mesa, tearing away large blocks of
-sandstone, and destroyed the trail to the top, a series of narrow zigzag
-ledges and toeholds in crevasses. Thus the Acoma Indians moved a few
-miles to the southwest to Acoma, onto the top of another sheer cliff, a
-rock fortress carved in Zuni Sandstone and capped by Dakota Sandstone.
-
-    [Illustration: Talk about wide open spaces ... around the Enchanted
-    Mesa]
-
-Southwest of Grants, the forested Zuni Mountains rise, bordered on the
-north by a valley cut in Triassic redbeds and on the east by the recent
-black basalt flows. The hurrying traveler will follow Interstate 40 to
-Gallup around the north edge of the Zuni dome, flanked on the north by
-the spectacular pink, red, brown, and gray cliffs of Jurassic and
-Cretaceous sandstones. If one has time, take the low road, State
-Highways 53 and 36, around the southern edge of the Zunis. For almost
-twenty miles, passing through San Rafael, the paved highway parallels
-the west edge of the Grants black basalt flow; then up over low ridges
-and past black cinder cones toward El Morro. In the lava tunnels,
-perpetual ice stays hidden from the sun; these can be visited at Ice
-Caves.
-
-El Morro, Inscription Rock, with its towering cliffs of Zuni Sandstone,
-overlooks peaceful green valleys; farther west, the red and brown
-sandstones are carved into many mesas and buttes near Zuni Pueblo. Then
-northward to Gallup, swinging around the west edge of the Zuni
-Mountains, the roller-coaster highway, State 36, cuts through ponderosa
-pine country, bordered by Cretaceous brown sandstones, black shales, and
-coal beds.
-
-Northeast of Gallup eight miles is Kit Carson’s Cave, a gaping door on
-the face of a massive cliff of Jurassic sandstone. A pool of cool water
-lies along its floor. The three-and-a-half-mile drive north of
-Interstate 40 is through a vast broken country of sandstone spires,
-pyramids, cliffs, and ledges carved in the Jurassic rocks. Near Gallup,
-the drab coal-bearing Cretaceous beds form the landscapes, but westward
-near the Arizona line, erosion has cut down again to the brilliantly
-colored Jurassic rocks, and Interstate 40 is escorted westward into the
-Grand Canyon State by cliffs of white and pink sandstone.
-
-Californians crossing New Mexico in the winter are likely to travel U.S.
-Highway 70-80 (Interstate 10) eastward. New Mexico is entered just
-before Steins Pass, which is channeled through the tan and green
-volcanic rocks of the Peloncillo Mountains. Then down across the mud and
-salt marshes of Alkali Flats lying in the Animas Valley and up onto the
-north edge of the Pyramid Mountains into Lordsburg. Mine dumps dot the
-Pyramids, and the ghost mining town of Shakespeare lies amid the purple
-volcanic rocks.
-
-Eastward from Lordsburg for 118 miles are the Antelope Plains; plains,
-plains, plains. Steers graze on the sparse grass, yucca clumps border
-the highway, and here and there sand dunes flee before the restless
-winds. Mountain ranges, like islands on the sea of grass, yucca, and
-creosote bush, rise in the distance. West of Deming, the low Victorio
-Mountains lie south of the highway, made up of dolomite, limestone, and
-andesite ridges. Southeast of Deming are the lofty Florida Mountains,
-their northern toe crossed by Interstate 10. Volcanic hills dot the
-landscape east of Las Cruces, Sierra de las Uvas’ purple slopes to the
-north, and the Potrillo Mountains and Mount Riley to the south. The
-latter are part of a spectacular volcanic field where black cinder cones
-and basalt flows cover hundreds of square miles, and craters such as
-Kilbourne Hole are sunk below the plains.
-
-The descent into the Rio Grande Valley is awesome, especially if the
-late afternoon sun is dancing on the spires and cliffs of the Organ
-Mountains to the east. From across the brown plains, Interstate 10 winds
-down into the green Mesilla Valley, a different world of cotton and
-alfalfa fields, pecan and cottonwood groves, and red-tile-roofed Spanish
-homes. The view of the Organ Mountains alone is worth the trip.
-
-At Las Cruces, a city booming on cotton, rockets, and tourists,
-Interstate 10 turns south to parallel the east side of the Rio Grande
-Valley down to Texas and El Paso. If one prefers a quiet scenic route,
-State Highway 28 winds its way along the west side of the Valley amid
-fields and groves, through peaceful villages, to end at the bridge over
-the Rio Grande on the edge of El Paso. Here, to the south, is El Cristo
-Rey, a cone of massive andesite, flanked by steeply tilted beds of
-limestone and shale, Early Cretaceous in age, cut in two by the New
-Mexico-Mexico border. Atop the peak is a 29-foot-high, 40-ton, limestone
-statue of Christ; a winding path leads upward from the base for those
-strong enough of limb to make the climb. Beyond, to the south, Ciudad
-Juarez lies, famous for its bordertown flavor, markets, cathedrals, and
-bull rings.
-
-The traveler to the east should stay on U.S. 62-180 from El Paso. This
-highway cuts through the Hueco Mountains via Powwow Canyon, a gash
-carved from Pennsylvanian and Permian limestones, crosses the Diablo
-Plateau, rolls past the white patches of Salt Flat lakes, then winds up
-to the summit of Guadalupe Pass between the Delaware Mountains on the
-south and the towering Guadalupe Mountains on the north. Looking north
-from the Pass, Guadalupe Peak, highest point in Texas, and El Capitan
-are unforgettable sights, their steep lower slopes ribbed brown and
-green, overshadowed by the 1000-foot limestone cliffs of the peaks. The
-limestone-hewn Guadalupe Mountains parallel the highway in New Mexico
-and are pitted with many caves, with Carlsbad Caverns the largest known
-in the range. Eastward beyond the Pecos Valley stretches the Great
-Plains and Texas.
-
-A side trip, near Carlsbad, over black-topped and gravel roads leads
-from Seven Rivers, up Rocky Arroyo on State Road 137, into the northern
-foothills of the Guadalupe Mountains to Sitting Bull Falls. Here, cool
-spring waters cascade over limestone ledges to join in green pools lying
-amid the cottonwood groves of the canyon floor.
-
-Lake McMillan, a reservoir along the Pecos River north of Carlsbad, and
-the many potash mines east of Carlsbad are parts of the enchanting
-landscapes of this southeastern corner. Northward, following the green
-cotton fields bordering the Pecos River, U.S. Highway 285 leads through
-Artesia with its oil refineries to modern booming Roswell, second city
-of the state. East of Roswell, bordering the east side of the Pecos
-Valley, is Bottomless Lakes, azure blue pools spotted in sink holes.
-
-Eastward from Roswell, on either U.S. Highway 70 or 380, redbeds of
-Permian and Triassic age lie half hidden by pinkish sands up to the edge
-of the caprock; beyond are the fertile grazing and crop lands of the
-Llano Estacado, with its queen cities of Clovis and Portales. Here, deep
-wells pump underground waters to irrigate lush fields that produce
-peanuts, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, melons, strawberries, cucumbers, and
-grapes. On the plains beyond the reach of the wells, wheat, maize, and
-broomcorn are grown. Southeastward, oil derricks dot the plains,
-surrounding Hobbs and Lovington.
-
-Westward from Roswell, U.S. Highways 70 and 380 run together up the
-rolling limestone hills west of the Pecos Valley before plunging down
-Picacho Hill into the narrow canyon of Rio Hondo. At Hondo they divide.
-U.S. Highway 380 leads northwestward through Lincoln town, Billy the
-Kid’s shooting grounds, into Capitan, over Indian Divide, and down into
-sleepy Carrizozo—paralleled by the forested peaks of Capitan Mountains
-to the north and overshadowed by mighty Sierra Blanca to the southwest.
-U.S. Highway 70 runs up the green canyon of Rio Ruidoso, past Ruidoso
-Downs, past State Highway 37 which leads to Ruidoso and the Sierra
-Blanca Ski Area, up into the ponderosa pines, crossing the divide at
-Apache Summit, then westward and downhill past Mescalero, paralleling
-Rio Tularosa. Suddenly the canyon widens, and ahead is the dry Tularosa
-Basin with the White Sands glistening in the far distance.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Now this is what is meant by forest.... from Monjeau Lookout]
-
-From Tularosa to Alamogordo, U.S. Highway 70 is along the west edge of
-the Sacramento Mountains wherein tier upon tier of dolomite and
-limestone cliffs rise to the high peaks near Cloudcroft. Southwestward
-from Alamogordo, the highway cuts diagonally across the Tularosa Basin,
-skirting the southern edge of the White Sands, and passing through White
-Sands Missile Range. Ahead lie the fabulous spires of the Organ
-Mountains; to the right, the notched cliffs of the San Andres Mountains
-stretch northward to rounded Salinas Peak and beyond the horizon.
-Steeply, the highway rises to cross San Augustin Pass between the Organ
-and San Andres mountains, past the village of Organ with its crumbling
-mining dumps, before plunging downward onto the southern end of Jornada
-del Muerto, and finally, on the east edge of Las Cruces, leaves the
-creosote bush plains to dip into the green Mesilla Valley of the Rio
-Grande.
-
-West of Carrizozo, U.S. 380 crosses the black basalt flows of Valley of
-Fires State Park, curves over the Carrizozo dome and up the dip slopes
-of Chupadera Mesa, crosses in red roadcuts the northern tip of Sierra
-Oscura, then westward through sand dunes of the northern Jornada del
-Muerto. Coal beds crop out at Cerro Colorado before the highway sweeps
-down into the Rio Grande Valley to San Antonio.
-
-U.S. Highway 60 enters the state from the east on the Staked Plains near
-booming Clovis, crosses Rio Pecos Valley at Fort Sumner—near Billy the
-Kid’s grave—goes straight as a beeline over the plains to Vaughn, then
-crosses the low southern end of the Pedernal Hills where tan Permian
-sandstones lie abruptly on Precambrian granite, quartzite, and schists.
-Near Willard, the highway crosses the southern end of the Estancia
-Valley, with the salt lakes of Laguna del Perro mere remnants of the
-huge Pleistocene lake that once filled the Valley. West from
-Mountainair, Abo redbeds border the highway; limestone walls of Gran
-Quivira lie to the south and the red sandstone church ruins of Abo and
-Quarai are to the north. Through Abo Pass between the Manzano and Los
-Pinos mountains the highway runs, then down the long alluvial fan slopes
-to the Rio Grande Valley at Bernardo. From Bernardo to Socorro, U.S.
-Highway 60 joins Interstate 25; westward from Socorro, the road climbs
-out of the Valley onto Snake Ranch Flats, parallels the snow-tipped
-Magdalena Mountains to Magdalena, then crosses the north end of the
-grassy San Agustin Plains. Westward to Datil and Quemado, the highway is
-always in sight of volcanic mountains, up and down winding canyons, and
-across intermontane plains.
-
-Still westward into Arizona along U.S. Highway 60 are Springerville,
-fabulous Salt River Canyon, the mining cities of Globe, Miami, and
-Superior, and booming Phoenix.
-
-Into this west-central New Mexico country of volcanic peaks and grassy
-plains comes U.S. Highway 180 from Deming northwestward. Along the
-scenic, winding route are City of Rocks, the copper smelter at Hurley,
-Santa Rita’s huge open-pit copper mine, famous Silver City, colorful
-canyons of the Gila and San Francisco rivers, and, crossed by passes or
-bordering all routes, the rugged rhyolite, andesite, and basalt ledges
-and cliffs.
-
-From El Paso to Raton Pass, 515 miles, U.S. Highway 85 (Interstate 25)
-crosses New Mexico from south to north, from Mexico to Colorado. As far
-as La Bajada Hill, between Albuquerque and Santa Fe, the highway
-parallels the Rio Grande. Northward from El Paso, past Las Cruces to
-Radium Springs and old Fort Selden, the green Mesilla Valley borders the
-route; then through Selden Canyon into the Hatch Valley near San Diego
-Mountain, and along the west side of the bold cliffs of the Caballo
-Mountains, past Caballo Reservoir to Truth or Consequences (old Hot
-Springs). Eastward lies Elephant Butte Dam and reservoir; the road cuts
-across alluvial plains to the west of the Rio Grande all the way to
-Albuquerque, with the mountains to the west the San Mateo, Magdalena,
-Socorro, and Ladron and to the east, the Fra Cristobal, Los Pinos, and
-Manzano.
-
-Intersecting Interstate 40 at Albuquerque, the Pan-American Central
-Highway, Interstate 25 crosses to the east side of the Rio Grande, the
-sheer cliffs of the Sandia Mountains to the east and the distant dark
-green Jemez Mountains to the northwest. Crossing Galisteo Creek
-northeast of Santo Domingo Pueblo, Interstate 25 turns toward the
-northeast, climbs La Bajada Hill, onto the green plains sloping from
-Santa Fe. Santa Fe, the ancient capital city, is nestled on the edge of
-the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Southeastward and eastward, U.S. Highway
-85 (to be Interstate 25 here) rolls, skirting the southern end of the
-Sangre de Cristo Mountains, wedged in by the north-facing cliffs of
-Glorieta Mesa, through Glorieta Pass, where the Confederates lost the
-battle for the Southwest, across the upper reaches of Rio Pecos, and
-around to Las Vegas. Then in straight lines across the western edges of
-the Great Plains where they lap up onto the Sangre de Cristo ranges,
-through Wagon Mound and Springer to Raton. The climb up-canyon to Raton
-Pass, through roadcuts of brown sandstone, shale, and coal, leads into
-Colorado, with a view of much of southern Colorado from the Pass.
-
-Many routes lead northward from ancient Santa Fe. U.S. Highway 285
-crosses the high divide near Bishop’s Lodge, follows Rio Tesuque to
-Pojoaque, crosses the Rio Grande near Espanola amid varicolored badlands
-cut in the Santa Fe rocks, then heads northward on the black basalt
-plateau toward Colorado. Black Mesa, a volcanic neck, lies south of
-Espanola, overlooking the green Rio Grande Valley; atop this height,
-Pueblo Indians once defied Spanish guns until they starved. Northward,
-near Tres Piedras, the Ortega and Brazos ranges tower to the west, the
-perlite-rich hills of No Agua lie to the northeast, and across the
-basalt plains cut by the Rio Grande, the lofty, snow-capped Sangre de
-Cristo Mountains loom.
-
-At Pojoaque, State Road 4 leads westward, across Otowi bridge of the Rio
-Grande, then winds up into the canyon and mesa country bordering the
-Jemez Mountains. Herein lie Bandelier and Los Alamos, one with ancient
-abandoned pueblos, the other the atomic city. Farther west, the road
-crosses the rim of an ancient volcano into Valle Grande, the crater of
-that volcano—some 16 miles across. When this volcano spewed forth hot
-ashes about a million years ago, the volcanic dust was wind-blown as far
-as Kansas and Nebraska!
-
-At Espanola, U.S. Highway 84 breaks away to the northwest to follow Rio
-Chama in its canyon carved from redbeds near Abiquiu, past the
-interesting museum at Ghost Ranch—where bones of Triassic dinosaurs are
-collected—Echo Amphitheater, El Vado Lake, through Chama, and on up into
-the San Juan Mountains country of southern Colorado.
-
-Near Espanola, U.S. Highway 64 splits off to the northeast; this is the
-high road of north-central New Mexico. Paralleling the canyon of the Rio
-Grande to Pilar, the highway climbs up onto the Taos plateau to Taos,
-turns eastward to cut through the Sangre de Cristo Mountains over Palo
-Flechado Pass, down into the grassy Moreno Valley to Eagle Nest and
-Eagle Nest Lake, then eastward again following the narrow canyon of the
-Cimarron River to Cimarron and Raton. A loop trip northward from Eagle
-Nest on State 38 goes through ghost town Elizabethtown, over Red River
-Pass, and down the varicolored canyon of Red River to Questa, before
-turning southward toward Taos.
-
-    [Illustration: (_U.S. Park Service_)
-    Subdivision living, pueblo style—at Aztec National Monument]
-
-And there is the northwest, the Four Corners region, land of Navajos and
-gas wells, presided over by magnificent Shiprock. State Highway 44
-leaves Interstate 25 at Bernalillo, follows Rio Salado to San Ysidro,
-which nestles at the south tip of the Nacimiento Mountains below White
-Mesa, thence northwestward past Cabezon Peak and coaly La Ventana to
-Cuba in the valley of Rio Puerco. Then, up and down, the winding highway
-cuts transversely across the San Juan Basin, through pine groves at the
-Continental Divide, past the side road to Chaco Canyon National Monument
-at Blanco Trading Post, and among the multicolored Tertiary beds carved
-into badlands. At Bloomfield, oil and gas wells lie all about, and the
-mesa-and-canyon country gives way to the valley of the San Juan River.
-At Aztec, State Road 44 joins U.S. Highway 550 in the narrow valley of
-the Animas River—a clear cold stream sent rushing down from the icy
-lakes of the San Juan Mountains to the north. Eastward a few miles lies
-Navajo Lake along the San Juan River; northward, U. S. 550 winds up the
-Animas Valley toward Durango, high Silverton, and Mesa Verde National
-Park. Aztec Ruins National Monument is just to the northwest of Aztec.
-
-Westward from Aztec, U.S. Highway 550 follows the Animas River to its
-junction with the San Juan River, then past the huge Navajo coal mine, a
-long open cut near Fruitland, to junction with U.S. Highway 666 at
-Shiprock.
-
-Shiprock! A buttressed needle, towering 1450 vertical feet above
-Navajo-land, with walls of black igneous rock radiating from its feet
-like spokes on a wheel. This dark-colored spire once filled the throat
-of a volcano. Where are piles of rocks, hundreds of feet thick, that
-once surrounded it? Down the river they went, down the San Juan to the
-Colorado River, and thence to the ocean.
-
-To the west, as a background, are the forested Carrizo, Lukachukai, and
-Chuska mountains. Off to the east lies Hogback Mountain, an upturned
-ridge of sedimentary rocks producing oil—the petroleum geologist’s
-favorite haunt, an anticline.
-
-Southward from Shiprock, U.S. 666 passes other volcanic necks such as
-Bennett Peak and Ford Butte. North of Gallup, State Road 68 leads
-westward to Window Rock (Arizona), the Indian Headquarters of the Navajo
-Reservation. Near Gallup, coal beds of Late Cretaceous age crop out,
-Gamerco once being a booming coal-mining town. Now huge dragline shovels
-scoop out the coal from open pits to the northwest of Gallup. And at
-Gallup, the Indian Capital, a loop drive around the San Juan Basin is
-completed; Interstate 40, old U.S. Highway 66, goes eastward to
-Albuquerque, St. Louis, and Chicago, and westward to Grand Canyon, Los
-Angeles, and the blue Pacific.
-
-Many other scenic places dot the Land of Enchantment; local hosts,
-rancher or city dweller, know of these. Mountain meadows, rushing
-streams, rocky peaks, desert valleys, badlands, grassy plains, thick
-forests, spectacular chasms, needle rocks, and brilliant colors—they are
-all here in New Mexico.
-
-
-
-
-                               Footnotes
-
-
-[1]New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.
-
-[2]National Park Service.
-
-[3]Forest Service, Southwestern Region, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
-
-[4]Information on monuments and parks developed since this publication
-    was first printed may be obtained from The New Mexico State Park and
-    Recreation Commission, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501.
-
-[5]New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.
-
-[6]K₂O is the common unit used in pricing and assaying potassium salts.
-    However, the potash is sold as purified potassium chloride or
-    sulfate.
-
-
-   _Composition_:  Linotype Fairfield
-                   Text—10/11
-                   Index—8/9 (reduced to 6/7)
-                   Display heads—18 pt. Bulmer italic
-     _Presswork_:  38″ Miehle Single Color Offset
-                   29″ Harris Single Color Offset
-       _Binding_:  Smyth sewn and glued
-         _Paper_:  Text—70# white matte
-                   Cover—12 pt. Kivar
-
-
-
-
-                                _Index_
-
-
-                                   A
-  Abiquiu, 145, 162
-  Abo, 104;
-      church, 161;
-      Pass, 161;
-      Pueblo, 107;
-      Redbeds, 44, 104, 161;
-      State Monument, 105
-  Acevedo, Fray Francisco de, 105
-  Acoma, 51;
-      Indian, 157;
-      Pueblo, 89, 120, 122, 156
-  agave, 17, 20, 21
-  agriculture, 4, 12, 19, 53, 54, 58, 61, 62, 122, 124, 125, 131,
-          132, 150
-  Agua Chiquita, 99
-  Aguas Calientes, 123
-  Alamo Canyon, 85
-  Alamogordo, 36, 45, 78, 99, 141, 143, 159, 160;
-      Creek, 112;
-      Lake State Park, 104, 112;
-      Reservoir, 112
-  Albuquerque, 8, 13, 37, 40, 42, 43, 44-45, 49, 57, 70, 73, 92, 98,
-          106, 132, 134, 136, 138, 154, 156, 161, 162, 164
-  alfalfa, 158
-  algae, 45
-  Alkali Flats, 158
-  alluvial fan, 18, 50, 140, 156, 161
-  Alma, 101
-  Alpine [Zone], 22, 26, 28
-  Ambrosia Lake District, 151
-  American Gypsum Company, 49
-  ammonites, 51
-  amphibians, 41, 45, 48, 49
-  Anasazi, 60, 61, 62;
-      Basketmakers, 59;
-      Indians, 60, 86
-  andesite, 39, 158, 161
-  anhydrite, 47, 48, 49
-  Animas
-      Formation, 35, 50
-      Mountains, 29
-      River, 163, 164
-      Valley, 158, 164
-  antelope, 28, 29, 95, 98, 101
-  Apache, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 54, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71,
-          74, 89, 90, 105, 122, 132, 139, 140, 141, 143 (_see also_
-          under tribal names);
-      Canyon, 13, 92;
-      Creek, 101;
-      National Forest, 101, 103;
-      plume, 18;
-      Reservation, map 56;
-      Summit, 159;
-      Tejo, 72
-  Aragon, 74
-  aragonite, 78
-  archeological sites, map 56
-  Arctic-alpine Zone, 22 (_see also_ Alpine)
-  Arkansas River, 114, 136
-  Army of the West, 19, 64
-  Arroyo Hondo, 95
-  Arroyo Penasco Formation, 42
-  artemisia, 18
-  Artesia, 46, 146, 148, 159;
-      Group, 46
-  aspen, 17, 97, 100, 107, 109, illus. 121, 156
-  Athapascan, 5, 62, 132, 133
-  _atlatl_, 58, 60
-  Avalon Reservoir, 118
-  Aztec, 82, 109, 138, 163, 164;
-      Ruins National Monument, 75, 82, 84, illus. 163, 164
-
-
-                                    B
-  Baca Formation, 36
-  badger, 31
-  bajada, 18
-  Bandelier National Monument, illus. 25, 37, 62, 75, 84-85, illus.
-          85, 122, 136, 155, 162
-  bandtail pigeon (_see_ doves)
-  barite, 53
-  Barella Mesa, 81
-  basalt, 37, 38, 111, 112, 131, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162
-  basin, 35, 41, 45, 49, 79, 89, 96, 141 (_see also_ under proper
-          names: Delaware, Galisteo, Gallina, Great, Largo,
-          Orogrande, Paradox, San Juan, Tularosa)
-  bass, 111, 112, 115, 117
-  bats, 78
-  Battle of Val Verde, 13, 68, 70, 73, 92
-  Battleship Rock, 98
-  Baylor, Col. J. B., 72
-  beans, 58, 84, 86
-  bear, 28, 98, 100, 101;
-      state mammal, 28
-  beargrass, 20
-  beaver, 31, 95, 114
-  Beaverhead, 101
-  Beaver National Forest, 95
-  belemnoids, 51
-  Benavides, Fray Alonso de, 89
-  _Ben Hur_, 105
-  Bennett Peak, 164
-  Bent, Governor Charles, 129;
-      Bent’s Fort, 129
-  Bernal Formation, 47
-  Bernalillo, 106, 134, 163
-  Bernardo, 134, 161
-  beryl, 40, 53
-  Bidahochi Formation, 38
-  Big Dog Canyon, 99
-  Big Hatchet Mountains, 26
-  Billy the Kid, 14, 24, 70, 107, 159, 161
-  bioherm, 42, 45
-  biotite, 40
-  birds, 29-31, 36, 49, 51, 95, 98
-  Bishop’s Lodge, 162
-  bison, 55, 58, 62
-  black “gold,” 43
-  Black
-      Mesa, 127, 162
-      Range, 14, 42, 101, 144
-      River Valley, 78
-  Blackwater Draw, 55, 111
-  Blanco Basin Formation, 36
-  Blanco Trading Post, 163
-  Bliss Sandstone, 40, 41
-  Bloomfield, 148, 163
-  bluebird, 31
-  blue spruce, 22, 141
-  Bluewater Lake, 104, 110;
-      State Park, 110
-  bobcat, 30, 31, 95
-  Bone Spring Formation, 46
-  Bonito Creek, 99
-  Bosque Redondo, 74, 110
-  Bottomless Lakes, 104, illus. 108, 159;
-      State Park, 108, 155
-  Botts, Judge C. M., 26
-  brachiopods, 40, 41, 42, illus. 42
-  Brachiosaurus, 49
-  Brazos Mountains, 35, 38, 40, 162
-  Brazos River Valley, 111
-  bream, 115
-  broomcorn, 159
-  bryozoans, 41, 42, illus. 45
-  buffalo, 31, 54, 55, 62, 98, 136, 137, 138
-  Buffalo Dance, 124
-  Bug Scuffle Hill, 99
-  Burro Mountains, 20, 40
-  Butterfield Trail, 70, 71
-
-
-                                    C
-  Caballo
-      Lake State Park, 104, 112
-      Mountains, 38, 40, 112, 161
-      Reservoir, 112, 117, 161
-  Cabeza de Vaca, 6
-  Cabezon Peak, 37, 51, 163
-  cacti, 17, 18, 19, 20, 33
-  calcite, 42, 46, 47, 78
-  caldera, 37, 75, 85, 86
-  California Column, 73-74
-  camels, 55, 57
-  Cambrian, 40;
-      rocks, 40
-  Camino Real (_see_ Royal Road)
-  Canadian River, 31, 74, 108, 109, 111, 136, 137, 155
-  Canadian Zone, 22
-  Canby, Col. E. R. S., 13, 73, 92
-  Canjilon, 95
-  Canyon de Chelly, 110
-  Capillo Peak, 98
-  Capitan, 36, 69, 99, 100, 159;
-      limestone, 47, 77;
-      Mountains, 99, 159;
-      Pass, 99;
-      Reef, 45, 46, 47
-  caprock, 38, 155, 159
-  Caprock [N. Mex.], 155
-  Capulín Mountain, 37, 75;
-      National Monument, illus. 80, 81-82, 155
-  Capulin Peak, 97
-  carbon dioxide, 53, 146
-  Carlsbad, 38, 45, 46, 48, 53, 148, 149, 150, 159;
-      reef limestones, 47
-  Carlsbad Caverns, 46, 51, 141, 159;
-      National Park, 75, 76-78, illus. 77
-  Carleton, Gen. J. H., 73, 74
-  carnallite, 48
-  carp, 115
-  Carrizo Mountains, 164
-  Carrizozo, 36, 37, 38, 45, 104, 111, 138, 155, 159, 161;
-      dome, 161
-  Carson, Kit, 13, 70, 94, 110 (_see also_ under Kit)
-  Carson National Forest, 93-95, 96, 97
-  Casa Blanca, 156
-  Casa Grande [Ariz.], 126
-  Castile Anhydrite, 47;
-      gypsum sample, illus. 47
-  catfish, 111, 114, 115, 117
-  Catron County, 134, 135
-  cattle, 12, 14, 15, 23, 24, 31, 53, 75, 89, 93, 99, 140, 141
-  cedar, 20, 21
-  cement, 53, 154
-  Cenozoic Era, 33-38, 51;
-      rocks, 51
-  centipede, 31
-  century plant, 20
-  cephalopods, 41, 51
-  Cerro
-      Blanco, 98
-      Colorado, 161
-      Pedernal, 97
-  Chaco Canyon, 5, 60, 75, 82, 84, 138;
-      National Monument, 61, 82, illus. 83, 163
-  chalcocite, 151
-  chalcopyrite, 151
-  Chama, 95, 162;
-      River, 95, 110
-  Charette Lakes, 118
-  chert, 43
-  Chihuahua [Mexico], 7, 9, 11, 132, 139
-  Chihuahua desert, 16
-  Chimayó, 136
-  Chinle Formation, 48, 49, 111, 112
-  Chino mine, 151, illus. 153
-  Chiricahua Apache, 6, 133
-  Chivington, Col. John M., 13
-  chollas, 17, 19
-  Chupadera Mesa, 161
-  Chuska
-      Formation, 38
-      Mountains, 164
-  Cibola National Forest, 98-99
-  Cieneguilla Creek, 112
-  Cimarron, 163;
-      River, 163
-  Ciniza, 148
-  “cities that died of fear,” 139
-  City of Rocks State Park, 104, 110, 155, 161
-  Civil War, 12, 13, 64, 71, 72-74, 92, 105, 107, 137
-  clams, 36, 41, 51
-  clay, 35, 38, 41, 43, 44, 45, 49, 53, 54
-  Clayton, 37, 112;
-      Lake State Park, 104, 112
-  Cliff, 72, 74
-  Clines Corners, 40, 49, 134, 155
-  Cloudcroft, 100, 160
-  Clovis, 55, 104, 159, 161;
-      Man, 104;
-      points, 55, 57
-  coal, 23, 36, 43, 50, 51, 53, 69, 138, 146, 154, 157, 158, 161,
-          162, 164
-  Cochise Culture, 58, 59, 63
-  Cochiti, Cañada de, 122;
-      Pueblo, 122-123
-  Coconino Sandstone, 46
-  Colorado
-      River, 3, 90, 138, 143, 164
-      state line, 112
-      Volunteers, 13, 92, 137
-  columbite-tantalite, 40
-  Columbus [N. Mex.], 30, 104, 109
-  Comanche, 12, 63, 65, 90, 105, 139
-  Conchas
-      Dam, 104, 108, 109
-      Lake State Park, 108-109
-      Reservoir, 31, 118
-  Confederate, 12, 13, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 92, 105, 107,
-          137, 162;
-      campaign, map 73
-  conglomerate, 49, 50
-  conifers, 44
-  _conquistadore_, 10, 54, 89, 92, 99, 106, 120, 127, 135
-  Continental Divide, 20, 61, 99, 163
-  continuous miner, 150, illus. 150
-  cony, 31
-  Cooke’s Canyon; Spring, 71
-  copper, 51, 53, 143, 144, 146, 148, 151, 153, 154, 161
-  corals, 41, 42, illus. 45
-  corn, 4, 58, 62, 84, 86, 122
-  Corn Dance, 124, 132
-  Coronado (Francisco Vasquez de), 6, 7, 54, 62, 106, 120, 123, 126,
-          132
-  Coronado
-      National Forest, 101, 103
-      State Monument, 104, 106
-  cotton, 84, 158, 159
-  cottonwood, illus. 25, 158, 159
-  coyote, 19, 26, 30, 79, 95
-  Coyote [N. Mex.], 98
-  Coyote Creek, 90
-  crane, 30
-  crappies, 110, 111, 112, 115, 117
-  creosote bush, 17, 19, 20, 26, 28, 71, 158, 161
-  Cretaceous, 50, 112, 146, 156, 158, 164;
-      beds, 49, 158;
-      Period, 49, 51;
-      sandstone, 157;
-      seas, 51;
-      time, 49, 50
-  crinoid, 42, illus. 42
-  crocodiles, 36
-  Crown Dance, 133
-  Cuba [N. Mex.], 35, 36, 98, 163
-  Cub Mountain Formation, 36
-  cucumbers, 159
-  Culiacan [Mexico], 6
-  Culture
-      Archaic, 58;
-      Cochise, 58;
-      Desert, 58;
-      Pueblo, 59, 60
-
-
-                                    D
-  Dakota Sandstone, 50, 112, 155, 156, 157
-  Datil, 161;
-      Formation, 36;
-      Mountains, 98, 99
-  Datil-Mogollon plateau, 36
-  Dead Man’s Peak, 97
-  deer, 26, 28, 29, 31, 100, 101;
-      desert mule, 26, 100;
-      mule, 28, 29, 31;
-      Rocky Mountain mule, 26, 95, 98, 100;
-      Sonoran fantail, 26;
-      whitetail, 26, 98, 100
-  de la Llana, Fray Geronimo, 105
-  Delaware
-      basin, 43, 45, 46, 47
-      Mountains, 159
-  Deming, 49, 71, 104, 110, 112, 135, 158, 161
-  de Niza, Fray Marcos, 132
-  de Vargas, don Diego, 8, 90, 120, 122, 124, 127, 128, 129
-  Devonian, 42;
-      rocks, 41;
-      seas, 42;
-      time, 41
-  Dewey Lake Redbeds, 47, 48
-  Diablo
-      Mountains, 75
-      Plateau, 159
-  dinosaur, 48, 49, 51, illus. 52, 162
-  Dixon, 40
-  Dockum Group, 48, 109
-  dolomite, 41, 46, 48, 158, 159
-  Doña Ana, 70;
-      County, 30;
-      Historical Society, 71
-  Doniphan, Col. Alexander W., 64
-  doves, 28, 29, 95, 98
-  dragonflies, 44
-  ducks, 30, 95, 98, 118
-
-
-                                    E
-  eagle, 31
-  Eagle Creek, 99
-      Nest, 162, 163;
-      Lake, 163
-  Early Hunters, 55, 58
-  earthquake, 37
-  Echo Amphitheater, 95, illus. 96, 162
-  Edgewood, 155
-  eel, 114
-  El Capitan, 159
-  El Cristo Rey, 158
-  Elephant Butte, 112, 134;
-      Dam, 38, 111, 161;
-      Lake State Park, 104, 111, 112;
-      Reservoir, 36, 111, 117, illus. 117
-  elephants, 54, 55
-  Elizabethtown, 163
-  elk, illus. 23, 26, 28, 29, 95, 98, 101
-  elkhorn (cacti), 19
-  elm, 51
-  El Morro, 49, 51, 75, 89, 157;
-      National Monument, 89-90, illus. 91, 155
-  El Palacio [State Monument], 104-105
-      (_see also_ Palace of the Governors)
-  El Paso [Tex.], 13, 16, 20, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, 49, 70, 72,
-          112, 123, 134, 135, 143, 158, 161
-  El Paso del Norte, 7, 8, 89, 90, 105, 123
-  El Paso Limestone, 41
-  El Ranchito, 128
-  El Rito, 95;
-      de los Frijoles, illus. 25;
-      Formation, 36
-  El Vado Dam, 110
-      Lake, 104, 110, 118, 162;
-      State Park, 110
-      Reservoir, 118
-  Emory, Lieutenant, 19
-  Enchanted Mesa, 51, 156, illus. 157
-  Engelmann spruce, 22, 156
-  Entrada Sandstone, 49, 156
-  Escabrosa Limestone, 42
-  Espanola, 38, 98, 112, 136, 162
-  Espejo Expedition, 89
-  Espinaso beds, 36
-  Estancia, 38;
-      Basin, 98, 105, 155, 161
-  Eunice, 146
-  eurypterids, 41
-
-
-                                    F
-  Farmington, 43, 50, 95, 134, 138, 146, 148
-  feldspar, 39, 40, 45
-  ferns, 42, 43
-  fig trees, 36
-  finch, 31
-  fir, 16, 17;
-      corkbark, 156;
-      Douglas, 108
-  fish, 36, 41, 49, 53, 75, 101, 104, 113-118, illus. 113
-  Fishers Peak, 81
-  flint, 54
-  Florida Mountains, 26, 112, 158
-  Folsom, 55, 57;
-      Man, 55;
-      State Monument, 104;
-      points, 55, 57, illus. 57
-  foraminifers, 51
-  Ford Butte, 164
-  fort, 9, 12, 13, 64-74, map 69, 90, 92, 107, 143
-  Fort (_see also individual listing_)
-      Bascom, 74
-      Defiance [Ariz.], 90
-      Floyd, 72
-      Lowell, 74
-      Lyon, 67
-      McLane, 72
-      McRae, 74
-      Thorn, 72
-      Tularosa, 74
-      Webster, 72
-      West, 74
-  Fort Bayard, 71-72, 74;
-      Reservation, 20, 24
-  Fort Bliss [Texas], 68, 70, 72, 73, 74
-  Fort Conrad, 67, 72
-  Fort Craig, 67-69, illus. 68, 72, 73, 90
-  Fort Cummings, 71, 74
-  Fort Fauntleroy, 66-67, 72
-  Fort Fillmore, 72, 143
-  Fort Marcy, 66, 72, 90
-  Fort Selden, 70-71, 74, 104, 107, 143, 161;
-      State Monument, 104, 107
-  Fort Stanton, 68, 69-70, 72, 74
-  Fort Sumner, 74, 111, 112, 155, 161
-  Fort Union, 13, 64-66, illus. 65, 72, 73, 75, 92;
-      National Monument, 66, 90, 92
-  Fort Wingate, 66-67, 74;
-      Ordnance Depot, 67
-  fossil, 41, illus. 42, 43, illus. 45, 48, 49, 55, 98;
-      fish, 41;
-      hash, 42, 46;
-      reefs, 42
-  Four Corners, 3, 4, 41, 43, 59, 133, 138, 163
-  fox, 79, 95
-  Fra Cristobal Mountains, 38, 162
-  Franciscan, 8, 89, 105, 106, 126;
-      missionaries, 86, 89, 105;
-      Order, 7, 106
-  Franklin (_see_ El Paso, Texas)
-  Frijoles Canyon, 5, 84, illus. 85, 136
-  Fruitland, 138, 154, 164;
-      Formation, 50
-  Fusselman Dolomite, 41
-  fusulinids, 44, illus. 45
-
-
-                                    G
-  Gadsden Purchase, 107
-  gas, 43, 53, 95, 138, 146-148, 163
-  Galisteo Basin, 36, 62
-      Creek, 162
-      Formation, 36
-  Gallina basin, 61
-  Gallinas Mountains, 99
-      Peak, 98
-  Gallup, 12, 49, 50, 66, 99, 133, 134, 138, 147, 154, 157, 158, 164
-  Gamerco, 164
-  geese, 30, 95, 98, 118
-  gem stones, 53
-  geologic history, 33-53
-      time table, 34, 39, 50
-  Geronimo, 14, 70, 74, 143
-  Ghost Ranch, 162;
-      Mountain, illus. 145;
-      Museum, 95
-  ghost towns, 53, 95, 141, 158, 163
-  Gila
-      Apache, 6
-      Cliff Dwellings (National Monument), 75, 86, illus. 87, 101
-      Conglomerate, 38, 86
-      National Forest, 101
-      River, 4, 6, 72, 74, 114, 143, 161
-      Wilderness (Area), 75, 86, 101, 144
-  Giusewa Pueblo, 106, 107
-  glacier, 38, 55, 57
-  glauconite, 40
-  Glenwood, 101
-  Glorieta, 73, 97;
-      Mesa, 46, 162;
-      Pass, 13, 46, 92, 137, 162;
-      Sandstone, 46
-  gneiss, 39, 40
-  goats, 89
-  Goat Seep Reef, 45, 46
-  Gobernador, 95
-  gold, 6, 7, 13, 14, 53, 72, 104, 146
-  graben, 37, 38, 79
-  grama grass, 17, 18, 20
-  Gran Chaco, 4, 5
-  granite, 39, 40, 43, 156, 161
-  Gran Quivira, 75, 161;
-      National Monument, 86, illus. 88, 89
-  Grants, 37, 38, 40, 43, 48, 49, 53, 89, 99, 138, 148, 150, 151,
-          153, 156, 157
-  grapes, 89, 159
-  gravel, 35, 36, 38, 50, 53
-  greasewood, 19
-  Great
-      Barrier Reef, 46, 141
-      Basin, 58
-      Kiva, 84
-      Lakes, 55, 57
-      Plains, 6, 16, 17, 136, 159, 162
-  greenstone, 40
-  grouse, 95, 98
-  Guadalupe
-      Mountains, 26, 46, 77, 99, 141, illus. 142, 143, 159
-      Pass, 159
-      Peak, 159
-      River, 124
-  Gulf of California, 90, 143
-  gypsum, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 53, 79, 146, 153, 156;
-      —anhydrite, 47;
-      dunes, 31, 32, 38, illus. 39, 75, 78
-
-
-                                    H
-  halite, 45, 48
-  Hall of Giants, illus. 77
-  Hanover mine, 151
-  Harding pegmatite, 40
-  Hatch, 72, 142;
-      Valley, 161
-  hawk, 31, 79
-  hay, 122
-  helictites, 76, 78
-  heliograph station, 70
-  helium, 53, 146
-  Helms Formation, 43
-  hematite, 40, 45
-  Herrera, Cristobal de, 130
-  Hidalgo County, 29, 30
-  High Plains, 31, 37, 38, 50, 54, 55, 109, 110, 133, 138, 140
-  Hillsboro, 14, 144
-  Hobbs, 134, 142, 146, 159
-  Hogback Mountain, 164
-  Hohokam people, 4, 59
-  Holloman Air Force Base, 143
-  Hondo, 159
-  Hopewell Lake, 118
-  horse, 6, 9, 13, 23, 55, 57, 89, 93, 115, 129
-  Hopi, 126
-  Hot Springs [N. Mex.] (_see_ Truth or Consequences)
-  Hueco
-      Limestone, 44
-      Mountains, 158
-  hummingbirds, 28
-  Hunters and Gatherers, 58
-  Hurley, 72, 151, 161
-  Hyde Memorial State Park, 104, 109
-
-
-                                    I
-  Ice Caves, 157
-  Immaculate Conception (church), 105
-  Indian, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 21, 53, 54-63, 64,
-          66, 67, 68, 72, 74, 84, 86, 89, 90, 95, 99, 101, 104, 105,
-          106, 110, 113, 116, 120-133, 135, 136, 138, 140, 141, 143,
-          164;
-      Divide, 159;
-      pueblo, 4, 5, map 56, 86, 89, 120-133, 136;
-      reservations, map 56
-  Inscription Rock (_see_ El Morro)
-  Interstate Highway
-      10: 158
-      25: 107, 161, 162, 163
-      40: 48, 155, 156, 157, 162, 164
-  Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial, 133, 138
-  iron, 53, 78
-  Isleta
-      del Sur, 105, 123
-      Pueblo, 8, 11, 123
-      San Agustin de, 123
-      San Antonio de, 123
-
-
-                                    J
-  Jackpile-Paguate mine, 151, illus. 152
-  javelina, 26, 28, 101
-  jay, 31
-  Jemez, 106;
-      Division, 97, 98;
-      Indians, 107;
-      Mission, 104,
-          San Diego de, 123,
-          San Jose de los, 124,
-          San Juan de Los, 124;
-      Mountains, 37, 38, 97, 121, 128, 129, 136, 156, 162;
-      Pueblo, 106, 123-124;
-      River, 123, 124, 128, 131;
-      Springs, 98, 106, 107;
-      State Monument, 106-107, 123, 124
-  Jicarilla
-      Apache, 6, 74, 132, 133
-      Division, 95
-      Indian Reservation, 95, 138
-  Johnson Mesa, 81
-  Jornada del Muerto, 16, 36, 139, 140, 142, 160-161
-  Joshua tree, 20
-  Juárez [Mexico], 7, 123, 158
-  juniper, 20, 21, 23, 135, 141, 155
-  Jurassic
-      rocks, 158
-      sandstones, 155, 156, 157
-      time, 49
-
-
-                                    K
-  Kaiser Gypsum Company, 49
-  Kaiser Steel Corporation, 51
-  kangaroo rats, 32
-  Kearny, Gen. Stephen W., 64, 90
-  Kelly, 141
-  Kenna, 155
-  Kennecott Copper Company, 143, 151
-  Keres, 124
-  Kern, R. H., 90
-  Kilbourne Hole, 158
-  Kingston, 14, 144
-  Kiowas, 65
-  Kirtland Shale, 50
-  Kit Carson Memorial State Park, 104, 110
-      (_see also_ under Carson)
-  Kit Carson’s Cave, 157
-  kiva, 59, 84, 106
-  Kneeling Nun, 151
-  Koehler, 51
-  Kuaua, 106
-
-
-                                    L
-  La Bajada Hill, 36, 161, 162
-  Ladron Mountains, 38, 140, 162
-  Laguna, 48, 152, 156;
-      del Perro, 161;
-      Indians, 124;
-      Mission, San Jose de, 125;
-      Santa Maria, illus. 124;
-      Pueblo, 124-125;
-      Reservation, 124, 151
-  Lagunitas, 95
-  Lakes and/or Reservoirs (_see_ individual entries: Alamogordo,
-          Avalon, Bluewater, Bottomless, Caballo, Charette, Clayton,
-          Conchas, Eagle Nest, Elephant Butte, El Vado, Hopewell,
-          Lea, Lost, Lucero, McGaffey, McMillan, Miami, Morphy,
-          Navajo, Red, Roberts, San Gregorio, Stewart, Storrie,
-          Truchas, Ute)
-  Lake Lucero, 38, 79
-  Lake Roberts, illus. 103, 118
-  Lake Valley Limestone, 42
-  La Madera, 95
-  La Mesilla State Monument, 104, 107
-  lanceolate points, 55
-  langbeinite, 48, 149
-  Laramide revolution, 33, 50
-  Largo basin, 61
-  Las Cruces, 12, 70, 72, 107, 112, 134, 135, 142, 158, 161
-  Las Trampas, 95, 136
-  Las Vegas [N. Mex.], 13, 50, 64, 90, 92, 97, 110, 112, 137, 162
-  lava, 31, 32, 36, 37, 51, 79, 81, 99, 100, 104, 111, 155, 156
-  La Ventana, 163
-  lead, 53, 146, 148, 151
-  Lea Lake, 108
-  Leasburg, 70
-  Ledoux [N. Mex.], 112
-  lepidolite mica, 40
-  Letrado, Father Francisco, 89
-  limestone, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 51, 53, 77, 78, 155, 156,
-          158, 159, 160, 161
-  Lincoln, 70, 107, 159;
-      County Courthouse, 104, 107;
-      County War, 14, 104, 107;
-      National Forest, 99-100;
-      State Monument, 107
-  Lipan Apache, 6, 132, 133
-  Little Black Peak, 111
-  Little Colorado River, 61
-  Little Florida Mountains, 112
-  livestock, 19, 23, 98, 100, 103, 141
-  lizard, 31, 79
-  Llano Estacado (_see_ Staked Plains)
-  Logan, 111
-  Lookout Mountain, 100
-  Lordsburg, 38, 49, 101, 154, 158
-  Los Alamos, 37, 162
-  Los Lunas, 134
-  Los Pinos Mountains, 38, 162
-  Lost Lake, 96
-  Lovington, 146, 159
-  Lukachukai Mountains, 164
-  Luna County, 30, 71
-  Luxán, Diego Pérez de, 89
-
-
-                                    M
-  MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 70-71, 107
-  McDermott Formation, 50
-  McGaffey Lake, 99
-  McMillan Reservoir, 117, 159
-  McRae Formation, 36, 112
-  Magdalena, 14, 99, 101, 141, 161-162;
-      Mountains, 38, 98, 99, 140, 161
-  magma, 36, 40
-  magnesium compounds, 53, 146
-  magnolia trees, 36
-  magpie, 31
-  maguey, 21
-  maize, 159
-  Maldonado, Fray Lucas, 120
-  malpais, 31, 100, 111
-  mammals, 26-32, 36, 49, 51, 57, 58, 95, 98, 114;
-      prehistoric, 49, 51, 55
-  mammoth, 55, 57
-  manganese, 53
-  Mancos Shale, 50
-  mano, illus. 59
-  Manzano, 99;
-      Mountains, 37, 38, 51, 98, 105, 138, 139, 161, 162;
-      Peak, 98
-  maple, 51
-  marten, 95
-  Martinez, Julian and Maria, 127
-  Martinez, Paddy, 150
-  Martinez, Padre José, 110
-  mastodon, 55
-  Mayhill, 100
-  melons, 122, 159
-  Mesa
-      Redonda, 155
-      Rica, 155
-      Verde [Colo.], 4, 5, 60, 84;
-          National Park, 164
-  Mesaverde Group, 50
-  mescal, 20, 21
-  Mescalero, 159;
-      Apache, 6, 21, 69, 70, 74, 132;
-      Indian Reservation, 99, 133, 134, 143
-  Mesilla, 72, 107;
-      Valley, 158, 161
-  Mesozoic
-      Era, 48-51
-      rocks, 33, 51
-      seas, 33
-  mesquite, 17, 19, 20, 71
-  metate, illus. 59
-  Mexican, 140, 141;
-      Colonial, 104, 107;
-      War, 12, 64
-  Mexico, 6, 7, 10, 12, 30, 31, 64, 67, 89, 90, 132, 137, 138, 139,
-          144, 148, 158, 161;
-      City, 6, 9
-  Miami Lake, 118
-  mica, 40, 53;
-      schist, illus. 40
-  mice, 31, 79
-  microcline, 40
-  Miles, General, 14
-  Mimbreno Apache, 74
-  Mimbres, 101, 144;
-      culture, 20, 143;
-      River, 4, 72, 143
-  minerals, 40, 53, 146 ff.
-  mink, 95
-  mining, 12, 14, 15, 23, 53, 72, 95, 99, 101, 125, 141, 143, 144,
-          146, 148-154, 160, 161
-  mission(s), 8, 9, 86, 89, 126;
-      churches, 8, illus. 11, 86, 105, 106, 107, illus. 119, 122,
-          123, 127;
-      ruins, 104
-  Mississippian
-      rocks, 42
-      seas, 43
-      time, 43
-  Mockingbird Gap, 41
-  Moenkopi Formation, 48
-  Mogollon, 141;
-      Apache, 74;
-      culture, 4, 59, 86;
-      Mountains, 14, 22, 75, 86;
-      people, 3, 59, 60, 86
-  mollusks, 51
-  molybdenum, 53, 154
-  Monjeau Lookout, 99, illus. 160
-  Montoya Dolomite, 41
-  Monument, 146, 148
-  Mora County, 112
-  Moreno Valley, 162
-  Moriarty, 155
-  Morphy Lake, 112;
-      State Park, 104, 112
-  Morrison Formation, 49
-  Mosca Peak, 98
-  Mountainair, 86, 99, 105, 161
-  mountain lion, 30, 31, 95
-  mountain mahogany, 20
-  mountains (_see_ under proper name: Animas, Big Hatchet, Black
-          Range, Brazos, Burro, Caballo, Capitan, Carrizo, Chuska,
-          Datil, Delaware, Diablo, Florida, Fra Cristobal, Gallinas,
-          Guadalupe, Hueco, Jemez, Ladron, Little Florida, Los
-          Pinos, Lukachukai, Magdalena, Manzano, Mogollon,
-          Nacimiento, Organ, Ortega, Pedernal Hills, Peloncillo,
-          Potrillo, Pyramid, Rocky, Sacramento, San Andres, Sandia,
-          Sangre de Cristo, San Juan, San Mateo, Taos, Victorio,
-          Zuní)
-  Mount
-      Baldy, 99
-      Riley, 158
-      Robledo, 70
-      Taylor, 37, 51, 98, 156
-      Withington, 99
-  Mule Peak, 99
-  museum, 104, 105
-  muskrat, 95
-
-
-                                    N
-  Nacimiento
-      Formation, 35, 36
-      Mountains, 35, 42, 156, 163
-      Peak, 97
-  Nambé, 128;
-      mission, 125;
-      Pueblo, 125
-  Nana, 70, 74
-  Natage Apache, 6, 132, 133
-  National Forests, 16, 24, 75, 93-103, map 94 (_see also_ under
-          proper names: Apache, Beaver, Carson, Cibola, Coronado,
-          Gila, Lincoln, Santa Fe)
-  National Monuments, 75-92, 138, 155 (_see also_ under proper
-          names: Aztec Ruins, Bandelier, Carlsbad Caverns (Park),
-          Capulin Mountain, Chaco Canyon, El Morro, Fort Union, Gila
-          Cliff Dwellings, Gran Quivira, Pecos, Valle Grande, White
-          Sands)
-  National Park System, 75, 76, 82, 85, 86, 92;
-      Service, 76, 81
-  Navajo, 6, 12, 15, 54, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 71, 74, 110, 123, 126,
-          132, 133, 163, 164;
-      Dam, 109, 138;
-      Indian Reservation, map 56, 133, 138, 164;
-      Lake, 163;
-      State Park, 109;
-      Reservoir, 118
-  Neogene
-      Period, 37
-      time, 39
-  Newkirk, 155
-  New Mexico Department of Public Welfare, 70
-  New Mexico Volunteers, 13
-  niobium, 50
-  Niobrara limestone, 50
-  No Agua, 153, 162
-
-
-                                    O
-  oak, 20, 23, 36, 51, 100
-  Oasis State Park, 104, 111
-  obsidian, 54
-  Ochoan
-      rocks, 47
-      Series, 47
-  ocotillo, 17, 18, 20, 26
-  Ogallala Formation, 38
-  oil, 43, 45, 46, 53, 95, 138, 141, 146-148, 159, 163, 164;
-      fields, 146;
-      pumps, illus. 149;
-      refinery, illus. 147, 159;
-      secondary recovery, 148
-  Ojo Caliente, 74
-  Ojo del Oso (Bear Springs), 66, 67
-  Oñate (Don Juan), 7, 8, 90, 99, 120, 122, 126, 127, 128, 131
-  opuntia, 17, 19, 20
-  Ordovician, 146;
-      Period, 40;
-      rocks, 41;
-      seas, 41;
-      time, 41
-  Organ [N. Mex.], 160
-  Organ Mountains, 26, 158, 160
-  oriole, 31
-  Orogrande basin, 43
-  Ortega Mountains, 162
-  orthoclase, 40
-  Otowi bridge, 162
-  otter, 114
-  Ouray Limestone, 41
-  Our Lady of Lourdes (chapel), 127
-  oysters, 51
-
-
-                                    P
-  Painted Cave, 85
-  Painted Desert, 48
-  Pajarito Plateau, 136
-  Palace of the Governors, 4, 5, 104
-      (_see also_ El Palacio)
-  Paleogene
-      Period, 33, 36
-      time, map 35
-  Paleozoic, 146;
-      Era, 40-48;
-      rocks, 33, 49, 51;
-      time, 39, 46
-  palm trees, 36
-  Palo Flechado Pass, 162
-  paloverde, 17
-  Pan-American Central Highway, 162
-  Pancho Villa, 67, 109;
-      State Park, 104, 109
-  Panhandle Aspect, 62
-  Paradise Formation, 43
-  Paradox Basin, 43
-  partridge, 100
-  peanuts, 159
-  pecan, 158
-  Pecos, 97, 106, 115;
-      Baldy, 96;
-      Basin, 99;
-      “diamonds,” 108;
-      Division, 96, 97;
-      Horseshoe, 96;
-      mission, 104, 107;
-      National Monument, 62, 76, 106;
-      Pueblo, 62, 107;
-      River, 38, 74, 96, illus. 97, 111, 112, 114, 136, 155, 159,
-          162,
-          Forest Reserve, 96;
-      State Monument, 106;
-      Valley, 30, 46, 78, 159, 161;
-      Wilderness (Area), 75, 94, 96
-  Pedernal Hills, 40, 43, 161
-  pegmatite, 40
-  Peloncillo Mountains, 29, 158
-  Peña, Fray Juan de la, 123
-  Peñablanca, 115
-  Penasco, 95, 136
-  Penitente, 136
-  Pennsylvanian
-      limestone, 112
-      Period, 43, 156, 159
-      time, map 44, 45
-  perch, 115
-  Percha Shale, 41
-  perlite, 37, 53, 146, 153, 162
-  Permian, 45, 48, 146, 159, 161;
-      Period, 44, 77, 149;
-      rocks, 44-48;
-      seas, 46;
-      time, 45, 47
-  Pershing, Gen. John J., 70, 109
-  Petrified Forest National Monument, 48
-  petrified wood, 49
-  petroglyphs, 89, 113
-  petroleum, 146, 147, 164
-  Phoenix [Ariz.], 161
-  phytosaur, 49
-  Picacho Hill, 159
-  Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, 50
-  Picurís, 95;
-      Pueblo, 125-126;
-      San Lorenzo de, 125
-  Pierre Shale, 50
-  pike, 115, 117
-  Pilar, 162
-  pine, 22, 36, 49, 93, 100, 109, 163;
-      dwarf, 17;
-      ponderosa, 17, 21, 29, 112, 156, 157, 159;
-      yellow, 17, 21
-  piñon, 17, 20, illus. 22, 23, 135, 141, 155
-  Piñon, 43
-  Pinos Altos, 72
-  Piro, 8
-  pit houses, 4, 59, illus. 60, 61, 82, 86
-  Plains Indians, 54, 55, 63, 106, 132, 140
-  Pleistocene, 54, 55, 57, 111, 161;
-      Epoch, 38;
-      Ice Age, 54, 58
-  Poison Canyon Formation, 35
-  Pojoaque, 162;
-      Pueblo, 126
-  polyhalite, 48
-  Po-pé, 8, 127, 129
-  poplar, 36, 51
-  Porciuncula, Church of ... de, 106
-  porcupine, 31
-  Portales, 55, 104, 111, 159;
-      Valley, 111
-  potash, 48, 53, 141, 146, 148, 149, 150, 153, 159
-  potatoes, 159
-  Potrillo Mountains, 158
-  pottery, 62, 82, 84, 86, 113, illus. 113, 122, 127, 128;
-      black-on-white, 60, 61;
-      brown, 86;
-      brownware, 59;
-      white with black, 86
-  Powwow Canyon, 158
-  Precambrian, 156, 161;
-      Era, 38-40;
-      rocks, 33, 39, 40, 51
-  Presidio of Santa Fe, 9
-  prickly pears, 17, 19
-  protozoans, 44, 51
-  ptarmigan, 31
-  Pueblo
-      Bonito, 60, illus. 61, 82
-      Indians, 5, 8, 12, 54, 61, 62, 84, 86, 89, 120 ff., 162
-      periods:
-          Classic (or Great), 60, 61, 62, 82
-          Developmental, 60
-          Historic, 62
-          prehistoric, 82
-          Regressive, 62
-      Revolt, 8, 89, 90, 120, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129,
-          130, 131
-      ruins, 104
-  pumice, 36, 37, 53, 146
-  Punta de Agua, 105
-  Puye Cliff Dwellings, 62, 128, 136
-  Pyramid Mountains, 158
-
-
-                                    Q
-  quail, 28, 29, 30, 95, 98, 100
-  Quarai, 104
-      church, 161
-      Pueblo, 107
-      State Monument, 105
-  quartz, 39, 40, 41, 46, 50, 108
-  quartzites, 40, 161
-  Quemado, 36, 161
-  Questa, 95, 112, 154, 163
-
-
-                                    R
-  rabbit, 30, 31, 95
-  Radium Springs, 161
-  Ragland, 155
-  rattlesnakes, 18, 31
-  railroads, 12, 66, 70, 74, 92, 99, 115, 125, 151
-  Rain Dance, 123
-  Ramah [N. Mex.], 89
-  Ramirez, Fray Juan, 122
-  Rancheria Limestone, 42
-  Raton, 35, 37, 38, 50, 134, 136, 162, 163
-      Basin, 35, 36, 50
-      Formation, 35, 51
-      Mesa, 81, 109
-      Pass, 20, 136, 161, 162
-  raven, 31
-  redbeds, 36, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 155, 156, 157, 159, 161, 162
-  Red Lake, 155
-  Redondo Peak, cover
-  Red River, 95 (town), 112, 163 (river)
-      Canyon, 94, illus. 135
-      Pass, 163
-      Ski Area, 94
-  reeds, 36
-  reef, 42, 45, 46, 51, 77, 147
-  reptiles, 31, 36, 48, 49, 51
-  Reserve, 101
-  Reservoirs (_see under_ Lakes for individual listing)
-  rhyolite, 37, 39, 161
-  Rio
-      Bonito, 69
-      Chama, 162
-      de Gallo, 67
-      Grande (_see_ separate entry)
-      Hondo, 159
-      Penasco, 99
-      Puerco, 156, 163
-      Ruidoso, 159
-      Salado, 163
-      San Jose, 37, 48, 156
-          Valley, 49
-      Tesuque, 162
-      Tularosa, 159
-  Rio Grande, 4, 7, 12, 13, 16, 20, 38, 54, 60, 62, 67, 70, 72, 74,
-          84, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 106, 107, 110, 114,
-          115, 127, 128, 131, 136, 137, 139, 143, 156, 158, 161, 162
-      Gorge, 112,
-          State Park, 104, 112
-      graben, illus. 37
-      pueblos, 62, 140
-      Valley, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 30, 37, 38, 54, 59, 61, 84, 98,
-          112, 117, 123, 125, 126, 128, 132, 133, 135, 137, 140,
-          143, 158, 161, 162
-  Rito de Frijoles, 122
-  Rito Morphy, 112
-  roadrunner (chapparal), 31, illus. 32
-      state bird, 31
-  rocks (_see_ under proper name: Cambrian, Cenozoic, Devonian,
-          Jurassic, Mesozoic, Mississippian, Ochoan, Ordovician,
-          Paleozoic, Permian, Precambrian, Silurian, Triassic,
-          volcanic)
-  Rock Hound State Park, 104, 112
-  Rocky Mountains, 57, 58, 132, 133, 136
-  Rocky Arroyo, 159
-  Roswell, 46, 48, 104, 134, 146, 155, 159
-  Roy, 109
-  Royal Road (Camino Real), 9, 12, 139
-  rudistids, 51
-  Ruidoso, 43, 99, 100, 159
-      Creek, 99
-      Downs, 159
-  ruins, 4, 60, 62, 65, 68, 75, 82, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 92, 95, 101,
-          104, 105, 106, 113, 128, 129, 136, 138, 139, 156, 161
-  rushes, 42, 43-44
-  Rustler Dolomite, 47, 48
-
-
-                                    S
-  Sacramento Mountains, 28, 37, 42, 46, 51, 99, 141, 143, 159
-  Sacramento [N. Mex.], 99, 100
-  sage, 18, 19
-  saguaros, 17, 18
-  Saint Francis, 106
-  Saint Joseph, 125
-  Salado Salt, 47, 48
-  Salinas Peak, 160
-  Saline Missions, 105
-  salmon, 115
-  salt, 43, 45, 53, 54, 105, 115, 146, 149
-  saltbush, 18
-  Salt Flat lakes, 159
-  San Agustin Plains, 99, 140, 141, 161
-  San Andres
-      Limestone, 46, 110
-      Mountains, 26, 37, 40, 41, 42, 51, 160
-  San Antonio, 95, 134, 161
-  San Antonito, 155
-  San Augustin Pass, 160
-  San Buenaventura, 89
-      de Cochiti, 122
-  sand, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 79, 111,
-          159
-  Sandia
-      Cave, 55, 57
-      Crest, 98, illus. 137, 156
-      Mountains, 26, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 51, 98, 136, 155, 156, 162
-      points, 57
-      Pueblo, 126
-      Ski Area, 98
-  San Diego Mountain, 161
-  sandstone, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 50, 51, 89, 95, 105,
-          146, 155, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162
-  San Felipe, 128
-      church, 126
-      Pueblo, 126-127
-  San Francisco River, 59, 161
-  San Gabriel, 125
-  San Geronimo, 130
-  Sangre de Cristo Mountains, 13, 35, 37, 38, 40, 42, 50, 75, 94,
-          95, 96, 109, 121, 129, 135, 136, 155, 156, 162
-  Sangre de Cristo Redbeds, 45
-  San Gregorio
-      de Abo, 89, 105
-      Lake, 98
-  San Ildefonso, pottery, 127
-      Pueblo, 127
-  San Isidro, 89
-  San Jose Formation, 35, 36
-  San Juan, 7, 60, 125
-      Basin, 35, 50, 61, 82, 146, 149, 163, 164
-      de los Caballeros, 7, 127
-      Mountains, 35, 38, 50, 162, 163
-      Pueblo, 127-128
-      River, 59, 109, 138, 163, 164
-      Valley, 30
-  San Lorenzo, 72
-  San Mateo Mountains, 38, 98, 99, 140, 161
-  San Miguel
-      mission church, illus. 119
-      Pueblo ruins, 85
-  San Pedro Wild Area, 97-98
-  San Rafael, 67, 157
-  Santa Ana Pueblo, 128
-  Santa Barbara [N. Mex.], 95
-  Santa Clara
-      Creek, 128
-      Pueblo, 128
-  Santa Fe, 4, 7, 8, 9, 13, 19, 22, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 45, 49, 51,
-          64, 66, 73, 75, 84, 85, 90, 92, 96, 97, 104, 105, 106,
-          109, 111, 119, 121, 125, 127, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136,
-          137, 138, 139, 161, 162
-      Formation, 112
-      Group, 38
-      National Forest, 96-98
-      Railway, 46, 50, 125
-      River State Park, 104, 111
-      Ski Basin, 97
-      Trail, 10, 11, 24, 64, 66, 90, 92, 104, 129, 136, 137, 139
-  Santa Maria mission, illus. 124
-  Santander, Father Diego de, 89
-  Santa Rita, 51, 53, 72, 143, 148, 151, 153, 161
-  Santa Rosa, 134, 155
-      Sandstone, 48, 111
-  Santo Domingo, 128;
-      Pueblo, 126, 128-129, 162
-  San Ysidro, 49, 163
-  schist, 40, 161
-  science, 12, 15, 67, 139, 143, 147
-  scorpion, 31
-      sea, 41
-  sea lilies, 42
-  secondary recovery (oil), 148
-  Selden Canyon, 161
-  Seven Cities of Cibola, 6, 132
-  Seven Rivers, 159
-  Shalako dances, 132
-  Shakespeare, 158
-  shale, 41, 43, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 155, 156, 157, 158, 162
-  sheep, 26, 53, 75, 89, 93
-      Barbary, 31
-      bighorn, 28, 29;
-      desert, 26;
-      Rocky Mountain, 26, 98, 156
-  shells, 54
-  Shiprock, 37, 43, 51, 151, 163, 164
-  Shoshone, 124
-  Sibley, General Henry H., 13, 72, 73
-  Sierra Blanca, 36, 38, 51, 100, 138, illus. 139, 159
-      Ski Area, illus. 100, 133, 159
-  Sierra
-      County, 36
-      de las Uvas, 158
-      Grande, 81
-          Arch, 43
-      Oscura, 161
-  silicified wood, 36, 38, 49
-  silt, 38,41, 48, 49
-  siltstone, 38, 51
-  Silurian, 41
-      rocks, 41
-  silver, 7, 13, 14, 23, 53, 132, 144, 146
-  Silver City, 20, 23, 24, 40, 72, 75, 86, 101, 143, 144, 148, 151,
-          161
-  Simpson, Lt. J. H., 90
-  Sipapu Winter Sports Area, 94-95
-  Sitting Bull Falls, 159
-  skipway, 151, illus. 153
-  skunk, 31, 95
-  Sky City (_see_ Acoma Pueblo)
-  sloths, 55
-  Slough, Col. J. P., 92
-  Smokey the Bear, 99, 100
-  snails, 36, 41, 49
-  Snake Ranch Flats, 161
-  snakes, 18, 31, 36
-  Socorro, 8, 12, 13, 14, 19, 36, 37, 59, 72, 89, 99, 134, 139, 161
-      Mountain, 38, 140
-  sodium chloride, 149, 150
-  Sonoran
-      desert, 26, 103, 109, 138, 143
-      Lower Zone, 19, 20
-      Upper Zone, 20, illus. 25
-  sotol, 20
-  South Truchas Peak, 38
-  Spain, 6, 9, 10, 11
-  Spanish, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18, 53, 54, 62, 63,
-          86, 89, 92, 95, 99, 104, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 128,
-          129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 139, 140, 141, 143,
-          148, 158, 162
-      dagger, 21
-      Peaks, 81
-  sparrow, 31
-  spider, 31, 44
-  Spirit Lake, 96
-  spodumene, 40
-  Springer, 134, 162
-  spruce, 16, 17, 18, 26, 100;
-      blue, 22, 141;
-      Engelmann, 22, 156
-  squash, 58, 84, 122
-  squirrel, 31, 32
-  Staked Plains (Llano Estacado), 132, 155, 159, 161
-  stalactites, 76, 78
-  stalagmites, 76, 78
-  state
-      bird, 31
-      Capitol, 111
-      flower, 20
-      mammal, 28
-  State Highway
-      4: 106, 162
-      10: 98, 105, 156
-      12: 134
-      17: 95
-      23: 156
-      25: illus. 103
-      26: 71
-      28: 158
-      36: 157
-      37: 159
-      38: 163
-      44: 36, 134, 163
-      53: 157
-      68: 164
-      75: 136
-      76: 136
-      78: 101
-      90: 72, 144
-      94: 112
-      120: 109
-      137: 159
-      180: 101
-      370: 112
-      467: 111
-  State Monuments, 104-107, 155
-      (_see also_ under proper names: Abo, Coronado, El Palacio,
-          Folsom Man, Gran Quivira, Jemez, La Mesilla, Lincoln
-          (County Courthouse), Pecos, Quarai, Selden)
-  State Parks, 104, 107-112, 155
-      (_see also_ under proper names: Alamogordo Lake, Bluewater
-          Lake, Bottomless Lakes, Caballo Lake, City of Rocks,
-          Clayton Lake, Conchas Lake, Elephant Butte Lake, El Vado
-          Lake, Hyde Memorial, Kit Carson Memorial, Morphy Lake,
-          Navajo Lake, Oasis, Pancho Villa, Rio Grande Gorge, Rock
-          Hound, Santa Fe River, Storrie Lake, Ute Lake, Valley of
-          Fires)
-  staurolite, illus. 40
-  Stegosaurus, 49
-  Stein’s Pass, 158
-  Stewart Lake, 96
-  Stone Lions, 85
-  Storrie Lake, 104;
-      State Park, 110
-  strawberries, 159
-  Sugarlump Welded Rhyolite Tuff, 110
-  sulfur, 53
-  Summerville
-      beds, 156
-      Formation, 49
-  sunfish, 117
-  swan, 28
-  sycamore trees, 36
-  sylvanite, 149
-  sylvite, 48
-
-
-                                    T
-  Taiban, 155
-  Tajique, 99
-  Tano, 124
-  Tansill Formation, 77
-  Taos, 8, 19, 37, 38, 50, 93, 95, 104, 110, 145, 162, 163;
-      Canyon, 95;
-      County, 153;
-      don Fernando de, 129;
-      Indians, 129;
-      mission, 129, illus. 130;
-      Mountains, 129;
-      Pueblo, 95, 129-130;
-      Ranchos de, 129, illus. 130;
-      San Geronimo de, 129;
-      Ski Valley, 95
-  tapirs, 55
-  tarantula, 31
-  Teakettle Rock, 98
-  tench, 115
-  Tent Rocks, 98, illus. 121
-  Tererro Formation, 42
-  terrapin, 31
-  Tertiary, 163
-  Tesuque
-      Indians, 130
-      Pueblo, 130-131
-      River, 162
-  Three Rivers, 134
-  Tierra Amarilla, 40, 74
-  Tiguex, 106, 126
-  Tijeras, 99, 156;
-      Canyon, 40, 156
-  timber, 75, 99, 100, 103, 122
-  titanium, 50
-  toad, 31
-  Todilto Formation, 49, 156
-  tomatoes, 159
-  Torreon, 99
-  tortoise, 31
-  tramway, 98
-  Transition Zone, 21
-  Tres Piedras, 95, 162
-  Tres Ritos, 95
-  Triassic, 48, 159, 162;
-      age, 109, 155;
-      Period, 48;
-      redbeds, 49, 155, 156, 157;
-      rocks, 48, 155;
-      time, 48
-  Triceratops, 51
-  trilobite, 40, 41
-  Trinidad Sandstone, 50
-  trout, 95, 101, 108, 110, 111, 112, 118, 144;
-      black spotted, 115;
-      brook, 115;
-      brown, 110, 115;
-      German brown, 115;
-      cutthroat, 114, 115;
-      rainbow, 110, 111, 114, 115, illus. 116
-  Truchas, 95, 136;
-      Lakes, 96
-  Truth or Consequences, 74, 101, 111, 135, 161
-  Tucumcari, 38, 74, 155;
-      Mountain, 155
-  tuff, 82
-  Tularosa, 28, 45, 143, 159;
-      Basin, 79, 99, 111, 159, 160
-  turkey (wild), 28, 29, 95, 98, 100, illus. 102
-  turquoise, 54
-  turtles, 36
-  Tyuonyi Pueblo ruin, illus. 25, 62
-
-
-                                    U
-  Uncompahgre Range, 43
-  Union [forces], 12, 13, 70, 72, 73, 74, 92, 137
-  U.S. Highway
-      54: 134
-      56: 134
-      60: 99, 105, 134, 155, 161
-      62: 134, 158
-      64: 134, 136, 162
-      66: 17, 48, 66, 67, 98, 134, 155, 164
-      70: 133, 134, 135, 143, 158, 159
-      80: 135, 158
-      84: 95, 106, 112, 134, 155, 162
-      85: 36, 65, 67, 70, 101, 106, 134, 135, 136, 137, 144, 161,
-          162
-      180: 134, 135, 141, 158, 161
-      260: 101, 134, 161
-      285: 134, 159, 162
-      380: 69, 99, 107, 111, 134, 159, 161
-      550: 163, 164
-      666: 134, 164
-  U.S. Public Health Service, 70, 72
-  uranium, 49, 53, 125, 138, 146, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156
-  Ute, 65, 90;
-      Creek, 111;
-      Dam, 111;
-      Indian, 132, 133;
-      Lake State Park, 104, 111;
-      Reservation, map 56, 133, 138
-
-
-                                    V
-  Valle Grande, 38, 51, 75, 85-86, 162;
-      —Bandelier National Park, 85;
-      caldera, 37, 75, 85
-  Valley of Fires State Park, 104, 111, 155, 161
-  Valverde [N. Mex.], 13, 67
-  Valverde Land and Irrigation Company, 68
-  vanadium, 53
-  Vaughn, 161
-  Velarde, 112
-  Vermejo Formation, 51
-  vertebrate, 43, 45, 48
-  Victorio, 70, 74;
-      Mountains, 158;
-      Peak Limestone, 46
-  “Village of the Humanas,” 89
-  vinegarroon, 31
-  volcanic
-      activity, 36, 37, 38, 39, 81
-      neck, 37, 51, 112, 162, 164
-      rocks, 36, 104, 112
-  volcano, 37, 49, 50, 81, 104, 156, 162
-
-
-                                    W
-  Wagon Mound, 109, 162
-  Wallace, Gov. Lew., 105
-  warbler, 31
-  Warm Springs Apache, 74
-  water, 53, 84, 89, 93, 100, 103, 104, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113,
-          114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 122;
-      laws, 117;
-      lilies, 36
-  waterfowl, 114, 118
-  Watrous, 65
-  weasel, 95
-  wheat, 122, 159
-  Wheeler Peak, 38, 94, illus. 145;
-      Wild Area, 94
-  White
-      Mesa, 49, 163
-      Mountain Apache, 69, 70, 133
-      Mountains, 99;
-      Wild Area, 100
-      Rock Canyon, 85
-  White Sands, 31, illus. 39, 40, 42, 43, 45, 51, 75, 100, 159, 160;
-      Missile Range, 67, 139, 141, 143, 160;
-      National Monument, 38, 78-79, 141, 142-143, 155
-  Whitewater Canyon, frontispiece; Creek, 101
-  wildcat, 147, illus. 148, 149
-  wildlife, 26-32, 93, 97, 98, 100, 103, 113, 117, 138, 144
-  Wilderness trail (illus.), 27
-  Willard, 161
-  Willow Creek, 101
-  Wingate Sandstone, 48
-  wolf, 30
-  woodchuck, 31
-  wood rats, 31
-  World War I, 67, 70;
-      II, 70, 146
-  wren, 31
-
-
-                                    Y
-  Yankee traders, 12
-  Yapashi Pueblo ruins, 85
-  “yellow cake,” 151
-  Yeso Formation, 45, 46
-  yucca, 17, 18, 20, illus. 21;
-      state flower, 20
-  Yuman Foragers, 3
-
-
-                                    Z
-  Zia Pueblo, 131-132
-  zinc, 53, 146, 148, 151
-  zirconium, 50
-  Zuni, 61, 98;
-      Mountains, 40, 43, 98, 99, 110, 157;
-      Pueblo, 6, 89, 132, 157;
-      Sandstone, 49, 156, 157
-
-
-
-
-                  _Traveler’s-Eye View of New Mexico_
-
-
-A truly representative picture of New Mexico is presented in this guide
-for visitor and resident. The traveler gains a background knowledge of
-the State’s centuries-old history, desert-to-alpine flora and fauna,
-geological past, ancient Indians, and frontier forts. He learns of the
-numerous recreational and scenic attractions of its nine National
-Monuments, seven Forests, and one Park and nine State Monuments and
-twenty-one Parks. Unusual features such as the Antelope Plains, Ghost
-Ranch Museum, Sitting Bull Falls, Jackpile open-pit uranium mine,
-Jornada del Muerto, and Abo Pass redbeds are described, as are nineteen
-Indian pueblos. Routes given include both major highways and good
-secondary roads; all are well designated and easy to follow on the
-full-color general map.
-
-
-            NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
-—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
-  is public-domain in the country of publication.
-
-—Corrected a few palpable typos.
-
-—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
-  _underscores_.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks,
-and History, by Various
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC OF NEW MEXICO'S SCENERY ***
-
-***** This file should be named 55800-0.txt or 55800-0.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/8/0/55800/
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
diff --git a/old/55800-0.zip b/old/55800-0.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 53c21da..0000000
--- a/old/55800-0.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-8.txt b/old/55800-8.txt
deleted file mode 100644
index ef0d494..0000000
--- a/old/55800-8.txt
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,8924 +0,0 @@
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and
-History, by Various
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and History
-
-Author: Various
-
-Editor: Paige W. Christiansen
-        Frank E. Kottlowski
-
-Release Date: October 24, 2017 [EBook #55800]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC OF NEW MEXICO'S SCENERY ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-    (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside_)
-    COVER: Redondo Peak, from Jemez Canyon
-
-_Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past Series:_
-
-  No. 1--Santa Fe, New Mexico
-  No. 2--Taos--Red River--Eagle Nest, New Mexico, Circle Drive
-  No. 3--Roswell--Capitan--Ruidoso and Bottomless Lakes State Park, New
-          Mexico
-  No. 4--Southern Zuni Mountains, New Mexico
-  No. 5--Silver City--Santa Rita--Hurley, New Mexico
-  No. 6--Trail Guide to Geology of the Upper Pecos, New Mexico
-  No. 7--High Plains Northeastern New Mexico, Raton--Capulin
-          Mountain--Clayton
-  No. 8--Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and History
-  No. 9--Albuquerque--Its Mountains, Valleys, Water, and Volcanoes
-  No. 10--Southwestern New Mexico
-  No. 11--Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad
-  No. 12--The Story of Mining in New Mexico
-  No. 13--Espa�ola--Chama--Taos
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Robert W. Talbott_)
-    Whitewater Canyon near Glenwood]
-
-
-
-
-                   SCENIC TRIPS TO THE GEOLOGIC PAST
-                                 NO. 8
-
-
-
-
-                        _Mosaic of New Mexico's
-                      Scenery, Rocks, and History_
-
-
-                              _edited by_
-                         PAIGE W. CHRISTIANSEN
-                                 _and_
-                          FRANK E. KOTTLOWSKI
-
-
-            NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES
-                                  1972
-
-              NEW MEXICO INSTITUTE OF MINING & TECHNOLOGY
-                      Kenneth W. Ford, _President_
-
-             NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES & MINERAL RESOURCES
-                    Frank E. Kottlowski, _Director_
-                  George S. Austin, _Deputy Director_
-
-
-                            BOARD OF REGENTS
-                               Ex Officio
-                  Bruce King, _Governor of New Mexico_
-         Leonard DeLayo, _Superintendent of Public Instruction_
-
-                               Appointed
-             Steve Torres, President, 1967-1985, _Socorro_
-         Dave Rice, Secretary-Treasurer, 1972-1983, _Carlsbad_
-                 William G. Abbott, 1961-1985, _Hobbs_
-                  Judy Floyd, 1977-1987, _Las Cruces_
-                   Owen Lopez, 1977-1983, _Santa Fe_
-
-
-                              BUREAU STAFF
-                               Full Time
-
-  Marla D. Adkins, _Assistant Editor_
-  Orin J. Anderson, _Geologist_
-  Ruben Archuleta, _Technician I_
-  Robert A. Bieberman, _Senior Petrol. Geologist_
-  Steve Blodgett, _Assistant Editor_
-  Lynn A. Brandvold, _Chemist_
-  James Brannan, _Drafter_
-  Corale Brierley, _Chemical Microbiologist_
-  Ron Broadhead, _Petroleum Geologist_
-  Brenda R. Broadwell, _Assoc. Lab Geoscientist_
-  Jane A. Calvert, _Assistant Editor_
-  Frank Campbell, _Coal Geologist_
-  Richard Chamberlin, _Economic Geologist_
-  Charles E. Chapin, _Senior Geologist_
-  Jeanette Chavez, _Admin. Secretary I_
-  Richard R. Chavez, _Assistant Head, Petroleum_
-  Ruben A. Crespin, _Laboratory Technician II_
-  Lois M. Devlin, _Director, Bus.-Pub. Office_
-  Amelia Dondero, _Metallurgist_
-  Kathy C. Eden, _Editorial Technician_
-  Robert W. Eveleth, _Mining Engineer_
-  K. Babette Faris, _X-ray Lab. Manager_
-  Rousseau H. Flower, _Sr. Emeritus Paleontologist_
-  John W. Hawley, _Senior Env. Geologist_
-  Cindy Howell, _Staff Secretary_
-  Robert W. Kelley, _Editor & Geologist_
-  Arleen Lindsey, _Staff Secretary_
-  Mark Logsdon, _Industrial Minerals Geologist_
-  David W. Love, _Environmental Geologist_
-  Wess Mauldin, _Driller_
-  Virginia McLemore, _Geologist_
-  Lynne McNeil, _Staff Secretary_
-  Norma J. Meeks, _Department Secretary_
-  David Menzie, _Geologist_
-  Teresa Mueller, _Drafter_
-  Robert M. North, _Mineralogist_
-  Keith O'Brien, _Hydrologist_
-  JoAnne C. Osburn, _Coal Geologist_
-  Glenn R. Osburn, _Volcanologist_
-  Barbara R. Popp, _Lab. Biotechnologist_
-  Marshall A. Reiter, _Senior Geophysicist_
-  Jacques R. Renault, _Senior Geologist_
-  James M. Robertson, _Mining Geologist_
-  Gretchen H. Roybal, _Coal Geologist_
-  Amy Shacklett, _Asst. Lab Biotechnologist_
-  Jackie H. Smith, _Laboratory Technician IV_
-  William J. Stone, _Hydrogeologist_
-  Samuel Thompson III, _Senior Petrol. Geologist_
-  Judy M. Vaiza, _Executive Secretary_
-  Debra Vetterman, _Drafter_
-  Robert H. Weber, _Senior Geologist_
-  Betsy Wilson, _Receptionist/Clerk Typist_
-  Donald Wolberg, _Vertebrate Paleontologist_
-  Michael W. Wooldridge, _Scientific Illustrator_
-
-                               Part Time
-
-  Christina L. Balk, _Geologist_
-  Howard B. Nickelson, _Coal Geologist_
-  Beverly Ohline, _Acting Director, Info. Services_
-  Thomas E. Zimmerman, _Chief Security Officer_
-
-                           Graduate Students
-
-  Danny Bobrow
-  James T. Boyle
-  Gerry W. Clarkson
-  Mike Davidson
-  David R. Guilinger
-  Terry Jensen
-  Douglas L. Heath
-  Adrian Hunt
-  Ingrid Klich
-  Ione Lindley
-  Curtis Verpleough
-  John M. Wakefield
-  Mary Lynne Yates
-  John Young
-
-                 Plus about 50 undergraduate assistants
-
-
-                     _Third edition, 4th printing_
-
-
-Published by Authority of State of New Mexico, NMSA 1953 Sec. 63-1-4
-
-Printed by University of New Mexico Printing Plant, Albuquerque, April
-1982
-
-Available from New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources, Socorro,
-NM 87801      $4.00
-
-
-
-
-                                Contents
-
-
-  3 Of Indians, Spaniards, and Americans, _Paige W. Christiansen_
-  16 The exotic plants of New Mexico, _Ross Calvin_
-  26 Dwellers in the hills and plains, _Levon Lee_
-  33 Rocks that shape the enchanting landscapes, _Frank E.
-          Kottlowski_
-  54 Before Coronado, _Robert H. Weber_
-  64 Frontier forts of New Mexico, _Robert A. Bieberman_
-  75 Our National Heritage
-      75 New Mexico's big share of the National Park System, _H. V.
-          Reeves, Jr._
-      93 Forest lands above the desert, _Ruth Bush Jones_
-  104 The State Also Preserves
-      104 New Mexico State Monuments, _Museum of New Mexico Staff_
-      107 New Mexico State Parks, _The Editors_
-  113 Angling in the desert's waters, _Fred A. Thompson_
-  119 The Indians of New Mexico, _Paige W. Christiansen_
-  133 Reminders of the past, _Paige W. Christiansen_
-  145 Derricks and mines, _George B. Griswold_
-  154 Enchanting landscapes, _Frank E. Kottlowski_
-  165 Index
-
-    [Illustration: New Mexico]
-
-
-
-
-                                Preface
-
-
-Previous _Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past_ have emphasized scenic
-tours of local areas in New Mexico. This book lays out a mosaic of facts
-and fancies concerning the state's landscapes, the rocks that underlie
-and make up the landscapes, and the history of the people now living or
-who have lived amid New Mexico's exciting and varied scenery. We hope
-these short articles will help you enjoy our state, whether you are a
-tourist driving through at seventy miles an hour, a visitor with a
-little time to explore, or an old-timer who remembers the cattle drives.
-
-The idea for this publication grew out of a booklet, _New Mexico Mosaic
-of Science and History_, that was written for the 1963 National Science
-Fair-International held in Albuquerque. The National Science Fair
-booklet was directed specifically to the Fair participants and
-emphasized their tours to famous scientific installations in New Mexico,
-areas of scenic geologic wonders, and points of historic and archeologic
-importance. The booklet had only limited distribution; subsequent
-interest in this kind of publication about New Mexico led to the
-preparation of this book.
-
-Scenic Trips No. 8 is in two major parts. First, there are articles of
-general statewide interest to acquaint visitor and resident alike with
-the Land of Enchantment--its history, flora and fauna, geology, and
-scenic beauty. Second, there are articles describing specific scenic,
-geologic, historic, and recreational places to give a depth of
-understanding and a more intimate view of New Mexico. The entire mosaic
-of New Mexico thus presented is a permanent record to recall vistas of
-New Mexico's enchanting land and fascinating history.
-
-
-                            Acknowledgments
-
-Many people have contributed their time and talents to this co-operative
-undertaking. We thank each of the authors of the articles; where their
-affiliation is not given, they are staff members of the New Mexico
-Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources division of the New Mexico
-Institute of Mining and Technology. Professor Christiansen is a member
-of the Humanities Department of the Institute's College division. This
-book would have been incomplete without the co-operation of the New
-Mexico Department of Game and Fish, the Museum of New Mexico, the New
-Mexico Department of Development, the State Park Commission, the U.S.
-Park Service, and the Forest Service, Southwestern Region, U.S.
-Department of Agriculture. Our special appreciation goes to Dr. Ross
-Calvin for his interpretative description of New Mexico's unique flora.
-
-Black and white photographs were contributed by Robert Bieberman, Roy
-Foster, and Teri Ray of the Bureau of Mines staff and by the authors or
-their agencies. Some of the drawings were made by David H. Moneypenny.
-Acknowledgment is also made to Mr. Elliott S. Barker and the Forest
-Service for their willing loan of color transparencies.
-
-Among the numerous personnel of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and
-Technology who aided in preparation of this book, appreciation is due
-Helen Waxler, Lois Devlin, Lola White, Mary Ann Grandjean, and Sharon
-Ballenger for typing of manuscripts and William Arnold, Robert Price,
-and Raymond Molina for drafting maps and figures. Teri Ray deserves
-special mention for her interest and editorial advice and for nursing
-the material from rough manuscripts into printed pages.
-
-
-PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION
-
-The kind reception given our attempt to provide a brief but
-comprehensive guide to New Mexico's scenery, rocks, and history resulted
-in distribution of 5000 copies in two years, and led to this second
-edition. In this revision, we have incorporated changes that have
-occurred during these two years, especially the addition of State Parks,
-and Teri Ray has added an index to make the book more usable. Each
-author has re-edited his article and made changes where necessary.
-William Arnold added much material to the index map; typing of the
-revision manuscript was carefully done by Lois Devlin. Alfred Coulloudon
-and Wayne Bera supplied additional photographs. Teri Ray initiated
-revision of the first edition, worked with authors, and guided the
-manuscript from the authors to the final copy.
-
-
-PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION
-
-The first edition appeared in 1964, the second in 1967, and a reprint in
-1968. In the present edition front matter has been re-styled, printed
-matter has been altered on the inside and outside of the covers, a
-footnote added to page 104, and a less bulky paper used.
-
-
-
-
-                  Of Indians, Spaniards, and Americans
-
-
-                       _by_ Paige W. Christiansen
-
-In the world of the twentieth century with its tumultuous ovation for
-each discovery of science, with its language of non-Euclidian space,
-with new heroes who leave the earth, not discover it--sometimes it is
-refreshing to look back on other days, to see other heroes, and to seek
-romance and excitement which was equally spectacular in times past. Yet
-there is a close affinity and a spiritual link among the heroes of the
-past, the present, and the future, and the reaction of their
-contemporaries to their feats of glory is not so different. Heroes are
-those who seek the unknown, who risk life and position to expand the
-frontiers of man's universe and mind. But heroes can only lead an age,
-never surpass it. History, then, is people and their catalyst, ideas.
-
-The history of New Mexico, like twentieth century science, is
-multi-dimensional. Its complex cultural patterns fit with the intricate
-variety of its geologic wonders and its flora and fauna. In reality, New
-Mexico is a part of a broader concept, the Southwest. This vast region,
-which includes western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, southern California,
-part of southern Colorado, and southern Utah, has given rise to some of
-man's greatest achievements. Here prehistoric man rose above his animal
-heritage to take control of these lands. Here, also, many millennia
-later, man achieved one of his greatest scientific wonders, the
-successful release of atomic energy. The story of the years between
-these events, so far separated in time, is a wondrous tale.
-
-
-INDIAN BEGINNINGS
-
-Before the coming of the white man, this land belonged to nature's
-children, the Indian. Centuries before European nations came into
-existence, peoples from Asia, crossing by the Bering waters, had
-discovered, explored, and settled the American continents from Alaska to
-Tierra del Fuego. They mastered the plains, the northern forests, the
-jungles of Central and South America, and the arid regions. In the
-deserts and mountains of the Southwest, they conquered elements and
-terrain, first to survive and then slowly to ascend the ladder of
-culture.
-
-At first they were foragers, living on what nature provided. At the time
-of Christ, several groups could be distinguished: In the Colorado River
-drainage, south of the Grand Canyon, were the Yuman Foragers; in
-southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico were the Mogollon
-people; in the Four Corners area (where the states of Utah, Colorado,
-Arizona, and New Mexico meet) and in the Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico
-was a complex of cave sites that evidenced a forager type of culture.
-But, as man always aspires to rise above his environment, the Indian
-slowly and painfully learned to make tools, developed new techniques,
-and finally made the great step upward; he domesticated plants.
-Agriculture, based primarily on the growing of corn, came to the Four
-Corners before the Christian era. Gradually, out of the primitive
-foragers, there developed across the Southwest a complex pattern of
-agricultural societies; peaceful farmers intent upon harvesting the
-utmost from a harsh land. In Arizona, the Hohokam peoples created a
-culture based upon irrigation. In the valleys of the upper Gila and
-Mimbres rivers of southwestern New Mexico, several branches of the
-Mogollon culture grew and prospered. In the Four Corners area and in the
-upper Rio Grande Valley, the Mesa Verde, the Gran Chaco, and later the
-Rio Grande branches developed, at first in the cliffs of the high
-country, then in open villages along the main tributaries of the Rio
-Grande. That there were numerous and varied cultures is attested to by
-the ruins one finds scattered throughout the Southwest. Along now dry
-arroyos, on buttes overlooking rivers or dry river beds, among cliffs in
-the mountain fastnesses and in caves wherever they appear, there are
-thousands of sites whose people and history are lost in antiquity.
-
-    [Illustration: Prehistoric Indian cliff dwelling]
-
-And these people were builders. They lived in caves at first, then in
-crude pit houses. Finally they moved above the ground and evolved
-building techniques and styles of architecture that stood the ravages of
-time and still serve the people of the Southwest. In the city of Santa
-Fe, the Palace of the Governors was built upon the ruins of an Indian
-pueblo (village), the name of which has disappeared even from tradition,
-and its massive walls of puddled adobe, laid down before the art of
-making bricks was introduced by the Spanish, may be seen under glass in
-some of the rooms of the Palace at the present time. Perhaps most
-spectacular are the great houses of Chaco Canyon, some of which must
-have sheltered from one to two thousand people each, and which as
-achievements in building, both from the standpoint of durability and
-graceful construction, rival the structures of the historic valleys and
-plateaus of the ancient eastern world.
-
-In addition to agriculture and building, the Indian of the Southwest
-achieved great heights in artistic forms. The ceramics of the American
-Southwest become increasingly important when compared with products of
-the Old World. The Indians of America and the Southwest are a race of
-artists. Their aesthetic culture towers above anything achieved by the
-white man, with the general exception of ancient Greece and Renaissance
-Italy.
-
-As impressive as his achievements in domesticating plants, in building
-massive structures, and in developing symbolism and aesthetic values to
-match his material advances, the Indian's greatest heights were reached
-in his philosophy on nature and life. He conceived himself to be, not
-master of creation, but a single factor in the scheme of things. He
-shared with all things--beasts, birds, rocks, trees, everything in
-nature--a life principle which permeated all, a gift conferred by the
-mighty powers of earth and sky. He observed orderly procession of
-natural phenomena and ordered his own life in harmony therewith. His was
-no egocentric point of view which has become so much a part of the
-philosophic base of the European mentality. His natural philosophy
-entered into every facet of his life--his daily work, his art, his
-ceramics, his religion. In short, this singularly fine outlook upon the
-world helps to account for his success in conquering the diverse
-elements of earth and sky which constantly threatened his very
-existence.
-
-But this fine culture did not survive in the fullness of its bloom. What
-eventually destroyed the vast and complicated agricultural system was
-not the rigors of Mother Nature but a migration of new people into the
-flow of Southwest history. Sometime after 1000 A.D., a nonfarming,
-nomadic, warlike people entered the Southwest. The peaceful farmers,
-weakened by drouth, were unable to cope with this new force. Gradually
-they fell back, leaving behind their homes, their fields, their culture.
-By 1300, only a small remnant remained, that located in the Rio Grande
-Valley of north-central New Mexico. Across the rest of the Southwest the
-nomadic tribes, technically called _Athapascan_ from their linguistic
-affiliation but better known by their modern name, _Apache_, had
-replaced the farming cultures. The picturesque Indian pueblos we see
-today in the valleys of northern New Mexico are the direct descendants
-of the great cultures that existed at Mesa Verde, Gran Chaco, Frijoles,
-and other centers of cultural achievement.
-
-The Indians of the Rio Grande Valley and the Apache who controlled most
-of the Southwest managed an uneasy coexistence. The Pueblo Indians
-remained basically farmers, holding fast to the cultural advances made
-by their ancestors during the millennium preceding 1300. The Apache, for
-the most part, remained nomadic predators, living off nature's bounty,
-or better still, raiding the pueblos for food. The Apache groups began
-to take on names and traditional areas which they called their own. In
-northern New Mexico were the Jicarilla Apache and in the southeast, the
-Lipan, the Mescalero, and the Natage Apache. In northeastern Arizona
-were the Navajo and in the drainage of the Gila River, the Chiricahua,
-the Gila, and other groups of the Western Apache. Each of these groups
-made its mark upon the face of the land.
-
-
-SPANISH CONTRIBUTIONS
-
-This was the situation in the Southwest when the sixteenth century
-opened, but a new force was abroad which would grow and strengthen and
-leave a deep imprint on New Mexico. Beginning on the wild islands of the
-Caribbean and then fanning out into the heart of Mexico and the South
-American continent, this new force spread across the face of America.
-Europeans, more exactly, Spaniards, came bent upon conquest for its own
-reward, for the glory of God, and for gold. These sturdy men from the
-Iberian peninsula with weapons vastly superior to the Indians', with the
-horse which made them highly mobile and devastating in battle, and with
-tactics and precision in warfare unknown among the Indians, were to
-sweep without serious setback across the great cultures of Mexico and
-Central and South America. By 1540, they were ready to take their next
-leap forward.
-
-On the west coast of Mexico, at a place called Culiacan, a colorful host
-gathered. In their ears rang the words of the legend of the Seven Cities
-of Cibola, seven golden cities, a legend which had been popular in Spain
-for many generations. Mexico City had produced wealth, and the Spanish
-were ready to believe that other fabulous cities existed. One Spaniard
-had already crossed part of North America and had heard from the Indians
-tales of the rich cities. His name was Cabeza de Vaca, and the
-exuberance of his tales fired the imagination of the Spaniards.
-
-The soldiers and adventurers gathering in Mexico, commanded by Francisco
-Vasquez de Coronado, were the first Europeans to organize an expedition
-to the American Southwest. Leaving from Culiacan in 1540, they went up
-the west coast of Mexico into modern Arizona, then east into New Mexico.
-The seven golden cities turned out to be the pueblos around Zuni, New
-Mexico, and not golden at all. The expedition, although discouraged,
-marched into the Rio Grande Valley and visited most of the pueblos
-there. Still they failed to find the treasure they sought. In a final
-desperate attempt, they explored onto the Great Plains, eventually
-reaching central Kansas. Broken in spirit and body, they struggled back
-to the Rio Grande Valley, and then retraced their route to Mexico. In
-all, the expedition covered a two-year span. A failure? Yes, in terms of
-wealth and treasure found. Yes, in terms of conquest, for nothing had
-been conquered. No, in terms of human resources, for the Indians
-Coronado met were to be the incentive that would bring the Spaniard back
-to New Mexico. While the Spaniard did seek gold and glory, he also
-burned with a missionary zeal and sought souls for his deep-running
-religion, Roman Catholicism.
-
-    [Illustration: Mesa top pueblo]
-
-For fifty-five years after Coronado, interest in New Mexico and the
-Southwest was spotty. Other things occupied the Spanish--primarily
-silver discoveries in the central valleys of Mexico. But men did not
-forget New Mexico and saw there an opportunity for missionary activity
-and exploitation. Also, other nations of Europe were beginning to take
-an interest in the North American continent, and New Mexico began to
-look attractive to the Spanish as a frontier defensive outpost. The
-frontier line pushed ever northward from central Mexico. By 1595, the
-Spanish were ready to push a salient into New Mexico.
-
-From among the mining communities of northern Mexico, a force of two
-hundred colonists was assembled by Don Juan O�ate who had a contract to
-colonize New Mexico. After countless delays due to politics and supply
-shortages, the O�ate expedition left Chihuahua in 1598. The route went
-north across the desert to the Rio Grande near El Paso del Norte (modern
-Juarez), thence up the Rio Grande into New Mexico. On August 18, 1598,
-they arrived at San Juan, and there founded the first capital of New
-Mexico, San Juan de los Caballeros. These lands of the Southwest so long
-colored by the Indian now received a new imprint, one that would alter
-the direction and flow of culture and change it from the Indian to the
-Spanish Southwest.
-
-From San Juan, and later (1610) from Santa Fe, O�ate, his men, and his
-colonists brought New Mexico under the Spanish yoke. In co-operation
-with the Franciscan Order, which had been assigned the task of
-converting the Indian, O�ate supervised the building of missions and
-mission churches at many of the pueblos of New Mexico. At the same time,
-Spanish towns developed, the most important being the new capital at
-Santa Fe. By 1628, New Mexico was solidly in the hands of her new
-masters.
-
-The period from 1628 to 1680 was one of internal conflict and isolation
-for New Mexico. It lay far out on the frontier, alone and distant from
-its source of supplies. It lacked many of the items necessary for
-frontier life, particularly hardware and clothing. Its population was
-small, and in constant fear of Indian uprising, and its officials were
-too weak to act with vigor. Finally, there was a lack of genuine
-interest on the part of the central authorities. All these problems led
-to internal conflicts between soldier and colonist; between colonist and
-Indian; between colonist and official; and, perhaps most bitter of all,
-between church and state. This latter conflict would erupt time after
-time, openly, and with bitterness and denunciation from both sides.
-Governors were excommunicated as heretics; Franciscans were accused of
-all sorts of crimes and improper behavior. This, plus the other
-conflicts, gave rise to growing disrespect by the Indians for their
-European conquerors. The superiority of Christianity was questioned by
-the Indians as they watched the attacks and counterattacks made by
-priest and governor. The whole system of Spanish rule seemed a mockery.
-In 1680, the Indians decided their way was best after all and rose in
-rebellion.
-
-Led by Po-p� from Taos, the various pueblos banded together in a mighty
-effort to remove the Spanish from traditional Indian lands. For the
-first time the pueblos came together, united by a single purpose. There
-were two exceptions; Isleta, just south of Albuquerque, and the Piro
-villages farther south (Socorro) remained loyal to the Spanish. Up and
-down the Rio Grande Valley, the Spaniards fell before the pent-up anger
-of the Indians. Survivors gathered at Santa Fe, but their water supply
-was cut, and they were forced to retreat south. At Isleta and later at
-the Piro villages, they received aid before continuing south to El Paso
-del Norte. With them went their Indian allies from Isleta and Socorro.
-It was a total defeat for the Spanish, and the Indian again was master
-of New Mexico.
-
-But not for long, for at El Paso there gathered a force dedicated to
-revenge for their comrades who had died before the Indian onslaught.
-Ably led by Diego de Vargas, this expedition moved into New Mexico in
-1692. The Indians, who had achieved such unity for the moment in 1680,
-were again badly divided. De Vargas, instead of having to subdue an
-alliance, had only to deal with one pueblo at a time. Very quickly New
-Mexico was returned to a mission area and frontier military post. The
-Pueblo Indians became permanently subjected to European domination.
-Their one and only attempt at unity had, in the final analysis, failed.
-
-During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, New Mexico was the
-heart of the Spanish empire in the Southwest. Only in southwestern
-Arizona, western Texas, and California did the Spanish hold any land
-other than in the upper Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico. During these
-centuries, this valley complex played out its dual role of mission area
-and military outpost. Its only connection with the resources and ideas
-of the world was a long hazardous road that stretched from Santa Fe to
-Chihuahua City and then south to Mexico City. This was New Mexico's
-Royal Road, and over it moved everything needed by soldier, priest, and
-civilian. The trade was dominated by the merchants of Chihuahua, and New
-Mexico suffered. The tale of New Mexico during this period was one of
-poverty, hardship, and warfare. And several vital forces moved across
-the land.
-
-One of these forces had long been in the Southwest, but latent. The
-Spanish adopted an Indian word meaning _enemy_ to describe it--Apache!
-The Spanish brought with them domesticated animals which quickly adapted
-to conditions of the New World and became available to the Indian. Most
-important was the horse, at least as far as the Apache was concerned. By
-the early eighteenth century, the Apache, and other groups on the
-plains, had adapted to the use of the horse. While dangerous as foot
-soldiers, the Apache became vastly more dangerous as mounted warriors.
-Whereas they had been satisfied with minor raids against the pueblos and
-the Spanish holdings prior to 1700, they exploded on a wave of terrorism
-during the eighteenth century which very nearly drove the Spanish from
-the frontier. Late in the century, the conflict between the Apache and
-the Spanish became increasingly bitter. The history of the Southwest
-became the history of incessant Indian incursions and Spanish attempts
-to control the raiders. The missions declined and in many instances gave
-way entirely to the presidio or fort. In New Mexico the military came to
-dominate the missionary, and only through the heroic efforts of the
-meager force at the Presidio of Santa Fe did the Spanish manage to hold
-New Mexico from total collapse. A poor province became poorer,
-population declined, both among the Spanish and Indian, and the future
-looked dark indeed.
-
-Far from New Mexico, other forces were stirring which would have a
-profound effect on the province and the Southwest. Spain and the Spanish
-empire were in trouble. Spain had failed to develop the supply
-capability to keep her colonies alive and was forced to spend her wealth
-in other areas of Europe. After two and a half centuries, the cumbersome
-and inefficient colonial administrative machinery was breaking down.
-While Spain's star was descending, other European nations were on the
-move. England, France, Holland, and Russia were contesting with Spain
-for control of the New World. England and France were digging in on the
-east coast of North America; Holland was penetrating the islands of the
-Caribbean, and Russia was pushing down the Pacific Coast from Alaska.
-The weakness of Spain and the failure of her colonial government, plus
-help from Napoleon by way of his invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in
-1808, brought about the collapse of the Spanish empire. In America,
-patriots, inspired by the earlier success of the American Revolution and
-afire with the ideas of the French Revolution, struck out at the
-remnants of Spanish rule. By 1825, all the Spanish colonies but the
-islands of the Caribbean were free and independent nations. New Mexico
-and the Southwest became part of the Mexican state.
-
-Almost immediately, Mexico, without leaders, without a political
-heritage to lead it to stability, and torn by power struggles large and
-small, was plunged into a period of political anarchy and civil war
-which would last for half a century. The problems and dangers of a
-far-flung frontier were lost in the din of conflict, and New Mexico
-became a forgotten province. Its claims as a mission area were so weak
-as to be almost nonexistent. It was no longer needed as a military
-outpost, for the danger to Mexico was not external, but internal. Its
-reasons for being were forgotten, at least for the moment, and New
-Mexico had to survive on her own initiative. But for one very important
-fact, the Spanish salient into the Southwest might have collapsed under
-the weight of poverty and Indian attacks. That fact was the opening of
-the Santa Fe Trail in 1821, a trail which linked the Spanish world with
-the Anglo-Saxon world then pushing its frontiers out from Missouri. This
-trail, so rich in lore and adventure, so much a part of the history of
-both the American west and the Spanish north, was the door through which
-passed the characters for the final act in the history of the Southwest.
-
-Before the final act, however, it is vital and necessary to set down the
-contribution of two hundred fifty years of Spanish occupation and rule.
-The coming of the Spaniard to the Southwest began a mixture of white and
-red races which resulted in a new mixed race. The first generation of
-those who came up from Mexico were Caucasians; their descendants were
-usually not. They came seeking wealth and security, but there was
-neither wealth nor security in New Mexico, and they remained poor, very
-poor. The society that evolved was to be based upon farming and stock
-raising, and its organization was to be feudal in nature. There would be
-no education; hence, there could be no intellectual advance. The world
-began to go ahead of the people of New Mexico. Only in the house of the
-rico was there any sign of the wealth and grandeur of Spain; everywhere
-else was poverty. Farming was left in the hands of the Indian, while the
-Spaniard chose to be a man on horseback, a cattleman, an aristocrat. In
-the final analysis, Spanish New Mexico would not develop as democratic
-and agricultural, but aristocratic and feudal. The hacienda was a part
-of old Spain in exile. The rico tried vainly to hold to his idea of
-chivalry and to a decorum suitable to his position. But what chance was
-there in the face of the increasing poverty, the constant danger to life
-and property, and time that did not move? While individual courage of
-the upper class remained, discipline and industry died. When the
-American army marched into the Southwest, the sons of the conquistadores
-could offer no armed resistance. Perhaps the most amazing thing about
-the society of the ricos in New Mexico was that it failed to contribute
-any lasting monument. It left no art, no music, no great highways, no
-adequate governmental system.
-
-But many elements of Spanish culture were to persist, and these arose
-from the collective consciousness of the people of New Mexico. Around
-the great haciendas were small villages with their artisans and workers.
-It was among these people that the heritage of Spain clung to this land.
-Many of these towns yet remain and are not much different from those of
-two hundred years ago. To a large degree, their Spanish culture seems
-hidden and undiscovered, but the people, their loves and hates,
-pleasures and hopes, beliefs and fears, are governed by tradition, a
-tradition that finds its roots deep in the soil of Spain.
-
-    [Illustration: Old mission church at Isleta Pueblo]
-
-Today, when we look at the cultural scene in New Mexico, we can see
-direct evidence of Spanish occupation. The language of half the people
-in the state is Spanish, in some areas still the Spanish of the
-sixteenth century. Roman Catholicism, of which the Spanish were the most
-Catholic, dominates the religious scene. The Spanish heritage in
-political attitudes, in building and architecture, and in the legal
-tradition of the state is apparent. New Mexico, of all the states in the
-United States, is the only one that can claim a truly Spanish heritage.
-
-
-ANGLO-AMERICAN VIGOR
-
-While Spain lost its empire and New Mexico and the Southwest sank into
-poverty and decay, yet another force was on the march, a force that
-welled up in an Anglo-American people clinging to the Atlantic Coast of
-North America. As these people developed a nation, they also discovered
-a sense of destiny which turned their faces to the west and their
-footsteps toward the sunset. With them moved their culture. At first, it
-was a trickle, a few traders bent on profit, crossing the plains on the
-Santa Fe Trail. Then the trickle became a flood. For New Mexico, these
-men came as saviors. The Missouri traders broke the Chihuahua monopoly
-and goods from all parts of the world began to flow into New Mexico,
-resulting in higher standards of living. These Yankee traders, sensing a
-good thing, also penetrated the markets of Mexico, using New Mexico's
-Royal Road to gain entrance.
-
-Again there was conflict, not Spanish and Indian, but Latin and
-Anglo-American. Mexico owned the lands of the Southwest and intended to
-keep them. But this American, with his gaze glued on western skies,
-refused to turn aside, and he strode on, grinding the feeble efforts of
-Mexican resistance into the desert sands. The Mexican War in 1846,
-suddenly transferred ownership of Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada,
-Arizona, and California from Mexico to the United States. This was
-nearly half the territory of Mexico. New Mexico, with her already
-complex cultural pattern, was subjected to still another influence.
-
-The history of the American occupation of the Southwest is as complex
-and diverse as its predecessors. Its ingredients include cattle, mining,
-railroads, agriculture, science, and the Indian. All these, and others,
-combined to give an Anglo-American slant to the Southwest. The Indian
-culture did not disappear, nor did the Spanish, but rather a new stratum
-was cast that was to complete the mosaic.
-
-When the American arrived in New Mexico, he found a poor, backward area,
-hungry for trade and outside contacts. He found the Indians of the
-Southwest in open rebellion against the white men. The Navajo and other
-Apache groups, the Comanche, and some of the Pueblos were the primary
-offenders. This was to be the main problem occupying the time and energy
-of the American settler and soldier for forty years after 1846. Until
-the Indian situation was stabilized, there would be little economic and
-social development.
-
-The method evolved for containing the vicious raids against friendly
-Indian, Spanish, and American communities was a series of forts placed
-at strategic passes or trails surrounding the traditional lands of the
-Apache. The Indian strongholds were located primarily in the mountainous
-regions of southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. The line of
-forts stretched along the Rio Grande south of Socorro to the vicinity of
-Las Cruces, and west along the southern edge of the mountain escarpment
-into Arizona. Then the defense complex ran north across the desert to an
-irregular line running east from Flagstaff through Gallup and back to
-the Rio Grande. These forts were well garrisoned and provisioned and
-began to carry the fight to the Indian. Early success was halted by the
-conflict generated by the American Civil War.
-
-The center of the Civil War in the west was in New Mexico. There was
-conflict, argument, and some small degree of fighting in other western
-states and territories as settlers from the north or south struggled to
-carry this territory or that state into the Union or the Confederacy.
-These were, however, local matters and as much political as military. In
-New Mexico, there was a war and there were battles, battles which
-deserve to be a part of the general Civil War story but that are usually
-forgotten in the smoke and roar of eastern cannon.
-
-Two major battles were fought in New Mexico, the first a Confederate
-victory, the second a Union victory which saved New Mexico, and the
-west, for the Union. The aim of the Confederate forces was to capture,
-intact if possible, the forts in New Mexico and Arizona with their great
-store of military provisions, provisions badly needed by the Confederate
-army. Also, there was a feeling among southern leaders that success in
-New Mexico might also lead to success in California, badly split on the
-question of secession, and in Colorado, rich in silver and gold. An army
-recruited in Texas and commanded by General Henry Sibley was sent to
-accomplish Confederate aims.
-
-This army entered New Mexico along the traditional route, moving up the
-Rio Grande from El Paso. It quickly subdued the forts and Union troops
-in southern New Mexico and continued up-river. On February 21, 1862, it
-met a Union army commanded by Colonel E. R. S. Canby at Valverde, a
-small community about twenty miles south of Socorro, New Mexico. Kit
-Carson, New Mexico's famous trapper and scout, commanded the New Mexico
-Volunteers, a part of the Union force. Canby's troops were beaten and
-dispersed at the Battle of Val Verde, leaving the upper Rio Grande
-Valley virtually without defense. Within a few weeks, the Texans had
-taken Albuquerque and Santa Fe. But one stronghold in New Mexico
-remained in the hands of the Union forces. Fort Union, northeast of Las
-Vegas, New Mexico, became the focal point of action by both north and
-south. Sibley, marching from Santa Fe, knew success depended on the fall
-of Fort Union. The Union forces, equally aware of the importance of the
-fort, hurriedly reinforced it with a number of volunteers from Colorado.
-
-Within Fort Union, a crisis developed over differing opinions on
-strategy. The fort commander wanted to keep the garrison at full
-strength and fight the Confederates from within the fort. The Colorado
-Volunteers wanted to go out and meet the enemy. The latter won and a
-Union force moved into the passes of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains to
-meet the Confederates in a fateful battle that would decide control of
-the west. It was fought at Glorieta Pass on March 28, 1862. Despite the
-fact that the two armies met on this field, the contest was not decided
-there. Early on the morning of March 28, a force of 400 Colorado
-Volunteers, commanded by Colonel John M. Chivington, began a flanking
-action in hopes of hitting the Confederate rear. This group moved out of
-the Pass into the mountains, and by a very difficult route moved back
-toward the Pass behind the Confederate force. On a ridge overlooking
-Apache Canyon, they saw below them the entire Confederate supply train
-and cavalry horse herd. In a lightning hit-and-run attack, the supply
-train and horses were destroyed. When word of this reached Sibley at
-Glorieta Pass, there was little for him to do but to retire from the
-field. The Confederate force never recovered from this disaster and
-gradually retreated to Santa Fe, then back down the Rio Grande into
-Texas.
-
-With the end of the Civil War, New Mexico and the Southwest returned,
-not to peace, but to war, war against the Apache. It took twenty years
-for the American with all his modern weapons and tactics to bring the
-Apache under control. For the Apache, it ended on September 3, 1886,
-when Geronimo and his few ragged followers surrendered to General Miles
-in Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. Under the weight of steel and increasing
-numbers of white men, the Apache was doomed. Though civilization would
-swallow the Apache, as it has always succeeded against the barbarian,
-the Apache made a spectacular defense of his lands and his way of life
-against both Spaniard and American. He made himself master of the
-desert, and only the gods of science succeeded in overcoming him and his
-desert gods.
-
-
-INDUSTRIAL BOOM
-
-With the Indian situation settled, New Mexico underwent a boom in two
-important areas, mining and cattle raising. These industries, so much a
-part of the history of the American West, did and still play an
-important role in the well-being of the Southwest. Mining camps sprang
-up along the mountain fringes as new discoveries of silver and gold came
-to light. Around Socorro and Magdalena, in the Mogollon Mountains, at
-Hillsboro and Kingston in the Black Range, and hundreds of other places
-in New Mexico and the Southwest, men hungry for quick wealth swarmed
-over the hills and mountains and built their roaring camps. While miners
-were tapping the subsurface wealth, cattlemen were staking out their
-claims to the grasslands, both on the eastern plains and in the high
-mountain meadows. Cattle empires grew to staggering proportions,
-sometimes erupting into violent conflict over grazing and water rights,
-such as the Lincoln County War made famous by the participation of Billy
-the Kid.
-
-    [Illustration: Feature of the Old West]
-
-The character of the Southwest still bears the stamp of the miner and
-the cattleman. Although the cattle and grazing industry has declined, as
-has the traditional mining camp, the past importance of these activities
-has had a tremendous impact upon the character of Southwest folklore,
-law, and music and on the thought of the people.
-
-Other influences affected New Mexico as a result of the American
-occupation, things inherent in the American culture. Ribbons of steel
-across a continent, buildings of steel and stone, business and commerce,
-technology, common law, the English language, the Protestant religion,
-and, above all, the American-brought driving desire to dominate, to win.
-Certainly the American had to adapt his culture to the desert lands, but
-he did it in his own way, not in the way of the Indian or Spaniard. So
-Anglo-American culture became superimposed upon a Spanish culture that
-was superimposed upon an Indian culture.
-
-_Disinherited_, that is the word that best describes contemporary New
-Mexico culture. A stronger race came and took away the inheritance of
-the Indian, though there did result a blood mixture. Only in superficial
-matters did the Spanish adopt any of the Indian ways. The Spanish, too,
-succumbed to a stronger people and have been denied the privilege
-commonly accorded to conquered peoples, that of mixing their blood with
-that of the conquerors. One finds today in New Mexico three distinct
-people--Indian, Spanish, and Anglo-American--as sharply contrasted as
-the strands in a Navajo blanket. There is pure red alongside white, and
-only rarely do the colors blend into pinks or grays. This is why we must
-say that New Mexico is a mosaic, not a synthesis, of many elements,
-clearly defined.
-
-Across the span of time, great men, people, and ideas have molded New
-Mexico and Southwest history. Indian, Spanish, American--vital forces
-that are today working toward a genuinely unique culture in New Mexico.
-The modern world may well give to the Southwest the idea or catalyst
-that will blend these elements into a single force. Science, techniques,
-ideas are things of the present and are for the present to assess and
-synthesize. The Indian gods of air, earth, and sky and the white man's
-gods of morality and science do not differ a great deal in their
-aspirations for their chosen people, and perhaps they will decree a
-splendid and unique synthesis from the cultural mosaic. Through
-understanding comes knowledge; from knowledge, creation.
-
-
-
-
-                    The Exotic Plants of New Mexico
-
-
-                            _by_ Ross Calvin
-
-The problem of discussing plant life becomes complicated, for some of
-those arriving in New Mexico may be compound microscope botanists, some
-collectors, others pathologists, still others geneticists. Some will be
-chemists or mathematicians, some others untrained in the ways of growing
-things and mainly interested in seeing while they tour. But one thing is
-fairly certain--most visitors will come from a distance, so it may be
-useful to invite them to observe what they can readily see on the way
-hither, which will be a relatively painless method of amassing some
-information.
-
-Yet the method of arrival itself suggests choices, options, and
-exercises in probability. Do visitors come in covered wagons, or in jet
-planes; by bus, car, train, or some other way? The most convenient way,
-doubtless, is by plane traveling six hundred miles an hour at a height
-of some thirty thousand feet; but the most rewarding way is by saddle or
-on foot as the early collectors came.
-
-Since one cannot know his own country well if he knows no other, a
-visitor from the east arriving at an altitude of five miles will
-probably be more conscious than others of drastic changes in the
-landscape when he first looks down on New Mexico. Instead of the
-universal green of the east, he will note the earth as an unaccustomed
-tawny, reddish brown expanse, and this will be its common color through
-most months of the year. He will note the absence of rivers, but the
-presence of mountains which generally ring the horizon. He will wonder,
-after traversing the border counties at the western edge of the Great
-Plains, at the infrequency of plowlands, and will promptly conclude that
-New Mexico is one vast, bare desert--an impression that will be
-corrected rapidly when he visits the dark National Forests where the
-slim, crowded spruces and firs tower skyward.
-
-The visitor from El Paso, as the Chihuahua desert (the name is fairly
-deserved) slides backward underneath him, will be amazed at the
-serpentine stripe of vivid verdure below, all completely leveled, and
-all marked off by geometrical lines and tightly bordered by pale hills
-where the vegetation is reduced to tiny dots not tall enough to cast a
-shadow. Still proceeding north, he will presently be above a ninety-mile
-stretch where the vegetation is so skimpy and the river so closely boxed
-in by desolate hills that Spanish explorers bestowed on it the sinister
-name _Jornada del Muerto_--Dead Man's Journey, which is
-self-explanatory.
-
-But on the other hand, a visitor descending into New Mexico from the
-northland in wintertime above this same Rio Grande will traverse a
-featureless jumble of peaks on which the black coniferous forest no
-longer shows as black at all but, snow-encased, gleams as white as the
-naked snowfields themselves. And he will find incredible the immense
-range of climate spanned in a flight only an hour long.
-
-The jet traveler approaching from the west beholds the greatest, most
-spectacular panorama of all, the true wasteland of the desert, with vast
-blocks uplifted from out of earth's crust, plateaus dissected by giant
-empty canyons whose walls are seared to utter nudity by ages of the most
-intense sunshine on our continent. Here the architecture of nature is
-all designed on a gigantic scale, and the climate exhibits influences of
-a mighty ocean, of towering mountain chains, and the range of wandering
-planetary winds which created the desert. From the altitude of a
-cruising jet, the distances, the speed, the color, and the light are
-indescribably exhilarating.
-
-Since the traveler arriving from any direction can see for
-identification only a few species, it will suffice to point out only two
-of the harbingers of eastern New Mexico, both of which are dominant on
-that area of the Great Plains: the blue grama grass, which in fall and
-winter bears the graceful sickle-shaped head, and the small _Yucca
-glauca_ which cannot be mistaken for anything else.
-
-Along the northern line, the visitor should look for the somber, almost
-black, forest of spruce and fir with its white patches of aspen on the
-10,000-foot slopes. Descending farther southward, even a casual observer
-will note that these species give way first to the yellow pines, then to
-the junipers ("cedars") and dwarf pines or pi�ons. The visitor arriving
-from the south will find most conspicuous of all the olive-green
-creosote bush in its summer-winter foliage, next, the omnipresent
-mesquite (_Prosopis_), then the various _Opuntia_ cacti (chollas and
-prickly pears), and the yuccas.
-
-As he comes in from Arizona, the splendid saguaros will beckon him
-toward the gateway of New Mexico, but they will nowhere enter it
-themselves. The vase-shaped body of the ocotillo consisting of
-unbranching, ten-foot wands should be recognized at a glance, as
-likewise should the various yuccas and agaves. And in early springtime,
-a low tree with a rounded mass of golden bloom will joyously proclaim
-its identity as a paloverde.
-
-The desert plants thus enumerated can be recognized along various
-stretches of U.S. 66 as one holds his speed at a conservative ninety or,
-even better, at a conservative sixty.
-
-The amateur scientist will need to do some homework before he learns
-much systematic botany or plant physiology. It takes considerable study
-to comprehend the slow, age-long process which has resulted in the
-evolution of all this grotesque vegetation: the interaction of extreme
-aridity, high temperature, low humidity, high evaporation, infrequent
-precipitation, the hostility of numerous chemical solutions, and the
-natural rapacity of the animal population. Each plant must have an
-adaptation of its own, from the tiny winter annual, which must race
-through its course from a tender rosette to ripened seed before the
-searing sunshine arrives, on up through the series to the stoic saguaro,
-which seems able to scorn nature's enmity.
-
-A final warning to the air traveler. He should be sure before deplaning
-that he has observed a _bajada_. It is a must. Bajada is one name,
-outwash slope is another, alluvial fan is still another. The stewardess
-should inquire of each student, and if his answer is "no," she should
-reply, "Then you've just flunked the course." A bajada is the most
-characteristic single feature of all in the sloping, stony topography of
-the desert--and remember that the surface of the desert is regularly
-sloping and stony. The Spanish word itself means only a down slope, but
-it has come to have a semitechnical sense--a fan-shaped apron of rocky
-debris at the foot of a mountain where it has settled out of the summer
-torrents and there keeps accumulating in successive floods. As the mass
-builds up, the bigger fragments drop out closest to the parent crag,
-then the small ones, finally the coarse gravel, and lowest of all on the
-slope the fine sand. Thus the fragments are graduated in size, in
-distance traveled, and in the nature of soil resulting. As the fan
-increases in size and laps up higher and higher on the mountain's flank,
-the geologists often describe the result by saying that the mountain "is
-burying itself under its own debris." From the air, the lines of
-drainage will be seen to have assumed the form of a tree with its trunk
-downward, its branches high in air. But the most interesting aspect of a
-bajada is the nice proportion which nature works out between the plant
-species and their location on the curve.
-
-
-FROM SAGEBRUSH TO SPRUCE TREES
-
-The traveler who has viewed the Southwestern panorama of nature from its
-sagebrush to its spruce trees has indeed seen most of it. The spruce
-which grows wild only well up on the higher mountains is familiar to
-everybody because it has become a favorite in formal planting
-everywhere. But the sages--who knows them? To the tenderfoot, almost any
-gray plant is "sage." To my friends the cowmen, sage means commonly
-saltbush. To my friends the foresters, sage means an artemisia. But
-there are romantics to whom "purple sage" is Apache plume, which is a
-member of the wild rose family.
-
-Some popular education would seem to be desirable. And this applies,
-too, to the cacti, for there is more misinformation about them than
-anything else that grows, runs, or creeps--except rattlesnakes. The
-clever people who design travel folders and pictorial maps almost always
-put saguaros in New Mexico. But saguaros do not grow in New Mexico. That
-is final! And the yucca is not a cactus. That also is final. Nor yet the
-ocotillo--that defiant, splendid denizen of the desert which flaunts the
-scarlet torch of flowers. The question that is always on the surface as
-one writes of plant life in the Southwest is, "Who wants to know?" The
-picnicker wants to know the names--and nothing much besides--of the wild
-flowers. My friend the cowman already has the names; that is, the common
-ones. If I chance to mention blue grama grass, he gently corrects me,
-"black grama." Then if I mention black grama, he says, "no, white
-grama." But at least he is concerned about something more important than
-nonscientific names. He wants to know if the plant is something that a
-lean old cow can eat, whether it stays green in winter, and if it will
-hold the soil in place. The tourist who pilots car and passengers some
-six hundred miles between breakfast and bedtime asks only what he was
-looking at. The rest of us who go into the mountains often enough to be
-impressed by the layer-cake succession of plants on their slopes can,
-with the aid of some reading, amass a store of knowledge where others
-amass only mileage. On a tour, it is mileage or knowledge. One has to
-choose.
-
-Actually, our New Mexico desert is not dominated by sage. That honor is
-held by the creosote bush, called by some of the old-timers
-_greasewood_, _Covillea glutinosa_, by some of the scientists--along
-with five other synonyms. Like the mesquite with which it shares the
-same general habitat but _does not intermix_, it occupies an immense
-spread of territory, roughly from Texas to California. Since no
-livestock will eat it and the ground it occupies is equally useless for
-agriculture because of aridity and stoniness, creosote is a veritable
-coyote for survival. The traveler descending from Taos to Santa Fe need
-not look for it. The sage of that locality, which gives the landscape
-its singularly mournful aspect, is a true sage. With good reason the
-cowboys call it _black sage_.
-
-In 1846, Lieutenant Emory, as he rode southward with the Army of the
-West, first encountered the creosote as he approached Socorro. The
-northward extension of the plant is at the same point today, and the
-range of mesquite extends only a few miles farther north. These two
-remarkable plants are the main markers of the Lower Sonoran Zone. In the
-same arid, stony, broken country, the traveler will find an abundance of
-cacti, and these plants are usually supposed to be the most tenacious of
-all tenacious growing things. Actually, in southwestern Arizona and
-neighboring parts of California there are whole areas where the aridity
-is too severe for cacti, but for our state--let it stand. Everybody, of
-course, has noted the grotesque shape of the plants, but not everybody
-has noted that the shape was chosen with a canny intelligence. A globe
-exposes less surface (that is, the vulnerable area for evaporation) than
-any other solid of equal volume. And a cylinder is second best. Another
-thing--cacti being succulents are filled with a watery sap or juice
-which quickly coagulates after a wound and stops the waste of moisture.
-Furthermore, the plant's aggressive root system is arranged so as to
-capture the grounds scanty moisture most quickly and completely after
-rains.
-
-Cacti of more than sixty species occur within our state, but more than
-nine tenths of the plants seen along the highway--unless they are
-brought together for a garden collection--can be grouped into one genus,
-the _Opuntia_. The family likeness is shown not by the shape or general
-appearance but by the fact that all are jointed. Both the cane cactus
-(also called cholla and elkhorn) and the pancaked prickly pear, unlike
-the big barrel cactus and the numerous small species which resemble it
-in shape, have joints and may therefore be rightly called opuntias. The
-"pancakes," it may be remarked, are not leaves but divisions of the
-stem. A cactus gets along without leaves. So a good rough-and-ready test
-is this: if it has leaves, it is not a cactus--which eliminates
-ocotillo, yucca, agave, sotol, and so on.
-
-The barrel cactus is sure to be seen growing beside service stations in
-the southern part of the state. Its name as well as its size identifies
-it. The flowers and the large lemon-shaped fruits are worth a glance. If
-they do not occur on the south side of the plant, it has been
-transplanted and turned. The evidence is as trustworthy as the presence
-of moss on the north side of a tree in the forest.
-
-The barrel cacti, the opuntias, acacias, the ocotillos, along with the
-creosote and mesquite already mentioned, have a way of growing along
-together in what is called a plant society. These all belong in the
-bottom layer of the cake called the Lower Sonoran Zone, which is best
-seen on the Rio Grande mesas near El Paso.
-
-The layer next above it comprises the foothill country of the Upper
-Sonoran Zone, which includes most of the state of New Mexico. Some of
-its common markers are juniper, pi�on, oak of various species including
-live oak, mountain mahogany, mescal, yucca, beargrass, and the famous
-blue grama grass. It is exhibited all along the Continental Divide in
-the southwest part of the state but nowhere so well as in the Fort
-Bayard Reservation. There a tract, protected for three generations from
-woodcutting, fires, and intensive grazing, offers a large-scale picture
-of the lovely land that once was New Mexico. There the character and
-amount of vegetation astounds the visitor who is familiar with only the
-close-picked, parched aspect of the landscape that generally borders the
-main highways. When seen from the air, the very color of the
-grass-mantled earth is many shades lighter than that of the bare
-overgrazed ranges a few miles to the south. And the difference can be
-seen by anybody.
-
-The foothills are dotted, not covered, with juniper and pi�on. The
-dwarfed, rounded little junipers (properly enough called cedars) leave
-the traveler unprepared to believe that they will anywhere become
-respectable forest trees. Yet in the Burro Mountains, the alligator-bark
-species, finest of them all, reaches a diameter of five feet and an age
-of about 1000 years. The wood has an extraordinary fragrance, and its
-smoke tells the neighbors for blocks around that you are warming
-yourself at the fireplace. Another notable thing about the wood is its
-resistance to decay in the earth. I have removed pieces of it from
-subterranean ruins of the Mimbres culture which, according to the best
-archaeological opinion, are some eight hundred years old.
-
-The yuccas deserve a story by themselves. One small, unimpressive
-species greets you on the meadows at the foot of Raton Pass; others have
-to be searched out along high limestone ridges where the foothills are
-deciding to become mountains. The one chosen for our state flower is the
-tall yucca (_Yucca elata_), a superb species best seen along the
-Continental Divide near Silver City. The genus reaches its greatest size
-in the grotesque Joshua tree, which never fails to attract the eye on
-the Mohave desert in California.
-
-The century plant has a name that always gets attention. But let us be
-sure we mean the same thing. Rightly, it means the mescal, the favorite
-food of the Mescalero Apaches. Besides these two names, it is called
-also maguey and, no doubt, Spanish dagger along with various other
-spine-tipped plants. All of which clinches the argument for a name which
-for all users is a certain designation for one object and only one. It
-is not just because botanists like to appear learned that they call this
-plant _Agave parryi_. That title is as descriptive as middle C for one
-key on the piano, and in the same way international.
-
-    [Illustration: Yucca plants]
-
-Everyone inquires about the century plant's life expectancy. An
-insurance man might make an inference from the name. The plant is a big
-compact cluster or rosette of rigid, upward-pointing, spadelike leaves,
-each four or five inches in width and each tipped with a vicious, stout
-thorn. Year after year the plant just sits there by a boulder,
-unnoticed. I question whether anything alive on the desert has a better
-life expectancy. As far as my observations go, it has no diseases. It is
-invincible to drouth. Freezing does not harm it, and fire cannot burn
-it--although a yucca even when green will flame up like a torch. No
-hungry old cow can crop it, and no rodent gnaws it, at least not enough
-to do harm. And since the Indians have gone on reservations, no human
-uses it. So it stays there.
-
-In fact, nothing less than a caterpillar can leave a dent on it--not, of
-course, the caterpillar that eats young tomato plants, but the
-Caterpillar that pulls heavy road machinery. The plant just does not die
-before maturity, it would seem. A remarkable organism, indeed! But after
-many, many years, depending on the amount of moisture it receives, it
-makes up its mind to flower. In one tremendous effort, it shoots up a
-twelve-foot flower stalk at the rate of several inches a day. The
-blossoming is a final, dramatic, beautiful gesture, for by the time the
-flowers have withered, the great tenacious plant has turned to a ghastly
-purple and is dead.
-
-On the high slopes where the last yuccas end and only a few junipers
-remain in the race for survival, the yellow pines come in to mark off
-what is called the Transition Zone. The pines need no description, no
-printed promotion. The traveler, any traveler, can appreciate them
-although he might not be stirred to the slightest interest by the lovely
-yuccas. Since the beginning of time, the pines, fragrant, cheerful,
-companionable, have been man's best friend. Among the ponderosa pines
-takes place most of the hunting, most of the camping, much of the
-picnicking. There is no danger that the tourist will overlook the pine
-belt and the pines for they are probably the most numerous tree in New
-Mexico.
-
-    [Illustration: Pi�on needles]
-
-Above them, the classifications are less clearly defined and ecologists
-are less inclined to agree on zonation. The Canadian Zone, if we settle
-on that name, occurs only in small areas on the map, and most of them
-north of Santa Fe. These are high ridges and island peaks that tower
-high enough to tempt the Engelmann spruces. Yet some of these islands
-occur as far south as the Mogollon Mountains and thus bring Canadian
-Zone scenes almost to the Mexican border. For hardy ecologists who want
-to explore high ridges and horns of bare stone which rise as clean as a
-hound's tooth clear up into the Arctic-alpine Zone, it is necessary to
-enter Colorado.
-
-Engelmann spruce forests may be associated with the 10,000-foot level.
-The blue spruce is very similar, perhaps only a subspecies, but it comes
-in a little lower. The Engelmann makes a dense forest hardly allowing
-invaders, but the blue is more tolerant, less austere. It loves the
-water and is the natural companion of chill, cascading trout streams.
-Though fond of shadow, it seems to grow equally well where the narrow
-canyons widen and admit the sunshine upon the tiny meadows of lush
-grass, cranesbill, velvety red cinquefoils, lupines, and yellow
-columbines. And when one of these miniature openings is fringed with
-spruces whose pointed tips rise sharp against a curtain of azure with
-its white cumulus clouds, there you have the loveliest vista in the
-mountains.
-
-
-OUR VISIBLE IMPACT ON THE PLANT LIFE
-
-Though nature lovers usually find the life zones more fascinating than
-any other aspect of plants in the mountains, there is one other much
-more important. It is the misuse, injury, and destruction of native
-plant life. Because scientists are generally alert to the conservation
-of what is useful and beautiful in natural resources, I venture to bring
-up the matter here.
-
-A useful case history is provided by Silver City, New Mexico. It was
-founded in the early seventies as a silver camp, which would fairly
-guarantee a certain amount of reckless haste and rowdy carelessness.
-Point two was its location on a foothill watershed only twenty-seven
-square miles in area. Point three was an extreme concentration of
-livestock near the town. Point four was the fact that the annual
-rainfall was crowded mainly into July, August, and a part of September.
-
-Mines are naturally users of timber. Obviously, shafts and tunnels have
-to be timbered. More than that, little smelters nestled back among the
-hills were also hungry for wood. And since coal was expensive and hard
-to get, most of the adobe cottages were heated many years by juniper,
-oak, and pi�on firewood. All these matters were naturally, if not
-actually, inevitable under the circumstances.
-
-The massive ore wagons and freight wagons had to be drawn by four- to
-ten-horse teams--and the horses kept on eating. Then because it was also
-a ranching country, each cowboy had to keep a _remuda_ of saddle
-horses--and they ate too. Also, the few cows that provided milk for the
-children grazed hungrily over the stony slopes. Most of all, the range
-cattle, which had no provender at all except that which the competitive,
-half-starved steers could provide for themselves, overgrazed every
-square foot of pasturage down to the bare soil. The government's
-open-range policy made overgrazing inevitable because no ranchman could
-protect his pasturage since it was all unfenced. The cow that got there
-first got the grass. That passed as land management, which proves that
-some statesmen then were about as wise as some of the Wizards of
-Washington now. But the advent of fences caused the cutting of millions
-of fence posts where none should have been cut.
-
-    [Illustration: Elk]
-
-When the grass went, its roots went, and when its roots went, there was
-nothing to hold the soil, and then it, too, started to go. And go it
-did. A deep hole formed in Main Street, as it is still called on the
-Silver City town plat. The best explanation I can find of that hole is
-that earth was taken out of it to form adobe bricks for the walls of
-houses and corrals (that clay did make good adobe!). Meanwhile, the
-woodhaulers' wagons had greedily carted away the trees from each little
-canyon, while the narrow steel tires cut deep ruts which formed two deep
-gullies at the first heavy rain. Then the parallel gullies proceeded to
-wash out deeper and create a middle ridge or high center on which axles
-got stuck. Since there was nobody responsible for making a new road,
-there was no choice except to move over and form another track and use
-it until in turn it became unusable. (By this simple kind of
-destruction, the old Santa Fe Trail, it is said, reached a width of a
-hundred feet.)
-
-But the water descending the slope kept increasing its destructive
-velocity as the denuded ground approached the bareness of a tin roof.
-Villagers observed that the hole in their Main Street was becoming a
-waterfall after each rain, and that the ruin was passing into a big-time
-operation. The town built a dam to restrain the floods. It washed out in
-the first one. Soon Main Street followed it down the drain, which by
-this time was already a hideous gash in the earth many miles long and
-twenty feet deep. Then the water began on a really different scale of
-destruction. One furious flood washed away the cabin in which Billy the
-Kid's mother lived. More than that, it washed away the wall of Judge
-Newcomb's house and abducted his Steinway from the second floor. A few
-yards from the spot, an old photograph taken in 1891 shows a
-woodhauler's ox team lying in the street there. It gives no hint at that
-time of the famous Big Ditch--the only name that Main Street, Silver
-City has had now for the last forty years.
-
-By 1927, after many other attempts had been made to tame the floods a
-steel bridge about one hundred feet long and thirty feet above the floor
-of the "canyon" was swung into place. In 1935-1936, the Soil
-Conservation Service went to work in earnest, made the watershed a
-demonstration area, and spent a third of a million dollars there in a
-short time.
-
-In the _New Mexico Magazine_ for August 1934, the really incredible
-story of the Big Ditch is exactly documented with old photographs and
-newspaper clippings. After a friendship of many years with old-time
-miners and ranchers at Silver City, I would not point an accusing finger
-at one of them. I appeal, however, for a greater vigilance over plant
-life and soils nowadays from everybody. In such protected areas as the
-Fort Bayard Reservation, the U.S. National Forest enclosures, and the
-frontier cemeteries, the imagination can visualize a New Mexico that is
-far different from what is here today--a close-picked, hard-used land
-where unwise woodcutting has continued through much of the last three
-centuries and where the thin ranges have been required to support in the
-last century alone perhaps more than one hundred million cows, sheep,
-and horses. The magnitude of the cause accounts for the magnitude of the
-effect.
-
-A good many years ago, I wrote as the concluding paragraph to _Sky
-Determines_ what seemed to some exaggerated praise for my adopted
-homeland. There is now less and less cavil from any readers. I believed
-the words true in 1934, and I stand my ground now.
-
-  Perhaps nowhere in the world is the natural setting nobler than in New
-  Mexico--more beautiful with spacious desert, sky, mountain; more
-  varied in rich, energizing climate, more dramatic in its human
-  procession, more mellow with age-old charm. Endowed with sunshine that
-  stimulates, and winter chill that toughens; with silence and majestic
-  desert color that offer a spiritual companionship, it has enough.
-  Here, if anywhere is air, earth, sky fit to constitute a gracious
-  homeland, not alone for those who study and create, but as well for
-  those who play, for those who sit still to brood and dream.
-
-    [Illustration: Tyuonyi Pueblo ruin
-
-    This large ruin in Bandelier National Monument lies along the banks
-    of El Rito de los Frijoles. Narrow-leaf cottonwoods line the stream,
-    and shrubs of the Upper Sonoran Zone cover the hillside slopes.]
-
-
-
-
-                    Dwellers in the Hills and Plains
-
-
-                           _by_ Levon Lee[1]
-
-The vast sweep of New Mexico's 77 million acres, which ranges all the
-way from the Alpine tundra of the tallest mountains down to the heat of
-the lower Sonoran desert, offers a home and sanctuary for many kinds of
-wild life.
-
-Some of these animals are considered game animals; others may be pests,
-since they prey upon or destroy what mankind regards as its own. The
-coyote which takes a sheep from the small herder is wicked indeed in the
-eyes of the sheepman. Predatoriness on all living things by other things
-has gone on since time began and will continue--mankind being not the
-least predator.
-
-A good definition is that composed by the late Judge C. M. Botts who
-defined a predator as "a critter that takes another critter that I
-want."
-
-New Mexico's immense topographic and geologic differences make for a
-very wide range of habitats preferred by the various species. The elk
-and deer, being highly adaptable, may be found from the Alpine tundra of
-the higher mountains clear out into the creosote desert. Deer occur in
-four separate subspecies: the Rocky Mountain and the desert mule deer,
-the western whitetail, and the Sonoran fantail deer, which is also a
-whitetail. These animals may be found all the way from the dense
-coniferous forests of the north with perpetual gloom and cold to the
-sun-scorched granite mountains such as the Florida and the Organ
-mountains of southern New Mexico; from great towering granite spires to
-the folded blocks of limestone such as comprise the Big Hatchets, the
-Guadalupe, and the San Andres mountains.
-
-The javelina, or little wild pig, lives along the watercourses in the
-south west part of the state. Its thin spiky hair gives it little or no
-protection against cold, and only in the balmier parts of New Mexico
-does it feel at home.
-
-The desert bighorn sheep, as distinguished from his cousin the Rocky
-Mountain bighorn, goes around on a sun-scorched, ocotillo-covered
-limestone-rubble slope in the full glare of the sun and lies down to
-take his afternoon siesta. The Rocky Mountain bighorn, on the other
-hand, with his preference for cooler climates does not shun even the
-dense spruce timber at the very top of the Sandia Mountains as the
-hideout for his afternoon rest.
-
-This adaptability by New Mexico's species to the tremendous differences
-in altitude, rainfall, and temperature makes them all the more valuable
-as a resource for the pleasure and enjoyment of everyone.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Photo courtesy of Forest Service_, U.S.D.A.)
-    Pack train on a wilderness trail]
-
-The most popular big game animals in New Mexico are the mule deer in
-either of the two subspecies. Every fall, beginning in late October and
-extending ordinarily through December, more than 100,000 hunters take to
-the woods for their 50-50 chance of bringing home the sought-after mule
-deer. A hunter may shoot his mule deer at the Alpine tundra timber line,
-out in the blazing heat of the creosote desert, or among the rock crags
-of some of the southern desert mountains. He will find his quarry a
-worthy opponent. Shy, wild, and with terrific eyesight and hearing,
-these animals provide a true challenge.
-
-Elk and antelope, as well as bighorn sheep, are hunted by special
-licenses only, since their numbers do not warrant a general open season.
-These special licenses are much sought after and are ordinarily made
-available by application and a public drawing in the fall. The javelina,
-confined to our southwestern counties, is also hunted by special
-license. It is noteworthy that although New Mexico had protected them
-for many years, the javelina did not increase its numbers. As a matter
-of fact, the natural losses applied against any game species are going
-to be in effect no matter whether hunting is permitted or not, the
-hunting being merely subtracted from what would be lost to nature
-anyhow.
-
-Our state mammal, the black bear, is found throughout the wooded areas
-of the state and occasionally wanders out into the plains or down into
-the desert mountains of the south. Bears are hunted avidly in the fall
-by sportsmen with dog packs before the regular big game seasons begin,
-when the use of dogs is prohibited. They are again hunted during the big
-game seasons by anyone bearing the proper license, but no packs of dogs
-are allowed. This is to prohibit the possibility of dogs being used to
-pursue elk, deer, or wild turkey, an illegal act in New Mexico.
-
-New Mexico is fortunate in having a tremendous diversity of both upland
-game and waterfowl, and big game and small game for her people.
-Importantly, the game resources are spread out through every county in
-the state.
-
-The state's richness of bird life is varied and extensive. New Mexico
-ranks among the first five in the total number of birds found within its
-boundaries. More than 400 species of birds live within the state. These
-range all the way from the tiny mites of the bird kingdom, the
-hummingbirds, weighing less than an ounce, to the great white whistling
-swan, weighing up to 25 pounds, or the Merriam turkey, which may weigh
-close to 30. Of the six species of quail found in the United States, New
-Mexico has four and may possess the fifth, since the mountain quail of
-the western coast have been introduced into this state and still occur
-on the west slopes of the Sacramento Mountains near Tularosa. Five
-species of doves found throughout the state from the highest coniferous
-forest down into the scorching heat of the creosote desert are the Inca
-dove, ground dove, mourning dove, white-winged dove, and the bandtail
-pigeon, all of them close relatives. Of these, only two, the mourning
-dove and the white-winged dove, are commonly hunted as game species.
-
-An unexplained and precipitous decline struck the bandtail pigeon about
-ten or twelve years ago, from which it apparently has never recovered.
-Although hunting was undoubtedly part of the pressure exercised against
-these birds, it in no way accounted for their sudden and dramatic
-decline in numbers. This decline may gradually be reversed, since more
-and more of these birds are being seen. It is well known that animals
-with a high reproductive capacity can endure much heavier losses to
-their population than can those with low or very limited reproduction,
-such as the bandtail, which normally lays only a single egg. The
-mourning dove, on the other hand, lays two eggs at a time and may raise
-as many as five or more broods in one year. Take this one step further
-with the scaled or Gambel quail, which may lay up to 12 or 15 eggs, and
-it can readily be seen that the population of bandtail pigeons can never
-endure the losses that the much more prolific mourning dove and quail
-can. The same might be said by comparison of elk and deer. Elk do not
-bear their first young until their third year, and then the cow may not
-bear young but alternate years until her seventh or eighth year; by that
-time she has begun to decline in vigor; in her total life she may not
-produce more than four or five calves. The mule deer, on the other hand,
-start bearing at the age of two, with their first birth normally single;
-from then on, twins are usual for the rest of the doe's life. Thus, deer
-have a considerably greater reproductive potential than do elk or
-bighorn sheep, which have one young at a time.
-
-The fleet-footed antelope of the open rolling plains is another example
-of fairly high reproductive capacity, since they breed earlier than do
-deer and normally bear twins. Antelope are confined to the more open
-country where their prodigious running ability and marvelous eyesight
-stand in good stead in protecting them against their natural enemies.
-
-The wild turkey, classified by law in New Mexico as big game, is found
-throughout the mountainous areas of the state, not excepting some of the
-desert ranges. New Mexico is one of two states fortunate enough to
-possess three of the five forms of the wild turkey known to the United
-States: the Merriam turkey, found in the higher elevations of the
-mountainous areas, usually the ponderosa forest; the Rio Grande turkey,
-confined to the watercourses of the eastern plains; and the fairly rare
-Mexican turkey, found in the Animas and Peloncillo mountains of extreme
-southwestern New Mexico. In Hildalgo County these mountains are actually
-largely Mexican in both flora and fauna. Some of the rarest, most
-beautiful birds of North America are also found in this area and nowhere
-else in the United States with the exception of southeastern Arizona.
-
-Our most abundant game bird, the mourning dove, is found in every county
-of the state and nests from the coniferous forests of the north and the
-higher mountains of the south clear out into the plains where there is
-not a tree in sight for miles. Doves are extremely adaptable and very
-prolific. They provide the finest kind of sport shooting and are avidly
-sought, particularly by shotgun enthusiasts of the eastern and southern
-parts of the state.
-
-Scaled quail are found throughout New Mexico, being absent only in
-elevations above 7000 feet. Even there, they periodically occur but are
-ordinarily driven back by winter snow. Gambel quail are found throughout
-the river courses of the Rio Grande Valley, the San Juan Valley, and the
-southwestern watercourses. The Mearns' quail is found in the southern
-half of the state in the higher mountain elevations, whereas the
-bob-white quail occupies the grassy rolling sandhills of the eastern
-counties where it is commonly found together with scaled quail.
-
-Quail hunting is one of the most popular sports in New Mexico and many
-thousands of hunters can hardly wait from one season to the next. New
-Mexico is in the heart of the scaled quail country and provides some of
-the finest shooting to be had anywhere.
-
-Migratory waterfowl, while not considered abundant, are not uncommon in
-this state, known more for its aridity than for its rivers and lakes.
-The two main fly ways are the Rio Grande Valley and the Pecos Valley,
-with the Pecos Valley being somewhat ahead in total numbers.
-
-Ducks commonly found in New Mexico in abundance are teal, both
-green-winged and blue-winged as well as the lesser-known cinnamon teal,
-mallards, widgeon, pintails, gadwall, scaups, canvasbacks, redheads, and
-other species.
-
-In addition, New Mexico plays winter home to many thousands of the
-lesser sandhill crane which is confined to the river valleys and open
-plains of the eastern part of the state, particularly the southeastern
-counties. A smaller population of the greater sandhill crane is found in
-the Rio Grande Valley and near Columbus. Flocks of the small
-Richardson's goose are found in the northeastern counties, in
-particular, and along river courses throughout the state. The small snow
-goose is likewise confined mostly to major river courses. The larger
-Canada geese are found particularly in the middle Rio Grande Valley
-where extensive development has been made by both state and federal
-agencies to encourage the use and the presence of bands of geese.
-
-New Mexico is unique in that it was the first state in many years to be
-able to open a hunting season on the lesser sandhill crane. This bird is
-comparatively abundant, the total population probably being in excess of
-200,000, with the vast majority of these birds wintering in west Texas,
-New Mexico, and Mexico. They occasionally cause heavy depredation to
-grain crops in the southeastern part of the state, and hunting has been
-partly justified on the basis that the large wintering flocks might be
-broken up and depredation spread over a larger area for less individual
-effect. These birds are tall, wild, and shy. They are hard to hunt, even
-more so than geese, and although strenuous efforts have been made, not
-too many of them are bagged.
-
-One should not overlook the tremendous opportunity for sport hunting of
-unprotected species, such as the various rabbits, the mountain lions and
-bobcats, and coyotes.
-
-The wolf is now very rare in New Mexico. Only occasionally do wolves
-come out of Mexico into the southwestern counties, usually in Hidalgo,
-Luna, and Do�a Ana. Wolves are large, effective predators and are
-incompatible with the cattle-raising industry. Since they have a
-fondness for beef, the hand of the cattleman is raised against them.
-
-The mountain lion prefers his natural prey of deer, mule deer being the
-principal victims. The bobcat preys on deer and on many of the small
-wild animals, rabbits in particular. These predators, when run and
-hunted with a pack of dogs, provide a fascinating sport which is growing
-in popularity.
-
-The use of calls to attract animals to a "victim" has become widespread.
-The calls imitate the distressed cry of rabbits and other creatures
-which to the predator means a meal close at hand. Everything from
-mountain lions to red-tailed hawks have been hunted by this procedure,
-and it can be very successful in bagging quarry. This type of hunting
-has value in that it can be enjoyed at any time of the year throughout
-the state and with a minimum of time and effort.
-
-Hunting is a conservation practice that, wisely administered, results in
-wholesome out-of-door recreation and brings many tons of high protein
-food of highest quality to the table. Nature nowhere in her economy
-locks up a resource and throws away the key--we should be no less wise.
-
-Long gone are the buffalo which once roamed the High Plains of eastern
-New Mexico. Exotic animals, imported and stocked along the rugged canyon
-of the Canadian River above Conchas Reservoir, are the Barbary sheep
-with their magnificent coiled horns. Beavers dam some of the mountain
-streams, badgers and skunks can be seen from the highways, and amid the
-forests are squirrels and porcupines, while high on rock slopes, the
-Rocky Mountain woodchuck and the gray rock cony dash from ledge to
-ledge. The white-tailed ptarmigan also haunts these high crags, and
-lower down the mountain, bluebirds nest. Hawks, eagles, magpies, jays,
-ravens, orioles, wrens, sparrows, warblers, finches, and many other
-birds of endless variety soar over canyon, forest, and sand-dune desert.
-
-Most notable of all is the crested roadrunner, the chapparal cock or
-paisano of Mexico and the state bird. In between racing with horsemen or
-automobiles, the slender roadrunner cocks his head, strikes swiftly and
-victoriously, then swallows his victim, which can be a small
-rattlesnake, whole.
-
-Snakes there are aplenty. Mostly, they are nonpoisonous, such as the
-garter snake, glass snake, puff adder, ring-necked snake, the coachwhip,
-the Mexican blacksnake, and the large western bullsnake. The small but
-very venomous coral snake is rare, but common among rocks and near
-streams are the large western diamondback rattlesnake, the prairie
-rattlers, and the less common green or blacktailed rattlesnake. Every
-sun-warmed rock has its scampering lizard, and nearby are horned toads,
-dry-land terrapins, tortoises, tarantulas, centipedes, vinegarroons,
-scorpions, and spiders. Of these latter desert animals, only the black
-widow spider is poisonous.
-
-Contrast in the influence of environments is shown by the animals that
-inhabit the "malpais," the recent flows of black, rough-surfaced lava,
-compared with similar animals found among the white gypsum dunes of
-White Sands. Black or darkly colored subspecies of mice, plains wood
-rats, kangaroo rats, and rock squirrels live on the black lava, whereas
-white or pale counterparts of these animals live among the white gypsum
-dunes.
-
-    [Illustration: Sketch of roadrunner, New Mexico state bird]
-
-The dwellers in the hills and plains of New Mexico are as varied as the
-hills and plains; they add their color and movement to the scenes of the
-Land of Enchantment.
-
-
-
-
-               Rocks That Shape the Enchanting Landscape
-
-
-                        _by_ Frank E. Kottlowski
-
-"As old as the hills." How much more ancient can anything be? Yet New
-Mexico's hills, its enchanting landscapes, were built in but the most
-recent "minute" of geologic time. Merely one geologic era ago, marine
-waters covered the state, and storm-tossed waves ruled where now the hot
-sun beats down on dry sands and cacti a mile above sea level.
-
-What determined the Land of Enchantment's landscapes? Shaping these land
-forms are the rocks of the earth's crust, the structure of those rocks,
-and the endless battle between the rocks and the atmosphere. A story
-spelled out in stone, the geologic history. The rocks determine.
-
-Eons ago, it began; one billion, two billion, or perhaps even more
-billions of years ago. A history whose beginnings have been lost owing
-to destruction of its earliest records. A history, written in the rocks,
-that is divided into four general parts (fig. 1). The oldest rocks, more
-than 600 m.y. (million years) old, almost devoid of traces of life, are
-the Precambrian rocks. The Paleozoic rocks, 230 to 600 m.y. old, are
-marked by ancient (_paleo_-) life. This was the Period of Invertebrates,
-animals without backbones. Mesozoic rocks, 70 to 230 m.y. old, formed in
-the Era of Dinosaurs and contain types of life that are intermediate
-(_meso_-) between the ancient and modern animals. And rocks of the
-Cenozoic Era, 70 m.y. ago to the present, make up the latest (_ceno_-,
-recent) chapter of the earth's history.
-
-Events of the Cenozoic Era have had the greatest influence on New
-Mexico's landscapes. So let us begin the story at the dawn of the
-Cenozoic, and return to the earlier geologic chapters later.
-
-
-CENOZOIC ERA
-
-The mountains, the plains, the rivers, and the lakes all are transitory
-features of the landscape, created during the recent part of the
-Cenozoic Era, and all doomed to destruction in the near future,
-geologically speaking. Even so, some of the plains and mountains may
-predate man's evolution onto the earth scene.
-
-Gone were the late Mesozoic seas; never again during our lifetime nor
-the lifetime of many future generations will marine waters roll over New
-Mexico, and sea-spawned creatures rule. For the first two thirds of the
-Cenozoic, the Paleogene Period (25 to 70 m.y. ago), New Mexico suffered
-from the dying effects of the great Laramide upheaval of the earth's
-crust. Large areas were exposed to the harsh erosion of stream and wind.
-The landscape looked as parts of southwestern New Mexico do today--tall
-rugged mountain ranges scattered in isolated patches amid wide gravelly
-plains. But the climate was more humid, and while no large through
-rivers are known, local great swamps and lakes lay on the plains in
-debris-trapping lowlands.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 1. Table of geologic time]
-
- _Scale of geologic time
- in millions of years_
-        _Era_                        _Rocks_             _Dominant life_
-           _Geologic age_
-
-    70  CENOZOIC
-           Neogene
-        Pleistocene       Bandelier volcanic ash,        Man
-                          basalts, sand dunes, river
-                          gravels, glacial & lake beds.
-                     1 my
-        Pliocene          Volcanic rocks of Mt.          Mammals
-                          Taylor, early Valle Grande &
-                          Gila region; Santa Fe, Gila,
-                          and Ogallala Fms.
-                    11 my
-        Miocene
-                    25 my
-           Paleogene
-        Oligocene         Datil, Espinaso, and other
-                          volcanic rocks.
-                    40 my
-        Eocene            Baca, Animas, Nacimiento,
-                          San Jose, Raton, Poison
-                          Canyon, Galisteo El Rito,
-                          Blanco Basin, & Cub Mountain
-                          Fms.
-                    60 my
-        Paleocene
-   160  MESOZOIC
-           Cretaceous     Upper sandstone, shale, &      Dinosaurs
-                          coal. Mesaverde, Pierre, &
-                          Niobrara, Dakota Ss. and
-                          Mancos Sh.
-                          Volcanic rocks, limestone,
-                          sandstone, and conglomerate.
-                   135 my
-           Jurassic       Morrison Fm., Summerville
-                          Fm., Zuni Ss., Todilto Ls. &
-                          gypsum, Entrada Ss.
-                   180 my
-           Triassic       Wingate Ss., Dockum Fm.,
-                          Chinle Fm., Santa Rosa Ss.,
-                          Moenkopi Fm.
-   370  PALEOZOIC
-           Permian        Rustler Dolomite; redbeds      Amphibians
-                          Castile gypsum, Salado Salt.
-                          Artesia Grp.--Capitan reef
-                          San Andres Ls.--Goat Seep
-                          reef
-                          Glorieta Sandstone
-                          Yeso Fm.--Bone Spring Fm.
-                          Abo Redbeds--Hueco Ls.
-                   280 my
-           Pennsylvanian  Mostly limestone; beds of
-                          shale & sandstone; lenses of
-                          gypsum, salt, and coal.
-                   310 my
-           Mississippian  Helms & Paradise Fms.          Fish
-                          Rancheria Ls.
-                          Lake Valley & Escabrosa Lss.
-                          Arroyo Penasco & Tererro Fms.
-                   345 my
-           Devonian       Percha Shale, Ouray Ls.
-                          northern dol., ss, and sh.
-                          erosion
-                   400 my
-           Silurian       Fusselman Dolomite
-                          erosion
-                   425 my
-           Ordovician     Montoya Dolomite               Invertebrates
-                          El Paso Limestone
-                          Bliss
-                   500 my
-           Cambrian       Sandstone
-                          erosion
- 1500+
-        PRECAMBRIAN       quartzite, gneiss, rhyolite,   Simple
-                          andesite, granite,             primitive forms
-                          pegmatite, schist,
-                          greenstone.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 2. New Mexico during Paleogene time]
-
-Scenery in north-central New Mexico (fig. 2) may have been similar to
-today's, with mountains in the same general areas as the present-day
-Sangre de Cristo, Nacimiento, San Juan, and Brazos ranges.
-Coarse-grained gravels were stacked up at the edges of the mountains,
-but out in the adjoining lowlands, floodplain sands and varicolored
-lake-bed clays settled. Three low areas were "basins" of deposition
-where thick masses of sediments accumulated--the Raton and Poison Canyon
-formations in the Raton Basin near Raton, the Animas, Nacimiento, and
-San Jose formations in the San Juan Basin north and northwest of Cuba,
-seen along N.M. Highway 44, with thinner deposits of the El Rito and
-Blanco Basin formations to the northeast of Cuba, and the Galisteo
-Formation in the Galisteo Basin south and southwest of Santa Fe.
-Volcanic rocks, the Espinaso beds, overlie the Galisteo but are not much
-younger in age. Reddish rocks of the Galisteo Formation crop out along
-U.S. Highway 85 at La Bajada Hill about twenty miles southwest of Santa
-Fe. The Sandia Mountains' area appears to have been a lowland.
-
-Silicified wood, chiefly of pines but with some oak and poplar, is
-abundant in the Galisteo Formation. Large logs, up to 6 feet in diameter
-and 135 feet long, have been found. In the great swamps of the Raton
-Basin, where the climate was much like that of Georgia today, tall
-reeds, water lilies, fig trees, palm trees, magnolias, and sycamores
-grew in profusion, and contributed to the thick coal beds now mined
-there. The early ages of the Cenozoic saw the spectacular rise of the
-mammals to dominance over reptiles on land; numerous remains of the
-early mammals are found in the Nacimiento and San Jose formations,
-including the famous Puerco and Torrejon faunas--as well as many clams,
-snails, fish, turtles, crocodiles, snakes, and birds.
-
-Southeastern New Mexico appears to have been relatively level with only
-local hills and vast regions of featureless, stagnant but high plains
-where erosion slowly ate downward, deposition was slight, and most of
-the detritus was carried eastward far beyond the state's borders. The
-redbeds of the Baca Formation were laid down on the north flank of low
-mountains that extended intermittently from somewhere near Quemado
-toward Socorro. Some ancient hills near present-day Sierra Blanca shed
-rock fragments that accumulated near Capitan as the varicolored Cub
-Mountain Formation. Deeply eroded uplands northwest of Elephant Butte
-Reservoir supplied gravels and sands that mingled with andesitic
-volcanic debris as the upper part of the McRae Formation in central
-Sierra County. Many of the weathered greenish and purplish volcanic
-rocks in southwestern New Mexico were extruded at this time, and beneath
-the surface these molten magmas (hot liquefied rocks) cut into older
-rocks. Vapors and hot solutions from the magmas are believed to have
-emplaced some of New Mexico's vast ore deposits during this time.
-
-The last phase of the Paleogene Period, about 25 to 40 m.y. ago, was an
-earth-shaking time in New Mexico--and the first explosion of an atomic
-bomb in 1945 on the Jornada del Muerto between Socorro and Carrizozo was
-a relatively low-energy-yield event compared with the late Paleogene
-earth movements. Almost the entire southwestern quarter of the state
-literally exploded, with volcanic eruptions on a grand scale. These lava
-flows, rock breccias, ashes, pumice, and associated intrusives (molten
-rocks that did not make it to the surface) form the Datil-Mogollon
-plateau--at least 100 miles in diameter--as part of the Datil Formation,
-which locally is miles thick, and made up the main mass of many other
-ranges near the Mexican border. Sierra Blanca (12,003 feet altitude)
-northeast of Alamogordo is a huge, isolated volcanic mass of late
-Paleogene age.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 3. East-west cross section of Rio Grande
-    graben near Santa Fe]
-
-This widespread volcanic activity continued into the Neogene Period
-which began about 25 m.y. ago. Rhyolites, pumice, and perlite in the
-southwest, as well as in other parts of the state, covered wide areas.
-Mount Taylor, towering up to 11,389 feet near Grants and visible on the
-western skyline from Albuquerque, is a Neogene volcanic pile, as are
-parts of the Sangre de Cristo range northeast of Taos. Shiprock and
-Cabezon Peak, landmarks in northwestern New Mexico, are volcanic
-necks--the eroded cores of ancient volcanoes.
-
-Valle Grande caldera makes up the center of the Jemez Mountains west of
-Los Alamos and is a late Neogene volcanic mass with the central crater
-sixteen miles in diameter--one of the world's largest calderas.
-Bandelier National Monument headquarters is within a canyon carved from
-Valle Grande's ashes. Volcanic ash scattered over the western parts of
-Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas was blown from this volcano. Capulin
-Mountain, east of Raton, is a huge recent cinder cone and is surrounded
-by numerous basaltic lava flows that cap the High Plains from Raton
-eastward to Clayton. The very fresh black basalt flows near Carrizozo
-and in the valley of Rio San Jose near Grants are probably less than
-1000 years old. Numerous mesas along the Rio Grande Valley from the
-Colorado line to El Paso are capped by black basalt flows of late
-Neogene age.
-
-Many of the present-day mountains were uplifted in early Neogene time,
-following the climax of the great volcanic eruptions. This uplifting, in
-many instances, took place along one side of huge mountain masses,
-forming tilted fault blocks like the Sandia, Manzano, San Andres, and
-Sacramento mountains. Rock beds in the Sandia Mountains, for example,
-dip to the east, but were uplifted along a west-bounding fault zone--a
-huge break in the earth's crust--as much as four miles! This was an
-earth-shaking event! However, the uplifting took place slowly, and
-indeed is continuing today as the Albuquerque area, along with the Rio
-Grande Valley southward to Socorro, is one of the most active earthquake
-areas in the state.
-
-Concurrent with uplift, other blocks of the earth's crust sank, forming
-graben basins which were flooded with rock debris from the adjoining
-uplifts. A tremendous irregular graben, now followed by the Rio Grande,
-cut north-south across the state. Geologists label it the _Rio Grande
-structural depression_ (fig. 3). Mountains on the east are the Sangre de
-Cristo, Sandia, Manzano, Los Pinos, Fra Cristobal, and Caballo ranges;
-those to the west include the Brazos, Jemez, Ladron, Socorro, Magdalena,
-and San Mateo mountains. Within this complex graben, and around the
-bordering ranges, the colorful sandstones and siltstones of the Santa Fe
-Group were deposited--these red, yellow, orange, and cream rocks are
-eroded in many places, such as near Santa Fe, to "badlands"
-characteristic of the landscapes along the Rio Grande Valley from
-Espanola southward to El Paso. Much brightly tinted silicified wood is
-found in these beds, and literally freight-car loads of mammalian
-remains have been shipped to museums from outcrops near Espanola.
-
-In the basins amid the mountains of southwestern New Mexico, similar
-sands and gravels of the Gila Conglomerate filled low areas. East of the
-mountains of central New Mexico that form a north-south chain of ranges
-from Raton to Carlsbad, thin gravels of the Ogallala Formation were
-dumped onto the western edges of the High Plains. They now cap the
-plains as well as make picturesque bluffs east of the Pecos River and
-southeast of Tucumcari--the "caprock" of that area. In northwestern New
-Mexico, isolated mesas are topped by the Chuska and Bidahochi
-formations; similar sands, silts, and clays washed from adjoining
-highlands.
-
-The final episodes of landscape formation occurred during the
-Pleistocene Epoch, the recent glacial period. Mountain valley glaciers
-occupied some of the higher parts of the state, as far southward as
-Sierra Blanca; large lakes filled many of the closed basins, such as
-those near Estancia and south of Lordsburg; the Carrizozo and Grants
-basalt flows were extruded; the final tremendous explosions of Valle
-Grande spread volcanic ash over large regions; sands, gravels, and clays
-were eroded and deposited by streams and in lakes; and sand dunes were
-heaped up in many areas. The glistening white gypsum dunes (fig. 4) of
-White Sands National Monument, built up into 50-foot-high mounds
-windward of gypsiferous Lake Lucero, are spectacular products of the
-wind.
-
-The Rio Grande, in its present valley, probably is only as old as
-mid-Pleistocene, born during late uplift of its headwater mountains, the
-San Juan and Sangre de Cristo ranges in southern Colorado and northern
-New Mexico--initiated by floods of meltwaters from waning mountain
-glaciers. Some of the lower terraces (benches) along the Rio Grande are
-very young, being dated by radiocarbon methods at 2600 b.p. (before
-present). Until shackled by Elephant Butte Dam in 1916, and smaller dams
-up and down the valley, the Rio Grande switched its course with every
-large springtime flood. Even with these man-made controls, the Rio
-carves new channels during floods and covers flooded fields with silt as
-the high waters recede.
-
-
-PRECAMBRIAN ERA
-
-The highest points in New Mexico are in the north-central region. Here,
-along the backbone of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, tower Wheeler Peak
-(13,160 feet above sea level), northeast of Taos, and South Truchas Peak
-(13,102 feet), northeast of Santa Fe. Snow lingers on these lofty spires
-all year around except during an especially hot August. Highest
-peaks--they must be capped by the youngest rocks. But no, the quartzites
-and gneisses, hard rocks made up of quartz and feldspar, that hold up
-these pinnacles against the attack of water and ice are among the oldest
-rocks known in the Southwest--perhaps as much as two billion years old.
-These Precambrian rocks lay deep beneath the earth's surface from early
-Paleozoic time (500 m.y. ago?) until early Neogene time, then were
-uplifted along great breaks in the earth's crust, uplifted slowly and
-intermittently during the span of time from about 20 m.y. ago to perhaps
-1 m.y. ago.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 4. Gypsum dunes of White Sands]
-
-How did these ancient rocks form? What did New Mexico look like during
-the dawn of geologic history? The record in stone is fragmentary. But
-about two billion or so years back, thick masses of quartz sandstone
-were laid down in north-central New Mexico, as well as vast lenses of
-mud, and some beds of feldspar-rich sandstone. Volcanic activity was
-intense; huge flows of rhyolite and andesite were poured out over most
-of the state, and these in turn, along with the muddy and sandy
-sediments, were intruded by enormous masses of hot granite. Mile-high
-mountains were formed, and during the stretch of this early geologic
-time, called the Precambrian Era, the high peaks were eroded by rain,
-wind, and sun until some were worn down to featureless plains sloping
-toward the ancient ancestral oceans.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 5. Staurolite twin crystals in mica schist]
-
-These Precambrian rocks now make up the cores of such mountain ranges as
-the Sandias east of Albuquerque, the Sangre de Cristo range near Santa
-Fe, the Pedernal Hills south of Clines Corners, the Burro Mountains
-southwest of Silver City, the Brazos Range east of Tierra Amarilla, the
-Zuni Mountains southwest of Grants, and the San Andres Mountains west of
-White Sands. As seen in Tijeras Canyon east of Albuquerque, the bulk of
-the ancient rocks are gray to pinkish granite and granite gneiss,
-speckled by crystals of biotite, microcline, orthoclase, and quartz.
-Quartzites (hardened sandstones), greenstone, and foliated mica schists
-(fig. 5) are the older rocks that were intruded by granitic magmas about
-1350 million years ago--as indicated by dating of radioactive isotopes,
-K-Ar and Rb-Sr. Locally, pegmatite dikes, a late-cooling, large-crystal
-stage of the granites, crisscross the granite and contain excellent
-crystals of quartz, feldspar, and mica, as well as less common minerals.
-The famous Harding pegmatite near Dixon, about forty miles north of
-Santa Fe, contains beryl, columbite-tantalite, lepidolite mica,
-spodumene, and other rare minerals. Some of these crystals are ten feet
-in length!
-
-
-PALEOZOIC ERA
-
-There are some primitive types of plant and animal life known from
-Precambrian rocks outside of New Mexico but the earliest beds that
-contain abundant fossils are those of Cambrian age, 500 to 600 m.y. old.
-Cambrian rocks in New Mexico are in the Bliss Sandstone, a reddish brown
-iron-rich bed, 50 to 200 feet thick, that occurs only in the southern
-part of the state. There it can be seen, for example, along the bold
-east-facing escarpment of the San Andres Mountains or the west-facing
-cliffs of the Caballo Mountains, as a dark band resting on the pinkish
-Precambrian granitic rocks. It is a shallow-sea sand, deposited on the
-northeastern edge of the Cambrian seas. Scattered amid the brown-stained
-quartz, red hematite, and green glauconite are broken shells of
-trilobites and primitive brachiopods. Northern New Mexico was a low,
-broad island during Cambrian time, a source of some of the sands in the
-Bliss Sandstone.
-
-During the Ordovician Period, 425 to 500 m.y. ago, upper sands of the
-Bliss as well as overlying limestones and dolomites were deposited in
-the shallow warm seas of southern New Mexico; these latter rocks are the
-El Paso Limestone and Montoya Dolomite. The Ordovician seas teemed with
-invertebrate life. Fifteen-foot-long cephalopods, as much as a foot in
-diameter, ruled the shallow salt-water bottoms, munching on the abundant
-trilobites and the moss animals, the bryozoans. Numerous brachiopods,
-corals, snails, and clams also thrived, with many of the Ordovician
-carbonate-rock beds literally being made up of these fossil remains.
-Near El Paso, these limy fossiliferous beds are nearly 2000 feet thick,
-but they thin northward to a knife edge in thickness near Mockingbird
-Gap at the north end of the San Andres Mountains. Parts of northwestern
-New Mexico may have been low islands exposed to the sun and erosion
-during Ordovician time, but most of the state was probably within an
-extensive shallow ocean. Later, erosion removed the Ordovician rocks
-from central and northern New Mexico.
-
-Silurian strata, the brown Fusselman Dolomite, deposited during the
-middle of that period (400 to 425 m.y. ago), remain only in the southern
-and southeastern parts of the state, thinning out northward from the
-1000-foot-thick bed near El Paso. The extent of these middle Silurian
-seas is not known, but most of central and northern New Mexico was
-undergoing erosion during late Silurian time. The northward thinning of
-the Fusselman Dolomite is due chiefly to this erosion, evidenced by the
-knobby, ridged and channeled top surface of the Fusselman. Brachiopods
-and corals are the most abundant fossils in the Fusselman Dolomite;
-elsewhere, Silurian rocks are known for the sea scorpions or
-eurypterids, which attained a length of nine feet, and for the complete
-remains of primitive fishes.
-
-During early and middle Devonian time (345 to 400 m.y. ago), most of New
-Mexico was a lowland rotting beneath the sun. Fossiliferous Devonian
-rocks are unknown in the north-central part of the state but occur
-beneath the surface in the Four Corners region of northwestern New
-Mexico and the adjoining states. These rocks are of late Devonian age
-and consist of lower dolomite and sandstone, middle shale and dolomite,
-and the upper Ouray Limestone.
-
-In southern New Mexico, a uniform blanket of dark limy muds, called the
-Percha Shale, was deposited during late Devonian time. This shale marks
-a great change from the limestones of earlier ages. In part, it is of
-black muds deposited in widespread or in local stagnant basins and in
-part calcareous fossiliferous muds in which abundant invertebrate life
-was buried. The clay and quartz silt that make up the rocks were a
-weathered residuum that had accumulated, during the long period of late
-Silurian and early and middle Devonian times, on the lowland of central
-and northern New Mexico.
-
-Except in the stagnant basins, invertebrate life was prolific,
-brachiopods, bryozoans, and corals being especially numerous. Fossil
-fish remnants, chiefly teeth, are abundant in some of the sandy units,
-and outside of New Mexico the earliest amphibians occur in upper
-Devonian rocks. The oldest definitely known assemblage of land plants
-occurs in the Devonian, and forests containing forty-foot-high trees
-spread over the uplands. Such tree ferns, horsetail rushes, and lycopods
-(spiked-leafed trees) may have grown in profusion on the swampy lowlands
-near Albuquerque's and Santa Fe's present sites, far north of the muddy
-Devonian seas of southern New Mexico.
-
-                       Figure 6. Fossil specimens
-
-    [Illustration: Brachiopod
-    _Marginifera._]
-
-    [Illustration: Crinoid
-    stem fragment.]
-
-    [Illustration: Crinoid
-    restoration of a crinoid.]
-
-Mississippian rocks (310 to 345 m.y. old) probably were deposited over
-most of New Mexico. Subsequent erosion removed much of the Mississippian
-beds in northern New Mexico. The remnants, less than 100 feet thick in
-most places, are of lower sandy and shaly beds overlain by massive
-crinoidal limestones, the Arroyo Penasco Formation of the Nacimiento and
-Sandia mountains and the Tererro Formation of the Sangre de Cristo range
-east of Santa Fe.
-
-In southern New Mexico, the Mississippian beds are thick and widespread,
-being more than 1000 feet in thickness in the southwestern panhandle.
-There the rock units are the Escabrosa Limestone of the southwest or the
-Lake Valley Limestone of the south-central part of the state. These are
-massive fossiliferous limestones precipitated in shallow extensive seas
-abounding with invertebrate life. Huge gardens of the sea lilies,
-crinoids, spread over the area, their remains mingled with those of lacy
-moss animals, the bryozoans, and with brachiopods and corals. Locally,
-as in the region of the Sacramento and San Andres mountains and Black
-Range, moundlike fossil reefs, called bioherms, were built. Some of
-these bioherms in the Sacramento Mountains are mounds of fossiliferous
-limestones 350 feet high and several thousand feet in diameter. Beds on
-their flanks dip as much as 35 degrees and are made up of broken "fossil
-hash" calcite sands. One can stand at the base of these huge limestone
-hills and almost hear the ancient waves breaking against the reef and
-see the dying struggle of the brachiopod (fig. 6) that left his shell in
-the reef-flank sands.
-
-To the south, beginning near the present site of White Sands, dark
-cherty limestones were laid down in stagnant waters, to become the
-Rancheria Limestone. This black to reddish brown siliceous limestone is
-more than 300 feet thick near El Paso. There its thin beds break down
-into slabs that resemble a jumbled woodpile.
-
-Northern New Mexico was above sea level during late Mississippian time;
-in some areas caves developed in the porous limestones, and in other
-places the limestones were eroded to a residuum of chert and red clay.
-The land must have looked like the karst areas of Indiana, Kentucky, and
-Illinois today--with lost rivers flowing into sink holes, numerous
-caves, and many underground rivers. Only the southernmost part of the
-state was awash in the late Mississippian seas, and in these salt
-waters, rocks of the Helms and Paradise formations settled. They are
-typical nearshore beds of yellowish limy sandstone, green limy shales,
-and brown sandy oolitic limestones. Plant fossils occur intermingled
-with marine animal remains; the plant fragments were washed into the
-shallow seas from the land areas of the central and northern parts of
-the state.
-
-The Pennsylvanian Period (280 to 310 m.y. ago) was a time of change.
-Previously, northern New Mexico had been an emergent lowland or barely
-awash in shallow waters, while to the south shallow but extensive seas
-held sway, the spawning ground of the vertebrates and invertebrates that
-evolved between 310 and 600 m.y. B.C. But mountains were built during
-the Pennsylvanian, and the whole pattern of land and sea was altered.
-The sun rose on north-south aligned ranges interspersed with
-north-south-trending seas (fig. 7). Somewhere north of Albuquerque a
-mighty range of mountains, the Uncompahgre Range, arose to shed rock
-debris into adjoining ocean basins. To the southeast, a lower but
-prominent range, the Pedernal Mountains, stretched from the present-day
-Pedernal Hills southward to somewhere near Ruidoso and Pi�on. Rocks
-eroded from this landmass were dumped westward into the Orogrande basin
-which occupied the region near the present-day White Sands; there as
-much as 3000 feet of beds accumulated--impure sandstones, dark shales,
-fragmental limestones, and even some gypsum during the end phase of
-Pennsylvanian sedimentation.
-
-Rocks filled the Delaware basin in southeastern New Mexico--limestones,
-sandstones, and black shales that now produce oil and gas. In
-northwestern New Mexico west of Grants and mostly west of the Zuni
-Mountains, a low land area, the Zuni Islands, was the source of eroded
-residuum released into an ocean channelway that ran north-northwest
-through central New Mexico from El Paso to Farmington. And in the
-northeast, granite hills of the Sierra Grande Arch stood above the
-shallow Pennsylvanian seas.
-
-In the Four Corners region, broken rock from the Uncompahgre Range was
-rushed westward into the Pennsylvanian-age Paradox Basin. Amid the
-clastic limestones, black shale, gypsum, and salt of this basin are
-oil-bearing lenses. Today, oil wells pump this black "gold" from the
-ancient rocks--wells almost in the shadow of Shiprock's famous spire.
-
-The Pennsylvanian Period was a time of coal making on the greatest scale
-in the earth's history. Extensive swamps and marshes, the habitat of
-peat and ultimately coal, were almost lacking in New Mexico. Thus, only
-thin scattered lenses of coal occur in the Pennsylvanian beds of the
-state. The lands of this period were covered by tree ferns, scale trees,
-horsetail rushes, and primitive conifers. In the shallow seas, the
-dominant invertebrates were fusulinids (fig. 8), small-shelled
-protozoans shaped like grains of wheat. Abundant cockroaches, large
-dragonflies, and spiders swarmed over the land.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 7. New Mexico during Pennsylvanian time]
-
-
-                             Permian Rocks
-
-The Permian Period (230 to 280 m.y. ago) dawned with renewed rising of
-the highlands in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. Floods of
-red sand and clay, washed from the rotting hills, wiped out the seas of
-northern and central New Mexico, and intertongued southward with marine
-limestones. These early Permian rocks are the Hueco Limestone near El
-Paso, there 2200 feet thick, the Abo Redbeds near Albuquerque, and the
-upper Sangre de Cristo Redbeds southeast of Santa Fe. Wherever the
-redbeds crop out, their dark reddish brown hue, speckled and striped
-with spots and streaks of green, enlivens the drab gray-and-brown
-landscape. Some of the reddish coloring is from angular grains of red to
-orange feldspar, but most is in thin brilliantly tinted skins of
-hematite that coat the sand grains and saturate the clays. In northern
-and central New Mexico, amphibians and other primitive vertebrate
-animals lived amid the red soils and sands; their bones and imprints
-have been preserved on thin flat slabs of sandstone that now decorate
-sidewalks and patios.
-
-                       Figure 8. Fossil specimens
-
-    [Illustration: Bryozoan
-    _Fenestrellina._]
-
-    [Illustration: Fusulinid
-    _Fusulina._]
-
-    [Illustration: Coral
-    _Lophophyllidium._]
-
-The early Permian seashore, where limy muds beyond the surf intermingled
-with red sandy muds swept from the north, vacillated somewhere north of
-Alamogordo with each sea-level change. Amid the breakers, and as
-submarine banks in the shallow waters, reefs grew--moundlike masses of
-shell debris and calcite mud trapped among frondlike calcareous algae.
-Near Tularosa, these algal "bioherms" are sixty feet high and extend
-within broad belts half a mile wide. In southeastern New Mexico, these
-buried "Abo" reefs have yielded much oil.
-
-By the middle of Permian time, the southern Colorado mountains had been
-worn down to low hills that lay north of an extensive sea covering most
-of New Mexico. From Santa Fe south to White Sands and southeastward
-almost to Carlsbad, very shallow marine waters were alternately stifled
-by pale-red sandy muds or evaporated by the sun. The results were
-alternating beds of pale-red sandstone, gypsum, and silty dolomitic
-limestone, called the Yeso Formation. Locally, as near Carrizozo, thick
-deposits of rock salt also were precipitated, and the Yeso there is
-about 4000 feet thick. At this time, the Delaware basin of southeastern
-New Mexico saw the beginning of its most spectacular events, the
-building of the Capitan and Goat Seep reefs. This basin--a huge oval
-south of Carlsbad and east of Carlsbad Caverns--had been "deep" sea
-during most of Pennsylvanian time, but it was a more distinct geographic
-feature during the Permian. While the pale-red sands, gypsum, halite,
-and dolomitic limestones of the Yeso Formation were laid down to the
-north and northwest, the Delaware basin was rimmed by a low, broad bank
-of fossil-hash calcite sand, now called the Victorio Peak Limestone. In
-the basin, in deep stagnant waters, black sandy limestone and black
-shale of the Bone Spring Formation were deposited.
-
-A sheet of white quartz sand filled the late Yeso seas; the resulting
-Glorieta Sandstone, about 200 feet thick, prominently caps Glorieta
-Mesa. Its cliffs are a familiar sight to travelers on the Santa Fe
-Railway at Glorieta Pass. The Coconino Sandstone in the Grand Canyon
-area of Arizona is the western part of the Glorieta. This "clean"
-sand--lacking intermixed mud--marks the continued lowering of the
-southern Colorado uplands. Broad seas then spread over all but northern
-New Mexico and a thick (600 to 1000 feet) persistent marine unit, the
-San Andres Limestone, was laid down. Much oil is produced in
-southeastern New Mexico from this dark-gray unit of limestones and
-dolomites. The rich agricultural region stretching from Roswell to
-Artesia depends on underground water gained from the San Andres
-Limestone, water that falls as rain and snow on the Sacramento
-Mountains, seeps underground into the cracks and caverns within the San
-Andres, and flows eastward downslope to the Pecos Valley.
-
-The delicate balance between land and sea swung upward at the end of San
-Andres time as these late Permian seas retreated to southern New Mexico.
-The deep Delaware basin was the only persistent marine body of water. It
-was rimmed by magnificent towering barrier reefs, the Goat Seep and
-Capitan reefs that now are host to Carlsbad Caverns. These reefs were
-similar to the present-day Great Barrier Reef of Australia, except that
-the Capitan and Goat Seep reefs surrounded an inland sea whereas the
-Australian reef borders a continent. The Capitan reef is about 400 miles
-long, and other than oceanward channels cut through to the south,
-completely encircled the 10,000-square-mile Delaware basin. At its
-heyday, the Capitan reef was barely awash, and teeming with life, in
-contrast to the silent, stagnant deeps of the Delaware basin which were
-about 2000 feet below sea level only a few miles away from the barrier
-reef. On the steep slope into the basin, huge slump blocks of
-fossiliferous reef limestone slid, mingling with fossil-hash sand. These
-"flank" beds dip steeply from the massive reef core to interfinger with
-the black sandy limestones of the basin.
-
-The Delaware basin was a marine feature throughout Late Paleozoic time;
-its northwestern border is now marked by the southeast-trending front of
-the Guadalupe Mountains southeast of Carlsbad; its north edge was
-east-northeast of Carlsbad, and it extended southward into West Texas.
-
-Shallow "shelf" seas reached irregularly and intermittently northward
-and northwestward from the Capitan reef and mingled with low islands
-throughout all but southeastern New Mexico. Landward, away from the
-Delaware basin, the rocks change from massive, thick, light-gray
-limestones of the reefs into thin units of thin-bedded dolomite, then
-abruptly into alternating beds of gypsum and redbeds, the Artesia Group
-of rocks, and finally, marking the distant shorelines, into thin units
-of red mudstone and red sandstone, the Bernal Formation. Evaporation of
-sea water was excessive, and average temperatures high; the climate
-varied from semiarid in northwestern New Mexico to subtropical in the
-Delaware basin area--a contrast and a similarity to today's climate.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 9. Castile gypsum sample]
-
-Latest Permian time saw the dramatic end of the Paleozoic Era. Most of
-New Mexico was uplifted above sea level, with only the Delaware basin
-remaining as a land-locked sea, much like the Caspian Sea today, but
-with channels open periodically southward to the ocean. The rocks of
-this waning part of the Permian are called the _Ochoan Series_; they
-show an abrupt and striking change from the underlying Carlsbad reef
-limestones and associated black basin-filling limestones up into the
-laminated gypsum-anhydrite of the basal Ochoan rocks, the Castile
-formation. Normal marine conditions ended almost instantaneously. Excess
-of evaporation lowered the water level of the inland sea; the
-accumulated brine (concentrated salty sea water) killed the life on and
-near the Capitan reef, and thick beds of anhydrite were precipitated.
-The lowest beds of the Ochoan Series, the Castile Anhydrite, and the
-overlying Salado Salt, mostly filled the deep depression that was the
-Delaware basin; the upper beds, the Rustler Dolomite and Dewey Lake
-Redbeds, lap over the edges of the basin and in places rest irregularly
-upon the Capitan limestone.
-
-These are unusual rocks. The Castile (about 1800 feet thick) is thinly
-banded, with thicker bands (laminae, thin layers) of light-gray
-gypsum-anhydrite alternating with thin laminae of dark-brown calcite
-(fig. 9). This lamination is believed due to annual changes, the brown
-calcite being precipitated during the summer and the gray anhydrite
-during the winter. On the surface, the calcium sulfate mineral is
-gypsum, but at depths of about 600 feet, these laminae are anhydrite.
-Addition of water to anhydrite has changed it to gypsum wherever ground
-water penetrated the laminae.
-
-The Salado Salt, about 2000 feet thick, is almost entirely of rock salt
-(halite), with important interbeds of potassium-rich minerals--red
-sylvite, gray langbeinite, brownish bitter-tasting carnallite, and
-pale-red polyhalite. As all these salts are highly soluble in water, the
-Salado Salt nowhere "crops out" at the surface. East of Carlsbad,
-however, the potash-rich beds are mined underground, and supply about
-ninety per cent of the United States' production--used chiefly as
-fertilizer.
-
-The arid period of Salado Salt evaporation changed slightly as the
-dolomites and anhydrites of the Rustler Dolomite were laid down in the
-last drying moments (geologically speaking) of the Permian. Then as the
-seas retreated to the south, the fine-grained red sands and silts of the
-Dewey Lake Redbeds were spread as a thin blanket over the low lands
-basking under the hot Permian sun. This was a time of dying; whole races
-of vertebrate and invertebrate animals were wiped out, to be known today
-only from their fossil remains. As the dim unmarked episode of latest
-Permian time merged into the Triassic, an inkling of coming life was
-recorded in the rocks. The amphibians were more modern types, and they
-gave rise to the most striking of early land animals, the reptiles. This
-was the beginning of the conquest of the land by the reptiles, which
-culminated later in the dinosaurs, and was aided by the retreat of
-shallow seas from the continents, a change survived chiefly by the
-species adapted to living on land.
-
-
-MESOZOIC ERA
-
-The Mesozoic Era dawned in New Mexico on extensive plains, except for a
-northwest-trending range in the extreme north-central part of the state.
-During this, the early part of the Triassic Period (180 to 230 m.y.
-ago), sands and muds eroded from New Mexico were carried westward to
-northeastern Arizona where they now form the Moenkopi Formation, the
-brilliant reds and purples of the Painted Desert region. Uplands arose
-in late Triassic time in southwestern New Mexico. Along with mountains
-in south-central Colorado, these highlands were torn apart by water and
-wind, and the detritus was swept into sheets of brightly colored sand
-and shale. These beds are thickest (about 2000 feet) along the New
-Mexico--Texas line east of Roswell and in west-central New Mexico (near
-Grants) extending westward into northeastern Arizona. The eastern
-Triassic rocks are the redbeds of the Dockum Group with the lower Santa
-Rosa Sandstone and the upper Chinle beds. The northwestern rocks are the
-Chinle Formation overlain by the redbeds of the Wingate Sandstone.
-
-The Chinle Formation is of special scenic interest as its beds contain
-the silicified trees so well shown at Petrified Forest National
-Monument. These varicolored rocks--red, purple, green, and gray--also
-decorate the Painted Desert area, the wide valley of Rio San Jose east
-of Laguna, and flank Interstate 40 (U.S. Highway 66) from the Texas line
-westward almost to Clines Corners. As some beds are weathered "ash"
-beds, the highlands were sites of volcanoes that spread their dust over
-much of the Southwest. In contrast to the underlying marine Paleozoic
-rocks, these Triassic beds were deposited on land by streams and in
-shallow lakes. Thus the beasts that roamed New Mexico were
-amphibians--such as the thick-skulled stegocephalians--and reptiles of
-the crocodilelike clan, the phytosaurs. The silicified trees in the
-Chinle are mostly primitive pines; some grew to heights of more than 100
-feet and measure 7 feet in diameter.
-
-New Mexico was featureless rolling prairie, with scattered low hills in
-the northwest, during most of Jurassic time (135 to 180 m.y. ago). In
-the late part of the period, the Sundance-Curtis sea and its shoreline
-lagoons spread down from the north into northwestern New Mexico. Sand
-dunes on its southeastern shores consolidated into the cross-bedded
-Entrada Sandstone; its reddish brown cliffs rim the Rio San Jose Valley
-near Grants and Gallup. In an extensive lagoon, or salt-water lake that
-covered most of northwestern and north-central New Mexico, the gypsum
-and limestone of the Todilto Formation were precipitated; this gypsum is
-the bed mined near Rosario siding (seen between Albuquerque and Santa
-Fe) by the Kaiser Gypsum Company, and near San Ysidro on White Mesa by
-the American Gypsum Company. The Todilto salty basin was overwhelmed by
-reddish sands and silts of the Summerville Formation, washed chiefly
-from the south, and by the multicolored sands of the Zuni Sandstone
-(exposed at El Morro), and then the stream and wind-blown sands and
-clays of the varicolored Morrison Formation were laid down in northern
-New Mexico. Petrified wood and bone fragments are abundant in the
-Morrison beds--along with uranium--but no fossil finds in New Mexico
-equal those in the Morrison Formation of Dinosaur National Park, Utah.
-
-Much of North America, including southern New Mexico, was land during
-the Jurassic. In the streams and lakes were many kinds of fishes,
-amphibians, reptiles, snails, crustaceans, and water bugs; on dry land
-were hordes of reptiles, small primitive mammals, and ants; in the air
-were flying reptiles, the earliest known birds, moths, and butterflies.
-The earth was ruled by the reptiles, with the dinosaurs dominant--some
-being the most ponderous land animals of all earth history. Such were
-Stegosaurus and Brachiosaurus, the latter 85 feet long and weighing 50
-tons.
-
-The Cretaceous Period (70 to 135 m.y. ago) was one of great contrast in
-New Mexico. During Early Cretaceous time, most of the central and
-northern parts of the state were low lands torn by erosion, while thick
-piles of conglomerate, sandstone, and shale accumulated in depressions
-in the southwestern corner. Huge volcanoes near Lordsburg added their
-hot ashes, bombs, and flows to the sedimentary detritus, and thick
-fossiliferous limestones were laid down in muddy and sandy waters of the
-sea--the shoreline fluctuated over tens of miles in areas south of
-Lordsburg, Deming, and El Paso. These Early Cretaceous beds total 20,000
-feet in thickness in some areas. In eastern and northeastern New Mexico,
-in contrast, thin sheets of quartz sand were deposited by streams on the
-edge of a shallow sea, and black muds in local lagoons.
-
-Rock beds thousands of feet thick were laid down in northern and central
-New Mexico during Late Cretaceous time, whereas most of the southern
-part of the state was above sea level and was being eroded by tireless
-winds and streams. The shorelines made parallel northwest-trending bands
-across the state. These are now marked by beach sands, some of which are
-speckled by black minerals, high in rare elements titanium, niobium, and
-zirconium. Northwestern and central New Mexico was a battleground of the
-land and sea, with the beaches advancing and retreating fifty or a
-hundred miles during an instant of geologic time. Stream sands and coal
-beds lie landward from the beach sands which, in turn, mingle seaward
-with black limy shales that were flushed into the seas. The lowest of
-these rocks is the Dakota Sandstone--famous as an artesian aquifer in
-the High Plains areas of states to the northeast--Colorado, the Dakotas,
-Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming, and Montana. Above is the black Mancos Shale,
-which in turn is overlain by the Mesaverde Group.
-
-The transitions from coal swamps and stream sands to beach deposits and
-then into marine black shales is characteristic of the Mesaverde in
-northwestern and north-central New Mexico. To the northeast, beds of the
-same age were laid down in an extensive muddy sea that stretched far to
-the east; the Pierre Shale and Niobrara chalky limestone that underlie
-the plains northeast of Las Vegas are typical. The cliff-forming
-sandstones and coal beds near Gallup are part of the Mesaverde Group and
-rim the entire San Juan Basin. Above are similar rocks such as the
-Kirtland Shale, Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, and Fruitland Formation that
-underlie valleys cut in the shales and cliffs carved from the sandstones
-in the northwest corner of New Mexico near Farmington.
-
-Toward the end of the Cretaceous, the Laramide "revolution" began, and
-New Mexico along with most of North America emerged from beneath the
-seas, to be high and dry to the present. The revolution, an extensive
-upheaval of the earth's crust, saw uplift of the San Juan Mountains area
-in southwestern Colorado and large volcanoes spouting fire and ashes
-nearby. Fragments of the eroded mountains and debris from these
-andesitic volcanoes were flushed southward by streams and steam to
-settle as thick piles of mud, sandstone, and conglomerate, the McDermott
-and Animas formations in the San Juan Basin. The last moment of
-Cretaceous time, if we could be so precise, was ushered out almost
-unnoticed--with mountains rising to the north and the andesitic-quartz
-detritus being laid down to the south in the upper beds of the Animas
-Formation.
-
-Similarly, mountains arose during Late Cretaceous time in north-central
-New Mexico and south-central Colorado, about on the site of the
-present-day Sangre de Cristo range northeast of Taos, and shed erosional
-gravels and muds into the Raton Basin area. Alluvial fan gravels and
-sands grade eastward into dark muds and coals laid down in swamps and on
-floodplains. These rocks now cap the rugged mesas seen northwest of the
-Santa Fe Railway from Raton southward--the cliff-forming Trinidad
-Sandstone and the dark siltstones, sandstones, black shales, and coal
-beds of the Vermejo and Raton formations. The Kaiser Steel Corporation
-mine near Koehler extracts coal from these beds. Again, the exact end of
-the Cretaceous is marked only by some obscure boundary between beds, in
-that area within the Raton Formation.
-
-During the Cretaceous Period, the deciduous trees--such as the oak,
-maple, poplar, and elm that dominate today's flora--became common. The
-covered-seed plants, the angiosperms, are the most notable of the
-Cretaceous plants, but the development of the modern floras was an
-antecedent to the great expansion of mammals and birds during the
-following Cenozoic Era. Reptiles ruled the earth, led by the dinosaurs
-(fig. 10) and their distinctive group, the horned large-skulled
-ceratopsians such as Triceratops. The small, hairy, warm-blooded mammals
-were still insignificant creatures that ran from their huge dinosaur
-lords, but they ate reptile eggs, and so excelled the sluggish reptiles
-in mental and physical activity that they adapted swiftly to the
-changing environments of the Laramide revolution--and became dominant as
-the pea-brained reptiles were unable to stand the changes.
-
-The shallow seas of the Cretaceous swarmed with invertebrate life;
-foraminifers (unicellular protozoans) in uncountable billions make up
-large parts of the chalky limestones. Mollusks, particularly clams like
-oysters and the heavy ribbed Inoceramus, and complexly sutured
-cephalopods, the ammonites, as well as the internal-shelled belemnoids
-(that look like cigars), were most numerous among larger marine animals.
-Reef builders in southwestern New Mexico were the peculiarly corallike
-clams, the rudistids. Widespread warm humid climates seem to have
-prevailed throughout the state during most of the Cretaceous.
-
-
-LANDSCAPES AND MINERAL RESOURCES
-
-Thus as the Cretaceous seas withdrew from New Mexico, the Cenozoic Era
-dawned, and never again have marine waters shaped the landscapes. The
-rocks, Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and their ancient
-movements determine New Mexico's spectacular landscapes. They tell tales
-of the endless war between erosion and hard rock, show the deposition of
-sediments, their uplift, and their eventual destruction. The result is
-striking scenery--volcanic mountains, as Mount Taylor, Sierra Blanca,
-Valle Grande--fresh lava flows near Carrizozo and Grants--volcanic necks
-like Shiprock and Cabezon--White Sands, the work of the wind--El Morro,
-Enchanted Mesa, Acoma, and badlands near Santa Fe, the result of
-weathering and erosion--great fault-line escarpments of the Sandia,
-Manzano, San Andres, and Sacramento mountains--the work of underground
-waters at Carlsbad Caverns. And man adds his erosive powers--the huge
-open-pit copper mine at Santa Rita and countless excavations for rock to
-build homes, to straighten highways.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 10. Make way for 'is lordship, the Dinosaur!]
-
-The sun can be harsh and hot, the rain sparse, the winter nights fierce
-cold. But within the rocks are natural resources undreamed of by the
-early Indians, almost untouched by the Spanish, and with potential
-beyond vision for the future. Water, being scarce, is one of the more
-important resources. With an average yearly precipitation of only
-fifteen inches, and more than half of the state receiving less than that
-average, water is a problem! Farming must depend upon irrigation, the
-water being drawn from streams or "mined" from underground "pools" where
-it had been accumulating for centuries.
-
-Forests, game, and fish are lucrative resources somewhat unexpected in a
-semiarid state; sheep and cattle--in this the stronghold of the cowboy,
-famous in gunfighter lore--each total more than a million. New Mexico's
-1965 mineral production, valued at $781.9 million, ranked seventh among
-the states. Principal commodities won from the rocks, in order of value,
-were oil, potash, natural gas, uranium, copper, sand and gravel, zinc,
-coal, crushed stone, and perlite. Sizeable quantities of barite, beryl,
-carbon dioxide, cement, clays, gem stones, gold, gypsum, helium, iron
-ore, lead, limestone, magnesium compounds, manganese, mica, molybdenum,
-pumice, salt, silver, sulfur, and vanadium were also mined. The huge
-open-pit copper mine at Santa Rita, the many uranium mines near Grants,
-the underground potash mines near Carlsbad, and the thousands of oil and
-gas wells in the northwestern and southeastern parts of the state are
-typical of man-made landscape features attributable to mineral
-exploitation in New Mexico. Numerous old mine dumps, rotting mine
-shafts, and spooky ghost towns are reminders of past fortunes won and
-lost.
-
-The rocks, the work of water, wind, and sun, and the not insignificant
-upheavals by man have shaped New Mexico's landscapes. Blended with its
-blue skies, warm sun, and the products of three cultures--Indian,
-Spanish, and American--the rocks and their movements have made the
-landscapes a land of enchantment.
-
-  Earth wears a mantle rich with lore,
-      of storied fabric finely spun,
-  That tells of kingdoms come and gone,
-      of legions lost and battles won.
-  No seer no monarch can divine,
-      the cryptic writings; he alone,
-  Who humbly speaks the tongue of earth,
-      can find a story in a stone.
-
-
-
-
-                            Before Coronado
-
-
-                          _by_ Robert H. Weber
-
-The cultural heritage of New Mexico is a rich and colorful one, blending
-as it does the three separate traditions of Indian, Spanish, and
-Anglo-American. Of these, the lifeways of the Indian, ancient and
-modern, are of particular interest to both the visitor and resident.
-These were the first inhabitants of the New World, whose roots extend
-back in time many thousands of years before the first European set foot
-here. People who had adapted themselves to the varied and often harsh
-environments of desert, plain, valley, canyon, and mountain; who
-witnessed the disappearance of the large mammals of the Pleistocene Ice
-Age and concomitant changes in climate and vegetation; the first
-prospectors and miners seeking flint, obsidian, turquoise, clay, salt,
-and mineral pigments; early traders exchanging valued minerals and
-handicrafts for shells of the coastal regions; hunters and farmers,
-architects and builders, civic and religious leaders, philosophers and
-critics, skilled craftsmen and artists, explorers and soldiers--all
-ancient counterparts of those who were to follow.
-
-In 1540, when the train of soldiers in the company of Coronado's Spanish
-Expedition entered the unknown lands later called New Mexico, four
-groups of native Americans were established residents in the area. Along
-the arable valley of the Rio Grande and its tributaries, and in several
-outlying areas were the adobe and stone apartment-house villages of the
-Pueblo Indians, whose livelihood was based largely on agriculture. East
-of the mountains were scattered bands of Plains Indians, Eastern
-Apaches, who were nomadic hunters following the herds of buffalo that
-ranged across the vast grasslands of the High Plains. Western Apaches
-were dispersed in small bands of hunters and gatherers of wild foods
-through the mountainous country to the west of the Rio Grande. A related
-group, the Navajo, augmented the necessities of life gained by hunting
-and gathering with subordinate agricultural crops in the Plateau region
-to the northwest.
-
-Early contacts of the _conquistadores_ were largely with the Pueblo
-Indians, although they had limited knowledge of the Apaches and Navajos
-in outlying districts. There was little to suggest to the Spanish
-invaders, except for the ruins of long-abandoned Pueblo villages, that
-the fragmentary record of thousands of years of human prehistory lay
-scattered in the dust beneath their feet. Undoubtedly they would have
-dismissed as utter nonsense any notion that men armed with stone-tipped
-spears had here slain elephants in a marsh 12,000 years old that now lay
-buried beneath shifting sands of a desert landscape. Indeed, it was not
-until the last quarter of the 1800's that serious attempts were made to
-decipher the prehistoric traces of the Pueblo Indians, whereas concrete
-evidence that man had hunted long-extinct Pleistocene big game in
-America was not discovered until less than forty years ago.
-
-
-EARLY HUNTERS
-
-The year 1926 was marked by the first of a series of important
-archeological finds in New Mexico that were eventually to demonstrate
-that man had occupied this area as much as 11,000 to 12,000 years ago.
-During this period, Late Pleistocene ice sheets of continental glaciers
-still blanketed parts of the northern tier of states in the vicinity of
-the Great Lakes, and elephants (both mammoths and mastodons), horses,
-camels, giant bison, tapirs, and ground sloths roamed the Southwest.
-Excavations begun in 1926 near the small town of Folsom, in northeastern
-New Mexico (fig. 1), disclosed a number of fossil skeletons of a large
-form of extinct bison, forerunners of the modern bison or buffalo. Among
-these bones were dart or spear points of distinctive form and
-workmanship, characterized by broad, shallow flutes or channels on each
-face (fig. 2). These artifacts, now known as Folsom points, have since
-been recovered from a number of sites in New Mexico and elsewhere in
-North America, commonly in association with the remains of extinct
-bison. Evidently Folsom "Man" (whose skeletal remains have not been
-discovered) was a nomadic hunter particularly dependent upon the bison
-for his food supply, much as were the later Plains Indians of historic
-time. Ages of from 10,000 to 11,000 years have been obtained from
-charcoal and other organic remains at Folsom camp sites by the
-radiocarbon method.
-
-Succeeding years have seen an increasing number of valuable
-archeological discoveries at camp and game-kill sites of Folsom Man and
-other Early Hunters. Unquestionably, the most important of these sites
-is the Blackwater Draw locality between Clovis and Portales in extreme
-eastern New Mexico, where excavations for gravel disclosed a stratified
-sequence of sediments that were deposited in an ancient pond and spring.
-Here, too, were the characteristic Folsom points in association with the
-bones of fossil bison. Below the Folsom layer, still older deposits
-contained the fossil bones of mammoth, horse, camel, and bison
-associated with fluted spear points that resembled those from Folsom but
-were generally larger and less skillfully chipped and fluted. These
-points, now known as Clovis points, are so commonly found beside the
-remains of mammoths in a number of sites in the High Plains and the
-Southwest that their makers are believed to have been adept at hunting
-these extinct elephants. Radiocarbon dates place Clovis points in a time
-range of from 11,000 to 12,000 years ago.
-
-In a layer above that containing Folsom points at Blackwater Draw,
-several varieties of unfluted lanceolate points were found to be
-associated with the bones of fossil bison. These points have been
-identified by various specific names such as Plainview, Milnesand, Eden,
-and Scottsbluff from excavated sites elsewhere in the High Plains
-region, and probably range in age from 8000 to 10,000 years. Although
-the giant bison still survived into this level of stratigraphy and time,
-the elephant, camel, and horse of the Clovis level had disappeared from
-the area.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 1. Index map of New Mexico showing locations
-    of significant archeological sites, modern Indian pueblos, and
-    Navajo, Ute, and Apache reservations]
-
-  Early Hunter Sites
-    1. Folsom State Monument
-    2. Sandia Cave
-    3. San Jon
-    4. Blackwater Draw
-    5. Manzano Cave
-    6. Lucy
-    7. Milnesand
-    8. Burnet Cave
-  Prehistoric Pueblo and Cliff-Dwelling Ruins
-    9. Aztec Ruins National Monument
-    10. Chaco Canyon National Monument
-    11. Puye Cliff Dwellings
-    12. Bandelier National Monument (Tyuonyi)
-    13. Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument
-  Historic Pueblo Ruins
-    14. Jemez State Monument
-    15. Pecos State Monument
-    16. Coronado State Monument (Kuaua)
-    17. Paako State Monument
-    18. Quarai State Monument
-    19. Abo State Monument
-    20. Gran Quivira National Monument
-  Modern Pueblos
-    21. Taos
-    22. San Lorenzo (Picur�s)
-    23. San Juan
-    24. Santa Clara
-    25. San Ildefonso
-    26. Namb�
-    27. Tesuque
-    28. Cochiti
-    29. Santo Domingo
-    30. San Felipe
-    31. Sandia
-    32. Santa Ana
-    33. Zia
-    34. Jemez
-    35. Isleta
-    36. Laguna
-    37. Acoma
-    38. Zuni
-    39. Ojo Caliente
-  Navajo, Ute, and Apache Reservations
-    40. Navajo Indian Reservation
-    41. Ute Mountain Indian Reservation
-    42. Jicarilla Apache Indian Reservation
-    43. Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation
-
-  Modern pueblos
-  Historic pueblo ruins
-  Prehistoric pueblo and cliff-dwelling ruins
-  Early Hunter sites
-
-Another important discovery was made in Sandia Cave northeast of
-Albuquerque. Below cave deposits containing Folsom points was an earlier
-type of point among the bones of mammoth, horse, camel, and other large
-Pleistocene mammals. Now identified as Sandia points, these projectile
-tips are distinguished by an asymmetric stemmed form with a shoulder on
-one side. The age of the Sandia points has been a subject of some
-controversy, but the latest available data from charcoal in Sandia Cave
-indicates an age of nearly 12,000 years, which is within the accepted
-range of the Clovis points.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 2. Folsom point recovered from among rib bones
-    of fossil bison at Folsom, New Mexico (Photograph of plastic
-    replica. Original point in collection of Denver Museum of Natural
-    History.)]
-
-Clovis, Sandia, and Folsom points, together with related stone
-implements, are at many places enclosed in sediments deposited in or
-adjacent to ponds, lakes, streams, and wet meadows. These environments
-indicate a former cool and more humid climate in areas that are now
-semiarid. The food requirements of many of the large herbivores that
-lived at this time also suggest more abundant vegetation and surface
-water than prevails here today. It is not unreasonable, then, to presume
-that climatic conditions contributing to the advance of continental
-glaciers in the Great Lakes region, and to valley glaciers in the Rocky
-Mountains, should have been reflected in lower summer temperatures and
-higher rainfall in non-glaciated areas. The ultimate extinction of the
-large Pleistocene mammals and the similar time of disappearance of the
-hunters who preyed upon them may both be related to the climatic changes
-that followed the end of the Ice Age in America.
-
-
-HUNTERS AND GATHERERS
-
-Groups of people dependent upon a different way of life from that of the
-Early Hunters are known to have occupied much of the present area of New
-Mexico. Although there is some suggestion of overlap in time of these
-people with the Early Hunters, they appear to have become prominent
-during the several thousand warm, dry years following the end of the
-Pleistocene. Adapted, as they were, to a fuller utilization of the
-resources of the area through the hunting and trapping of smaller game
-and an emphasis on the gathering of a wide variety of wild plant foods,
-these people ranged extensively across the varied terrain of the state.
-Similar patterns of subsistence and artifacts are known from the Great
-Basin region west of the Rocky Mountains, where they have been
-categorized under the term _Desert Culture_. Local manifestations of the
-Desert Culture in southeastern Arizona, extending eastward into western
-and southern New Mexico, are identified as the Cochise Culture. Other
-groups showing similarities with Archaic cultures to the east penetrated
-the northeastern part of New Mexico at a time when the area was still
-populated by Pleistocene bison.
-
-Habitation sites of these gatherers are distributed in open situations
-and in shelter caves. Such sites are commonly marked by milling stones
-that characterize the preparation of wild foods (fig. 3), hearths,
-chopping and scraping implements, and stemmed projectile points markedly
-different from those used by the Early Hunters. These points were
-affixed to dart shafts that were propelled with a spear thrower or
-_atlatl_, a device that preceded the bow and arrow in America but is
-still used by Australian Aborigines.
-
-Seasonal changes in the local availability of wild foods must have
-necessitated a nomadic or seminomadic way of life. The development of
-agricultural techniques in the later years before the beginning of the
-Christian Era, however, probably contributed to the development of a
-semisedentary existence that was eventually to lead to the village life
-of the later periods. The exact time of introduction of the principal
-agricultural crops, corn, squash, and beans, is unknown, but evidence
-from west-central New Mexico indicates their use by the Cochise people
-by 2500 B.C.
-
-
-PUEBLOAN FARMERS
-
-Having acquired the techniques of deliberately planting and raising food
-crops that could be stored against future needs, local populations of
-Hunters and Gatherers became less dependent upon the gathering of wild
-foods and began to construct clusters of more permanent dwellings near
-cultivable land. Among the earliest recognized houses of this period are
-the semisubterranean pit houses of the early Mogollon people in the San
-Francisco River drainage of west-central New Mexico (fig. 4) and of the
-Anasazi Basketmakers in the San Juan River drainage of northwestern New
-Mexico. These cultural advances, together with the acquisition of
-techniques for the manufacture of fired pottery, foreshadowed the
-development of the Mogollon and Pueblo cultures at a time beginning
-perhaps as early as 300 B.C. for the Mogollon area and at least by 1
-A.D. for the Anasazi area.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 3. Milling stones of the type used by the
-    Cochise People
-    Plant foods were ground in a shallow basin metate with the small
-    one-hand mano (hand stone). Socorro, New Mexico.]
-
-These two cultural groups, the Mogollon in southwestern and southern New
-Mexico, whose roots extend back through the ancestral Cochise to before
-6000 B.C., and the Anasazi in the Four Corners region of northwestern
-New Mexico, probably developed independently during the early years.
-From about 500 A.D., however, there is increasing evidence of trade
-relationships and eventual fusion of traits. Other groups to the west,
-such as the Hohokam of Arizona, were sources of cultural influence on
-the indigenous people of New Mexico. In the Mogollon and San Juan
-Anasazi heartlands and in the Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico, a
-pattern of village life with elaboration of social and religious
-organization emerged from the relatively simple cultures of the early
-years. Villages began to assume organized form, dwellings were combined
-in rows of adobe and stone structures containing a number of contiguous
-rooms, and subterranean ceremonial chambers or _kivas_ assumed larger
-and more specialized architectural distinctiveness from the ancestral
-pit-house dwellings. In the Mogollon area, the characteristic brownware
-pottery of the Mogollons was used side by side with decorated
-black-on-white pottery of Anasazi origin. The bow and arrow slowly
-replaced the less efficient _atlatl_ and dart. The significance of these
-early stages in the evolution of the Pueblo Culture in the San Juan and
-upper Rio Grande areas is indicated by their designation as the
-Developmental Pueblo period (Pueblo I and II).
-
-    [Illustration: (_Photograph of museum diorama courtesy of the
-    Chicago Natural History Museum_)
-     Figure 4. Mogollon pit-house village of the period 200 B.C.]
-
-The climax of these developments occurred in the interval between 1050
-and 1300 A.D. in the Classic or Great Pueblo period (Pueblo III). Among
-the most impressive manifestations of this period are large
-stone-masonry apartment houses, some rising to five stories in height
-and housing hundreds of people. Dwellings of this type are highlights of
-several well-known tourist attractions, among which are the cliff
-dwellings of Mesa Verde in southwestern Colorado and the monumental
-ruins of Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon (fig. 5), both products of the
-ingenuity of the Anasazi Indians.
-
-At the very apex of the cultural efflorescence of the Great Pueblo
-period, some unknown circumstance or series of events caused abandonment
-of most of the urban centers of the San Juan Anasazi and Mogollon areas.
-A prolonged drouth is recorded by tree rings formed during the period
-from 1276 to 1299 A.D. Surely a drouth of this magnitude would have had
-serious effects on people as dependent upon agriculture as were the
-Pueblo Indians. There are some indications that alien and perhaps enemy
-people were drifting into these areas at about this time, perhaps
-predecessors of the modern Navajos and Apaches. The congested living
-conditions of Pueblo villages undoubtedly contributed to unsanitary
-conditions and social pressures that also may have contributed to shifts
-in population. Many of these migrants moved into the homeland of the Rio
-Grande Anasazi in the upper Rio Grande Valley, and to a lesser extent in
-the central Rio Grande Valley. Some may have relocated at Zuni and other
-areas along the Little Colorado River drainage extending westward into
-Arizona.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service_)
-    Figure 5. Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon National Monument
-    A multistory pueblo containing 800 rooms.]
-
-During the Great Pueblo period, another group showing characteristics of
-both the Anasazi and of non-Puebloan people occupied an area on both
-sides of the Continental Divide along the eastern margin of the San Juan
-Basin. This cultural phase, known as the Largo-Gallina because of the
-distribution of sites in the Largo and Gallina drainage basins, is
-represented by pit houses, surface rooms, and towerlike structures with
-some similarities to the dwellings of the Anasazi. The black-on-white
-pottery also suggests Puebloan relationships, whereas the culinary
-vessels resemble those of the Navajo.
-
-Beginning at about 1300 A.D. or shortly thereafter, a different cultural
-group began to move westward from the Texas Panhandle into the plains of
-northeastern New Mexico. These people of the Panhandle Aspect built
-single-room structures and contiguous room pueblos resembling those in
-use by the Anasazi of the Rio Grande and were skilled bison hunters,
-farmers, and traders. This combination of traits suggests both Puebloan
-and eastern traditions. Panhandle Aspect villages were abandoned
-suddenly not long after 1400, perhaps as a result of the drouth recorded
-by tree rings for the period from 1439 to 1454.
-
-Following the shift in population of the Pueblo region, cultural changes
-occurred that have led to the designation Regressive Pueblo period
-(Pueblo IV) for the interval between 1300 and 1700 A.D. Noteworthy
-changes during this period include a tendency toward enlargement of
-villages and the creation of new styles of pottery, accompanied by some
-deterioration of the artistic creativity of the Classic period. Major
-ruins of this period that are readily accessible to the public include
-Puye Cliff Dwellings, Tyuonyi Pueblo in Bandelier National Monument, and
-Pecos Pueblo in Pecos National Monument.
-
-At the time of Coronado's _entrada_ in 1540, there were from 60 to 70
-Pueblo villages in New Mexico, most of which contained fewer than 400
-inhabitants. Four or five mutually unintelligible languages were spoken,
-each with several dialects, making communication between Spanish and
-Indian extremely difficult. Language barriers contributed to an
-inadequate documentation of the Pueblo way of life during the early
-years of Spanish contact, so that we must continue to depend upon the
-archeological record during the first century of Spanish colonization of
-the area. The beginning of the Historic Pueblo period (Pueblo V)
-accordingly is commonly set at 1700 A.D.
-
-
-APACHES AND NAVAJOS
-
-Little is known concerning the origin of these two related groups, who
-differ markedly from the Pueblo Indians in language and cultural traits.
-Their closest ties are with other Athapaskan-speaking tribes in
-northwestern Canada, and available evidence indicates that they are
-comparative newcomers to the Southwest. A correlation between the
-abandonment of sections of the Pueblo region and pressures exerted by
-ancestral Apaches and Navajos has been suggested, but definite proof of
-this is still lacking. Raids against the eastern pueblos of the Galisteo
-Basin are reported to have occurred in 1525. Coronado's expedition
-encountered nomadic hunters in the plains east of Pecos in 1541,
-observing that they followed the movements of herds of bison or buffalo
-on whom they were highly dependent for food and shelter, lived in
-portable tents of tanned buffalo hides supported by a framework of
-poles, and used dogs as beasts of burden. Trade contacts with the Rio
-Grande pueblos included exchange of hide "cloaks" for corn grown by the
-Pueblo Indians.
-
-Related groups in western and northwestern New Mexico are even more
-poorly known, as there was still less contact between them and the
-Spanish explorers. Evidently some agriculture was practiced as a
-supplement to a subsistence based largely on hunting and gathering, a
-pattern of livelihood reminiscent of that of the pre-Puebloan Cochise
-people.
-
-The succeeding years of Spanish and American colonization of New Mexico
-were to be highly influenced by the Apaches and Navajos, and also by
-another group of Plains Indians, the Comanches. The events of this
-period, however, are discussed in a separate article.
-
-
-
-
-                      Frontier Forts of New Mexico
-
-
-                        _by_ Robert A. Bieberman
-
-Following President Polk's declaration of war against Mexico in May
-1846, a United States Army force was sent from Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas
-Territory, against the Mexican provinces of New Mexico and California.
-This army, known as "The Army of the West," was led by Gen. Stephen W.
-Kearny. Upon his arrival in Santa Fe in August 1846, General Kearny
-issued a proclamation which informed the citizens that New Mexico was
-now a part of the United States and that he and his army and the forces
-to follow would protect them and their property. General Kearny remained
-in Santa Fe only one month, but during that month he appointed a
-governor, judges, and other officials, started construction of a fort in
-Santa Fe, and sent troops against the Navajo Indians in fulfillment of
-his promise to protect the people. Kearny and his "Army of the West"
-left Santa Fe in September 1846 to conquer California, leaving behind a
-detachment of troops under the command of Col. Alexander W. Doniphan.
-Thus began the role of the U.S. Army, which was to continue for the next
-half century, in securing the frontier in what we now know as the State
-of New Mexico.
-
-History has shown that the troops stationed in New Mexico were called
-upon to participate in the Mexican War and the Civil War and to protect
-the newly established border between Mexico and New Mexico from
-violations from both sides. However, the basic role of the military, the
-role which continued for fifty years, was to protect the traveler, the
-farmer, the miner, and the settler from Indian attack. Its task was made
-no less difficult by the changing, unrealistic, discriminatory Indian
-policies which came out of Washington during this period. When relative
-calm was established, promises were forgotten and violence erupted anew.
-
-The defense policy in New Mexico did not follow a set plan but gradually
-evolved. Military posts were established at different places when the
-need arose and were abandoned when the need diminished. A few of the
-posts were occupied and used by the army throughout most of this period.
-Others existed but a few months or years.
-
-
-FORTS
-
-
-                               Fort Union
-
-Located twenty-seven miles northeast of Las Vegas, Fort Union became the
-most important and most famous fort in the New Mexico Territory.
-Established on the Santa Fe Trail in 1851, it served as supply depot for
-the territory and as a base for troops engaged in the protection of
-traffic along the Santa Fe Trail and of the settlements in the area from
-the depredations of the Apaches, Utes, Comanches, and Kiowas. The site
-can be reached by traveling eight miles of paved road which leaves U.S.
-Highway 85 one mile north of Watrous.
-
-During its forty-year history, Fort Union occupied three different
-sites, all within the same general area. The original fort was of log
-construction which rapidly fell into disrepair. In August 1861, amid
-rumors of the possible invasion of the territory by Confederate forces,
-construction was begun on a new fort. This fort was of earthworks, in
-the form of an eight-pointed star. It was here that the troops waited
-for the attack which never came. With the passing of the Confederate
-threat, work was begun in 1863 on the third fort, the remains of which
-are seen today.
-
-Fort Union soon became the largest fort in the territory. It was
-constructed in two sections, one for the garrison and one for the supply
-depot. The garrison area consisted of four infantry and two cavalry
-barracks facing a row of nine officers' quarters across the parade
-ground. A sixty-bed hospital was constructed. The depot area included
-five warehouses, mechanics corral, transportation corral, and
-administration buildings. An arsenal was built about one mile from the
-fort proper.
-
-The buildings were constructed of adobe on stone foundations. The roofs
-were flat and the walls were capped with brick copings in what has
-become the territorial style of architecture.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Photo courtesy of National Park Service_)
-    Ruins of Fort Union]
-
-Fort Union was a community within itself and a lively social center.
-Weary travelers on the Santa Fe Trail eagerly anticipated their arrival.
-Few complaints were heard when soldiers were transferred to Fort Union,
-for this was a popular assignment.
-
-With the coming of the railroad and peace at last descending on the
-frontier in the 1880's, the need for the fort diminished. But it clung
-to life for a few more years, mainly because of the fond memories which
-lived in the hearts of the military leaders who had been stationed
-there. Finally, the end came and Fort Union was abandoned in February
-1891.
-
-New life came to the fort in 1955 when it became a National Monument.
-The ruins have been excavated and stabilized and a fine visitors' center
-and museum has been established. Fort Union has at last assumed its
-rightful place as a shrine of history. Stand on the parade ground and
-survey the majesty that was Fort Union, listen for the sounds, the bugle
-calls, the barklike commands of close-order drill, the creak of wagons,
-and the thunder of horses' hooves. These are the sounds of Fort Union.
-They are still there if one will only pause and listen.
-
-
-                               Fort Marcy
-
-Fort Marcy was established in 1846 at Santa Fe and was named for the
-then Secretary of War, W. L. Marcy. The fort was located on a hill
-overlooking the city some 1000 yards northeast of the plaza. A deep
-ditch or moat surrounded the massive adobe walls of the fort and a
-blockhouse, within musket range, protected the only entrance. At the
-time of Colonel Manfield's inspection trip in August 1853, the troops
-were quartered in public buildings in Santa Fe, there being no quarters
-provided at the fort; however, it could be occupied on a moment's
-notice. The original Fort Marcy was abandoned in 1867 and a new one was
-constructed a short distance to the west. This new site is now occupied
-by business and residential properties. The War Department abandoned
-Fort Marcy in October 1894, the troops and equipment being moved to Fort
-Sill, Oklahoma. The site was turned over to the city of Santa Fe in
-1897.
-
-Fort Marcy played an important role during the military occupation of
-New Mexico. It served as a base of operations against marauding Indians,
-was captured and occupied for a short time by Confederate forces in
-1862, served as headquarters for the Ninth Military Department (changed
-to Department of New Mexico in 1853) throughout most of this period, and
-was a center for the social life of Santa Fe. Only low mounds of earth
-now mark the site of Fort Marcy.
-
-
-                              Fort Wingate
-
-Fort Wingate, at the site known today, was established in 1868. It is
-located on the site of a pre-existing fort at Ojo del Oso (Bear Springs)
-about twelve miles east of Gallup and three miles south of U.S. Highway
-66.
-
-Fort Fauntleroy was established in August 1860 and was named for the
-then Department Commander, Col. T. T. Fauntleroy. The name was changed
-to Fort Lyon in September 1861 after Colonel Fauntleroy resigned his
-commission and joined the Confederate forces. The fort was abandoned in
-December 1861 as troops were concentrated at other posts to meet the
-threat of invasion of the territory by Confederate forces from the
-south. With the defeat of Confederate troops early in 1862, the military
-returned to the Indian problem and established a post some sixty miles
-to the east on the Rio de Gallo near San Rafael. This post was named
-Fort Wingate in honor of Capt. Benjamin Wingate who died of wounds
-received during the battle with the Confederate forces at Val Verde. The
-post proved to be too far from the Navajo country for effective control
-and, in 1868, was abandoned and a new Fort Wingate established at Ojo
-del Oso on the site occupied earlier by Fort Fauntleroy.
-
-The physical plant of the new Fort Wingate consisted of barracks,
-officers' quarters, hospital, guard house, storehouse, employees'
-quarters, corrals, barns, and various repair and storage sheds, all
-bordering the traditional rectangular parade ground. Some of these
-buildings are in use today.
-
-In 1914, 4000 Mexican refugees lived in a tent city at Fort Wingate
-until peace was restored after Pancho Villa's revolution in Mexico.
-Following World War I, it became an ordnance storage depot, and new
-administrative and living quarters were built several miles west of the
-original fort enclosure. This installation is known today as Fort
-Wingate Ordnance Depot, and the long rows of concrete ammunition storage
-bunkers can be seen from U.S. Highway 66. In 1925, the original fort
-enclosure was transferred to the Department of the Interior for use as
-an Indian school. Today, the parade ground is a playground and the
-barracks are dormitories for the children who attend this school. The
-missile age came to Fort Wingate in 1963 when a portion of the military
-reservation became the launching site for test rockets which impact at
-the White Sands Missile Range 200 miles to the south.
-
-Fort Wingate has seen many changes during its long and colorful history.
-It served well during its first 100 years and continues to serve today.
-
-
-                               Fort Craig
-
-Fort Craig was established in the spring of 1854 on the abandonment of
-Fort Conrad, nine miles north. It was named in honor of Col. L. S. Craig
-who was killed by an army deserter on June 6, 1852. The remains of Fort
-Craig are located on the west bank of the Rio Grande about thirty-four
-miles south of Socorro and five miles, by dirt road, east of U.S.
-Highway 85. The fort was established to afford protection against the
-many bands of Apaches that roamed this part of the territory.
-
-Fort Craig was well built and became one of the best-garrisoned military
-posts in New Mexico. Built on the usual rectangular plan, the parade
-ground was bordered on the northeast by two double officers' quarters;
-on the northwest by the guard house, prison room, and sallyport; on the
-southwest by three soldiers' barracks each in the form of a hollow
-square enclosing a patio; and on the southeast by various workshops,
-storerooms, stables, and corrals. The commanding officers' quarters
-occupied the west corner of the parade ground and the hospital the east
-corner. Behind the commanding officers' quarters there were three large
-bombproof storerooms. The entire installation was enclosed within a high
-wall, beyond which a ditch encircled the fort. Gun bastions projected
-from the north and south corners.
-
-    [Illustration: Remnants of guard house, Fort Craig (built of basalt
-    blocks)]
-
-Fort Craig was one of the most important military posts in New Mexico.
-Its troops participated in many engagements with the Indian. In the fall
-of 1861, troops from other posts were concentrated at Fort Craig to meet
-the threatened invasion of Confederate forces from the south. In
-February 1862, these troops were defeated by the Confederate invaders in
-the battle of Val Verde which took place about four miles north of the
-fort. Upon the withdrawal of Confederate forces from the territory later
-in 1862, the troops at Fort Craig returned to the Indian problem. In
-March 1885, the fort was relinquished by the army and the improvements
-sold. The last soldier left in August 1885 after government property was
-removed and sent to Forts Bliss and Stanton. The buildings were sold at
-public auction on April 30, 1894, to the Valverde Land and Irrigation
-Company for $1070.50.
-
-Fort Craig is now a ruin, but the outlines of most of the buildings can
-still be seen. Portions of the plastered walls of the commanding
-officers' quarters remain, as do portions of the hospital and stone
-guard house. The wall and ditch surrounding the fort, gun bastions,
-storehouses, and cemetery are still much in evidence. Coal marks the
-blacksmith's shop and broken bottles the sutler's store. Another
-frontier fort has passed into history.
-
-
-                              Fort Stanton
-
-Fort Stanton was established in May 1855 on the Rio Bonito at a site
-located approximately four miles east of present-day Capitan and three
-miles south of U.S. Highway 380. The fort was an attempt to control the
-Mescalero and White Mountain Apaches and was named for Capt. H. W.
-Stanton who had been killed by Apache Indians earlier that year. Many a
-soldier stationed at Fort Stanton gave up his life to an Apache during
-the Indian wars.
-
-    [Illustration: Map of New Mexico showing location of frontier forts]
-
-The original fort was little more than a stockade, with few buildings
-and little equipment. In August 1861, the government stores were burned
-and the troops moved to Albuquerque in the face of the Confederate
-invasion. Confederate troops occupied the site one month later but
-promptly left after a few encounters with the Apache. The site was
-reoccupied by Union troops October 1862 and, later, substantial
-buildings were erected, most of which still stand.
-
-With the passing of the frontier, Fort Stanton was abandoned as a
-military post in August 1896, and in 1899, the installation passed to
-the U.S. Public Health Service for use as a merchant marine hospital for
-the treatment of tuberculosis. During World War II, a German prisoner of
-war camp was established at the fort. In 1953, the hospital was closed
-by the federal government because of the high cost of running the
-establishment. Fort Stanton is now a state tuberculosis hospital
-operated by the New Mexico Department of Public Welfare.
-
-Col. Kit Carson used the fort as a base of operations while rounding up
-the Mescalero and White Mountain Apaches in late 1862 and early 1863. In
-1881, the famous outlaw, Billy the Kid, was confined in the building now
-used as a dental clinic while on his way to the gallows in Lincoln,
-which never claimed him. Gen. John J. Pershing, as a young lieutenant,
-was stationed for a time at Fort Stanton.
-
-
-                              Fort Selden
-
-Fort Selden was established in 1865 and named for Capt. Henry R. Selden
-(later colonel) who distinguished himself at the battle of Val Verde,
-February 21, 1862. The fort was beside the Rio Grande nine miles north
-of the settlement of Do�a Ana. The site is located along U.S. Highway 85
-about seventeen miles north of present-day Las Cruces.
-
-Fort Selden was one of a chain of forts established to control the
-Apaches. It was on the Butterfield Trail and provided protection for the
-government rope ferry which crossed the Rio Grande at nearby Leasburg.
-The summit of Mt. Robledo, across the river to the west, was used as a
-heliograph station, flashing messages between Fort Selden and Fort Bliss
-at Franklin (El Paso, Texas).
-
-The buildings of the fort were one-story adobe structures with walls two
-feet thick. The installation included barracks for enlisted men, two
-double officers' quarters, a ten-bed hospital, stone guard house,
-storehouses, workshop, bake shop, corrals, and a magazine with stone
-walls three feet thick. The fort was rectangular in ground plan, the
-buildings enclosing a parade ground.
-
-Fort Selden was abandoned in 1879 when the railroads began to draw
-travel away from the overland trails. It was reoccupied in 1881 when the
-Apache Chiefs Victorio, Nana, and later Geronimo were on the warpath.
-With the passing of the Indian problem, Fort Selden was permanently
-abandoned in 1892. During World War I, the grounds of the fort were used
-for cavalry maneuvers by units stationed at Fort Bliss.
-
-A rather famous American once lived at Fort Selden. Gen. Douglas
-MacArthur, as a child of four, moved with his family to the fort in
-1884, following the assignment of his father, then an infantry captain,
-to that post. The family remained at Fort Selden until late in 1886.
-
-Now only crumbling adobe walls mark the site of Fort Selden, once a
-welcome sight to travelers in southern New Mexico. The wind, rain, and
-sun have taken their toll, aided in no small way by man himself. In
-1963, through the efforts of the Do�a Ana Historical Society, Fort
-Selden was made a State Monument by the New Mexico legislature. It is to
-be hoped that the fort will now be protected from further weathering and
-vandalism so that the remnants of this old outpost will stand for many
-years to come as a monument to the men who once manned it.
-
-
-                             Fort Cummings
-
-Fort Cummings was established in October 1863 in what is now Luna
-County, New Mexico. It was located at Cooke's Spring, an important
-watering stop on the Butterfield Trail, at the eastern edge of Cooke's
-Canyon. Prior to the establishment of Fort Cummings, the Apaches made
-frequent and fatal attacks upon travelers as they passed through the
-four miles of Cooke's Canyon or stopped at the spring. Cooke's Canyon
-was one of the most dangerous stretches on the Butterfield Trail. The
-fort was named for Maj. Joseph Cummings who was killed by Navajo Indians
-in August 1863. Its ruins can be reached by turning off State Highway 26
-at Florida, sixteen miles northeast of Deming, and traveling seven miles
-to the west.
-
-Fort Cummings was the most elaborate and best-walled fort in New Mexico.
-It covered an area 365 x 320 feet and was completely surrounded by a
-twelve-foot-high adobe wall. The main entrance was topped by a guard
-tower. Officers' quarters occupied the west side of the parade ground,
-the hospital the north side, and soldiers' quarters the east side. The
-various workshops, storerooms, offices, stables, and corrals extended
-along the south side of the fort.
-
-Abandoned in August 1873, Fort Cummings was reoccupied in 1880, and then
-again abandoned in October 1886. Later it was used as a cattle corral by
-the Carpenter-Stanley Cattle Company. The spring was walled and covered,
-and the water piped to Florida.
-
-Little remains of Fort Cummings today. A few weathered walls here and
-there among the mesquite and creosote bushes mark the site. The spring
-still flows, supplying water for the stock which now graze upon this
-"protector of the trail."
-
-
-                              Fort Bayard
-
-Fort Bayard, established in 1865 to protect the miners and settlers
-moving into the area following the Civil War, allowed the orderly
-development of what was to become New Mexico's most important
-mineral-producing area. Named for Capt. George D. Bayard who was wounded
-repeatedly during Indian forays and who died of wounds received in the
-Battle of Fredricksburg (Va.) during the Civil War, the fort was located
-about five miles southeast of Pinos Altos and about midway between the
-mining towns of Pinos Altos and Santa Rita. The site is about nine miles
-east of present-day Silver City, just north of State Highway 90.
-
-The original fort consisted of log and adobe buildings forming a square
-around the parade ground. During its thirty-four year history as an army
-post, many changes and additions were made to the fort, including the
-building of two-storied officers' quarters. In 1899, the line troops
-were removed and the fort was officially designated as a U.S. Army
-General Hospital to treat tubercular soldiers. In 1920, the hospital was
-turned over to the Public Health Department; in 1922, to the U.S.
-Veterans Administration; and again, in 1966, to the State Health
-Department as a facility for the care of the aged and of tuberculosis
-cases. It can now accommodate more than 300 patients. The modern
-buildings are a far cry from the dirt-floored log and adobe buildings of
-the original fort.
-
-
-HISTORY
-
-
-                        _Pre-Civil War Period._
-
-The period 1846 to 1861 was characterized by constant Indian warfare.
-Treaties were made, then broken. Forts were established, then abandoned,
-and new forts built as the military tried in vain to cope with the
-problem. Punitive expeditions proved ineffective as the Indians
-separated into small and predatory bands which overran the country.
-
-Forts Union, Marcy, Fauntleroy, Craig, and Stanton were established
-during this period. Additional forts, whose sites have returned to the
-desert, are Fort Conrad (1851), on the Rio Grande about twenty-five
-miles south of Socorro; Fort Thorn (1853), on the Rio Grande about five
-miles north of Hatch; Fort Fillmore (1851), on the Rio Grande about
-seven miles south of Las Cruces; Fort Webster (1852), on the Mimbres
-River about one and one-half miles northwest of San Lorenzo; Fort McLane
-(1860), at Apache Tejo about four miles south of Hurley; and Fort Floyd
-(1857), on the Gila River about two miles south of Cliff.
-
-
-                          _Civil War Period._
-
-The outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 created a new problem on the
-frontier in New Mexico. Confederate military leaders moved quickly to
-seize control of the Southwest and California to cut off the supply of
-gold to the North and divert it to the Confederacy. Confederate troops
-under Col. J. B. Baylor occupied abandoned Fort Bliss at Franklin (El
-Paso), Texas on July 1, 1861. Baylor began his move northward along the
-Rio Grande on July 23 and quickly occupied Mesilla. Nearby Fort Fillmore
-was abandoned and the Union forces retreated toward Fort Stanton, but
-they were soon captured by Baylor's troops. Upon the fall of Fort
-Fillmore, Fort Stanton was hastily abandoned on August 2 and was taken
-over by the Confederates shortly thereafter.
-
-Gen. H. H. Sibley arrived at Fort Bliss in December 1861 to assume
-command of the Confederate forces. Sibley's troops moved northward along
-the Rio Grande and were engaged in battle by Union troops from Fort
-Craig, under Gen. E. R. S. Canby, as they attempted to bypass the
-well-garrisoned post. The Battle of Val Verde took place four miles
-north of Fort Craig on February 21, 1862. After a day of bloody
-fighting, Sibley emerged the victor. He occupied Albuquerque on March 2,
-1862, and Santa Fe on March 23. The Confederate forces then moved toward
-Fort Union in an attempt to gain complete control of the territory. On
-March 27 and 28, they were met by Union forces sent out from Fort Union
-and were defeated in battle near present-day Glorieta. Sibley then
-retreated to Fort Bliss.
-
-    [Illustration: The Confederate campaign in New Mexico, 1861-1862]
-
-While Sibley was thus engaged, another part of his army moved across
-what is now southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona and
-occupied Tucson (Arizona). Gen. J. H. Carleton and his California Column
-left Los Angeles on April 13 and cleared this area of Confederate
-troops, reaching the Rio Grande on August 7. Carleton reoccupied Fort
-Bliss, which had been abandoned by the Confederate troops in their
-retreat.
-
-
-                        _Post-Civil War Period._
-
-While the Union troops were preoccupied with the Confederates, the
-Indians stepped up their raids and depredations. With the passing of the
-Confederate threat, attention was once more focused on the Indian
-problem. A new plan was formulated which called for the capturing of the
-Indians and confining them to reservations. A reservation (Bosque
-Redondo) was established late in 1862 near present-day Fort Sumner, New
-Mexico, to which were eventually confined several thousand Navajos and
-Mescalero Apaches. This resettlement was not a success since the Apaches
-ran off and the Navajos suffered greatly from sickness and disease. A
-treaty was signed with the Navajos in 1868, and they were allowed to
-return to their homes, no longer a threat to the frontier. The Mescalero
-Apaches were finally settled on a reservation in their own country south
-of Fort Stanton, and the Jicarillas on a reservation west of Tierra
-Amarilla.
-
-The Mimbreno, Mogollon, and Warm Springs Apaches of southwestern New
-Mexico were more of a problem. In 1871, a reservation and Fort Tularosa
-were established near present-day Aragon in western New Mexico. After a
-futile attempt to keep the Indians there, they were moved in 1874 to a
-new reservation and military post at Ojo Caliente, about forty miles
-northwest of present-day Truth or Consequences. This, too, proved a
-failure and the Apaches were moved to the San Carlos Reservation in what
-is now Arizona. During these attempts to locate the Apaches on
-reservations, various rebellious bands of Apaches led by Victorio, Nana,
-and Geronimo continued on the warpath. Geronimo and his band surrendered
-in 1886 and were imprisoned in Florida. After Geronimo's surrender,
-relative peace descended upon the frontier in New Mexico.
-
-Established in the post-Civil War period were Forts Wingate (old and
-new), Selden, Cummings, and Bayard, as well as Fort Lowell (1868), near
-Tierra Amarilla; Fort Bascom (1863), on the Canadian River about eight
-miles north of Tucumcari; Fort Sumner (1862), on the Pecos River about
-five miles southeast of present-day Fort Sumner; Fort McRae (1863), on
-the Rio Grande about ten miles northeast of Truth or Consequences; and
-Fort West (1863), on the Gila River about two miles south of Cliff.
-
-With the arrival of the railroad and cessation of hostilities with the
-Indians, a new era was begun. One by one, the old forts were abandoned:
-their need had passed. The colorful frontier forts of New Mexico are
-just a memory now.
-
-
-
-
-                         Our National Heritage
-
-
-National Forests in the so-called "desert" state of New Mexico cover
-more than 8.5 million acres, about 11 per cent of the state's area.
-National Monuments and Carlsbad Caverns National Park only extend over
-about 430 square miles but cover ten of New Mexico's most scenic areas
-that are of national geologic, archeologic, and historic interest. These
-are our national heritage, set aside by the federal government for the
-perpetual equal use of all Americans.
-
-The forests cap the higher ranges of the state, except on windblown
-peaks that extend above the timberline. They provide protection for the
-watersheds that feed New Mexico's rivers, supply about 125 million board
-feet of cut timber each year, and yield forage for more than 150,000
-cattle and sheep. Picnic nooks and camp grounds are plentiful, fish
-abound in the rushing mountain streams, and big game awaits the hunter
-throughout the forest lands. The primitive virgin wilderness is
-preserved in its natural state, accessible only by pack trip, in the
-Gila Wilderness area of the Diablo and Mogollon mountains north of
-Silver City and the Pecos Wilderness area east of Santa Fe in the Sangre
-de Cristo Mountains.
-
-Incomparable Carlsbad Caverns is in the state's only National Park.
-National Monuments include the glistening gypsum dunes of White Sands,
-the volcanic cone of Capulin Mountain, the prehistoric ruins of Chaco
-Canyon, Aztec Ruins, Bandelier, and Gila Cliff Dwellings, the Spanish
-ruins at Gran Quivira, Inscription Rock at El Morro, and the crumbling
-walls of old Fort Union. In the near future, Valle Grande may be added
-to the National Park System and will include Valle Caldera, one of the
-world's largest volcanic calderas, a mountainous jumble with cool
-streams, thick coniferous forests, and lush high meadows.
-
-
-NEW MEXICO'S BIG SHARE OF THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM
-
-                       _by_ H. V. Reeves, Jr.[2]
-
-In contemplating the growth of cities and towns, the insatiable suburbs,
-congested streets and highways, the acres of dump yards for discarded
-automobiles, legions of billboards upstaging mountain ranges and
-seashores, and the melancholy predictions of demographers who say that
-within thirty years there will be twice as many of us, consider this:
-for New Mexico in particular, the outlook is not utterly bleak.
-
-Some ninety years ago, without anything approaching the present-day
-horrible example before them, some farsighted, selfless, tireless
-individuals began to work to set aside areas of outstanding scenic,
-scientific, and historical interest so that they would not be engulfed
-by humanity. Often against strong opposition, these benefactors
-succeeded in bringing about legislation that bounded many such areas and
-defined laws to protect them. The areas became national parks,
-monuments, and historic sites. And in 1916, the National Park Service,
-an agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior, was established to
-administer the units of the National Park System.
-
-Today, other selfless individuals are contributing their time and effort
-to bring additional areas into the National Park System before they are
-lost forever. For example, Pecos ruins became a National Monument in
-late 1966 (see page 106).
-
-Not every suggested area possesses the qualities that merit
-preservation, qualities of national significance. Proposed areas receive
-careful study before they are recommended for inclusion within the
-system--recommended to the Congress by the Secretary of the Interior.
-The Secretary's recommendations are based on those received from the
-Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and
-Monuments. This board is composed of eleven private citizens, each of
-whom is competent in one or more of the following fields: history,
-natural history, archeology, architecture, conservation, and recreation.
-
-Diverse in character, New Mexico's ten units of the National Park System
-are of geologic, scenic, archeological, and historical interest. A visit
-to each unit will disclose the qualities that have been judged to be of
-national significance.
-
-
-                     Carlsbad Caverns National Park
-
-Incomparable Carlsbad Caverns, in southeastern New Mexico, includes a
-single underground chamber so expansive that its floor could accommodate
-fourteen football fields and its ceiling could hold a 22-story building;
-other chambers that contain countless cave formations of great variety
-of shape and color; cool and naturally circulating fresh air; and a
-system of lighting that reveals the beauty and spaciousness most
-effectively.
-
-Since the temperature within the Caverns remains at about 56�F the year
-round, warm clothing is needed. Comfortable shoes, too, for the
-four-hour, three-mile complete tour, which starts at the natural
-entrance. Shorter trips, the Big Room tours that start at the elevators
-in the visitor center, take in only a part of the underground chambers.
-All tours are under leadership of competent park guides who answer
-questions and explain the earth processes that have resulted in the
-caverns and their amazing decorations.
-
-From the natural entrance, the immense main corridor of the Caverns is
-followed downward 829 feet for one and three-quarters miles. This brings
-visitors to the most scenic rooms (the Green Lake Room, King's Palace,
-Queen's Chamber, and Papoose Room), where the stalactites, stalagmites,
-and helictites reach their peak in numbers, shapes, and delicate
-coloring. The trail leads upward 80 feet from the Papoose Room to the
-lunchroom. Near the lunchroom is the Big Room, the most majestic of the
-Caverns' chambers. The trail around its perimeter, one and a quarter
-miles long, encompasses a floor space of fourteen acres.
-
-    [Illustration: Hall of Giants in Carlsbad Caverns National Park]
-
-Completing the circuit of the Big Room and returning to the lunchroom,
-visitors may either walk or board an elevator and ride smoothly back to
-the surface.
-
-How were the Caverns formed? The story began about 240 million years
-ago, during the Permian Period. At that time, the two limestone
-formations in which the caverns occur--the Tansill Formation and Capitan
-Limestone--were deposited as part of an organic reef complex at the edge
-of a warm shallow sea.
-
-During subsequent periods, other seas brought in sedimentary material
-that covered the reef. About 60 million years ago, earth movements,
-which were responsible for the uplift of the area, fractured the reef
-and permitted surrounding ground water to enter along fracture lines and
-begin work in fashioning the caverns. The water at first dissolved small
-crevices in the limestone. As more water came in, the crevices enlarged
-to cavities, called solution pockets. Then the walls, floors, and
-ceilings of the pockets dissolved and collapsed, joining the pockets,
-while the solution process continued, eventually forming the huge rooms
-seen today.
-
-Beginning about 3 million years ago and into recent times, the uplift of
-the local Guadalupe Mountains and changing climates lowered the water
-table. Water that had been inside the caverns drained away and was
-replaced by air. Most solution stopped, but large sections of partly
-dissolved walls and ceilings collapsed under their own weight. Stability
-was finally achieved, however, and probably no rock has fallen within
-the caverns during the last several thousand years.
-
-Even before the collapsing ended, another phase of cavern development
-had begun. Rain water and snow melt slowly seeped into the caverns.
-Droplets of water, each holding a minute quantity of dissolved
-limestone, appeared upon the ceilings. Exposed to the air, the droplets
-evaporated and left their mineral content as calcite and
-aragonite--crystalline forms of limestone. Over centuries, this process
-of evaporation and deposition has built a myriad of crystalline
-stalactites of all shapes and sizes. Water that dripped to the floor
-evaporated and deposited the calcite and aragonite to build stalagmites.
-When joined together, stalactites and stalagmites become columns, or
-pillars. In the scenic rooms, conditions existed that brought about the
-creation of helictites--twisted formations that seem to defy gravity in
-their growth. Color in the cave formations, shades of brown, red, and
-yellow, result from the presence of small amounts of iron oxide and
-other minerals.
-
-Carlsbad Caverns National Park offers more than the caverns themselves.
-Each evening from April to October, bats in incredible numbers spiral
-upward out of the Caverns' entrance and fly southward over the rim of
-the escarpment to feed in the valleys of the Black and Pecos rivers.
-They return just before dawn, diving swiftly and from high altitudes
-into the entrance. Flying directly to the bat cave, they spend each day
-hanging head downward in dense clusters from the walls and ceilings. The
-bat cave itself is not open to visitors. A park naturalist explains the
-bat flight and discusses the bats in detail in a talk given at the
-entrance to the Caverns each evening before the flight begins.
-
-The nature trail, a half mile loop that begins and ends near the
-entrance to the Caverns, guides the visitor to many of the desert plants
-of the region. The park is visited by more than half a million people
-each year, and yet the delicate cave formations and the natural beauties
-remain unmarred.
-
-
-                     White Sands National Monument
-
-White Sands National Monument, fifteen miles southwest of Alamogordo, is
-another area of great interest to the geologist and biologist. But its
-strangeness, the graceful contours of its snow-white dunes, and the
-peculiar adaptations of some of the plants and animals that live among
-its dunes are appreciated as fully by the nonscientist. More than
-370,000 visitors come to marvel at the White Sands each year.
-
-The Monument, some 230 square miles in extent, preserves the most
-impressive part of the world's largest gypsum desert. This is a
-glistening sea of pure gypsum sand that the wind has drifted into huge
-dunes that are almost bare of vegetation except along the fringes.
-Wavelike, the restive dunes move slowly before the prevailing winds,
-covering and uncovering the few plants that lie in their way. And
-wavelike, their surfaces trace the vagaries of indecisive breezes in
-tiny parallel ripplelike ridges.
-
-Because of the almost constant wind and resulting gradual advance of the
-dunes, most of the plants that are able to establish themselves in the
-open flats between the dunes eventually become buried. A few species,
-however, are able to survive the irresistible march of the sand. Through
-rapid growth and elongation of the stems, the struggling crowns remain
-on top of the rising crests of the dunes. Plants with stems more than
-forty feet long have been found. As the dunes continue forward under the
-pressure of the wind, they leave the plants elevated on columns of
-compacted gypsum bound by their adventitious roots.
-
-Animals, too, have become adapted to their unusual surroundings. The
-small creatures, lizards, mice, and others, are picked off easily by
-such predators as foxes, coyotes, and hawks when they are conspicuous.
-Thus, through the centuries, only the lighter-colored individuals have
-survived among the dunes and, through many generations, have developed
-pale and elusive animals that blend inconspicuously with their white
-surroundings. Pocket mice are a good example of this. Among the white
-dunes, the pocket mice are white; in the nearby red hills, they are a
-rusty color; and on the beds of black lava a few miles north of the
-sand, the pocket mice are very dark.
-
-A visitor to White Sands National Monument should stop at the visitor
-center, where exhibits explain the geology of the duneland and others
-describe the plants and animals that are able to live there.
-
-But how and from where did this natural wonder come? The dunes of gypsum
-lie in the Tularosa Basin, which stretches for more than 100 miles
-between two north-south mountain ranges. All sides of the valley slope
-gently inward, forming the basin, with Lake Lucero, its lowest point, at
-the southwest end of the Monument. This valley was formed hundreds of
-centuries ago, when a great section of the earth's crust settled to form
-the type of basin known geologically as a graben.
-
-High above the basin floor, beds of gypsum are found to the north in the
-mountain ranges flanking the valley. Similar gypsum beds lie far beneath
-the floor of the basin. Thus, it was once a part of the high plateau, a
-great blocklike section that slowly sank to form the basin at its
-present level.
-
-Percolating water from seasonal rains and melting snow carries tons of
-gypsum, in solution, from the highlands at the north end of the basin
-into Lake Lucero. During much of the year, cloudless skies and warm dry
-winds evaporate Lake Lucero, and it shrinks to a crystal-encrusted
-marsh. Capillarity draws the gypsum-laden underground water to the
-surface; it, too, evaporates, depositing its burden of gypsum throughout
-the extensive "alkali flats." The persistent southwest wind picks up the
-particles of gypsum and whirls them away, adding them to the gleaming
-white dunes, the accumulation of centuries.
-
-The best ways to see the dunes are by car and by foot. Along the drive
-that leads into the heart of the duneland are numbered posts that
-correspond to numbered paragraphs in the Monument's informational
-folder. These paragraphs explain the features that are of particular
-significance. At pull-outs along the drive, park the car and walk among
-the dunes.
-
-    [Illustration: Capulin Mountain National Monument]
-
-
-                   Capulin Mountain National Monument
-
-Capulin Mountain National Monument, in the northeast part of the state,
-is an area of geologic interest that presents still another aspect of
-the science of the earth. It contains the cone of an extinct volcano,
-one of the most symmetrical of the geologically recent cinder cones in
-the United States. Its conical form rises more than 1000 feet above its
-base. The irregular rim is about one mile in circumference, and the
-crater is about 415 feet in depth, as measured from the highest part of
-the rim. Some 40,000 people a year visit the Monument.
-
-The mountain consists chiefly of loose cinders, ash, and other rock
-debris of volcanic explosions. These materials were spewed out by a
-series of successive eruptions, probably of considerable duration. The
-coarse materials fell back around the vent, piling up to form the
-conical mound. Dust and other fine materials were carried away by the
-wind. After the eruptions, vegetation gained a foothold on the steep,
-unstable flanks of the cone, so that in time the slopes became
-stabilized. Geological studies indicate that the volcano probably was
-active about 7000 years ago.
-
-Capulin Mountain is of special interest, partly because it represents
-the last stages of a great period of volcanic activity that was
-widespread throughout western North America. Evidences of this older and
-more intense activity can be seen from the top of Capulin Mountain in
-the scores of other nearby volcanic hills and peaks. The largest of
-these is the Sierra Grande, an extinct volcano rising 4000 feet above
-the surrounding plain; it is ten miles to the southeast. Northwest of
-Capulin are a number of mesas that are capped with black lava, the
-largest of which are Barella, Raton, and Johnson. Fishers Peak, south of
-Trinidad, Colorado, is on a similar mesa. The famous Spanish Peaks,
-northwest of Trinidad, are a pair of extinct volcanoes.
-
-In this great volcanic area, the lava erupted in a succession of flows.
-The series of eruptions were separated by long periods of inactivity.
-During these inactive times, erosion cut valleys and wore down parts of
-the old lava sheets. This action formed new channels and lower terrain
-over which succeeding lava flows spread. This process was repeated at
-least three times. The oldest lavas, which have been exposed by erosion,
-are found on the tops of the highest mesas. The last series of eruptions
-created Capulin Mountain; they were ejections mostly of cinders and ash,
-with less lava flow than in the preceding volcanic activity. These
-cinder-and-ash eruptions were so recent, geologically, that some of the
-nearby, bare, steep-sided cinder cones appear as if they had just
-cooled.
-
-The National Park Service has constructed a road up the mountain to the
-rim of the crater. And from the parking area at the rim, two trails lead
-to the most interesting points on the mountain. One trail, self-guiding,
-makes the complete one-mile circuit of the crater along the rim. A guide
-booklet, keyed to numbered stakes that have been set at places along the
-trail, explains the features of particular significance--both on the
-mountain and in the distance. The other trail, less scenic, provides a
-rare opportunity to see a volcanic mountain from the inside out, for it
-leads down to the bottom of the crater.
-
-    [Illustration: View of Chaco Canyon National Monument]
-
-
-                     Chaco Canyon National Monument
-
-Rich in areas of geological interest, New Mexico is equally rich in
-areas of archeological interest. Four of these are preserved as units of
-the National Park System.
-
-Chaco Canyon National Monument, in the northwestern part of the state,
-contains more than a dozen large prehistoric ruins and hundreds of
-smaller archeological sites. These ruins are considered to be without
-equal north of central Mexico. No other archeological area in the
-Southwest exhibits such a high development of prehistoric Pueblo
-civilization. Most of the sites lie within a strip of land about eight
-miles long and two miles wide, through which Chaco Canyon runs. Although
-the Monument is relatively isolated, it is open year around and is
-visited by about 22,000 people annually.
-
-The most imposing and best known of the ruins is Pueblo Bonito. Built
-between 800 and 900 years ago, this 4- and 5-story village covered more
-than three acres and contained about 800 rooms and 32 kivas, or
-ceremonial chambers. Archeologist Neil M. Judd, of the National Museum,
-who conducted some of the late excavations, has said that Pueblo Bonito
-was the largest apartment house built anywhere in the world prior to
-1887, estimating that at one time it housed 1200 people.
-
-Earliest of the Chaco sites, small villages of crude pit houses were
-occupied during 600 to 800 A.D. Archeologists, studying changes in
-masonry style, pottery types, and other remains, have pieced together
-the development of the culture of the inhabitants of Chaco Canyon over a
-period of six centuries.
-
-After Chaco Canyon's cultural high point was reached in the 1100's, a
-gradual decline set in. The population decreased, and in the 1200's, the
-region was abandoned. During this same century, other Pueblo centers
-within the San Juan Basin were also deserted.
-
-Various theories have been advanced to explain this exodus: soil
-erosion, warlike enemies, poor facilities for urban sanitation, drought,
-and intervillage warfare. One or a combination of these factors might
-have been instrumental in bringing about the abandonment of the region.
-
-
-                     Aztec Ruins National Monument
-
-Aztec Ruins National Monument, at Aztec in the northwestern corner of
-the state, was set aside to preserve an outstanding example of classical
-Pueblo construction, one of the largest pre-Spanish villages in the
-Southwest. More than 40,000 visitors come to the Monument each year.
-
-Tree-ring dates indicate that most of the big central pueblo was rapidly
-constructed during the period 1106 to 1121. At this time, the people of
-Aztec were influenced by the cultural center to the south, Chaco Canyon.
-During the last half of the 1100's, after the decline of Chaco Canyon
-had begun, the people of Aztec began to look toward the north, and by
-1200, Mesa Verde ideas dominated the region. Aztec was abandoned by
-about 1300, as was the rest of the general region.
-
-Of particular interest at Aztec Ruins National Monument is the
-reconstructed Great Kiva. The Pueblo Indians built separate rooms, now
-known as kivas, for ceremonial purposes. During the period of Chaco
-influence, the people at Aztec constructed a very large circular
-building, 48 feet in diameter, in their plaza. Its features differ from
-those of the small kivas and establish it as a Great Kiva, similar to
-those at Chaco. The Great Kivas represent the peak of religious
-architecture among the Pueblos. The Great Kiva at Aztec was completely
-restored in 1934 by Earl H. Morris, of the American Museum of Natural
-History.
-
-
-                      Bandelier National Monument
-
-Bandelier National Monument, forty-six miles west of Santa Fe, preserves
-the ruins of dwellings and other structures that were erected by Indians
-who lived in the area until about 1550 A.D. Almost 100,000 people visit
-the Monument each year.
-
-When many of the ancient Pueblo Indian centers were abandoned in the
-late thirteenth century, the people moved to locations where the water
-supply was more constant. A favorable area was the upper Rio Grande
-Valley in what is now New Mexico. One of the later flowerings of Pueblo
-culture occurred here. The ruins within Bandelier are representative of
-this phase of Pueblo development.
-
-In Frijoles Canyon, the Indians chose the location of their homes well.
-The creek that runs through the canyon flows all year. On the canyon
-floor and mesa top there was land suitable to the cultivation of crops.
-And the canyon walls of soft tuff (consolidated volcanic ash) could
-easily be hollowed out by the Indians with their harder stone tools in
-fashioning storage rooms behind dwellings built against the cliff.
-
-Cliff ruins, or talus villages, extend along the base of the northern
-wall of the canyon for about two miles. Other ruins are located on the
-floor of the canyon. The houses of stone masonry were irregularly
-terraced, from one to three stories in height. Some hollowed recesses at
-the base of the cliff also were used for dwelling rooms.
-
-Like the other pueblo dwellers, the Frijoles inhabitants were farmers,
-raising the usual corn, beans, and squash. They used cotton cloth, which
-has been found in the ruins and which suggests that they had the loom.
-Since the growing season in the high Frijoles country is short, they
-probably obtained their cotton by trade with Indians who lived farther
-south. They made pottery decorated with glaze paint.
-
-For a few centuries, the Indian farmers lived in the canyons, built
-villages, honeycombed the cliffs with artificial caves, and tilled the
-soil. But with the passing years, drought, soil-eroding floods, soil
-depletion, famine, and possibly disease--singly or in
-combination--forced the canyon dwellers again to seek new homes.
-Descendants of these Indians still live in nearby modern pueblos along
-the Rio Grande.
-
-    [Illustration: Cliff houses in Frijoles Canyon, Bandelier National
-    Monument]
-
-About ninety per cent of Bandelier National Monument is, and will
-remain, a wilderness. The rugged and scenic back country is accessible
-by about sixty miles of maintained trails, leading to such features as
-Alamo Canyon, the Stone Lions, Painted Cave, the Pueblo ruins of San
-Miguel and Yapashi, and White Rock Canyon of the Rio Grande.
-
-
-                              Valle Grande
-
-Another area has been considered as an addition to the National Park
-System in New Mexico. A 1963 bill introduced in Congress would establish
-Valle Grande-Bandelier National Park, about forty-six miles west of
-Santa Fe. Valle Grande is part of the Valle Caldera, which is among the
-world's largest and has been the site of extensive studies of calderas
-(the collapsed summits of volcanoes). Lessons learned there have been
-applied in recognizing and investigating calderas in other places.
-Bandelier National Monument, primarily of archeological significance,
-lies to the east of the canyon-cut rim of the caldera. As written, the
-bill would have incorporated the Monument in the proposed national park.
-
-    [Illustration: Part of Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument]
-
-
-                 Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument
-
-Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, forty-seven miles north of
-Silver City and at the edge of the Gila Wilderness Area, contains a
-series of ruins that portray the development of the agricultural Indians
-who lived south of the Mogollon Mountains. Specifically, the ruins
-represent a branch of the generalized culture known as Mogollon.
-Although part of the road to the Monument was paved in 1963, the last
-four-mile stretch is still primitive and should not be attempted in an
-ordinary passenger car except during the summer and in dry weather. In
-spite of the difficult road, more than 23,000 people visited the
-Monument during 1965. The last four miles of the road have been recently
-paved.
-
-The earliest ruin yet found within the Monument is a Mogollon pit house
-of a type that was made about 500 A.D. It is roundish and, on the east
-side, has a narrow ramplike entrance some two feet wide and ten feet
-long. The people of this period did only a little farming (corn and
-beans), a little hunting, and gathered much uncultivated plant food.
-They made a fairly good plain-brown pottery and undoubtedly were skilled
-in a number of crafts whose products have since disappeared. Such things
-as nets and snares, baskets, and wooden tools last but a short time in
-open sites.
-
-Other, later, pit house types may be seen in the Monument. Pit houses
-were prevalent in the area until about 1000 A.D., when influences from
-the Anasazi (Pueblo) Indians of the northern part of the Southwest began
-to affect the Mogollon people.
-
-Square houses, built above the ground, became the style; some were of
-masonry, some of adobe construction, and some were built of wattle
-(wooden rods and twigs). A new type of pottery was also introduced at
-about the same time: white with black designs.
-
-The principal ruins in the Monument are the cliff dwellings, which were
-built during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They, too, reflect
-the northern pueblo influence. About forty rooms, remarkably well
-preserved, are fitted into a series of chambers, or caves, in a low
-cliff of Gila Conglomerate. By about the beginning of the fifteenth
-century, the area was abandoned by the farming Indians.
-
-
-                     Gran Quivira National Monument
-
-Significant chapters in the absorbing history of New Mexico were written
-at three sites that have been made units of the National Park System.
-
-Gran Quivira National Monument, near the center of the state southeast
-of Mountainair, preserves the ruins of a frontier Spanish mission that
-had been built, used, and abandoned by 1675. The Monument contains
-twenty-one ruined house mounds of Indian pueblos and ruins of two
-mission churches. It was the presence of the Indians at this location,
-of course, that attracted the Franciscan missionaries.
-
-    [Illustration: A look at ruins of Gran Quivira]
-
-The earliest Indian pueblo in the Monument was founded about 1300 A.D.;
-by the 1600's, the village, with several structures, had become the
-largest in the region. It was conveniently located on the south side of
-a hill near the cultivated fields in the surrounding lowlands. Water was
-a problem then as now. The Indians solved this as best they could by
-digging shallow wells at the base of the hill, about one mile west of
-the pueblo.
-
-The first known specific reference to Gran Quivira was made in 1630 by
-Fray Alonso de Benavides, a Franciscan missionary. He called the pueblo
-the "Village of the Humanas," and referred to the church there as having
-been built by Father Francisco Letrado in 1629 and dedicated to San
-Isidro. Humanas, now misnamed "Gran Quivira," was later administered
-from the mission of San Gregorio de Abo, some forty miles to the north.
-In 1659, Father Diego de Santander was assigned to Humanas. Construction
-of the mission buildings, which he rededicated to San Buenaventura, was
-completed by him.
-
-The Franciscans had a pronounced influence upon the Pueblo Indians. They
-stimulated trade with Mexico and the pueblos farther north. They
-imported wine grapes and cultivated them, and they introduced
-domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, and horses.
-
-Sometime between 1672 and 1675, the pueblo and mission at Humanas were
-abandoned because of Apache raids, drought, and crop failures. The
-people first moved to the Rio Grande near the present town of Socorro. A
-few continued to El Paso del Norte, where, in 1680, they were joined by
-those from Socorro, who had fled with the Spaniards from the Pueblo
-Revolt of that year.
-
-
-                       El Morro National Monument
-
-El Morro National Monument, southwest of Grants near Ramah, was
-established to preserve the famous Inscription Rock, register of
-Indians, Spaniards, and westward-moving pioneers. About 22,000 people
-now visit the Monument each year.
-
-El Morro, or Inscription Rock, is a massive mesa point of sandstone.
-Rising some 200 feet above the valley floor, it forms a striking
-landmark. From its summit, rain and melted snow drain into a natural
-basin at the foot of the cliff, creating a constant and dependable
-supply of water in a region where water is scarce. The route from Acoma
-to the Zuni pueblos led directly past the mesa. It was a regular camping
-place for Spanish _conquistadores_ and, later, for travelers from the
-east.
-
-On the top of El Morro lie ruins of Indian pueblos, abandoned long
-before the coming of the Spaniards. And carved in the sandstone are
-numerous petroglyphs left by these ancient people, ancestors of the
-modern Zunis. Perhaps it was the petroglyphs that prompted later
-travelers to record their names and thoughts on the rock.
-
-The first known historical mention of El Morro is found in the journal
-of Diego P�rez de Lux�n, chronicler of the Espejo Expedition of 1583.
-Lux�n stopped there for water on March 11 of that year.
-
-    [Illustration: Part of the pool and cliff at El Morro]
-
-The oldest dated inscription at El Morro was made in 1605 by don Juan de
-O�ate, first governor of New Mexico. Returning from an expedition to the
-mouth of the Colorado River, he camped at El Morro and carved this
-inscription in Spanish: "Passed by here the Adelantado Don Juan de O�ate
-from the discovery of the Sea of the South, the 16th of April of 1605."
-The "Sea of the South" was the Gulf of California.
-
-If don Diego de Vargas, the most famous Spanish governor of New Mexico,
-seems boastful in the message he left at El Morro, who can blame him?
-His words, in English, read, "Here was the General Don Diego de Vargas,
-who conquered for our Holy Faith and for the Royal Crown all of New
-Mexico at his own expense, year of 1692." Twelve years earlier, the
-great Pueblo Indian Revolt had driven the Spaniards from New Mexico.
-More than 400, including 23 priests, had lost their lives, and the
-surviving Spaniards, some 1100, had fled to El Paso del Norte. De Vargas
-restored order, without further bloodshed, in 1692.
-
-After the occupation of Santa Fe by the army of Gen. Stephen W. Kearny
-in August 1846, details of United States troops were dispatched to
-explore various parts of New Mexico. Probably the first to visit El
-Morro was Lt. J. H. Simpson, accompanied by the artist R. H. Kern, who
-copied some of the early inscriptions in September 1849. Then the names
-of other soldiers, traders, Indian agents, surveyors, emigrants who were
-traveling westward, and settlers were added to the rock.
-
-Since the establishment of the Monument by Presidential proclamation in
-1906, inscribing on the face of the cliff has been prohibited. If the
-Monument had not been established and the law not passed, this
-fascinating part of the history of the Southwest would surely have been
-lost.
-
-
-                      Fort Union National Monument
-
-Fort Union National Monument, twenty-six miles northeast of Las Vegas
-and on the route of the old Santa Fe Trail where the mountains meet the
-plains, preserves the ruins of a famous frontier Army post. As a base of
-operations for military and civilian ventures in New Mexico from 1851 to
-1891, Fort Union helped to direct the course of events in the formative
-years of the Southwest. More than 11,000 visitors come to the Monument
-each year.
-
-Five years after the conquest of New Mexico by the United States in the
-war with Mexico, Col. E. V. Sumner moved some of his troops from Fort
-Marcy, in Santa Fe, to the site of Fort Union and there began
-construction of log buildings on the west side of Coyote Creek. This was
-the first Fort Union.
-
-The first post took an active part in protecting settlers and traders
-from Indian raids during the 1850's. Mounted patrols of dragoons made
-many expeditions into the mountains against the warring Apaches and Utes
-and out onto the plains to pursue Comanche war parties.
-
-Fort Union was also charged with supply and support of many outlying
-military posts, such as Fort Defiance and Fort Craig. The Quartermaster
-Depot at Fort Union in later years came to be the hub of all Army supply
-services in the Southwest.
-
-During the first three decades of its life, Fort Union saw the great
-Conestoga wagons and prairie schooners of the Santa Fe Trail caravans
-pass in increasing numbers. By the outbreak of the Civil War,
-enterprising traders were hauling more than ten million dollars' worth
-of goods from Missouri each year. The fort provided escorts for caravans
-and when requested by apprehensive company or postal officials, escorts
-for stage-coaches of the Independence-Santa Fe Mail. Century-old tracks
-of the Santa Fe Trail can be still seen near Fort Union.
-
-The start of the Civil War in 1861 brought new activity to the fort.
-Immediate invasion of New Mexico by Confederate forces from Texas was
-expected. Gen. E. R. S. Canby, commanding Union troops in the territory,
-began construction of an earthwork fortification in a defensive position
-about a mile from the original fort. The ditches, parapets, and
-bomb-proofs of this redoubt were completed late in 1861.
-
-The Texas column was not slow in coming. By March 1862, these invaders
-under Gen. Henry H. Sibley had defeated a Union force at Val Verde, had
-frightened the defenders from Albuquerque and Santa Fe into inaction,
-and were marching eastward across the mountains toward the final
-stronghold, Fort Union. On March 10, the First Regiment of Colorado
-Volunteers, under Col. J. P. Slough, arrived at Fort Union as
-reinforcements. And on March 22, Colonel Slough led his 1342 men out of
-the fort to meet the advancing Confederates. In a two-day battle fought
-in Apache Canyon and Glorieta Pass, the Union forces defeated the
-Confederates, thus saving Fort Union for the federal cause.
-
-From 1863 to 1869, the garrisons at Fort Union were chiefly occupied in
-a construction program that produced most of the adobe-walled buildings
-whose ruins may now be seen. Fort Union then returned to its earlier
-mission of a base for Indian fighting.
-
-The usefulness of Fort Union was reduced with the final submission of
-the Indians and with the arrival of the railhead at Las Vegas in 1879.
-The huge fort was demoted to caretaker status in the 1880's and was
-abandoned in 1891.
-
-
-At each of these New Mexico units of the National Park System, as at
-other units throughout the nation, trained personnel of the National
-Park Service--archeologists, historians, naturalists, and park
-rangers--are on duty. Their purpose is to make the visitor's trip
-rewarding. This they do through museum exhibits, guided walks and
-self-guiding trails, campfire talks, and publications.
-
-Here in New Mexico, then, escape the irritations that seem to go with
-progress. Awaiting the traveler are unspoiled places where he can
-surround himself with the quiet majesty of nature, walk the paths made
-by prehistoric people, camp where the Spanish _conquistadores_ camped,
-stroll among the ruins of buildings erected by the men who helped to
-fashion the Southwest.
-
-
-FOREST LANDS ABOVE THE DESERT
-
-                         by Ruth Bush Jones[3]
-
-Today, as in earlier times, people of New Mexico look to their mountains
-with a new and greater appreciation of their forest land heritage.
-Today, also, people seek aesthetic values of peace, beauty, and serenity
-found in nature's solitudes, in addition to forest products for economic
-use. Basic to the enjoyment of the high country are the forest treasures
-of clear, pure water ... of wild game and birds ... of trees for shade
-and solitude, fuel, shelter, and forest products ... of grass and browse
-for cattle, sheep, horses, and wildlife ... of magnificent grandeur and
-panoramic vistas. These basic treasures coupled with understanding of
-the purposes and many benefits of the National Forests bring true
-recreation to the visitor.
-
-The high country of New Mexico, much of it in the National Forests, is
-entrusted by law to the care and administration of the U.S. Forest
-Service, an agency of the Department of Agriculture. These vast public
-properties located in several sections of the state are administered as
-Carson, Santa Fe, Cibola, Lincoln, Gila, Apache, and Coronado National
-Forests, the latter two lying primarily in Arizona and being directed
-from there rather than from New Mexico. Visitors to New Mexico traveling
-along main highways see the high forest country outlining the horizon
-and often regard the lofty masses of rugged rock as unapproachable and
-lacking in friendliness.
-
-"Not so," says the Forest Ranger. There are broad highways welcoming the
-traveler into the high country where forest trees stretch to the sky.
-There are cool invigorating streams sparkling clear and clean from
-mountain fastnesses and developed campgrounds and picnic areas ready for
-use. Outdoor recreation from simple relaxing and picnicking under a pine
-tree to the most strenuous of wilderness backpacking or horseback
-riding, winter sports, and skiing awaits the visitor. There is fishing
-in mountain streams and in big open lakes or in precious, secluded
-mountain lakes. And for those who like their surroundings interpreted
-for them, there are nature trails and/or forest naturalists to explain
-local rock formations, vegetation, and the natural and human history of
-the immediate country.
-
-The Forest Ranger asks only that each visitor do his share in cleaning
-up a camp or picnic site and being _sure_ that camp fires, matches, and
-cigarettes are thoroughly extinguished: "Keep Your National Forest Green
-and Clean!"
-
-
-                         Carson National Forest
-
-Located in north-central New Mexico, with headquarters at Taos, the
-Carson National Forest nurtures and cradles the Rio Grande as it leaves
-its birthplace in Colorado en route to the south. Carrying water from
-high country snow melt, the Carson adds precious, clear water from its
-high mountain streams and lakes to the Rio Grande in support of the
-prosperous communities along its way. The Carson includes some of the
-highest water-producing lands in the state and is the source of several
-permanent streams and lakes.
-
-    [Illustration: Map of National Forests in New Mexico]
-
-Named in honor of Kit Carson, the noted scout, Carson National Forest
-offers some of the most spectacular mountain scenery in the Southwest,
-including the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Red River Canyon, and Wheeler
-Peak, which at 13,160 feet is the highest point in New Mexico. Part of
-the famed Pecos Wilderness Area and the Wheeler Peak Wild Area are
-included in this Forest and are available to those willing and able to
-hike, ride a horse, or pack into the rugged mountain country. For the
-winter sports enthusiast, the Red River Ski Area, Sipapu Winter Sports
-Area, and Taos Ski Valley operate in part within the Carson National
-Forest and offer some of the finest alpine skiing in the Southwest.
-
-Good roads lead the visitor to Spanish and Indian villages where life
-and culture are almost unchanged since the ancient and comparatively
-recent days of settlement. Towns with singing-sounding names like
-Picur�s, Taos Pueblo, Las Trampas, Truchas, Santa Barbara, and Tres
-Ritos nestle along forest streams and add charm and beauty to a scenic
-trip in the northern Sangre de Cristo range (name given to the mountains
-by early Spanish settlers, meaning _Blood of Christ_. The analogy
-relates to the reddish glow that sometimes colors the mountains at
-sunset.). Radiating from Taos are roads leading into the eastern half of
-the Forest, bringing the traveler into fascinating and colorful country.
-Taos Canyon, Arroyo Hondo, Questa, and the Red River country abound in
-old mining ghost towns, Indian ruins, and legendary Spanish villages
-located in canyons and on mountain tops.
-
-The high range rising between the Rio Grande and the Chama River to the
-west is the major part of the western half of the Carson National
-Forest. Tres Piedras, El Rito, La Madera, Canjilon, Lagunitas, and San
-Antonio are a few of the picturesque communities here. Farther to the
-west is the Jicarilla Division of the Carson, the high mountain country
-adjacent to the Jicarilla Apache Reservation. Bisected by State Highway
-17 between Farmington and Chama, this section is a test of true
-pioneering skill for the traveler who is willing to follow dim tracks of
-roads and trails to enjoy the Forest. However, modern civilization is
-introduced by the 150 oil and gas wells in this area, even though the
-country is rugged and broken.
-
-Carson National Forest is a trout fisherman's delight. For the hunter,
-Rocky Mountain mule deer, elk, and antelope are found in all parts of
-the Forest. Small game is plentiful, and rabbits provide many hours of
-hunting pleasure. Beaver, muskrat, mink, weasel, marten, and skunk are
-the principal fur bearers, and turkey, grouse, ducks, geese, quail, and
-doves make up the game bird population. Predators include the mountain
-lion, bobcat, coyote, and fox.
-
-More than 40 developed camp and picnic grounds, most of which are
-accessible year round, welcome the visitor. Among them, Echo
-Amphitheater picnic ground on U.S. Highway 84, south of Canjilon, is a
-striking natural echo chamber formed by centuries of wind and water
-erosion in the rugged sandstone rock. "If you stand near the chamber,
-you only have to whisper, and your words come back in a spooky echo."
-
-About five miles south on U.S. Highway 84 is the Ghost Ranch Museum,
-with live native Southwestern animals and conservation exhibits,
-including a living and growing display showing on-the-ground Forest
-Service Multiple Use Management of the mythical Beaver National Forest,
-the "smallest National Forest in the world."
-
-Ranger stations at Canjilon, El Rito, Gobernador, Penasco, Questa, Taos,
-and Tres Piedras provide local information and recreation maps.
-
-    [Illustration: Echo Amphitheater surrounds part of the trail to
-    campground]
-
-
-                        Santa Fe National Forest
-
-The Santa Fe National Forest, with headquarters in Santa Fe, lies
-directly south of the Carson National Forest on both sides of the Rio
-Grande and is the center of a region rich in natural resources as well
-as historic and geologic interests. The two divisions of the Forest
-contain the high mountains to the east and west in the central section
-of the state. The Pecos Division to the east of the Rio Grande is the
-location of the major part of the Pecos Wilderness Area, one of the
-earliest of such areas to be established.
-
-The Pecos Division is so named because the Pecos River, which later
-joins the Rio Grande in Texas, heads among its towering mountains in a
-beautiful alpine basin sometimes called the _Pecos Horseshoe_. The Pecos
-River is one of the state's largest streams and supplies some of its
-most important irrigation projects. This division of the Forest includes
-the southern part of the Sangre de Cristo range and was first known as
-the Pecos River Forest Reserve, established in 1892--the oldest National
-Forest in the Southwest. The division abounds in clear, cold mountain
-lakes and streams. Truchas Lakes, Pecos Baldy, Stewart Lake, Spirit
-Lake, and Lost Lake, as well as many mountain streams, lure not only the
-fisherman but the hiker and camper to their wilderness beauty.
-
-Twenty-three developed campgrounds and picnic areas located in cool
-glades are ready for the visitor along roads leading into the Forest
-from Santa Fe, Pecos, Glorieta, Las Vegas, and other communities. Skiing
-and winter sports are available at the Santa Fe Ski Basin northeast of
-Santa Fe; the chair lift operates year around for those who wish merely
-to view the spectacular scenery. The Pecos Division watersheds of the
-Santa Fe National Forest, like the eastern section of the Carson,
-contribute generously to the water flow of the Rio Grande.
-
-Wild game, game birds, and fishing attract visitors at all times of the
-year, while the golden hues of the aspen in the autumn tempt artists and
-photographers to record on canvas and film nature's fall colors. A trip
-just before the winter snows to the aspen country of the Santa Fe
-National Forest is a must. Ranger stations are located at Santa Fe, Las
-Vegas, and Pecos.
-
-    [Illustration: An Izaak Walton along the Pecos river]
-
-West of the Rio Grande are the Jemez Mountains, which form the Jemez
-Division of the Santa Fe National Forest. The Jemez country is a
-favorite area for fishermen and hunters. For the sturdy hiker and
-picnicker, there are hundreds of fascinating points to visit and peaks
-to climb. Capulin Peak, Dead Man's Peak, Nacimiento Peak, and Cerro
-Pedernal are a few of the exciting ones. The Jemez country contains the
-San Pedro Parks Wild Area, northeast of Cuba where San Gregorio Lake is
-waiting for the fisherman or hiker willing to walk or ride horseback.
-This section abounds in unique geologic formations--Battleship Rock,
-Tent Rocks, Teakettle Rock, to name a few.
-
-Eighteen developed camping and picnicking areas welcome the visitor to
-the Jemez Division. Youth groups also favor the Jemez for their summer
-camping. Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, YMCA, and others have
-camps adjacent to the Santa Fe National Forest. Timber production,
-wildlife habitat management, livestock grazing, and watershed protection
-are among the activities of the Jemez Division, while visitors and
-travelers enjoy the forest, the streams, and the unique scenery. Ranger
-stations are at Jemez Springs, Cuba, Espanola, and Coyote.
-
-
-                         Cibola National Forest
-
-A mountain playground for people who live or visit near U.S. Highway 66
-is Cibola National Forest, with headquarters in Albuquerque. Embracing
-the Sandias, Manzanos, and Gallinas Peak areas east of the Rio Grande in
-central New Mexico, this Forest also includes most of the mountain
-ranges in the west-central section of the state, the San Mateo
-Mountains, with 11,389-foot Mount Taylor, and the Datil, Magdalena, and
-Zuni ranges.
-
-Outdoor recreation is the fastest growing use of the Cibola National
-Forest and more than a million visits are made each year to this popular
-Forest. The name is a Zuni Indian word, pronounced SEE-bo-lah, meaning
-_buffalo_. Buffalo may have roamed the Cibola in years past, but today's
-big game animals making the Cibola their home are the Rocky Mountain
-bighorn sheep, Rocky Mountain mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk,
-antelope, and bear. Game birds include turkey, grouse, quail, and dove;
-spring and fall migrations of ducks and geese use the Cibola as a
-resting place. There are 18 campgrounds with 249 family units and 14
-picnic grounds with 382 family units scattered through the vast domain
-of the Cibola National Forest.
-
-Sandia Crest in the Sandia Mountains east of Albuquerque is a goal for
-many travelers. Here on this 10,678-foot mountain top, there is a
-breathtaking view of the middle Rio Grande Valley and the Estancia
-Valley--a jet age view of nearly 10,000 square miles. The visitor stands
-on rocks which in eons past were under the sea, as indicated by fossils
-found on the peak. Recent recreation developments have been made at the
-Sandia Ski Area where a new 7450-foot double chair lift will carry 700
-riders an hour on a 1650-foot vertical rise to the restaurant and upper
-terminal on Sandia Crest. A tramway ascends the west face of the Sandias
-to meet the Ski Area chair lift at the Crest.
-
-The fabled Manzano Mountains rising above the plains to the west of
-State Highway 10 and south of U.S. Highway 66 are fast becoming a haven
-for the camper, picnicker, or sightseer willing to follow secondary
-roads to find the perfect spot to enjoy the forest. Capillo Peak, 9368
-feet high, Mosca Peak, Cerro Blanco, and Manzano Peak lure the mountain
-climber. Legends surrounding the old Spanish communities of Tajique,
-Torreon, and Manzano are exciting campfire stories after a day spent
-exploring the high country.
-
-West of the Rio Grande, the San Mateo Mountains north of Grants and the
-Zuni Mountains forming the backbone of the Continental Divide southeast
-of Gallup can be a new experience in outdoor recreation. McGaffey Lake
-recreation area, not too far from the route of the _conquistadore_ Juan
-de O�ate, is a cool retreat after crossing the desert and lava flow.
-
-West of Socorro on U.S. Highway 60, with Magdalena as headquarters, the
-high Datil, Gallinas, and Magdalena mountains and another San Mateo
-range rise above the San Agustin Plains, an ancient lake bed. Mt.
-Withington and Mt. Baldy, 10,787 feet high, dominate the landscape. Good
-roads and developed campgrounds are available. Hunting for wild game as
-well as for unusual gem stones and geologic finds are favored activities
-in this western section of the Cibola. District ranger stations are at
-Grants, Gallup, Magdalena, Mountainair, and Tijeras.
-
-
-                        Lincoln National Forest
-
-Named for the great president, the Lincoln National Forest, with
-headquarters at Alamogordo, has characteristics distinguishing it from
-all other National Forests in the state. The high mountains and canyons
-of the Sacramento, Guadalupe, Capitan, and White mountains, rising
-between the Tularosa and Pecos basins, were the backdrop and often the
-prize of the Indian and cattle wars. Stories and legends of early day
-happenings in the Tularosa Basin, mining operations, battles between
-rival cattle ranchers, large timber operations providing lumber, poles,
-mine props, and railroad ties are warp and woof of the Lincoln country.
-This Forest includes the high mountains north and south of the Mescalero
-Apache Indian Reservation.
-
-During the last decade, the Lincoln National Forest gained new fame as
-the birthplace of the world-renowned Smokey the Bear, symbol of forest
-fire prevention. In the Capitan Mountains, travelers like to visit
-Smokey's birthplace near Capitan Pass, and in the community of Capitan
-on U.S. Highway 380 is a log museum which features the activities of the
-bear cub found near there during a disastrous fire.
-
-For the outdoor enthusiast, the Forest offers superb beauty, graceful
-and majestic snow-covered peaks, and the peace and serenity of a forest
-sanctuary. Each year, thousands of visitors from the plains seek its
-cool refuge from desert heat in summer and its readily accessible sports
-area in the winter. Ten campgrounds with many picnicking and camping
-sites are provided. Canyons, mountains, and streams in many instances
-feature anglicized names--Big Dog Canyon, Mule Peak, Bug Scuffle
-Hill--though the influence of the early Spanish settler still remains in
-names such as Sacramento, Agua Chiquita, Ruidoso, and Rio Penasco.
-
-Lincoln National Forest abounds in points of interest; Monjeau Lookout
-overlooks the headwaters of the Bonito, Eagle, and Ruidoso creeks as
-well as the tall slopes of Sierra Blanca to the southwest. Sierra
-Blanca, 12,003 feet high, is the most southerly mountain of that
-elevation in the continental United States. Just north of the peak is
-the Sierra Blanca Recreation Area, with one of the finest and
-best-equipped skiing facilities in the country. The restaurant and
-gondola lift operate during summer months, and from Lookout Mountain
-observation site, near the gondola's upper terminal, the traveler can
-view White Sands, the Malpais (lava flow), and the 28,000-acre White
-Mountain Wild Area.
-
-Hunters find deer of three distinct types in this Forest--the Rocky
-Mountain mule deer, the desert mule deer, and the Texas white-tailed
-deer--and, of course, black bear from which family Smokey the Bear came.
-Game birds like wild turkey, quail, and chukkar partridge challenge the
-hunter. Fishing the Lincoln's lakes and streams is a recurring delight
-to the angler. Aspens and oaks flaunt their brilliant autumn coloring
-against the warm green of pines and spruces, heralding the advent of
-winter snows and provoking numerous aspencades for those who wish a
-share in this ever new pageant of nature's beauty.
-
-Like all the National Forests, the Lincoln is managed for the production
-and wise use of water, timber, and forage for livestock and wildlife and
-outdoor recreation. District ranger stations are at Cloudcroft,
-Carlsbad, Mayhill, Ruidoso, Sacramento, and Capitan.
-
-    [Illustration: "_Anybody for a run?_" at Sierra Blanca ski area]
-
-
-                          Gila National Forest
-
-The Gila National Forest, with headquarters in Silver City, is a big,
-wild, wonderful country in the southwestern section of the state. It has
-been scarcely affected by the hustle and bustle of modern living. Within
-its boundaries are 2.7 million acres of public-owned forest and range
-land, with almost a quarter of it devoted to wilderness and primitive
-areas. It includes the famous Gila Wilderness, the first such area set
-aside in the United States and the largest in the Southwest. Most of the
-Gila National Forest is north of Silver City, though part of it lies in
-the high country between Silver City and Lordsburg.
-
-The Gila is an exciting and exhilarating place to explore, sightsee,
-hunt, fish, and just enjoy. Indian ruins are evident almost everywhere,
-but the Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, adjacent to the Gila
-Primitive Area, is the best preserved. Ancient tree stumps and abandoned
-Indian ruins record the history of man; old mine dumps contain ores and
-minerals not known nor appreciated in the heyday of local mining;
-microscopic plants and forest grasses which may hold the key to man's
-future health abound; and the traveler may experience great delight in
-finding a dried root or branch to add to a native rock garden; the
-majestic peaks, deer and other wild game, and cool, splashing waters of
-a mountain creek delight the camera hobbyist.
-
-One of the most beautiful and spectacular box canyons in the Southwest
-is on Whitewater Creek about four miles northeast of Glenwood. A catwalk
-built against the rock walls of the canyon enables the traveler to
-thrill at the unusual beauty and colors of the canyon and the cool
-depths of the trout stream below (_see_ Frontispiece).
-
-Good roads lead into the Gila National Forest at Reserve and Alma from
-U.S. Highway 260. An enjoyable loop trip which touches the Gila
-Wilderness at Willow Creek can be taken on State Highway 78 from Alma.
-Another beautiful trip is through the Black Range from the junction of
-State Highway 180 and U.S. Highway 85 to Silver City. Approach to the
-Gila from the north can be made through Beaverhead, Apache Creek, and
-Reserve, where good roads lead into the Forest.
-
-Fifteen developed recreation areas provide camping and picnicking for
-the hiker, horseback rider, and motorist and are complete with
-fireplaces, tables, and benches. Elk, deer, antelope, bear, javelina,
-and game birds are plentiful, and fishing in the high mountain creeks is
-usually rewarded with a satisfying catch.
-
-District ranger stations are at Magdalena, Truth or Consequences,
-Reserve, Glenwood, and Mimbres.
-
-
-                      Apache and Coronado Forests
-
-Although small parts of these forests lie in New Mexico, they belong to
-forests in Arizona. Apache National Forest touches the northern edge of
-the Gila and its attractions are much like those of the latter. The
-Coronado National Forest, which is in the extreme southwest corner of
-New Mexico, lies in an area of aridity and is difficult to reach from
-New Mexico. It is surrounded by Sonoran desert, at least in its
-environment in this state.
-
-    [Illustration: Gila Hunters with Happy Thanksgiving (_wild
-    turkeys_)]
-
-
-These far-flung public lands in New Mexico provide many resources
-besides varied kinds of outdoor recreation: timber for industry, water
-for city and farm, forage for livestock and wildlife. As long as our
-National Forests are protected and developed--used but not abused--they
-will continue to yield rich harvests, both tangible and intangible,
-forever.
-
-    [Illustration: Lake Roberts
-    This 70-acre lake thirty miles northeast of Silver City on State
-    Highway 25 lies in the Gila National Forest.]
-
-
-
-
-                      The State Also Preserves[4]
-
-
-State Monuments have been established to preserve some of New Mexico's
-historic and archeologic sites of importance. These include the mission
-ruins of Abo, Quarai, Pecos, and Jemez, the Palace of the Governors in
-Santa Fe, pueblo ruins at Coronado State Monument, the old Lincoln
-County Courthouse, the archeologic site at Folsom Man State Monument,
-the plaza and nearby Mexican Colonial-style buildings in La Mesilla, and
-Fort Selden. The history recorded at these sites dates from 10,000 B.C.
-of Clovis Man to 1878 of the cattlemen's Lincoln County War.
-
-State parks cover areas of scenic beauty, geologic wonders, and historic
-interest. Reservoir lakes yielding necessary water, good fishing,
-swimming, and boating include Conchas, Storrie, Bluewater, El Vado, Ute,
-Elephant Butte, Caballo, Alamogordo, Clayton, Morphy, and Bottomless
-Lakes. The latter are natural sink holes east of Roswell. Hyde Memorial
-Park and Santa Fe River Park, near and in Santa Fe, provide scenic
-picnic spots, as do Rock Hound State Park near Deming and Oasis State
-Park near Portales and Clovis. Picnicking, fishing, and spectacular
-canyons attract the visitor at Rio Grande Gorge Park west of Taos. Weird
-erosional figures carved from volcanic layers distinguish City of Rocks
-State Park near Deming. Pancho Villa State Park at Columbus and Kit
-Carson Memorial at Taos mark historic sites. Valley of Fires State Park
-west of Carrizozo preserves the black twisted lava of a relatively
-recent volcanic flow.
-
-
-NEW MEXICO STATE MONUMENTS
-
-                    _by_ Museum of New Mexico Staff
-
-The State of New Mexico, recognizing the depth and color of its own
-history, has established a number of state monuments preserving
-important historical or archeological sites. These are administered by
-the Museum of New Mexico located in Santa Fe. Any mosaic of New Mexico
-would be incomplete without including these important landmarks.
-
-
-                  El Palacio, Palace of the Governors
-
-The main facility of the Museum of New Mexico is El Palacio. The Palace
-of the Governors, on the plaza in the heart of Santa Fe, is the oldest
-public building in the United States. Built in 1610, it was the seat of
-Spanish government in New Mexico until 1821, of the Mexican government
-until 1846, and the residence of the governors appointed by the
-President of the United States until 1910, when it became a unit of the
-Museum of New Mexico.
-
-It presently contains exhibits relating to New Mexico's past, ranging
-from the Indians, who arrived after crossing the Bering Sea, to the
-Spanish, who came seeking gold and glory on horseback, to the wagon
-trains from the east, whose goal was the end of the Santa Fe Trail,
-which is directly in front of El Palacio.
-
-El Palacio was the capitol of New Mexico for 300 years and was the seat
-of residence for more than one hundred of New Mexico's governors. During
-that time it was captured and held by the Indians from 1680 to 1692. The
-Army of the Confederacy captured it for a few days during the Civil War,
-and one of its occupants, Territorial Governor Lew. Wallace, wrote his
-famous novel, _Ben Hur_, within its walls.
-
-There are other fascinating units connected with the Museum of New
-Mexico in Santa Fe. Among these are the Fine Arts Museum, emphasizing
-the art and artists of the great Southwest; the International Folk Art
-Museum; and the Hall of Ethnology, devoted primarily to the peoples of
-the Southwest.
-
-
-                           Abo State Monument
-
-Off U.S. Highway 60, nine miles west of Mountainair is Abo State
-Monument.
-
-The ruins of the ancient mission church of San Gregorio de Abo and its
-pueblo, built of red sandstone, are in a broad, natural amphitheater
-rimmed on the north and west by the blue Manzano Mountains, which
-contrast strikingly with the reddish hues of the Abo sandstone. This is
-one of the Saline Missions, so called because of the nearby salt
-deposits in the Estancia Basin.
-
-It was built during the seventeenth century by Indians under the
-supervision of the Franciscans, led by the venerable Fray Francisco de
-Acevedo. The inhabitants of Abo were very friendly to the Spaniards.
-They were forced to abandon their pueblo about 1673 because of drought
-and the raids of the Apaches and Comanches. They then moved south to El
-Paso del Norte where they joined in founding Isleta del Sur.
-
-The walls of the pueblo have disintegrated with time into low mounds
-which lie adjacent to the mission. The ecclesiastical structures have
-been excavated and repaired for permanent preservation.
-
-
-                         Quarai State Monument
-
-This monument is near Punta de Agua, eight miles north of Mountainair
-off State Highway 10.
-
-The ruins of the mission church of the Immaculate Conception at Quarai
-are unsurpassed in grandeur of architecture or setting by any that
-survive from the labors of the early Franciscans in New Mexico. Built of
-red sandstone masonry about 1628, at the Pueblo of Quarai, it was
-abandoned along with the pueblo about 1674, chiefly because of Apache
-depredations.
-
-One of the most venerated of the Franciscan missionaries, Fray Geronimo
-de la Llana, worked and died at Quarai, beloved by his Indian charges.
-His remains now rest in a crypt in the wall of St. Francis Cathedral in
-Santa Fe. The ruins have been excavated and repaired for permanent
-preservation.
-
-
-                        Coronado State Monument
-
-This pueblo ruin is on the west bank of the Rio Grande, one mile from
-the town of Bernalillo, seventeen miles north of Albuquerque, and one
-mile off U.S. Highway 85, between Albuquerque and Santa Fe.
-
-The Pueblo of Kuaua was one of the several towns of the ancient Tiguex
-province. At or near Kuaua, the Coronado expedition maintained
-headquarters from about 1540 to 1542 A.D. During excavation of the
-ancient pueblo, more than 1200 ground-floor rooms were found and five
-kivas, or underground ceremonial chambers, were uncovered.
-
-In one of the kivas was found a highly important group of ancient wall
-paintings. This kiva has been reconstructed and the paintings restored.
-
-The old walls of Kuaua have been rebuilt to a few feet in height so that
-the structure can be seen. A museum has been erected on the site to
-exhibit the material found during the excavation and to portray life in
-the Tiguex province. The Coronado State Monument and Museum commemorates
-the meeting, more than four hundred years ago, of the elements that
-influenced the culture of New Mexico--the Indian and the
-_conquistadore_.
-
-A curator-custodian is on duty at the Coronado Museum headquarters,
-which is open all year.
-
-
-                          Pecos State Monument
-
-Off U.S. Highway 84-85, three miles south of Pecos, is this State
-Monument. It became a National Monument during late 1966.
-
-This mission, the Church of Nuestra Senora de los Angeles de Porciuncula
-at Pecos, dates from the year 1617. It is fitting that this mission,
-which was one of the first two, with Jemez, established by the
-Franciscans in New Mexico, should bear the name "Our Lady of the Angels
-of Porciuncula," for with his own hands, St. Francis, founder of the
-Order, rebuilt the decaying chapel of Our Lady of Angels at Assisi,
-which he called his Porciuncula or "Little Inheritance," and there
-established the headquarters of the Franciscan Order.
-
-Pecos was well fortified because of its location on the eastern edge of
-the pueblo area and its contact with the Plains Indians. It resisted the
-raids for many years, but when a smallpox epidemic in 1838 reduced the
-population to seventeen survivors, they moved to Jemez Pueblo,
-abandoning Pecos.
-
-A part of the massive adobe walls of the ruined mission has been
-excavated and repaired, as have some of the rubble masonry walls.
-
-
-                          Jemez State Monument
-
-This Monument is at Jemez Springs, sixty miles north of Albuquerque on
-State Highway 4.
-
-One of the finest early mission churches was established at Giusewa
-Pueblo. _Giusewa_ means "place of the boiling waters" in the language of
-the Jemez Indians, and refers to the famous Jemez Hot Springs nearby.
-The mission, with Pecos, was one of the two earliest in New Mexico.
-These were founded one hundred and fifty-two years before the first
-California missions.
-
-The original settlement of the Giusewa Pueblo goes back hundreds of
-years before Columbus' discovery of America, as does the settlement of
-the other pueblos, Quarai, Abo, and Pecos.
-
-Guisewa Pueblo became extinct during the last quarter of the seventeenth
-century, a result of the consolidation of several pueblos of the Jemez
-province into fewer and larger towns. Only one town, the present Jemez
-Pueblo, survives from that time. Excavation and repairs have been made
-in the ruins of both the pueblo and the mission church.
-
-
-                       La Mesilla State Monument
-
-This colorful State Monument consists of the plaza in the village of
-Mesilla, near Las Cruces, and the buildings nearby. The Monument
-preserves an aspect of the Mexican Colonial culture and architecture
-which flourished here in the early nineteenth century. The Gadsden
-Purchase of 1853 was celebrated in the Mesilla Plaza and the famous
-desperado, Billy the Kid, once stood trial here for his life. During the
-Civil War, Mesilla was briefly the Confederate capitol of the Territory
-of Arizona.
-
-
-                         Lincoln State Monument
-
-Located in Lincoln, on U.S. Highway 380, and known as the Old Lincoln
-County Courthouse, the first floor of this Monument was the mercantile
-store of L. G. Murphy & Co. in the 1870's, during the Lincoln County
-War. The second floor was purchased in 1870 by the county for a court
-house.
-
-It was from this building that Billy the Kid made his daring escape on
-April 28, 1881, after killing his two guards. A caretaker and a museum
-attendant are on duty at all times. Mementos of the infamous Lincoln
-County cattle war are featured.
-
-
-                       Fort Selden State Monument
-
-The crumbling adobe walls of Fort Selden lie about seventeen miles north
-of Las Cruces just west of Interstate Highway 25. The history of this
-fort, given in the article on _Frontier Forts_, was highlighted by the
-brief stay of General Douglas MacArthur, who spent some of his childhood
-within the fort's walls and played in the adjoining green valley of the
-Rio Grande.
-
-
-NEW MEXICO STATE PARKS
-
-                            _by_ The Editors
-
-New Mexico is blessed with a wealth of natural resources and perhaps
-most important is the abundance of sites with outstanding scenic and
-recreational facilities. The contrasts apparent in the mosaic of New
-Mexico are also seen in the pattern of its state parks. They range from
-desert regions with sparse and exotic flora and fauna to the high
-mountain canyons choked with Douglas fir and aspen where even in the
-summer evenings one huddles close to the fire for warmth. And the mosaic
-shifts from waterless areas amid geologic wonders to wide expanses of
-open water well stocked with trout. The parks are administered by the
-New Mexico State Park and Recreation Commission. Wherever possible,
-areas have been set aside for the permanent enjoyment of the people of
-New Mexico and their visitors.
-
-
-                      Bottomless Lakes State Park
-
-Bottomless Lakes State Park, established in 1936, was one of the first
-of the New Mexico state parks. It is surprising to find this treasure of
-great natural beauty in an area so dominated by aridity. There are six
-small lakes in the park, of which Lea Lake is the largest with about 15
-acres of surface area. The water of the lakes is crystal clear and
-varies in depth from 45 feet in the shallow lakes to about 100 feet in
-the deeper ones. They were created as "sink holes" when water dissolved
-large areas of underground gypsum, resulting in cave-ins. The lakes now
-offer extensive recreational facilities for the people of New Mexico and
-for tourists passing through or visiting the area. Camping, swimming,
-and boating are available. Pecos "diamonds," small quartz crystals, can
-be found in the neighboring hills.
-
-
-                        Conchas Lake State Park
-
-    [Illustration: Sketch of Bottomless Lake]
-
-Conchas Lake is one of the largest sustained bodies of water in New
-Mexico. Conchas Dam, which holds the water of the Canadian River, forms
-the lake. The main dam is 235 feet above the roadway and is 1250 feet in
-length. At capacity it holds 600,000 acre-feet of water. The reservoir
-serves many purposes: flood control, local irrigation, camping and
-boating facilities, and fishing and water skiing.
-
-The Canadian River has its origin on Raton Mesa and flows southward to
-Conchas Dam, then turns abruptly eastward. On its way across the High
-Plains, it cuts into some of the oldest rocks that can be seen on the
-western edge of the plains, the Dockum Group of Late Triassic age. The
-best place to view the earth-building processes of this region is where
-State Highway 120 crosses the gorge of the Canadian River between Wagon
-Mound and Roy.
-
-
-                        Hyde Memorial State Park
-
-Here, at an elevation of 9000 feet, among tall pines and aspens is one
-of the most scenic of all New Mexico's parks. High in the Sangre de
-Cristo Mountains, eight miles northeast of Santa Fe, the park offers an
-excellent example of the scenic beauty in New Mexico rarely seen by most
-travelers passing through the state. Easily accessible from Santa Fe,
-Hyde Park gives a few moments, or a few days, respite in the cool
-refreshment of a mountain forest. Excellent picnic and camping
-facilities are available. For those who want to penetrate the mountain
-vastness even farther, there are a number of well-marked trails for
-hiking.
-
-
-                         Navajo Lake State Park
-
-Navajo Dam on the San Juan River lies twenty-five miles east of Aztec at
-an elevation of 6200 feet in a region of spectacular scenic beauty.
-Camping, picnicking, boating, fishing, and water skiing facilities are
-available, and a lodge is under construction. This is expected to be one
-of the most important sports and recreational centers in northwest New
-Mexico in coming years.
-
-
-                        Pancho Villa State Park
-
-Named for the famous Mexican bandit and revolutionary leader, the park
-is located near Columbus, New Mexico, site of Villa's most infamous
-raid. In the dead of the night on March 10, 1916, Villa and his men
-entered the town of Columbus and did their bloody work. When they left,
-seventeen local people were dead, including eight soldiers and nine
-civilians. The Mexican force suffered heavy casualties, perhaps as many
-as 125 killed. The town of Columbus was badly damaged and has only
-recently begun to recover from the blow. The expedition of General
-Pershing, then on duty along the Mexican border, was organized to hunt
-down Villa and his men. Pershing and a United States military unit spent
-three months inside Mexico, only to return to the United States
-empty-handed. The park commemorates one of the most interesting and
-tragic episodes in New Mexico history. Within the park, one can see
-excellent examples of Sonoran desert flora. Picnic facilities and
-camping sites are available.
-
-
-                        El Vado Lake State Park
-
-El Vado Dam is a part of the complex Rio Grande Conservancy District
-flood and irrigation project. It holds the water of the Chama River,
-which flows west, south, and then east into the Rio Grande. The country
-surrounding El Vado Lake is beautiful and contains some of the finest
-trout fishing streams in the state. At the lake itself there are camping
-facilities, including trailer spaces (no hookups for water or
-electricity). The lake is at an elevation of 7000 feet and is one of the
-important flood-control bodies of water in New Mexico.
-
-
-                          Bluewater State Park
-
-Bluewater Lake, at an elevation of 7460 feet, is a spot of spectacular
-beauty. Adjacent is a 160-acre wooded park. The area offers boating,
-fishing, and swimming. The lake was formed by impounding the waters from
-the Zuni Mountains' watershed, and it fills three great depressions in
-high tablelands. The dam, built across two lofty natural walls of solid
-rock, the San Andres Limestone, holds a lake a mile wide and seven and a
-half miles long. Bluewater Lake State Park was the first of New Mexico's
-parks, so designated in 1929.
-
-
-                        Storrie Lake State Park
-
-Storrie Lake State Park surrounds a small lake north of Las Vegas, New
-Mexico. It lies on the west edge of the High Plains and is an excellent
-recreation area. The lake is at an elevation of 6400 feet and has a
-limited number of picnic and camping facilities. It is stocked with
-rainbow and brown trout and crappies.
-
-
-                        City of Rocks State Park
-
-This is one of the most unusual of the state parks, and one of the
-finest for picnicking and for camping. Located in the unusual rock
-formation known as the Sugarlump Welded Rhyolite Tuff northwest of
-Deming, it is a source of wonder to all visitors. Suddenly, in a
-seemingly flat, desert plain, one comes upon these grotesque outcrops.
-In the coolness of the shade of these ancient rocks one can survey
-vistas under an azure sky that are almost breathless. This is the desert
-Southwest at its very best; not the harsh, unfriendly desert of movies
-and fiction, but a lovely spot in which to enjoy to the fullest the
-wonders of nature.
-
-
-                        Kit Carson Memorial Park
-
-This 20-acre plot of grass, flower beds, trees, and picnic tables lies
-on the northeast edge of Taos and contains the graves of Kit Carson and
-Padre Jos� Martinez. Not far away is the Kit Carson House, a group of
-adobe buildings surrounding a patio, that was Carson's headquarters,
-office, and home from 1858 to 1866. This Indian fighter, trapper,
-hunter, and trader is most famous for defeating the Navajos in Canyon de
-Chelly and marching 7000 of these Indians across New Mexico to a
-reservation at Bosque Redondo near Fort Sumner. However, during his
-eight years as Indian agent, Carson worked continuously for the welfare
-of his charges.
-
-
-                            Oasis State Park
-
-One of the state's newest parks, Oasis is seven miles northeast of
-Portales along State Highway 467. This shady place of cottonwood trees
-amid sand dunes has long been a favorite picnic spot. The sand dunes
-form an irregular ridge separating Portales Valley to the south from
-Blackwater Draw to the north. In Blackwater Draw have been found bones
-of ancient animals and the weapons used by early man some 12,000 years
-ago. Portales Valley is the sand-filled remnant of the early Pleistocene
-Brazos River Valley that once drained eastward into Texas. About 800,000
-years ago, the Pecos River to the west "captured" the headwaters of this
-former Brazos River and left the Portales Valley high and dry.
-
-
-                       Valley of Fires State Park
-
-This park, about five miles west of Carrizozo on U.S. Highway 380,
-features picnic tables amid the Carrizozo lava flow, or malpais, one of
-the youngest in the United States. The lava flowed out of Little Black
-Peak about 1000 years ago in a series of individual "rivers" of hot
-black basalt. The composite flow is 44 miles long, 0.5 to 6 miles wide,
-and is made up of about 1 cubic mile of basalt; it moved southward down
-the lowest part of the northern Tularosa Basin.
-
-Climb around on the lava and note the ropy nature of the surface
-(_pahoehoe_ of the Hawaiians), the many frozen gas bubbles in the rocks
-(vesicles), the squeeze-ups where once-liquid lava protrudes through
-cracks in the hardened crust, the pressure ridges where the hardened
-crust arched and broke, and collapsed lava tunnels where the outer lava
-froze and the molten interior ran out, leaving an open tube or cave.
-
-
-                          Ute Lake State Park
-
-Ute Dam, two miles southwest of Logan, provides a 4200-acre reservoir
-along the Canadian River and Ute Creek stocked with rainbow trout, bass,
-crappie, and catfish. Camping, picnicking, and boating facilities are
-available along the valley walls, which are cut in the brown Santa Rosa
-Sandstone and overlying maroon to green Chinle shales.
-
-
-                       Santa Fe River State Park
-
-Bordering the Santa Fe River in downtown Santa Fe, this city park merges
-with the State Capitol grounds. It provides picnic tables and benches in
-the shade of tall trees amid the picturesque ancient city.
-
-
-                     Elephant Butte Lake State Park
-
-The giant Elephant Butte Reservoir, impounded behind the dam five miles
-east of Truth or Consequences, provides year-around fishing, boating,
-water skiing, and camping. Built in brown to gray Cretaceous sandstone
-and shale, the dam is overlooked by the brownish-black volcanic neck
-that is Elephant Butte. Eastern shores are carved from the purplish and
-maroon McRae layers. This is the main storage reservoir for the water
-that irrigates the lush Rio Grande Valley to the south near Las Cruces
-and El Paso.
-
-
-                        Caballo Lake State Park
-
-Caballo Reservoir, downstream from Elephant Butte, offers excellent
-facilities for water sports, its bass and crappie fishing being notable.
-The State Park is fourteen miles south of Truth or Consequences and six
-miles north of the dam. The spectacular rugged front of the Caballo
-Mountains looms to the east, with sharp canyons and ribbed cliffs along
-the valley walls cut in the tan layers of the Santa Fe Formation.
-
-
-                      Rio Grande Gorge State Park
-
-From Velarde (twelve miles north of Espanola) for seventy miles
-northward to the Colorado state line, the Rio Grande Gorge is carved 500
-to 800 feet into black basalt flows and tan Santa Fe Formation layers.
-Fishing is exciting in the fast waters, although the northern part of
-the gorge is difficult to reach. Foot and horseback trails lead to the
-bottom at the mouth of Red River west of Questa where picnic units have
-been built.
-
-
-                       Alamogordo Lake State Park
-
-The dam of Alamogordo Reservoir blocks the Pecos River and Alamogordo
-Creek northwest of Fort Sumner. Picnic, camp, and water sports
-facilities lie along U.S. Highway 84 about sixteen miles northwest of
-Fort Sumner. Juniper trees dot the low valley walls where the maroon to
-green shale and sandstone of the Chinle Formation crop out.
-
-
-                         Rock Hound State Park
-
-Lying on the west flank of the Little Florida Mountains, Rock Hound
-State Park, twelve miles southeast of Deming, offers camping and
-picnicking facilities and many varieties of agate in the volcanic rocks.
-A few miles to the south tower cliffs of the Florida Mountains, a
-landmark of southwestern New Mexico and also happy hunting grounds for
-rock hounds.
-
-
-                        Clayton Lake State Park
-
-Serving the northeast corner of New Mexico, Clayton Lake State Park lies
-twelve miles north of Clayton on State Highway 370, impounded by a dam
-across Cieneguilla Creek. The stream bed cuts brown Dakota Sandstone,
-and rolling grassy hills to the south overlie weathered basalt flows.
-
-
-                         Morphy Lake State Park
-
-Morphy Lake, backed up from a dam across Rito Morphy, lies three miles
-west of Ledoux in southwestern Mora County and thirty-one miles north of
-Las Vegas off State Highway 94. The 15-acre lake provides fine trout
-fishing and picnicking amid stately ponderosa pines, with the canyon
-walls formed by tier upon tier of Pennsylvanian limestones.
-
-
-
-
-                     Angling in the Desert's Waters
-
-
-                        _by_ Fred A. Thompson[5]
-
-Water in the great Southwest, of which the State of New Mexico is a
-part, has made for a colorful and historical background. Water, perhaps
-more than anything else, has molded the lives of all inhabitants of the
-area from the pueblo and lodge of the early Indian to the civilization
-we know today. The fish and wildlife resources as related to water have
-played an important part in everyday living and economy.
-
-From data gathered by archeologists there are indications that the early
-Indian used fish as part of his diet. Fish bones are found in excavated
-ruins, and fish pictures are occasionally found as petroglyphs and on
-pottery (fig. 1). Although the use of fish was limited, it was
-widespread throughout the Southwest, not being confined to one Indian
-tribe or nation.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 1. Bowl depicting fish, found in ruins of
-    Mimbres Indians]
-
-The use of fish by the white settler was likewise restricted, but it
-increased as time progressed and knowledge and equipment improved. There
-is only limited reference to fish for either food or sport fishing until
-after the middle of the nineteenth century. Early explorers made records
-of fish in various waters of New Mexico and in most instances described
-the new species.
-
-Originally, the waters of the desert also could be described as fish
-deserts. Only three recognized kinds of food fish, as we know them
-today, inhabited the waters of this region. The trout was limited to the
-cutthroat species or subspecies. These were found as one subspecies in
-the Rio Grande drainage and the other subspecies in the Arkansas River
-drainage. The latter is reduced in numbers but a few remnants remain in
-the headwaters. The former is being artificially propagated and is being
-maintained successfully. The trout found in the Gila River drainage,
-originally thought to be a cutthroat, then a rainbow, has been recently
-described as a separate species. These trout, like the Arkansas River
-fish, remain as remnants in the headwaters. For the most part, the
-native trout have had a difficult time surviving in recent years because
-of the change in water and land use; the habitat has become exceedingly
-restricted.
-
-Channel catfish were originally found in the Rio Grande drainage and
-continue to maintain themselves satisfactorily. Water and land
-manipulation, however, present a serious threat, even to this hardy
-fish.
-
-There are records that the gulf eel once came up the Rio Grande during
-part of its life cycle. This fish of the ocean has long since
-disappeared--the fate of many migrating fish when confronted with
-man-made obstructions in the watercourses.
-
-Waterfowl were in great abundance once, in both the upper Rio Grande and
-the Pecos River drainages. These birds utilized the vast marsh areas of
-the valleys during spring and fall migrations. It is presumed that there
-was very little nesting of waterfowl in the early years.
-
-The mammals that live in or near the water, principally fur bearers,
-were in abundance as long as water habitat was abundant and prior to
-unrestricted trapping. With the exception of the beaver (since restocked
-and protected), many of the fur bearers once numerous are now extremely
-limited in numbers or approaching extinction. There is only an
-occasional sighting of the otter which was once relatively plentiful.
-
-Habitat for the various water mammals, birds, and fish is found in the
-drainage systems. The major system is the Rio Grande that flows through
-the center of the state; the Pecos River is its tributary. In this
-system are six of the seven life zones and conditions of habitat
-suitable to almost any form of water-dwelling life.
-
-There is a noticeable habitat change due to several causes, such as
-ranching, irrigation, urban development, and a general minor change in
-climatic conditions. Many variations are in direct relation, such as
-improper grazing, unscreened irrigation diversions, dams, and sewage
-disposal, to mention a few. There is an indication of a long-term
-warming of the general Southwest, and though this change is fractional,
-it does have a basic effect on habitat.
-
-The effect of habitat change can be noted in the life of the cutthroat
-trout. Early records reveal that this trout, liking cool clear water,
-was once caught in the Rio Grande in the lower part of the box canyon
-north of Pe�ablanca. It was also caught near the town of Pecos. The fish
-can no longer survive in the changed water conditions and is found now
-only in the headwaters. Even the catfish has difficulty surviving in
-some sections of the rivers for lack of water. In the lower Pecos, the
-catfish finds difficulty in reproducing because of the high salt content
-of the river water.
-
-As has already been noted, the fish that are recognized as game fish
-today were in short supply a hundred years ago. It was not until the
-railroads entered New Mexico that fish were imported to supplement the
-native supply. In an unpublished report by the author, it was pointed
-out that almost every kind of fish propagated in the United States has
-been imported and stocked in waters of New Mexico. Of these, some have
-survived beyond expectations and others have disappeared entirely.
-
-When the railroads entered New Mexico, there were already requests for
-fish in the hands of the United States Fish Commission. Fish were
-delivered in especially designed fish-distribution cars and the
-consignee met the cars at designated rail sidings. From the distribution
-cars, the fish were further transported by wagons in water containers of
-various descriptions, usually wooden barrels or watertight wooden boxes,
-to streams or lakes as assigned. Because of the mode of travel at the
-time, the quantities of fish so stocked were limited, but they did
-provide seed stock from which their population could grow. Fish were
-packed on back and on horses into relatively inaccessible areas. The
-procedures and techniques of fish transportation have evolved to the
-present highly specialized equipment and methods of operation.
-
-It is interesting to note that the quantities of fish imported and
-planted increased in relation to the improved transportation. The early
-records indicate the numbers in the hundreds and in just a few
-locations; later plantings increased both in numbers stocked and in
-waters stocked. The first fish imported to supplement the native fish
-was the German carp. In fact, this was the only fish imported for eight
-consecutive years, 1883-1890. These early plantings were followed by
-catfish, German brown trout, brook trout, yellow perch, largemouth black
-bass, crappie, rock bass, tench, rainbow trout, strawberry bass, black
-spotted trout, bream, smallmouth bass, salmon, white bass, and walleyed
-pike.
-
-All the fish imported are classed as game fish except carp and tench
-(the latter did not survive). The various species met their habitat
-requirements, and although there were no survivals in some locations,
-they did acclimate in others and have developed into a substantial
-fishery. Some species are predominant while others, like the rock bass,
-are remnant and taken only occasionally. The fish most sought now and
-predominant in the fishery are rainbow (fig. 2) and brown trout,
-catfish, largemouth bass, crappie, and walleyed pike.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 2. Joy of the fisherman, rainbow trout]
-
-Management of the fishery has progressed with technical development.
-When fish were planted in early years, very little thought was given
-about the habitat except that it was water. There was little known of
-the requirements of fish. As a result, fish were placed in waters only
-to perish. To maintain a fish population now, all techniques available
-are employed and fish are stocked where water and species are
-compatible.
-
-Water in the desert is always at a premium for the inhabitants. The
-early Indian cultures used water for irrigation, and there are still
-vestiges of canals used by Indians to convey water to their crops. The
-use of water by the Indians then had little or no effect on fish life,
-but as irrigation development increased, a new habitat was formed. The
-once free-flowing rivers became dry in places, and new waters were
-developed in the drainage ditches in the Rio Grande Valley. The
-competition for water is very keen and fish and wildlife uses come after
-domestic, commercial, and irrigation purposes.
-
-The water requirements are so great, in fact, that it has been necessary
-to control water and its use by laws. The law of 1876 provided that
-water could not be refused a traveler. Community ditch commissioners
-were established by law in 1895. The basic laws governing water rights
-were established in 1907. These laws have been amended or added to as
-conditions dictate. Conservancy districts were recognized by law in
-1927, and underground waters came under law in 1931. The Interstate
-Stream Commission was created in 1935. At present, New Mexico water laws
-are considered some of the best in the nation; however, it has been only
-recently that water for fish and wildlife has been recognized as one of
-the beneficial uses.
-
-Converse to the use of water to the detriment of fish and wildlife,
-there are several areas in which water has been developed and impounded
-to the benefit of the fishery. Although some impoundments were
-single-purpose developments, they supply habitat in conservation pools
-or during years of abundant water supply.
-
-    [Illustration: Figure 3. Find the elephant!--at Elephant Butte
-    reservoir]
-
-Waters impounded by man but used as a fishery are Elephant Butte
-Reservoir (fig. 3), 40,096 surface acres when full. It contains
-largemouth black bass, crappie, walleyed pike, catfish, and sunfish.
-This lake has not been full for many years; but like Alamogordo
-Reservoir (4650 surface acres), Caballo Reservoir (11,532 surface
-acres), McMillan Reservoir (2500 surface acres), Conchas Reservoir
-(16,640 surface acres), and Avalon Reservoir (950 surface acres), it has
-produced excellent fishing. These are large irrigation lakes and are all
-stocked generally with the same species of fish.
-
-The lakes built for irrigation but utilized for trout are usually much
-smaller. The principal ones are Navajo Reservoir (15,600 surface acres)
-and El Vado (3500 surface acres). There are also Miami Lake (190 surface
-acres) and several others of small size.
-
-In addition, several small lakes have been built or acquired for the
-primary purpose of providing fishing. A few of these are Hopewell Lake
-(14 surface acres), Lake Roberts (73 surface acres), and Charette Lakes
-(400 surface acres). There are many more varying in size. The smaller
-lakes are primarily for trout fishing, but a few in the southern part of
-the state do have species usually found in warmer waters.
-
-In the process of reservoir construction, waterfowl habitat and resting
-areas are created. These new lakes, however, are a poor substitute for
-the natural marshes and potholes originally frequented by ducks and
-geese. Water mammals, likewise, find the artificial impoundments
-undesirable in comparison, and the increased water has added very little
-to this resource.
-
-Every water development has with it the appeal of recreation other than
-fishing. Now a lake must have such facilities as picnic and camping
-areas, launching ramps, good accessibility, boat rentals, and a
-concessionaire. There is no single-purpose reservoir in respect to
-recreation.
-
-Finally, it is concluded that the old adage, "fishing ain't what it used
-to be," should no longer be true for New Mexico. The fishing water has
-been added to greatly and the fish are managed better. The only problem
-is one of increased human population. Where there was one fisherman
-fifty years ago, there are a thousand now.
-
-Truly, the water of the desert is used to the limit.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    The past living today--San Miguel, early mission church still used
-    daily in Santa Fe]
-
-
-
-
-                       The Indians of New Mexico
-
-
-                       _by_ Paige W. Christiansen
-
-People entering New Mexico today find Indian cultures and Indian
-villages with traditions and ways of life that have changed little in
-many centuries. In this respect, man in the twentieth century shares an
-experience in common with Coronado, O�ate, and all the other
-_conquistadores_ who visited New Mexico so many generations ago. They,
-too, found the ancient Indian cultures strangely magnetic and exciting.
-If we could but remove the asphalt highways, the billboards, the
-telephone poles, and fences that seem always to surround us, the Indian
-villages in many parts of the state would look very much as they looked
-to the early Spanish explorers who were the first Europeans to see them.
-To meet the Indians of New Mexico and to visit their homes, if possible,
-is one of the greatest experiences available to residents and visitors
-alike. Although words are inadequate to give the true flavor and
-excitement of the Indian and his way of life, they are all we have to
-introduce the various people who make up the Indian population of New
-Mexico.
-
-There are two main groups that should be known. First, the Pueblo
-Indians, those who developed sedentary village life and who are the
-descendants of the first Americans in New Mexico. Second, the
-"newcomers" to the state, those who, for some reason or other, moved
-into the state to replace earlier cultures. Let us, then, visit some of
-these people's homes.
-
-
-                              Acoma Pueblo
-
-Acoma Indian Pueblo, the Sky City, is famous in both history and legend.
-Built on the top of a lofty, almost inaccessible, redrock mesa some 357
-feet high, it is one of the most picturesque of all New Mexico Indian
-pueblos. No other pueblo gives one such a clear sense of living in
-ancestral times. The movements of the people up and down the steep
-trails, the untiring vistas, and the ancient homesites are reminiscent
-of the life and times of the cliff dwellers. Here the archeologists can
-search out the secrets of ancient life by direct observation. Here, too,
-is brought forth in the fullness of its bloom an Indian culture of
-outstanding achievement.
-
-The Indians of Acoma participated in the great Pueblo Revolt of 1680.
-They killed their priest, Fray Lucas Maldonado, in the first frenzy of
-the rebellion. Because of their isolation and the inaccessibility of the
-village, they were spared the vengeance of the Spaniards under de Vargas
-during the reconquest in 1692. There was an attempt by the Spanish in
-1696 to take Acoma, but they succeeded only in destroying the crops and
-in capturing five Acoma warriors. The Indians held out until July 6,
-1699, when they submitted to the Spanish governor of New Mexico,
-Governor Cubero. Thereafter, Acoma became an integral part of the
-mission complex established in New Mexico by the Spanish.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Starr Jenkins_)
-    Aspen Basin in Sangre de Cristo Mountains near Santa Fe]
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside_)
-    Tent Rocks in Jemez Mountains]
-
-Acoma is noted for its excellent pottery. The ware is fashioned from
-clay of fine quality, is very well fired, and is carefully decorated in
-typical Acoma designs. Here is an excellent example of Indian artistic
-ability. Some weaving, such as belts and headbands, is engaged in and a
-few baskets are produced, but Acoma is most famous for its pottery.
-
-One of the landmarks at Acoma is the great church which brave Fray Juan
-Ramirez toiled to create in the early seventeenth century. Surely there
-are few memorials of the Spanish epoch in the Southwest that present
-such a picture of dauntless faith in spiritual ideals as does this
-fortress church silhouetted high against the sky above the bare-rock
-mesa. It measures 150 feet in length and has walls that are 60 feet high
-and 10 feet thick. Timbers 40 feet long and 14 inches through support
-the roof and make a handsome ceiling. There are, of course, no seats and
-little decoration. And what a location for so magnificent a spiritual
-center it is! From there one may lift his eyes in rapt admiration of the
-splendid panorama of the great plain and the encircling mountains, and
-thereby appreciate more fully the work of the Deity.
-
-The Acoma are agriculturists, cultivating their lands by irrigation;
-they raise corn, wheat, melons, squashes, and hay. Now, however, most of
-the people of Acoma do not live on their mesa which protected them for
-so many centuries. The dangers of attack are no longer present, and the
-farmers find it more advantageous to live closer to their irrigated
-plots. The result is that the people of Acoma are now scattered
-throughout several villages. Their great culture, their traditions,
-their fierce pride, and their deep reverence for their spectacular
-history is visible in their faces and manners. Acoma, the Sky City,
-remains the eternal city of New Mexico.
-
-
-                             Cochiti Pueblo
-
-The Indians of Cochiti Pueblo claim the famed cave dwellings and ruins
-of the Rito de Frijoles (Bandelier National Monument) as their ancestral
-home. Failure of timber and water resources plus the constant attack of
-the various Apache Indian tribes over several centuries caused the
-residents of the Rito de Frijoles to seek a better home. This probably
-occurred about 1200 A.D. In 1598, when Juan de O�ate, colonizer of New
-Mexico, arrived, the Indians of Cochiti were living in their present
-village. For a short time following the reconquest of New Mexico by de
-Vargas after the Pueblo Revolt, the people of Cochiti lived in Ca�ada de
-Cochiti, which was in a better position for defense against Spanish
-reconquest. In 1694, de Vargas took the canyon village by storm, burned
-it, and forced the people to return to the older village of Cochiti
-where they remain to this day.
-
-The population of the village is slightly more than 300, and there has
-been little growth in the past thirty years. Like the other New Mexico
-pueblos, the main occupation is agriculture. Their ancient traditions
-are well preserved, among them the well-known Rain Dance held during the
-annual festival of San Buenaventura in July.
-
-Located at the pueblo is the ancient and beautiful Spanish mission, San
-Buenaventura de Cochiti, built in the early seventeenth century. To step
-into this church is to return to the Spanish days of yore. There are no
-seats, women kneel on one side, the men on the other, and the services
-are a mixture of old world orthodoxy and new world Indian traditions.
-Cochiti represents one of the finest examples of modern Pueblo Indian
-life.
-
-
-                             Isleta Pueblo
-
-Isleta Pueblo is the southernmost of the pueblos lying along the green
-and lush Rio Grande Valley today. It stands on the same site it occupied
-when Coronado came in 1540 and was a stopping place for every Spanish
-explorer and traveler who passed through New Mexico. It did not take
-part in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, but rather joined the Spanish in the
-retreat to El Paso del Norte (modern Juarez, Mexico). There they founded
-a new village just to the south of modern El Paso which they called
-Isleta del Sur. The main village of Isleta, in New Mexico, remained
-deserted until 1709 when it was re-established by Fray Juan de la Pe�a.
-
-Two different missions were built at Isleta Pueblo. The first, San
-Antonio de Isleta, was constructed about 1629. The church was burned in
-1680, and in 1681 was being used as a sheep corral. Between 1680 and the
-completion of the reconquest, it was completely destroyed. The second
-mission, still remaining at Isleta, called San Agustin de Isleta, was
-built in 1709 on the old site.
-
-Agriculture is the primary pursuit of the Indians of Isleta, although
-they do considerable stock grazing. The population of Isleta is nearly
-2000 persons. The annual fiesta takes place in late August.
-
-
-                              Jemez Pueblo
-
-The Jemez Indians were first seen by Europeans in 1541 when they were
-visited by Captain Francisco de Barrio-Nuevo, of Coronado's expedition.
-He counted seven villages, naming them Aguas Calientes because of the
-many hot springs in the canyon of the Jemez River. The ancient pueblos
-are now all in ruins, with one preserved as the Jemez State Monument.
-The present pueblo, built on the mesa where the Jemez River leaves the
-mountains, was constructed after the Pueblo Revolt. The Jemez people
-fled their older villages during the reconquest and for a time lived
-with the Navajo, whom they disliked but preferred to the Spanish.
-
-There have been four notable missions among the Jemez Indians. The
-first, San Diego de Jemez Mission, was built in the early seventeenth
-century. It was one of the most successful of the New Mexico missions;
-reportedly, more than 6000 converts were made among the Jemez Indians
-before 1622. Because of the constant attacks of the Navajo, the
-traditional enemies of the Jemez people, the ancient pueblos gradually
-declined and were finally completely abandoned after Jemez participation
-in the Pueblo Revolt. The ruins of this church, now the Jemez State
-Monument, are among the most picturesque in all New Mexico. Its walls
-are three feet thick and were put together with intricate care. In its
-time, it must have been a beautiful building.
-
-The second, San Juan de Los Jemez Mission, was built in 1617 at a
-village located near the junction of the Guadalupe and Jemez rivers, six
-miles north of the present pueblo. The ruins are faint but still
-visible. The mission was abandoned in 1680.
-
-The third mission had a very brief history. It was called San Jose de
-los Jemez Mission and was located near San Juan de Los Jemez, of which
-it was a _visita_. Like San Juan, San Jose was abandoned in 1680.
-
-The present mission was founded early in the eighteenth century and is
-one of the interesting things to visit at Jemez Pueblo. This old church
-is the center of the annual festival held at Jemez on November 12.
-
-Jemez is noted for its splendid presentation of the Buffalo Dance in the
-winter and for its Corn Dances during the November festival.
-
-
-                             Laguna Pueblo
-
-Laguna Pueblo is the youngest and second largest of the pueblos in New
-Mexico. Built in 1697, shortly after the reconquest by de Vargas, the
-name was derived from a large lake which existed at one time just west
-of the village. In addition to the main village, a number of small
-settlements have developed where the terrain is suitable for
-agriculture, the main occupation of the Lagunas. The most important of
-these villages are Paguate, Encinal, Paraje, Mesita, Seama, and Casa
-Blanca. The Laguna Indians are of mixed origin, composed of four
-linguistic stocks: Tano, Keres, Shoshone, and Zuni.
-
-    [Illustration: Rock-walled Santa Maria mission, Laguna Reservation]
-
-Although the occupation of the pueblo was traditionally agriculture, in
-recent years a moderate revolution has been visible. The people of
-Laguna are in the middle of one of the richest uranium mining areas in
-the world, and many of them have been employed in mining activities.
-Also, the pueblo lies on the main line of the Santa Fe Railway, allowing
-some employment with the railroad. Laguna Pueblo is one of the most
-progressive of all the Indian groups in New Mexico. It has a population
-well in excess of 3000.
-
-Located at Laguna is the San Jose de Laguna mission, built in 1699. The
-plaster on the building is native earth. Indian symbols are painted on
-the ceiling of the chancel, and a large picture of St. Joseph done on
-elk skin hangs on the reredos. The halos on the saints are triangular
-rather than circular. The altar is covered with animal skins painted
-with Christian symbols.
-
-
-                              Namb� Pueblo
-
-Namb� is one of the smallest of the pueblos but is located in an area
-noted for its scenic beauty and climate. Its population is less than
-200. It was not always so small; during the eighteenth and nineteenth
-centuries, the population was greatly reduced by intertribal war and
-witchcraft executions. The Namb� people played an active role in the
-pueblo rebellion of 1680, murdering their priest and destroying their
-church.
-
-The original church at Namb� was one of the first missions founded after
-the establishment of the first European settlement of San Gabriel at San
-Juan in 1598. Destroyed in 1680, it was rebuilt in 1696. In 1729, the
-converts had increased to such numbers that a new church was required.
-This church remained in use until 1909 when, because of carelessness in
-keeping it in repair, the roof collapsed during a storm. The annual
-Namb� fiesta is held in early October.
-
-
-                             Picur�s Pueblo
-
-Picur�s is seldom visited by the tourist, for it lies in the mountains
-forty miles north of Santa Fe and can only be reached over a gravel
-road. The people of Picur�s were among the most warlike of the normally
-peaceful pueblo peoples. They participated actively in the pueblo
-rebellion in 1680, killing their priest and all the Spaniards in the
-vicinity. They also participated in the battle for Santa Fe which broke
-Spanish power in New Mexico until 1692. After the revolt, fear of the
-Spanish caused them to abandon their village until they were induced to
-return in 1706. The population of Picur�s is very small, being slightly
-more than 100.
-
-One of the few old missions left in New Mexico, the San Lorenzo de
-Picur�s church shows the strange mixture of Spanish and Indian
-traditions. Near the door is a human skull covered with an old cloth,
-but unfortunately, its story is lost to antiquity.
-
-An interesting feature at Picur�s is the unusual construction seen in
-some of the buildings. Made of puddled adobe, they are the oldest still
-standing of any pueblo in the Rio Grande Valley. The buildings were made
-by pouring adobe mud into wall forms. This is the same kind of
-construction that is found at Casa Grande, Arizona, one of the
-significant prehistoric ruins in the United States.
-
-
-                            Pojoaque Pueblo
-
-Pojoaque, though still listed among the Indian villages of New Mexico,
-is no longer populated by Indians. Two missions were established at
-Pojoaque in the early Spanish days, the first shortly after 1600. This
-was destroyed in the rebellion in 1680. Later, in 1706, a new church was
-constructed which is still in use. The Indian population of Pojoaque was
-gradually reduced until, in 1900, the few remaining families abandoned
-the village. Since that time, Spanish-American families have occupied
-the buildings. It is a picturesque village seldom seen, for it is hidden
-from the passing tourist by a hill. Yet some of the buildings in this
-ancient village date back to pre-Coronado times and are a significant
-part of the romance of New Mexico.
-
-
-                             Sandia Pueblo
-
-Sandia Pueblo is a remnant of the Tiguex villages visited by Coronado in
-1540. A mission was created at Sandia shortly after the colonization by
-O�ate, and it was an important mission center until the Pueblo Revolt.
-After the revolt, Sandia peoples scattered rather than again submit to
-Spanish control. Many of them went to live with the Hopi and there
-founded the village of Payupki on the middle mesa, the walls of which
-can still be found. After 62 years, in 1742, a few families returned to
-the Rio Grande Valley to found the modern pueblo. The old mission
-remains visible, although reduced to a rubble of adobe. Sandia Pueblo
-remains a small village, containing less than 150 people.
-
-
-                           San Felipe Pueblo
-
-San Felipe is one of the most conservative of the pueblos and has
-retained much of its Indian heritage despite the impact of Spanish and
-American influences. It has a close affinity with its neighbors,
-particularly Santo Domingo only five miles distant. San Felipe was a
-well-established village when the Spanish first arrived. Its people
-joined in heartily when the pueblo uprising began in 1680 but abandoned
-their village during a Spanish counteroffensive in 1681 (which failed).
-When reconquest was completed in 1692, the people returned to their
-village. Thereafter, they remained friendly to the Spanish and suffered
-many attacks from the Navajo, who hated them for this loyalty.
-
-One of the finest remaining structures showing early Franciscan mission
-architecture can be seen at the San Felipe church. The present church is
-not the original mission, for three different churches were located at
-San Felipe over the centuries. The first was built in 1605 and destroyed
-during the Pueblo Revolt. The second was built in a new part of the
-village in 1694, but shortly after 1700, the village was moved and a new
-church constructed. The latter church is the one now in use at San
-Felipe. On May 1, the nearly 1000 people of the pueblo celebrate their
-annual fiesta.
-
-
-                          San Ildefonso Pueblo
-
-San Ildefonso has gained fame throughout the world because of the
-excellence of its pottery. The high quality and general acceptance of
-this commodity has made the village prosperous. It boasts some of the
-most famous Indian artists and artisans in the United States, among them
-Julian and Maria Martinez, perhaps the best-known potters in the world.
-
-San Ildefonso participated in the Pueblo Revolt but did not contest the
-reconquest, at least not at first. In 1694, when de Vargas began to wage
-war on the northern pueblos, San Ildefonso did take part. The people
-fortified themselves on Black Mesa, a high, steep mesa of volcanic
-origin near the pueblo. There they successfully withstood Spanish
-efforts to dislodge them. Notwithstanding their initial success, they
-were ultimately conquered and brought into the Spanish system. Today
-there are several hundred people living in the village, and they are
-among the friendliest of the pueblo peoples. San Ildefonso is easily
-accessible from Santa Fe.
-
-The mission church dates back to the 1890's, although earlier churches
-at the pueblo played an important role in bringing Christianity to the
-Pueblo Indian world. The older churches are long since gone.
-
-
-                            San Juan Pueblo
-
-San Juan Pueblo is best noted for its close association with the first
-Spanish settlement in New Mexico in 1598. O�ate, colonizer of New
-Mexico, selected a site for his first headquarters which was a part of
-the ancient Pueblo of San Juan. The natives living in that part of the
-village willingly gave up their homes to the Spaniards and were taken in
-by the remainder of the people of San Juan. O�ate, in appreciation for
-this hospitality, bestowed upon the pueblo the name _San Juan de los
-Caballeros_, a name which the pueblo is still proud to bear.
-
-Yet this same friendly people also contributed Po-p�, the great leader
-of the Pueblo Revolt, to the history of New Mexico. While Po-p� shared
-with many other pueblo leaders a hatred of the Spanish conqueror, he was
-the spiritual force and the organizer of the rebellion that broke the
-control of the Spaniard for twelve years and returned New Mexico to the
-Indian. This great rebellion stands as one of the significant efforts in
-the history of the world of a people to cast off the bonds of foreign
-control.
-
-San Juan cannot claim a church dating back to the _conquistadores_, but
-it does have one of the great landmark churches in the Southwest. In
-1890, the chapel of Our Lady of Lourdes was dedicated at San Juan. It
-was constructed of red volcanic rock found west of the Rio Grande. This
-beautiful structure is an architectural jewel set in desert
-surroundings.
-
-The nearly 700 people of San Juan welcome visitors to their homes; their
-undecorated burnished black pottery is particularly distinctive and
-popular. The pueblo's annual festival is held in June.
-
-
-                            Santa Ana Pueblo
-
-Santa Ana Pueblo lies along the banks of the Rio Jemez, which enters the
-Rio Grande from the west. The pueblo was visited by O�ate and a mission
-was built there about 1600, shortly after his visit. The people of Santa
-Ana joined in the Pueblo Revolt, and since there was no priest serving
-their church in 1680, they joined with the Indians of Santo Domingo and
-San Felipe to massacre the padres at San Felipe. In 1687, during one of
-the Spanish efforts to reconquer New Mexico, Santa Ana was destroyed and
-her people fled. Later, at the urging of de Vargas, the modern pueblo
-was established, along with the church now standing there. The
-population of Santa Ana is nearly 400. Its annual festival takes place
-in August. It is often difficult to find many of the people at the main
-pueblo for they spend most of the growing season at El Ranchito, to the
-east in the Rio Grande Valley.
-
-
-                           Santa Clara Pueblo
-
-Santa Clara Pueblo is near the mouth of Santa Clara Creek, a year-round
-stream flowing out of the Jemez Mountains into the Rio Grande. To the
-west of the pueblo, on lands owned by Santa Clara, are the famous Puye
-Cliff Dwellings ruins. The people of Santa Clara claim these natural
-cliff homes as their ancestral dwelling places, a fact which has been
-substantiated by archeologists. The Santa Clara Indians represent, then,
-an important living Indian group in which one can observe institutions
-and traditions that can be linked to traditions of the cultures that
-lived in the caves and abandoned cities of Southwest antiquity.
-
-Like most of the pueblo people, Santa Clara joined the Pueblo Revolt,
-but this action did not seriously harm the pueblo. The real damage was
-done to Santa Clara in the late eighteenth century when intertribal
-warfare over witchcraft, plus the ravages of disease, took nearly 500
-lives in the village. The current population is about 500.
-
-The church at Santa Clara is quite modern, having been constructed in
-the twentieth century. The old church, built in 1760, was caught up in
-the modernization craze that swept through the pueblo world in the early
-1900's. Perhaps one of the most substantial and beautiful of all pueblo
-churches, the old church collapsed during a storm in 1909 (the same
-storm that destroyed the church at Namb�); it had been structurally
-weakened by the removal of the roof for remodeling.
-
-The village has excellent agricultural lands and supplements its income
-by manufacturing an excellent and distinctive pure black pottery. Its
-annual festival is in mid-August.
-
-
-                          Santo Domingo Pueblo
-
-Santo Domingo is one of the largest of the pueblos, having a population
-of nearly 1500. It is also the most conservative in retention of its
-native culture. This makes its dances and dress of particular interest
-to the visitor to New Mexico. The present pueblo was established after
-the reconquest in 1692. The Indians of Santo Domingo took a particularly
-active part in the Pueblo Revolt, killing three padres resident at the
-pueblo. When de Vargas moved to retake Santo Domingo, he found the
-people had abandoned the village. They had constructed a village in the
-Jemez Mountains to the west, and it was there that de Vargas defeated
-them. Even then, the people of Santo Domingo did not give up the fight,
-and only after a long series of defeats and serious loss of life did
-they surrender and again return to the vicinity of their original
-village.
-
-The church at Santo Domingo is not so old as many other pueblo edifices,
-but its qualities remain among the most typical aspects of early New
-Mexico mission architecture. In early August, during the great annual
-festival, the Indians completely clean and whitewash the church. Two
-large horses are painted on the front of the building by native artists.
-The dances during the Santo Domingo festival are among the most colorful
-and authentic in New Mexico.
-
-
-                              Taos Pueblo
-
-Taos represents the northernmost of the pueblos in New Mexico. It is
-also one of the most scenic, lying at the foot of the Taos Mountains, a
-spur of the mighty Sangre de Cristo range. It is a prosperous village of
-about 900 persons. There is no finer example of pueblo apartment
-architecture in New Mexico. The main pueblo building rises five stories
-above the mesa. One must be careful not to confuse the Spanish town, don
-Fernando de Taos, and the old Indian farming center, Ranchos de Taos,
-with the pueblo, San Geronimo de Taos. It is the latter that is Indian
-and is, therefore, by far the oldest of the three.
-
-The ruins of the old San Geronimo mission at Taos represent one of the
-most historic and fateful in all the Southwest. It was there that two
-priests were murdered in 1680 during the first days of the Pueblo
-Revolt. It was there that Po-p� sowed the first seeds of that rebellion.
-Again in 1696, the Taos Indians sought to free themselves from Spanish
-control by killing their priests and other Spaniards in the vicinity.
-Again they were subdued. In 1847, when the Americans annexed New Mexico,
-the Taos Indians tried once more to gain their independence. Inflamed by
-Mexican citizens who refused to accept American authority, they attacked
-the Americans at Fernando de Taos, killing nine of them. Governor
-Charles Bent, builder of the famous Bent's Fort on the Santa Fe Trail,
-was among those killed. On February 3, 1847, the American army in New
-Mexico laid siege to the village and the Indians fortified themselves in
-the mission. It became the Alamo of the Taos people. American artillery
-was brought to bear, and the walls of the ancient church were battered
-down; the Indians fled, first to the village and then into the
-mountains, leaving behind 150 dead and many wounded. They were finally
-forced to surrender, and their leaders were hung. Those so hung remain
-martyrs to this day. The ruins of the Taos mission, built three and a
-quarter centuries ago, still can be seen. They are a stark landmark to
-the stubborn independence of the people of Taos.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Souvenir of the American army's work in 1847: Taos Pueblo mission]
-
-The traditions and ceremonials of Taos are well preserved. Their arts
-and crafts, however, have declined and are not of the high quality found
-in some of the other pueblos. Their ceremonials are excellent and are
-noted for their beauty and precision. The feast day of San Geronimo,
-September 30, is the most important event of the year.
-
-
-                             Tesuque Pueblo
-
-Tesuque is a small village, perhaps numbering no more than 150 persons.
-Even though it has always been small, it holds a major place in the
-history of New Mexico. It was at Tesuque that the first blood was shed
-in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. On August 9, Cristobal de Herrera was
-murdered, and two Tesuque Indians rushed to Santa Fe to warn the Spanish
-governor of the impending rebellion. The Indian leaders, now aware that
-their plot was known, moved the date of the revolt from August 13 to
-August 10. On August 10, Father Pio, in charge of the Tesuque mission,
-went out from Santa Fe to say Mass and also was murdered.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Most-painted church in America?... Ranchos de Taos]
-
-Although its handicrafts are of poor quality, the Tesuque Indian
-ceremonials are colorful and authentic. The people have retained much of
-their early culture while living in proximity to the white man (Santa Fe
-is only nine miles distant). The pueblo's most important festival falls
-on November 12.
-
-
-                               Zia Pueblo
-
-The story of Zia is one of tragedy and difficult problems of existence.
-Located on a basalt flow on the north bank of the Jemez River some
-fifteen miles above its junction with the Rio Grande, Zia has poor land
-and a limited supply of irrigation water. Agriculture is the main
-economic pursuit, but the pueblo's unfortunate location makes trading
-for part of its food supply necessary.
-
-O�ate reported Zia to be a large pueblo. However, it suffered greatly
-because of its participation in the Pueblo Revolt. Some historians
-estimate that during the reconquest, nearly 600 of the people of Zia
-were killed defending themselves from the Spanish. Continued wars and
-pestilence reduced the pueblo to a very few families. Over the past
-century, the group has again showed signs of growth and now has a
-population of more than 300.
-
-The church at Zia dates from 1692, and thus represents one of the fine
-examples of ancient Franciscan architecture in New Mexico. The annual
-festival, dedicated to Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion, is celebrated with
-an excellent Corn Dance on August 15.
-
-
-                              Zuni Pueblo
-
-Zuni has the distinction of being the first of the pueblos seen or
-visited by Europeans. Seen from a distance by Fray Marcos de Niza in
-1539, it was reported as a rich and extensive city. Nearby were six
-other pueblos, and the Spanish immediately associated the Zuni complex
-with an old Spanish legend about seven golden cities, the Seven Cities
-of Cibola. The expedition of Coronado was formed to explore and conquer
-the rich pueblos of New Mexico. His first contact was at Zuni, then
-called _Hawikuh_. It was neither golden nor rich.
-
-Although Zuni was an important stopping place on the early trails to
-Mexico, it managed to remain least influenced by European ideas. The
-Spanish concentrated their efforts in the Rio Grande Valley and Zuni
-went its own way most of the time. While there were missionary efforts
-from time to time, by the nineteenth century, the stout resistance to
-such activity caused it to cease. In recent years, sporadic missionary
-activity has been evident, but it has not been notably successful.
-
-The most famous of all New Mexico Indian ceremonial dances is held at
-Zuni each year. The Shalako, which occurs in early December, is
-authentic and spectacular. The dancers, carrying huge ceremonial figures
-on their shoulders, must train and practice constantly during the entire
-year.
-
-Zuni is the largest of the pueblos in New Mexico, with a population
-numbering more than 5000 persons. The main occupation is agriculture.
-The Zunis supplement their income by manufacturing silver inlay jewelry
-that shows great creative skill and is beautiful to behold.
-
-
-                        Other New Mexico Indians
-
-In addition to the well-known Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, there are
-four other areas of Indian lands. Three of these belong to peoples of
-Athapascan origin, sometimes better known as Apache Indians. By name,
-they are the Jicarilla Apache, the Mescalero Apache, and Navajo. The
-fourth group is the Ute Indian.
-
-The Apache tribes were relative newcomers to the Southwest. Their origin
-was the plains area between the northern Rocky Mountains and Hudson Bay
-in Canada. About 1000 A.D., a part of these northern Plains Indians
-began a migration that ultimately brought them to New Mexico. Down the
-High Plains across the western Dakotas, western Nebraska, Kansas, and
-finally to western Texas and eastern New Mexico, these people came. At
-about the latitude of Albuquerque, the migration split. Part of the
-group continued south, across the Staked Plains, into southeastern New
-Mexico, west Texas, and northern Coahuila and Chihuahua, Mexico. Here
-they divided into the Lipan, the Mescalero, and the Natage Apache.
-Today, in south-central New Mexico are the descendants of the Mescalero.
-The Mescalero Apache reservation is crossed by U.S. Highway 70, a scenic
-drive through pine forests. The tribe operates the Sierra Blanca ski
-area, one of the southernmost ski areas in the United States. Its annual
-Crown Dance and coming-of-age ceremonials are held July 1 to 4, followed
-by an Apache rodeo. The Lipan and the Natage have virtually disappeared.
-
-The second group of the migration discovered for the first time in their
-long trek down the eastern fringes of the Rockies that the country
-opened up to the west. They poured through the passes and entered the
-areas traditionally controlled by pueblo farmers. Gradually, they took
-over these lands for themselves, driving out the farmers. By the time
-the Spanish came on the scene, most of the peaceful farmers had given
-way before the onslaught of the warlike Athapascan savages. Only one
-group remained, the pueblos of the central Rio Grande Valley. The
-migration that moved into the desert and mountain lands divided into a
-number of groups which are known by modern names: the Chiricahua, White
-Mountain, Western, and Jicarilla Apache and the Navajo. The Jicarilla
-Apache reside mainly in north-central New Mexico on reservation lands,
-and the Navajo reservation lies partly in extreme northwestern New
-Mexico. Most of the Navajo land and all the lands of the others are in
-Arizona.
-
-The Ute Indians, driven from the plains by stronger tribes, settled in
-the central Rocky Mountain area. There they raided the wealthy (at least
-in their eyes) pueblos to the south. They fought sporadically against
-white penetration but were finally subdued and placed on reservation
-lands in the Four Corners area, part of which lies in New Mexico.
-
-While the history of these peoples is fascinating and full of romance,
-there is little besides scenery to be seen when visiting their
-reservations. The populations are often scattered over many hundreds of
-square miles, and the people have only rudimentary handicrafts. The
-exception is the Navajo, and a trip to the Navajo reservation is
-worthwhile. These Indians have developed techniques of weaving and
-silversmithing that contribute significant art forms to Southwest
-handicrafts.
-
-
-The outstanding Indian event of the year in New Mexico is the
-Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial at Gallup, held during mid-August. Some
-thirty tribes from the Southwest and Midwest meet to compete in arts,
-crafts, and ceremonial dancing.
-
-
-
-
-                         Reminders of the Past
-
-
-                       _by_ Paige W. Christiansen
-
-When driving across New Mexico or when visiting some part of the state,
-one should be aware of the wealth of history that is always close at
-hand. Many people, when faced with what seems like endless miles of
-empty country, fail to realize that the very emptiness is one of the
-charms of the state. They also do not recognize that in the vast
-expanses of mountain and desert, people of the ancient past or a recent
-past have lived and worked and died. Sometimes the fruits of their labor
-are clear and evident and live on in cities and towns. In many
-instances, however, the mountains and desert have reclaimed their own
-and the works of man have succumbed. A mental picture must be cast over
-the landscape on which great historical events took place but which is
-almost empty of signs of man's efforts. If travelers are fortunate,
-there may still be some sign--a ghost town, a ruined ranch, some old
-artifacts--to tell the story; if not, imagination must be given rein.
-The search is the adventure, and to give aid in that search, the
-following might suffice as a faint guiding light.
-
-To simplify the descriptions of these reminders of the past, New Mexico
-is divided into seven geographical regions which a traveler might well
-visit:
-
-  1. _North from Santa Fe_, including U.S. Highways 64, 285, and 84, and
-  connecting state highways.
-
-  2. _The northeast_, including U.S. 85 from Santa Fe to Raton, U.S. 66
-  east from Albuquerque to the Texas line, U.S. 56 from Springer to the
-  state line, and connecting state highways.
-
-  3. _The northwest_, including U.S. 66 west from Albuquerque to the
-  Arizona line, U.S. 666 north from Gallup to Colorado, and State
-  Highway 44 from Bernalillo to Farmington.
-
-  4. _East-central_, including U.S. 60 east from Bernardo, U.S. 380 east
-  from San Antonio, U.S. 70 from the Mescalero Indian Reservation to the
-  Texas line, U.S. 285 from Clines Corners to Roswell, U.S. 54 from
-  Three Rivers to Santa Rosa, and connecting state highways.
-
-  5. _West-central_, including U.S. 60 west of Socorro, U.S. 180-260 and
-  State Highway 12 in Catron County, U.S. 85 from Los Lunas to Elephant
-  Butte, and connecting state highways.
-
-  6. _Southeast_, including U.S. 70 from Las Cruces to the Mescalero
-  Indian Reservation, U.S. 54 from El Paso to Three Rivers, U.S. 62 from
-  Hobbs to the Texas line, U.S. 285 from Roswell to the Texas line, and
-  numerous state roads.
-
-  7. _Southwest_, including U.S. 85 from Truth or Consequences to El
-  Paso, U.S. 180 north from Deming to the Catron county line, U.S. 70-80
-  west from Las Cruces to Arizona, and state roads.
-
-
-                          North From Santa Fe
-
-The country north of Santa Fe is the heart of Indian and Spanish New
-Mexico. Here, if he looks beyond the narrow boundaries of the highway
-right-of-way, the traveler can see Indian and Spanish villages which
-have not changed significantly in two and a half centuries. Along the
-lush green of the Rio Grande Valley or of its tributaries dashing out of
-the Sangre de Cristo range to the east, these sleepy concentrations of
-people reveal cultural and language patterns which smack of the
-_conquistadores_ of the sixteenth century or of the ancient cliff
-dwellers. It is a slow and easy world, perhaps most representative of
-the "land of ma�ana." In a region already worked for centuries for what
-it can produce, there is no hurry. It will be there tomorrow and
-forever. The people of this region are typically New Mexican. The hills
-are dotted with pi�on and juniper trees which give a greenish to black
-cast to the land. This, too, is typically New Mexican.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Cool drive on a summer day, Red River Canyon]
-
-There is one short trip that would be fruitful for him who wants to know
-New Mexico, to feel the romance of Spanish culture, and to seek
-adventure off the beaten track. Just north of Espa�ola, State Highway 76
-strikes east from U.S. 64. Nowhere in the state can be found so much of
-old world charm or spectacular scenic beauty. Heading east, the traveler
-passes through Chimay�, a village famed throughout the world for its
-weaving, though seldom visited, then on through Truchas and Las Trampas
-to Penasco, heart of the Penitente country. The Penitentes were a
-religious sect growing out of long isolation from the main threads of
-Roman Catholicism. They gradually reverted to relatively primitive
-Christian practices without guidance from main church centers but within
-the past few years have returned to the Church. The many white crosses
-that can be seen in the area attest to their former activity. From
-Penasco, the traveler can return to U.S. 64 via State Highway 75.
-
-The area northwest of Santa Fe, stretching some thirty or forty miles on
-the southeast flanks of the Jemez Mountains, is the noted Pajarito
-Plateau, the home of great numbers of Indian cultures, living and dead.
-Many of the modern Indian pueblos will be found in this region. Also,
-some of the most significant ancient Indian ruins are found here, such
-as the Frijoles Canyon (Bandelier National Monument) and Puye Cliff
-Dwellings.
-
-The entire area north of Santa Fe, then, is alive with history. In every
-village, in every canyon, there is something that will add to the
-romance of Spanish-Indian New Mexico. In our Southwest, the heritage
-handed down by these two great cultures is held dear by the people. To
-the traveler will come a greater appreciation and a greater
-understanding of New Mexico and the Southwest if these are but
-understood.
-
-
-                          Northeast New Mexico
-
-The section designated as northeast New Mexico is an area of mountains
-and plains, and its historical mosaic shows elements of both: the rugged
-Sandia Mountains near Albuquerque and the southernmost parts of the
-extensive Sangre de Cristo range, which thrusts north from U.S. Highway
-85 far into Colorado, and part of the famed buffalo plains. The area is
-drained by two main river systems; the Canadian River flows east to join
-the Arkansas and the Mississippi and the Pecos River flows south to join
-the Rio Grande.
-
-Through this vast area ran one of Americas greatest highways, the Santa
-Fe Trail. Beginning in Missouri communities, the Trail hurled itself
-into the intricate patterns of the Great Plains with all of their
-dangers--Indians, boredom, violent storms, treacherous rivers, and
-prairie grass fires. Then on into the foothills of the mighty Rocky
-Mountains and the steep and backbreaking approaches to Raton Pass in New
-Mexico. The new highway across this pass (U.S. 85) and the nature of our
-vehicles have made this an easy passage. But the traveler should pause
-at some high point, or perhaps leave the main highway for a moment, and
-try to imagine crossing this rugged land in Conestoga wagons. From
-Raton, the Santa Fe Trail continued south to Las Vegas and thence into
-Santa Fe via Glorieta Pass (current route of U.S. 85). Over this trail
-passed the goods of the world. In part, these were intended for the
-people of New Mexico, but over other trails they also found markets in
-Mexico and in California. For the curious and adventurous, sections of
-the Santa Fe Trail can still be seen. Local inquiry will elicit
-directions to remaining parts of the wide rutted Trail, scene of so much
-of the American westward movement.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    How To see the Rio Grande Valley--from Sandia Crest]
-
-While passing through the mountains between Santa Fe and Las Vegas, the
-traveler should be aware that a critical Civil War battle was waged in
-the fastness of these passes. In 1862, Confederate forces, which came up
-the Rio Grande from Texas and won a series of victories over Union
-troops, met a combined force of Colorado Volunteers and New Mexico Union
-troops in a decisive contest over the control of the American Southwest.
-The Union troops were successful, preserving New Mexico and the West for
-the Union.
-
-These, then, are some of the things to look for in this region of plains
-and mountains. Picture buffalo by the tens of thousands pushing up the
-Canadian River, or long lines of wagons winding their way along the
-Santa Fe Trail carrying goods and people into new lands, or the Blue and
-the Gray locked in deadly combat far from the thunder of the main Civil
-War battles. The mosaic here is sharp and vividly different.
-
-
-                          Northwest New Mexico
-
-Northwest New Mexico is typified as ancient Indian country. While
-seemingly a harsh land, it is only this to the uninitiated, to those who
-lock their minds to beauties of history and lands unlike their own. The
-Indian found this country good and productive. Some of the finest ruins
-of Indian antiquity are in this region--Chaco Canyon and Aztec, both
-National Monuments, and hundreds more that remain unnamed. The Indians
-of the Four Corners area (named thus because New Mexico, Colorado, Utah,
-and Arizona meet here, the only place in the United States where the
-lines of four states intersect) created levels of culture unsurpassed in
-what is the continental United States; only the Indians of Mexico and
-Peru claim a higher culture. This is a land whose ancient people reached
-their great peak at the same time as the later Romans, as Charlemagne in
-ancient Frankish Europe, and as Mohammed and his successors in the
-Middle East.
-
-But ancient Indians hold no monopoly on this vast region. Today many of
-the Indians of New Mexico still find homes here. The Navajo Reservation
-lies between Gallup and the Colorado line. Part of the Ute Reservation
-lies along the northern edge of New Mexico, and the Jicarilla
-Reservation is in the eastern part of this region. Many of the pueblo
-people are found between Albuquerque and Santa Fe. At Gallup each year,
-the famed Indian Ceremonials bring together peoples from many of the
-tribes in the United States.
-
-This region is also renowned as an oil and natural gas producer and is
-one of the booming areas in New Mexico. But this is only one aspect of
-the mineral riches of the northwest; the mines near Grants, between
-Albuquerque and Gallup, produce tremendous quantities of uranium ores.
-The atomic energy capability of the United States begins at Grants. And
-near Gallup and Fruitland are huge open-pit coal mines.
-
-The northwest is drained by the San Juan River, a tributary of the
-Colorado River, and is therefore a part of the Pacific watershed. The
-Navajo Dam project, just east of Farmington, is a part of this drainage
-pattern.
-
-Thus the region is characterized by Indians old and new, ancient things
-buried deep beneath the earth, and great beauty in pastel colors and
-subtle contrasts--the mosaic of the land.
-
-
-                        East-Central New Mexico
-
-East-central New Mexico, like the northeast, is an area of plains and
-mountains. Here the buffalo roamed, and in their place, cattle now
-utilize the hardy and nutritious grasses of the High Plains. Mountains
-are the Manzano, southeast of Albuquerque, and Sierra Blanca, near
-Carrizozo, as well as numerous minor ranges. Also in this region is some
-harsh and desolate country, seared by the southwestern sun and lacking
-in rainfall, but supporting the exotic plants and wildlife typical of
-the Sonoran desert regions.
-
-While the desert regions may not be attractive to the eye, they should
-be appreciated for their part in the historical mosaic. In the area east
-of the Rio Grande is the northern half of the well-known White Sands
-Missile Range, one of the significant test centers in the rocket and
-space age. It was also in this arid region that the first atomic bomb
-was exploded (southeast of Socorro).
-
-The early use of this desert, however, emphasized its harshness. For
-centuries, the Spanish suffered across this waterless waste on their way
-from Chihuahua in Old Mexico to Santa Fe, for this was the Jornada del
-Muerto, journey of death, the hardest and most dangerous part of the
-trip over the Camino Real. The Camino Real was the lifeline of New
-Mexico from 1598 until the Santa Fe Trail was opened in 1821, and all
-visitors during that period were obliged to cross this arid section. A
-modern rocket crosses in mere seconds what took the Spaniards many days.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Who says this is desert country?... Sierra Blanca from U.S. 70]
-
-In the Manzano Mountains, there are numerous Indian ruins which
-represent the eastern fringes of the pueblo-building Indians of New
-Mexico. These ruined villages have been given the name by historians of
-"cities that died of fear," fear of the vicious Apache and Comanche
-tribes. For centuries, these brave village people tilled their crops and
-lived peacefully on the land. Then, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and
-fifteenth centuries, the great migrations of Plains Indians that pushed
-into the Southwest gradually did their deadly work. One by one the
-villages succumbed, until by 1700 few people remained, and these were
-ultimately killed or driven into the sanctuary of the Rio Grande
-pueblos. It is awesome to stand mid the rubble of one of those ancient
-cities and imagine the circumstances of its demise.
-
-In the eastern part of this section was the heart of the High Plains
-cattle empires. Here is a land that once belonged to the great cattle
-barons, a land of free range, the home of the cowboy. Although it is
-fenced today, it is still a land of cattle and is still very close to
-the early days of the cattleman.
-
-Again, there is an intricate and varied mosaic. No simple land this, but
-a complexity of plains, mountains, and desert, all of which color its
-history. The Indians no longer inhabit their villages, the Spanish no
-longer struggle along the Jornada del Muerto, and the free range of the
-cattle baron is gone, but if the traveler sees it through its historical
-past, it will again come alive.
-
-
-                        West-Central New Mexico
-
-This section is a complex and colorful mass of landforms scattered
-helter-skelter across the western part of the state. It stretches from
-the green Rio Grande Valley, with its irrigated lands, quaint farms, and
-picturesque agricultural villages, up the Valley's steep western slopes
-to the rolling grassland and mesas and alluvial fans, ending in
-precipitous and treacherous canyons in the rugged mountains. Socorro
-Mountain, the Magdalenas, the San Mateos, the Ladrones, and countless
-others seem always to ring the horizon. Some of them are timbered and
-abound in cool, refreshing shade and springs; some are harsh and dry. In
-the west, the famed San Agustin Plains stretch to the sunset, a wide
-carpet fringed by black, timbered hills, site of fabulous cattle drives
-of a bygone day. The complexity of the region's geology, scenery, and
-terrain is matched by an equally complex history.
-
-The history is a mosaic of many hues, some harsh and stark like its dry
-desert mountains, some inviting like the shade and coolness of its
-timbered canyons and mountain springs. First were the many diverse and
-sometimes hostile Indian cultures. There were peaceful pueblo peoples
-tilling their lands, using the Rio Grande's flowing water to produce
-abundance. Also, prehistoric village dwellers struggled to create
-agricultural societies along the banks of now-dry rivers in the western
-part of the region. And there were the fearsome Apache Indians who
-founded their homes in the broken mountain fastnesses and added their
-excitement and tragedy to the mosaic. So, too, did the Spaniard make his
-mark and the Mexican who followed close behind. The place names of the
-eastern part of the region are primarily Spanish, although the Spanish
-found the area a difficult one in which to maintain themselves. And then
-the American came to dominate this land, adding realism and technology.
-
-Finally, two major economic factors left a profound imprint: stock
-raising and mining. The first began with the Spanish, was continued by
-the Mexicans, and commercialized by the Americans. Everywhere are signs
-of this heritage. Mining also played a dominant role, although of a
-shorter duration. One can hardly lift his eyes to the hills without
-seeing signs of the prospectors shovel or the miner's work. One can
-hardly converse with local citizens without discussing mines of the past
-or mines of the future. Livestock and minerals, then, are woven through
-the historical pattern and are never far from any part of the story.
-
-Let the traveler be aware of several important facts when he passes
-through this region. First, this is empty country, an area that has
-fewer people now than it had eighty years ago. Its mines are mostly
-closed and the towns that grew with the mines are ghosts. One of the
-most famous of these is the town of Kelly, a short distance from the
-community of Magdalena. Another is Mogollon, off U.S. Highway 180 in the
-southwestern part of this region. Either of these will give to the
-viewer a vivid picture of the mining camps of the nineteenth century.
-
-To the average tourist crossing the San Agustin Plains, they seem
-desolate and uninteresting. To the traveler with imagination and
-knowledge of the history of this once great inland lake, the trip can be
-exciting. He pictures this great basin full of water, forty-five miles
-long and fifteen miles wide, and sees mountains covered with blue spruce
-surrounding the great lake. His mental motion picture rolls on thousands
-of years, watching the water evaporate and the forest of spruce die, to
-be replaced eventually by the pi�on and juniper now dotting the hills.
-Grass grew in the old lake bed, except in the last areas to evaporate,
-for these had an alkali content too high for most grasses. The traveler
-then watches the Indian enter the scene--not the pueblo builder, except
-as a transient, for no water is available. The nomadic warrior uses the
-pathway later. In 1774 and in 1776, he sees several important battles
-between the Spanish and the Apaches fought on these Plains. Later, the
-American cattleman dominates them, as he does today....
-
-And so the mosaic grows--Indians, Spanish, Americans, cattle, and
-mines--and the spectacular vistas and the vast emptiness add color and
-excitement for the traveler who sees the past with the present.
-
-
-                          Southeast New Mexico
-
-Much of southeast New Mexico is an extension of the Great Plains, but it
-has some rugged mountains and a severe desert in the middle of which lie
-White Sands National Monument and the White Sands Missile Range.
-Mountain ranges include the Sacramento east of Alamogordo and the
-Guadalupe Mountains, in which are located Carlsbad Caverns.
-
-The plains part of this region are devoted to cattle, potash, and oil.
-Like the other plains regions of New Mexico, the heritage passed on from
-the great cattle empires of bygone days is very strong and detectable in
-the people. Since the early 1930's, oil has come to play an increasingly
-important part in the history of this section. This is especially true
-near Hobbs.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Anyone for a hike?... in the Guadalupe Mountains]
-
-The desert region in the western part of this section has clearly
-defined aspects of the old and the new. The southern part of the dread
-Jornado del Muerto swept across this arid land and only returned to the
-river near modern Hatch, or sometimes farther south, near modern Las
-Cruces, according to the whim of the river. Here also lies the White
-Sands National Monument, a desert spot of unusual beauty and interest.
-Near the Monument, the White Sands Missile Range stands as an advanced
-scientific test center for the most modern of vehicles, the rocket. Near
-Alamogordo, another advanced space development and testing facility is
-located at Holloman Air Force Base. So the desert is useful, and it is
-beautiful, and it is full of tragic history.
-
-This is also Indian land. East of Tularosa is the Mescalero Apache
-Indian Reservation. In a way, this region has always belonged to the
-Apache, at least since he migrated into New Mexico. The area contained
-no sedentary groups and the Apache appropriated it as his own. His
-strongholds were in the Guadalupe and Sacramento mountains. The forts
-along the Rio Grande, like Forts Fillmore and Selden, were located to
-control the Mescalero and other Apache groups. All that remains today
-are the Mescaleros.
-
-There was little Spanish influence in this area except near El Paso and
-in the Rio Grande Valley. The Spanish were more attracted to the upper
-Rio Grande Valley because of the sedentary nature of the Indians of that
-region. The southeast underwent its greatest development in the American
-period.
-
-Again, sense the mosaic: These are not blends of land and history; they
-are sharp and distinct, each with its own character. Search for the
-history and the beauty, for they do not come automatically.
-
-
-                          Southwest New Mexico
-
-Finally, the southwest, another region of harsh desert and cool
-refreshing mountains, part of New Mexico's unusual contrast. The country
-south of U.S. 70 is Sonoran desert, thinly populated and poorly watered.
-To the north of the highway lies one of the most spectacular beauty
-spots in the Southwest, the mountains and forests forming the headwaters
-of the Gila River. The Gila River flows west across Arizona until it
-joins the Colorado River which empties into the Gulf of California.
-
-The Indians in this part of the state fall into two distinct categories:
-The builders, known as the Mimbres culture, constructed homes in caves
-and along the watercourses of the Gila and Mimbres rivers. They reached
-extremely high levels of culture, and then they disappeared. The Apache
-Indians, who entered this country at the same time as they did the rest
-of New Mexico, were responsible for the end of the farmers and builders,
-at least in part. The Apaches were predators and the farmers were
-peaceful, unversed in the arts of war. Finally the Apache ruled supreme,
-and this region became the most important single stronghold of the
-Indian. It was here that Geronimo found sanctuary. But the Apaches, too,
-were forced to surrender their claims and were placed on reservations
-outside this area.
-
-Mining is and has been the main source of wealth. The great open-pit
-operation of Kennecott Copper Company is at Santa Rita, east of Silver
-City. This is one of the largest open-pit copper mines in North America.
-To look into that huge man-made pit is a thrilling experience. This mine
-was first opened in 1803 by the Spanish who needed copper badly as a
-circulating currency in New Spain (Mexico). For a number of years, the
-coins used for money in Mexico were from copper mined in southwestern
-New Mexico.
-
-Copper represents only a part of the mining activity in this region.
-Famous mining districts in earlier days were at Kingston and Hillsboro,
-just east of the Black Range on State Highway 90. These areas produced
-considerable quantities of silver. There is some activity yet, but the
-boom has long since passed them by, although they are interesting towns
-to visit. The trip from U.S. 85 to Silver City via State Highway 90 is
-one of the most scenic routes in the state.
-
-In the region north of Silver City lies high mountain country, much of
-it preserved as the Gila Wilderness Area. Here a person who wishes the
-solitude of forest and mountain, the thrill of trout fishing in a clear
-cold stream, and a wealth of wildlife can find his heart's desire. In
-the heart of this wilderness, the traveler might well find some of the
-ancient homes of the Mimbres people. History and recreation blend into
-one.
-
-
-These complete the mosaic. Everywhere one travels in New Mexico is
-enchanting history, in the land and/or in the people. This has not been
-an effort to acquaint anyone with the intricate detail of all the
-history of every nook and cranny of this land, but these broad strokes
-made on the canvas may help the traveler, transient or native, to enjoy
-himself. Let him accept the challenge, stop to investigate, search out
-evidence of the history that is there in the colorful and changing land
-itself, the Indian heritage, the Spanish past, the cattleman's range,
-the miner's endless search--and become enchanted.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside_)
-    Wheeler Peak near Taos--highest point in New Mexico, 13,160 feet
-    above sea level]
-
-    [Illustration: (_Courtesy Elliott S. Barker_)
-    Ghost Ranch Mountain north of Abiquiu]
-
-
-
-
-                           Derricks and Mines
-
-
-                        _by_ George B. Griswold
-
-New Mexico is a mineral-rich state. The gross production value of oil,
-gas, and minerals was $671 million during 1963, making the state the
-sixth ranking mineral producer in the nation. New Mexico ranks among
-other states as follows: first in the production of potash, uranium,
-perlite, and carbon dioxide; third in helium; fourth in copper; fifth in
-natural gas and liquids; and seventh in petroleum. Important amounts of
-zinc, lead, gold, silver, magnesium compounds, coal, gypsum, pumice, and
-salt are also produced from deposits within New Mexico. The oil and gas
-industry holds a dominant position in the state, accounting for almost
-two thirds of the value of minerals produced.
-
-
-OIL AND GAS
-
-Most of New Mexico's oil and gas are produced in the southeastern part,
-south and east of Roswell. The bustling towns of Hobbs, Artesia, and
-Lovington, as well as Roswell, are headquarters for the many oil
-companies and the associated service and supply organizations operating
-in the area. Oil and gas are produced from numerous reservoirs, called
-_fields_ or _pools_, in Paleozoic sediments ranging from Ordovician to
-Permian in age. From the standpoint of production, the Eunice-Monument
-field (lying between these two towns) is the largest, having produced
-more than 250 million barrels of oil. Other important fields are Hobbs,
-Vacuum, Langlie Mattix, Denton, and Jalmat. All these fields produce a
-considerable amount of gas associated directly with the oil.
-
-When driving an automobile through southeast New Mexico, a layman finds
-it difficult to comprehend the immensity of the petroleum industry of
-that region. This is due to the scattering of wells over a large area.
-Seldom are wells spaced closer than one to every ten acres, even in the
-most productive fields. There are, in fact, some 16,000 wells in this
-part of New Mexico, ranging in depth from less than 1000 feet to 17,555
-feet.
-
-The other oil- and gas-producing area of the state is in the northwest,
-in the San Juan Basin. Farmington serves as the base of operations for
-most of this activity. In 1962, there were 7378 wells in the area, 1770
-of which were producing oil and gas and 5608 producing gas only. Most of
-the San Juan Basin production is from Cretaceous sandstones, in contrast
-to the southeast where the oil and gas are derived from Paleozoic
-sediments. The development of the San Juan Basin production is
-relatively new; most of the wells have been drilled since World War II.
-The petroleum industry can be proud of the great help it has given to
-the development of this once-almost-forgotten part of the state.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Courtesy El Paso Natural Gas Co._)
-    There's the way to refine oil! Look at those mesas, near Gallup]
-
-The methods of finding and producing oil and gas have come a long way
-from the "boom town" days when wells were drilled for the most part on
-pure hunches and hopes. The exploration and exploitation of petroleum
-are now highly specialized technologies. All branches of the geologic
-and geophysical sciences are brought into play to piece together a
-comprehensive picture of all the factors which may have made a certain
-area favorable for the accumulation of oil or gas. These factors include
-such things as the age, thickness, and permeability of the sedimentary
-rocks, the structure, old shorelines, and buried reefs. Once a target is
-selected, a drilling rig is moved onto the location to prove or disprove
-the theory. This is the costly step of finding oil. A single 10,000-foot
-hole may cost $350,000, and some individual wells in New Mexico have
-cost more than $1 million to drill. If the well is in a completely
-untested area, it is called a "wildcat." Once a discovery is made, then
-the land around the wildcat is explored by "offset" wells until the
-complete extent of the new field is proved.
-
-During 1962, 1666 wells were drilled to an average depth of 5153 feet.
-The average drilling cost was $71,000 a well, representing a total
-investment of almost $120 million in a single year! Most of these wells
-were of the development (offset) type, but even then, 27 per cent were
-dry. During 1962, 295 true wildcats were drilled; of these, only 46
-found oil or gas--about two out of every thirteen.
-
-The story of oil just begins with the discovery of a well. Various
-special "completion" operations are applied to the oil-producing horizon
-so as to increase the flow into the well. The most common techniques are
-either by "acidizing," pumping acid into the formation to increase flow
-by enlarging the pores in the rock, or by "hydrafracing," whereby actual
-cracks are induced in the formation by pumping oil from the surface back
-into the well under very high pressure. After the well is "completed,"
-it may be a natural-flowing well if sufficient gas is associated with
-the oil. If sufficient gas is not present, then the well is pumped.
-
-In recent years, considerable success has been achieved in revitalizing
-old fields where production had dropped below the point of economic
-operation. These fields are reactivated by forcing either water or gas
-down selected wells within the field, thereby forcing stagnated oil
-within the producing zone toward the other wells. This technique is
-called _secondary recovery_. Many fields will produce more oil under the
-secondary recovery program than they did during their primary life.
-
-    [Illustration: Here's a wildcat for you!]
-
-Once the oil is on the surface, it passes through separators to remove
-any admixed gas from the oil. The gas is sent into pipelines while the
-oil is sent to storage tanks called _tank batteries_. Periodically, the
-oil is drawn from the tank batteries where it is transported by pipeline
-or rail to refineries. The great bulk of the crude oil leaves New Mexico
-for refining via a major pipeline network extending through Texas to
-both the Gulf and East coasts. Some oil is refined in New Mexico,
-however. Oil refineries in Artesia, Bloomfield, Ciniza, Farmington, and
-Monument have a combined capacity to treat some 30,000 barrels (42
-gallons a barrel) of crude oil a day. On the other hand, practically all
-the natural gas is treated in New Mexico so as to recover its liquid
-petroleum constituents before sending it out of the state by pipeline.
-
-
-MINING
-
-The mining industry of New Mexico dates back to the days of Spanish
-rule. Copper was mined from the Santa Rita mine as early as 1800 for
-shipment to Mexico for use in coinage. Significant mining in New Mexico
-did not commence, however, until the late 1800's. There are three major
-centers today: Carlsbad, potash; Silver City area, copper, zinc, and
-lead; and Grants, uranium.
-
-    [Illustration: Question: where are the other oil pumps and tanks in
-    the San Juan Basin?]
-
-The potash mining east of Carlsbad, a $75 million-a-year industry
-employing more than 3600 persons, is the largest operation of its kind
-in the world. Six mining companies are active in the area, and a seventh
-is developing yet another mine. _Potash_ is a word used to denote
-various potassium compounds. The principal ore mineral at Carlsbad is
-sylvanite, a mixture of potassium chloride and sodium chloride (common
-salt). The ore contains the equivalent of 21 to 25 per cent potassium
-oxide (K_2O).[6] Another ore mineral, known as _langbeinite_, a double
-salt of potassium and magnesium sulfate, is also mined.
-
-The potash ores occur as horizontal beds sandwiched between thick salt
-and anhydrite layers. These beds are the result of evaporation of large
-quantities of salt waters during the latter part of the Permian period
-some 240 million years ago. The potash-bearing horizons now are buried
-from 900 to 1800 feet below the surface. The discovery of potash in
-southeast New Mexico was almost by accident. In 1925, the Snowden and
-McSweeny Company drilled a wildcat oil test a few miles east of
-Carlsbad. The hole was dry, but potash minerals were detected in the
-drill cuttings. The discovery generated considerable interest because
-the United States was forced to import most of its potash prior to this
-time. Further drilling proved the existence of tremendous deposits of
-potassium salts in that area.
-
-The potash mines are among the most highly mechanized of the mineral
-industry. Access to the buried deposits is gained by vertical shafts.
-Actual mining is now done to a large extent by continuous miners,
-machines which bore or rip the potash ore from the face and load it into
-shuttle cars in one continuous operation. The shuttle cars then
-transport the ore to conveyor belts which move it to the shafts for
-hoisting. Working conditions and safety are excellent and have led to
-high productivity from these mines.
-
-The potash ore is refined or processed by fractional crystallation or
-flotation. These plants remove most of the unwanted sodium chloride and
-other gangue minerals to produce high-quality potassium chloride or
-sulfate. After processing, the potash salts are stored in giant bins to
-await shipment by rail to the major agriculture areas of the United
-States. The Carlsbad mines produce some 15 million tons of ore a year
-which, when refined, produces 4 million tons of marketable potassium
-salts having a K_2O equivalent of 2.5 million tons.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Courtesy International Minerals & Chemical Corp._)
-    Crunch!... continuous mining machine at work]
-
-Uranium mining is the newest major industry in New Mexico. The boom
-started in 1950 with the discovery of uranium ore west of Grants by a
-Navajo sheep rancher named Paddy Martinez. This discovery started one of
-the most extensive exploration and development campaigns in all mining
-history. By 1957, the area had proved uranium reserves accounting for
-more than half of the entire reserve of the nation. These discoveries
-will make this country self-sufficient in this vital atomic energy metal
-for years to come. Five mills were built that are capable of producing
-"yellow cake" (almost pure uranium oxide) from uranium ores containing
-as little as 0.20 per cent U_3O_8. Four mills are located in the Grants
-area, ranging in capacity from 1500 to 4000 tons a day. The fifth mill,
-rated at 500 tons a day, is at Shiprock.
-
-There are numerous mines, ranging from tiny two-man operations up to
-great mines producing more than 1000 tons a day. The most prolific
-producing area is the Ambrosia Lake District north of Grants; most of
-these mines are underground. Probably the largest single uranium mine,
-however, is the open-pit Jackpile-Paguate mine of the Anaconda Company
-on the Laguna Indian Reservation some thirty miles east of Grants. The
-mine uses electric shovels capable of loading eight cubic yards of ore
-at a time into large diesel trucks.
-
-Copper is produced from the Chino mine located at Santa Rita, about
-fifteen miles east of Silver City. This mine, operated by Kennecott
-Copper Corporation, is the showpiece of the New Mexico minerals
-industry. The copper ore is low grade, containing only sixteen pounds a
-ton of the red metal, but the deposit is immense, allowing the mining of
-22,500 tons a day. The Chino is by far the largest single mining
-operation in the state. A large concentrator and smelter are located at
-Hurley, about ten miles southwest of the pit.
-
-The Chino pit is a spectacular sight for its scenic setting and its
-sheer size. The deposit is located below the Kneeling Nun, a famous
-natural statue formed by the erosion of a rhyolite flow which caps a
-high mesa. The pit covers almost one square mile and is 800 feet deep.
-The mining is highly mechanized. Large rotary drills make blast holes
-twelve inches in diameter into which explosives are loaded. A single
-blast may break 100,000 tons of rock. The ore is loaded with
-8-cubic-yard shovels into large trucks carrying from 25 to 65 tons each.
-The trucks transport the ore to an inclined skipway on the west end of
-the pit. The skip then carries the ore up to the train level where it is
-transferred into railroad cars for shipment to the mill. Waste rock, too
-low-grade to justify sending to the mill, is transported to the very top
-of the skip way, where it is trucked to the dumps. At Chino, much of the
-waste rock contains some copper. The amount is small, but a part of it
-can be recovered by leaching-percolating water down through the rock to
-dissolve the copper. At the bottom of the dumps, the copper-rich water
-is collected and sent through precipitating tanks containing scrap iron.
-The copper plates out on the iron, forming metallic copper. The
-dump-leaching program alone at Chino is a substantial enterprise.
-
-The concentrator and smelter at Hurley is the facility which reduces the
-low-grade ore into pure metal. The concentrator first crushes and grinds
-the ore, then recovers the copper-bearing minerals (principally
-chalcocite and chalcopyrite) by flotation. The concentrate of these
-copper sulfides is taken to the smelter to make metallic copper.
-
-North and west of the Chino mine are important deposits of zinc and
-lead. Two underground mines are now active: the Hanover of the New
-Jersey Zinc Company and the Kearney--Pewabic of American--Peru Mining
-Company. Although dwarfed by the Chino mine, these are important
-producers.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Courtesy The Anaconda Co._)
-    Man, dig this hole!... Jackpile open-pit uranium mine near Laguna]
-
-    [Illustration: (_Courtesy Kennecott Copper Corp._)
-    "Just scoop up copper ore, take it to the skipway...." up the side
-    of the Chino Mine at Santa Rita]
-
-Copper, potash, and uranium are not the only mining operations of New
-Mexico. Perlite is recovered from deposits near No Agua in Taos County
-and just north of Grants. Two new gypsum plants are now operating
-northeast of Albuquerque, and a cement plant is located east of that
-city. High-grade copper veins are worked south of Lordsburg. Coal mining
-is being reactivated, with producing mines near Gallup, Fruitland, and
-Raton. A new molybdenum mine is under development east of Questa. New
-Mexico's mineral industry is on a broad and firm base.
-
-Mines and derricks are ever-present aspects of New Mexico's landscapes;
-they are seen by every citizen of the state and every tourist as he
-travels across the plains, valleys, and mountains. The derricks and the
-mine openings are merely surface features through which the vast wealth
-of the underground is exploited, but they are a monetarily important
-part of New Mexico's scenery, rocks, and history.
-
-
-
-
-                         Enchanting Landscapes
-
-
-                        _by_ Frank E. Kottlowski
-
-The visitor and the native may be well acquainted with the more famous
-scenic places in New Mexico. Most of these are National or State Parks
-or Monuments--glistening dunes of White Sands, sandstone cliffs of El
-Morro, canyons eroded in volcanic rocks of Bandelier, the recent volcano
-of Capulin Mountain, multicolored sinkholes at Bottomless Lakes,
-grotesque carvings of volcanic rocks at City of Rocks, and the black
-tongues of cooled lava in the Valley of Fires State Park near Carrizozo.
-
-Many of the lesser-known spectacular scenic areas are off the beaten
-path, far from the seventy-mile-an-hour Interstate highways. Even a
-brief description of all would fill a thick book. But near the most
-traveled routes are numerous enchanting landscapes. The traveler from
-the midwest or east, driving U.S. Highway 66 (Interstate 40) breaks over
-the edge of the "caprock" a few miles east of the New Mexico--Texas
-line. Atop the caprock is Llano Estacado, the Staked Plains, a level
-surface stretching along the southeast edge of New Mexico eastward into
-Texas. As seen south of Tucumcari near Ragland, east of Fort Sumner near
-Taiban, or east of Roswell near Kenna and Caprock, the bluffs of the
-Llano Estacado are topped by caprock, a cliff of white caliche-limestone
-as much as forty feet thick in places. Below, on gentle to steep slopes
-reaching northward toward Tucumcari or westward toward Fort Sumner and
-Roswell, are the varicolored red, purple, green, and gray shales and
-sandstones of Triassic age. Red Lake near Taiban on U.S. Highway 60-84
-lies in the red muds of these Triassic rocks.
-
-South of Tucumcari, rising boldly from the red-earth lowlands draining
-to the Canadian River, are Tucumcari Mountain and Mesa Redonda, and to
-the northwest the long buff cliffs of Mesa Rica. The latter mesa lies
-north of Interstate 40 as far west as Newkirk. Patches of the white
-caprock caliche-limestone cap these eastern New Mexico sentinels,
-whereas in other localities, the brown Dakota Sandstone tops the buttes
-and is underlain by pink Jurassic sandstones, with the mesa bases made
-up of the Triassic redbeds.
-
-Near Santa Rosa, Interstate 40 dips down into the narrow green valley of
-Rio Pecos. Roadcuts lining the steep hills into the city show the red
-and brown sandstones and shales of the Triassic beds.
-
-Driving westward from Santa Rosa, one crosses rolling hills near Clines
-Corners, then dips gently down into the northern part of the Estancia
-Basin near Moriarty. To the north on the horizon are the snow-capped
-peaks of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. From Moriarty, Interstate 40
-pulls slowly upward toward Edgewood into the eastern foothills of the
-Sandia Mountains, the grassy plains giving way to juniper and pi�on
-groves.
-
-From the downgrade into Tijeras Canyon, State Highway 10 leads north to
-San Antonito and the turnoff to Sandia Crest. The crest road winds up
-canyon walls, on sloping limestone mesas, up through thick stands of
-ponderosa pine, aspen, and, near the top, Engelmann spruce and corkbark
-fir. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep may be seen off the road on the high
-crags. From Sandia Crest, 10,678 feet above sea level, much of
-north-central New Mexico is visible; Mount Taylor to the west, the
-Nacimiento and Jemez mountains to the northwest, the mighty Sangre de
-Cristo Mountains to the northeast, and countless ranges to the south and
-southwest. The city of Albuquerque is spread out at the base of the
-Sandias, and the twisting north-south channel of the Rio Grande
-stretches, glistening, as far left and right as one can see.
-
-From Tijeras, Interstate 40 plunges into Tijeras Canyon, slicing through
-vertical roadcuts in Pennsylvanian limestones and shales, then through
-the ancient Precambrian granite. At the canyons mouth, the road levels
-off on the broad alluvial plain on which much of east Albuquerque is
-built, although the "downtown" is really down, in the valley of the Rio
-Grande.
-
-Westward, Interstate 40 rolls up out of the valley, crosses windswept
-plains spotted with black volcanic cones, in and out of the shallow
-brown valley of Rio Puerco, and then to the red-cliff-bordered valley of
-Rio San Jose. Cliffs are of brown, buff, and light-gray Jurassic
-sandstones, with the valley carved in Triassic redbeds. Near Laguna, on
-the north side of the valley, white gypsum of the Todilto Formation
-crops out. Then through the pink Jurassic cliffs the canyon winds, and
-near New Laguna, the highway is bordered by the varicolored,
-uranium-bearing Morrison beds, which are overlain by brown sandstones
-and black shales of Cretaceous age.
-
-But as Interstate 40 approaches Grants, the dominant feature is black
-frozen lava. The mesas surrounding Mount Taylor are capped by black
-basalt, built up in many layers, each individual flows, and loose blocks
-tumble down on the hillsides. Young basalt, twisted and wrinkled as if
-it were still hot, winds along the valley; just east of Grants, a huge
-"field" of this recent basalt stretches southward beyond the horizon.
-And above all looms Mount Taylor, remnant of an ancient volcano,
-snow-capped in winter, towering 11,389 feet above sea level.
-
-At Casa Blanca, southeast of Mount Taylor, State Road 23 leads south to
-Acoma Pueblo. Eleven miles to the southwest, Enchanted Mesa, _Katsim_ as
-it is called by the Acomas, towers 450 feet above the surrounding valley
-floor. This sheer-cliffed rock is built by layers of (from the base to
-the top) pink and white Entrada Sandstone, gray Todilto limestone, pink
-and green Summerville beds, a massive cliff of light-tan Zuni Sandstone,
-and a cap of yellow-brown Dakota Sandstone.
-
-The top of Enchanted Mesa is inaccessible by normal means. Legend has it
-that once the Acomas lived there, and there are Indian ruins up on the
-isolated rim. A terrific rain and lightning storm, one summer day, sent
-huge waterfalls down the sides of the mesa, tearing away large blocks of
-sandstone, and destroyed the trail to the top, a series of narrow zigzag
-ledges and toeholds in crevasses. Thus the Acoma Indians moved a few
-miles to the southwest to Acoma, onto the top of another sheer cliff, a
-rock fortress carved in Zuni Sandstone and capped by Dakota Sandstone.
-
-    [Illustration: Talk about wide open spaces ... around the Enchanted
-    Mesa]
-
-Southwest of Grants, the forested Zuni Mountains rise, bordered on the
-north by a valley cut in Triassic redbeds and on the east by the recent
-black basalt flows. The hurrying traveler will follow Interstate 40 to
-Gallup around the north edge of the Zuni dome, flanked on the north by
-the spectacular pink, red, brown, and gray cliffs of Jurassic and
-Cretaceous sandstones. If one has time, take the low road, State
-Highways 53 and 36, around the southern edge of the Zunis. For almost
-twenty miles, passing through San Rafael, the paved highway parallels
-the west edge of the Grants black basalt flow; then up over low ridges
-and past black cinder cones toward El Morro. In the lava tunnels,
-perpetual ice stays hidden from the sun; these can be visited at Ice
-Caves.
-
-El Morro, Inscription Rock, with its towering cliffs of Zuni Sandstone,
-overlooks peaceful green valleys; farther west, the red and brown
-sandstones are carved into many mesas and buttes near Zuni Pueblo. Then
-northward to Gallup, swinging around the west edge of the Zuni
-Mountains, the roller-coaster highway, State 36, cuts through ponderosa
-pine country, bordered by Cretaceous brown sandstones, black shales, and
-coal beds.
-
-Northeast of Gallup eight miles is Kit Carson's Cave, a gaping door on
-the face of a massive cliff of Jurassic sandstone. A pool of cool water
-lies along its floor. The three-and-a-half-mile drive north of
-Interstate 40 is through a vast broken country of sandstone spires,
-pyramids, cliffs, and ledges carved in the Jurassic rocks. Near Gallup,
-the drab coal-bearing Cretaceous beds form the landscapes, but westward
-near the Arizona line, erosion has cut down again to the brilliantly
-colored Jurassic rocks, and Interstate 40 is escorted westward into the
-Grand Canyon State by cliffs of white and pink sandstone.
-
-Californians crossing New Mexico in the winter are likely to travel U.S.
-Highway 70-80 (Interstate 10) eastward. New Mexico is entered just
-before Steins Pass, which is channeled through the tan and green
-volcanic rocks of the Peloncillo Mountains. Then down across the mud and
-salt marshes of Alkali Flats lying in the Animas Valley and up onto the
-north edge of the Pyramid Mountains into Lordsburg. Mine dumps dot the
-Pyramids, and the ghost mining town of Shakespeare lies amid the purple
-volcanic rocks.
-
-Eastward from Lordsburg for 118 miles are the Antelope Plains; plains,
-plains, plains. Steers graze on the sparse grass, yucca clumps border
-the highway, and here and there sand dunes flee before the restless
-winds. Mountain ranges, like islands on the sea of grass, yucca, and
-creosote bush, rise in the distance. West of Deming, the low Victorio
-Mountains lie south of the highway, made up of dolomite, limestone, and
-andesite ridges. Southeast of Deming are the lofty Florida Mountains,
-their northern toe crossed by Interstate 10. Volcanic hills dot the
-landscape east of Las Cruces, Sierra de las Uvas' purple slopes to the
-north, and the Potrillo Mountains and Mount Riley to the south. The
-latter are part of a spectacular volcanic field where black cinder cones
-and basalt flows cover hundreds of square miles, and craters such as
-Kilbourne Hole are sunk below the plains.
-
-The descent into the Rio Grande Valley is awesome, especially if the
-late afternoon sun is dancing on the spires and cliffs of the Organ
-Mountains to the east. From across the brown plains, Interstate 10 winds
-down into the green Mesilla Valley, a different world of cotton and
-alfalfa fields, pecan and cottonwood groves, and red-tile-roofed Spanish
-homes. The view of the Organ Mountains alone is worth the trip.
-
-At Las Cruces, a city booming on cotton, rockets, and tourists,
-Interstate 10 turns south to parallel the east side of the Rio Grande
-Valley down to Texas and El Paso. If one prefers a quiet scenic route,
-State Highway 28 winds its way along the west side of the Valley amid
-fields and groves, through peaceful villages, to end at the bridge over
-the Rio Grande on the edge of El Paso. Here, to the south, is El Cristo
-Rey, a cone of massive andesite, flanked by steeply tilted beds of
-limestone and shale, Early Cretaceous in age, cut in two by the New
-Mexico-Mexico border. Atop the peak is a 29-foot-high, 40-ton, limestone
-statue of Christ; a winding path leads upward from the base for those
-strong enough of limb to make the climb. Beyond, to the south, Ciudad
-Juarez lies, famous for its bordertown flavor, markets, cathedrals, and
-bull rings.
-
-The traveler to the east should stay on U.S. 62-180 from El Paso. This
-highway cuts through the Hueco Mountains via Powwow Canyon, a gash
-carved from Pennsylvanian and Permian limestones, crosses the Diablo
-Plateau, rolls past the white patches of Salt Flat lakes, then winds up
-to the summit of Guadalupe Pass between the Delaware Mountains on the
-south and the towering Guadalupe Mountains on the north. Looking north
-from the Pass, Guadalupe Peak, highest point in Texas, and El Capitan
-are unforgettable sights, their steep lower slopes ribbed brown and
-green, overshadowed by the 1000-foot limestone cliffs of the peaks. The
-limestone-hewn Guadalupe Mountains parallel the highway in New Mexico
-and are pitted with many caves, with Carlsbad Caverns the largest known
-in the range. Eastward beyond the Pecos Valley stretches the Great
-Plains and Texas.
-
-A side trip, near Carlsbad, over black-topped and gravel roads leads
-from Seven Rivers, up Rocky Arroyo on State Road 137, into the northern
-foothills of the Guadalupe Mountains to Sitting Bull Falls. Here, cool
-spring waters cascade over limestone ledges to join in green pools lying
-amid the cottonwood groves of the canyon floor.
-
-Lake McMillan, a reservoir along the Pecos River north of Carlsbad, and
-the many potash mines east of Carlsbad are parts of the enchanting
-landscapes of this southeastern corner. Northward, following the green
-cotton fields bordering the Pecos River, U.S. Highway 285 leads through
-Artesia with its oil refineries to modern booming Roswell, second city
-of the state. East of Roswell, bordering the east side of the Pecos
-Valley, is Bottomless Lakes, azure blue pools spotted in sink holes.
-
-Eastward from Roswell, on either U.S. Highway 70 or 380, redbeds of
-Permian and Triassic age lie half hidden by pinkish sands up to the edge
-of the caprock; beyond are the fertile grazing and crop lands of the
-Llano Estacado, with its queen cities of Clovis and Portales. Here, deep
-wells pump underground waters to irrigate lush fields that produce
-peanuts, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, melons, strawberries, cucumbers, and
-grapes. On the plains beyond the reach of the wells, wheat, maize, and
-broomcorn are grown. Southeastward, oil derricks dot the plains,
-surrounding Hobbs and Lovington.
-
-Westward from Roswell, U.S. Highways 70 and 380 run together up the
-rolling limestone hills west of the Pecos Valley before plunging down
-Picacho Hill into the narrow canyon of Rio Hondo. At Hondo they divide.
-U.S. Highway 380 leads northwestward through Lincoln town, Billy the
-Kid's shooting grounds, into Capitan, over Indian Divide, and down into
-sleepy Carrizozo--paralleled by the forested peaks of Capitan Mountains
-to the north and overshadowed by mighty Sierra Blanca to the southwest.
-U.S. Highway 70 runs up the green canyon of Rio Ruidoso, past Ruidoso
-Downs, past State Highway 37 which leads to Ruidoso and the Sierra
-Blanca Ski Area, up into the ponderosa pines, crossing the divide at
-Apache Summit, then westward and downhill past Mescalero, paralleling
-Rio Tularosa. Suddenly the canyon widens, and ahead is the dry Tularosa
-Basin with the White Sands glistening in the far distance.
-
-    [Illustration: (_Forest Service, U.S.D.A._)
-    Now this is what is meant by forest.... from Monjeau Lookout]
-
-From Tularosa to Alamogordo, U.S. Highway 70 is along the west edge of
-the Sacramento Mountains wherein tier upon tier of dolomite and
-limestone cliffs rise to the high peaks near Cloudcroft. Southwestward
-from Alamogordo, the highway cuts diagonally across the Tularosa Basin,
-skirting the southern edge of the White Sands, and passing through White
-Sands Missile Range. Ahead lie the fabulous spires of the Organ
-Mountains; to the right, the notched cliffs of the San Andres Mountains
-stretch northward to rounded Salinas Peak and beyond the horizon.
-Steeply, the highway rises to cross San Augustin Pass between the Organ
-and San Andres mountains, past the village of Organ with its crumbling
-mining dumps, before plunging downward onto the southern end of Jornada
-del Muerto, and finally, on the east edge of Las Cruces, leaves the
-creosote bush plains to dip into the green Mesilla Valley of the Rio
-Grande.
-
-West of Carrizozo, U.S. 380 crosses the black basalt flows of Valley of
-Fires State Park, curves over the Carrizozo dome and up the dip slopes
-of Chupadera Mesa, crosses in red roadcuts the northern tip of Sierra
-Oscura, then westward through sand dunes of the northern Jornada del
-Muerto. Coal beds crop out at Cerro Colorado before the highway sweeps
-down into the Rio Grande Valley to San Antonio.
-
-U.S. Highway 60 enters the state from the east on the Staked Plains near
-booming Clovis, crosses Rio Pecos Valley at Fort Sumner--near Billy the
-Kid's grave--goes straight as a beeline over the plains to Vaughn, then
-crosses the low southern end of the Pedernal Hills where tan Permian
-sandstones lie abruptly on Precambrian granite, quartzite, and schists.
-Near Willard, the highway crosses the southern end of the Estancia
-Valley, with the salt lakes of Laguna del Perro mere remnants of the
-huge Pleistocene lake that once filled the Valley. West from
-Mountainair, Abo redbeds border the highway; limestone walls of Gran
-Quivira lie to the south and the red sandstone church ruins of Abo and
-Quarai are to the north. Through Abo Pass between the Manzano and Los
-Pinos mountains the highway runs, then down the long alluvial fan slopes
-to the Rio Grande Valley at Bernardo. From Bernardo to Socorro, U.S.
-Highway 60 joins Interstate 25; westward from Socorro, the road climbs
-out of the Valley onto Snake Ranch Flats, parallels the snow-tipped
-Magdalena Mountains to Magdalena, then crosses the north end of the
-grassy San Agustin Plains. Westward to Datil and Quemado, the highway is
-always in sight of volcanic mountains, up and down winding canyons, and
-across intermontane plains.
-
-Still westward into Arizona along U.S. Highway 60 are Springerville,
-fabulous Salt River Canyon, the mining cities of Globe, Miami, and
-Superior, and booming Phoenix.
-
-Into this west-central New Mexico country of volcanic peaks and grassy
-plains comes U.S. Highway 180 from Deming northwestward. Along the
-scenic, winding route are City of Rocks, the copper smelter at Hurley,
-Santa Rita's huge open-pit copper mine, famous Silver City, colorful
-canyons of the Gila and San Francisco rivers, and, crossed by passes or
-bordering all routes, the rugged rhyolite, andesite, and basalt ledges
-and cliffs.
-
-From El Paso to Raton Pass, 515 miles, U.S. Highway 85 (Interstate 25)
-crosses New Mexico from south to north, from Mexico to Colorado. As far
-as La Bajada Hill, between Albuquerque and Santa Fe, the highway
-parallels the Rio Grande. Northward from El Paso, past Las Cruces to
-Radium Springs and old Fort Selden, the green Mesilla Valley borders the
-route; then through Selden Canyon into the Hatch Valley near San Diego
-Mountain, and along the west side of the bold cliffs of the Caballo
-Mountains, past Caballo Reservoir to Truth or Consequences (old Hot
-Springs). Eastward lies Elephant Butte Dam and reservoir; the road cuts
-across alluvial plains to the west of the Rio Grande all the way to
-Albuquerque, with the mountains to the west the San Mateo, Magdalena,
-Socorro, and Ladron and to the east, the Fra Cristobal, Los Pinos, and
-Manzano.
-
-Intersecting Interstate 40 at Albuquerque, the Pan-American Central
-Highway, Interstate 25 crosses to the east side of the Rio Grande, the
-sheer cliffs of the Sandia Mountains to the east and the distant dark
-green Jemez Mountains to the northwest. Crossing Galisteo Creek
-northeast of Santo Domingo Pueblo, Interstate 25 turns toward the
-northeast, climbs La Bajada Hill, onto the green plains sloping from
-Santa Fe. Santa Fe, the ancient capital city, is nestled on the edge of
-the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Southeastward and eastward, U.S. Highway
-85 (to be Interstate 25 here) rolls, skirting the southern end of the
-Sangre de Cristo Mountains, wedged in by the north-facing cliffs of
-Glorieta Mesa, through Glorieta Pass, where the Confederates lost the
-battle for the Southwest, across the upper reaches of Rio Pecos, and
-around to Las Vegas. Then in straight lines across the western edges of
-the Great Plains where they lap up onto the Sangre de Cristo ranges,
-through Wagon Mound and Springer to Raton. The climb up-canyon to Raton
-Pass, through roadcuts of brown sandstone, shale, and coal, leads into
-Colorado, with a view of much of southern Colorado from the Pass.
-
-Many routes lead northward from ancient Santa Fe. U.S. Highway 285
-crosses the high divide near Bishop's Lodge, follows Rio Tesuque to
-Pojoaque, crosses the Rio Grande near Espanola amid varicolored badlands
-cut in the Santa Fe rocks, then heads northward on the black basalt
-plateau toward Colorado. Black Mesa, a volcanic neck, lies south of
-Espanola, overlooking the green Rio Grande Valley; atop this height,
-Pueblo Indians once defied Spanish guns until they starved. Northward,
-near Tres Piedras, the Ortega and Brazos ranges tower to the west, the
-perlite-rich hills of No Agua lie to the northeast, and across the
-basalt plains cut by the Rio Grande, the lofty, snow-capped Sangre de
-Cristo Mountains loom.
-
-At Pojoaque, State Road 4 leads westward, across Otowi bridge of the Rio
-Grande, then winds up into the canyon and mesa country bordering the
-Jemez Mountains. Herein lie Bandelier and Los Alamos, one with ancient
-abandoned pueblos, the other the atomic city. Farther west, the road
-crosses the rim of an ancient volcano into Valle Grande, the crater of
-that volcano--some 16 miles across. When this volcano spewed forth hot
-ashes about a million years ago, the volcanic dust was wind-blown as far
-as Kansas and Nebraska!
-
-At Espanola, U.S. Highway 84 breaks away to the northwest to follow Rio
-Chama in its canyon carved from redbeds near Abiquiu, past the
-interesting museum at Ghost Ranch--where bones of Triassic dinosaurs are
-collected--Echo Amphitheater, El Vado Lake, through Chama, and on up
-into the San Juan Mountains country of southern Colorado.
-
-Near Espanola, U.S. Highway 64 splits off to the northeast; this is the
-high road of north-central New Mexico. Paralleling the canyon of the Rio
-Grande to Pilar, the highway climbs up onto the Taos plateau to Taos,
-turns eastward to cut through the Sangre de Cristo Mountains over Palo
-Flechado Pass, down into the grassy Moreno Valley to Eagle Nest and
-Eagle Nest Lake, then eastward again following the narrow canyon of the
-Cimarron River to Cimarron and Raton. A loop trip northward from Eagle
-Nest on State 38 goes through ghost town Elizabethtown, over Red River
-Pass, and down the varicolored canyon of Red River to Questa, before
-turning southward toward Taos.
-
-    [Illustration: (_U.S. Park Service_)
-    Subdivision living, pueblo style--at Aztec National Monument]
-
-And there is the northwest, the Four Corners region, land of Navajos and
-gas wells, presided over by magnificent Shiprock. State Highway 44
-leaves Interstate 25 at Bernalillo, follows Rio Salado to San Ysidro,
-which nestles at the south tip of the Nacimiento Mountains below White
-Mesa, thence northwestward past Cabezon Peak and coaly La Ventana to
-Cuba in the valley of Rio Puerco. Then, up and down, the winding highway
-cuts transversely across the San Juan Basin, through pine groves at the
-Continental Divide, past the side road to Chaco Canyon National Monument
-at Blanco Trading Post, and among the multicolored Tertiary beds carved
-into badlands. At Bloomfield, oil and gas wells lie all about, and the
-mesa-and-canyon country gives way to the valley of the San Juan River.
-At Aztec, State Road 44 joins U.S. Highway 550 in the narrow valley of
-the Animas River--a clear cold stream sent rushing down from the icy
-lakes of the San Juan Mountains to the north. Eastward a few miles lies
-Navajo Lake along the San Juan River; northward, U. S. 550 winds up the
-Animas Valley toward Durango, high Silverton, and Mesa Verde National
-Park. Aztec Ruins National Monument is just to the northwest of Aztec.
-
-Westward from Aztec, U.S. Highway 550 follows the Animas River to its
-junction with the San Juan River, then past the huge Navajo coal mine, a
-long open cut near Fruitland, to junction with U.S. Highway 666 at
-Shiprock.
-
-Shiprock! A buttressed needle, towering 1450 vertical feet above
-Navajo-land, with walls of black igneous rock radiating from its feet
-like spokes on a wheel. This dark-colored spire once filled the throat
-of a volcano. Where are piles of rocks, hundreds of feet thick, that
-once surrounded it? Down the river they went, down the San Juan to the
-Colorado River, and thence to the ocean.
-
-To the west, as a background, are the forested Carrizo, Lukachukai, and
-Chuska mountains. Off to the east lies Hogback Mountain, an upturned
-ridge of sedimentary rocks producing oil--the petroleum geologist's
-favorite haunt, an anticline.
-
-Southward from Shiprock, U.S. 666 passes other volcanic necks such as
-Bennett Peak and Ford Butte. North of Gallup, State Road 68 leads
-westward to Window Rock (Arizona), the Indian Headquarters of the Navajo
-Reservation. Near Gallup, coal beds of Late Cretaceous age crop out,
-Gamerco once being a booming coal-mining town. Now huge dragline shovels
-scoop out the coal from open pits to the northwest of Gallup. And at
-Gallup, the Indian Capital, a loop drive around the San Juan Basin is
-completed; Interstate 40, old U.S. Highway 66, goes eastward to
-Albuquerque, St. Louis, and Chicago, and westward to Grand Canyon, Los
-Angeles, and the blue Pacific.
-
-Many other scenic places dot the Land of Enchantment; local hosts,
-rancher or city dweller, know of these. Mountain meadows, rushing
-streams, rocky peaks, desert valleys, badlands, grassy plains, thick
-forests, spectacular chasms, needle rocks, and brilliant colors--they
-are all here in New Mexico.
-
-
-
-
-                               Footnotes
-
-
-[1]New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.
-
-[2]National Park Service.
-
-[3]Forest Service, Southwestern Region, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
-
-[4]Information on monuments and parks developed since this publication
-    was first printed may be obtained from The New Mexico State Park and
-    Recreation Commission, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501.
-
-[5]New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.
-
-[6]K_2O is the common unit used in pricing and assaying potassium salts.
-    However, the potash is sold as purified potassium chloride or
-    sulfate.
-
-
-   _Composition_:  Linotype Fairfield
-                   Text--10/11
-                   Index--8/9 (reduced to 6/7)
-                   Display heads--18 pt. Bulmer italic
-     _Presswork_:  38" Miehle Single Color Offset
-                   29" Harris Single Color Offset
-       _Binding_:  Smyth sewn and glued
-         _Paper_:  Text--70# white matte
-                   Cover--12 pt. Kivar
-
-
-
-
-                                _Index_
-
-
-                                   A
-  Abiquiu, 145, 162
-  Abo, 104;
-      church, 161;
-      Pass, 161;
-      Pueblo, 107;
-      Redbeds, 44, 104, 161;
-      State Monument, 105
-  Acevedo, Fray Francisco de, 105
-  Acoma, 51;
-      Indian, 157;
-      Pueblo, 89, 120, 122, 156
-  agave, 17, 20, 21
-  agriculture, 4, 12, 19, 53, 54, 58, 61, 62, 122, 124, 125, 131,
-          132, 150
-  Agua Chiquita, 99
-  Aguas Calientes, 123
-  Alamo Canyon, 85
-  Alamogordo, 36, 45, 78, 99, 141, 143, 159, 160;
-      Creek, 112;
-      Lake State Park, 104, 112;
-      Reservoir, 112
-  Albuquerque, 8, 13, 37, 40, 42, 43, 44-45, 49, 57, 70, 73, 92, 98,
-          106, 132, 134, 136, 138, 154, 156, 161, 162, 164
-  alfalfa, 158
-  algae, 45
-  Alkali Flats, 158
-  alluvial fan, 18, 50, 140, 156, 161
-  Alma, 101
-  Alpine [Zone], 22, 26, 28
-  Ambrosia Lake District, 151
-  American Gypsum Company, 49
-  ammonites, 51
-  amphibians, 41, 45, 48, 49
-  Anasazi, 60, 61, 62;
-      Basketmakers, 59;
-      Indians, 60, 86
-  andesite, 39, 158, 161
-  anhydrite, 47, 48, 49
-  Animas
-      Formation, 35, 50
-      Mountains, 29
-      River, 163, 164
-      Valley, 158, 164
-  antelope, 28, 29, 95, 98, 101
-  Apache, 5, 6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 54, 61, 62, 63, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71,
-          74, 89, 90, 105, 122, 132, 139, 140, 141, 143 (_see also_
-          under tribal names);
-      Canyon, 13, 92;
-      Creek, 101;
-      National Forest, 101, 103;
-      plume, 18;
-      Reservation, map 56;
-      Summit, 159;
-      Tejo, 72
-  Aragon, 74
-  aragonite, 78
-  archeological sites, map 56
-  Arctic-alpine Zone, 22 (_see also_ Alpine)
-  Arkansas River, 114, 136
-  Army of the West, 19, 64
-  Arroyo Hondo, 95
-  Arroyo Penasco Formation, 42
-  artemisia, 18
-  Artesia, 46, 146, 148, 159;
-      Group, 46
-  aspen, 17, 97, 100, 107, 109, illus. 121, 156
-  Athapascan, 5, 62, 132, 133
-  _atlatl_, 58, 60
-  Avalon Reservoir, 118
-  Aztec, 82, 109, 138, 163, 164;
-      Ruins National Monument, 75, 82, 84, illus. 163, 164
-
-
-                                    B
-  Baca Formation, 36
-  badger, 31
-  bajada, 18
-  Bandelier National Monument, illus. 25, 37, 62, 75, 84-85, illus.
-          85, 122, 136, 155, 162
-  bandtail pigeon (_see_ doves)
-  barite, 53
-  Barella Mesa, 81
-  basalt, 37, 38, 111, 112, 131, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162
-  basin, 35, 41, 45, 49, 79, 89, 96, 141 (_see also_ under proper
-          names: Delaware, Galisteo, Gallina, Great, Largo,
-          Orogrande, Paradox, San Juan, Tularosa)
-  bass, 111, 112, 115, 117
-  bats, 78
-  Battle of Val Verde, 13, 68, 70, 73, 92
-  Battleship Rock, 98
-  Baylor, Col. J. B., 72
-  beans, 58, 84, 86
-  bear, 28, 98, 100, 101;
-      state mammal, 28
-  beargrass, 20
-  beaver, 31, 95, 114
-  Beaverhead, 101
-  Beaver National Forest, 95
-  belemnoids, 51
-  Benavides, Fray Alonso de, 89
-  _Ben Hur_, 105
-  Bennett Peak, 164
-  Bent, Governor Charles, 129;
-      Bent's Fort, 129
-  Bernal Formation, 47
-  Bernalillo, 106, 134, 163
-  Bernardo, 134, 161
-  beryl, 40, 53
-  Bidahochi Formation, 38
-  Big Dog Canyon, 99
-  Big Hatchet Mountains, 26
-  Billy the Kid, 14, 24, 70, 107, 159, 161
-  bioherm, 42, 45
-  biotite, 40
-  birds, 29-31, 36, 49, 51, 95, 98
-  Bishop's Lodge, 162
-  bison, 55, 58, 62
-  black "gold," 43
-  Black
-      Mesa, 127, 162
-      Range, 14, 42, 101, 144
-      River Valley, 78
-  Blackwater Draw, 55, 111
-  Blanco Basin Formation, 36
-  Blanco Trading Post, 163
-  Bliss Sandstone, 40, 41
-  Bloomfield, 148, 163
-  bluebird, 31
-  blue spruce, 22, 141
-  Bluewater Lake, 104, 110;
-      State Park, 110
-  bobcat, 30, 31, 95
-  Bone Spring Formation, 46
-  Bonito Creek, 99
-  Bosque Redondo, 74, 110
-  Bottomless Lakes, 104, illus. 108, 159;
-      State Park, 108, 155
-  Botts, Judge C. M., 26
-  brachiopods, 40, 41, 42, illus. 42
-  Brachiosaurus, 49
-  Brazos Mountains, 35, 38, 40, 162
-  Brazos River Valley, 111
-  bream, 115
-  broomcorn, 159
-  bryozoans, 41, 42, illus. 45
-  buffalo, 31, 54, 55, 62, 98, 136, 137, 138
-  Buffalo Dance, 124
-  Bug Scuffle Hill, 99
-  Burro Mountains, 20, 40
-  Butterfield Trail, 70, 71
-
-
-                                    C
-  Caballo
-      Lake State Park, 104, 112
-      Mountains, 38, 40, 112, 161
-      Reservoir, 112, 117, 161
-  Cabeza de Vaca, 6
-  Cabezon Peak, 37, 51, 163
-  cacti, 17, 18, 19, 20, 33
-  calcite, 42, 46, 47, 78
-  caldera, 37, 75, 85, 86
-  California Column, 73-74
-  camels, 55, 57
-  Cambrian, 40;
-      rocks, 40
-  Camino Real (_see_ Royal Road)
-  Canadian River, 31, 74, 108, 109, 111, 136, 137, 155
-  Canadian Zone, 22
-  Canby, Col. E. R. S., 13, 73, 92
-  Canjilon, 95
-  Canyon de Chelly, 110
-  Capillo Peak, 98
-  Capitan, 36, 69, 99, 100, 159;
-      limestone, 47, 77;
-      Mountains, 99, 159;
-      Pass, 99;
-      Reef, 45, 46, 47
-  caprock, 38, 155, 159
-  Caprock [N. Mex.], 155
-  Capul�n Mountain, 37, 75;
-      National Monument, illus. 80, 81-82, 155
-  Capulin Peak, 97
-  carbon dioxide, 53, 146
-  Carlsbad, 38, 45, 46, 48, 53, 148, 149, 150, 159;
-      reef limestones, 47
-  Carlsbad Caverns, 46, 51, 141, 159;
-      National Park, 75, 76-78, illus. 77
-  Carleton, Gen. J. H., 73, 74
-  carnallite, 48
-  carp, 115
-  Carrizo Mountains, 164
-  Carrizozo, 36, 37, 38, 45, 104, 111, 138, 155, 159, 161;
-      dome, 161
-  Carson, Kit, 13, 70, 94, 110 (_see also_ under Kit)
-  Carson National Forest, 93-95, 96, 97
-  Casa Blanca, 156
-  Casa Grande [Ariz.], 126
-  Castile Anhydrite, 47;
-      gypsum sample, illus. 47
-  catfish, 111, 114, 115, 117
-  Catron County, 134, 135
-  cattle, 12, 14, 15, 23, 24, 31, 53, 75, 89, 93, 99, 140, 141
-  cedar, 20, 21
-  cement, 53, 154
-  Cenozoic Era, 33-38, 51;
-      rocks, 51
-  centipede, 31
-  century plant, 20
-  cephalopods, 41, 51
-  Cerro
-      Blanco, 98
-      Colorado, 161
-      Pedernal, 97
-  Chaco Canyon, 5, 60, 75, 82, 84, 138;
-      National Monument, 61, 82, illus. 83, 163
-  chalcocite, 151
-  chalcopyrite, 151
-  Chama, 95, 162;
-      River, 95, 110
-  Charette Lakes, 118
-  chert, 43
-  Chihuahua [Mexico], 7, 9, 11, 132, 139
-  Chihuahua desert, 16
-  Chimay�, 136
-  Chinle Formation, 48, 49, 111, 112
-  Chino mine, 151, illus. 153
-  Chiricahua Apache, 6, 133
-  Chivington, Col. John M., 13
-  chollas, 17, 19
-  Chupadera Mesa, 161
-  Chuska
-      Formation, 38
-      Mountains, 164
-  Cibola National Forest, 98-99
-  Cieneguilla Creek, 112
-  Cimarron, 163;
-      River, 163
-  Ciniza, 148
-  "cities that died of fear," 139
-  City of Rocks State Park, 104, 110, 155, 161
-  Civil War, 12, 13, 64, 71, 72-74, 92, 105, 107, 137
-  clams, 36, 41, 51
-  clay, 35, 38, 41, 43, 44, 45, 49, 53, 54
-  Clayton, 37, 112;
-      Lake State Park, 104, 112
-  Cliff, 72, 74
-  Clines Corners, 40, 49, 134, 155
-  Cloudcroft, 100, 160
-  Clovis, 55, 104, 159, 161;
-      Man, 104;
-      points, 55, 57
-  coal, 23, 36, 43, 50, 51, 53, 69, 138, 146, 154, 157, 158, 161,
-          162, 164
-  Cochise Culture, 58, 59, 63
-  Cochiti, Ca�ada de, 122;
-      Pueblo, 122-123
-  Coconino Sandstone, 46
-  Colorado
-      River, 3, 90, 138, 143, 164
-      state line, 112
-      Volunteers, 13, 92, 137
-  columbite-tantalite, 40
-  Columbus [N. Mex.], 30, 104, 109
-  Comanche, 12, 63, 65, 90, 105, 139
-  Conchas
-      Dam, 104, 108, 109
-      Lake State Park, 108-109
-      Reservoir, 31, 118
-  Confederate, 12, 13, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 92, 105, 107,
-          137, 162;
-      campaign, map 73
-  conglomerate, 49, 50
-  conifers, 44
-  _conquistadore_, 10, 54, 89, 92, 99, 106, 120, 127, 135
-  Continental Divide, 20, 61, 99, 163
-  continuous miner, 150, illus. 150
-  cony, 31
-  Cooke's Canyon; Spring, 71
-  copper, 51, 53, 143, 144, 146, 148, 151, 153, 154, 161
-  corals, 41, 42, illus. 45
-  corn, 4, 58, 62, 84, 86, 122
-  Corn Dance, 124, 132
-  Coronado (Francisco Vasquez de), 6, 7, 54, 62, 106, 120, 123, 126,
-          132
-  Coronado
-      National Forest, 101, 103
-      State Monument, 104, 106
-  cotton, 84, 158, 159
-  cottonwood, illus. 25, 158, 159
-  coyote, 19, 26, 30, 79, 95
-  Coyote [N. Mex.], 98
-  Coyote Creek, 90
-  crane, 30
-  crappies, 110, 111, 112, 115, 117
-  creosote bush, 17, 19, 20, 26, 28, 71, 158, 161
-  Cretaceous, 50, 112, 146, 156, 158, 164;
-      beds, 49, 158;
-      Period, 49, 51;
-      sandstone, 157;
-      seas, 51;
-      time, 49, 50
-  crinoid, 42, illus. 42
-  crocodiles, 36
-  Crown Dance, 133
-  Cuba [N. Mex.], 35, 36, 98, 163
-  Cub Mountain Formation, 36
-  cucumbers, 159
-  Culiacan [Mexico], 6
-  Culture
-      Archaic, 58;
-      Cochise, 58;
-      Desert, 58;
-      Pueblo, 59, 60
-
-
-                                    D
-  Dakota Sandstone, 50, 112, 155, 156, 157
-  Datil, 161;
-      Formation, 36;
-      Mountains, 98, 99
-  Datil-Mogollon plateau, 36
-  Dead Man's Peak, 97
-  deer, 26, 28, 29, 31, 100, 101;
-      desert mule, 26, 100;
-      mule, 28, 29, 31;
-      Rocky Mountain mule, 26, 95, 98, 100;
-      Sonoran fantail, 26;
-      whitetail, 26, 98, 100
-  de la Llana, Fray Geronimo, 105
-  Delaware
-      basin, 43, 45, 46, 47
-      Mountains, 159
-  Deming, 49, 71, 104, 110, 112, 135, 158, 161
-  de Niza, Fray Marcos, 132
-  de Vargas, don Diego, 8, 90, 120, 122, 124, 127, 128, 129
-  Devonian, 42;
-      rocks, 41;
-      seas, 42;
-      time, 41
-  Dewey Lake Redbeds, 47, 48
-  Diablo
-      Mountains, 75
-      Plateau, 159
-  dinosaur, 48, 49, 51, illus. 52, 162
-  Dixon, 40
-  Dockum Group, 48, 109
-  dolomite, 41, 46, 48, 158, 159
-  Do�a Ana, 70;
-      County, 30;
-      Historical Society, 71
-  Doniphan, Col. Alexander W., 64
-  doves, 28, 29, 95, 98
-  dragonflies, 44
-  ducks, 30, 95, 98, 118
-
-
-                                    E
-  eagle, 31
-  Eagle Creek, 99
-      Nest, 162, 163;
-      Lake, 163
-  Early Hunters, 55, 58
-  earthquake, 37
-  Echo Amphitheater, 95, illus. 96, 162
-  Edgewood, 155
-  eel, 114
-  El Capitan, 159
-  El Cristo Rey, 158
-  Elephant Butte, 112, 134;
-      Dam, 38, 111, 161;
-      Lake State Park, 104, 111, 112;
-      Reservoir, 36, 111, 117, illus. 117
-  elephants, 54, 55
-  Elizabethtown, 163
-  elk, illus. 23, 26, 28, 29, 95, 98, 101
-  elkhorn (cacti), 19
-  elm, 51
-  El Morro, 49, 51, 75, 89, 157;
-      National Monument, 89-90, illus. 91, 155
-  El Palacio [State Monument], 104-105
-      (_see also_ Palace of the Governors)
-  El Paso [Tex.], 13, 16, 20, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, 49, 70, 72,
-          112, 123, 134, 135, 143, 158, 161
-  El Paso del Norte, 7, 8, 89, 90, 105, 123
-  El Paso Limestone, 41
-  El Ranchito, 128
-  El Rito, 95;
-      de los Frijoles, illus. 25;
-      Formation, 36
-  El Vado Dam, 110
-      Lake, 104, 110, 118, 162;
-      State Park, 110
-      Reservoir, 118
-  Emory, Lieutenant, 19
-  Enchanted Mesa, 51, 156, illus. 157
-  Engelmann spruce, 22, 156
-  Entrada Sandstone, 49, 156
-  Escabrosa Limestone, 42
-  Espanola, 38, 98, 112, 136, 162
-  Espejo Expedition, 89
-  Espinaso beds, 36
-  Estancia, 38;
-      Basin, 98, 105, 155, 161
-  Eunice, 146
-  eurypterids, 41
-
-
-                                    F
-  Farmington, 43, 50, 95, 134, 138, 146, 148
-  feldspar, 39, 40, 45
-  ferns, 42, 43
-  fig trees, 36
-  finch, 31
-  fir, 16, 17;
-      corkbark, 156;
-      Douglas, 108
-  fish, 36, 41, 49, 53, 75, 101, 104, 113-118, illus. 113
-  Fishers Peak, 81
-  flint, 54
-  Florida Mountains, 26, 112, 158
-  Folsom, 55, 57;
-      Man, 55;
-      State Monument, 104;
-      points, 55, 57, illus. 57
-  foraminifers, 51
-  Ford Butte, 164
-  fort, 9, 12, 13, 64-74, map 69, 90, 92, 107, 143
-  Fort (_see also individual listing_)
-      Bascom, 74
-      Defiance [Ariz.], 90
-      Floyd, 72
-      Lowell, 74
-      Lyon, 67
-      McLane, 72
-      McRae, 74
-      Thorn, 72
-      Tularosa, 74
-      Webster, 72
-      West, 74
-  Fort Bayard, 71-72, 74;
-      Reservation, 20, 24
-  Fort Bliss [Texas], 68, 70, 72, 73, 74
-  Fort Conrad, 67, 72
-  Fort Craig, 67-69, illus. 68, 72, 73, 90
-  Fort Cummings, 71, 74
-  Fort Fauntleroy, 66-67, 72
-  Fort Fillmore, 72, 143
-  Fort Marcy, 66, 72, 90
-  Fort Selden, 70-71, 74, 104, 107, 143, 161;
-      State Monument, 104, 107
-  Fort Stanton, 68, 69-70, 72, 74
-  Fort Sumner, 74, 111, 112, 155, 161
-  Fort Union, 13, 64-66, illus. 65, 72, 73, 75, 92;
-      National Monument, 66, 90, 92
-  Fort Wingate, 66-67, 74;
-      Ordnance Depot, 67
-  fossil, 41, illus. 42, 43, illus. 45, 48, 49, 55, 98;
-      fish, 41;
-      hash, 42, 46;
-      reefs, 42
-  Four Corners, 3, 4, 41, 43, 59, 133, 138, 163
-  fox, 79, 95
-  Fra Cristobal Mountains, 38, 162
-  Franciscan, 8, 89, 105, 106, 126;
-      missionaries, 86, 89, 105;
-      Order, 7, 106
-  Franklin (_see_ El Paso, Texas)
-  Frijoles Canyon, 5, 84, illus. 85, 136
-  Fruitland, 138, 154, 164;
-      Formation, 50
-  Fusselman Dolomite, 41
-  fusulinids, 44, illus. 45
-
-
-                                    G
-  Gadsden Purchase, 107
-  gas, 43, 53, 95, 138, 146-148, 163
-  Galisteo Basin, 36, 62
-      Creek, 162
-      Formation, 36
-  Gallina basin, 61
-  Gallinas Mountains, 99
-      Peak, 98
-  Gallup, 12, 49, 50, 66, 99, 133, 134, 138, 147, 154, 157, 158, 164
-  Gamerco, 164
-  geese, 30, 95, 98, 118
-  gem stones, 53
-  geologic history, 33-53
-      time table, 34, 39, 50
-  Geronimo, 14, 70, 74, 143
-  Ghost Ranch, 162;
-      Mountain, illus. 145;
-      Museum, 95
-  ghost towns, 53, 95, 141, 158, 163
-  Gila
-      Apache, 6
-      Cliff Dwellings (National Monument), 75, 86, illus. 87, 101
-      Conglomerate, 38, 86
-      National Forest, 101
-      River, 4, 6, 72, 74, 114, 143, 161
-      Wilderness (Area), 75, 86, 101, 144
-  Giusewa Pueblo, 106, 107
-  glacier, 38, 55, 57
-  glauconite, 40
-  Glenwood, 101
-  Glorieta, 73, 97;
-      Mesa, 46, 162;
-      Pass, 13, 46, 92, 137, 162;
-      Sandstone, 46
-  gneiss, 39, 40
-  goats, 89
-  Goat Seep Reef, 45, 46
-  Gobernador, 95
-  gold, 6, 7, 13, 14, 53, 72, 104, 146
-  graben, 37, 38, 79
-  grama grass, 17, 18, 20
-  Gran Chaco, 4, 5
-  granite, 39, 40, 43, 156, 161
-  Gran Quivira, 75, 161;
-      National Monument, 86, illus. 88, 89
-  Grants, 37, 38, 40, 43, 48, 49, 53, 89, 99, 138, 148, 150, 151,
-          153, 156, 157
-  grapes, 89, 159
-  gravel, 35, 36, 38, 50, 53
-  greasewood, 19
-  Great
-      Barrier Reef, 46, 141
-      Basin, 58
-      Kiva, 84
-      Lakes, 55, 57
-      Plains, 6, 16, 17, 136, 159, 162
-  greenstone, 40
-  grouse, 95, 98
-  Guadalupe
-      Mountains, 26, 46, 77, 99, 141, illus. 142, 143, 159
-      Pass, 159
-      Peak, 159
-      River, 124
-  Gulf of California, 90, 143
-  gypsum, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 53, 79, 146, 153, 156;
-      --anhydrite, 47;
-      dunes, 31, 32, 38, illus. 39, 75, 78
-
-
-                                    H
-  halite, 45, 48
-  Hall of Giants, illus. 77
-  Hanover mine, 151
-  Harding pegmatite, 40
-  Hatch, 72, 142;
-      Valley, 161
-  hawk, 31, 79
-  hay, 122
-  helictites, 76, 78
-  heliograph station, 70
-  helium, 53, 146
-  Helms Formation, 43
-  hematite, 40, 45
-  Herrera, Cristobal de, 130
-  Hidalgo County, 29, 30
-  High Plains, 31, 37, 38, 50, 54, 55, 109, 110, 133, 138, 140
-  Hillsboro, 14, 144
-  Hobbs, 134, 142, 146, 159
-  Hogback Mountain, 164
-  Hohokam people, 4, 59
-  Holloman Air Force Base, 143
-  Hondo, 159
-  Hopewell Lake, 118
-  horse, 6, 9, 13, 23, 55, 57, 89, 93, 115, 129
-  Hopi, 126
-  Hot Springs [N. Mex.] (_see_ Truth or Consequences)
-  Hueco
-      Limestone, 44
-      Mountains, 158
-  hummingbirds, 28
-  Hunters and Gatherers, 58
-  Hurley, 72, 151, 161
-  Hyde Memorial State Park, 104, 109
-
-
-                                    I
-  Ice Caves, 157
-  Immaculate Conception (church), 105
-  Indian, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 21, 53, 54-63, 64,
-          66, 67, 68, 72, 74, 84, 86, 89, 90, 95, 99, 101, 104, 105,
-          106, 110, 113, 116, 120-133, 135, 136, 138, 140, 141, 143,
-          164;
-      Divide, 159;
-      pueblo, 4, 5, map 56, 86, 89, 120-133, 136;
-      reservations, map 56
-  Inscription Rock (_see_ El Morro)
-  Interstate Highway
-      10: 158
-      25: 107, 161, 162, 163
-      40: 48, 155, 156, 157, 162, 164
-  Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial, 133, 138
-  iron, 53, 78
-  Isleta
-      del Sur, 105, 123
-      Pueblo, 8, 11, 123
-      San Agustin de, 123
-      San Antonio de, 123
-
-
-                                    J
-  Jackpile-Paguate mine, 151, illus. 152
-  javelina, 26, 28, 101
-  jay, 31
-  Jemez, 106;
-      Division, 97, 98;
-      Indians, 107;
-      Mission, 104,
-          San Diego de, 123,
-          San Jose de los, 124,
-          San Juan de Los, 124;
-      Mountains, 37, 38, 97, 121, 128, 129, 136, 156, 162;
-      Pueblo, 106, 123-124;
-      River, 123, 124, 128, 131;
-      Springs, 98, 106, 107;
-      State Monument, 106-107, 123, 124
-  Jicarilla
-      Apache, 6, 74, 132, 133
-      Division, 95
-      Indian Reservation, 95, 138
-  Johnson Mesa, 81
-  Jornada del Muerto, 16, 36, 139, 140, 142, 160-161
-  Joshua tree, 20
-  Ju�rez [Mexico], 7, 123, 158
-  juniper, 20, 21, 23, 135, 141, 155
-  Jurassic
-      rocks, 158
-      sandstones, 155, 156, 157
-      time, 49
-
-
-                                    K
-  Kaiser Gypsum Company, 49
-  Kaiser Steel Corporation, 51
-  kangaroo rats, 32
-  Kearny, Gen. Stephen W., 64, 90
-  Kelly, 141
-  Kenna, 155
-  Kennecott Copper Company, 143, 151
-  Keres, 124
-  Kern, R. H., 90
-  Kilbourne Hole, 158
-  Kingston, 14, 144
-  Kiowas, 65
-  Kirtland Shale, 50
-  Kit Carson Memorial State Park, 104, 110
-      (_see also_ under Carson)
-  Kit Carson's Cave, 157
-  kiva, 59, 84, 106
-  Kneeling Nun, 151
-  Koehler, 51
-  Kuaua, 106
-
-
-                                    L
-  La Bajada Hill, 36, 161, 162
-  Ladron Mountains, 38, 140, 162
-  Laguna, 48, 152, 156;
-      del Perro, 161;
-      Indians, 124;
-      Mission, San Jose de, 125;
-      Santa Maria, illus. 124;
-      Pueblo, 124-125;
-      Reservation, 124, 151
-  Lagunitas, 95
-  Lakes and/or Reservoirs (_see_ individual entries: Alamogordo,
-          Avalon, Bluewater, Bottomless, Caballo, Charette, Clayton,
-          Conchas, Eagle Nest, Elephant Butte, El Vado, Hopewell,
-          Lea, Lost, Lucero, McGaffey, McMillan, Miami, Morphy,
-          Navajo, Red, Roberts, San Gregorio, Stewart, Storrie,
-          Truchas, Ute)
-  Lake Lucero, 38, 79
-  Lake Roberts, illus. 103, 118
-  Lake Valley Limestone, 42
-  La Madera, 95
-  La Mesilla State Monument, 104, 107
-  lanceolate points, 55
-  langbeinite, 48, 149
-  Laramide revolution, 33, 50
-  Largo basin, 61
-  Las Cruces, 12, 70, 72, 107, 112, 134, 135, 142, 158, 161
-  Las Trampas, 95, 136
-  Las Vegas [N. Mex.], 13, 50, 64, 90, 92, 97, 110, 112, 137, 162
-  lava, 31, 32, 36, 37, 51, 79, 81, 99, 100, 104, 111, 155, 156
-  La Ventana, 163
-  lead, 53, 146, 148, 151
-  Lea Lake, 108
-  Leasburg, 70
-  Ledoux [N. Mex.], 112
-  lepidolite mica, 40
-  Letrado, Father Francisco, 89
-  limestone, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 49, 51, 53, 77, 78, 155, 156,
-          158, 159, 160, 161
-  Lincoln, 70, 107, 159;
-      County Courthouse, 104, 107;
-      County War, 14, 104, 107;
-      National Forest, 99-100;
-      State Monument, 107
-  Lipan Apache, 6, 132, 133
-  Little Black Peak, 111
-  Little Colorado River, 61
-  Little Florida Mountains, 112
-  livestock, 19, 23, 98, 100, 103, 141
-  lizard, 31, 79
-  Llano Estacado (_see_ Staked Plains)
-  Logan, 111
-  Lookout Mountain, 100
-  Lordsburg, 38, 49, 101, 154, 158
-  Los Alamos, 37, 162
-  Los Lunas, 134
-  Los Pinos Mountains, 38, 162
-  Lost Lake, 96
-  Lovington, 146, 159
-  Lukachukai Mountains, 164
-  Luna County, 30, 71
-  Lux�n, Diego P�rez de, 89
-
-
-                                    M
-  MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 70-71, 107
-  McDermott Formation, 50
-  McGaffey Lake, 99
-  McMillan Reservoir, 117, 159
-  McRae Formation, 36, 112
-  Magdalena, 14, 99, 101, 141, 161-162;
-      Mountains, 38, 98, 99, 140, 161
-  magma, 36, 40
-  magnesium compounds, 53, 146
-  magnolia trees, 36
-  magpie, 31
-  maguey, 21
-  maize, 159
-  Maldonado, Fray Lucas, 120
-  malpais, 31, 100, 111
-  mammals, 26-32, 36, 49, 51, 57, 58, 95, 98, 114;
-      prehistoric, 49, 51, 55
-  mammoth, 55, 57
-  manganese, 53
-  Mancos Shale, 50
-  mano, illus. 59
-  Manzano, 99;
-      Mountains, 37, 38, 51, 98, 105, 138, 139, 161, 162;
-      Peak, 98
-  maple, 51
-  marten, 95
-  Martinez, Julian and Maria, 127
-  Martinez, Paddy, 150
-  Martinez, Padre Jos�, 110
-  mastodon, 55
-  Mayhill, 100
-  melons, 122, 159
-  Mesa
-      Redonda, 155
-      Rica, 155
-      Verde [Colo.], 4, 5, 60, 84;
-          National Park, 164
-  Mesaverde Group, 50
-  mescal, 20, 21
-  Mescalero, 159;
-      Apache, 6, 21, 69, 70, 74, 132;
-      Indian Reservation, 99, 133, 134, 143
-  Mesilla, 72, 107;
-      Valley, 158, 161
-  Mesozoic
-      Era, 48-51
-      rocks, 33, 51
-      seas, 33
-  mesquite, 17, 19, 20, 71
-  metate, illus. 59
-  Mexican, 140, 141;
-      Colonial, 104, 107;
-      War, 12, 64
-  Mexico, 6, 7, 10, 12, 30, 31, 64, 67, 89, 90, 132, 137, 138, 139,
-          144, 148, 158, 161;
-      City, 6, 9
-  Miami Lake, 118
-  mica, 40, 53;
-      schist, illus. 40
-  mice, 31, 79
-  microcline, 40
-  Miles, General, 14
-  Mimbreno Apache, 74
-  Mimbres, 101, 144;
-      culture, 20, 143;
-      River, 4, 72, 143
-  minerals, 40, 53, 146 ff.
-  mink, 95
-  mining, 12, 14, 15, 23, 53, 72, 95, 99, 101, 125, 141, 143, 144,
-          146, 148-154, 160, 161
-  mission(s), 8, 9, 86, 89, 126;
-      churches, 8, illus. 11, 86, 105, 106, 107, illus. 119, 122,
-          123, 127;
-      ruins, 104
-  Mississippian
-      rocks, 42
-      seas, 43
-      time, 43
-  Mockingbird Gap, 41
-  Moenkopi Formation, 48
-  Mogollon, 141;
-      Apache, 74;
-      culture, 4, 59, 86;
-      Mountains, 14, 22, 75, 86;
-      people, 3, 59, 60, 86
-  mollusks, 51
-  molybdenum, 53, 154
-  Monjeau Lookout, 99, illus. 160
-  Montoya Dolomite, 41
-  Monument, 146, 148
-  Mora County, 112
-  Moreno Valley, 162
-  Moriarty, 155
-  Morphy Lake, 112;
-      State Park, 104, 112
-  Morrison Formation, 49
-  Mosca Peak, 98
-  Mountainair, 86, 99, 105, 161
-  mountain lion, 30, 31, 95
-  mountain mahogany, 20
-  mountains (_see_ under proper name: Animas, Big Hatchet, Black
-          Range, Brazos, Burro, Caballo, Capitan, Carrizo, Chuska,
-          Datil, Delaware, Diablo, Florida, Fra Cristobal, Gallinas,
-          Guadalupe, Hueco, Jemez, Ladron, Little Florida, Los
-          Pinos, Lukachukai, Magdalena, Manzano, Mogollon,
-          Nacimiento, Organ, Ortega, Pedernal Hills, Peloncillo,
-          Potrillo, Pyramid, Rocky, Sacramento, San Andres, Sandia,
-          Sangre de Cristo, San Juan, San Mateo, Taos, Victorio,
-          Zun�)
-  Mount
-      Baldy, 99
-      Riley, 158
-      Robledo, 70
-      Taylor, 37, 51, 98, 156
-      Withington, 99
-  Mule Peak, 99
-  museum, 104, 105
-  muskrat, 95
-
-
-                                    N
-  Nacimiento
-      Formation, 35, 36
-      Mountains, 35, 42, 156, 163
-      Peak, 97
-  Namb�, 128;
-      mission, 125;
-      Pueblo, 125
-  Nana, 70, 74
-  Natage Apache, 6, 132, 133
-  National Forests, 16, 24, 75, 93-103, map 94 (_see also_ under
-          proper names: Apache, Beaver, Carson, Cibola, Coronado,
-          Gila, Lincoln, Santa Fe)
-  National Monuments, 75-92, 138, 155 (_see also_ under proper
-          names: Aztec Ruins, Bandelier, Carlsbad Caverns (Park),
-          Capulin Mountain, Chaco Canyon, El Morro, Fort Union, Gila
-          Cliff Dwellings, Gran Quivira, Pecos, Valle Grande, White
-          Sands)
-  National Park System, 75, 76, 82, 85, 86, 92;
-      Service, 76, 81
-  Navajo, 6, 12, 15, 54, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67, 71, 74, 110, 123, 126,
-          132, 133, 163, 164;
-      Dam, 109, 138;
-      Indian Reservation, map 56, 133, 138, 164;
-      Lake, 163;
-      State Park, 109;
-      Reservoir, 118
-  Neogene
-      Period, 37
-      time, 39
-  Newkirk, 155
-  New Mexico Department of Public Welfare, 70
-  New Mexico Volunteers, 13
-  niobium, 50
-  Niobrara limestone, 50
-  No Agua, 153, 162
-
-
-                                    O
-  oak, 20, 23, 36, 51, 100
-  Oasis State Park, 104, 111
-  obsidian, 54
-  Ochoan
-      rocks, 47
-      Series, 47
-  ocotillo, 17, 18, 20, 26
-  Ogallala Formation, 38
-  oil, 43, 45, 46, 53, 95, 138, 141, 146-148, 159, 163, 164;
-      fields, 146;
-      pumps, illus. 149;
-      refinery, illus. 147, 159;
-      secondary recovery, 148
-  Ojo Caliente, 74
-  Ojo del Oso (Bear Springs), 66, 67
-  O�ate (Don Juan), 7, 8, 90, 99, 120, 122, 126, 127, 128, 131
-  opuntia, 17, 19, 20
-  Ordovician, 146;
-      Period, 40;
-      rocks, 41;
-      seas, 41;
-      time, 41
-  Organ [N. Mex.], 160
-  Organ Mountains, 26, 158, 160
-  oriole, 31
-  Orogrande basin, 43
-  Ortega Mountains, 162
-  orthoclase, 40
-  Otowi bridge, 162
-  otter, 114
-  Ouray Limestone, 41
-  Our Lady of Lourdes (chapel), 127
-  oysters, 51
-
-
-                                    P
-  Painted Cave, 85
-  Painted Desert, 48
-  Pajarito Plateau, 136
-  Palace of the Governors, 4, 5, 104
-      (_see also_ El Palacio)
-  Paleogene
-      Period, 33, 36
-      time, map 35
-  Paleozoic, 146;
-      Era, 40-48;
-      rocks, 33, 49, 51;
-      time, 39, 46
-  palm trees, 36
-  Palo Flechado Pass, 162
-  paloverde, 17
-  Pan-American Central Highway, 162
-  Pancho Villa, 67, 109;
-      State Park, 104, 109
-  Panhandle Aspect, 62
-  Paradise Formation, 43
-  Paradox Basin, 43
-  partridge, 100
-  peanuts, 159
-  pecan, 158
-  Pecos, 97, 106, 115;
-      Baldy, 96;
-      Basin, 99;
-      "diamonds," 108;
-      Division, 96, 97;
-      Horseshoe, 96;
-      mission, 104, 107;
-      National Monument, 62, 76, 106;
-      Pueblo, 62, 107;
-      River, 38, 74, 96, illus. 97, 111, 112, 114, 136, 155, 159,
-          162,
-          Forest Reserve, 96;
-      State Monument, 106;
-      Valley, 30, 46, 78, 159, 161;
-      Wilderness (Area), 75, 94, 96
-  Pedernal Hills, 40, 43, 161
-  pegmatite, 40
-  Peloncillo Mountains, 29, 158
-  Pe�a, Fray Juan de la, 123
-  Pe�ablanca, 115
-  Penasco, 95, 136
-  Penitente, 136
-  Pennsylvanian
-      limestone, 112
-      Period, 43, 156, 159
-      time, map 44, 45
-  perch, 115
-  Percha Shale, 41
-  perlite, 37, 53, 146, 153, 162
-  Permian, 45, 48, 146, 159, 161;
-      Period, 44, 77, 149;
-      rocks, 44-48;
-      seas, 46;
-      time, 45, 47
-  Pershing, Gen. John J., 70, 109
-  Petrified Forest National Monument, 48
-  petrified wood, 49
-  petroglyphs, 89, 113
-  petroleum, 146, 147, 164
-  Phoenix [Ariz.], 161
-  phytosaur, 49
-  Picacho Hill, 159
-  Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, 50
-  Picur�s, 95;
-      Pueblo, 125-126;
-      San Lorenzo de, 125
-  Pierre Shale, 50
-  pike, 115, 117
-  Pilar, 162
-  pine, 22, 36, 49, 93, 100, 109, 163;
-      dwarf, 17;
-      ponderosa, 17, 21, 29, 112, 156, 157, 159;
-      yellow, 17, 21
-  pi�on, 17, 20, illus. 22, 23, 135, 141, 155
-  Pi�on, 43
-  Pinos Altos, 72
-  Piro, 8
-  pit houses, 4, 59, illus. 60, 61, 82, 86
-  Plains Indians, 54, 55, 63, 106, 132, 140
-  Pleistocene, 54, 55, 57, 111, 161;
-      Epoch, 38;
-      Ice Age, 54, 58
-  Poison Canyon Formation, 35
-  Pojoaque, 162;
-      Pueblo, 126
-  polyhalite, 48
-  Po-p�, 8, 127, 129
-  poplar, 36, 51
-  Porciuncula, Church of ... de, 106
-  porcupine, 31
-  Portales, 55, 104, 111, 159;
-      Valley, 111
-  potash, 48, 53, 141, 146, 148, 149, 150, 153, 159
-  potatoes, 159
-  Potrillo Mountains, 158
-  pottery, 62, 82, 84, 86, 113, illus. 113, 122, 127, 128;
-      black-on-white, 60, 61;
-      brown, 86;
-      brownware, 59;
-      white with black, 86
-  Powwow Canyon, 158
-  Precambrian, 156, 161;
-      Era, 38-40;
-      rocks, 33, 39, 40, 51
-  Presidio of Santa Fe, 9
-  prickly pears, 17, 19
-  protozoans, 44, 51
-  ptarmigan, 31
-  Pueblo
-      Bonito, 60, illus. 61, 82
-      Indians, 5, 8, 12, 54, 61, 62, 84, 86, 89, 120 ff., 162
-      periods:
-          Classic (or Great), 60, 61, 62, 82
-          Developmental, 60
-          Historic, 62
-          prehistoric, 82
-          Regressive, 62
-      Revolt, 8, 89, 90, 120, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129,
-          130, 131
-      ruins, 104
-  pumice, 36, 37, 53, 146
-  Punta de Agua, 105
-  Puye Cliff Dwellings, 62, 128, 136
-  Pyramid Mountains, 158
-
-
-                                    Q
-  quail, 28, 29, 30, 95, 98, 100
-  Quarai, 104
-      church, 161
-      Pueblo, 107
-      State Monument, 105
-  quartz, 39, 40, 41, 46, 50, 108
-  quartzites, 40, 161
-  Quemado, 36, 161
-  Questa, 95, 112, 154, 163
-
-
-                                    R
-  rabbit, 30, 31, 95
-  Radium Springs, 161
-  Ragland, 155
-  rattlesnakes, 18, 31
-  railroads, 12, 66, 70, 74, 92, 99, 115, 125, 151
-  Rain Dance, 123
-  Ramah [N. Mex.], 89
-  Ramirez, Fray Juan, 122
-  Rancheria Limestone, 42
-  Raton, 35, 37, 38, 50, 134, 136, 162, 163
-      Basin, 35, 36, 50
-      Formation, 35, 51
-      Mesa, 81, 109
-      Pass, 20, 136, 161, 162
-  raven, 31
-  redbeds, 36, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 155, 156, 157, 159, 161, 162
-  Red Lake, 155
-  Redondo Peak, cover
-  Red River, 95 (town), 112, 163 (river)
-      Canyon, 94, illus. 135
-      Pass, 163
-      Ski Area, 94
-  reeds, 36
-  reef, 42, 45, 46, 51, 77, 147
-  reptiles, 31, 36, 48, 49, 51
-  Reserve, 101
-  Reservoirs (_see under_ Lakes for individual listing)
-  rhyolite, 37, 39, 161
-  Rio
-      Bonito, 69
-      Chama, 162
-      de Gallo, 67
-      Grande (_see_ separate entry)
-      Hondo, 159
-      Penasco, 99
-      Puerco, 156, 163
-      Ruidoso, 159
-      Salado, 163
-      San Jose, 37, 48, 156
-          Valley, 49
-      Tesuque, 162
-      Tularosa, 159
-  Rio Grande, 4, 7, 12, 13, 16, 20, 38, 54, 60, 62, 67, 70, 72, 74,
-          84, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 106, 107, 110, 114,
-          115, 127, 128, 131, 136, 137, 139, 143, 156, 158, 161, 162
-      Gorge, 112,
-          State Park, 104, 112
-      graben, illus. 37
-      pueblos, 62, 140
-      Valley, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 30, 37, 38, 54, 59, 61, 84, 98,
-          112, 117, 123, 125, 126, 128, 132, 133, 135, 137, 140,
-          143, 158, 161, 162
-  Rito de Frijoles, 122
-  Rito Morphy, 112
-  roadrunner (chapparal), 31, illus. 32
-      state bird, 31
-  rocks (_see_ under proper name: Cambrian, Cenozoic, Devonian,
-          Jurassic, Mesozoic, Mississippian, Ochoan, Ordovician,
-          Paleozoic, Permian, Precambrian, Silurian, Triassic,
-          volcanic)
-  Rock Hound State Park, 104, 112
-  Rocky Mountains, 57, 58, 132, 133, 136
-  Rocky Arroyo, 159
-  Roswell, 46, 48, 104, 134, 146, 155, 159
-  Roy, 109
-  Royal Road (Camino Real), 9, 12, 139
-  rudistids, 51
-  Ruidoso, 43, 99, 100, 159
-      Creek, 99
-      Downs, 159
-  ruins, 4, 60, 62, 65, 68, 75, 82, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 92, 95, 101,
-          104, 105, 106, 113, 128, 129, 136, 138, 139, 156, 161
-  rushes, 42, 43-44
-  Rustler Dolomite, 47, 48
-
-
-                                    S
-  Sacramento Mountains, 28, 37, 42, 46, 51, 99, 141, 143, 159
-  Sacramento [N. Mex.], 99, 100
-  sage, 18, 19
-  saguaros, 17, 18
-  Saint Francis, 106
-  Saint Joseph, 125
-  Salado Salt, 47, 48
-  Salinas Peak, 160
-  Saline Missions, 105
-  salmon, 115
-  salt, 43, 45, 53, 54, 105, 115, 146, 149
-  saltbush, 18
-  Salt Flat lakes, 159
-  San Agustin Plains, 99, 140, 141, 161
-  San Andres
-      Limestone, 46, 110
-      Mountains, 26, 37, 40, 41, 42, 51, 160
-  San Antonio, 95, 134, 161
-  San Antonito, 155
-  San Augustin Pass, 160
-  San Buenaventura, 89
-      de Cochiti, 122
-  sand, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 79, 111,
-          159
-  Sandia
-      Cave, 55, 57
-      Crest, 98, illus. 137, 156
-      Mountains, 26, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 51, 98, 136, 155, 156, 162
-      points, 57
-      Pueblo, 126
-      Ski Area, 98
-  San Diego Mountain, 161
-  sandstone, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 50, 51, 89, 95, 105,
-          146, 155, 156, 157, 158, 161, 162
-  San Felipe, 128
-      church, 126
-      Pueblo, 126-127
-  San Francisco River, 59, 161
-  San Gabriel, 125
-  San Geronimo, 130
-  Sangre de Cristo Mountains, 13, 35, 37, 38, 40, 42, 50, 75, 94,
-          95, 96, 109, 121, 129, 135, 136, 155, 156, 162
-  Sangre de Cristo Redbeds, 45
-  San Gregorio
-      de Abo, 89, 105
-      Lake, 98
-  San Ildefonso, pottery, 127
-      Pueblo, 127
-  San Isidro, 89
-  San Jose Formation, 35, 36
-  San Juan, 7, 60, 125
-      Basin, 35, 50, 61, 82, 146, 149, 163, 164
-      de los Caballeros, 7, 127
-      Mountains, 35, 38, 50, 162, 163
-      Pueblo, 127-128
-      River, 59, 109, 138, 163, 164
-      Valley, 30
-  San Lorenzo, 72
-  San Mateo Mountains, 38, 98, 99, 140, 161
-  San Miguel
-      mission church, illus. 119
-      Pueblo ruins, 85
-  San Pedro Wild Area, 97-98
-  San Rafael, 67, 157
-  Santa Ana Pueblo, 128
-  Santa Barbara [N. Mex.], 95
-  Santa Clara
-      Creek, 128
-      Pueblo, 128
-  Santa Fe, 4, 7, 8, 9, 13, 19, 22, 36, 37, 38, 40, 42, 45, 49, 51,
-          64, 66, 73, 75, 84, 85, 90, 92, 96, 97, 104, 105, 106,
-          109, 111, 119, 121, 125, 127, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136,
-          137, 138, 139, 161, 162
-      Formation, 112
-      Group, 38
-      National Forest, 96-98
-      Railway, 46, 50, 125
-      River State Park, 104, 111
-      Ski Basin, 97
-      Trail, 10, 11, 24, 64, 66, 90, 92, 104, 129, 136, 137, 139
-  Santa Maria mission, illus. 124
-  Santander, Father Diego de, 89
-  Santa Rita, 51, 53, 72, 143, 148, 151, 153, 161
-  Santa Rosa, 134, 155
-      Sandstone, 48, 111
-  Santo Domingo, 128;
-      Pueblo, 126, 128-129, 162
-  San Ysidro, 49, 163
-  schist, 40, 161
-  science, 12, 15, 67, 139, 143, 147
-  scorpion, 31
-      sea, 41
-  sea lilies, 42
-  secondary recovery (oil), 148
-  Selden Canyon, 161
-  Seven Cities of Cibola, 6, 132
-  Seven Rivers, 159
-  Shalako dances, 132
-  Shakespeare, 158
-  shale, 41, 43, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 155, 156, 157, 158, 162
-  sheep, 26, 53, 75, 89, 93
-      Barbary, 31
-      bighorn, 28, 29;
-      desert, 26;
-      Rocky Mountain, 26, 98, 156
-  shells, 54
-  Shiprock, 37, 43, 51, 151, 163, 164
-  Shoshone, 124
-  Sibley, General Henry H., 13, 72, 73
-  Sierra Blanca, 36, 38, 51, 100, 138, illus. 139, 159
-      Ski Area, illus. 100, 133, 159
-  Sierra
-      County, 36
-      de las Uvas, 158
-      Grande, 81
-          Arch, 43
-      Oscura, 161
-  silicified wood, 36, 38, 49
-  silt, 38,41, 48, 49
-  siltstone, 38, 51
-  Silurian, 41
-      rocks, 41
-  silver, 7, 13, 14, 23, 53, 132, 144, 146
-  Silver City, 20, 23, 24, 40, 72, 75, 86, 101, 143, 144, 148, 151,
-          161
-  Simpson, Lt. J. H., 90
-  Sipapu Winter Sports Area, 94-95
-  Sitting Bull Falls, 159
-  skipway, 151, illus. 153
-  skunk, 31, 95
-  Sky City (_see_ Acoma Pueblo)
-  sloths, 55
-  Slough, Col. J. P., 92
-  Smokey the Bear, 99, 100
-  snails, 36, 41, 49
-  Snake Ranch Flats, 161
-  snakes, 18, 31, 36
-  Socorro, 8, 12, 13, 14, 19, 36, 37, 59, 72, 89, 99, 134, 139, 161
-      Mountain, 38, 140
-  sodium chloride, 149, 150
-  Sonoran
-      desert, 26, 103, 109, 138, 143
-      Lower Zone, 19, 20
-      Upper Zone, 20, illus. 25
-  sotol, 20
-  South Truchas Peak, 38
-  Spain, 6, 9, 10, 11
-  Spanish, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18, 53, 54, 62, 63,
-          86, 89, 92, 95, 99, 104, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 128,
-          129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 139, 140, 141, 143,
-          148, 158, 162
-      dagger, 21
-      Peaks, 81
-  sparrow, 31
-  spider, 31, 44
-  Spirit Lake, 96
-  spodumene, 40
-  Springer, 134, 162
-  spruce, 16, 17, 18, 26, 100;
-      blue, 22, 141;
-      Engelmann, 22, 156
-  squash, 58, 84, 122
-  squirrel, 31, 32
-  Staked Plains (Llano Estacado), 132, 155, 159, 161
-  stalactites, 76, 78
-  stalagmites, 76, 78
-  state
-      bird, 31
-      Capitol, 111
-      flower, 20
-      mammal, 28
-  State Highway
-      4: 106, 162
-      10: 98, 105, 156
-      12: 134
-      17: 95
-      23: 156
-      25: illus. 103
-      26: 71
-      28: 158
-      36: 157
-      37: 159
-      38: 163
-      44: 36, 134, 163
-      53: 157
-      68: 164
-      75: 136
-      76: 136
-      78: 101
-      90: 72, 144
-      94: 112
-      120: 109
-      137: 159
-      180: 101
-      370: 112
-      467: 111
-  State Monuments, 104-107, 155
-      (_see also_ under proper names: Abo, Coronado, El Palacio,
-          Folsom Man, Gran Quivira, Jemez, La Mesilla, Lincoln
-          (County Courthouse), Pecos, Quarai, Selden)
-  State Parks, 104, 107-112, 155
-      (_see also_ under proper names: Alamogordo Lake, Bluewater
-          Lake, Bottomless Lakes, Caballo Lake, City of Rocks,
-          Clayton Lake, Conchas Lake, Elephant Butte Lake, El Vado
-          Lake, Hyde Memorial, Kit Carson Memorial, Morphy Lake,
-          Navajo Lake, Oasis, Pancho Villa, Rio Grande Gorge, Rock
-          Hound, Santa Fe River, Storrie Lake, Ute Lake, Valley of
-          Fires)
-  staurolite, illus. 40
-  Stegosaurus, 49
-  Stein's Pass, 158
-  Stewart Lake, 96
-  Stone Lions, 85
-  Storrie Lake, 104;
-      State Park, 110
-  strawberries, 159
-  Sugarlump Welded Rhyolite Tuff, 110
-  sulfur, 53
-  Summerville
-      beds, 156
-      Formation, 49
-  sunfish, 117
-  swan, 28
-  sycamore trees, 36
-  sylvanite, 149
-  sylvite, 48
-
-
-                                    T
-  Taiban, 155
-  Tajique, 99
-  Tano, 124
-  Tansill Formation, 77
-  Taos, 8, 19, 37, 38, 50, 93, 95, 104, 110, 145, 162, 163;
-      Canyon, 95;
-      County, 153;
-      don Fernando de, 129;
-      Indians, 129;
-      mission, 129, illus. 130;
-      Mountains, 129;
-      Pueblo, 95, 129-130;
-      Ranchos de, 129, illus. 130;
-      San Geronimo de, 129;
-      Ski Valley, 95
-  tapirs, 55
-  tarantula, 31
-  Teakettle Rock, 98
-  tench, 115
-  Tent Rocks, 98, illus. 121
-  Tererro Formation, 42
-  terrapin, 31
-  Tertiary, 163
-  Tesuque
-      Indians, 130
-      Pueblo, 130-131
-      River, 162
-  Three Rivers, 134
-  Tierra Amarilla, 40, 74
-  Tiguex, 106, 126
-  Tijeras, 99, 156;
-      Canyon, 40, 156
-  timber, 75, 99, 100, 103, 122
-  titanium, 50
-  toad, 31
-  Todilto Formation, 49, 156
-  tomatoes, 159
-  Torreon, 99
-  tortoise, 31
-  tramway, 98
-  Transition Zone, 21
-  Tres Piedras, 95, 162
-  Tres Ritos, 95
-  Triassic, 48, 159, 162;
-      age, 109, 155;
-      Period, 48;
-      redbeds, 49, 155, 156, 157;
-      rocks, 48, 155;
-      time, 48
-  Triceratops, 51
-  trilobite, 40, 41
-  Trinidad Sandstone, 50
-  trout, 95, 101, 108, 110, 111, 112, 118, 144;
-      black spotted, 115;
-      brook, 115;
-      brown, 110, 115;
-      German brown, 115;
-      cutthroat, 114, 115;
-      rainbow, 110, 111, 114, 115, illus. 116
-  Truchas, 95, 136;
-      Lakes, 96
-  Truth or Consequences, 74, 101, 111, 135, 161
-  Tucumcari, 38, 74, 155;
-      Mountain, 155
-  tuff, 82
-  Tularosa, 28, 45, 143, 159;
-      Basin, 79, 99, 111, 159, 160
-  turkey (wild), 28, 29, 95, 98, 100, illus. 102
-  turquoise, 54
-  turtles, 36
-  Tyuonyi Pueblo ruin, illus. 25, 62
-
-
-                                    U
-  Uncompahgre Range, 43
-  Union [forces], 12, 13, 70, 72, 73, 74, 92, 137
-  U.S. Highway
-      54: 134
-      56: 134
-      60: 99, 105, 134, 155, 161
-      62: 134, 158
-      64: 134, 136, 162
-      66: 17, 48, 66, 67, 98, 134, 155, 164
-      70: 133, 134, 135, 143, 158, 159
-      80: 135, 158
-      84: 95, 106, 112, 134, 155, 162
-      85: 36, 65, 67, 70, 101, 106, 134, 135, 136, 137, 144, 161,
-          162
-      180: 134, 135, 141, 158, 161
-      260: 101, 134, 161
-      285: 134, 159, 162
-      380: 69, 99, 107, 111, 134, 159, 161
-      550: 163, 164
-      666: 134, 164
-  U.S. Public Health Service, 70, 72
-  uranium, 49, 53, 125, 138, 146, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 156
-  Ute, 65, 90;
-      Creek, 111;
-      Dam, 111;
-      Indian, 132, 133;
-      Lake State Park, 104, 111;
-      Reservation, map 56, 133, 138
-
-
-                                    V
-  Valle Grande, 38, 51, 75, 85-86, 162;
-      --Bandelier National Park, 85;
-      caldera, 37, 75, 85
-  Valley of Fires State Park, 104, 111, 155, 161
-  Valverde [N. Mex.], 13, 67
-  Valverde Land and Irrigation Company, 68
-  vanadium, 53
-  Vaughn, 161
-  Velarde, 112
-  Vermejo Formation, 51
-  vertebrate, 43, 45, 48
-  Victorio, 70, 74;
-      Mountains, 158;
-      Peak Limestone, 46
-  "Village of the Humanas," 89
-  vinegarroon, 31
-  volcanic
-      activity, 36, 37, 38, 39, 81
-      neck, 37, 51, 112, 162, 164
-      rocks, 36, 104, 112
-  volcano, 37, 49, 50, 81, 104, 156, 162
-
-
-                                    W
-  Wagon Mound, 109, 162
-  Wallace, Gov. Lew., 105
-  warbler, 31
-  Warm Springs Apache, 74
-  water, 53, 84, 89, 93, 100, 103, 104, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113,
-          114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 122;
-      laws, 117;
-      lilies, 36
-  waterfowl, 114, 118
-  Watrous, 65
-  weasel, 95
-  wheat, 122, 159
-  Wheeler Peak, 38, 94, illus. 145;
-      Wild Area, 94
-  White
-      Mesa, 49, 163
-      Mountain Apache, 69, 70, 133
-      Mountains, 99;
-      Wild Area, 100
-      Rock Canyon, 85
-  White Sands, 31, illus. 39, 40, 42, 43, 45, 51, 75, 100, 159, 160;
-      Missile Range, 67, 139, 141, 143, 160;
-      National Monument, 38, 78-79, 141, 142-143, 155
-  Whitewater Canyon, frontispiece; Creek, 101
-  wildcat, 147, illus. 148, 149
-  wildlife, 26-32, 93, 97, 98, 100, 103, 113, 117, 138, 144
-  Wilderness trail (illus.), 27
-  Willard, 161
-  Willow Creek, 101
-  Wingate Sandstone, 48
-  wolf, 30
-  woodchuck, 31
-  wood rats, 31
-  World War I, 67, 70;
-      II, 70, 146
-  wren, 31
-
-
-                                    Y
-  Yankee traders, 12
-  Yapashi Pueblo ruins, 85
-  "yellow cake," 151
-  Yeso Formation, 45, 46
-  yucca, 17, 18, 20, illus. 21;
-      state flower, 20
-  Yuman Foragers, 3
-
-
-                                    Z
-  Zia Pueblo, 131-132
-  zinc, 53, 146, 148, 151
-  zirconium, 50
-  Zuni, 61, 98;
-      Mountains, 40, 43, 98, 99, 110, 157;
-      Pueblo, 6, 89, 132, 157;
-      Sandstone, 49, 156, 157
-
-
-
-
-                  _Traveler's-Eye View of New Mexico_
-
-
-A truly representative picture of New Mexico is presented in this guide
-for visitor and resident. The traveler gains a background knowledge of
-the State's centuries-old history, desert-to-alpine flora and fauna,
-geological past, ancient Indians, and frontier forts. He learns of the
-numerous recreational and scenic attractions of its nine National
-Monuments, seven Forests, and one Park and nine State Monuments and
-twenty-one Parks. Unusual features such as the Antelope Plains, Ghost
-Ranch Museum, Sitting Bull Falls, Jackpile open-pit uranium mine,
-Jornada del Muerto, and Abo Pass redbeds are described, as are nineteen
-Indian pueblos. Routes given include both major highways and good
-secondary roads; all are well designated and easy to follow on the
-full-color general map.
-
-
-            NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES
-
-
-
-
-                          Transcriber's Notes
-
-
---Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
-  is public-domain in the country of publication.
-
---Corrected a few palpable typos.
-
---In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by
-  _underscores_.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks,
-and History, by Various
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC OF NEW MEXICO'S SCENERY ***
-
-***** This file should be named 55800-8.txt or 55800-8.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/8/0/55800/
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
diff --git a/old/55800-8.zip b/old/55800-8.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index c6f9815..0000000
--- a/old/55800-8.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h.zip b/old/55800-h.zip
deleted file mode 100644
index 9425384..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h.zip
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/55800-h.htm b/old/55800-h/55800-h.htm
deleted file mode 100644
index d2ec96b..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/55800-h.htm
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,8244 +0,0 @@
-<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
-<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
-<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
-<head>
-<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" />
-<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" />
-<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" />
-<title>Mosaic of New Mexico&rsquo;s Scenery, Rocks, and History, edited by Paige W. Christiansen and Frank E. Kottlowski: a Project Gutenberg eBook</title>
-<meta name="author" content="Paige W. Christiansen and Frank E. Kottlowski" />
-<meta name="pss.pubdate" content="1972" />
-<link rel="schema.DC" href="http://dublincore.org/documents/1998/09/dces/" />
-<meta name="DC.Title" content="Mosaic of New Mexico&rsquo;s Scenery, Rocks, and History" />
-<meta name="DC.Language" content="en" />
-<meta name="DC.Format" content="text/html" />
-<meta name="DC.Created" content="1972" />
-<meta name="DC.Creator" content="Paige W. Christiansen (****-****)" />
-<meta name="DC.Creator" content="Frank E. Kottlowski (****-****)" />
-<style type="text/css">
-large { font-size:125%; }
-sc    { font-variant:small-caps; font-style: normal; }
-
-/* == GLOBAL MARKUP == */
-body, table.twocol tr td  { margin-left:2em; margin-right:2em; }   /* BODY */
-.box     { border-style:double; margin-bottom:2em; max-width:30em; margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-top:2em; }
-.box p   { margin-right:1em; margin-left:1em; }
-.box dl  { margin-right:1em; margin-left:1em; }
-h1, h2, h3, h5, h6, .titlepg p { text-align:center; clear:both; text-indent:0; }   /* HEADINGS */
-h2                { margin-top:3em; margin-bottom:1em; font-style: italic;}
-h1                { margin-top:3em; }
-div.box h1        { margin-top:1em; }
-h3                { margin-top:2.5em; }
-h4                { font-size:100%; text-align:left; clear:right; margin-top:2em; font-variant:small-caps; }
-h4 i             { font-variant:normal; }
-h5                { font-size:100%; text-align:center; clear:right; margin-top:2em; font-variant:small-caps; font-weight:normal; }
-h6                { font-size:100%; }
-h6.var            { font-size:80%; font-style:normal; }
-.titlepg          { margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; border-style:double; clear:both; }
-span.chaptertitle { font-style:normal; display:block; text-align:center; font-size:150%; text-indent:0; }
-.tblttl           { text-align:center; text-indent:0;}
-.tblsttl          { text-align:center; font-variant:small-caps; text-indent:0; }
-
-pre sub.ms { width:4em; letter-spacing:1em; }
-table.fmla { text-align:center; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; margin-left:0em; margin-right:0em; }
-table.inline, table.symbol { display: inline-table; vertical-align: middle; }
-td.cola           { text-align:left; vertical-align:100%; }
-td.colb           { text-align:justify; }
-
-p, blockquote, div.p, div.bq { text-align:justify; }                              /* PARAGRAPHS */
-div.p, div.bq   { margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; }
-blockquote, .bq { margin-left:1em; margin-right:0em; }
-.verse    { font-size:100%; }
-p.indent  {text-indent:2em; text-align:left; }
-p.tb, p.tbcenter, verse.tb, blockquote.tb      { margin-top:2em; }
-
-span.pb, div.pb, dt.pb, p.pb                   /* PAGE BREAKS */
-{ text-align:right; float:right; margin-right:0em; clear:right; }
-div.pb { display:inline; }
-.pb, dt.pb, dl.toc dt.pb, dl.tocl dt.pb, dl.undent dt.pb, dl.index dt.pb    { text-align:right; float:right; margin-left: 1.5em;
-         margin-top:.5em; margin-bottom:.5em; display:inline; text-indent:0;
-         font-size:80%; font-style:normal; font-weight:bold;
-         color:gray; border:1px solid gray;padding:1px 3px; }
-div.index .pb  { display:block; }
-.bq  div.pb, .bq span.pb  { font-size:90%; margin-right:2em; }
-
-div.img, body a img  {text-align:center; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:2em; clear:right; }
-
-sup, a.fn { font-size:75%; vertical-align:100%; line-height:50%; font-weight:normal; font-style:normal; }
-h3   a.fn { font-size:65%; }
-h2   a.fn { font-size:50%; }
-sub { font-size:75%; }
-.center, .tbcenter       { text-align:center; clear:both; text-indent:0; }                  /* TEXTUAL MARKUP */
-span.center              { display:block; }
-table.center { clear:both; margin-right:auto; margin-left:auto; }
-table.center tr td.l  {text-align:left; margin-left:0em; }
-table.center tr td.j  {text-align:justify; }
-table.center tr td.t  {text-align:left; text-indent:1em; }
-table.center tr td.t2 {text-align:left; text-indent:2em; }
-table.center tr td.r  {text-align:right; }
-table.center tr th    {vertical-align:bottom; }
-table.center tr td    {vertical-align:top; }
-table.inline, table.symbol { display: inline-table; vertical-align: middle; }
-
-p           { clear:left; }
-.small, .lsmall      { font-size:90%; }
-.smaller    { font-size:80%; }
-.smallest   { font-size:67%; }
-.larger     { font-size:150%; }
-.large      { font-size:125%; }
-.xlarge     { font-size:200%; line-height:60%; }
-.xxlarge    { font-size:200%; line-height:60%; }
-.gs         { letter-spacing:1em; }
-.gs3        { letter-spacing:2em; }
-.gslarge    { letter-spacing:.3em; font-size:110%; }
-.sc         { font-variant:small-caps; font-style:normal; }
-.unbold     { font-weight:normal; }
-.xo         { position:relative; left:-.3em; }
-.over, over { text-decoration: overline; display:inline; }
-hr          { width:20%; }
-.jl         { text-align:left; }
-.jr         { text-align:right; min-width:2em; display:inline-block; float:right; }
-.jr1        { text-align:right; margin-right:2em; }
-h1 .jr      { margin-right:.5em; }
-.ind1       { text-align:left;  margin-left:2em; }
-.u          { text-decoration:underline; }
-.hst        { margin-left:1em; }
-.hst2       { margin-left:2em; }
-.rubric     { color:red; }
-.cnwhite    { color:white; background-color:black; min-width:2em; display:inline-block;
-              text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-family:sans-serif; }
-.cwhite     { color:white; background-color:black; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;
-              font-family:sans-serif; }
-ul  li      { text-align:justify; }
-.ss         { font-family:sans-serif; font-weight:bold; }
-
-dd.t           { text-align:left; margin-left: 5.5em; }
-dl.toc         { clear:both; margin-top:1em; }                    /* CONTENTS (.TOC) */
-.toc  dt.center    { text-align:center; clear:both; margin-top:3em; margin-bottom:1em; text-indent:0;}
-.toc  dt      { text-align:left; clear:left; }
-.toc  dd      { text-align:left; clear:both; }
-.toc  dd.ddt  { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:4em; }
-.toc  dd.ddt2 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:5em; }
-.toc  dd.ddt3 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:6em; }
-.toc  dd.ddt4 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:7em; }
-.toc  dd.ddt5 { text-align:right; clear:both; margin-left:8em; }
-.toc  dd.note { text-align:justify; clear:both; margin-left:5em; text-indent:-1em; margin-right:3em; }
-.toc  dt .xxxtest {width:17em; display:block; position:relative; left:4em; }
-.toc  dt  a,
-.toc  dd  a,
-.toc dt span.left,
-.toc dt span.lsmall,
-.toc dd span.left { text-align:left; clear:right; float:left; }
-.toc  dt  span.cn { width:4em; text-align:right; margin-right:.7em;  float:left; }
-.toc  dd  span.cn { width:4em; text-align:right; margin-right:2.7em;  margin-left:-2em; float:left; }
-.toc  dd      { margin-left:2em; }
-.toc  dt.sc   { text-align:right;  clear:both; }
-.toc  dt.scl  { text-align:left;   clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; }
-.toc  dt.sct  { text-align:right;  clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; margin-left:1em; }
-.toc  dt.jl   { text-align:left;   clear:both; font-variant:normal; }
-.toc  dt.scc  { text-align:center; clear:both; font-variant:small-caps; text-indent:0; }
-.toc  dt span.lj { text-align:left; display:block; float:left; }
-.toc  dd.center { text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-dd.tocsummary {text-align:justify; margin-right:2em; margin-left:2em; }
-dd.center sc  {display:block; text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-/* BOX CELL */
-th.l   { text-align:left; }
-td.top { border-top:1px    solid; width:.5em; height:.8em; }
-td.bot { border-bottom:1px solid; width:.5em; height:.8em; }
-td.rb  { border:1px solid; border-left:none;  width:.5em; height:.8em;  }
-td.lb  { border:1px solid; border-right:none; width:.5em; height:.8em;  }
-
-/* INDEX (.INDEX) */
-dl.index   { clear:both; }
-.index dt  { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; }
-.index dd  { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; }
-.index dd.t  { margin-left:6em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left; }
-.index dt.center {text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-
-.ab, .ab1, .ab2 {
-font-weight:bold; text-decoration:none;
-border-style:solid; border-color:gray; border-width:1px;
-margin-right:0px; margin-top:5px; display:inline-block; text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-.ab { width:1em; }
-.ab2 { width:1.5em; }
-a.gloss { background-color:#f2f2f2; border-bottom-style:dotted; text-decoration:none; border-color:#c0c0c0; color:inherit; }
-                                                           /* FOOTNOTE BLOCKS */
-div.notes p  { margin-left:1em; text-indent:-1em; text-align:justify; }
-
-dl.undent dd   { margin-left:3em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; }
-dl.undent dt   { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; }
-dl.undent dd.t { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; }
-                                                           /* POETRY LINE NUMBER */
-.lnum   { text-align:right; float:right; margin-left:.5em; display:inline; }
-
-.hymn     { text-align:left; }                                  /*  HYMN AND VERSE: HTML  */
-.verse    { text-align:left; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0em; }
-.versetb  { text-align:left; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:0em; }
-.originc  { text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-.subttl   { text-align:center; font-size:80%; text-indent:0; }
-.srcttl   { text-align:center; font-size:80%; text-indent:0; font-weight:bold; }
-p.t0, p.l { margin-left:4em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.lb                 { margin-left:4em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.tw, div.tw, .tw    { margin-left:1em;  text-indent:-1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t,  div.t,  .t     { margin-left:5em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t2,  div.t2,  .t2  { margin-left:6em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t3,  div.t3,  .t3  { margin-left:7em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t4,  div.t4,  .t4  { margin-left:8em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t5,  div.t5,  .t5  { margin-left:9em;  text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t6,  div.t6,  .t6  { margin-left:10em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t7,  div.t7,  .t7  { margin-left:11em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t8,  div.t8,  .t8  { margin-left:12em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t9,  div.t9,  .t9  { margin-left:13em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t10, div.t10,.t10  { margin-left:14em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t11, div.t11,.t11  { margin-left:15em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t12, div.t12,.t12  { margin-left:16em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t13, div.t13,.t13  { margin-left:17em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t14, div.t14,.t14  { margin-left:18em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.t15, div.t15,.t15  { margin-left:19em; text-indent:-3em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:left; }
-p.lr, div.lr, span.lr { display:block; margin-left:0em; margin-right:1em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; text-align:right; }
-dt.lr                { width:100%; margin-left:0em; margin-right:0em; margin-top:0; margin-bottom:0; margin-top:1em; text-align:right; }
-dl dt.lr a           { text-align:left; clear:left; float:left; }
-
-.fnblock   { margin-top:2em; }
-.fndef, p.fn     { text-align:justify; margin-top:1.5em; margin-left:1.5em; text-indent:-1.5em; }
-.fndef p.fncont, .fndef dl { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0em; }
-.fnblock dl  { margin-top:0; margin-left:4em; text-indent:-2em; }
-.fnblock dt  { text-align:justify; }
-dl.catalog dd { font-style:italic; }
-dl.catalog dt { margin-top:1em; }
-.author { text-align:right; margin-top:0em; margin-bottom:0em; display:block; }
-
-dl.biblio  dt        { margin-top:.6em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:justify; clear:both; }
-dl.biblio  dt  div   { display:block; float:left; margin-left:-6em; width:6em; clear:both; }
-dl.biblio  dt.center { margin-left:0em; text-align:center; text-indent:0; }
-dl.biblio  dd        { margin-top:.3em; margin-left:3em; text-align:justify; font-size:90%; }
-p.biblio             { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; }
-.clear     { clear:both; }
-p.book     { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; }
-p.review   { margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; font-size:80%; }
-p.pcap     { margin-left:0em; text-indent:0; text-align:center; margin-top:0; }
-p.pcap .small  { text-align:right; float:right; }
-p.pcapc    { margin-left:2em; text-indent:0em; margin-right:2em; text-align:justify; }
-span.pn    { display:inline-block; width:4.7em; text-align:left; margin-left:0; text-indent:0; }</style>
-</head>
-<body>
-
-
-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and
-History, by Various
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks, and History
-
-Author: Various
-
-Editor: Paige W. Christiansen
-        Frank E. Kottlowski
-
-Release Date: October 24, 2017 [EBook #55800]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC OF NEW MEXICO'S SCENERY ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-<div id="cover" class="img">
-<img id="coverpage" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Mosaic of New Mexico&rsquo;s Scenery, Rocks, and History" width="500" height="753" />
-</div>
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside</i>)</span><br />COVER: <span class="sc">Redondo Peak, from Jemez Canyon</span></p>
-<p class="jr1"><i><span class="large">Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past Series:</span></i></p>
-<dl class="undent"><dt>No. 1&mdash;<span class="sc">Santa Fe, New Mexico</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 2&mdash;<span class="sc">Taos&mdash;Red River&mdash;Eagle Nest, New Mexico, Circle Drive</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 3&mdash;<span class="sc">Roswell&mdash;Capitan&mdash;Ruidoso and Bottomless Lakes State Park, New Mexico</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 4&mdash;<span class="sc">Southern Zuni Mountains, New Mexico</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 5&mdash;<span class="sc">Silver City&mdash;Santa Rita&mdash;Hurley, New Mexico</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 6&mdash;<span class="sc">Trail Guide to Geology of the Upper Pecos, New Mexico</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 7&mdash;<span class="sc">High Plains Northeastern New Mexico, Raton&mdash;Capulin Mountain&mdash;Clayton</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 8&mdash;<span class="sc">Mosaic of New Mexico&rsquo;s Scenery, Rocks, and History</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 9&mdash;<span class="sc">Albuquerque&mdash;Its Mountains, Valleys, Water, and Volcanoes</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 10&mdash;<span class="sc">Southwestern New Mexico</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 11&mdash;<span class="sc">Cumbres and Toltec Scenic Railroad</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 12&mdash;<span class="sc">The Story of Mining in New Mexico</span></dt>
-<dt>No. 13&mdash;<span class="sc">Espa&ntilde;ola&mdash;Chama&mdash;Taos</span></dt></dl>
-<div class="img" id="fig1">
-<img src="images/p01.jpg" alt="" width="617" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Robert W. Talbott</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Whitewater Canyon near Glenwood</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="box">
-<p class="center">SCENIC TRIPS TO THE GEOLOGIC PAST
-<br />NO. 8</p>
-<h1><i>Mosaic of New Mexico&rsquo;s
-<br />Scenery, Rocks, and History</i></h1>
-<p class="center"><i>edited by</i>
-<br />PAIGE W. CHRISTIANSEN
-<br /><i>and</i>
-<br />FRANK E. KOTTLOWSKI</p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="small">NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES
-<br />1972</span></p>
-</div>
-<p class="center"><span class="large">NEW MEXICO INSTITUTE OF MINING &amp; TECHNOLOGY</span>
-<br /><span class="small"><span class="sc">Kenneth W. Ford</span>, <i>President</i></span></p>
-<p class="center">NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES &amp; MINERAL RESOURCES
-<br /><span class="small"><span class="sc">Frank E. Kottlowski</span>, <i>Director</i></span>
-<br /><span class="small"><span class="sc">George S. Austin</span>, <i>Deputy Director</i></span></p>
-<p class="tbcenter">BOARD OF REGENTS
-<br />Ex Officio
-<br />Bruce King, <i>Governor of New Mexico</i>
-<br />Leonard DeLayo, <i>Superintendent of Public Instruction</i></p>
-<p class="center">Appointed
-<br />Steve Torres, President, 1967-1985, <i>Socorro</i>
-<br />Dave Rice, Secretary-Treasurer, 1972-1983, <i>Carlsbad</i>
-<br />William G. Abbott, 1961-1985, <i>Hobbs</i>
-<br />Judy Floyd, 1977-1987, <i>Las Cruces</i>
-<br />Owen Lopez, 1977-1983, <i>Santa Fe</i></p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="small">BUREAU STAFF</span>
-<br />Full Time</p>
-<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="sc">Marla D. Adkins</span>, <i>Assistant Editor</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Orin J. Anderson</span>, <i>Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Ruben Archuleta</span>, <i>Technician I</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Robert A. Bieberman</span>, <i>Senior Petrol. Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Steve Blodgett</span>, <i>Assistant Editor</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Lynn A. Brandvold</span>, <i>Chemist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">James Brannan</span>, <i>Drafter</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Corale Brierley</span>, <i>Chemical Microbiologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Ron Broadhead</span>, <i>Petroleum Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Brenda R. Broadwell</span>, <i>Assoc. Lab Geoscientist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Jane A. Calvert</span>, <i>Assistant Editor</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Frank Campbell</span>, <i>Coal Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Richard Chamberlin</span>, <i>Economic Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Charles E. Chapin</span>, <i>Senior Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Jeanette Chavez</span>, <i>Admin. Secretary I</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Richard R. Chavez</span>, <i>Assistant Head, Petroleum</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Ruben A. Crespin</span>, <i>Laboratory Technician II</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Lois M. Devlin</span>, <i>Director, Bus.-Pub. Office</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Amelia Dondero</span>, <i>Metallurgist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Kathy C. Eden</span>, <i>Editorial Technician</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Robert W. Eveleth</span>, <i>Mining Engineer</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">K. Babette Faris</span>, <i>X-ray Lab. Manager</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Rousseau H. Flower</span>, <i>Sr. Emeritus Paleontologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">John W. Hawley</span>, <i>Senior Env. Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Cindy Howell</span>, <i>Staff Secretary</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Robert W. Kelley</span>, <i>Editor &amp; Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Arleen Lindsey</span>, <i>Staff Secretary</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Mark Logsdon</span>, <i>Industrial Minerals Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">David W. Love</span>, <i>Environmental Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Wess Mauldin</span>, <i>Driller</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Virginia McLemore</span>, <i>Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Lynne McNeil</span>, <i>Staff Secretary</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Norma J. Meeks</span>, <i>Department Secretary</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">David Menzie</span>, <i>Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Teresa Mueller</span>, <i>Drafter</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Robert M. North</span>, <i>Mineralogist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Keith O&rsquo;Brien</span>, <i>Hydrologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">JoAnne C. Osburn</span>, <i>Coal Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Glenn R. Osburn</span>, <i>Volcanologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Barbara R. Popp</span>, <i>Lab. Biotechnologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Marshall A. Reiter</span>, <i>Senior Geophysicist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Jacques R. Renault</span>, <i>Senior Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">James M. Robertson</span>, <i>Mining Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Gretchen H. Roybal</span>, <i>Coal Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Amy Shacklett</span>, <i>Asst. Lab Biotechnologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Jackie H. Smith</span>, <i>Laboratory Technician IV</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">William J. Stone</span>, <i>Hydrogeologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Samuel Thompson III</span>, <i>Senior Petrol. Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Judy M. Vaiza,</span> <i>Executive Secretary</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Debra Vetterman</span>, <i>Drafter</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Robert H. Weber</span>, <i>Senior Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Betsy Wilson</span>, <i>Receptionist/Clerk Typist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Donald Wolberg</span>, <i>Vertebrate Paleontologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Michael W. Wooldridge</span>, <i>Scientific Illustrator</i></dt></dl>
-<p class="center">Part Time</p>
-<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="sc">Christina L. Balk</span>, <i>Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Howard B. Nickelson</span>, <i>Coal Geologist</i></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Beverly Ohline</span>, <i>Acting Director, Info. Services</i></dt>
-<dt>Thomas E. Zimmerman, <i>Chief Security Officer</i></dt></dl>
-<p class="center">Graduate Students</p>
-<dl class="undent"><dt><span class="sc">Danny Bobrow</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">James T. Boyle</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Gerry W. Clarkson</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Mike Davidson</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">David R. Guilinger</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Terry Jensen</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Douglas L. Heath</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Adrian Hunt</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Ingrid Klich</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Ione Lindley</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Curtis Verpleough</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">John M. Wakefield</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">Mary Lynne Yates</span></dt>
-<dt><span class="sc">John Young</span></dt></dl>
-<p class="center"><span class="small">Plus about 50 undergraduate assistants</span></p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><i>Third edition, 4th printing</i></p>
-<p class="tb">Published by Authority of State of New Mexico, NMSA 1953 Sec. 63-1-4</p>
-<p>Printed by University of New Mexico Printing Plant, Albuquerque, April 1982</p>
-<p>Available from New Mexico Bureau of Mines &amp; Mineral Resources, Socorro, NM 87801      $4.00</p>
-<h2 class="center">Contents</h2>
-<dl class="toc"><dt><span class="cn">3 </span><a href="#c1">Of Indians, Spaniards, and Americans, <i>Paige W. Christiansen</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">16 </span><a href="#c2">The exotic plants of New Mexico, <i>Ross Calvin</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">26 </span><a href="#c3">Dwellers in the hills and plains, <i>Levon Lee</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">33 </span><a href="#c4">Rocks that shape the enchanting landscapes, <i>Frank E. Kottlowski</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">54 </span><a href="#c5">Before Coronado, <i>Robert H. Weber</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">64 </span><a href="#c6">Frontier forts of New Mexico, <i>Robert A. Bieberman</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">75 </span><a href="#c7">Our National Heritage</a></dt>
-<dd><span class="cn">75 </span><a href="#c8">New Mexico&rsquo;s big share of the National Park System, <i>H. V. Reeves, Jr.</i></a></dd>
-<dd><span class="cn">93 </span><a href="#c9">Forest lands above the desert, <i>Ruth Bush Jones</i></a></dd>
-<dt><span class="cn">104 </span><a href="#c10">The State Also Preserves</a></dt>
-<dd><span class="cn">104 </span><a href="#c11">New Mexico State Monuments, <i>Museum of New Mexico Staff</i></a></dd>
-<dd><span class="cn">107 </span><a href="#c12">New Mexico State Parks, <i>The Editors</i></a></dd>
-<dt><span class="cn">113 </span><a href="#c13">Angling in the desert&rsquo;s waters, <i>Fred A. Thompson</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">119 </span><a href="#c14">The Indians of New Mexico, <i>Paige W. Christiansen</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">133 </span><a href="#c15">Reminders of the past, <i>Paige W. Christiansen</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">145 </span><a href="#c16">Derricks and mines, <i>George B. Griswold</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">154 </span><a href="#c17">Enchanting landscapes, <i>Frank E. Kottlowski</i></a></dt>
-<dt><span class="cn">165 </span><a href="#c18">Index</a></dt></dl>
-<div class="img" id="map1">
-<img src="images/map_lr.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="873" />
-<p class="pcap">New Mexico</p><p class="center"><a class="ab1" href="images/map_hr.jpg">High-resolution Map</a></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_1">1</div>
-<h2><span class="small">Preface</span></h2>
-<p>Previous <i>Scenic Trips to the Geologic Past</i> have emphasized scenic
-tours of local areas in New Mexico. This book lays out a mosaic of facts
-and fancies concerning the state&rsquo;s landscapes, the rocks that underlie and
-make up the landscapes, and the history of the people now living or who
-have lived amid New Mexico&rsquo;s exciting and varied scenery. We hope
-these short articles will help you enjoy our state, whether you are a tourist
-driving through at seventy miles an hour, a visitor with a little time
-to explore, or an old-timer who remembers the cattle drives.</p>
-<p>The idea for this publication grew out of a booklet, <i>New Mexico
-Mosaic of Science and History</i>, that was written for the 1963 National
-Science Fair-International held in Albuquerque. The National Science
-Fair booklet was directed specifically to the Fair participants and emphasized
-their tours to famous scientific installations in New Mexico,
-areas of scenic geologic wonders, and points of historic and archeologic
-importance. The booklet had only limited distribution; subsequent interest
-in this kind of publication about New Mexico led to the preparation of
-this book.</p>
-<p>Scenic Trips No. 8 is in two major parts. First, there are articles of general
-statewide interest to acquaint visitor and resident alike with the
-Land of Enchantment&mdash;its history, flora and fauna, geology, and scenic
-beauty. Second, there are articles describing specific scenic, geologic, historic,
-and recreational places to give a depth of understanding and a more
-intimate view of New Mexico. The entire mosaic of New Mexico thus
-presented is a permanent record to recall vistas of New Mexico&rsquo;s enchanting
-land and fascinating history.</p>
-<h4>Acknowledgments</h4>
-<p>Many people have contributed their time and talents to this co-operative
-undertaking. We thank each of the authors of the articles; where their
-affiliation is not given, they are staff members of the New Mexico Bureau
-of Mines and Mineral Resources division of the New Mexico Institute of
-Mining and Technology. Professor Christiansen is a member of the
-Humanities Department of the Institute&rsquo;s College division. This book
-would have been incomplete without the co-operation of the New Mexico
-Department of Game and Fish, the Museum of New Mexico, the New
-Mexico Department of Development, the State Park Commission, the U.S.
-Park Service, and the Forest Service, Southwestern Region, U.S. Department
-of Agriculture. Our special appreciation goes to Dr. Ross Calvin
-for his interpretative description of New Mexico&rsquo;s unique flora.</p>
-<p>Black and white photographs were contributed by Robert Bieberman,
-Roy Foster, and Teri Ray of the Bureau of Mines staff and by the authors
-<span class="pb" id="Page_2">2</span>
-or their agencies. Some of the drawings were made by David H. Moneypenny.
-Acknowledgment is also made to Mr. Elliott S. Barker and the
-Forest Service for their willing loan of color transparencies.</p>
-<p>Among the numerous personnel of the New Mexico Institute of Mining
-and Technology who aided in preparation of this book, appreciation is
-due Helen Waxler, Lois Devlin, Lola White, Mary Ann Grandjean, and
-Sharon Ballenger for typing of manuscripts and William Arnold, Robert
-Price, and Raymond Molina for drafting maps and figures. Teri Ray
-deserves special mention for her interest and editorial advice and for nursing
-the material from rough manuscripts into printed pages.</p>
-<h3>PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION</h3>
-<p>The kind reception given our attempt to provide a brief but comprehensive
-guide to New Mexico&rsquo;s scenery, rocks, and history resulted in
-distribution of 5000 copies in two years, and led to this second edition. In
-this revision, we have incorporated changes that have occurred during
-these two years, especially the addition of State Parks, and Teri Ray has
-added an index to make the book more usable. Each author has re-edited
-his article and made changes where necessary. William Arnold added
-much material to the index map; typing of the revision manuscript was
-carefully done by Lois Devlin. Alfred Coulloudon and Wayne Bera supplied
-additional photographs. Teri Ray initiated revision of the first edition,
-worked with authors, and guided the manuscript from the authors to
-the final copy.</p>
-<h3>PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION</h3>
-<p>The first edition appeared in 1964, the second in 1967, and a reprint in
-1968. In the present edition front matter has been re-styled, printed matter
-has been altered on the inside and outside of the covers, a footnote added to
-<a href="#Page_104">page 104</a>, and a less bulky paper used.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_3">3</div>
-<h2 id="c1"><span class="small">Of Indians, Spaniards, and Americans</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Paige W. Christiansen</span></p>
-<p>In the world of the twentieth century with its tumultuous ovation for
-each discovery of science, with its language of non-Euclidian space, with
-new heroes who leave the earth, not discover it&mdash;sometimes it is refreshing
-to look back on other days, to see other heroes, and to seek romance and
-excitement which was equally spectacular in times past. Yet there is a close
-affinity and a spiritual link among the heroes of the past, the present, and
-the future, and the reaction of their contemporaries to their feats of glory
-is not so different. Heroes are those who seek the unknown, who risk life
-and position to expand the frontiers of man&rsquo;s universe and mind. But
-heroes can only lead an age, never surpass it. History, then, is people and
-their catalyst, ideas.</p>
-<p>The history of New Mexico, like twentieth century science, is multi-dimensional.
-Its complex cultural patterns fit with the intricate variety of
-its geologic wonders and its flora and fauna. In reality, New Mexico is
-a part of a broader concept, the Southwest. This vast region, which includes
-western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, southern California, part of
-southern Colorado, and southern Utah, has given rise to some of man&rsquo;s
-greatest achievements. Here prehistoric man rose above his animal heritage
-to take control of these lands. Here, also, many millennia later, man
-achieved one of his greatest scientific wonders, the successful release of
-atomic energy. The story of the years between these events, so far separated
-in time, is a wondrous tale.</p>
-<h3>INDIAN BEGINNINGS</h3>
-<p>Before the coming of the white man, this land belonged to nature&rsquo;s
-children, the Indian. Centuries before European nations came into existence,
-peoples from Asia, crossing by the Bering waters, had discovered, explored,
-and settled the American continents from Alaska to Tierra del
-Fuego. They mastered the plains, the northern forests, the jungles of
-Central and South America, and the arid regions. In the deserts and mountains
-of the Southwest, they conquered elements and terrain, first to survive
-and then slowly to ascend the ladder of culture.</p>
-<p>At first they were foragers, living on what nature provided. At the
-time of Christ, several groups could be distinguished: In the Colorado
-River drainage, south of the Grand Canyon, were the Yuman Foragers;
-in southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico were the Mogollon
-people; in the Four Corners area (where the states of Utah, Colorado,
-Arizona, and New Mexico meet) and in the Rio Grande Valley of New
-<span class="pb" id="Page_4">4</span>
-Mexico was a complex of cave sites that evidenced a forager type of culture.
-But, as man always aspires to rise above his environment, the Indian
-slowly and painfully learned to make tools, developed new techniques,
-and finally made the great step upward; he domesticated plants. Agriculture,
-based primarily on the growing of corn, came to the Four Corners
-before the Christian era. Gradually, out of the primitive foragers, there
-developed across the Southwest a complex pattern of agricultural societies;
-peaceful farmers intent upon harvesting the utmost from a harsh land. In
-Arizona, the Hohokam peoples created a culture based upon irrigation. In
-the valleys of the upper Gila and Mimbres rivers of southwestern New
-Mexico, several branches of the Mogollon culture grew and prospered.
-In the Four Corners area and in the upper Rio Grande Valley, the Mesa
-Verde, the Gran Chaco, and later the Rio Grande branches developed, at
-first in the cliffs of the high country, then in open villages along the main
-tributaries of the Rio Grande. That there were numerous and varied cultures
-is attested to by the ruins one finds scattered throughout the Southwest.
-Along now dry arroyos, on buttes overlooking rivers or dry river
-beds, among cliffs in the mountain fastnesses and in caves wherever they
-appear, there are thousands of sites whose people and history are lost in
-antiquity.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig2">
-<img src="images/p03.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="499" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Prehistoric Indian cliff dwelling</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>And these people were builders. They lived in caves at first, then in
-crude pit houses. Finally they moved above the ground and evolved
-building techniques and styles of architecture that stood the ravages of
-time and still serve the people of the Southwest. In the city of Santa Fe,
-the Palace of the Governors was built upon the ruins of an Indian pueblo
-(village), the name of which has disappeared even from tradition, and its
-massive walls of puddled adobe, laid down before the art of making bricks
-<span class="pb" id="Page_5">5</span>
-was introduced by the Spanish, may be seen under glass in some of the
-rooms of the Palace at the present time. Perhaps most spectacular are the
-great houses of Chaco Canyon, some of which must have sheltered from
-one to two thousand people each, and which as achievements in building,
-both from the standpoint of durability and graceful construction, rival the
-structures of the historic valleys and plateaus of the ancient eastern world.</p>
-<p>In addition to agriculture and building, the Indian of the Southwest
-achieved great heights in artistic forms. The ceramics of the American
-Southwest become increasingly important when compared with products of
-the Old World. The Indians of America and the Southwest are a race of
-artists. Their aesthetic culture towers above anything achieved by the
-white man, with the general exception of ancient Greece and Renaissance
-Italy.</p>
-<p>As impressive as his achievements in domesticating plants, in building
-massive structures, and in developing symbolism and aesthetic values to
-match his material advances, the Indian&rsquo;s greatest heights were reached
-in his philosophy on nature and life. He conceived himself to be, not
-master of creation, but a single factor in the scheme of things. He shared
-with all things&mdash;beasts, birds, rocks, trees, everything in nature&mdash;a life
-principle which permeated all, a gift conferred by the mighty powers of
-earth and sky. He observed orderly procession of natural phenomena and
-ordered his own life in harmony therewith. His was no egocentric point
-of view which has become so much a part of the philosophic base of the
-European mentality. His natural philosophy entered into every facet of
-his life&mdash;his daily work, his art, his ceramics, his religion. In short, this
-singularly fine outlook upon the world helps to account for his success
-in conquering the diverse elements of earth and sky which constantly
-threatened his very existence.</p>
-<p>But this fine culture did not survive in the fullness of its bloom. What
-eventually destroyed the vast and complicated agricultural system was not
-the rigors of Mother Nature but a migration of new people into the flow
-of Southwest history. Sometime after 1000 A.D., a nonfarming, nomadic,
-warlike people entered the Southwest. The peaceful farmers, weakened
-by drouth, were unable to cope with this new force. Gradually they fell
-back, leaving behind their homes, their fields, their culture. By 1300, only
-a small remnant remained, that located in the Rio Grande Valley of north-central
-New Mexico. Across the rest of the Southwest the nomadic tribes,
-technically called <i>Athapascan</i> from their linguistic affiliation but better
-known by their modern name, <i>Apache</i>, had replaced the farming cultures.
-The picturesque Indian pueblos we see today in the valleys of northern
-New Mexico are the direct descendants of the great cultures that existed
-at Mesa Verde, Gran Chaco, Frijoles, and other centers of cultural
-achievement.</p>
-<p>The Indians of the Rio Grande Valley and the Apache who controlled
-most of the Southwest managed an uneasy coexistence. The Pueblo Indians
-remained basically farmers, holding fast to the cultural advances
-made by their ancestors during the millennium preceding 1300. The
-<span class="pb" id="Page_6">6</span>
-Apache, for the most part, remained nomadic predators, living off nature&rsquo;s
-bounty, or better still, raiding the pueblos for food. The Apache groups
-began to take on names and traditional areas which they called their own.
-In northern New Mexico were the Jicarilla Apache and in the southeast,
-the Lipan, the Mescalero, and the Natage Apache. In northeastern Arizona
-were the Navajo and in the drainage of the Gila River, the Chiricahua,
-the Gila, and other groups of the Western Apache. Each of these
-groups made its mark upon the face of the land.</p>
-<h3>SPANISH CONTRIBUTIONS</h3>
-<p>This was the situation in the Southwest when the sixteenth century
-opened, but a new force was abroad which would grow and strengthen
-and leave a deep imprint on New Mexico. Beginning on the wild islands of
-the Caribbean and then fanning out into the heart of Mexico and the
-South American continent, this new force spread across the face of
-America. Europeans, more exactly, Spaniards, came bent upon conquest
-for its own reward, for the glory of God, and for gold. These sturdy men
-from the Iberian peninsula with weapons vastly superior to the Indians&rsquo;,
-with the horse which made them highly mobile and devastating in battle,
-and with tactics and precision in warfare unknown among the Indians,
-were to sweep without serious setback across the great cultures of Mexico
-and Central and South America. By 1540, they were ready to take their
-next leap forward.</p>
-<p>On the west coast of Mexico, at a place called Culiacan, a colorful
-host gathered. In their ears rang the words of the legend of the Seven
-Cities of Cibola, seven golden cities, a legend which had been popular in
-Spain for many generations. Mexico City had produced wealth, and the
-Spanish were ready to believe that other fabulous cities existed. One Spaniard
-had already crossed part of North America and had heard from the
-Indians tales of the rich cities. His name was Cabeza de Vaca, and the
-exuberance of his tales fired the imagination of the Spaniards.</p>
-<p>The soldiers and adventurers gathering in Mexico, commanded by
-Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, were the first Europeans to organize an
-expedition to the American Southwest. Leaving from Culiacan in 1540,
-they went up the west coast of Mexico into modern Arizona, then east
-into New Mexico. The seven golden cities turned out to be the pueblos
-around Zuni, New Mexico, and not golden at all. The expedition, although
-discouraged, marched into the Rio Grande Valley and visited most of the
-pueblos there. Still they failed to find the treasure they sought. In a final
-desperate attempt, they explored onto the Great Plains, eventually reaching
-central Kansas. Broken in spirit and body, they struggled back to the
-Rio Grande Valley, and then retraced their route to Mexico. In all, the
-expedition covered a two-year span. A failure? Yes, in terms of wealth and
-treasure found. Yes, in terms of conquest, for nothing had been conquered.
-No, in terms of human resources, for the Indians Coronado met were to
-be the incentive that would bring the Spaniard back to New Mexico.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_7">7</span>
-While the Spaniard did seek gold and glory, he also burned with a missionary
-zeal and sought souls for his deep-running religion, Roman
-Catholicism.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig3">
-<img src="images/p04.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="489" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Mesa top pueblo</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>For fifty-five years after Coronado, interest in New Mexico and the
-Southwest was spotty. Other things occupied the Spanish&mdash;primarily silver
-discoveries in the central valleys of Mexico. But men did not forget New
-Mexico and saw there an opportunity for missionary activity and exploitation.
-Also, other nations of Europe were beginning to take an interest in
-the North American continent, and New Mexico began to look attractive
-to the Spanish as a frontier defensive outpost. The frontier line pushed
-ever northward from central Mexico. By 1595, the Spanish were ready to
-push a salient into New Mexico.</p>
-<p>From among the mining communities of northern Mexico, a force of
-two hundred colonists was assembled by Don Juan O&ntilde;ate who had a contract
-to colonize New Mexico. After countless delays due to politics and
-supply shortages, the O&ntilde;ate expedition left Chihuahua in 1598. The route
-went north across the desert to the Rio Grande near El Paso del Norte
-(modern Juarez), thence up the Rio Grande into New Mexico. On August
-18, 1598, they arrived at San Juan, and there founded the first capital of
-New Mexico, San Juan de los Caballeros. These lands of the Southwest
-so long colored by the Indian now received a new imprint, one that would
-alter the direction and flow of culture and change it from the Indian to the
-Spanish Southwest.</p>
-<p>From San Juan, and later (1610) from Santa Fe, O&ntilde;ate, his men, and
-his colonists brought New Mexico under the Spanish yoke. In co-operation
-with the Franciscan Order, which had been assigned the task of converting
-<span class="pb" id="Page_8">8</span>
-the Indian, O&ntilde;ate supervised the building of missions and mission
-churches at many of the pueblos of New Mexico. At the same time, Spanish
-towns developed, the most important being the new capital at Santa
-Fe. By 1628, New Mexico was solidly in the hands of her new masters.</p>
-<p>The period from 1628 to 1680 was one of internal conflict and isolation
-for New Mexico. It lay far out on the frontier, alone and distant
-from its source of supplies. It lacked many of the items necessary for frontier
-life, particularly hardware and clothing. Its population was small, and
-in constant fear of Indian uprising, and its officials were too weak to act
-with vigor. Finally, there was a lack of genuine interest on the part of
-the central authorities. All these problems led to internal conflicts between
-soldier and colonist; between colonist and Indian; between colonist and
-official; and, perhaps most bitter of all, between church and state. This
-latter conflict would erupt time after time, openly, and with bitterness
-and denunciation from both sides. Governors were excommunicated as
-heretics; Franciscans were accused of all sorts of crimes and improper behavior.
-This, plus the other conflicts, gave rise to growing disrespect by
-the Indians for their European conquerors. The superiority of Christianity
-was questioned by the Indians as they watched the attacks and counterattacks
-made by priest and governor. The whole system of Spanish rule
-seemed a mockery. In 1680, the Indians decided their way was best after
-all and rose in rebellion.</p>
-<p>Led by Po-p&eacute; from Taos, the various pueblos banded together in a
-mighty effort to remove the Spanish from traditional Indian lands. For
-the first time the pueblos came together, united by a single purpose. There
-were two exceptions; Isleta, just south of Albuquerque, and the Piro villages
-farther south (Socorro) remained loyal to the Spanish. Up and down
-the Rio Grande Valley, the Spaniards fell before the pent-up anger of the
-Indians. Survivors gathered at Santa Fe, but their water supply was cut,
-and they were forced to retreat south. At Isleta and later at the Piro villages,
-they received aid before continuing south to El Paso del Norte.
-With them went their Indian allies from Isleta and Socorro. It was a total
-defeat for the Spanish, and the Indian again was master of New Mexico.</p>
-<p>But not for long, for at El Paso there gathered a force dedicated to
-revenge for their comrades who had died before the Indian onslaught.
-Ably led by Diego de Vargas, this expedition moved into New Mexico in
-1692. The Indians, who had achieved such unity for the moment in 1680,
-were again badly divided. De Vargas, instead of having to subdue an
-alliance, had only to deal with one pueblo at a time. Very quickly New
-Mexico was returned to a mission area and frontier military post. The
-Pueblo Indians became permanently subjected to European domination.
-Their one and only attempt at unity had, in the final analysis, failed.</p>
-<p>During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, New Mexico was
-the heart of the Spanish empire in the Southwest. Only in southwestern
-Arizona, western Texas, and California did the Spanish hold any land other
-than in the upper Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico. During these centuries,
-this valley complex played out its dual role of mission area and military
-<span class="pb" id="Page_9">9</span>
-outpost. Its only connection with the resources and ideas of the world
-was a long hazardous road that stretched from Santa Fe to Chihuahua City
-and then south to Mexico City. This was New Mexico&rsquo;s Royal Road, and
-over it moved everything needed by soldier, priest, and civilian. The trade
-was dominated by the merchants of Chihuahua, and New Mexico suffered.
-The tale of New Mexico during this period was one of poverty,
-hardship, and warfare. And several vital forces moved across the land.</p>
-<p>One of these forces had long been in the Southwest, but latent. The
-Spanish adopted an Indian word meaning <i>enemy</i> to describe it&mdash;Apache!
-The Spanish brought with them domesticated animals which quickly
-adapted to conditions of the New World and became available to the Indian.
-Most important was the horse, at least as far as the Apache was
-concerned. By the early eighteenth century, the Apache, and other groups
-on the plains, had adapted to the use of the horse. While dangerous as
-foot soldiers, the Apache became vastly more dangerous as mounted warriors.
-Whereas they had been satisfied with minor raids against the pueblos
-and the Spanish holdings prior to 1700, they exploded on a wave of terrorism
-during the eighteenth century which very nearly drove the Spanish
-from the frontier. Late in the century, the conflict between the Apache
-and the Spanish became increasingly bitter. The history of the Southwest
-became the history of incessant Indian incursions and Spanish attempts
-to control the raiders. The missions declined and in many instances gave
-way entirely to the presidio or fort. In New Mexico the military came to
-dominate the missionary, and only through the heroic efforts of the meager
-force at the Presidio of Santa Fe did the Spanish manage to hold New
-Mexico from total collapse. A poor province became poorer, population
-declined, both among the Spanish and Indian, and the future looked dark
-indeed.</p>
-<p>Far from New Mexico, other forces were stirring which would have a
-profound effect on the province and the Southwest. Spain and the Spanish
-empire were in trouble. Spain had failed to develop the supply capability
-to keep her colonies alive and was forced to spend her wealth in
-other areas of Europe. After two and a half centuries, the cumbersome
-and inefficient colonial administrative machinery was breaking down.
-While Spain&rsquo;s star was descending, other European nations were on the
-move. England, France, Holland, and Russia were contesting with Spain
-for control of the New World. England and France were digging in on
-the east coast of North America; Holland was penetrating the islands of
-the Caribbean, and Russia was pushing down the Pacific Coast from
-Alaska. The weakness of Spain and the failure of her colonial government,
-plus help from Napoleon by way of his invasion of the Iberian Peninsula
-in 1808, brought about the collapse of the Spanish empire. In America,
-patriots, inspired by the earlier success of the American Revolution and
-afire with the ideas of the French Revolution, struck out at the remnants
-of Spanish rule. By 1825, all the Spanish colonies but the islands of the
-Caribbean were free and independent nations. New Mexico and the
-Southwest became part of the Mexican state.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_10">10</div>
-<p>Almost immediately, Mexico, without leaders, without a political heritage
-to lead it to stability, and torn by power struggles large and small,
-was plunged into a period of political anarchy and civil war which would
-last for half a century. The problems and dangers of a far-flung frontier
-were lost in the din of conflict, and New Mexico became a forgotten
-province. Its claims as a mission area were so weak as to be almost nonexistent.
-It was no longer needed as a military outpost, for the danger to
-Mexico was not external, but internal. Its reasons for being were forgotten,
-at least for the moment, and New Mexico had to survive on her own initiative.
-But for one very important fact, the Spanish salient into the Southwest
-might have collapsed under the weight of poverty and Indian attacks.
-That fact was the opening of the Santa Fe Trail in 1821, a trail which
-linked the Spanish world with the Anglo-Saxon world then pushing its
-frontiers out from Missouri. This trail, so rich in lore and adventure, so
-much a part of the history of both the American west and the Spanish
-north, was the door through which passed the characters for the final act
-in the history of the Southwest.</p>
-<p>Before the final act, however, it is vital and necessary to set down the
-contribution of two hundred fifty years of Spanish occupation and rule.
-The coming of the Spaniard to the Southwest began a mixture of white
-and red races which resulted in a new mixed race. The first generation
-of those who came up from Mexico were Caucasians; their descendants
-were usually not. They came seeking wealth and security, but there was
-neither wealth nor security in New Mexico, and they remained poor, very
-poor. The society that evolved was to be based upon farming and stock
-raising, and its organization was to be feudal in nature. There would be
-no education; hence, there could be no intellectual advance. The world
-began to go ahead of the people of New Mexico. Only in the house of
-the rico was there any sign of the wealth and grandeur of Spain; everywhere
-else was poverty. Farming was left in the hands of the Indian, while
-the Spaniard chose to be a man on horseback, a cattleman, an aristocrat.
-In the final analysis, Spanish New Mexico would not develop as democratic
-and agricultural, but aristocratic and feudal. The hacienda was a
-part of old Spain in exile. The rico tried vainly to hold to his idea of
-chivalry and to a decorum suitable to his position. But what chance was
-there in the face of the increasing poverty, the constant danger to life
-and property, and time that did not move? While individual courage of the
-upper class remained, discipline and industry died. When the American
-army marched into the Southwest, the sons of the conquistadores could
-offer no armed resistance. Perhaps the most amazing thing about the society
-of the ricos in New Mexico was that it failed to contribute any lasting
-monument. It left no art, no music, no great highways, no adequate
-governmental system.</p>
-<p>But many elements of Spanish culture were to persist, and these arose
-from the collective consciousness of the people of New Mexico. Around the
-great haciendas were small villages with their artisans and workers. It
-was among these people that the heritage of Spain clung to this land.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_11">11</span>
-Many of these towns yet remain and are not much different from those of
-two hundred years ago. To a large degree, their Spanish culture seems
-hidden and undiscovered, but the people, their loves and hates, pleasures
-and hopes, beliefs and fears, are governed by tradition, a tradition that
-finds its roots deep in the soil of Spain.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig4">
-<img src="images/p05.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="535" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Old mission church at Isleta Pueblo</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Today, when we look at the cultural scene in New Mexico, we can
-see direct evidence of Spanish occupation. The language of half the people
-in the state is Spanish, in some areas still the Spanish of the sixteenth
-century. Roman Catholicism, of which the Spanish were the most Catholic,
-dominates the religious scene. The Spanish heritage in political attitudes,
-in building and architecture, and in the legal tradition of the state is apparent.
-New Mexico, of all the states in the United States, is the only one
-that can claim a truly Spanish heritage.</p>
-<h3>ANGLO-AMERICAN VIGOR</h3>
-<p>While Spain lost its empire and New Mexico and the Southwest sank
-into poverty and decay, yet another force was on the march, a force that
-welled up in an Anglo-American people clinging to the Atlantic Coast
-of North America. As these people developed a nation, they also discovered
-a sense of destiny which turned their faces to the west and their
-footsteps toward the sunset. With them moved their culture. At first, it
-was a trickle, a few traders bent on profit, crossing the plains on the Santa
-Fe Trail. Then the trickle became a flood. For New Mexico, these men
-came as saviors. The Missouri traders broke the Chihuahua monopoly and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_12">12</span>
-goods from all parts of the world began to flow into New Mexico, resulting
-in higher standards of living. These Yankee traders, sensing a good
-thing, also penetrated the markets of Mexico, using New Mexico&rsquo;s Royal
-Road to gain entrance.</p>
-<p>Again there was conflict, not Spanish and Indian, but Latin and
-Anglo-American. Mexico owned the lands of the Southwest and intended
-to keep them. But this American, with his gaze glued on western skies,
-refused to turn aside, and he strode on, grinding the feeble efforts of
-Mexican resistance into the desert sands. The Mexican War in 1846, suddenly
-transferred ownership of Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona,
-and California from Mexico to the United States. This was nearly
-half the territory of Mexico. New Mexico, with her already complex cultural
-pattern, was subjected to still another influence.</p>
-<p>The history of the American occupation of the Southwest is as complex
-and diverse as its predecessors. Its ingredients include cattle, mining, railroads,
-agriculture, science, and the Indian. All these, and others, combined
-to give an Anglo-American slant to the Southwest. The Indian culture
-did not disappear, nor did the Spanish, but rather a new stratum was cast
-that was to complete the mosaic.</p>
-<p>When the American arrived in New Mexico, he found a poor, backward
-area, hungry for trade and outside contacts. He found the Indians
-of the Southwest in open rebellion against the white men. The Navajo
-and other Apache groups, the Comanche, and some of the Pueblos were
-the primary offenders. This was to be the main problem occupying the
-time and energy of the American settler and soldier for forty years after
-1846. Until the Indian situation was stabilized, there would be little economic
-and social development.</p>
-<p>The method evolved for containing the vicious raids against friendly
-Indian, Spanish, and American communities was a series of forts placed
-at strategic passes or trails surrounding the traditional lands of the Apache.
-The Indian strongholds were located primarily in the mountainous regions
-of southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona. The line of forts
-stretched along the Rio Grande south of Socorro to the vicinity of Las
-Cruces, and west along the southern edge of the mountain escarpment
-into Arizona. Then the defense complex ran north across the desert to an
-irregular line running east from Flagstaff through Gallup and back to the
-Rio Grande. These forts were well garrisoned and provisioned and began
-to carry the fight to the Indian. Early success was halted by the conflict
-generated by the American Civil War.</p>
-<p>The center of the Civil War in the west was in New Mexico. There was
-conflict, argument, and some small degree of fighting in other western
-states and territories as settlers from the north or south struggled to carry
-this territory or that state into the Union or the Confederacy. These were,
-however, local matters and as much political as military. In New Mexico,
-there was a war and there were battles, battles which deserve to be a part
-of the general Civil War story but that are usually forgotten in the smoke
-and roar of eastern cannon.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_13">13</div>
-<p>Two major battles were fought in New Mexico, the first a Confederate
-victory, the second a Union victory which saved New Mexico, and the
-west, for the Union. The aim of the Confederate forces was to capture,
-intact if possible, the forts in New Mexico and Arizona with their great
-store of military provisions, provisions badly needed by the Confederate
-army. Also, there was a feeling among southern leaders that success in New
-Mexico might also lead to success in California, badly split on the question
-of secession, and in Colorado, rich in silver and gold. An army recruited
-in Texas and commanded by General Henry Sibley was sent to
-accomplish Confederate aims.</p>
-<p>This army entered New Mexico along the traditional route, moving up
-the Rio Grande from El Paso. It quickly subdued the forts and Union
-troops in southern New Mexico and continued up-river. On February 21,
-1862, it met a Union army commanded by Colonel E. R. S. Canby at
-Valverde, a small community about twenty miles south of Socorro, New
-Mexico. Kit Carson, New Mexico&rsquo;s famous trapper and scout, commanded
-the New Mexico Volunteers, a part of the Union force. Canby&rsquo;s troops were
-beaten and dispersed at the Battle of Val Verde, leaving the upper Rio
-Grande Valley virtually without defense. Within a few weeks, the Texans
-had taken Albuquerque and Santa Fe. But one stronghold in New Mexico
-remained in the hands of the Union forces. Fort Union, northeast of Las
-Vegas, New Mexico, became the focal point of action by both north and
-south. Sibley, marching from Santa Fe, knew success depended on the fall
-of Fort Union. The Union forces, equally aware of the importance of the
-fort, hurriedly reinforced it with a number of volunteers from Colorado.</p>
-<p>Within Fort Union, a crisis developed over differing opinions on
-strategy. The fort commander wanted to keep the garrison at full strength
-and fight the Confederates from within the fort. The Colorado Volunteers
-wanted to go out and meet the enemy. The latter won and a Union force
-moved into the passes of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains to meet the
-Confederates in a fateful battle that would decide control of the west.
-It was fought at Glorieta Pass on March 28, 1862. Despite the fact that
-the two armies met on this field, the contest was not decided there. Early
-on the morning of March 28, a force of 400 Colorado Volunteers, commanded
-by Colonel John M. Chivington, began a flanking action in hopes
-of hitting the Confederate rear. This group moved out of the Pass into the
-mountains, and by a very difficult route moved back toward the Pass behind
-the Confederate force. On a ridge overlooking Apache Canyon, they saw
-below them the entire Confederate supply train and cavalry horse herd.
-In a lightning hit-and-run attack, the supply train and horses were destroyed.
-When word of this reached Sibley at Glorieta Pass, there was
-little for him to do but to retire from the field. The Confederate force
-never recovered from this disaster and gradually retreated to Santa Fe, then
-back down the Rio Grande into Texas.</p>
-<p>With the end of the Civil War, New Mexico and the Southwest returned,
-not to peace, but to war, war against the Apache. It took twenty
-years for the American with all his modern weapons and tactics to bring
-<span class="pb" id="Page_14">14</span>
-the Apache under control. For the Apache, it ended on September 3,
-1886, when Geronimo and his few ragged followers surrendered to General
-Miles in Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. Under the weight of steel and increasing
-numbers of white men, the Apache was doomed. Though civilization
-would swallow the Apache, as it has always succeeded against the barbarian,
-the Apache made a spectacular defense of his lands and his way
-of life against both Spaniard and American. He made himself master of
-the desert, and only the gods of science succeeded in overcoming him
-and his desert gods.</p>
-<h3>INDUSTRIAL BOOM</h3>
-<p>With the Indian situation settled, New Mexico underwent a boom in
-two important areas, mining and cattle raising. These industries, so much
-a part of the history of the American West, did and still play an important
-role in the well-being of the Southwest. Mining camps sprang up along
-the mountain fringes as new discoveries of silver and gold came to light.
-Around Socorro and Magdalena, in the Mogollon Mountains, at Hillsboro
-and Kingston in the Black Range, and hundreds of other places in
-New Mexico and the Southwest, men hungry for quick wealth swarmed
-over the hills and mountains and built their roaring camps. While miners
-were tapping the subsurface wealth, cattlemen were staking out their
-claims to the grasslands, both on the eastern plains and in the high mountain
-meadows. Cattle empires grew to staggering proportions, sometimes
-erupting into violent conflict over grazing and water rights, such as the
-Lincoln County War made famous by the participation of Billy the Kid.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig5">
-<img src="images/p06.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="344" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Feature of the Old West</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_15">15</div>
-<p>The character of the Southwest still bears the stamp of the miner and
-the cattleman. Although the cattle and grazing industry has declined, as
-has the traditional mining camp, the past importance of these activities
-has had a tremendous impact upon the character of Southwest folklore,
-law, and music and on the thought of the people.</p>
-<p>Other influences affected New Mexico as a result of the American
-occupation, things inherent in the American culture. Ribbons of steel
-across a continent, buildings of steel and stone, business and commerce,
-technology, common law, the English language, the Protestant religion,
-and, above all, the American-brought driving desire to dominate, to win.
-Certainly the American had to adapt his culture to the desert lands, but
-he did it in his own way, not in the way of the Indian or Spaniard. So
-Anglo-American culture became superimposed upon a Spanish culture
-that was superimposed upon an Indian culture.</p>
-<p><i>Disinherited</i>, that is the word that best describes contemporary New
-Mexico culture. A stronger race came and took away the inheritance of
-the Indian, though there did result a blood mixture. Only in superficial
-matters did the Spanish adopt any of the Indian ways. The Spanish, too,
-succumbed to a stronger people and have been denied the privilege commonly
-accorded to conquered peoples, that of mixing their blood with
-that of the conquerors. One finds today in New Mexico three distinct
-people&mdash;Indian, Spanish, and Anglo-American&mdash;as sharply contrasted as
-the strands in a Navajo blanket. There is pure red alongside white, and
-only rarely do the colors blend into pinks or grays. This is why we must say
-that New Mexico is a mosaic, not a synthesis, of many elements, clearly
-defined.</p>
-<p>Across the span of time, great men, people, and ideas have molded
-New Mexico and Southwest history. Indian, Spanish, American&mdash;vital
-forces that are today working toward a genuinely unique culture in New
-Mexico. The modern world may well give to the Southwest the idea
-or catalyst that will blend these elements into a single force. Science,
-techniques, ideas are things of the present and are for the present to assess
-and synthesize. The Indian gods of air, earth, and sky and the white
-man&rsquo;s gods of morality and science do not differ a great deal in their aspirations
-for their chosen people, and perhaps they will decree a splendid
-and unique synthesis from the cultural mosaic. Through understanding
-comes knowledge; from knowledge, creation.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_16">16</div>
-<h2 id="c2"><span class="small">The Exotic Plants of New Mexico</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Ross Calvin</span></p>
-<p>The problem of discussing plant life becomes complicated, for some
-of those arriving in New Mexico may be compound microscope botanists,
-some collectors, others pathologists, still others geneticists. Some will be
-chemists or mathematicians, some others untrained in the ways of growing
-things and mainly interested in seeing while they tour. But one thing is
-fairly certain&mdash;most visitors will come from a distance, so it may be useful
-to invite them to observe what they can readily see on the way hither,
-which will be a relatively painless method of amassing some information.</p>
-<p>Yet the method of arrival itself suggests choices, options, and exercises
-in probability. Do visitors come in covered wagons, or in jet planes; by bus,
-car, train, or some other way? The most convenient way, doubtless, is by
-plane traveling six hundred miles an hour at a height of some thirty
-thousand feet; but the most rewarding way is by saddle or on foot as the
-early collectors came.</p>
-<p>Since one cannot know his own country well if he knows no other, a
-visitor from the east arriving at an altitude of five miles will probably be
-more conscious than others of drastic changes in the landscape when he
-first looks down on New Mexico. Instead of the universal green of the
-east, he will note the earth as an unaccustomed tawny, reddish brown expanse,
-and this will be its common color through most months of the year.
-He will note the absence of rivers, but the presence of mountains which
-generally ring the horizon. He will wonder, after traversing the border
-counties at the western edge of the Great Plains, at the infrequency of
-plowlands, and will promptly conclude that New Mexico is one vast, bare
-desert&mdash;an impression that will be corrected rapidly when he visits the dark
-National Forests where the slim, crowded spruces and firs tower skyward.</p>
-<p>The visitor from El Paso, as the Chihuahua desert (the name is fairly
-deserved) slides backward underneath him, will be amazed at the serpentine
-stripe of vivid verdure below, all completely leveled, and all marked off by
-geometrical lines and tightly bordered by pale hills where the vegetation
-is reduced to tiny dots not tall enough to cast a shadow. Still proceeding
-north, he will presently be above a ninety-mile stretch where the vegetation
-is so skimpy and the river so closely boxed in by desolate hills that
-Spanish explorers bestowed on it the sinister name <i>Jornada del Muerto</i>&mdash;Dead
-Man&rsquo;s Journey, which is self-explanatory.</p>
-<p>But on the other hand, a visitor descending into New Mexico from the
-northland in wintertime above this same Rio Grande will traverse a featureless
-jumble of peaks on which the black coniferous forest no longer
-<span class="pb" id="Page_17">17</span>
-shows as black at all but, snow-encased, gleams as white as the naked snowfields
-themselves. And he will find incredible the immense range of climate
-spanned in a flight only an hour long.</p>
-<p>The jet traveler approaching from the west beholds the greatest,
-most spectacular panorama of all, the true wasteland of the desert, with
-vast blocks uplifted from out of earth&rsquo;s crust, plateaus dissected by giant
-empty canyons whose walls are seared to utter nudity by ages of the most
-intense sunshine on our continent. Here the architecture of nature is all
-designed on a gigantic scale, and the climate exhibits influences of a mighty
-ocean, of towering mountain chains, and the range of wandering planetary
-winds which created the desert. From the altitude of a cruising jet, the
-distances, the speed, the color, and the light are indescribably exhilarating.</p>
-<p>Since the traveler arriving from any direction can see for identification
-only a few species, it will suffice to point out only two of the harbingers of
-eastern New Mexico, both of which are dominant on that area of the
-Great Plains: the blue grama grass, which in fall and winter bears the
-graceful sickle-shaped head, and the small <i>Yucca glauca</i> which cannot
-be mistaken for anything else.</p>
-<p>Along the northern line, the visitor should look for the somber, almost
-black, forest of spruce and fir with its white patches of aspen on the 10,000-foot
-slopes. Descending farther southward, even a casual observer will
-note that these species give way first to the yellow pines, then to the
-junipers (&ldquo;cedars&rdquo;) and dwarf pines or pi&ntilde;ons. The visitor arriving from
-the south will find most conspicuous of all the olive-green creosote bush
-in its summer-winter foliage, next, the omnipresent mesquite (<i>Prosopis</i>),
-then the various <i>Opuntia</i> cacti (chollas and prickly pears), and the yuccas.</p>
-<p>As he comes in from Arizona, the splendid saguaros will beckon him
-toward the gateway of New Mexico, but they will nowhere enter it themselves.
-The vase-shaped body of the ocotillo consisting of unbranching,
-ten-foot wands should be recognized at a glance, as likewise should the
-various yuccas and agaves. And in early springtime, a low tree with a
-rounded mass of golden bloom will joyously proclaim its identity as a
-paloverde.</p>
-<p>The desert plants thus enumerated can be recognized along various
-stretches of U.S. 66 as one holds his speed at a conservative ninety or,
-even better, at a conservative sixty.</p>
-<p>The amateur scientist will need to do some homework before he learns
-much systematic botany or plant physiology. It takes considerable study
-to comprehend the slow, age-long process which has resulted in the evolution
-of all this grotesque vegetation: the interaction of extreme aridity,
-high temperature, low humidity, high evaporation, infrequent precipitation,
-the hostility of numerous chemical solutions, and the natural rapacity
-of the animal population. Each plant must have an adaptation of its own,
-from the tiny winter annual, which must race through its course from a
-tender rosette to ripened seed before the searing sunshine arrives, on up
-through the series to the stoic saguaro, which seems able to scorn nature&rsquo;s
-enmity.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_18">18</div>
-<p>A final warning to the air traveler. He should be sure before deplaning
-that he has observed a <i>bajada</i>. It is a must. Bajada is one name, outwash
-slope is another, alluvial fan is still another. The stewardess should
-inquire of each student, and if his answer is &ldquo;no,&rdquo; she should reply,
-&ldquo;Then you&rsquo;ve just flunked the course.&rdquo; A bajada is the most characteristic
-single feature of all in the sloping, stony topography of the desert&mdash;and
-remember that the surface of the desert is regularly sloping and stony.
-The Spanish word itself means only a down slope, but it has come to have
-a semitechnical sense&mdash;a fan-shaped apron of rocky debris at the foot of
-a mountain where it has settled out of the summer torrents and there
-keeps accumulating in successive floods. As the mass builds up, the
-bigger fragments drop out closest to the parent crag, then the small ones,
-finally the coarse gravel, and lowest of all on the slope the fine sand.
-Thus the fragments are graduated in size, in distance traveled, and in the
-nature of soil resulting. As the fan increases in size and laps up higher and
-higher on the mountain&rsquo;s flank, the geologists often describe the result
-by saying that the mountain &ldquo;is burying itself under its own debris.&rdquo; From
-the air, the lines of drainage will be seen to have assumed the form of a
-tree with its trunk downward, its branches high in air. But the most
-interesting aspect of a bajada is the nice proportion which nature works
-out between the plant species and their location on the curve.</p>
-<h3>FROM SAGEBRUSH TO SPRUCE TREES</h3>
-<p>The traveler who has viewed the Southwestern panorama of nature
-from its sagebrush to its spruce trees has indeed seen most of it. The spruce
-which grows wild only well up on the higher mountains is familiar to
-everybody because it has become a favorite in formal planting everywhere.
-But the sages&mdash;who knows them? To the tenderfoot, almost any gray
-plant is &ldquo;sage.&rdquo; To my friends the cowmen, sage means commonly saltbush.
-To my friends the foresters, sage means an artemisia. But there are
-romantics to whom &ldquo;purple sage&rdquo; is Apache plume, which is a member of
-the wild rose family.</p>
-<p>Some popular education would seem to be desirable. And this applies,
-too, to the cacti, for there is more misinformation about them than anything
-else that grows, runs, or creeps&mdash;except rattlesnakes. The clever
-people who design travel folders and pictorial maps almost always put
-saguaros in New Mexico. But saguaros do not grow in New Mexico. That
-is final! And the yucca is not a cactus. That also is final. Nor yet the
-ocotillo&mdash;that defiant, splendid denizen of the desert which flaunts the
-scarlet torch of flowers. The question that is always on the surface as one
-writes of plant life in the Southwest is, &ldquo;Who wants to know?&rdquo; The
-picnicker wants to know the names&mdash;and nothing much besides&mdash;of the
-wild flowers. My friend the cowman already has the names; that is, the
-common ones. If I chance to mention blue grama grass, he gently corrects
-me, &ldquo;black grama.&rdquo; Then if I mention black grama, he says, &ldquo;no, white
-grama.&rdquo; But at least he is concerned about something more important than
-<span class="pb" id="Page_19">19</span>
-nonscientific names. He wants to know if the plant is something that a
-lean old cow can eat, whether it stays green in winter, and if it will hold
-the soil in place. The tourist who pilots car and passengers some six hundred
-miles between breakfast and bedtime asks only what he was looking
-at. The rest of us who go into the mountains often enough to be impressed
-by the layer-cake succession of plants on their slopes can, with the aid of
-some reading, amass a store of knowledge where others amass only mileage.
-On a tour, it is mileage or knowledge. One has to choose.</p>
-<p>Actually, our New Mexico desert is not dominated by sage. That honor
-is held by the creosote bush, called by some of the old-timers <i>greasewood</i>,
-<i>Covillea glutinosa</i>, by some of the scientists&mdash;along with five other
-synonyms. Like the mesquite with which it shares the same general habitat
-but <i>does not intermix</i>, it occupies an immense spread of territory, roughly
-from Texas to California. Since no livestock will eat it and the ground
-it occupies is equally useless for agriculture because of aridity and stoniness,
-creosote is a veritable coyote for survival. The traveler descending
-from Taos to Santa Fe need not look for it. The sage of that locality,
-which gives the landscape its singularly mournful aspect, is a true sage.
-With good reason the cowboys call it <i>black sage</i>.</p>
-<p>In 1846, Lieutenant Emory, as he rode southward with the Army of
-the West, first encountered the creosote as he approached Socorro. The
-northward extension of the plant is at the same point today, and the range
-of mesquite extends only a few miles farther north. These two remarkable
-plants are the main markers of the Lower Sonoran Zone. In the same
-arid, stony, broken country, the traveler will find an abundance of cacti,
-and these plants are usually supposed to be the most tenacious of all
-tenacious growing things. Actually, in southwestern Arizona and neighboring
-parts of California there are whole areas where the aridity is too severe
-for cacti, but for our state&mdash;let it stand. Everybody, of course, has noted
-the grotesque shape of the plants, but not everybody has noted that the
-shape was chosen with a canny intelligence. A globe exposes less surface
-(that is, the vulnerable area for evaporation) than any other solid of equal
-volume. And a cylinder is second best. Another thing&mdash;cacti being succulents
-are filled with a watery sap or juice which quickly coagulates after
-a wound and stops the waste of moisture. Furthermore, the plant&rsquo;s aggressive
-root system is arranged so as to capture the grounds scanty moisture
-most quickly and completely after rains.</p>
-<p>Cacti of more than sixty species occur within our state, but more than
-nine tenths of the plants seen along the highway&mdash;unless they are brought
-together for a garden collection&mdash;can be grouped into one genus, the
-<i>Opuntia</i>. The family likeness is shown not by the shape or general appearance
-but by the fact that all are jointed. Both the cane cactus (also
-called cholla and elkhorn) and the pancaked prickly pear, unlike the big
-barrel cactus and the numerous small species which resemble it in shape,
-have joints and may therefore be rightly called opuntias. The &ldquo;pancakes,&rdquo;
-it may be remarked, are not leaves but divisions of the stem. A cactus
-gets along without leaves. So a good rough-and-ready test is this: if it has
-<span class="pb" id="Page_20">20</span>
-leaves, it is not a cactus&mdash;which eliminates ocotillo, yucca, agave, sotol,
-and so on.</p>
-<p>The barrel cactus is sure to be seen growing beside service stations in
-the southern part of the state. Its name as well as its size identifies it. The
-flowers and the large lemon-shaped fruits are worth a glance. If they do
-not occur on the south side of the plant, it has been transplanted and
-turned. The evidence is as trustworthy as the presence of moss on the north
-side of a tree in the forest.</p>
-<p>The barrel cacti, the opuntias, acacias, the ocotillos, along with the
-creosote and mesquite already mentioned, have a way of growing along
-together in what is called a plant society. These all belong in the bottom
-layer of the cake called the Lower Sonoran Zone, which is best seen on
-the Rio Grande mesas near El Paso.</p>
-<p>The layer next above it comprises the foothill country of the Upper
-Sonoran Zone, which includes most of the state of New Mexico. Some of
-its common markers are juniper, pi&ntilde;on, oak of various species including
-live oak, mountain mahogany, mescal, yucca, beargrass, and the famous
-blue grama grass. It is exhibited all along the Continental Divide in the
-southwest part of the state but nowhere so well as in the Fort Bayard
-Reservation. There a tract, protected for three generations from woodcutting,
-fires, and intensive grazing, offers a large-scale picture of the lovely
-land that once was New Mexico. There the character and amount of
-vegetation astounds the visitor who is familiar with only the close-picked,
-parched aspect of the landscape that generally borders the main highways.
-When seen from the air, the very color of the grass-mantled earth is many
-shades lighter than that of the bare overgrazed ranges a few miles to the
-south. And the difference can be seen by anybody.</p>
-<p>The foothills are dotted, not covered, with juniper and pi&ntilde;on. The
-dwarfed, rounded little junipers (properly enough called cedars) leave
-the traveler unprepared to believe that they will anywhere become respectable
-forest trees. Yet in the Burro Mountains, the alligator-bark species,
-finest of them all, reaches a diameter of five feet and an age of about
-1000 years. The wood has an extraordinary fragrance, and its smoke tells
-the neighbors for blocks around that you are warming yourself at the fireplace.
-Another notable thing about the wood is its resistance to decay
-in the earth. I have removed pieces of it from subterranean ruins of the
-Mimbres culture which, according to the best archaeological opinion, are
-some eight hundred years old.</p>
-<p>The yuccas deserve a story by themselves. One small, unimpressive
-species greets you on the meadows at the foot of Raton Pass; others have
-to be searched out along high limestone ridges where the foothills are
-deciding to become mountains. The one chosen for our state flower is the
-tall yucca (<i>Yucca elata</i>), a superb species best seen along the Continental
-Divide near Silver City. The genus reaches its greatest size in the grotesque
-Joshua tree, which never fails to attract the eye on the Mohave desert in
-California.</p>
-<p>The century plant has a name that always gets attention. But let us
-<span class="pb" id="Page_21">21</span>
-be sure we mean the same thing. Rightly,
-it means the mescal, the favorite food of
-the Mescalero Apaches. Besides these two
-names, it is called also maguey and, no
-doubt, Spanish dagger along with various
-other spine-tipped plants. All of which
-clinches the argument for a name which
-for all users is a certain designation for one
-object and only one. It is not just because
-botanists like to appear learned that they
-call this plant <i>Agave parryi</i>. That title is
-as descriptive as middle C for one key on
-the piano, and in the same way international.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig6">
-<img src="images/p07.jpg" alt="" width="285" height="596" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Yucca plants</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Everyone inquires about the century
-plant&rsquo;s life expectancy. An insurance man
-might make an inference from the name.
-The plant is a big compact cluster or rosette
-of rigid, upward-pointing, spadelike
-leaves, each four or five inches in width
-and each tipped with a vicious, stout thorn.
-Year after year the plant just sits there by
-a boulder, unnoticed. I question whether
-anything alive on the desert has a better
-life expectancy. As far as my observations go, it has no diseases. It is invincible
-to drouth. Freezing does not harm it, and fire cannot burn it&mdash;although
-a yucca even when green will flame up like a torch. No hungry
-old cow can crop it, and no rodent gnaws it, at least not enough to do
-harm. And since the Indians have gone on reservations, no human uses
-it. So it stays there.</p>
-<p>In fact, nothing less than a caterpillar can leave a dent on it&mdash;not, of
-course, the caterpillar that eats young tomato plants, but the Caterpillar
-that pulls heavy road machinery. The plant just does not die before
-maturity, it would seem. A remarkable organism, indeed! But after many,
-many years, depending on the amount of moisture it receives, it makes up
-its mind to flower. In one tremendous effort, it shoots up a twelve-foot flower
-stalk at the rate of several inches a day. The blossoming is a final, dramatic,
-beautiful gesture, for by the time the flowers have withered, the
-great tenacious plant has turned to a ghastly purple and is dead.</p>
-<p>On the high slopes where the last yuccas end and only a few junipers
-remain in the race for survival, the yellow pines come in to mark off what
-is called the Transition Zone. The pines need no description, no printed
-promotion. The traveler, any traveler, can appreciate them although
-he might not be stirred to the slightest interest by the lovely yuccas. Since
-the beginning of time, the pines, fragrant, cheerful, companionable, have
-been man&rsquo;s best friend. Among the ponderosa pines takes place most of the
-hunting, most of the camping, much of the picnicking. There is no
-<span class="pb" id="Page_22">22</span>
-danger that the tourist will overlook the pine belt and the pines for they
-are probably the most numerous tree in New Mexico.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig7">
-<img src="images/p08.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="426" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Pi&ntilde;on needles</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Above them, the classifications are less clearly defined and ecologists are
-less inclined to agree on zonation. The Canadian Zone, if we settle on that
-name, occurs only in small areas on the map, and most of them north of
-Santa Fe. These are high ridges and island peaks that tower high enough
-to tempt the Engelmann spruces. Yet some of these islands occur as far
-south as the Mogollon Mountains and thus bring Canadian Zone scenes
-almost to the Mexican border. For hardy ecologists who want to explore
-high ridges and horns of bare stone which rise as clean as a hound&rsquo;s tooth
-clear up into the Arctic-alpine Zone, it is necessary to enter Colorado.</p>
-<p>Engelmann spruce forests may be associated with the 10,000-foot level.
-The blue spruce is very similar, perhaps only a subspecies, but it comes
-in a little lower. The Engelmann makes a dense forest hardly allowing
-invaders, but the blue is more tolerant, less austere. It loves the water and is
-the natural companion of chill, cascading trout streams. Though fond of
-shadow, it seems to grow equally well where the narrow canyons widen
-and admit the sunshine upon the tiny meadows of lush grass, cranesbill,
-velvety red cinquefoils, lupines, and yellow columbines. And when one of
-these miniature openings is fringed with spruces whose pointed tips rise
-sharp against a curtain of azure with its white cumulus clouds, there you
-have the loveliest vista in the mountains.</p>
-<h3>OUR VISIBLE IMPACT ON THE PLANT LIFE</h3>
-<p>Though nature lovers usually find the life zones more fascinating than
-any other aspect of plants in the mountains, there is one other much more
-important. It is the misuse, injury, and destruction of native plant life.
-Because scientists are generally alert to the conservation of what is useful
-<span class="pb" id="Page_23">23</span>
-and beautiful in natural resources, I venture to bring up the matter
-here.</p>
-<p>A useful case history is provided by Silver City, New Mexico. It was
-founded in the early seventies as a silver camp, which would fairly guarantee
-a certain amount of reckless haste and rowdy carelessness. Point two
-was its location on a foothill watershed only twenty-seven square miles in
-area. Point three was an extreme concentration of livestock near the town.
-Point four was the fact that the annual rainfall was crowded mainly into
-July, August, and a part of September.</p>
-<p>Mines are naturally users of timber. Obviously, shafts and tunnels
-have to be timbered. More than that, little smelters nestled back among
-the hills were also hungry for wood. And since coal was expensive and
-hard to get, most of the adobe cottages were heated many years by juniper,
-oak, and pi&ntilde;on firewood. All these matters were naturally, if not actually,
-inevitable under the circumstances.</p>
-<p>The massive ore wagons and freight wagons had to be drawn by
-four- to ten-horse teams&mdash;and the horses kept on eating. Then because it was
-also a ranching country, each cowboy had to keep a <i>remuda</i> of saddle
-horses&mdash;and they ate too. Also, the few cows that provided milk for the
-children grazed hungrily over the stony slopes. Most of all, the range
-cattle, which had no provender at all except that which the competitive,
-half-starved steers could provide for themselves, overgrazed every square
-foot of pasturage down to the bare soil. The government&rsquo;s open-range
-policy made overgrazing inevitable because no ranchman could protect
-his pasturage since it was all unfenced. The cow that got there first got
-the grass. That passed as land management, which proves that some statesmen
-then were about as wise as some of the Wizards of Washington now.
-But the advent of fences caused the cutting of millions of fence posts
-where none should have been cut.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig8">
-<img src="images/p08a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="377" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Elk</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>When the grass went, its roots went, and when its roots went, there
-was nothing to hold the soil, and then it, too, started to go. And go it did.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_24">24</span>
-A deep hole formed in Main Street, as it is still called on the Silver City
-town plat. The best explanation I can find of that hole is that earth was
-taken out of it to form adobe bricks for the walls of houses and corrals (that
-clay did make good adobe!). Meanwhile, the woodhaulers&rsquo; wagons had
-greedily carted away the trees from each little canyon, while the narrow
-steel tires cut deep ruts which formed two deep gullies at the first heavy
-rain. Then the parallel gullies proceeded to wash out deeper and create
-a middle ridge or high center on which axles got stuck. Since there was
-nobody responsible for making a new road, there was no choice except to
-move over and form another track and use it until in turn it became unusable.
-(By this simple kind of destruction, the old Santa Fe Trail, it is
-said, reached a width of a hundred feet.)</p>
-<p>But the water descending the slope kept increasing its destructive
-velocity as the denuded ground approached the bareness of a tin roof.
-Villagers observed that the hole in their Main Street was becoming a waterfall
-after each rain, and that the ruin was passing into a big-time operation.
-The town built a dam to restrain the floods. It washed out in the
-first one. Soon Main Street followed it down the drain, which by this
-time was already a hideous gash in the earth many miles long and twenty
-feet deep. Then the water began on a really different scale of destruction.
-One furious flood washed away the cabin in which Billy the Kid&rsquo;s mother
-lived. More than that, it washed away the wall of Judge Newcomb&rsquo;s house
-and abducted his Steinway from the second floor. A few yards from the
-spot, an old photograph taken in 1891 shows a woodhauler&rsquo;s ox team
-lying in the street there. It gives no hint at that time of the famous Big
-Ditch&mdash;the only name that Main Street, Silver City has had now for the
-last forty years.</p>
-<p>By 1927, after many other attempts had been made to tame the floods
-a steel bridge about one hundred feet long and thirty feet above the floor
-of the &ldquo;canyon&rdquo; was swung into place. In 1935-1936, the Soil Conservation
-Service went to work in earnest, made the watershed a demonstration
-area, and spent a third of a million dollars there in a short time.</p>
-<p>In the <i>New Mexico Magazine</i> for August 1934, the really incredible
-story of the Big Ditch is exactly documented with old photographs and
-newspaper clippings. After a friendship of many years with old-time
-miners and ranchers at Silver City, I would not point an accusing finger
-at one of them. I appeal, however, for a greater vigilance over plant life
-and soils nowadays from everybody. In such protected areas as the Fort
-Bayard Reservation, the U.S. National Forest enclosures, and the frontier
-cemeteries, the imagination can visualize a New Mexico that is far different
-from what is here today&mdash;a close-picked, hard-used land where unwise
-woodcutting has continued through much of the last three centuries and
-where the thin ranges have been required to support in the last century
-alone perhaps more than one hundred million cows, sheep, and horses.
-The magnitude of the cause accounts for the magnitude of the effect.</p>
-<p>A good many years ago, I wrote as the concluding paragraph to <i>Sky
-Determines</i> what seemed to some exaggerated praise for my adopted homeland.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_25">25</span>
-There is now less and less cavil from any readers. I believed the words
-true in 1934, and I stand my ground now.</p>
-<blockquote>
-<p>Perhaps nowhere in the world is the natural setting nobler than in
-New Mexico&mdash;more beautiful with spacious desert, sky, mountain; more
-varied in rich, energizing climate, more dramatic in its human procession,
-more mellow with age-old charm. Endowed with sunshine that stimulates,
-and winter chill that toughens; with silence and majestic desert color that
-offer a spiritual companionship, it has enough. Here, if anywhere is air,
-earth, sky fit to constitute a gracious homeland, not alone for those who
-study and create, but as well for those who play, for those who sit still to
-brood and dream.</p>
-</blockquote>
-<div class="img" id="fig9">
-<img src="images/p09.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="593" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Tyuonyi Pueblo ruin</span></p>
-<p class="pcapc">This large ruin in Bandelier National Monument lies along the banks of El Rito de
-los Frijoles. Narrow-leaf cottonwoods line the stream, and shrubs of the Upper
-Sonoran Zone cover the hillside slopes.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_26">26</div>
-<h2 id="c3"><span class="small">Dwellers in the Hills and Plains</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Levon Lee</span><a class="fn" id="fr_1" href="#fn_1">[1]</a></p>
-<p>The vast sweep of New Mexico&rsquo;s 77 million acres, which ranges all the
-way from the Alpine tundra of the tallest mountains down to the heat
-of the lower Sonoran desert, offers a home and sanctuary for many kinds
-of wild life.</p>
-<p>Some of these animals are considered game animals; others may be
-pests, since they prey upon or destroy what mankind regards as its own.
-The coyote which takes a sheep from the small herder is wicked indeed
-in the eyes of the sheepman. Predatoriness on all living things by other
-things has gone on since time began and will continue&mdash;mankind
-being not the least predator.</p>
-<p>A good definition is that composed by the late Judge C. M. Botts who
-defined a predator as &ldquo;a critter that takes another critter that I want.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>New Mexico&rsquo;s immense topographic and geologic differences make for
-a very wide range of habitats preferred by the various species. The elk and
-deer, being highly adaptable, may be found from the Alpine tundra of
-the higher mountains clear out into the creosote desert. Deer occur in four
-separate subspecies: the Rocky Mountain and the desert mule deer, the
-western whitetail, and the Sonoran fantail deer, which is also a whitetail.
-These animals may be found all the way from the dense coniferous forests
-of the north with perpetual gloom and cold to the sun-scorched granite
-mountains such as the Florida and the Organ mountains of southern
-New Mexico; from great towering granite spires to the folded blocks of
-limestone such as comprise the Big Hatchets, the Guadalupe, and the
-San Andres mountains.</p>
-<p>The javelina, or little wild pig, lives along the watercourses in the south
-west part of the state. Its thin spiky hair gives it little or no protection
-against cold, and only in the balmier parts of New Mexico does it feel at
-home.</p>
-<p>The desert bighorn sheep, as distinguished from his cousin the Rocky
-Mountain bighorn, goes around on a sun-scorched, ocotillo-covered limestone-rubble
-slope in the full glare of the sun and lies down to take his
-afternoon siesta. The Rocky Mountain bighorn, on the other hand, with
-his preference for cooler climates does not shun even the dense spruce
-timber at the very top of the Sandia Mountains as the hideout for his
-afternoon rest.</p>
-<p>This adaptability by New Mexico&rsquo;s species to the tremendous differences
-in altitude, rainfall, and temperature makes them all the more valuable
-as a resource for the pleasure and enjoyment of everyone.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_27">27</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig10">
-<img src="images/p10.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="945" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Photo courtesy of Forest Service</i>, U.S.D.A.)</span><br /><span class="sc">Pack train on a wilderness trail</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_28">28</div>
-<p>The most popular big game animals in New Mexico are the mule deer
-in either of the two subspecies. Every fall, beginning in late October
-and extending ordinarily through December, more than 100,000 hunters
-take to the woods for their 50-50 chance of bringing home the sought-after
-mule deer. A hunter may shoot his mule deer at the Alpine tundra
-timber line, out in the blazing heat of the creosote desert, or among the
-rock crags of some of the southern desert mountains. He will find his
-quarry a worthy opponent. Shy, wild, and with terrific eyesight and hearing,
-these animals provide a true challenge.</p>
-<p>Elk and antelope, as well as bighorn sheep, are hunted by special
-licenses only, since their numbers do not warrant a general open season.
-These special licenses are much sought after and are ordinarily made
-available by application and a public drawing in the fall. The javelina,
-confined to our southwestern counties, is also hunted by special license. It
-is noteworthy that although New Mexico had protected them for many
-years, the javelina did not increase its numbers. As a matter of fact,
-the natural losses applied against any game species are going to be in
-effect no matter whether hunting is permitted or not, the hunting being
-merely subtracted from what would be lost to nature anyhow.</p>
-<p>Our state mammal, the black bear, is found throughout the wooded
-areas of the state and occasionally wanders out into the plains or down into
-the desert mountains of the south. Bears are hunted avidly in the fall by
-sportsmen with dog packs before the regular big game seasons begin, when
-the use of dogs is prohibited. They are again hunted during the big game
-seasons by anyone bearing the proper license, but no packs of dogs are
-allowed. This is to prohibit the possibility of dogs being used to pursue
-elk, deer, or wild turkey, an illegal act in New Mexico.</p>
-<p>New Mexico is fortunate in having a tremendous diversity of both
-upland game and waterfowl, and big game and small game for her people.
-Importantly, the game resources are spread out through every county in
-the state.</p>
-<p>The state&rsquo;s richness of bird life is varied and extensive. New Mexico
-ranks among the first five in the total number of birds found within its
-boundaries. More than 400 species of birds live within the state. These
-range all the way from the tiny mites of the bird kingdom, the hummingbirds,
-weighing less than an ounce, to the great white whistling swan,
-weighing up to 25 pounds, or the Merriam turkey, which may weigh close
-to 30. Of the six species of quail found in the United States, New Mexico
-has four and may possess the fifth, since the mountain quail of the western
-coast have been introduced into this state and still occur on the west slopes
-of the Sacramento Mountains near Tularosa. Five species of doves found
-throughout the state from the highest coniferous forest down into the
-scorching heat of the creosote desert are the Inca dove, ground dove,
-mourning dove, white-winged dove, and the bandtail pigeon, all of them
-close relatives. Of these, only two, the mourning dove and the white-winged
-dove, are commonly hunted as game species.</p>
-<p>An unexplained and precipitous decline struck the bandtail pigeon
-<span class="pb" id="Page_29">29</span>
-about ten or twelve years ago, from which it apparently has never recovered.
-Although hunting was undoubtedly part of the pressure exercised
-against these birds, it in no way accounted for their sudden and dramatic
-decline in numbers. This decline may gradually be reversed, since more
-and more of these birds are being seen. It is well known that animals with
-a high reproductive capacity can endure much heavier losses to their population
-than can those with low or very limited reproduction, such as the
-bandtail, which normally lays only a single egg. The mourning dove, on
-the other hand, lays two eggs at a time and may raise as many as five
-or more broods in one year. Take this one step further with the scaled or
-Gambel quail, which may lay up to 12 or 15 eggs, and it can readily be
-seen that the population of bandtail pigeons can never endure the losses
-that the much more prolific mourning dove and quail can. The same might
-be said by comparison of elk and deer. Elk do not bear their first young
-until their third year, and then the cow may not bear young but alternate
-years until her seventh or eighth year; by that time she has begun to decline
-in vigor; in her total life she may not produce more than four or
-five calves. The mule deer, on the other hand, start bearing at the age
-of two, with their first birth normally single; from then on, twins are
-usual for the rest of the doe&rsquo;s life. Thus, deer have a considerably greater
-reproductive potential than do elk or bighorn sheep, which have one
-young at a time.</p>
-<p>The fleet-footed antelope of the open rolling plains is another example
-of fairly high reproductive capacity, since they breed earlier than do deer
-and normally bear twins. Antelope are confined to the more open country
-where their prodigious running ability and marvelous eyesight stand in
-good stead in protecting them against their natural enemies.</p>
-<p>The wild turkey, classified by law in New Mexico as big game, is
-found throughout the mountainous areas of the state, not excepting some
-of the desert ranges. New Mexico is one of two states fortunate enough
-to possess three of the five forms of the wild turkey known to the United
-States: the Merriam turkey, found in the higher elevations of the mountainous
-areas, usually the ponderosa forest; the Rio Grande turkey, confined
-to the watercourses of the eastern plains; and the fairly rare Mexican
-turkey, found in the Animas and Peloncillo mountains of extreme southwestern
-New Mexico. In Hildalgo County these mountains are actually
-largely Mexican in both flora and fauna. Some of the rarest, most beautiful
-birds of North America are also found in this area and nowhere else
-in the United States with the exception of southeastern Arizona.</p>
-<p>Our most abundant game bird, the mourning dove, is found in every
-county of the state and nests from the coniferous forests of the north and
-the higher mountains of the south clear out into the plains where there
-is not a tree in sight for miles. Doves are extremely adaptable and very
-prolific. They provide the finest kind of sport shooting and are avidly
-sought, particularly by shotgun enthusiasts of the eastern and southern
-parts of the state.</p>
-<p>Scaled quail are found throughout New Mexico, being absent only
-<span class="pb" id="Page_30">30</span>
-in elevations above 7000 feet. Even there, they periodically occur but are
-ordinarily driven back by winter snow. Gambel quail are found throughout
-the river courses of the Rio Grande Valley, the San Juan Valley, and
-the southwestern watercourses. The Mearns&rsquo; quail is found in the southern
-half of the state in the higher mountain elevations, whereas the bob-white
-quail occupies the grassy rolling sandhills of the eastern counties
-where it is commonly found together with scaled quail.</p>
-<p>Quail hunting is one of the most popular sports in New Mexico and
-many thousands of hunters can hardly wait from one season to the next.
-New Mexico is in the heart of the scaled quail country and provides some
-of the finest shooting to be had anywhere.</p>
-<p>Migratory waterfowl, while not considered abundant, are not uncommon
-in this state, known more for its aridity than for its rivers and lakes.
-The two main fly ways are the Rio Grande Valley and the Pecos Valley,
-with the Pecos Valley being somewhat ahead in total numbers.</p>
-<p>Ducks commonly found in New Mexico in abundance are teal, both
-green-winged and blue-winged as well as the lesser-known cinnamon teal,
-mallards, widgeon, pintails, gadwall, scaups, canvasbacks, redheads, and
-other species.</p>
-<p>In addition, New Mexico plays winter home to many thousands of the
-lesser sandhill crane which is confined to the river valleys and open plains
-of the eastern part of the state, particularly the southeastern counties. A
-smaller population of the greater sandhill crane is found in the Rio Grande
-Valley and near Columbus. Flocks of the small Richardson&rsquo;s goose are
-found in the northeastern counties, in particular, and along river courses
-throughout the state. The small snow goose is likewise confined mostly
-to major river courses. The larger Canada geese are found particularly in
-the middle Rio Grande Valley where extensive development has been
-made by both state and federal agencies to encourage the use and the
-presence of bands of geese.</p>
-<p>New Mexico is unique in that it was the first state in many years to be
-able to open a hunting season on the lesser sandhill crane. This bird is
-comparatively abundant, the total population probably being in excess of
-200,000, with the vast majority of these birds wintering in west Texas,
-New Mexico, and Mexico. They occasionally cause heavy depredation to
-grain crops in the southeastern part of the state, and hunting has been
-partly justified on the basis that the large wintering flocks might be broken
-up and depredation spread over a larger area for less individual effect.
-These birds are tall, wild, and shy. They are hard to hunt, even more so
-than geese, and although strenuous efforts have been made, not too many
-of them are bagged.</p>
-<p>One should not overlook the tremendous opportunity for sport hunting
-of unprotected species, such as the various rabbits, the mountain lions
-and bobcats, and coyotes.</p>
-<p>The wolf is now very rare in New Mexico. Only occasionally do wolves
-come out of Mexico into the southwestern counties, usually in Hidalgo,
-Luna, and Do&ntilde;a Ana. Wolves are large, effective predators and are incompatible
-<span class="pb" id="Page_31">31</span>
-with the cattle-raising industry. Since they have a fondness for
-beef, the hand of the cattleman is raised against them.</p>
-<p>The mountain lion prefers his natural prey of deer, mule deer being the
-principal victims. The bobcat preys on deer and on many of the small
-wild animals, rabbits in particular. These predators, when run and hunted
-with a pack of dogs, provide a fascinating sport which is growing in
-popularity.</p>
-<p>The use of calls to attract animals to a &ldquo;victim&rdquo; has become widespread.
-The calls imitate the distressed cry of rabbits and other creatures which to
-the predator means a meal close at hand. Everything from mountain lions
-to red-tailed hawks have been hunted by this procedure, and it can be
-very successful in bagging quarry. This type of hunting has value in that
-it can be enjoyed at any time of the year throughout the state and with a
-minimum of time and effort.</p>
-<p>Hunting is a conservation practice that, wisely administered, results
-in wholesome out-of-door recreation and brings many tons of high protein
-food of highest quality to the table. Nature nowhere in her economy
-locks up a resource and throws away the key&mdash;we should be no less wise.</p>
-<p>Long gone are the buffalo which once roamed the High Plains of
-eastern New Mexico. Exotic animals, imported and stocked along the
-rugged canyon of the Canadian River above Conchas Reservoir, are the
-Barbary sheep with their magnificent coiled horns. Beavers dam some of
-the mountain streams, badgers and skunks can be seen from the highways,
-and amid the forests are squirrels and porcupines, while high on rock
-slopes, the Rocky Mountain woodchuck and the gray rock cony dash from
-ledge to ledge. The white-tailed ptarmigan also haunts these high crags,
-and lower down the mountain, bluebirds nest. Hawks, eagles, magpies,
-jays, ravens, orioles, wrens, sparrows, warblers, finches, and many other
-birds of endless variety soar over canyon, forest, and sand-dune desert.</p>
-<p>Most notable of all is the crested roadrunner, the chapparal cock or
-paisano of Mexico and the state bird. In between racing with horsemen
-or automobiles, the slender roadrunner cocks his head, strikes swiftly and
-victoriously, then swallows his victim, which can be a small rattlesnake,
-whole.</p>
-<p>Snakes there are aplenty. Mostly, they are nonpoisonous, such as the
-garter snake, glass snake, puff adder, ring-necked snake, the coachwhip,
-the Mexican blacksnake, and the large western bullsnake. The small but
-very venomous coral snake is rare, but common among rocks and near
-streams are the large western diamondback rattlesnake, the prairie rattlers,
-and the less common green or blacktailed rattlesnake. Every sun-warmed
-rock has its scampering lizard, and nearby are horned toads, dry-land terrapins,
-tortoises, tarantulas, centipedes, vinegarroons, scorpions, and spiders.
-Of these latter desert animals, only the black widow spider is poisonous.</p>
-<p>Contrast in the influence of environments is shown by the animals that
-inhabit the &ldquo;malpais,&rdquo; the recent flows of black, rough-surfaced lava, compared
-with similar animals found among the white gypsum dunes of
-White Sands. Black or darkly colored subspecies of mice, plains wood rats,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_32">32</span>
-kangaroo rats, and rock squirrels live on the black lava, whereas white or
-pale counterparts of these animals live among the white gypsum dunes.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig11">
-<img src="images/p11.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="369" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Sketch of roadrunner, New Mexico state bird</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>The dwellers in the hills and plains of New Mexico are as varied as the
-hills and plains; they add their color and movement to the scenes of the
-Land of Enchantment.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_33">33</div>
-<h2 id="c4"><span class="small">Rocks That Shape the Enchanting Landscape</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Frank E. Kottlowski</span></p>
-<p>&ldquo;As old as the hills.&rdquo; How much more ancient can anything be? Yet
-New Mexico&rsquo;s hills, its enchanting landscapes, were built in but the most
-recent &ldquo;minute&rdquo; of geologic time. Merely one geologic era ago, marine
-waters covered the state, and storm-tossed waves ruled where now the hot
-sun beats down on dry sands and cacti a mile above sea level.</p>
-<p>What determined the Land of Enchantment&rsquo;s landscapes? Shaping
-these land forms are the rocks of the earth&rsquo;s crust, the structure of those
-rocks, and the endless battle between the rocks and the atmosphere. A
-story spelled out in stone, the geologic history. The rocks determine.</p>
-<p>Eons ago, it began; one billion, two billion, or perhaps even more
-billions of years ago. A history whose beginnings have been lost owing to
-destruction of its earliest records. A history, written in the rocks, that is
-divided into four general parts (<a href="#fig12">fig. 1</a>). The oldest rocks, more than 600
-m.y. (million years) old, almost devoid of traces of life, are the Precambrian
-rocks. The Paleozoic rocks, 230 to 600 m.y. old, are marked by ancient
-(<i>paleo</i>-) life. This was the Period of Invertebrates, animals without backbones.
-Mesozoic rocks, 70 to 230 m.y. old, formed in the Era of Dinosaurs
-and contain types of life that are intermediate (<i>meso</i>-) between the ancient
-and modern animals. And rocks of the Cenozoic Era, 70 m.y. ago to the
-present, make up the latest (<i>ceno</i>-, recent) chapter of the earth&rsquo;s history.</p>
-<p>Events of the Cenozoic Era have had the greatest influence on New
-Mexico&rsquo;s landscapes. So let us begin the story at the dawn of the Cenozoic,
-and return to the earlier geologic chapters later.</p>
-<h3>CENOZOIC ERA</h3>
-<p>The mountains, the plains, the rivers, and the lakes all are transitory
-features of the landscape, created during the recent part of the Cenozoic
-Era, and all doomed to destruction in the near future, geologically speaking.
-Even so, some of the plains and mountains may predate man&rsquo;s evolution
-onto the earth scene.</p>
-<p>Gone were the late Mesozoic seas; never again during our lifetime nor
-the lifetime of many future generations will marine waters roll over New
-Mexico, and sea-spawned creatures rule. For the first two thirds of the
-Cenozoic, the Paleogene Period (25 to 70 m.y. ago), New Mexico suffered
-from the dying effects of the great Laramide upheaval of the earth&rsquo;s crust.
-Large areas were exposed to the harsh erosion of stream and wind. The
-landscape looked as parts of southwestern New Mexico do today&mdash;tall
-rugged mountain ranges scattered in isolated patches amid wide gravelly
-plains. But the climate was more humid, and while no large through rivers
-are known, local great swamps and lakes lay on the plains in debris-trapping
-lowlands.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_34">34</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig12">
-<img src="images/p12.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="1324" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 1. <span class="sc">Table of geologic time</span></p>
-</div>
-<table class="center" summary="">
-<tr class="th"><th colspan="2" class="l"><i>Scale of geologic time in millions of years</i></th></tr>
-<tr class="th"><th> </th><th class="l"><i>Era</i> </th><th><i>Rocks</i> </th><th><i>Dominant life</i></th></tr>
-<tr class="th"><th> </th><th class="l"><span class="hst"><i>Geologic&nbsp;age</i></span></th></tr>
-<tr><td class="r">70 </td><td class="l">CENOZOIC</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Neogene</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst2">Pleistocene</span> </td><td class="l">Bandelier volcanic ash, basalts, sand dunes, river gravels, glacial &amp; lake beds. </td><td class="l">Man</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">1 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst2">Pliocene</span> </td><td class="l">Volcanic rocks of Mt. Taylor, early Valle Grande &amp; Gila region; Santa Fe, Gila, and Ogallala Fms. </td><td class="l">Mammals</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">11 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst2">Miocene</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">25 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Paleogene</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst2">Oligocene</span> </td><td class="l">Datil, Espinaso, and other volcanic rocks.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">40 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst2">Eocene</span> </td><td class="l">Baca, Animas, Nacimiento, San Jose, Raton, Poison Canyon, Galisteo El Rito, Blanco Basin, &amp; Cub Mountain Fms.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">60 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst2">Paleocene</span></td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r">160 </td><td class="l">MESOZOIC</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Cretaceous</span> </td><td class="l">Upper sandstone, shale, &amp; coal. Mesaverde, Pierre, &amp; Niobrara, Dakota Ss. and Mancos Sh. </td><td class="l">Dinosaurs</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Volcanic rocks, limestone, sandstone, and conglomerate.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">135 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Jurassic</span> </td><td class="l">Morrison Fm., Summerville Fm., Zuni Ss., Todilto Ls. &amp; gypsum, Entrada Ss.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">180 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Triassic</span> </td><td class="l">Wingate Ss., Dockum Fm., Chinle Fm., Santa Rosa Ss., Moenkopi Fm.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r">370 </td><td class="l">PALEOZOIC</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Permian</span> </td><td class="l">Rustler Dolomite; redbeds<br />Castile gypsum, Salado Salt. </td><td class="l">Amphibians</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Artesia Grp.&mdash;Capitan reef<br />San Andres Ls.&mdash;Goat Seep reef<br />Glorieta Sandstone<br />Yeso Fm.&mdash;Bone Spring Fm.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">Abo Redbeds&mdash;Hueco Ls.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">280 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Pennsylvanian</span> </td><td class="l">Mostly limestone; beds of shale &amp; sandstone; lenses of gypsum, salt, and coal.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">310 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Mississippian</span> </td><td class="l">Helms &amp; Paradise Fms.<br />Rancheria Ls.<br />Lake Valley &amp; Escabrosa Lss.<br />Arroyo Penasco &amp; Tererro Fms. </td><td class="l">Fish</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">345 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Devonian</span> </td><td class="l">Percha Shale, Ouray Ls. northern dol., ss, and sh.</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">erosion</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">400 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Silurian</span> </td><td class="l">Fusselman Dolomite</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">erosion</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">425 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Ordovician</span> </td><td class="l">Montoya Dolomite<br />El Paso Limestone<br />Bliss </td><td class="l">Invertebrates</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="r">500 my</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"><span class="hst">Cambrian</span> </td><td class="l">Sandstone</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l"> </td><td class="l">erosion</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r">1500+</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">PRECAMBRIAN </td><td class="l">quartzite, gneiss, rhyolite, andesite, granite, pegmatite, schist, greenstone. </td><td class="l">Simple primitive forms</td></tr>
-</table>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_35">35</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig13">
-<img src="images/p12a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="878" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 2. <span class="sc">New Mexico during Paleogene time</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Scenery in north-central New Mexico (<a href="#fig13">fig. 2</a>) may have been similar
-to today&rsquo;s, with mountains in the same general areas as the present-day
-Sangre de Cristo, Nacimiento, San Juan, and Brazos ranges. Coarse-grained
-gravels were stacked up at the edges of the mountains, but out in
-the adjoining lowlands, floodplain sands and varicolored lake-bed clays
-settled. Three low areas were &ldquo;basins&rdquo; of deposition where thick masses of
-sediments accumulated&mdash;the Raton and Poison Canyon formations in the
-Raton Basin near Raton, the Animas, Nacimiento, and San Jose formations
-in the San Juan Basin north and northwest of Cuba, seen along
-<span class="pb" id="Page_36">36</span>
-N.M. Highway 44, with thinner deposits of the El Rito and Blanco Basin
-formations to the northeast of Cuba, and the Galisteo Formation in the
-Galisteo Basin south and southwest of Santa Fe. Volcanic rocks, the Espinaso
-beds, overlie the Galisteo but are not much younger in age. Reddish
-rocks of the Galisteo Formation crop out along U.S. Highway 85 at La
-Bajada Hill about twenty miles southwest of Santa Fe. The Sandia
-Mountains&rsquo; area appears to have been a lowland.</p>
-<p>Silicified wood, chiefly of pines but with some oak and poplar, is
-abundant in the Galisteo Formation. Large logs, up to 6 feet in diameter
-and 135 feet long, have been found. In the great swamps of the Raton
-Basin, where the climate was much like that of Georgia today, tall reeds,
-water lilies, fig trees, palm trees, magnolias, and sycamores grew in profusion,
-and contributed to the thick coal beds now mined there. The early
-ages of the Cenozoic saw the spectacular rise of the mammals to dominance
-over reptiles on land; numerous remains of the early mammals are found
-in the Nacimiento and San Jose formations, including the famous Puerco
-and Torrejon faunas&mdash;as well as many clams, snails, fish, turtles, crocodiles,
-snakes, and birds.</p>
-<p>Southeastern New Mexico appears to have been relatively level with
-only local hills and vast regions of featureless, stagnant but high plains
-where erosion slowly ate downward, deposition was slight, and most of the
-detritus was carried eastward far beyond the state&rsquo;s borders. The redbeds
-of the Baca Formation were laid down on the north flank of low mountains
-that extended intermittently from somewhere near Quemado toward
-Socorro. Some ancient hills near present-day Sierra Blanca shed rock fragments
-that accumulated near Capitan as the varicolored Cub Mountain
-Formation. Deeply eroded uplands northwest of Elephant Butte Reservoir
-supplied gravels and sands that mingled with andesitic volcanic debris
-as the upper part of the McRae Formation in central Sierra County. Many
-of the weathered greenish and purplish volcanic rocks in southwestern
-New Mexico were extruded at this time, and beneath the surface these
-molten magmas (hot liquefied rocks) cut into older rocks. Vapors and hot
-solutions from the magmas are believed to have emplaced some of New
-Mexico&rsquo;s vast ore deposits during this time.</p>
-<p>The last phase of the Paleogene Period, about 25 to 40 m.y. ago, was
-an earth-shaking time in New Mexico&mdash;and the first explosion of an
-atomic bomb in 1945 on the Jornada del Muerto between Socorro and
-Carrizozo was a relatively low-energy-yield event compared with the late
-Paleogene earth movements. Almost the entire southwestern quarter of
-the state literally exploded, with volcanic eruptions on a grand scale.
-These lava flows, rock breccias, ashes, pumice, and associated intrusives
-(molten rocks that did not make it to the surface) form the Datil-Mogollon
-plateau&mdash;at least 100 miles in diameter&mdash;as part of the Datil Formation,
-which locally is miles thick, and made up the main mass of many other
-ranges near the Mexican border. Sierra Blanca (12,003 feet altitude)
-northeast of Alamogordo is a huge, isolated volcanic mass of late Paleogene
-age.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_37">37</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig14">
-<img src="images/p13.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="222" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 3. <span class="sc">East-west cross section of Rio Grande graben near Santa Fe</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>This widespread volcanic activity continued into the Neogene Period
-which began about 25 m.y. ago. Rhyolites, pumice, and perlite in the
-southwest, as well as in other parts of the state, covered wide areas. Mount
-Taylor, towering up to 11,389 feet near Grants and visible on the western
-skyline from Albuquerque, is a Neogene volcanic pile, as are parts of the
-Sangre de Cristo range northeast of Taos. Shiprock and Cabezon Peak,
-landmarks in northwestern New Mexico, are volcanic necks&mdash;the eroded
-cores of ancient volcanoes.</p>
-<p>Valle Grande caldera makes up the center of the Jemez Mountains
-west of Los Alamos and is a late Neogene volcanic mass with the central
-crater sixteen miles in diameter&mdash;one of the world&rsquo;s largest calderas. Bandelier
-National Monument headquarters is within a canyon carved from
-Valle Grande&rsquo;s ashes. Volcanic ash scattered over the western parts of
-Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas was blown from this volcano. Capulin
-Mountain, east of Raton, is a huge recent cinder cone and is surrounded
-by numerous basaltic lava flows that cap the High Plains from Raton
-eastward to Clayton. The very fresh black basalt flows near Carrizozo and
-in the valley of Rio San Jose near Grants are probably less than 1000
-years old. Numerous mesas along the Rio Grande Valley from the Colorado
-line to El Paso are capped by black basalt flows of late Neogene age.</p>
-<p>Many of the present-day mountains were uplifted in early Neogene
-time, following the climax of the great volcanic eruptions. This uplifting,
-in many instances, took place along one side of huge mountain masses,
-forming tilted fault blocks like the Sandia, Manzano, San Andres, and
-Sacramento mountains. Rock beds in the Sandia Mountains, for example,
-dip to the east, but were uplifted along a west-bounding fault
-zone&mdash;a huge break in the earth&rsquo;s crust&mdash;as much as four miles! This was an earth-shaking
-event! However, the uplifting took place slowly, and indeed is continuing
-today as the Albuquerque area, along with the Rio Grande Valley
-southward to Socorro, is one of the most active earthquake areas in the
-state.</p>
-<p>Concurrent with uplift, other blocks of the earth&rsquo;s crust sank, forming
-graben basins which were flooded with rock debris from the adjoining
-uplifts. A tremendous irregular graben, now followed by the Rio
-Grande, cut north-south across the state. Geologists label it the <i>Rio Grande
-structural depression</i> (<a href="#fig14">fig. 3</a>). Mountains on the east are the Sangre de
-<span class="pb" id="Page_38">38</span>
-Cristo, Sandia, Manzano, Los Pinos, Fra Cristobal, and Caballo ranges;
-those to the west include the Brazos, Jemez, Ladron, Socorro, Magdalena,
-and San Mateo mountains. Within this complex graben, and around the
-bordering ranges, the colorful sandstones and siltstones of the Santa Fe
-Group were deposited&mdash;these red, yellow, orange, and cream rocks are
-eroded in many places, such as near Santa Fe, to &ldquo;badlands&rdquo; characteristic
-of the landscapes along the Rio Grande Valley from Espanola southward
-to El Paso. Much brightly tinted silicified wood is found in these beds,
-and literally freight-car loads of mammalian remains have been shipped
-to museums from outcrops near Espanola.</p>
-<p>In the basins amid the mountains of southwestern New Mexico,
-similar sands and gravels of the Gila Conglomerate filled low areas. East
-of the mountains of central New Mexico that form a north-south chain
-of ranges from Raton to Carlsbad, thin gravels of the Ogallala Formation
-were dumped onto the western edges of the High Plains. They now cap
-the plains as well as make picturesque bluffs east of the Pecos River
-and southeast of Tucumcari&mdash;the &ldquo;caprock&rdquo; of that area. In northwestern
-New Mexico, isolated mesas are topped by the Chuska and Bidahochi formations;
-similar sands, silts, and clays washed from adjoining highlands.</p>
-<p>The final episodes of landscape formation occurred during the Pleistocene
-Epoch, the recent glacial period. Mountain valley glaciers occupied
-some of the higher parts of the state, as far southward as Sierra Blanca;
-large lakes filled many of the closed basins, such as those near Estancia
-and south of Lordsburg; the Carrizozo and Grants basalt flows were extruded;
-the final tremendous explosions of Valle Grande spread volcanic
-ash over large regions; sands, gravels, and clays were eroded and deposited
-by streams and in lakes; and sand dunes were heaped up in many areas.
-The glistening white gypsum dunes (<a href="#fig15">fig. 4</a>) of White Sands National
-Monument, built up into 50-foot-high mounds windward of gypsiferous
-Lake Lucero, are spectacular products of the wind.</p>
-<p>The Rio Grande, in its present valley, probably is only as old as mid-Pleistocene,
-born during late uplift of its headwater mountains, the San
-Juan and Sangre de Cristo ranges in southern Colorado and northern New
-Mexico&mdash;initiated by floods of meltwaters from waning mountain glaciers.
-Some of the lower terraces (benches) along the Rio Grande are very
-young, being dated by radiocarbon methods at 2600 b.p. (before present).
-Until shackled by Elephant Butte Dam in 1916, and smaller dams up and
-down the valley, the Rio Grande switched its course with every large
-springtime flood. Even with these man-made controls, the Rio carves new
-channels during floods and covers flooded fields with silt as the high waters
-recede.</p>
-<h3>PRECAMBRIAN ERA</h3>
-<p>The highest points in New Mexico are in the north-central region.
-Here, along the backbone of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, tower
-Wheeler Peak (13,160 feet above sea level), northeast of Taos, and South
-Truchas Peak (13,102 feet), northeast of Santa Fe. Snow lingers on these
-<span class="pb" id="Page_39">39</span>
-lofty spires all year around except during an especially hot August. Highest
-peaks&mdash;they must be capped by the youngest rocks. But no, the quartzites
-and gneisses, hard rocks made up of quartz and feldspar, that hold up these
-pinnacles against the attack of water and ice are among the oldest rocks
-known in the Southwest&mdash;perhaps as much as two billion years old. These
-Precambrian rocks lay deep beneath the earth&rsquo;s surface from early Paleozoic
-time (500 m.y. ago?) until early Neogene time, then were uplifted along
-great breaks in the earth&rsquo;s crust, uplifted slowly and intermittently during
-the span of time from about 20 m.y. ago to perhaps 1 m.y. ago.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig15">
-<img src="images/p14.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="639" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 4. <span class="sc">Gypsum dunes of White Sands</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>How did these ancient rocks form? What did New Mexico look like
-during the dawn of geologic history? The record in stone is fragmentary.
-But about two billion or so years back, thick masses of quartz sandstone
-were laid down in north-central New Mexico, as well as vast lenses of
-mud, and some beds of feldspar-rich sandstone. Volcanic activity was
-intense; huge flows of rhyolite and andesite were poured out over most of
-the state, and these in turn, along with the muddy and sandy sediments,
-were intruded by enormous masses of hot granite. Mile-high mountains
-were formed, and during the stretch of this early geologic time, called
-the Precambrian Era, the high peaks were eroded by rain, wind, and sun
-until some were worn down to featureless plains sloping toward the ancient
-ancestral oceans.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_40">40</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig16">
-<img src="images/p15.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="456" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 5. <span class="sc">Staurolite twin crystals in mica schist</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>These Precambrian rocks now make up the cores of such mountain
-ranges as the Sandias east of Albuquerque, the Sangre de Cristo range
-near Santa Fe, the Pedernal Hills south of Clines Corners, the Burro
-Mountains southwest of Silver City, the Brazos Range east of Tierra
-Amarilla, the Zuni Mountains southwest of Grants, and the San Andres
-Mountains west of White Sands. As seen in Tijeras Canyon east of
-Albuquerque, the bulk of the ancient rocks are gray to pinkish granite
-and granite gneiss, speckled by crystals of biotite, microcline, orthoclase,
-and quartz. Quartzites (hardened sandstones), greenstone, and foliated
-mica schists (<a href="#fig16">fig. 5</a>) are the older rocks that were intruded by granitic
-magmas about 1350 million years ago&mdash;as indicated by dating of radioactive
-isotopes, K-Ar and Rb-Sr. Locally, pegmatite dikes, a late-cooling, large-crystal
-stage of the granites, crisscross the granite and contain excellent
-crystals of quartz, feldspar, and mica, as well as less common minerals.
-The famous Harding pegmatite near Dixon, about forty miles north of
-Santa Fe, contains beryl, columbite-tantalite, lepidolite mica, spodumene,
-and other rare minerals. Some of these crystals are ten feet in length!</p>
-<h3>PALEOZOIC ERA</h3>
-<p>There are some primitive types of plant and animal life known from
-Precambrian rocks outside of New Mexico but the earliest beds that contain
-abundant fossils are those of Cambrian age, 500 to 600 m.y. old.
-Cambrian rocks in New Mexico are in the Bliss Sandstone, a reddish brown
-iron-rich bed, 50 to 200 feet thick, that occurs only in the southern part
-of the state. There it can be seen, for example, along the bold east-facing
-escarpment of the San Andres Mountains or the west-facing cliffs of the
-Caballo Mountains, as a dark band resting on the pinkish Precambrian
-granitic rocks. It is a shallow-sea sand, deposited on the northeastern edge
-of the Cambrian seas. Scattered amid the brown-stained quartz, red hematite,
-and green glauconite are broken shells of trilobites and primitive
-brachiopods. Northern New Mexico was a low, broad island during Cambrian
-time, a source of some of the sands in the Bliss Sandstone.</p>
-<p>During the Ordovician Period, 425 to 500 m.y. ago, upper sands of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_41">41</span>
-the Bliss as well as overlying limestones and dolomites were deposited in
-the shallow warm seas of southern New Mexico; these latter rocks are
-the El Paso Limestone and Montoya Dolomite. The Ordovician seas teemed
-with invertebrate life. Fifteen-foot-long cephalopods, as much as a foot in
-diameter, ruled the shallow salt-water bottoms, munching on the abundant
-trilobites and the moss animals, the bryozoans. Numerous brachiopods,
-corals, snails, and clams also thrived, with many of the Ordovician carbonate-rock
-beds literally being made up of these fossil remains. Near
-El Paso, these limy fossiliferous beds are nearly 2000 feet thick, but they
-thin northward to a knife edge in thickness near Mockingbird Gap at
-the north end of the San Andres Mountains. Parts of northwestern New
-Mexico may have been low islands exposed to the sun and erosion during
-Ordovician time, but most of the state was probably within an extensive
-shallow ocean. Later, erosion removed the Ordovician rocks from central
-and northern New Mexico.</p>
-<p>Silurian strata, the brown Fusselman Dolomite, deposited during the
-middle of that period (400 to 425 m.y. ago), remain only in the southern
-and southeastern parts of the state, thinning out northward from the 1000-foot-thick
-bed near El Paso. The extent of these middle Silurian seas is
-not known, but most of central and northern New Mexico was undergoing
-erosion during late Silurian time. The northward thinning of the
-Fusselman Dolomite is due chiefly to this erosion, evidenced by the
-knobby, ridged and channeled top surface of the Fusselman. Brachiopods
-and corals are the most abundant fossils in the Fusselman Dolomite; elsewhere,
-Silurian rocks are known for the sea scorpions or eurypterids, which
-attained a length of nine feet, and for the complete remains of primitive
-fishes.</p>
-<p>During early and middle Devonian time (345 to 400 m.y. ago), most of
-New Mexico was a lowland rotting beneath the sun. Fossiliferous Devonian
-rocks are unknown in the north-central part of the state but occur beneath
-the surface in the Four Corners region of northwestern New Mexico and
-the adjoining states. These rocks are of late Devonian age and consist of
-lower dolomite and sandstone, middle shale and dolomite, and the upper
-Ouray Limestone.</p>
-<p>In southern New Mexico, a uniform blanket of dark limy muds, called
-the Percha Shale, was deposited during late Devonian time. This shale
-marks a great change from the limestones of earlier ages. In part, it is of
-black muds deposited in widespread or in local stagnant basins and in
-part calcareous fossiliferous muds in which abundant invertebrate life
-was buried. The clay and quartz silt that make up the rocks were a weathered
-residuum that had accumulated, during the long period of late
-Silurian and early and middle Devonian times, on the lowland of central
-and northern New Mexico.</p>
-<p>Except in the stagnant basins, invertebrate life was prolific, brachiopods,
-bryozoans, and corals being especially numerous. Fossil fish remnants,
-chiefly teeth, are abundant in some of the sandy units, and outside of
-New Mexico the earliest amphibians occur in upper Devonian rocks. The
-<span class="pb" id="Page_42">42</span>
-oldest definitely known assemblage of land plants occurs in the Devonian,
-and forests containing forty-foot-high trees spread over the uplands. Such
-tree ferns, horsetail rushes, and lycopods (spiked-leafed trees) may have
-grown in profusion on the swampy lowlands near Albuquerque&rsquo;s and
-Santa Fe&rsquo;s present sites, far north of the muddy Devonian seas of southern
-New Mexico.</p>
-<h5>Figure 6. <span class="sc">Fossil specimens</span></h5>
-<div class="img" id="fig17">
-<img src="images/p16.jpg" alt="" width="232" height="212" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Brachiopod</span><br /><i>Marginifera.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig18">
-<img src="images/p16a.jpg" alt="" width="129" height="347" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Crinoid</span><br />stem fragment.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig19">
-<img src="images/p16c.jpg" alt="" width="169" height="368" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Crinoid</span><br />restoration of a crinoid.</p>
-</div>
-<p>Mississippian rocks (310 to 345 m.y. old) probably were deposited
-over most of New Mexico. Subsequent erosion removed much of the
-Mississippian beds in northern New Mexico. The remnants, less than
-100 feet thick in most places, are of lower sandy and shaly beds overlain
-by massive crinoidal limestones, the Arroyo Penasco Formation of the
-Nacimiento and Sandia mountains and the Tererro Formation of the
-Sangre de Cristo range east of Santa Fe.</p>
-<p>In southern New Mexico, the Mississippian beds are thick and widespread,
-being more than 1000 feet in thickness in the southwestern panhandle.
-There the rock units are the Escabrosa Limestone of the southwest
-or the Lake Valley Limestone of the south-central part of the state. These
-are massive fossiliferous limestones precipitated in shallow extensive seas
-abounding with invertebrate life. Huge gardens of the sea lilies, crinoids,
-spread over the area, their remains mingled with those of lacy moss animals,
-the bryozoans, and with brachiopods and corals. Locally, as in the
-region of the Sacramento and San Andres mountains and Black Range,
-moundlike fossil reefs, called bioherms, were built. Some of these bioherms
-in the Sacramento Mountains are mounds of fossiliferous limestones 350
-feet high and several thousand feet in diameter. Beds on their flanks dip
-as much as 35 degrees and are made up of broken &ldquo;fossil hash&rdquo; calcite
-sands. One can stand at the base of these huge limestone hills and almost
-hear the ancient waves breaking against the reef and see the dying struggle
-of the brachiopod (<a href="#fig17">fig. 6</a>) that left his shell in the reef-flank sands.</p>
-<p>To the south, beginning near the present site of White Sands, dark
-cherty limestones were laid down in stagnant waters, to become the Rancheria
-Limestone. This black to reddish brown siliceous limestone is more
-than 300 feet thick near El Paso. There its thin beds break down into slabs
-that resemble a jumbled woodpile.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_43">43</div>
-<p>Northern New Mexico was above sea level during late Mississippian
-time; in some areas caves developed in the porous limestones, and in other
-places the limestones were eroded to a residuum of chert and red clay.
-The land must have looked like the karst areas of Indiana, Kentucky, and
-Illinois today&mdash;with lost rivers flowing into sink holes, numerous caves, and
-many underground rivers. Only the southernmost part of the state was
-awash in the late Mississippian seas, and in these salt waters, rocks of
-the Helms and Paradise formations settled. They are typical nearshore beds
-of yellowish limy sandstone, green limy shales, and brown sandy oolitic
-limestones. Plant fossils occur intermingled with marine animal remains;
-the plant fragments were washed into the shallow seas from the land areas
-of the central and northern parts of the state.</p>
-<p>The Pennsylvanian Period (280 to 310 m.y. ago) was a time of change.
-Previously, northern New Mexico had been an emergent lowland or barely
-awash in shallow waters, while to the south shallow but extensive seas
-held sway, the spawning ground of the vertebrates and invertebrates that
-evolved between 310 and 600 m.y. <span class="small">B.C.</span> But mountains were built during
-the Pennsylvanian, and the whole pattern of land and sea was altered.
-The sun rose on north-south aligned ranges interspersed with north-south-trending
-seas (<a href="#fig20">fig. 7</a>). Somewhere north of Albuquerque a mighty range
-of mountains, the Uncompahgre Range, arose to shed rock debris into
-adjoining ocean basins. To the southeast, a lower but prominent range,
-the Pedernal Mountains, stretched from the present-day Pedernal Hills
-southward to somewhere near Ruidoso and Pi&ntilde;on. Rocks eroded from
-this landmass were dumped westward into the Orogrande basin which
-occupied the region near the present-day White Sands; there as much as
-3000 feet of beds accumulated&mdash;impure sandstones, dark shales, fragmental
-limestones, and even some gypsum during the end phase of Pennsylvanian
-sedimentation.</p>
-<p>Rocks filled the Delaware basin in southeastern New Mexico&mdash;limestones,
-sandstones, and black shales that now produce oil and gas. In
-northwestern New Mexico west of Grants and mostly west of the Zuni
-Mountains, a low land area, the Zuni Islands, was the source of eroded
-residuum released into an ocean channelway that ran north-northwest
-through central New Mexico from El Paso to Farmington. And in the
-northeast, granite hills of the Sierra Grande Arch stood above the shallow
-Pennsylvanian seas.</p>
-<p>In the Four Corners region, broken rock from the Uncompahgre Range
-was rushed westward into the Pennsylvanian-age Paradox Basin. Amid
-the clastic limestones, black shale, gypsum, and salt of this basin are oil-bearing
-lenses. Today, oil wells pump this black &ldquo;gold&rdquo; from the ancient
-rocks&mdash;wells almost in the shadow of Shiprock&rsquo;s famous spire.</p>
-<p>The Pennsylvanian Period was a time of coal making on the greatest
-scale in the earth&rsquo;s history. Extensive swamps and marshes, the habitat of
-peat and ultimately coal, were almost lacking in New Mexico. Thus, only
-thin scattered lenses of coal occur in the Pennsylvanian beds of the state.
-The lands of this period were covered by tree ferns, scale trees, horsetail
-<span class="pb" id="Page_44">44</span>
-rushes, and primitive conifers. In the shallow seas, the dominant invertebrates
-were fusulinids (<a href="#fig21">fig. 8</a>), small-shelled protozoans shaped like grains
-of wheat. Abundant cockroaches, large dragonflies, and spiders swarmed
-over the land.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig20">
-<img src="images/p17.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="876" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 7. <span class="sc">New Mexico during Pennsylvanian time</span></p>
-</div>
-<h4>Permian Rocks</h4>
-<p>The Permian Period (230 to 280 m.y. ago) dawned with renewed rising
-of the highlands in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado.
-Floods of red sand and clay, washed from the rotting hills, wiped out the
-seas of northern and central New Mexico, and intertongued southward
-with marine limestones. These early Permian rocks are the Hueco Limestone
-near El Paso, there 2200 feet thick, the Abo Redbeds near Albuquerque,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_45">45</span>
-and the upper Sangre de Cristo Redbeds southeast of Santa Fe.
-Wherever the redbeds crop out, their dark reddish brown hue, speckled
-and striped with spots and streaks of green, enlivens the drab gray-and-brown
-landscape. Some of the reddish coloring is from angular grains of
-red to orange feldspar, but most is in thin brilliantly tinted skins of hematite
-that coat the sand grains and saturate the clays. In northern and central
-New Mexico, amphibians and other primitive vertebrate animals lived
-amid the red soils and sands; their bones and imprints have been preserved
-on thin flat slabs of sandstone that now decorate sidewalks and patios.</p>
-<h5>Figure 8. <span class="sc">Fossil specimens</span></h5>
-<div class="img" id="fig21">
-<img src="images/p17a.jpg" alt="" width="580" height="430" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Bryozoan</span><br /><i>Fenestrellina.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig22">
-<img src="images/p17c.jpg" alt="" width="330" height="96" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Fusulinid</span><br /><i>Fusulina.</i></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig23">
-<img src="images/p17d.jpg" alt="" width="256" height="407" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Coral</span><br /><i>Lophophyllidium.</i></p>
-</div>
-<p>The early Permian seashore, where limy muds beyond the surf intermingled
-with red sandy muds swept from the north, vacillated somewhere
-north of Alamogordo with each sea-level change. Amid the breakers,
-and as submarine banks in the shallow waters, reefs grew&mdash;moundlike
-masses of shell debris and calcite mud trapped among frondlike calcareous
-algae. Near Tularosa, these algal &ldquo;bioherms&rdquo; are sixty feet high and extend
-within broad belts half a mile wide. In southeastern New Mexico, these
-buried &ldquo;Abo&rdquo; reefs have yielded much oil.</p>
-<p>By the middle of Permian time, the southern Colorado mountains had
-been worn down to low hills that lay north of an extensive sea covering
-most of New Mexico. From Santa Fe south to White Sands and southeastward
-almost to Carlsbad, very shallow marine waters were alternately
-stifled by pale-red sandy muds or evaporated by the sun. The results were
-alternating beds of pale-red sandstone, gypsum, and silty dolomitic limestone,
-called the Yeso Formation. Locally, as near Carrizozo, thick deposits
-of rock salt also were precipitated, and the Yeso there is about 4000 feet
-thick. At this time, the Delaware basin of southeastern New Mexico saw
-the beginning of its most spectacular events, the building of the Capitan
-and Goat Seep reefs. This basin&mdash;a huge oval south of Carlsbad and east
-of Carlsbad Caverns&mdash;had been &ldquo;deep&rdquo; sea during most of Pennsylvanian
-time, but it was a more distinct geographic feature during the Permian.
-While the pale-red sands, gypsum, halite, and dolomitic limestones of the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_46">46</span>
-Yeso Formation were laid down to the north and northwest, the Delaware
-basin was rimmed by a low, broad bank of fossil-hash calcite sand, now
-called the Victorio Peak Limestone. In the basin, in deep stagnant waters,
-black sandy limestone and black shale of the Bone Spring Formation were
-deposited.</p>
-<p>A sheet of white quartz sand filled the late Yeso seas; the resulting
-Glorieta Sandstone, about 200 feet thick, prominently caps Glorieta Mesa.
-Its cliffs are a familiar sight to travelers on the Santa Fe Railway at Glorieta
-Pass. The Coconino Sandstone in the Grand Canyon area of Arizona is
-the western part of the Glorieta. This &ldquo;clean&rdquo; sand&mdash;lacking intermixed
-mud&mdash;marks the continued lowering of the southern Colorado uplands.
-Broad seas then spread over all but northern New Mexico and a thick (600
-to 1000 feet) persistent marine unit, the San Andres Limestone, was laid
-down. Much oil is produced in southeastern New Mexico from this dark-gray
-unit of limestones and dolomites. The rich agricultural region stretching
-from Roswell to Artesia depends on underground water gained from
-the San Andres Limestone, water that falls as rain and snow on the Sacramento
-Mountains, seeps underground into the cracks and caverns within
-the San Andres, and flows eastward downslope to the Pecos Valley.</p>
-<p>The delicate balance between land and sea swung upward at the end
-of San Andres time as these late Permian seas retreated to southern
-New Mexico. The deep Delaware basin was the only persistent marine
-body of water. It was rimmed by magnificent towering barrier reefs, the
-Goat Seep and Capitan reefs that now are host to Carlsbad Caverns. These
-reefs were similar to the present-day Great Barrier Reef of Australia, except
-that the Capitan and Goat Seep reefs surrounded an inland sea whereas
-the Australian reef borders a continent. The Capitan reef is about 400 miles
-long, and other than oceanward channels cut through to the south, completely
-encircled the 10,000-square-mile Delaware basin. At its heyday, the
-Capitan reef was barely awash, and teeming with life, in contrast to the
-silent, stagnant deeps of the Delaware basin which were about 2000 feet
-below sea level only a few miles away from the barrier reef. On the steep
-slope into the basin, huge slump blocks of fossiliferous reef limestone slid,
-mingling with fossil-hash sand. These &ldquo;flank&rdquo; beds dip steeply from the
-massive reef core to interfinger with the black sandy limestones of the
-basin.</p>
-<p>The Delaware basin was a marine feature throughout Late Paleozoic
-time; its northwestern border is now marked by the southeast-trending
-front of the Guadalupe Mountains southeast of Carlsbad; its north edge
-was east-northeast of Carlsbad, and it extended southward into West Texas.</p>
-<p>Shallow &ldquo;shelf&rdquo; seas reached irregularly and intermittently northward
-and northwestward from the Capitan reef and mingled with low islands
-throughout all but southeastern New Mexico. Landward, away from the
-Delaware basin, the rocks change from massive, thick, light-gray limestones
-of the reefs into thin units of thin-bedded dolomite, then abruptly into
-alternating beds of gypsum and redbeds, the Artesia Group of rocks, and
-finally, marking the distant shorelines, into thin units of red mudstone and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_47">47</span>
-red sandstone, the Bernal Formation. Evaporation of sea water was excessive,
-and average temperatures high; the climate varied from semiarid in
-northwestern New Mexico to subtropical in the Delaware basin area&mdash;a
-contrast and a similarity to today&rsquo;s climate.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig24">
-<img src="images/p18.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="605" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 9. <span class="sc">Castile gypsum sample</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Latest Permian time saw the dramatic end of the Paleozoic Era. Most
-of New Mexico was uplifted above sea level, with only the Delaware
-basin remaining as a land-locked sea, much like the Caspian Sea today,
-but with channels open periodically southward to the ocean. The rocks of
-this waning part of the Permian are called the <i>Ochoan Series</i>; they show
-an abrupt and striking change from the underlying Carlsbad reef limestones
-and associated black basin-filling limestones up into the laminated
-gypsum-anhydrite of the basal Ochoan rocks, the Castile formation. Normal
-marine conditions ended almost instantaneously. Excess of evaporation
-lowered the water level of the inland sea; the accumulated brine
-(concentrated salty sea water) killed the life on and near the Capitan
-reef, and thick beds of anhydrite were precipitated. The lowest beds of the
-Ochoan Series, the Castile Anhydrite, and the overlying Salado Salt, mostly
-filled the deep depression that was the Delaware basin; the upper beds, the
-Rustler Dolomite and Dewey Lake Redbeds, lap over the edges of the
-basin and in places rest irregularly upon the Capitan limestone.</p>
-<p>These are unusual rocks. The Castile (about 1800 feet thick) is thinly
-banded, with thicker bands (laminae, thin layers) of light-gray gypsum-anhydrite
-alternating with thin laminae of dark-brown calcite (<a href="#fig24">fig. 9</a>).
-This lamination is believed due to annual changes, the brown calcite being
-precipitated during the summer and the gray anhydrite during the winter.
-<span class="pb" id="Page_48">48</span>
-On the surface, the calcium sulfate mineral is gypsum, but at depths of
-about 600 feet, these laminae are anhydrite. Addition of water to anhydrite
-has changed it to gypsum wherever ground water penetrated the laminae.</p>
-<p>The Salado Salt, about 2000 feet thick, is almost entirely of rock salt
-(halite), with important interbeds of potassium-rich minerals&mdash;red sylvite,
-gray langbeinite, brownish bitter-tasting carnallite, and pale-red polyhalite.
-As all these salts are highly soluble in water, the Salado Salt nowhere
-&ldquo;crops out&rdquo; at the surface. East of Carlsbad, however, the potash-rich
-beds are mined underground, and supply about ninety per cent of
-the United States&rsquo; production&mdash;used chiefly as fertilizer.</p>
-<p>The arid period of Salado Salt evaporation changed slightly as the
-dolomites and anhydrites of the Rustler Dolomite were laid down in the
-last drying moments (geologically speaking) of the Permian. Then as the
-seas retreated to the south, the fine-grained red sands and silts of the
-Dewey Lake Redbeds were spread as a thin blanket over the low lands
-basking under the hot Permian sun. This was a time of dying; whole
-races of vertebrate and invertebrate animals were wiped out, to be known
-today only from their fossil remains. As the dim unmarked episode of
-latest Permian time merged into the Triassic, an inkling of coming life was
-recorded in the rocks. The amphibians were more modern types, and they
-gave rise to the most striking of early land animals, the reptiles. This was
-the beginning of the conquest of the land by the reptiles, which culminated
-later in the dinosaurs, and was aided by the retreat of shallow seas from
-the continents, a change survived chiefly by the species adapted to living
-on land.</p>
-<h3>MESOZOIC ERA</h3>
-<p>The Mesozoic Era dawned in New Mexico on extensive plains, except
-for a northwest-trending range in the extreme north-central part of the
-state. During this, the early part of the Triassic Period (180 to 230 m.y.
-ago), sands and muds eroded from New Mexico were carried westward
-to northeastern Arizona where they now form the Moenkopi Formation,
-the brilliant reds and purples of the Painted Desert region. Uplands arose
-in late Triassic time in southwestern New Mexico. Along with mountains
-in south-central Colorado, these highlands were torn apart by water and
-wind, and the detritus was swept into sheets of brightly colored sand and
-shale. These beds are thickest (about 2000 feet) along the New Mexico&mdash;Texas
-line east of Roswell and in west-central New Mexico (near Grants)
-extending westward into northeastern Arizona. The eastern Triassic rocks
-are the redbeds of the Dockum Group with the lower Santa Rosa Sandstone
-and the upper Chinle beds. The northwestern rocks are the Chinle
-Formation overlain by the redbeds of the Wingate Sandstone.</p>
-<p>The Chinle Formation is of special scenic interest as its beds contain
-the silicified trees so well shown at Petrified Forest National Monument.
-These varicolored rocks&mdash;red, purple, green, and gray&mdash;also decorate the
-Painted Desert area, the wide valley of Rio San Jose east of Laguna, and
-flank Interstate 40 (U.S. Highway 66) from the Texas line westward almost
-<span class="pb" id="Page_49">49</span>
-to Clines Corners. As some beds are weathered &ldquo;ash&rdquo; beds, the highlands
-were sites of volcanoes that spread their dust over much of the
-Southwest. In contrast to the underlying marine Paleozoic rocks, these
-Triassic beds were deposited on land by streams and in shallow lakes.
-Thus the beasts that roamed New Mexico were amphibians&mdash;such as the
-thick-skulled stegocephalians&mdash;and reptiles of the crocodilelike clan, the
-phytosaurs. The silicified trees in the Chinle are mostly primitive pines;
-some grew to heights of more than 100 feet and measure 7 feet in diameter.</p>
-<p>New Mexico was featureless rolling prairie, with scattered low hills
-in the northwest, during most of Jurassic time (135 to 180 m.y. ago). In
-the late part of the period, the Sundance-Curtis sea and its shoreline
-lagoons spread down from the north into northwestern New Mexico. Sand
-dunes on its southeastern shores consolidated into the cross-bedded Entrada
-Sandstone; its reddish brown cliffs rim the Rio San Jose Valley near Grants
-and Gallup. In an extensive lagoon, or salt-water lake that covered most
-of northwestern and north-central New Mexico, the gypsum and limestone
-of the Todilto Formation were precipitated; this gypsum is the bed
-mined near Rosario siding (seen between Albuquerque and Santa Fe) by
-the Kaiser Gypsum Company, and near San Ysidro on White Mesa by
-the American Gypsum Company. The Todilto salty basin was overwhelmed
-by reddish sands and silts of the Summerville Formation, washed
-chiefly from the south, and by the multicolored sands of the Zuni Sandstone
-(exposed at El Morro), and then the stream and wind-blown sands
-and clays of the varicolored Morrison Formation were laid down in northern
-New Mexico. Petrified wood and bone fragments are abundant in
-the Morrison beds&mdash;along with uranium&mdash;but no fossil finds in New Mexico
-equal those in the Morrison Formation of Dinosaur National Park,
-Utah.</p>
-<p>Much of North America, including southern New Mexico, was land
-during the Jurassic. In the streams and lakes were many kinds of fishes,
-amphibians, reptiles, snails, crustaceans, and water bugs; on dry land
-were hordes of reptiles, small primitive mammals, and ants; in the air
-were flying reptiles, the earliest known birds, moths, and butterflies. The
-earth was ruled by the reptiles, with the dinosaurs dominant&mdash;some being
-the most ponderous land animals of all earth history. Such were Stegosaurus
-and Brachiosaurus, the latter 85 feet long and weighing 50 tons.</p>
-<p>The Cretaceous Period (70 to 135 m.y. ago) was one of great contrast
-in New Mexico. During Early Cretaceous time, most of the central and
-northern parts of the state were low lands torn by erosion, while thick
-piles of conglomerate, sandstone, and shale accumulated in depressions in
-the southwestern corner. Huge volcanoes near Lordsburg added their hot
-ashes, bombs, and flows to the sedimentary detritus, and thick fossiliferous
-limestones were laid down in muddy and sandy waters of the sea&mdash;the
-shoreline fluctuated over tens of miles in areas south of Lordsburg, Deming,
-and El Paso. These Early Cretaceous beds total 20,000 feet in thickness
-in some areas. In eastern and northeastern New Mexico, in contrast, thin
-<span class="pb" id="Page_50">50</span>
-sheets of quartz sand were deposited by streams on the edge of a shallow
-sea, and black muds in local lagoons.</p>
-<p>Rock beds thousands of feet thick were laid down in northern and
-central New Mexico during Late Cretaceous time, whereas most of the
-southern part of the state was above sea level and was being eroded by
-tireless winds and streams. The shorelines made parallel northwest-trending
-bands across the state. These are now marked by beach sands, some
-of which are speckled by black minerals, high in rare elements titanium,
-niobium, and zirconium. Northwestern and central New Mexico was a
-battleground of the land and sea, with the beaches advancing and retreating
-fifty or a hundred miles during an instant of geologic time. Stream
-sands and coal beds lie landward from the beach sands which, in turn,
-mingle seaward with black limy shales that were flushed into the seas. The
-lowest of these rocks is the Dakota Sandstone&mdash;famous as an artesian
-aquifer in the High Plains areas of states to the northeast&mdash;Colorado, the
-Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming, and Montana. Above is the black
-Mancos Shale, which in turn is overlain by the Mesaverde Group.</p>
-<p>The transitions from coal swamps and stream sands to beach deposits
-and then into marine black shales is characteristic of the Mesaverde in
-northwestern and north-central New Mexico. To the northeast, beds of
-the same age were laid down in an extensive muddy sea that stretched
-far to the east; the Pierre Shale and Niobrara chalky limestone that underlie
-the plains northeast of Las Vegas are typical. The cliff-forming sandstones
-and coal beds near Gallup are part of the Mesaverde Group and
-rim the entire San Juan Basin. Above are similar rocks such as the Kirtland
-Shale, Pictured Cliffs Sandstone, and Fruitland Formation that underlie
-valleys cut in the shales and cliffs carved from the sandstones in the
-northwest corner of New Mexico near Farmington.</p>
-<p>Toward the end of the Cretaceous, the Laramide &ldquo;revolution&rdquo; began,
-and New Mexico along with most of North America emerged from beneath
-the seas, to be high and dry to the present. The revolution, an extensive
-upheaval of the earth&rsquo;s crust, saw uplift of the San Juan Mountains
-area in southwestern Colorado and large volcanoes spouting fire and
-ashes nearby. Fragments of the eroded mountains and debris from these
-andesitic volcanoes were flushed southward by streams and steam to settle
-as thick piles of mud, sandstone, and conglomerate, the McDermott and
-Animas formations in the San Juan Basin. The last moment of Cretaceous
-time, if we could be so precise, was ushered out almost unnoticed&mdash;with
-mountains rising to the north and the andesitic-quartz detritus being
-laid down to the south in the upper beds of the Animas Formation.</p>
-<p>Similarly, mountains arose during Late Cretaceous time in north-central
-New Mexico and south-central Colorado, about on the site of the present-day
-Sangre de Cristo range northeast of Taos, and shed erosional gravels
-and muds into the Raton Basin area. Alluvial fan gravels and sands grade
-eastward into dark muds and coals laid down in swamps and on floodplains.
-These rocks now cap the rugged mesas seen northwest of the Santa Fe
-Railway from Raton southward&mdash;the cliff-forming Trinidad Sandstone and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_51">51</span>
-the dark siltstones, sandstones, black shales, and coal beds of the Vermejo
-and Raton formations. The Kaiser Steel Corporation mine near Koehler
-extracts coal from these beds. Again, the exact end of the Cretaceous is
-marked only by some obscure boundary between beds, in that area within
-the Raton Formation.</p>
-<p>During the Cretaceous Period, the deciduous trees&mdash;such as the oak,
-maple, poplar, and elm that dominate today&rsquo;s flora&mdash;became common. The
-covered-seed plants, the angiosperms, are the most notable of the Cretaceous
-plants, but the development of the modern floras was an antecedent to
-the great expansion of mammals and birds during the following Cenozoic
-Era. Reptiles ruled the earth, led by the dinosaurs (<a href="#fig25">fig. 10</a>) and their distinctive
-group, the horned large-skulled ceratopsians such as Triceratops.
-The small, hairy, warm-blooded mammals were still insignificant creatures
-that ran from their huge dinosaur lords, but they ate reptile eggs, and so
-excelled the sluggish reptiles in mental and physical activity that they
-adapted swiftly to the changing environments of the Laramide revolution&mdash;and
-became dominant as the pea-brained reptiles were unable to stand
-the changes.</p>
-<p>The shallow seas of the Cretaceous swarmed with invertebrate life;
-foraminifers (unicellular protozoans) in uncountable billions make up large
-parts of the chalky limestones. Mollusks, particularly clams like oysters and
-the heavy ribbed Inoceramus, and complexly sutured cephalopods, the
-ammonites, as well as the internal-shelled belemnoids (that look like cigars),
-were most numerous among larger marine animals. Reef builders in southwestern
-New Mexico were the peculiarly corallike clams, the rudistids.
-Widespread warm humid climates seem to have prevailed throughout
-the state during most of the Cretaceous.</p>
-<h3>LANDSCAPES AND MINERAL RESOURCES</h3>
-<p>Thus as the Cretaceous seas withdrew from New Mexico, the Cenozoic
-Era dawned, and never again have marine waters shaped the landscapes.
-The rocks, Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, and their
-ancient movements determine New Mexico&rsquo;s spectacular landscapes. They
-tell tales of the endless war between erosion and hard rock, show the deposition
-of sediments, their uplift, and their eventual destruction. The
-result is striking scenery&mdash;volcanic mountains, as Mount Taylor, Sierra
-Blanca, Valle Grande&mdash;fresh lava flows near Carrizozo and Grants&mdash;volcanic
-necks like Shiprock and Cabezon&mdash;White Sands, the work of the wind&mdash;El
-Morro, Enchanted Mesa, Acoma, and badlands near Santa Fe, the result
-of weathering and erosion&mdash;great fault-line escarpments of the Sandia,
-Manzano, San Andres, and Sacramento mountains&mdash;the work of underground
-waters at Carlsbad Caverns. And man adds his erosive powers&mdash;the
-huge open-pit copper mine at Santa Rita and countless excavations
-for rock to build homes, to straighten highways.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_52">52</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig25">
-<img src="images/p19.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="374" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 10. <span class="sc">Make way for &rsquo;is lordship, the Dinosaur!</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_53">53</div>
-<p>The sun can be harsh and hot, the rain sparse, the winter nights fierce
-cold. But within the rocks are natural resources undreamed of by the early
-Indians, almost untouched by the Spanish, and with potential beyond
-vision for the future. Water, being scarce, is one of the more important
-resources. With an average yearly precipitation of only fifteen inches, and
-more than half of the state receiving less than that average, water is a problem!
-Farming must depend upon irrigation, the water being drawn from
-streams or &ldquo;mined&rdquo; from underground &ldquo;pools&rdquo; where it had been accumulating
-for centuries.</p>
-<p>Forests, game, and fish are lucrative resources somewhat unexpected
-in a semiarid state; sheep and cattle&mdash;in this the stronghold of the cowboy,
-famous in gunfighter lore&mdash;each total more than a million. New Mexico&rsquo;s
-1965 mineral production, valued at $781.9 million, ranked seventh among
-the states. Principal commodities won from the rocks, in order of value,
-were oil, potash, natural gas, uranium, copper, sand and gravel, zinc, coal,
-crushed stone, and perlite. Sizeable quantities of barite, beryl, carbon
-dioxide, cement, clays, gem stones, gold, gypsum, helium, iron ore, lead,
-limestone, magnesium compounds, manganese, mica, molybdenum, pumice,
-salt, silver, sulfur, and vanadium were also mined. The huge open-pit
-copper mine at Santa Rita, the many uranium mines near Grants, the
-underground potash mines near Carlsbad, and the thousands of oil and
-gas wells in the northwestern and southeastern parts of the state are typical
-of man-made landscape features attributable to mineral exploitation in
-New Mexico. Numerous old mine dumps, rotting mine shafts, and spooky
-ghost towns are reminders of past fortunes won and lost.</p>
-<p>The rocks, the work of water, wind, and sun, and the not insignificant
-upheavals by man have shaped New Mexico&rsquo;s landscapes. Blended with
-its blue skies, warm sun, and the products of three cultures&mdash;Indian, Spanish,
-and American&mdash;the rocks and their movements have made the landscapes
-a land of enchantment.</p>
-<div class="verse">
-<p class="t0">Earth wears a mantle rich with lore,</p>
-<p class="t2">of storied fabric finely spun,</p>
-<p class="t0">That tells of kingdoms come and gone,</p>
-<p class="t2">of legions lost and battles won.</p>
-<p class="t0">No seer no monarch can divine,</p>
-<p class="t2">the cryptic writings; he alone,</p>
-<p class="t0">Who humbly speaks the tongue of earth,</p>
-<p class="t2">can find a story in a stone.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_54">54</div>
-<h2 id="c5"><span class="small">Before Coronado</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Robert H. Weber</span></p>
-<p>The cultural heritage of New Mexico is a rich and colorful one, blending
-as it does the three separate traditions of Indian, Spanish, and Anglo-American.
-Of these, the lifeways of the Indian, ancient and modern, are
-of particular interest to both the visitor and resident. These were the first
-inhabitants of the New World, whose roots extend back in time many
-thousands of years before the first European set foot here. People who had
-adapted themselves to the varied and often harsh environments of desert,
-plain, valley, canyon, and mountain; who witnessed the disappearance
-of the large mammals of the Pleistocene Ice Age and concomitant changes
-in climate and vegetation; the first prospectors and miners seeking flint,
-obsidian, turquoise, clay, salt, and mineral pigments; early traders exchanging
-valued minerals and handicrafts for shells of the coastal regions;
-hunters and farmers, architects and builders, civic and religious leaders,
-philosophers and critics, skilled craftsmen and artists, explorers and soldiers&mdash;all
-ancient counterparts of those who were to follow.</p>
-<p>In 1540, when the train of soldiers in the company of Coronado&rsquo;s Spanish
-Expedition entered the unknown lands later called New Mexico, four
-groups of native Americans were established residents in the area. Along
-the arable valley of the Rio Grande and its tributaries, and in several outlying
-areas were the adobe and stone apartment-house villages of the
-Pueblo Indians, whose livelihood was based largely on agriculture. East
-of the mountains were scattered bands of Plains Indians, Eastern Apaches,
-who were nomadic hunters following the herds of buffalo that ranged
-across the vast grasslands of the High Plains. Western Apaches were dispersed
-in small bands of hunters and gatherers of wild foods through the
-mountainous country to the west of the Rio Grande. A related group, the
-Navajo, augmented the necessities of life gained by hunting and gathering
-with subordinate agricultural crops in the Plateau region to the northwest.</p>
-<p>Early contacts of the <i>conquistadores</i> were largely with the Pueblo Indians,
-although they had limited knowledge of the Apaches and Navajos in
-outlying districts. There was little to suggest to the Spanish invaders, except
-for the ruins of long-abandoned Pueblo villages, that the fragmentary
-record of thousands of years of human prehistory lay scattered in the dust
-beneath their feet. Undoubtedly they would have dismissed as utter nonsense
-any notion that men armed with stone-tipped spears had here
-slain elephants in a marsh 12,000 years old that now lay buried beneath
-shifting sands of a desert landscape. Indeed, it was not until the last quarter
-of the 1800&rsquo;s that serious attempts were made to decipher the prehistoric
-traces of the Pueblo Indians, whereas concrete evidence that man
-had hunted long-extinct Pleistocene big game in America was not discovered
-until less than forty years ago.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_55">55</div>
-<h3>EARLY HUNTERS</h3>
-<p>The year 1926 was marked by the first of a series of important archeological
-finds in New Mexico that were eventually to demonstrate that man
-had occupied this area as much as 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. During this
-period, Late Pleistocene ice sheets of continental glaciers still blanketed
-parts of the northern tier of states in the vicinity of the Great Lakes, and
-elephants (both mammoths and mastodons), horses, camels, giant bison,
-tapirs, and ground sloths roamed the Southwest. Excavations begun in
-1926 near the small town of Folsom, in northeastern New Mexico (<a href="#fig26">fig. 1</a>),
-disclosed a number of fossil skeletons of a large form of extinct bison,
-forerunners of the modern bison or buffalo. Among these bones were dart
-or spear points of distinctive form and workmanship, characterized by
-broad, shallow flutes or channels on each face (<a href="#fig27">fig. 2</a>). These artifacts, now
-known as Folsom points, have since been recovered from a number of
-sites in New Mexico and elsewhere in North America, commonly in association
-with the remains of extinct bison. Evidently Folsom &ldquo;Man&rdquo; (whose
-skeletal remains have not been discovered) was a nomadic hunter particularly
-dependent upon the bison for his food supply, much as were the
-later Plains Indians of historic time. Ages of from 10,000 to 11,000 years
-have been obtained from charcoal and other organic remains at Folsom
-camp sites by the radiocarbon method.</p>
-<p>Succeeding years have seen an increasing number of valuable archeological
-discoveries at camp and game-kill sites of Folsom Man and other
-Early Hunters. Unquestionably, the most important of these sites is the
-Blackwater Draw locality between Clovis and Portales in extreme eastern
-New Mexico, where excavations for gravel disclosed a stratified sequence
-of sediments that were deposited in an ancient pond and spring. Here, too,
-were the characteristic Folsom points in association with the bones of
-fossil bison. Below the Folsom layer, still older deposits contained the fossil
-bones of mammoth, horse, camel, and bison associated with fluted spear
-points that resembled those from Folsom but were generally larger and
-less skillfully chipped and fluted. These points, now known as Clovis
-points, are so commonly found beside the remains of mammoths in a
-number of sites in the High Plains and the Southwest that their makers
-are believed to have been adept at hunting these extinct elephants. Radiocarbon
-dates place Clovis points in a time range of from 11,000 to 12,000
-years ago.</p>
-<p>In a layer above that containing Folsom points at Blackwater Draw,
-several varieties of unfluted lanceolate points were found to be associated
-with the bones of fossil bison. These points have been identified by various
-specific names such as Plainview, Milnesand, Eden, and Scottsbluff
-from excavated sites elsewhere in the High Plains region, and probably
-range in age from 8000 to 10,000 years. Although the giant bison still survived
-into this level of stratigraphy and time, the elephant, camel, and
-horse of the Clovis level had disappeared from the area.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_56">56</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig26">
-<img src="images/p20.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="868" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 1. <span class="sc">Index map of New Mexico showing locations of significant archeological sites, modern Indian pueblos, and Navajo, Ute, and Apache reservations</span></p>
-</div>
-<dl class="undent"><dt>Early Hunter Sites</dt>
-<dd>1. Folsom State Monument</dd>
-<dd>2. Sandia Cave</dd>
-<dd>3. San Jon</dd>
-<dd>4. Blackwater Draw</dd>
-<dd>5. Manzano Cave</dd>
-<dd>6. Lucy</dd>
-<dd>7. Milnesand</dd>
-<dd>8. Burnet Cave</dd>
-<dt>Prehistoric Pueblo and Cliff-Dwelling Ruins</dt>
-<dd>9. Aztec Ruins National Monument</dd>
-<dd>10. Chaco Canyon National Monument</dd>
-<dd>11. Puye Cliff Dwellings</dd>
-<dd>12. Bandelier National Monument (Tyuonyi)</dd>
-<dd>13. Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument</dd>
-<dt>Historic Pueblo Ruins</dt>
-<dd>14. Jemez State Monument</dd>
-<dd>15. Pecos State Monument</dd>
-<dd>16. Coronado State Monument (Kuaua)</dd>
-<dd>17. Paako State Monument</dd>
-<dd>18. Quarai State Monument</dd>
-<dd>19. Abo State Monument</dd>
-<dd>20. Gran Quivira National Monument</dd>
-<dt>Modern Pueblos</dt>
-<dd>21. Taos</dd>
-<dd>22. San Lorenzo (Picur&iacute;s)</dd>
-<dd>23. San Juan</dd>
-<dd>24. Santa Clara</dd>
-<dd>25. San Ildefonso</dd>
-<dd>26. Namb&eacute;</dd>
-<dd>27. Tesuque</dd>
-<dd>28. Cochiti</dd>
-<dd>29. Santo Domingo</dd>
-<dd>30. San Felipe</dd>
-<dd>31. Sandia</dd>
-<dd>32. Santa Ana</dd>
-<dd>33. Zia</dd>
-<dd>34. Jemez</dd>
-<dd>35. Isleta</dd>
-<dd>36. Laguna</dd>
-<dd>37. Acoma</dd>
-<dd>38. Zuni</dd>
-<dd>39. Ojo Caliente</dd>
-<dt>Navajo, Ute, and Apache Reservations</dt>
-<dd>40. Navajo Indian Reservation</dd>
-<dd>41. Ute Mountain Indian Reservation</dd>
-<dd>42. Jicarilla Apache Indian Reservation</dd>
-<dd>43. Mescalero Apache Indian Reservation</dd></dl>
-<dl class="undent pcap"><dt>Modern pueblos</dt>
-<dt>Historic pueblo ruins</dt>
-<dt>Prehistoric pueblo and cliff-dwelling ruins</dt>
-<dt>Early Hunter sites</dt></dl>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_57">57</div>
-<p>Another important discovery was made in Sandia Cave northeast of
-Albuquerque. Below cave deposits containing Folsom points was an earlier
-type of point among the bones of mammoth, horse, camel, and other
-large Pleistocene mammals. Now identified as Sandia points, these projectile
-tips are distinguished by an asymmetric stemmed form with a shoulder
-on one side. The age of the Sandia points has been a subject of some
-controversy, but the latest available data from charcoal in Sandia Cave
-indicates an age of nearly 12,000 years, which is within the accepted range
-of the Clovis points.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig27">
-<img src="images/p20a.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="327" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 2. <span class="sc">Folsom point recovered from among rib bones of fossil bison at Folsom, New Mexico</span>
-(Photograph of plastic replica. Original point in collection of Denver Museum of Natural History.)</p>
-</div>
-<p>Clovis, Sandia, and Folsom points, together with related stone implements,
-are at many places enclosed in sediments deposited in or adjacent
-to ponds, lakes, streams, and wet meadows. These environments indicate
-a former cool and more humid climate in areas that are now semiarid.
-The food requirements of many of the large herbivores that lived at this
-time also suggest more abundant vegetation and surface water than prevails
-here today. It is not unreasonable, then, to presume that climatic
-conditions contributing to the advance of continental glaciers in the Great
-Lakes region, and to valley glaciers in the Rocky Mountains, should have
-<span class="pb" id="Page_58">58</span>
-been reflected in lower summer temperatures and higher rainfall in non-glaciated
-areas. The ultimate extinction of the large Pleistocene mammals
-and the similar time of disappearance of the hunters who preyed upon
-them may both be related to the climatic changes that followed the end
-of the Ice Age in America.</p>
-<h3>HUNTERS AND GATHERERS</h3>
-<p>Groups of people dependent upon a different way of life from that of
-the Early Hunters are known to have occupied much of the present area
-of New Mexico. Although there is some suggestion of overlap in time of
-these people with the Early Hunters, they appear to have become prominent
-during the several thousand warm, dry years following the end
-of the Pleistocene. Adapted, as they were, to a fuller utilization of the
-resources of the area through the hunting and trapping of smaller game
-and an emphasis on the gathering of a wide variety of wild plant foods,
-these people ranged extensively across the varied terrain of the state.
-Similar patterns of subsistence and artifacts are known from the Great
-Basin region west of the Rocky Mountains, where they have been categorized
-under the term <i>Desert Culture</i>. Local manifestations of the
-Desert Culture in southeastern Arizona, extending eastward into western
-and southern New Mexico, are identified as the Cochise Culture. Other
-groups showing similarities with Archaic cultures to the east penetrated the
-northeastern part of New Mexico at a time when the area was still
-populated by Pleistocene bison.</p>
-<p>Habitation sites of these gatherers are distributed in open situations
-and in shelter caves. Such sites are commonly marked by milling stones
-that characterize the preparation of wild foods (<a href="#fig28">fig. 3</a>), hearths, chopping
-and scraping implements, and stemmed projectile points markedly different
-from those used by the Early Hunters. These points were affixed to dart
-shafts that were propelled with a spear thrower or <i>atlatl</i>, a device that
-preceded the bow and arrow in America but is still used by Australian
-Aborigines.</p>
-<p>Seasonal changes in the local availability of wild foods must have necessitated
-a nomadic or seminomadic way of life. The development of agricultural
-techniques in the later years before the beginning of the Christian
-Era, however, probably contributed to the development of a semisedentary
-existence that was eventually to lead to the village life of the later periods.
-The exact time of introduction of the principal agricultural crops, corn,
-squash, and beans, is unknown, but evidence from west-central New Mexico
-indicates their use by the Cochise people by 2500 <span class="small">B.C.</span></p>
-<h3>PUEBLOAN FARMERS</h3>
-<p>Having acquired the techniques of deliberately planting and raising
-food crops that could be stored against future needs, local populations of
-Hunters and Gatherers became less dependent upon the gathering of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_59">59</span>
-wild foods and began to construct clusters of more permanent dwellings
-near cultivable land. Among the earliest recognized houses of this period
-are the semisubterranean pit houses of the early Mogollon people in the
-San Francisco River drainage of west-central New Mexico (<a href="#fig29">fig. 4</a>) and
-of the Anasazi Basketmakers in the San Juan River drainage of northwestern
-New Mexico. These cultural advances, together with the acquisition
-of techniques for the manufacture of fired pottery, foreshadowed
-the development of the Mogollon and Pueblo cultures at a time beginning
-perhaps as early as 300 <span class="small">B.C.</span> for the Mogollon area and at least by 1
-<span class="small">A.D.</span> for the Anasazi area.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig28">
-<img src="images/p21.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="573" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 3. <span class="sc">Milling stones of the type used by the Cochise People</span>
-<br />Plant foods were ground in a shallow basin metate with the small one-hand mano (hand stone). Socorro, New Mexico.</p>
-</div>
-<p>These two cultural groups, the Mogollon in southwestern and southern
-New Mexico, whose roots extend back through the ancestral Cochise to
-before 6000 <span class="small">B.C.</span>, and the Anasazi in the Four Corners region of northwestern
-New Mexico, probably developed independently during the early
-years. From about 500 <span class="small">A.D.</span>, however, there is increasing evidence of trade
-relationships and eventual fusion of traits. Other groups to the west, such
-as the Hohokam of Arizona, were sources of cultural influence on the
-indigenous people of New Mexico. In the Mogollon and San Juan Anasazi
-heartlands and in the Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico, a pattern
-of village life with elaboration of social and religious organization emerged
-from the relatively simple cultures of the early years. Villages began to
-assume organized form, dwellings were combined in rows of adobe and
-stone structures containing a number of contiguous rooms, and subterranean
-ceremonial chambers or <i>kivas</i> assumed larger and more specialized
-architectural distinctiveness from the ancestral pit-house dwellings. In the
-Mogollon area, the characteristic brownware pottery of the Mogollons
-<span class="pb" id="Page_60">60</span>
-was used side by side with decorated black-on-white pottery of Anasazi
-origin. The bow and arrow slowly replaced the less efficient <i>atlatl</i> and
-dart. The significance of these early stages in the evolution of the Pueblo
-Culture in the San Juan and upper Rio Grande areas is indicated by their
-designation as the Developmental Pueblo period (Pueblo I and II).</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig29">
-<img src="images/p22.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="630" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Photograph of museum diorama courtesy of the Chicago Natural History Museum</i>)</span><br /> Figure 4. <span class="sc">Mogollon pit-house village of the period 200</span> <span class="small">B.C.</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>The climax of these developments occurred in the interval between
-1050 and 1300 <span class="small">A.D.</span> in the Classic or Great Pueblo period (Pueblo III).
-Among the most impressive manifestations of this period are large stone-masonry
-apartment houses, some rising to five stories in height and housing
-hundreds of people. Dwellings of this type are highlights of several
-well-known tourist attractions, among which are the cliff dwellings of
-Mesa Verde in southwestern Colorado and the monumental ruins of
-Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon (<a href="#fig30">fig. 5</a>), both products of the ingenuity
-of the Anasazi Indians.</p>
-<p>At the very apex of the cultural efflorescence of the Great Pueblo
-period, some unknown circumstance or series of events caused abandonment
-of most of the urban centers of the San Juan Anasazi and Mogollon
-areas. A prolonged drouth is recorded by tree rings formed during the period
-from 1276 to 1299 <span class="small">A.D.</span> Surely a drouth of this magnitude would have had
-<span class="pb" id="Page_61">61</span>
-serious effects on people as dependent upon agriculture as were the Pueblo
-Indians. There are some indications that alien and perhaps enemy people
-were drifting into these areas at about this time, perhaps predecessors of
-the modern Navajos and Apaches. The congested living conditions of
-Pueblo villages undoubtedly contributed to unsanitary conditions and social
-pressures that also may have contributed to shifts in population. Many of
-these migrants moved into the homeland of the Rio Grande Anasazi in the
-upper Rio Grande Valley, and to a lesser extent in the central Rio Grande
-Valley. Some may have relocated at Zuni and other areas along the Little
-Colorado River drainage extending westward into Arizona.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig30">
-<img src="images/p22a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="581" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service</i>)</span><br />Figure 5. <span class="sc">Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon National Monument</span>
-<br />A multistory pueblo containing 800 rooms.</p>
-</div>
-<p>During the Great Pueblo period, another group showing characteristics
-of both the Anasazi and of non-Puebloan people occupied an area on both
-sides of the Continental Divide along the eastern margin of the San Juan
-Basin. This cultural phase, known as the Largo-Gallina because of the
-distribution of sites in the Largo and Gallina drainage basins, is represented
-by pit houses, surface rooms, and towerlike structures with some similarities
-to the dwellings of the Anasazi. The black-on-white pottery also suggests
-Puebloan relationships, whereas the culinary vessels resemble those of the
-Navajo.</p>
-<p>Beginning at about 1300 <span class="small">A.D.</span> or shortly thereafter, a different cultural
-group began to move westward from the Texas Panhandle into
-<span class="pb" id="Page_62">62</span>
-the plains of northeastern New Mexico. These people of the Panhandle
-Aspect built single-room structures and contiguous room pueblos resembling
-those in use by the Anasazi of the Rio Grande and were skilled bison
-hunters, farmers, and traders. This combination of traits suggests both
-Puebloan and eastern traditions. Panhandle Aspect villages were abandoned
-suddenly not long after 1400, perhaps as a result of the drouth recorded
-by tree rings for the period from 1439 to 1454.</p>
-<p>Following the shift in population of the Pueblo region, cultural changes
-occurred that have led to the designation Regressive Pueblo period (Pueblo
-IV) for the interval between 1300 and 1700 <span class="small">A.D.</span> Noteworthy changes during
-this period include a tendency toward enlargement of villages and the
-creation of new styles of pottery, accompanied by some deterioration of
-the artistic creativity of the Classic period. Major ruins of this period that
-are readily accessible to the public include Puye Cliff Dwellings, Tyuonyi
-Pueblo in Bandelier National Monument, and Pecos Pueblo in Pecos
-National Monument.</p>
-<p>At the time of Coronado&rsquo;s <i>entrada</i> in 1540, there were from 60 to 70
-Pueblo villages in New Mexico, most of which contained fewer than 400
-inhabitants. Four or five mutually unintelligible languages were spoken,
-each with several dialects, making communication between Spanish and
-Indian extremely difficult. Language barriers contributed to an inadequate
-documentation of the Pueblo way of life during the early years of Spanish
-contact, so that we must continue to depend upon the archeological
-record during the first century of Spanish colonization of the area. The
-beginning of the Historic Pueblo period (Pueblo V) accordingly is commonly
-set at 1700 <span class="small">A.D.</span></p>
-<h3>APACHES AND NAVAJOS</h3>
-<p>Little is known concerning the origin of these two related groups, who
-differ markedly from the Pueblo Indians in language and cultural traits.
-Their closest ties are with other Athapaskan-speaking tribes in northwestern
-Canada, and available evidence indicates that they are comparative newcomers
-to the Southwest. A correlation between the abandonment of sections
-of the Pueblo region and pressures exerted by ancestral Apaches
-and Navajos has been suggested, but definite proof of this is still lacking.
-Raids against the eastern pueblos of the Galisteo Basin are reported to
-have occurred in 1525. Coronado&rsquo;s expedition encountered nomadic hunters
-in the plains east of Pecos in 1541, observing that they followed the
-movements of herds of bison or buffalo on whom they were highly dependent
-for food and shelter, lived in portable tents of tanned buffalo hides
-supported by a framework of poles, and used dogs as beasts of burden.
-Trade contacts with the Rio Grande pueblos included exchange of hide
-&ldquo;cloaks&rdquo; for corn grown by the Pueblo Indians.</p>
-<p>Related groups in western and northwestern New Mexico are even
-more poorly known, as there was still less contact between them and the
-Spanish explorers. Evidently some agriculture was practiced as a supplement
-<span class="pb" id="Page_63">63</span>
-to a subsistence based largely on hunting and gathering, a pattern
-of livelihood reminiscent of that of the pre-Puebloan Cochise people.</p>
-<p>The succeeding years of Spanish and American colonization of New
-Mexico were to be highly influenced by the Apaches and Navajos, and
-also by another group of Plains Indians, the Comanches. The events
-of this period, however, are discussed in a separate article.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_64">64</div>
-<h2 id="c6"><span class="small">Frontier Forts of New Mexico</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Robert A. Bieberman</span></p>
-<p>Following President Polk&rsquo;s declaration of war against Mexico in May
-1846, a United States Army force was sent from Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas
-Territory, against the Mexican provinces of New Mexico and California.
-This army, known as &ldquo;The Army of the West,&rdquo; was led by Gen. Stephen
-W. Kearny. Upon his arrival in Santa Fe in August 1846, General Kearny
-issued a proclamation which informed the citizens that New Mexico was
-now a part of the United States and that he and his army and the forces
-to follow would protect them and their property. General Kearny remained
-in Santa Fe only one month, but during that month he appointed a governor,
-judges, and other officials, started construction of a fort in Santa
-Fe, and sent troops against the Navajo Indians in fulfillment of his promise
-to protect the people. Kearny and his &ldquo;Army of the West&rdquo; left Santa
-Fe in September 1846 to conquer California, leaving behind a detachment
-of troops under the command of Col. Alexander W. Doniphan. Thus
-began the role of the U.S. Army, which was to continue for the next
-half century, in securing the frontier in what we now know as the State
-of New Mexico.</p>
-<p>History has shown that the troops stationed in New Mexico were
-called upon to participate in the Mexican War and the Civil War and to
-protect the newly established border between Mexico and New Mexico
-from violations from both sides. However, the basic role of the military,
-the role which continued for fifty years, was to protect the traveler, the
-farmer, the miner, and the settler from Indian attack. Its task was made
-no less difficult by the changing, unrealistic, discriminatory Indian policies
-which came out of Washington during this period. When relative calm
-was established, promises were forgotten and violence erupted anew.</p>
-<p>The defense policy in New Mexico did not follow a set plan but gradually
-evolved. Military posts were established at different places when
-the need arose and were abandoned when the need diminished. A few
-of the posts were occupied and used by the army throughout most of
-this period. Others existed but a few months or years.</p>
-<h3>FORTS</h3>
-<h4>Fort Union</h4>
-<p>Located twenty-seven miles northeast of Las Vegas, Fort Union became
-the most important and most famous fort in the New Mexico Territory.
-Established on the Santa Fe Trail in 1851, it served as supply depot
-for the territory and as a base for troops engaged in the protection of traffic
-along the Santa Fe Trail and of the settlements in the area from the depredations
-<span class="pb" id="Page_65">65</span>
-of the Apaches, Utes, Comanches, and Kiowas. The site can be
-reached by traveling eight miles of paved road which leaves U.S. Highway
-85 one mile north of Watrous.</p>
-<p>During its forty-year history, Fort Union occupied three different sites,
-all within the same general area. The original fort was of log construction
-which rapidly fell into disrepair. In August 1861, amid rumors of the
-possible invasion of the territory by Confederate forces, construction was
-begun on a new fort. This fort was of earthworks, in the form of an
-eight-pointed star. It was here that the troops waited for the attack which
-never came. With the passing of the Confederate threat, work was begun
-in 1863 on the third fort, the remains of which are seen today.</p>
-<p>Fort Union soon became the largest fort in the territory. It was constructed
-in two sections, one for the garrison and one for the supply depot.
-The garrison area consisted of four infantry and two cavalry barracks facing
-a row of nine officers&rsquo; quarters across the parade ground. A sixty-bed
-hospital was constructed. The depot area included five warehouses, mechanics
-corral, transportation corral, and administration buildings. An
-arsenal was built about one mile from the fort proper.</p>
-<p>The buildings were constructed of adobe on stone foundations. The
-roofs were flat and the walls were capped with brick copings in what has
-become the territorial style of architecture.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig31">
-<img src="images/p23.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="641" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Photo courtesy of National Park Service</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Ruins of Fort Union</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_66">66</div>
-<p>Fort Union was a community within itself and a lively social center.
-Weary travelers on the Santa Fe Trail eagerly anticipated their arrival.
-Few complaints were heard when soldiers were transferred to Fort Union,
-for this was a popular assignment.</p>
-<p>With the coming of the railroad and peace at last descending on the
-frontier in the 1880&rsquo;s, the need for the fort diminished. But it clung to
-life for a few more years, mainly because of the fond memories which
-lived in the hearts of the military leaders who had been stationed there.
-Finally, the end came and Fort Union was abandoned in February 1891.</p>
-<p>New life came to the fort in 1955 when it became a National Monument.
-The ruins have been excavated and stabilized and a fine visitors&rsquo;
-center and museum has been established. Fort Union has at last assumed
-its rightful place as a shrine of history. Stand on the parade ground and
-survey the majesty that was Fort Union, listen for the sounds, the bugle
-calls, the barklike commands of close-order drill, the creak of wagons, and
-the thunder of horses&rsquo; hooves. These are the sounds of Fort Union. They
-are still there if one will only pause and listen.</p>
-<h4>Fort Marcy</h4>
-<p>Fort Marcy was established in 1846 at Santa Fe and was named for
-the then Secretary of War, W. L. Marcy. The fort was located on a hill
-overlooking the city some 1000 yards northeast of the plaza. A deep ditch
-or moat surrounded the massive adobe walls of the fort and a blockhouse,
-within musket range, protected the only entrance. At the time of Colonel
-Manfield&rsquo;s inspection trip in August 1853, the troops were quartered in
-public buildings in Santa Fe, there being no quarters provided at the fort;
-however, it could be occupied on a moment&rsquo;s notice. The original Fort
-Marcy was abandoned in 1867 and a new one was constructed a short
-distance to the west. This new site is now occupied by business and residential
-properties. The War Department abandoned Fort Marcy in October
-1894, the troops and equipment being moved to Fort Sill, Oklahoma. The
-site was turned over to the city of Santa Fe in 1897.</p>
-<p>Fort Marcy played an important role during the military occupation of
-New Mexico. It served as a base of operations against marauding Indians,
-was captured and occupied for a short time by Confederate forces in 1862,
-served as headquarters for the Ninth Military Department (changed to
-Department of New Mexico in 1853) throughout most of this period, and
-was a center for the social life of Santa Fe. Only low mounds of earth
-now mark the site of Fort Marcy.</p>
-<h4>Fort Wingate</h4>
-<p>Fort Wingate, at the site known today, was established in 1868. It is
-located on the site of a pre-existing fort at Ojo del Oso (Bear Springs)
-about twelve miles east of Gallup and three miles south of U.S. Highway
-66.</p>
-<p>Fort Fauntleroy was established in August 1860 and was named for the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_67">67</span>
-then Department Commander, Col. T. T. Fauntleroy. The name was
-changed to Fort Lyon in September 1861 after Colonel Fauntleroy resigned
-his commission and joined the Confederate forces. The fort was
-abandoned in December 1861 as troops were concentrated at other posts to
-meet the threat of invasion of the territory by Confederate forces from
-the south. With the defeat of Confederate troops early in 1862, the military
-returned to the Indian problem and established a post some sixty
-miles to the east on the Rio de Gallo near San Rafael. This post was
-named Fort Wingate in honor of Capt. Benjamin Wingate who died of
-wounds received during the battle with the Confederate forces at Val
-Verde. The post proved to be too far from the Navajo country for effective
-control and, in 1868, was abandoned and a new Fort Wingate established
-at Ojo del Oso on the site occupied earlier by Fort Fauntleroy.</p>
-<p>The physical plant of the new Fort Wingate consisted of barracks,
-officers&rsquo; quarters, hospital, guard house, storehouse, employees&rsquo; quarters,
-corrals, barns, and various repair and storage sheds, all bordering the traditional
-rectangular parade ground. Some of these buildings are in use today.</p>
-<p>In 1914, 4000 Mexican refugees lived in a tent city at Fort Wingate
-until peace was restored after Pancho Villa&rsquo;s revolution in Mexico. Following
-World War I, it became an ordnance storage depot, and new administrative
-and living quarters were built several miles west of the original fort
-enclosure. This installation is known today as Fort Wingate Ordnance
-Depot, and the long rows of concrete ammunition storage bunkers can be
-seen from U.S. Highway 66. In 1925, the original fort enclosure was
-transferred to the Department of the Interior for use as an Indian school.
-Today, the parade ground is a playground and the barracks are dormitories
-for the children who attend this school. The missile age came to Fort
-Wingate in 1963 when a portion of the military reservation became the
-launching site for test rockets which impact at the White Sands Missile
-Range 200 miles to the south.</p>
-<p>Fort Wingate has seen many changes during its long and colorful
-history. It served well during its first 100 years and continues to serve
-today.</p>
-<h4>Fort Craig</h4>
-<p>Fort Craig was established in the spring of 1854 on the abandonment
-of Fort Conrad, nine miles north. It was named in honor of Col. L. S.
-Craig who was killed by an army deserter on June 6, 1852. The remains
-of Fort Craig are located on the west bank of the Rio Grande about thirty-four
-miles south of Socorro and five miles, by dirt road, east of U.S. Highway
-85. The fort was established to afford protection against the many
-bands of Apaches that roamed this part of the territory.</p>
-<p>Fort Craig was well built and became one of the best-garrisoned
-military posts in New Mexico. Built on the usual rectangular plan, the
-parade ground was bordered on the northeast by two double officers&rsquo; quarters;
-on the northwest by the guard house, prison room, and sallyport; on
-the southwest by three soldiers&rsquo; barracks each in the form of a hollow
-<span class="pb" id="Page_68">68</span>
-square enclosing a patio; and on the southeast by various workshops, storerooms,
-stables, and corrals. The commanding officers&rsquo; quarters occupied the
-west corner of the parade ground and the hospital the east corner. Behind
-the commanding officers&rsquo; quarters there were three large bombproof storerooms.
-The entire installation was enclosed within a high wall, beyond
-which a ditch encircled the fort. Gun bastions projected from the north
-and south corners.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig32">
-<img src="images/p24.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="545" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Remnants of guard house, Fort Craig</span>
-(built of basalt blocks)</p>
-</div>
-<p>Fort Craig was one of the most important military posts in New Mexico.
-Its troops participated in many engagements with the Indian. In the
-fall of 1861, troops from other posts were concentrated at Fort Craig to
-meet the threatened invasion of Confederate forces from the south. In
-February 1862, these troops were defeated by the Confederate invaders
-in the battle of Val Verde which took place about four miles north of the
-fort. Upon the withdrawal of Confederate forces from the territory later
-in 1862, the troops at Fort Craig returned to the Indian problem. In
-March 1885, the fort was relinquished by the army and the improvements
-sold. The last soldier left in August 1885 after government property
-was removed and sent to Forts Bliss and Stanton. The buildings were sold
-at public auction on April 30, 1894, to the Valverde Land and Irrigation
-Company for $1070.50.</p>
-<p>Fort Craig is now a ruin, but the outlines of most of the buildings can
-still be seen. Portions of the plastered walls of the commanding officers&rsquo;
-quarters remain, as do portions of the hospital and stone guard house. The
-<span class="pb" id="Page_69">69</span>
-wall and ditch surrounding the fort, gun bastions, storehouses, and cemetery
-are still much in evidence. Coal marks the blacksmith&rsquo;s shop and
-broken bottles the sutler&rsquo;s store. Another frontier fort has passed into history.</p>
-<h4>Fort Stanton</h4>
-<p>Fort Stanton was established in May 1855 on the Rio Bonito at a site
-located approximately four miles east of present-day Capitan and three
-miles south of U.S. Highway 380. The fort was an attempt to control the
-Mescalero and White Mountain Apaches and was named for Capt. H. W.
-Stanton who had been killed by Apache Indians earlier that year. Many
-a soldier stationed at Fort Stanton gave up his life to an Apache during the
-Indian wars.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig33">
-<img src="images/p24a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="883" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Map of New Mexico showing location of frontier forts</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_70">70</div>
-<p>The original fort was little more than a stockade, with few buildings
-and little equipment. In August 1861, the government stores were burned
-and the troops moved to Albuquerque in the face of the Confederate invasion.
-Confederate troops occupied the site one month later but promptly
-left after a few encounters with the Apache. The site was reoccupied by
-Union troops October 1862 and, later, substantial buildings were erected,
-most of which still stand.</p>
-<p>With the passing of the frontier, Fort Stanton was abandoned as a
-military post in August 1896, and in 1899, the installation passed to the
-U.S. Public Health Service for use as a merchant marine hospital for the
-treatment of tuberculosis. During World War II, a German prisoner of
-war camp was established at the fort. In 1953, the hospital was closed by
-the federal government because of the high cost of running the establishment.
-Fort Stanton is now a state tuberculosis hospital operated by the
-New Mexico Department of Public Welfare.</p>
-<p>Col. Kit Carson used the fort as a base of operations while rounding up
-the Mescalero and White Mountain Apaches in late 1862 and early 1863.
-In 1881, the famous outlaw, Billy the Kid, was confined in the building
-now used as a dental clinic while on his way to the gallows in Lincoln,
-which never claimed him. Gen. John J. Pershing, as a young lieutenant,
-was stationed for a time at Fort Stanton.</p>
-<h4>Fort Selden</h4>
-<p>Fort Selden was established in 1865 and named for Capt. Henry R.
-Selden (later colonel) who distinguished himself at the battle of Val Verde,
-February 21, 1862. The fort was beside the Rio Grande nine miles north
-of the settlement of Do&ntilde;a Ana. The site is located along U.S. Highway
-85 about seventeen miles north of present-day Las Cruces.</p>
-<p>Fort Selden was one of a chain of forts established to control the
-Apaches. It was on the Butterfield Trail and provided protection for the
-government rope ferry which crossed the Rio Grande at nearby Leasburg.
-The summit of Mt. Robledo, across the river to the west, was used as
-a heliograph station, flashing messages between Fort Selden and Fort
-Bliss at Franklin (El Paso, Texas).</p>
-<p>The buildings of the fort were one-story adobe structures with walls
-two feet thick. The installation included barracks for enlisted men, two
-double officers&rsquo; quarters, a ten-bed hospital, stone guard house, storehouses,
-workshop, bake shop, corrals, and a magazine with stone walls three feet
-thick. The fort was rectangular in ground plan, the buildings enclosing
-a parade ground.</p>
-<p>Fort Selden was abandoned in 1879 when the railroads began to draw
-travel away from the overland trails. It was reoccupied in 1881 when the
-Apache Chiefs Victorio, Nana, and later Geronimo were on the warpath.
-With the passing of the Indian problem, Fort Selden was permanently
-abandoned in 1892. During World War I, the grounds of the fort were
-used for cavalry maneuvers by units stationed at Fort Bliss.</p>
-<p>A rather famous American once lived at Fort Selden. Gen. Douglas
-<span class="pb" id="Page_71">71</span>
-MacArthur, as a child of four, moved with his family to the fort in 1884,
-following the assignment of his father, then an infantry captain, to that
-post. The family remained at Fort Selden until late in 1886.</p>
-<p>Now only crumbling adobe walls mark the site of Fort Selden, once a
-welcome sight to travelers in southern New Mexico. The wind, rain, and
-sun have taken their toll, aided in no small way by man himself. In 1963,
-through the efforts of the Do&ntilde;a Ana Historical Society, Fort Selden was
-made a State Monument by the New Mexico legislature. It is to be hoped
-that the fort will now be protected from further weathering and vandalism
-so that the remnants of this old outpost will stand for many years to come
-as a monument to the men who once manned it.</p>
-<h4>Fort Cummings</h4>
-<p>Fort Cummings was established in October 1863 in what is now Luna
-County, New Mexico. It was located at Cooke&rsquo;s Spring, an important
-watering stop on the Butterfield Trail, at the eastern edge of Cooke&rsquo;s Canyon.
-Prior to the establishment of Fort Cummings, the Apaches made
-frequent and fatal attacks upon travelers as they passed through the four
-miles of Cooke&rsquo;s Canyon or stopped at the spring. Cooke&rsquo;s Canyon was one
-of the most dangerous stretches on the Butterfield Trail. The fort was
-named for Maj. Joseph Cummings who was killed by Navajo Indians
-in August 1863. Its ruins can be reached by turning off State Highway
-26 at Florida, sixteen miles northeast of Deming, and traveling seven miles
-to the west.</p>
-<p>Fort Cummings was the most elaborate and best-walled fort in New
-Mexico. It covered an area 365 &times; 320 feet and was completely surrounded
-by a twelve-foot-high adobe wall. The main entrance was topped by a
-guard tower. Officers&rsquo; quarters occupied the west side of the parade ground,
-the hospital the north side, and soldiers&rsquo; quarters the east side. The various
-workshops, storerooms, offices, stables, and corrals extended along the
-south side of the fort.</p>
-<p>Abandoned in August 1873, Fort Cummings was reoccupied in 1880,
-and then again abandoned in October 1886. Later it was used as a cattle
-corral by the Carpenter-Stanley Cattle Company. The spring was walled
-and covered, and the water piped to Florida.</p>
-<p>Little remains of Fort Cummings today. A few weathered walls here
-and there among the mesquite and creosote bushes mark the site. The
-spring still flows, supplying water for the stock which now graze upon this
-&ldquo;protector of the trail.&rdquo;</p>
-<h4>Fort Bayard</h4>
-<p>Fort Bayard, established in 1865 to protect the miners and settlers
-moving into the area following the Civil War, allowed the orderly development
-of what was to become New Mexico&rsquo;s most important mineral-producing
-area. Named for Capt. George D. Bayard who was wounded
-repeatedly during Indian forays and who died of wounds received in the
-Battle of Fredricksburg (Va.) during the Civil War, the fort was located
-<span class="pb" id="Page_72">72</span>
-about five miles southeast of Pinos Altos and about midway between the
-mining towns of Pinos Altos and Santa Rita. The site is about nine miles
-east of present-day Silver City, just north of State Highway 90.</p>
-<p>The original fort consisted of log and adobe buildings forming a
-square around the parade ground. During its thirty-four year history as
-an army post, many changes and additions were made to the fort, including
-the building of two-storied officers&rsquo; quarters. In 1899, the line troops
-were removed and the fort was officially designated as a U.S. Army General
-Hospital to treat tubercular soldiers. In 1920, the hospital was turned
-over to the Public Health Department; in 1922, to the U.S. Veterans Administration;
-and again, in 1966, to the State Health Department as a
-facility for the care of the aged and of tuberculosis cases. It can now accommodate
-more than 300 patients. The modern buildings are a far cry
-from the dirt-floored log and adobe buildings of the original fort.</p>
-<h3>HISTORY</h3>
-<h4><i>Pre-Civil War Period.</i></h4>
-<p>The period 1846 to 1861 was characterized by
-constant Indian warfare. Treaties were made, then broken. Forts were
-established, then abandoned, and new forts built as the military tried in
-vain to cope with the problem. Punitive expeditions proved ineffective
-as the Indians separated into small and predatory bands which overran
-the country.</p>
-<p>Forts Union, Marcy, Fauntleroy, Craig, and Stanton were established
-during this period. Additional forts, whose sites have returned to the desert,
-are Fort Conrad (1851), on the Rio Grande about twenty-five miles south
-of Socorro; Fort Thorn (1853), on the Rio Grande about five miles north of
-Hatch; Fort Fillmore (1851), on the Rio Grande about seven miles south
-of Las Cruces; Fort Webster (1852), on the Mimbres River about one and
-one-half miles northwest of San Lorenzo; Fort McLane (1860), at Apache
-Tejo about four miles south of Hurley; and Fort Floyd (1857), on the Gila
-River about two miles south of Cliff.</p>
-<h4><i>Civil War Period.</i></h4>
-<p>The outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 created a
-new problem on the frontier in New Mexico. Confederate military leaders
-moved quickly to seize control of the Southwest and California to cut off
-the supply of gold to the North and divert it to the Confederacy. Confederate
-troops under Col. J. B. Baylor occupied abandoned Fort Bliss at
-Franklin (El Paso), Texas on July 1, 1861. Baylor began his move northward
-along the Rio Grande on July 23 and quickly occupied Mesilla.
-Nearby Fort Fillmore was abandoned and the Union forces retreated toward
-Fort Stanton, but they were soon captured by Baylor&rsquo;s troops.
-Upon the fall of Fort Fillmore, Fort Stanton was hastily abandoned on
-August 2 and was taken over by the Confederates shortly thereafter.</p>
-<p>Gen. H. H. Sibley arrived at Fort Bliss in December 1861 to assume
-command of the Confederate forces. Sibley&rsquo;s troops moved northward
-along the Rio Grande and were engaged in battle by Union troops from
-<span class="pb" id="Page_73">73</span>
-Fort Craig, under Gen. E. R. S. Canby, as they attempted to bypass the
-well-garrisoned post. The Battle of Val Verde took place four miles north
-of Fort Craig on February 21, 1862. After a day of bloody fighting, Sibley
-emerged the victor. He occupied Albuquerque on March 2, 1862, and
-Santa Fe on March 23. The Confederate forces then moved toward Fort
-Union in an attempt to gain complete control of the territory. On March
-27 and 28, they were met by Union forces sent out from Fort Union and
-were defeated in battle near present-day Glorieta. Sibley then retreated to
-Fort Bliss.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig34">
-<img src="images/p25.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="887" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">The Confederate campaign in New Mexico</span>, 1861-1862</p>
-</div>
-<p>While Sibley was thus engaged, another part of his army moved across
-what is now southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona and
-occupied Tucson (Arizona). Gen. J. H. Carleton and his California
-<span class="pb" id="Page_74">74</span>
-Column left Los Angeles on April 13 and cleared this area of Confederate
-troops, reaching the Rio Grande on August 7. Carleton reoccupied Fort
-Bliss, which had been abandoned by the Confederate troops in their
-retreat.</p>
-<h4><i>Post-Civil War Period.</i></h4>
-<p>While the Union troops were preoccupied with
-the Confederates, the Indians stepped up their raids and depredations.
-With the passing of the Confederate threat, attention was once more
-focused on the Indian problem. A new plan was formulated which called
-for the capturing of the Indians and confining them to reservations. A
-reservation (Bosque Redondo) was established late in 1862 near present-day
-Fort Sumner, New Mexico, to which were eventually confined several
-thousand Navajos and Mescalero Apaches. This resettlement was
-not a success since the Apaches ran off and the Navajos suffered greatly
-from sickness and disease. A treaty was signed with the Navajos in 1868,
-and they were allowed to return to their homes, no longer a threat to the
-frontier. The Mescalero Apaches were finally settled on a reservation in
-their own country south of Fort Stanton, and the Jicarillas on a reservation
-west of Tierra Amarilla.</p>
-<p>The Mimbreno, Mogollon, and Warm Springs Apaches of southwestern
-New Mexico were more of a problem. In 1871, a reservation
-and Fort Tularosa were established near present-day Aragon in western
-New Mexico. After a futile attempt to keep the Indians there, they were
-moved in 1874 to a new reservation and military post at Ojo Caliente,
-about forty miles northwest of present-day Truth or Consequences. This,
-too, proved a failure and the Apaches were moved to the San Carlos
-Reservation in what is now Arizona. During these attempts to locate the
-Apaches on reservations, various rebellious bands of Apaches led by Victorio,
-Nana, and Geronimo continued on the warpath. Geronimo and his
-band surrendered in 1886 and were imprisoned in Florida. After Geronimo&rsquo;s
-surrender, relative peace descended upon the frontier in New Mexico.</p>
-<p>Established in the post-Civil War period were Forts Wingate (old and
-new), Selden, Cummings, and Bayard, as well as Fort Lowell (1868),
-near Tierra Amarilla; Fort Bascom (1863), on the Canadian River about
-eight miles north of Tucumcari; Fort Sumner (1862), on the Pecos River
-about five miles southeast of present-day Fort Sumner; Fort McRae (1863),
-on the Rio Grande about ten miles northeast of Truth or Consequences;
-and Fort West (1863), on the Gila River about two miles south of Cliff.</p>
-<p>With the arrival of the railroad and cessation of hostilities with the
-Indians, a new era was begun. One by one, the old forts were abandoned:
-their need had passed. The colorful frontier forts of New Mexico are
-just a memory now.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_75">75</div>
-<h2 id="c7"><span class="small">Our National Heritage</span></h2>
-<p>National Forests in the so-called &ldquo;desert&rdquo; state of New Mexico cover
-more than 8.5 million acres, about 11 per cent of the state&rsquo;s area. National
-Monuments and Carlsbad Caverns National Park only extend over about
-430 square miles but cover ten of New Mexico&rsquo;s most scenic areas that
-are of national geologic, archeologic, and historic interest. These are our
-national heritage, set aside by the federal government for the perpetual
-equal use of all Americans.</p>
-<p>The forests cap the higher ranges of the state, except on windblown
-peaks that extend above the timberline. They provide protection for the
-watersheds that feed New Mexico&rsquo;s rivers, supply about 125 million board
-feet of cut timber each year, and yield forage for more than 150,000 cattle
-and sheep. Picnic nooks and camp grounds are plentiful, fish abound
-in the rushing mountain streams, and big game awaits the hunter throughout
-the forest lands. The primitive virgin wilderness is preserved in its
-natural state, accessible only by pack trip, in the Gila Wilderness area
-of the Diablo and Mogollon mountains north of Silver City and the Pecos
-Wilderness area east of Santa Fe in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains.</p>
-<p>Incomparable Carlsbad Caverns is in the state&rsquo;s only National Park.
-National Monuments include the glistening gypsum dunes of White
-Sands, the volcanic cone of Capulin Mountain, the prehistoric ruins of
-Chaco Canyon, Aztec Ruins, Bandelier, and Gila Cliff Dwellings, the
-Spanish ruins at Gran Quivira, Inscription Rock at El Morro, and the
-crumbling walls of old Fort Union. In the near future, Valle Grande may
-be added to the National Park System and will include Valle Caldera,
-one of the world&rsquo;s largest volcanic calderas, a mountainous jumble with
-cool streams, thick coniferous forests, and lush high meadows.</p>
-<h3 id="c8">NEW MEXICO&rsquo;S BIG SHARE OF THE NATIONAL PARK SYSTEM</h3>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">H. V. Reeves, Jr.</span><a class="fn" id="fr_2" href="#fn_2">[2]</a></p>
-<p>In contemplating the growth of cities and towns, the insatiable suburbs,
-congested streets and highways, the acres of dump yards for discarded automobiles,
-legions of billboards upstaging mountain ranges and seashores,
-and the melancholy predictions of demographers who say that within
-thirty years there will be twice as many of us, consider this: for New
-Mexico in particular, the outlook is not utterly bleak.</p>
-<p>Some ninety years ago, without anything approaching the present-day
-horrible example before them, some farsighted, selfless, tireless individuals
-began to work to set aside areas of outstanding scenic, scientific, and
-<span class="pb" id="Page_76">76</span>
-historical interest so that they would not be engulfed by humanity. Often
-against strong opposition, these benefactors succeeded in bringing about
-legislation that bounded many such areas and defined laws to protect them.
-The areas became national parks, monuments, and historic sites. And in
-1916, the National Park Service, an agency of the U.S. Department of the
-Interior, was established to administer the units of the National Park
-System.</p>
-<p>Today, other selfless individuals are contributing their time and effort
-to bring additional areas into the National Park System before they are
-lost forever. For example, Pecos ruins became a National Monument in
-late 1966 (see <a href="#Page_106">page 106</a>).</p>
-<p>Not every suggested area possesses the qualities that merit preservation,
-qualities of national significance. Proposed areas receive careful study before
-they are recommended for inclusion within the system&mdash;recommended
-to the Congress by the Secretary of the Interior. The Secretary&rsquo;s recommendations
-are based on those received from the Advisory Board on
-National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings, and Monuments. This board
-is composed of eleven private citizens, each of whom is competent in one
-or more of the following fields: history, natural history, archeology, architecture,
-conservation, and recreation.</p>
-<p>Diverse in character, New Mexico&rsquo;s ten units of the National Park
-System are of geologic, scenic, archeological, and historical interest. A
-visit to each unit will disclose the qualities that have been judged to be
-of national significance.</p>
-<h4>Carlsbad Caverns National Park</h4>
-<p>Incomparable Carlsbad Caverns, in southeastern New Mexico, includes
-a single underground chamber so expansive that its floor could accommodate
-fourteen football fields and its ceiling could hold a 22-story
-building; other chambers that contain countless cave formations of great
-variety of shape and color; cool and naturally circulating fresh air; and a
-system of lighting that reveals the beauty and spaciousness most effectively.</p>
-<p>Since the temperature within the Caverns remains at about 56&deg;F the
-year round, warm clothing is needed. Comfortable shoes, too, for the
-four-hour, three-mile complete tour, which starts at the natural entrance.
-Shorter trips, the Big Room tours that start at the elevators in the visitor
-center, take in only a part of the underground chambers. All tours are
-under leadership of competent park guides who answer questions and explain
-the earth processes that have resulted in the caverns and their
-amazing decorations.</p>
-<p>From the natural entrance, the immense main corridor of the Caverns is
-followed downward 829 feet for one and three-quarters miles. This brings
-visitors to the most scenic rooms (the Green Lake Room, King&rsquo;s Palace,
-Queen&rsquo;s Chamber, and Papoose Room), where the stalactites, stalagmites,
-and helictites reach their peak in numbers, shapes, and delicate coloring.
-The trail leads upward 80 feet from the Papoose Room to the lunchroom.
-Near the lunchroom is the Big Room, the most majestic of the Caverns&rsquo;
-<span class="pb" id="Page_77">77</span>
-chambers. The trail around its perimeter, one and a quarter miles long, encompasses
-a floor space of fourteen acres.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig35">
-<img src="images/p26.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="571" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Hall of Giants in Carlsbad Caverns National Park</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Completing the circuit of the Big Room and returning to the lunchroom,
-visitors may either walk or board an elevator and ride smoothly
-back to the surface.</p>
-<p>How were the Caverns formed? The story began about 240 million
-years ago, during the Permian Period. At that time, the two limestone
-formations in which the caverns occur&mdash;the Tansill Formation and Capitan
-Limestone&mdash;were deposited as part of an organic reef complex at the
-edge of a warm shallow sea.</p>
-<p>During subsequent periods, other seas brought in sedimentary material
-that covered the reef. About 60 million years ago, earth movements, which
-were responsible for the uplift of the area, fractured the reef and permitted
-surrounding ground water to enter along fracture lines and begin work
-in fashioning the caverns. The water at first dissolved small crevices in
-the limestone. As more water came in, the crevices enlarged to cavities,
-called solution pockets. Then the walls, floors, and ceilings of the pockets
-dissolved and collapsed, joining the pockets, while the solution process
-continued, eventually forming the huge rooms seen today.</p>
-<p>Beginning about 3 million years ago and into recent times, the uplift
-of the local Guadalupe Mountains and changing climates lowered the
-water table. Water that had been inside the caverns drained away and was
-replaced by air. Most solution stopped, but large sections of partly dissolved
-walls and ceilings collapsed under their own weight. Stability was
-<span class="pb" id="Page_78">78</span>
-finally achieved, however, and probably no rock has fallen within the
-caverns during the last several thousand years.</p>
-<p>Even before the collapsing ended, another phase of cavern development
-had begun. Rain water and snow melt slowly seeped into the caverns.
-Droplets of water, each holding a minute quantity of dissolved limestone,
-appeared upon the ceilings. Exposed to the air, the droplets evaporated
-and left their mineral content as calcite and aragonite&mdash;crystalline forms
-of limestone. Over centuries, this process of evaporation and deposition
-has built a myriad of crystalline stalactites of all shapes and sizes. Water
-that dripped to the floor evaporated and deposited the calcite and aragonite
-to build stalagmites. When joined together, stalactites and stalagmites become
-columns, or pillars. In the scenic rooms, conditions existed that
-brought about the creation of helictites&mdash;twisted formations that seem
-to defy gravity in their growth. Color in the cave formations, shades of
-brown, red, and yellow, result from the presence of small amounts of iron
-oxide and other minerals.</p>
-<p>Carlsbad Caverns National Park offers more than the caverns themselves.
-Each evening from April to October, bats in incredible numbers
-spiral upward out of the Caverns&rsquo; entrance and fly southward over the rim
-of the escarpment to feed in the valleys of the Black and Pecos rivers.
-They return just before dawn, diving swiftly and from high altitudes into
-the entrance. Flying directly to the bat cave, they spend each day hanging
-head downward in dense clusters from the walls and ceilings. The bat
-cave itself is not open to visitors. A park naturalist explains the bat flight
-and discusses the bats in detail in a talk given at the entrance to the
-Caverns each evening before the flight begins.</p>
-<p>The nature trail, a half mile loop that begins and ends near the entrance
-to the Caverns, guides the visitor to many of the desert plants of the
-region. The park is visited by more than half a million people each year,
-and yet the delicate cave formations and the natural beauties remain
-unmarred.</p>
-<h4>White Sands National Monument</h4>
-<p>White Sands National Monument, fifteen miles southwest of Alamogordo,
-is another area of great interest to the geologist and biologist. But
-its strangeness, the graceful contours of its snow-white dunes, and the
-peculiar adaptations of some of the plants and animals that live among its
-dunes are appreciated as fully by the nonscientist. More than 370,000
-visitors come to marvel at the White Sands each year.</p>
-<p>The Monument, some 230 square miles in extent, preserves the most
-impressive part of the world&rsquo;s largest gypsum desert. This is a glistening
-sea of pure gypsum sand that the wind has drifted into huge dunes that
-are almost bare of vegetation except along the fringes. Wavelike, the
-restive dunes move slowly before the prevailing winds, covering and uncovering
-the few plants that lie in their way. And wavelike, their surfaces
-trace the vagaries of indecisive breezes in tiny parallel ripplelike ridges.</p>
-<p>Because of the almost constant wind and resulting gradual advance of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_79">79</span>
-the dunes, most of the plants that are able to establish themselves in the
-open flats between the dunes eventually become buried. A few species,
-however, are able to survive the irresistible march of the sand. Through
-rapid growth and elongation of the stems, the struggling crowns remain
-on top of the rising crests of the dunes. Plants with stems more than
-forty feet long have been found. As the dunes continue forward under the
-pressure of the wind, they leave the plants elevated on columns of compacted
-gypsum bound by their adventitious roots.</p>
-<p>Animals, too, have become adapted to their unusual surroundings. The
-small creatures, lizards, mice, and others, are picked off easily by such
-predators as foxes, coyotes, and hawks when they are conspicuous. Thus,
-through the centuries, only the lighter-colored individuals have survived
-among the dunes and, through many generations, have developed pale
-and elusive animals that blend inconspicuously with their white surroundings.
-Pocket mice are a good example of this. Among the white dunes, the
-pocket mice are white; in the nearby red hills, they are a rusty color; and
-on the beds of black lava a few miles north of the sand, the pocket mice
-are very dark.</p>
-<p>A visitor to White Sands National Monument should stop at the
-visitor center, where exhibits explain the geology of the duneland and
-others describe the plants and animals that are able to live there.</p>
-<p>But how and from where did this natural wonder come? The dunes of
-gypsum lie in the Tularosa Basin, which stretches for more than 100 miles
-between two north-south mountain ranges. All sides of the valley slope
-gently inward, forming the basin, with Lake Lucero, its lowest point, at
-the southwest end of the Monument. This valley was formed hundreds
-of centuries ago, when a great section of the earth&rsquo;s crust settled to form
-the type of basin known geologically as a graben.</p>
-<p>High above the basin floor, beds of gypsum are found to the north
-in the mountain ranges flanking the valley. Similar gypsum beds lie far
-beneath the floor of the basin. Thus, it was once a part of the high plateau,
-a great blocklike section that slowly sank to form the basin at its present
-level.</p>
-<p>Percolating water from seasonal rains and melting snow carries tons
-of gypsum, in solution, from the highlands at the north end of the basin
-into Lake Lucero. During much of the year, cloudless skies and warm
-dry winds evaporate Lake Lucero, and it shrinks to a crystal-encrusted
-marsh. Capillarity draws the gypsum-laden underground water to the surface;
-it, too, evaporates, depositing its burden of gypsum throughout the
-extensive &ldquo;alkali flats.&rdquo; The persistent southwest wind picks up the particles
-of gypsum and whirls them away, adding them to the gleaming white
-dunes, the accumulation of centuries.</p>
-<p>The best ways to see the dunes are by car and by foot. Along the drive
-that leads into the heart of the duneland are numbered posts that correspond
-to numbered paragraphs in the Monument&rsquo;s informational folder.
-These paragraphs explain the features that are of particular significance.
-At pull-outs along the drive, park the car and walk among the dunes.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_80">80</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig36">
-<img src="images/p27.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="599" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Capulin Mountain National Monument</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_81">81</div>
-<h4>Capulin Mountain National Monument</h4>
-<p>Capulin Mountain National Monument, in the northeast part of the
-state, is an area of geologic interest that presents still another aspect of the
-science of the earth. It contains the cone of an extinct volcano, one of
-the most symmetrical of the geologically recent cinder cones in the United
-States. Its conical form rises more than 1000 feet above its base. The irregular
-rim is about one mile in circumference, and the crater is about
-415 feet in depth, as measured from the highest part of the rim. Some
-40,000 people a year visit the Monument.</p>
-<p>The mountain consists chiefly of loose cinders, ash, and other rock
-debris of volcanic explosions. These materials were spewed out by a series
-of successive eruptions, probably of considerable duration. The coarse
-materials fell back around the vent, piling up to form the conical mound.
-Dust and other fine materials were carried away by the wind. After the
-eruptions, vegetation gained a foothold on the steep, unstable flanks of
-the cone, so that in time the slopes became stabilized. Geological studies
-indicate that the volcano probably was active about 7000 years ago.</p>
-<p>Capulin Mountain is of special interest, partly because it represents the
-last stages of a great period of volcanic activity that was widespread
-throughout western North America. Evidences of this older and more
-intense activity can be seen from the top of Capulin Mountain in the
-scores of other nearby volcanic hills and peaks. The largest of these is the
-Sierra Grande, an extinct volcano rising 4000 feet above the surrounding
-plain; it is ten miles to the southeast. Northwest of Capulin are a number
-of mesas that are capped with black lava, the largest of which are Barella,
-Raton, and Johnson. Fishers Peak, south of Trinidad, Colorado, is on a
-similar mesa. The famous Spanish Peaks, northwest of Trinidad, are a
-pair of extinct volcanoes.</p>
-<p>In this great volcanic area, the lava erupted in a succession of flows.
-The series of eruptions were separated by long periods of inactivity. During
-these inactive times, erosion cut valleys and wore down parts of the
-old lava sheets. This action formed new channels and lower terrain over
-which succeeding lava flows spread. This process was repeated at least
-three times. The oldest lavas, which have been exposed by erosion, are
-found on the tops of the highest mesas. The last series of eruptions created
-Capulin Mountain; they were ejections mostly of cinders and ash, with
-less lava flow than in the preceding volcanic activity. These cinder-and-ash
-eruptions were so recent, geologically, that some of the nearby, bare,
-steep-sided cinder cones appear as if they had just cooled.</p>
-<p>The National Park Service has constructed a road up the mountain
-to the rim of the crater. And from the parking area at the rim, two trails
-lead to the most interesting points on the mountain. One trail, self-guiding,
-makes the complete one-mile circuit of the crater along the rim. A guide
-booklet, keyed to numbered stakes that have been set at places along the
-trail, explains the features of particular significance&mdash;both on the mountain
-and in the distance. The other trail, less scenic, provides a rare opportunity
-to see a volcanic mountain from the inside out, for it leads
-down to the bottom of the crater.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_82">82</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig37">
-<img src="images/p28.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="579" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">View of Chaco Canyon National Monument</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_83">83</div>
-<h4>Chaco Canyon National Monument</h4>
-<p>Rich in areas of geological interest, New Mexico is equally rich in areas
-of archeological interest. Four of these are preserved as units of the National
-Park System.</p>
-<p>Chaco Canyon National Monument, in the northwestern part of the
-state, contains more than a dozen large prehistoric ruins and hundreds
-of smaller archeological sites. These ruins are considered to be without
-equal north of central Mexico. No other archeological area in the Southwest
-exhibits such a high development of prehistoric Pueblo civilization.
-Most of the sites lie within a strip of land about eight miles long and two
-miles wide, through which Chaco Canyon runs. Although the Monument
-is relatively isolated, it is open year around and is visited by about 22,000
-people annually.</p>
-<p>The most imposing and best known of the ruins is Pueblo Bonito. Built
-between 800 and 900 years ago, this 4- and 5-story village covered more
-than three acres and contained about 800 rooms and 32 kivas, or ceremonial
-chambers. Archeologist Neil M. Judd, of the National Museum,
-who conducted some of the late excavations, has said that Pueblo Bonito
-was the largest apartment house built anywhere in the world prior to 1887,
-estimating that at one time it housed 1200 people.</p>
-<p>Earliest of the Chaco sites, small villages of crude pit houses were
-occupied during 600 to 800 <span class="small">A.D.</span> Archeologists, studying changes in masonry
-style, pottery types, and other remains, have pieced together the
-development of the culture of the inhabitants of Chaco Canyon over a
-period of six centuries.</p>
-<p>After Chaco Canyon&rsquo;s cultural high point was reached in the 1100&rsquo;s,
-a gradual decline set in. The population decreased, and in the 1200&rsquo;s, the
-region was abandoned. During this same century, other Pueblo centers
-within the San Juan Basin were also deserted.</p>
-<p>Various theories have been advanced to explain this exodus: soil erosion,
-warlike enemies, poor facilities for urban sanitation, drought, and
-intervillage warfare. One or a combination of these factors might have been
-instrumental in bringing about the abandonment of the region.</p>
-<h4>Aztec Ruins National Monument</h4>
-<p>Aztec Ruins National Monument, at Aztec in the northwestern corner
-of the state, was set aside to preserve an outstanding example of classical
-Pueblo construction, one of the largest pre-Spanish villages in the Southwest.
-More than 40,000 visitors come to the Monument each year.</p>
-<p>Tree-ring dates indicate that most of the big central pueblo was rapidly
-constructed during the period 1106 to 1121. At this time, the people of
-Aztec were influenced by the cultural center to the south, Chaco Canyon.
-During the last half of the 1100&rsquo;s, after the decline of Chaco Canyon had
-<span class="pb" id="Page_84">84</span>
-begun, the people of Aztec began to look toward the north, and by 1200,
-Mesa Verde ideas dominated the region. Aztec was abandoned by about
-1300, as was the rest of the general region.</p>
-<p>Of particular interest at Aztec Ruins National Monument is the reconstructed
-Great Kiva. The Pueblo Indians built separate rooms, now
-known as kivas, for ceremonial purposes. During the period of Chaco
-influence, the people at Aztec constructed a very large circular building,
-48 feet in diameter, in their plaza. Its features differ from those of the small
-kivas and establish it as a Great Kiva, similar to those at Chaco. The Great
-Kivas represent the peak of religious architecture among the Pueblos. The
-Great Kiva at Aztec was completely restored in 1934 by Earl H. Morris, of
-the American Museum of Natural History.</p>
-<h4>Bandelier National Monument</h4>
-<p>Bandelier National Monument, forty-six miles west of Santa Fe, preserves
-the ruins of dwellings and other structures that were erected by
-Indians who lived in the area until about 1550 <span class="small">A.D.</span> Almost 100,000 people
-visit the Monument each year.</p>
-<p>When many of the ancient Pueblo Indian centers were abandoned
-in the late thirteenth century, the people moved to locations where the
-water supply was more constant. A favorable area was the upper Rio
-Grande Valley in what is now New Mexico. One of the later flowerings
-of Pueblo culture occurred here. The ruins within Bandelier are representative
-of this phase of Pueblo development.</p>
-<p>In Frijoles Canyon, the Indians chose the location of their homes
-well. The creek that runs through the canyon flows all year. On the canyon
-floor and mesa top there was land suitable to the cultivation of crops.
-And the canyon walls of soft tuff (consolidated volcanic ash) could easily
-be hollowed out by the Indians with their harder stone tools in fashioning
-storage rooms behind dwellings built against the cliff.</p>
-<p>Cliff ruins, or talus villages, extend along the base of the northern
-wall of the canyon for about two miles. Other ruins are located on the
-floor of the canyon. The houses of stone masonry were irregularly terraced,
-from one to three stories in height. Some hollowed recesses at the base
-of the cliff also were used for dwelling rooms.</p>
-<p>Like the other pueblo dwellers, the Frijoles inhabitants were farmers,
-raising the usual corn, beans, and squash. They used cotton cloth, which
-has been found in the ruins and which suggests that they had the loom.
-Since the growing season in the high Frijoles country is short, they probably
-obtained their cotton by trade with Indians who lived farther south.
-They made pottery decorated with glaze paint.</p>
-<p>For a few centuries, the Indian farmers lived in the canyons, built villages,
-honeycombed the cliffs with artificial caves, and tilled the soil.
-But with the passing years, drought, soil-eroding floods, soil depletion,
-famine, and possibly disease&mdash;singly or in combination&mdash;forced the canyon
-dwellers again to seek new homes. Descendants of these Indians still live
-in nearby modern pueblos along the Rio Grande.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_85">85</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig38">
-<img src="images/p29.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="757" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Cliff houses in Frijoles Canyon, Bandelier National Monument</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>About ninety per cent of Bandelier National Monument is, and will
-remain, a wilderness. The rugged and scenic back country is accessible by
-about sixty miles of maintained trails, leading to such features as Alamo
-Canyon, the Stone Lions, Painted Cave, the Pueblo ruins of San Miguel
-and Yapashi, and White Rock Canyon of the Rio Grande.</p>
-<h4>Valle Grande</h4>
-<p>Another area has been considered as an addition to the National Park
-System in New Mexico. A 1963 bill introduced in Congress would establish
-Valle Grande-Bandelier National Park, about forty-six miles west of
-Santa Fe. Valle Grande is part of the Valle Caldera, which is among the
-world&rsquo;s largest and has been the site of extensive studies of calderas (the
-collapsed summits of volcanoes). Lessons learned there have been applied in
-recognizing and investigating calderas in other places. Bandelier National
-Monument, primarily of archeological significance, lies to the east of the
-canyon-cut rim of the caldera. As written, the bill would have incorporated
-the Monument in the proposed national park.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_86">86</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig39">
-<img src="images/p30.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="645" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Part of Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_87">87</div>
-<h4>Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument</h4>
-<p>Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, forty-seven miles north of
-Silver City and at the edge of the Gila Wilderness Area, contains a series
-of ruins that portray the development of the agricultural Indians who lived
-south of the Mogollon Mountains. Specifically, the ruins represent a
-branch of the generalized culture known as Mogollon. Although part of
-the road to the Monument was paved in 1963, the last four-mile stretch is
-still primitive and should not be attempted in an ordinary passenger car
-except during the summer and in dry weather. In spite of the difficult road,
-more than 23,000 people visited the Monument during 1965. The last
-four miles of the road have been recently paved.</p>
-<p>The earliest ruin yet found within the Monument is a Mogollon pit
-house of a type that was made about 500 <span class="small">A.D.</span> It is roundish and, on the
-east side, has a narrow ramplike entrance some two feet wide and ten feet
-long. The people of this period did only a little farming (corn and beans),
-a little hunting, and gathered much uncultivated plant food. They made
-a fairly good plain-brown pottery and undoubtedly were skilled in a number
-of crafts whose products have since disappeared. Such things as nets
-and snares, baskets, and wooden tools last but a short time in open sites.</p>
-<p>Other, later, pit house types may be seen in the Monument. Pit
-houses were prevalent in the area until about 1000 <span class="small">A.D.</span>, when influences
-from the Anasazi (Pueblo) Indians of the northern part of the Southwest
-began to affect the Mogollon people.</p>
-<p>Square houses, built above the ground, became the style; some were
-of masonry, some of adobe construction, and some were built of wattle
-(wooden rods and twigs). A new type of pottery was also introduced at
-about the same time: white with black designs.</p>
-<p>The principal ruins in the Monument are the cliff dwellings, which
-were built during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They, too, reflect
-the northern pueblo influence. About forty rooms, remarkably well
-preserved, are fitted into a series of chambers, or caves, in a low cliff of
-Gila Conglomerate. By about the beginning of the fifteenth century, the
-area was abandoned by the farming Indians.</p>
-<h4>Gran Quivira National Monument</h4>
-<p>Significant chapters in the absorbing history of New Mexico were
-written at three sites that have been made units of the National Park
-System.</p>
-<p>Gran Quivira National Monument, near the center of the state southeast
-of Mountainair, preserves the ruins of a frontier Spanish mission that
-had been built, used, and abandoned by 1675. The Monument contains
-twenty-one ruined house mounds of Indian pueblos and ruins of two mission
-churches. It was the presence of the Indians at this location, of course,
-that attracted the Franciscan missionaries.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_88">88</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig40">
-<img src="images/p31.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">A look at ruins of Gran Quivira</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_89">89</div>
-<p>The earliest Indian pueblo in the Monument was founded about 1300
-<span class="small">A.D.</span>; by the 1600&rsquo;s, the village, with several structures, had become the
-largest in the region. It was conveniently located on the south side of a
-hill near the cultivated fields in the surrounding lowlands. Water was a
-problem then as now. The Indians solved this as best they could by digging
-shallow wells at the base of the hill, about one mile west of the
-pueblo.</p>
-<p>The first known specific reference to Gran Quivira was made in 1630
-by Fray Alonso de Benavides, a Franciscan missionary. He called the
-pueblo the &ldquo;Village of the Humanas,&rdquo; and referred to the church there as
-having been built by Father Francisco Letrado in 1629 and dedicated to
-San Isidro. Humanas, now misnamed &ldquo;Gran Quivira,&rdquo; was later administered
-from the mission of San Gregorio de Abo, some forty miles to the
-north. In 1659, Father Diego de Santander was assigned to Humanas.
-Construction of the mission buildings, which he rededicated to San
-Buenaventura, was completed by him.</p>
-<p>The Franciscans had a pronounced influence upon the Pueblo Indians.
-They stimulated trade with Mexico and the pueblos farther north.
-They imported wine grapes and cultivated them, and they introduced
-domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, and horses.</p>
-<p>Sometime between 1672 and 1675, the pueblo and mission at Humanas
-were abandoned because of Apache raids, drought, and crop failures. The
-people first moved to the Rio Grande near the present town of Socorro. A
-few continued to El Paso del Norte, where, in 1680, they were joined
-by those from Socorro, who had fled with the Spaniards from the Pueblo
-Revolt of that year.</p>
-<h4>El Morro National Monument</h4>
-<p>El Morro National Monument, southwest of Grants near Ramah, was
-established to preserve the famous Inscription Rock, register of Indians,
-Spaniards, and westward-moving pioneers. About 22,000 people now visit
-the Monument each year.</p>
-<p>El Morro, or Inscription Rock, is a massive mesa point of sandstone.
-Rising some 200 feet above the valley floor, it forms a striking landmark.
-From its summit, rain and melted snow drain into a natural basin at the
-foot of the cliff, creating a constant and dependable supply of water in
-a region where water is scarce. The route from Acoma to the Zuni pueblos
-led directly past the mesa. It was a regular camping place for Spanish
-<i>conquistadores</i> and, later, for travelers from the east.</p>
-<p>On the top of El Morro lie ruins of Indian pueblos, abandoned long
-before the coming of the Spaniards. And carved in the sandstone are
-numerous petroglyphs left by these ancient people, ancestors of the modern
-Zunis. Perhaps it was the petroglyphs that prompted later travelers to
-record their names and thoughts on the rock.</p>
-<p>The first known historical mention of El Morro is found in the journal
-of Diego P&eacute;rez de Lux&aacute;n, chronicler of the Espejo Expedition of 1583.
-Lux&aacute;n stopped there for water on March 11 of that year.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_90">90</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig41">
-<img src="images/p32.jpg" alt="" width="713" height="989" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Part of the pool and cliff at El Morro</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_91">91</div>
-<p>The oldest dated inscription at El Morro was made in 1605 by don
-Juan de O&ntilde;ate, first governor of New Mexico. Returning from an expedition
-to the mouth of the Colorado River, he camped at El Morro and
-carved this inscription in Spanish: &ldquo;Passed by here the Adelantado Don
-Juan de O&ntilde;ate from the discovery of the Sea of the South, the 16th of
-April of 1605.&rdquo; The &ldquo;Sea of the South&rdquo; was the Gulf of California.</p>
-<p>If don Diego de Vargas, the most famous Spanish governor of New
-Mexico, seems boastful in the message he left at El Morro, who can blame
-him? His words, in English, read, &ldquo;Here was the General Don Diego de
-Vargas, who conquered for our Holy Faith and for the Royal Crown
-all of New Mexico at his own expense, year of 1692.&rdquo; Twelve years earlier,
-the great Pueblo Indian Revolt had driven the Spaniards from New
-Mexico. More than 400, including 23 priests, had lost their lives, and
-the surviving Spaniards, some 1100, had fled to El Paso del Norte. De
-Vargas restored order, without further bloodshed, in 1692.</p>
-<p>After the occupation of Santa Fe by the army of Gen. Stephen W.
-Kearny in August 1846, details of United States troops were dispatched to
-explore various parts of New Mexico. Probably the first to visit El Morro
-was Lt. J. H. Simpson, accompanied by the artist R. H. Kern, who copied
-some of the early inscriptions in September 1849. Then the names of
-other soldiers, traders, Indian agents, surveyors, emigrants who were
-traveling westward, and settlers were added to the rock.</p>
-<p>Since the establishment of the Monument by Presidential proclamation
-in 1906, inscribing on the face of the cliff has been prohibited. If the
-Monument had not been established and the law not passed, this fascinating
-part of the history of the Southwest would surely have been lost.</p>
-<h4>Fort Union National Monument</h4>
-<p>Fort Union National Monument, twenty-six miles northeast of Las
-Vegas and on the route of the old Santa Fe Trail where the mountains
-meet the plains, preserves the ruins of a famous frontier Army post. As
-a base of operations for military and civilian ventures in New Mexico
-from 1851 to 1891, Fort Union helped to direct the course of events in
-the formative years of the Southwest. More than 11,000 visitors come to
-the Monument each year.</p>
-<p>Five years after the conquest of New Mexico by the United States in
-the war with Mexico, Col. E. V. Sumner moved some of his troops from
-Fort Marcy, in Santa Fe, to the site of Fort Union and there began
-construction of log buildings on the west side of Coyote Creek. This was
-the first Fort Union.</p>
-<p>The first post took an active part in protecting settlers and traders
-from Indian raids during the 1850&rsquo;s. Mounted patrols of dragoons made
-many expeditions into the mountains against the warring Apaches and
-Utes and out onto the plains to pursue Comanche war parties.</p>
-<p>Fort Union was also charged with supply and support of many outlying
-military posts, such as Fort Defiance and Fort Craig. The Quartermaster
-<span class="pb" id="Page_92">92</span>
-Depot at Fort Union in later years came to be the hub of all Army
-supply services in the Southwest.</p>
-<p>During the first three decades of its life, Fort Union saw the great
-Conestoga wagons and prairie schooners of the Santa Fe Trail caravans
-pass in increasing numbers. By the outbreak of the Civil War, enterprising
-traders were hauling more than ten million dollars&rsquo; worth of goods
-from Missouri each year. The fort provided escorts for caravans and when
-requested by apprehensive company or postal officials, escorts for stage-coaches
-of the Independence-Santa Fe Mail. Century-old tracks of the
-Santa Fe Trail can be still seen near Fort Union.</p>
-<p>The start of the Civil War in 1861 brought new activity to the fort. Immediate
-invasion of New Mexico by Confederate forces from Texas was
-expected. Gen. E. R. S. Canby, commanding Union troops in the territory,
-began construction of an earthwork fortification in a defensive position
-about a mile from the original fort. The ditches, parapets, and bomb-proofs
-of this redoubt were completed late in 1861.</p>
-<p>The Texas column was not slow in coming. By March 1862, these
-invaders under Gen. Henry H. Sibley had defeated a Union force at
-Val Verde, had frightened the defenders from Albuquerque and Santa
-Fe into inaction, and were marching eastward across the mountains toward
-the final stronghold, Fort Union. On March 10, the First Regiment of
-Colorado Volunteers, under Col. J. P. Slough, arrived at Fort Union as
-reinforcements. And on March 22, Colonel Slough led his 1342 men out
-of the fort to meet the advancing Confederates. In a two-day battle fought
-in Apache Canyon and Glorieta Pass, the Union forces defeated the
-Confederates, thus saving Fort Union for the federal cause.</p>
-<p>From 1863 to 1869, the garrisons at Fort Union were chiefly occupied
-in a construction program that produced most of the adobe-walled buildings
-whose ruins may now be seen. Fort Union then returned to its earlier
-mission of a base for Indian fighting.</p>
-<p>The usefulness of Fort Union was reduced with the final submission
-of the Indians and with the arrival of the railhead at Las Vegas in 1879.
-The huge fort was demoted to caretaker status in the 1880&rsquo;s and was abandoned
-in 1891.</p>
-<p class="tb">At each of these New Mexico units of the National Park System, as
-at other units throughout the nation, trained personnel of the National
-Park Service&mdash;archeologists, historians, naturalists, and park rangers&mdash;are
-on duty. Their purpose is to make the visitor&rsquo;s trip rewarding. This they do
-through museum exhibits, guided walks and self-guiding trails, campfire
-talks, and publications.</p>
-<p>Here in New Mexico, then, escape the irritations that seem to go
-with progress. Awaiting the traveler are unspoiled places where he can surround
-himself with the quiet majesty of nature, walk the paths made
-by prehistoric people, camp where the Spanish <i>conquistadores</i> camped,
-stroll among the ruins of buildings erected by the men who helped to
-fashion the Southwest.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_93">93</div>
-<h3 id="c9">FOREST LANDS ABOVE THE DESERT</h3>
-<p class="center">by <span class="sc">Ruth Bush Jones</span><a class="fn" id="fr_3" href="#fn_3">[3]</a></p>
-<p>Today, as in earlier times, people of New Mexico look to their mountains
-with a new and greater appreciation of their forest land heritage.
-Today, also, people seek aesthetic values of peace, beauty, and serenity
-found in nature&rsquo;s solitudes, in addition to forest products for economic use.
-Basic to the enjoyment of the high country are the forest treasures of
-clear, pure water ... of wild game and birds ... of trees for shade
-and solitude, fuel, shelter, and forest products ... of grass and browse
-for cattle, sheep, horses, and wildlife ... of magnificent grandeur and
-panoramic vistas. These basic treasures coupled with understanding of
-the purposes and many benefits of the National Forests bring true recreation
-to the visitor.</p>
-<p>The high country of New Mexico, much of it in the National Forests, is
-entrusted by law to the care and administration of the U.S. Forest Service,
-an agency of the Department of Agriculture. These vast public properties
-located in several sections of the state are administered as Carson, Santa
-Fe, Cibola, Lincoln, Gila, Apache, and Coronado National Forests, the
-latter two lying primarily in Arizona and being directed from there rather
-than from New Mexico. Visitors to New Mexico traveling along main
-highways see the high forest country outlining the horizon and often
-regard the lofty masses of rugged rock as unapproachable and lacking in
-friendliness.</p>
-<p>&ldquo;Not so,&rdquo; says the Forest Ranger. There are broad highways welcoming
-the traveler into the high country where forest trees stretch to the sky.
-There are cool invigorating streams sparkling clear and clean from mountain
-fastnesses and developed campgrounds and picnic areas ready for use.
-Outdoor recreation from simple relaxing and picnicking under a pine tree
-to the most strenuous of wilderness backpacking or horseback riding,
-winter sports, and skiing awaits the visitor. There is fishing in mountain
-streams and in big open lakes or in precious, secluded mountain lakes.
-And for those who like their surroundings interpreted for them, there
-are nature trails and/or forest naturalists to explain local rock formations,
-vegetation, and the natural and human history of the immediate country.</p>
-<p>The Forest Ranger asks only that each visitor do his share in cleaning
-up a camp or picnic site and being <i>sure</i> that camp fires, matches, and
-cigarettes are thoroughly extinguished: &ldquo;Keep Your National Forest Green
-and Clean!&rdquo;</p>
-<h4>Carson National Forest</h4>
-<p>Located in north-central New Mexico, with headquarters at Taos, the
-Carson National Forest nurtures and cradles the Rio Grande as it leaves
-its birthplace in Colorado en route to the south. Carrying water from
-high country snow melt, the Carson adds precious, clear water from its
-<span class="pb" id="Page_94">94</span>
-high mountain streams and lakes to the Rio Grande in support of the prosperous
-communities along its way. The Carson includes some of the highest
-water-producing lands in the state and is the source of several permanent
-streams and lakes.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig42">
-<img src="images/p33.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="903" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Map of National Forests in New Mexico</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Named in honor of Kit Carson, the noted scout, Carson National
-Forest offers some of the most spectacular mountain scenery in the Southwest,
-including the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Red River Canyon, and
-Wheeler Peak, which at 13,160 feet is the highest point in New Mexico.
-Part of the famed Pecos Wilderness Area and the Wheeler Peak Wild
-Area are included in this Forest and are available to those willing and able
-to hike, ride a horse, or pack into the rugged mountain country. For the
-winter sports enthusiast, the Red River Ski Area, Sipapu Winter Sports
-<span class="pb" id="Page_95">95</span>
-Area, and Taos Ski Valley operate in part within the Carson National
-Forest and offer some of the finest alpine skiing in the Southwest.</p>
-<p>Good roads lead the visitor to Spanish and Indian villages where life
-and culture are almost unchanged since the ancient and comparatively
-recent days of settlement. Towns with singing-sounding names like Picur&iacute;s,
-Taos Pueblo, Las Trampas, Truchas, Santa Barbara, and Tres Ritos nestle
-along forest streams and add charm and beauty to a scenic trip in the northern
-Sangre de Cristo range (name given to the mountains by early Spanish
-settlers, meaning <i>Blood of Christ</i>. The analogy relates to the reddish glow
-that sometimes colors the mountains at sunset.). Radiating from Taos are
-roads leading into the eastern half of the Forest, bringing the traveler
-into fascinating and colorful country. Taos Canyon, Arroyo Hondo,
-Questa, and the Red River country abound in old mining ghost towns,
-Indian ruins, and legendary Spanish villages located in canyons and on
-mountain tops.</p>
-<p>The high range rising between the Rio Grande and the Chama River
-to the west is the major part of the western half of the Carson National
-Forest. Tres Piedras, El Rito, La Madera, Canjilon, Lagunitas, and San
-Antonio are a few of the picturesque communities here. Farther to the west
-is the Jicarilla Division of the Carson, the high mountain country adjacent
-to the Jicarilla Apache Reservation. Bisected by State Highway 17 between
-Farmington and Chama, this section is a test of true pioneering skill for the
-traveler who is willing to follow dim tracks of roads and trails to enjoy
-the Forest. However, modern civilization is introduced by the 150 oil and
-gas wells in this area, even though the country is rugged and broken.</p>
-<p>Carson National Forest is a trout fisherman&rsquo;s delight. For the hunter,
-Rocky Mountain mule deer, elk, and antelope are found in all parts of
-the Forest. Small game is plentiful, and rabbits provide many hours of
-hunting pleasure. Beaver, muskrat, mink, weasel, marten, and skunk are
-the principal fur bearers, and turkey, grouse, ducks, geese, quail, and doves
-make up the game bird population. Predators include the mountain lion,
-bobcat, coyote, and fox.</p>
-<p>More than 40 developed camp and picnic grounds, most of which are
-accessible year round, welcome the visitor. Among them, Echo Amphitheater
-picnic ground on U.S. Highway 84, south of Canjilon, is a striking
-natural echo chamber formed by centuries of wind and water erosion in
-the rugged sandstone rock. &ldquo;If you stand near the chamber, you only have
-to whisper, and your words come back in a spooky echo.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>About five miles south on U.S. Highway 84 is the Ghost Ranch Museum,
-with live native Southwestern animals and conservation exhibits,
-including a living and growing display showing on-the-ground Forest Service
-Multiple Use Management of the mythical Beaver National Forest,
-the &ldquo;smallest National Forest in the world.&rdquo;</p>
-<p>Ranger stations at Canjilon, El Rito, Gobernador, Penasco, Questa,
-Taos, and Tres Piedras provide local information and recreation maps.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_96">96</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig43">
-<img src="images/p34.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="648" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Echo Amphitheater surrounds part of the trail to campground</span></p>
-</div>
-<h4>Santa Fe National Forest</h4>
-<p>The Santa Fe National Forest, with headquarters in Santa Fe, lies
-directly south of the Carson National Forest on both sides of the Rio
-Grande and is the center of a region rich in natural resources as well as
-historic and geologic interests. The two divisions of the Forest contain the
-high mountains to the east and west in the central section of the state.
-The Pecos Division to the east of the Rio Grande is the location of the
-major part of the Pecos Wilderness Area, one of the earliest of such areas
-to be established.</p>
-<p>The Pecos Division is so named because the Pecos River, which later
-joins the Rio Grande in Texas, heads among its towering mountains in a
-beautiful alpine basin sometimes called the <i>Pecos Horseshoe</i>. The Pecos
-River is one of the state&rsquo;s largest streams and supplies some of its most
-important irrigation projects. This division of the Forest includes the
-southern part of the Sangre de Cristo range and was first known as the
-Pecos River Forest Reserve, established in 1892&mdash;the oldest National Forest
-in the Southwest. The division abounds in clear, cold mountain lakes and
-streams. Truchas Lakes, Pecos Baldy, Stewart Lake, Spirit Lake, and Lost
-Lake, as well as many mountain streams, lure not only the fisherman but
-the hiker and camper to their wilderness beauty.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_97">97</div>
-<p>Twenty-three developed campgrounds and picnic areas located in cool
-glades are ready for the visitor along roads leading into the Forest from
-Santa Fe, Pecos, Glorieta, Las Vegas, and other communities. Skiing and
-winter sports are available at the Santa Fe Ski Basin northeast of Santa
-Fe; the chair lift operates year around for those who wish merely to view
-the spectacular scenery. The Pecos Division watersheds of the Santa Fe
-National Forest, like the eastern section of the Carson, contribute generously
-to the water flow of the Rio Grande.</p>
-<p>Wild game, game birds, and fishing attract visitors at all times of the
-year, while the golden hues of the aspen in the autumn tempt artists and
-photographers to record on canvas and film nature&rsquo;s fall colors. A trip just
-before the winter snows to the aspen country of the Santa Fe National
-Forest is a must. Ranger stations are located at Santa Fe, Las Vegas, and
-Pecos.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig44">
-<img src="images/p34a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="681" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">An Izaak Walton along the Pecos river</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>West of the Rio Grande are the Jemez Mountains, which form the
-Jemez Division of the Santa Fe National Forest. The Jemez country is a
-favorite area for fishermen and hunters. For the sturdy hiker and picnicker,
-there are hundreds of fascinating points to visit and peaks to climb. Capulin
-Peak, Dead Man&rsquo;s Peak, Nacimiento Peak, and Cerro Pedernal are a few
-of the exciting ones. The Jemez country contains the San Pedro Parks
-<span class="pb" id="Page_98">98</span>
-Wild Area, northeast of Cuba where San Gregorio Lake is waiting for
-the fisherman or hiker willing to walk or ride horseback. This section
-abounds in unique geologic formations&mdash;Battleship Rock, Tent Rocks, Teakettle
-Rock, to name a few.</p>
-<p>Eighteen developed camping and picnicking areas welcome the visitor
-to the Jemez Division. Youth groups also favor the Jemez for their summer
-camping. Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, Camp Fire Girls, YMCA, and
-others have camps adjacent to the Santa Fe National Forest. Timber production,
-wildlife habitat management, livestock grazing, and watershed
-protection are among the activities of the Jemez Division, while visitors
-and travelers enjoy the forest, the streams, and the unique scenery. Ranger
-stations are at Jemez Springs, Cuba, Espanola, and Coyote.</p>
-<h4>Cibola National Forest</h4>
-<p>A mountain playground for people who live or visit near U.S. Highway
-66 is Cibola National Forest, with headquarters in Albuquerque. Embracing
-the Sandias, Manzanos, and Gallinas Peak areas east of the Rio Grande
-in central New Mexico, this Forest also includes most of the mountain
-ranges in the west-central section of the state, the San Mateo Mountains,
-with 11,389-foot Mount Taylor, and the Datil, Magdalena, and Zuni
-ranges.</p>
-<p>Outdoor recreation is the fastest growing use of the Cibola National
-Forest and more than a million visits are made each year to this popular
-Forest. The name is a Zuni Indian word, pronounced SEE-bo-lah, meaning
-<i>buffalo</i>. Buffalo may have roamed the Cibola in years past, but today&rsquo;s
-big game animals making the Cibola their home are the Rocky Mountain
-bighorn sheep, Rocky Mountain mule deer, white-tailed deer, elk, antelope,
-and bear. Game birds include turkey, grouse, quail, and dove; spring
-and fall migrations of ducks and geese use the Cibola as a resting place.
-There are 18 campgrounds with 249 family units and 14 picnic grounds
-with 382 family units scattered through the vast domain of the Cibola National
-Forest.</p>
-<p>Sandia Crest in the Sandia Mountains east of Albuquerque is a goal
-for many travelers. Here on this 10,678-foot mountain top, there is a
-breathtaking view of the middle Rio Grande Valley and the Estancia
-Valley&mdash;a jet age view of nearly 10,000 square miles. The visitor stands
-on rocks which in eons past were under the sea, as indicated by fossils
-found on the peak. Recent recreation developments have been made at
-the Sandia Ski Area where a new 7450-foot double chair lift will carry
-700 riders an hour on a 1650-foot vertical rise to the restaurant and upper
-terminal on Sandia Crest. A tramway ascends the west face of the Sandias
-to meet the Ski Area chair lift at the Crest.</p>
-<p>The fabled Manzano Mountains rising above the plains to the west of
-State Highway 10 and south of U.S. Highway 66 are fast becoming a
-haven for the camper, picnicker, or sightseer willing to follow secondary
-roads to find the perfect spot to enjoy the forest. Capillo Peak, 9368 feet
-high, Mosca Peak, Cerro Blanco, and Manzano Peak lure the mountain
-<span class="pb" id="Page_99">99</span>
-climber. Legends surrounding the old Spanish communities of Tajique,
-Torreon, and Manzano are exciting campfire stories after a day spent exploring
-the high country.</p>
-<p>West of the Rio Grande, the San Mateo Mountains north of Grants
-and the Zuni Mountains forming the backbone of the Continental Divide
-southeast of Gallup can be a new experience in outdoor recreation. McGaffey
-Lake recreation area, not too far from the route of the <i>conquistadore</i>
-Juan de O&ntilde;ate, is a cool retreat after crossing the desert and lava
-flow.</p>
-<p>West of Socorro on U.S. Highway 60, with Magdalena as headquarters,
-the high Datil, Gallinas, and Magdalena mountains and another
-San Mateo range rise above the San Agustin Plains, an ancient lake bed.
-Mt. Withington and Mt. Baldy, 10,787 feet high, dominate the landscape.
-Good roads and developed campgrounds are available. Hunting for wild
-game as well as for unusual gem stones and geologic finds are favored
-activities in this western section of the Cibola. District ranger stations
-are at Grants, Gallup, Magdalena, Mountainair, and Tijeras.</p>
-<h4>Lincoln National Forest</h4>
-<p>Named for the great president, the Lincoln National Forest, with headquarters
-at Alamogordo, has characteristics distinguishing it from all other
-National Forests in the state. The high mountains and canyons of the
-Sacramento, Guadalupe, Capitan, and White mountains, rising between
-the Tularosa and Pecos basins, were the backdrop and often the prize
-of the Indian and cattle wars. Stories and legends of early day happenings
-in the Tularosa Basin, mining operations, battles between rival cattle
-ranchers, large timber operations providing lumber, poles, mine props, and
-railroad ties are warp and woof of the Lincoln country. This Forest includes
-the high mountains north and south of the Mescalero Apache
-Indian Reservation.</p>
-<p>During the last decade, the Lincoln National Forest gained new
-fame as the birthplace of the world-renowned Smokey the Bear, symbol of
-forest fire prevention. In the Capitan Mountains, travelers like to visit
-Smokey&rsquo;s birthplace near Capitan Pass, and in the community of Capitan
-on U.S. Highway 380 is a log museum which features the activities of the
-bear cub found near there during a disastrous fire.</p>
-<p>For the outdoor enthusiast, the Forest offers superb beauty, graceful
-and majestic snow-covered peaks, and the peace and serenity of a forest
-sanctuary. Each year, thousands of visitors from the plains seek its cool
-refuge from desert heat in summer and its readily accessible sports area
-in the winter. Ten campgrounds with many picnicking and camping sites
-are provided. Canyons, mountains, and streams in many instances feature
-anglicized names&mdash;Big Dog Canyon, Mule Peak, Bug Scuffle Hill&mdash;though
-the influence of the early Spanish settler still remains in names such as
-Sacramento, Agua Chiquita, Ruidoso, and Rio Penasco.</p>
-<p>Lincoln National Forest abounds in points of interest; Monjeau Lookout
-overlooks the headwaters of the Bonito, Eagle, and Ruidoso creeks as
-<span class="pb" id="Page_100">100</span>
-well as the tall slopes of Sierra Blanca to the southwest. Sierra Blanca,
-12,003 feet high, is the most southerly mountain of that elevation in the
-continental United States. Just north of the peak is the Sierra Blanca
-Recreation Area, with one of the finest and best-equipped skiing facilities
-in the country. The restaurant and gondola lift operate during summer
-months, and from Lookout Mountain observation site, near the gondola&rsquo;s
-upper terminal, the traveler can view White Sands, the Malpais (lava
-flow), and the 28,000-acre White Mountain Wild Area.</p>
-<p>Hunters find deer of three distinct types in this Forest&mdash;the Rocky
-Mountain mule deer, the desert mule deer, and the Texas white-tailed
-deer&mdash;and, of course, black bear from which family Smokey the Bear came.
-Game birds like wild turkey, quail, and chukkar partridge challenge the
-hunter. Fishing the Lincoln&rsquo;s lakes and streams is a recurring delight to
-the angler. Aspens and oaks flaunt their brilliant autumn coloring against
-the warm green of pines and spruces, heralding the advent of winter snows
-and provoking numerous aspencades for those who wish a share in this ever
-new pageant of nature&rsquo;s beauty.</p>
-<p>Like all the National Forests, the Lincoln is managed for the production
-and wise use of water, timber, and forage for livestock and wildlife
-and outdoor recreation. District ranger stations are at Cloudcroft,
-Carlsbad, Mayhill, Ruidoso, Sacramento, and Capitan.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig45">
-<img src="images/p35.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="657" />
-<p class="pcap">&ldquo;<i>Anybody for a run?</i>&rdquo; <span class="sc">at Sierra Blanca ski area</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_101">101</div>
-<h4>Gila National Forest</h4>
-<p>The Gila National Forest, with headquarters in Silver City, is a big,
-wild, wonderful country in the southwestern section of the state. It has
-been scarcely affected by the hustle and bustle of modern living. Within
-its boundaries are 2.7 million acres of public-owned forest and range land,
-with almost a quarter of it devoted to wilderness and primitive areas. It
-includes the famous Gila Wilderness, the first such area set aside in the
-United States and the largest in the Southwest. Most of the Gila National
-Forest is north of Silver City, though part of it lies in the high country
-between Silver City and Lordsburg.</p>
-<p>The Gila is an exciting and exhilarating place to explore, sightsee,
-hunt, fish, and just enjoy. Indian ruins are evident almost everywhere, but
-the Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument, adjacent to the Gila
-Primitive Area, is the best preserved. Ancient tree stumps and abandoned
-Indian ruins record the history of man; old mine dumps contain ores and
-minerals not known nor appreciated in the heyday of local mining; microscopic
-plants and forest grasses which may hold the key to man&rsquo;s future
-health abound; and the traveler may experience great delight in finding
-a dried root or branch to add to a native rock garden; the majestic peaks,
-deer and other wild game, and cool, splashing waters of a mountain creek
-delight the camera hobbyist.</p>
-<p>One of the most beautiful and spectacular box canyons in the Southwest
-is on Whitewater Creek about four miles northeast of Glenwood.
-A catwalk built against the rock walls of the canyon enables the traveler
-to thrill at the unusual beauty and colors of the canyon and the cool
-depths of the trout stream below (<i>see</i> <a href="#fig1">Frontispiece</a>).</p>
-<p>Good roads lead into the Gila National Forest at Reserve and Alma
-from U.S. Highway 260. An enjoyable loop trip which touches the Gila
-Wilderness at Willow Creek can be taken on State Highway 78 from
-Alma. Another beautiful trip is through the Black Range from the junction
-of State Highway 180 and U.S. Highway 85 to Silver City. Approach
-to the Gila from the north can be made through Beaverhead, Apache
-Creek, and Reserve, where good roads lead into the Forest.</p>
-<p>Fifteen developed recreation areas provide camping and picnicking for
-the hiker, horseback rider, and motorist and are complete with fireplaces,
-tables, and benches. Elk, deer, antelope, bear, javelina, and game birds
-are plentiful, and fishing in the high mountain creeks is usually rewarded
-with a satisfying catch.</p>
-<p>District ranger stations are at Magdalena, Truth or Consequences,
-Reserve, Glenwood, and Mimbres.</p>
-<h4>Apache and Coronado Forests</h4>
-<p>Although small parts of these forests lie in New Mexico, they belong
-to forests in Arizona. Apache National Forest touches the northern edge
-of the Gila and its attractions are much like those of the latter. The
-Coronado National Forest, which is in the extreme southwest corner of
-New Mexico, lies in an area of aridity and is difficult to reach from New
-Mexico. It is surrounded by Sonoran desert, at least in its environment in
-this state.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_102">102</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig46">
-<img src="images/p36.jpg" alt="" width="1000" height="587" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Gila Hunters with Happy Thanksgiving</span>
-(<i>wild turkeys</i>)</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_103">103</div>
-<p class="tb">These far-flung public lands in New Mexico provide many resources
-besides varied kinds of outdoor recreation: timber for industry, water for
-city and farm, forage for livestock and wildlife. As long as our National
-Forests are protected and developed&mdash;used but not abused&mdash;they will continue
-to yield rich harvests, both tangible and intangible, forever.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig47">
-<img src="images/p36a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="663" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Lake Roberts</span><br />This 70-acre lake thirty miles northeast of Silver City on State Highway 25 lies in the Gila National Forest.</p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_104">104</div>
-<h2 id="c10"><span class="small">The State Also Preserves<a class="fn" id="fr_4" href="#fn_4">[4]</a></span></h2>
-<p>State Monuments have been established to preserve some of New Mexico&rsquo;s
-historic and archeologic sites of importance. These include the mission
-ruins of Abo, Quarai, Pecos, and Jemez, the Palace of the Governors in
-Santa Fe, pueblo ruins at Coronado State Monument, the old Lincoln
-County Courthouse, the archeologic site at Folsom Man State Monument,
-the plaza and nearby Mexican Colonial-style buildings in La Mesilla, and
-Fort Selden. The history recorded at these sites dates from 10,000 <span class="small">B.C.</span> of
-Clovis Man to 1878 of the cattlemen&rsquo;s Lincoln County War.</p>
-<p>State parks cover areas of scenic beauty, geologic wonders, and historic
-interest. Reservoir lakes yielding necessary water, good fishing, swimming,
-and boating include Conchas, Storrie, Bluewater, El Vado, Ute, Elephant
-Butte, Caballo, Alamogordo, Clayton, Morphy, and Bottomless Lakes. The
-latter are natural sink holes east of Roswell. Hyde Memorial Park and
-Santa Fe River Park, near and in Santa Fe, provide scenic picnic spots, as
-do Rock Hound State Park near Deming and Oasis State Park near Portales
-and Clovis. Picnicking, fishing, and spectacular canyons attract the
-visitor at Rio Grande Gorge Park west of Taos. Weird erosional figures
-carved from volcanic layers distinguish City of Rocks State Park near
-Deming. Pancho Villa State Park at Columbus and Kit Carson Memorial
-at Taos mark historic sites. Valley of Fires State Park west of Carrizozo
-preserves the black twisted lava of a relatively recent volcanic flow.</p>
-<h3 id="c11">NEW MEXICO STATE MONUMENTS</h3>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Museum of New Mexico Staff</span></p>
-<p>The State of New Mexico, recognizing the depth and color of its own
-history, has established a number of state monuments preserving important
-historical or archeological sites. These are administered by the
-Museum of New Mexico located in Santa Fe. Any mosaic of New Mexico
-would be incomplete without including these important landmarks.</p>
-<h4>El Palacio, Palace of the Governors</h4>
-<p>The main facility of the Museum of New Mexico is El Palacio. The
-Palace of the Governors, on the plaza in the heart of Santa Fe, is the
-oldest public building in the United States. Built in 1610, it was the seat
-of Spanish government in New Mexico until 1821, of the Mexican government
-until 1846, and the residence of the governors appointed by the
-President of the United States until 1910, when it became a unit of the
-Museum of New Mexico.</p>
-<p>It presently contains exhibits relating to New Mexico&rsquo;s past, ranging
-from the Indians, who arrived after crossing the Bering Sea, to the Spanish,
-who came seeking gold and glory on horseback, to the wagon trains
-from the east, whose goal was the end of the Santa Fe Trail, which is
-directly in front of El Palacio.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_105">105</div>
-<p>El Palacio was the capitol of New Mexico for 300 years and was the
-seat of residence for more than one hundred of New Mexico&rsquo;s governors.
-During that time it was captured and held by the Indians from 1680 to
-1692. The Army of the Confederacy captured it for a few days during
-the Civil War, and one of its occupants, Territorial Governor Lew. Wallace,
-wrote his famous novel, <i>Ben Hur</i>, within its walls.</p>
-<p>There are other fascinating units connected with the Museum of New
-Mexico in Santa Fe. Among these are the Fine Arts Museum, emphasizing
-the art and artists of the great Southwest; the International Folk Art
-Museum; and the Hall of Ethnology, devoted primarily to the peoples
-of the Southwest.</p>
-<h4>Abo State Monument</h4>
-<p>Off U.S. Highway 60, nine miles west of Mountainair is Abo State
-Monument.</p>
-<p>The ruins of the ancient mission church of San Gregorio de Abo and
-its pueblo, built of red sandstone, are in a broad, natural amphitheater
-rimmed on the north and west by the blue Manzano Mountains, which
-contrast strikingly with the reddish hues of the Abo sandstone. This is
-one of the Saline Missions, so called because of the nearby salt deposits
-in the Estancia Basin.</p>
-<p>It was built during the seventeenth century by Indians under the
-supervision of the Franciscans, led by the venerable Fray Francisco de
-Acevedo. The inhabitants of Abo were very friendly to the Spaniards.
-They were forced to abandon their pueblo about 1673 because of drought
-and the raids of the Apaches and Comanches. They then moved south
-to El Paso del Norte where they joined in founding Isleta del Sur.</p>
-<p>The walls of the pueblo have disintegrated with time into low mounds
-which lie adjacent to the mission. The ecclesiastical structures have been
-excavated and repaired for permanent preservation.</p>
-<h4>Quarai State Monument</h4>
-<p>This monument is near Punta de Agua, eight miles north of Mountainair
-off State Highway 10.</p>
-<p>The ruins of the mission church of the Immaculate Conception at
-Quarai are unsurpassed in grandeur of architecture or setting by any that
-survive from the labors of the early Franciscans in New Mexico. Built
-of red sandstone masonry about 1628, at the Pueblo of Quarai, it was
-abandoned along with the pueblo about 1674, chiefly because of Apache
-depredations.</p>
-<p>One of the most venerated of the Franciscan missionaries, Fray Geronimo
-de la Llana, worked and died at Quarai, beloved by his Indian
-charges. His remains now rest in a crypt in the wall of St. Francis Cathedral
-in Santa Fe. The ruins have been excavated and repaired for permanent
-preservation.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_106">106</div>
-<h4>Coronado State Monument</h4>
-<p>This pueblo ruin is on the west bank of the Rio Grande, one mile from
-the town of Bernalillo, seventeen miles north of Albuquerque, and one
-mile off U.S. Highway 85, between Albuquerque and Santa Fe.</p>
-<p>The Pueblo of Kuaua was one of the several towns of the ancient
-Tiguex province. At or near Kuaua, the Coronado expedition maintained
-headquarters from about 1540 to 1542 <span class="small">A.D.</span> During excavation of the
-ancient pueblo, more than 1200 ground-floor rooms were found and five
-kivas, or underground ceremonial chambers, were uncovered.</p>
-<p>In one of the kivas was found a highly important group of ancient
-wall paintings. This kiva has been reconstructed and the paintings restored.</p>
-<p>The old walls of Kuaua have been rebuilt to a few feet in height so
-that the structure can be seen. A museum has been erected on the site to
-exhibit the material found during the excavation and to portray life in
-the Tiguex province. The Coronado State Monument and Museum commemorates
-the meeting, more than four hundred years ago, of the elements
-that influenced the culture of New Mexico&mdash;the Indian and the <i>conquistadore</i>.</p>
-<p>A curator-custodian is on duty at the Coronado Museum headquarters,
-which is open all year.</p>
-<h4>Pecos State Monument</h4>
-<p>Off U.S. Highway 84-85, three miles south of Pecos, is this State
-Monument. It became a National Monument during late 1966.</p>
-<p>This mission, the Church of Nuestra Senora de los Angeles de Porciuncula
-at Pecos, dates from the year 1617. It is fitting that this mission,
-which was one of the first two, with Jemez, established by the Franciscans
-in New Mexico, should bear the name &ldquo;Our Lady of the Angels of Porciuncula,&rdquo;
-for with his own hands, St. Francis, founder of the Order, rebuilt
-the decaying chapel of Our Lady of Angels at Assisi, which he called
-his Porciuncula or &ldquo;Little Inheritance,&rdquo; and there established the headquarters
-of the Franciscan Order.</p>
-<p>Pecos was well fortified because of its location on the eastern edge of
-the pueblo area and its contact with the Plains Indians. It resisted the raids
-for many years, but when a smallpox epidemic in 1838 reduced the population
-to seventeen survivors, they moved to Jemez Pueblo, abandoning
-Pecos.</p>
-<p>A part of the massive adobe walls of the ruined mission has been
-excavated and repaired, as have some of the rubble masonry walls.</p>
-<h4>Jemez State Monument</h4>
-<p>This Monument is at Jemez Springs, sixty miles north of Albuquerque
-on State Highway 4.</p>
-<p>One of the finest early mission churches was established at Giusewa
-Pueblo. <i>Giusewa</i> means &ldquo;place of the boiling waters&rdquo; in the language of
-<span class="pb" id="Page_107">107</span>
-the Jemez Indians, and refers to the famous Jemez Hot Springs nearby.
-The mission, with Pecos, was one of the two earliest in New Mexico. These
-were founded one hundred and fifty-two years before the first California
-missions.</p>
-<p>The original settlement of the Giusewa Pueblo goes back hundreds
-of years before Columbus&rsquo; discovery of America, as does the settlement
-of the other pueblos, Quarai, Abo, and Pecos.</p>
-<p>Guisewa Pueblo became extinct during the last quarter of the seventeenth
-century, a result of the consolidation of several pueblos of the
-Jemez province into fewer and larger towns. Only one town, the present
-Jemez Pueblo, survives from that time. Excavation and repairs have been
-made in the ruins of both the pueblo and the mission church.</p>
-<h4>La Mesilla State Monument</h4>
-<p>This colorful State Monument consists of the plaza in the village of
-Mesilla, near Las Cruces, and the buildings nearby. The Monument preserves
-an aspect of the Mexican Colonial culture and architecture which
-flourished here in the early nineteenth century. The Gadsden Purchase
-of 1853 was celebrated in the Mesilla Plaza and the famous desperado,
-Billy the Kid, once stood trial here for his life. During the Civil War,
-Mesilla was briefly the Confederate capitol of the Territory of Arizona.</p>
-<h4>Lincoln State Monument</h4>
-<p>Located in Lincoln, on U.S. Highway 380, and known as the Old
-Lincoln County Courthouse, the first floor of this Monument was the
-mercantile store of L. G. Murphy &amp; Co. in the 1870&rsquo;s, during the Lincoln
-County War. The second floor was purchased in 1870 by the county
-for a court house.</p>
-<p>It was from this building that Billy the Kid made his daring escape
-on April 28, 1881, after killing his two guards. A caretaker and a museum
-attendant are on duty at all times. Mementos of the infamous Lincoln
-County cattle war are featured.</p>
-<h4>Fort Selden State Monument</h4>
-<p>The crumbling adobe walls of Fort Selden lie about seventeen miles north
-of Las Cruces just west of Interstate Highway 25. The history of this fort,
-given in the article on <i>Frontier Forts</i>, was highlighted by the brief stay
-of General Douglas MacArthur, who spent some of his childhood within
-the fort&rsquo;s walls and played in the adjoining green valley of the Rio Grande.</p>
-<h3 id="c12">NEW MEXICO STATE PARKS</h3>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">The Editors</span></p>
-<p>New Mexico is blessed with a wealth of natural resources and perhaps
-most important is the abundance of sites with outstanding scenic and recreational
-facilities. The contrasts apparent in the mosaic of New Mexico
-<span class="pb" id="Page_108">108</span>
-are also seen in the pattern of its state parks. They range from desert
-regions with sparse and exotic flora and fauna to the high mountain canyons
-choked with Douglas fir and aspen where even in the summer evenings
-one huddles close to the fire for warmth. And the mosaic shifts from
-waterless areas amid geologic wonders to wide expanses of open water well
-stocked with trout. The parks are administered by the New Mexico State
-Park and Recreation Commission. Wherever possible, areas have been set
-aside for the permanent enjoyment of the people of New Mexico and
-their visitors.</p>
-<h4>Bottomless Lakes State Park</h4>
-<p>Bottomless Lakes State Park, established in 1936, was one of the first
-of the New Mexico state parks. It is surprising to find this treasure of
-great natural beauty in an area so dominated by aridity. There are six
-small lakes in the park, of which Lea Lake is the largest with about 15
-acres of surface area. The water of the lakes is crystal clear and varies in
-depth from 45 feet in the shallow lakes to about 100 feet in the deeper
-ones. They were created as &ldquo;sink holes&rdquo; when water dissolved large areas
-of underground gypsum, resulting in cave-ins. The lakes now offer extensive
-recreational facilities for the people of New Mexico and for tourists
-passing through or visiting the area. Camping, swimming, and boating
-are available. Pecos &ldquo;diamonds,&rdquo; small quartz crystals, can be found in the
-neighboring hills.</p>
-<h4>Conchas Lake State Park</h4>
-<div class="img" id="fig48">
-<img src="images/p37.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="393" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Sketch of Bottomless Lake</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Conchas Lake is one of the largest sustained bodies of water in New
-Mexico. Conchas Dam, which holds the water of the Canadian River,
-forms the lake. The main dam is 235 feet above the roadway and is 1250
-feet in length. At capacity it holds 600,000 acre-feet of water. The reservoir
-<span class="pb" id="Page_109">109</span>
-serves many purposes: flood control, local irrigation, camping and boating
-facilities, and fishing and water skiing.</p>
-<p>The Canadian River has its origin on Raton Mesa and flows southward
-to Conchas Dam, then turns abruptly eastward. On its way across the
-High Plains, it cuts into some of the oldest rocks that can be seen on the
-western edge of the plains, the Dockum Group of Late Triassic age. The
-best place to view the earth-building processes of this region is where
-State Highway 120 crosses the gorge of the Canadian River between
-Wagon Mound and Roy.</p>
-<h4>Hyde Memorial State Park</h4>
-<p>Here, at an elevation of 9000 feet, among tall pines and aspens is one
-of the most scenic of all New Mexico&rsquo;s parks. High in the Sangre de
-Cristo Mountains, eight miles northeast of Santa Fe, the park offers an
-excellent example of the scenic beauty in New Mexico rarely seen by
-most travelers passing through the state. Easily accessible from Santa Fe,
-Hyde Park gives a few moments, or a few days, respite in the cool refreshment
-of a mountain forest. Excellent picnic and camping facilities are
-available. For those who want to penetrate the mountain vastness even
-farther, there are a number of well-marked trails for hiking.</p>
-<h4>Navajo Lake State Park</h4>
-<p>Navajo Dam on the San Juan River lies twenty-five miles east of Aztec
-at an elevation of 6200 feet in a region of spectacular scenic beauty. Camping,
-picnicking, boating, fishing, and water skiing facilities are available,
-and a lodge is under construction. This is expected to be one of the most
-important sports and recreational centers in northwest New Mexico in
-coming years.</p>
-<h4>Pancho Villa State Park</h4>
-<p>Named for the famous Mexican bandit and revolutionary leader, the
-park is located near Columbus, New Mexico, site of Villa&rsquo;s most infamous
-raid. In the dead of the night on March 10, 1916, Villa and his men entered
-the town of Columbus and did their bloody work. When they left, seventeen
-local people were dead, including eight soldiers and nine civilians.
-The Mexican force suffered heavy casualties, perhaps as many as 125
-killed. The town of Columbus was badly damaged and has only recently
-begun to recover from the blow. The expedition of General Pershing,
-then on duty along the Mexican border, was organized to hunt down Villa
-and his men. Pershing and a United States military unit spent three
-months inside Mexico, only to return to the United States empty-handed.
-The park commemorates one of the most interesting and tragic episodes in
-New Mexico history. Within the park, one can see excellent examples of
-Sonoran desert flora. Picnic facilities and camping sites are available.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_110">110</div>
-<h4>El Vado Lake State Park</h4>
-<p>El Vado Dam is a part of the complex Rio Grande Conservancy District
-flood and irrigation project. It holds the water of the Chama River,
-which flows west, south, and then east into the Rio Grande. The country
-surrounding El Vado Lake is beautiful and contains some of the finest trout
-fishing streams in the state. At the lake itself there are camping facilities,
-including trailer spaces (no hookups for water or electricity). The lake is
-at an elevation of 7000 feet and is one of the important flood-control
-bodies of water in New Mexico.</p>
-<h4>Bluewater State Park</h4>
-<p>Bluewater Lake, at an elevation of 7460 feet, is a spot of spectacular
-beauty. Adjacent is a 160-acre wooded park. The area offers boating, fishing,
-and swimming. The lake was formed by impounding the waters from
-the Zuni Mountains&rsquo; watershed, and it fills three great depressions in high
-tablelands. The dam, built across two lofty natural walls of solid rock,
-the San Andres Limestone, holds a lake a mile wide and seven and a half
-miles long. Bluewater Lake State Park was the first of New Mexico&rsquo;s
-parks, so designated in 1929.</p>
-<h4>Storrie Lake State Park</h4>
-<p>Storrie Lake State Park surrounds a small lake north of Las Vegas,
-New Mexico. It lies on the west edge of the High Plains and is an excellent
-recreation area. The lake is at an elevation of 6400 feet and has a
-limited number of picnic and camping facilities. It is stocked with rainbow
-and brown trout and crappies.</p>
-<h4>City of Rocks State Park</h4>
-<p>This is one of the most unusual of the state parks, and one of the
-finest for picnicking and for camping. Located in the unusual rock formation
-known as the Sugarlump Welded Rhyolite Tuff northwest of Deming,
-it is a source of wonder to all visitors. Suddenly, in a seemingly flat,
-desert plain, one comes upon these grotesque outcrops. In the coolness of
-the shade of these ancient rocks one can survey vistas under an azure sky
-that are almost breathless. This is the desert Southwest at its very best;
-not the harsh, unfriendly desert of movies and fiction, but a lovely spot
-in which to enjoy to the fullest the wonders of nature.</p>
-<h4>Kit Carson Memorial Park</h4>
-<p>This 20-acre plot of grass, flower beds, trees, and picnic tables lies on
-the northeast edge of Taos and contains the graves of Kit Carson and
-Padre Jos&eacute; Martinez. Not far away is the Kit Carson House, a group of
-adobe buildings surrounding a patio, that was Carson&rsquo;s headquarters, office,
-and home from 1858 to 1866. This Indian fighter, trapper, hunter, and
-trader is most famous for defeating the Navajos in Canyon de Chelly and
-marching 7000 of these Indians across New Mexico to a reservation at
-<span class="pb" id="Page_111">111</span>
-Bosque Redondo near Fort Sumner. However, during his eight years as
-Indian agent, Carson worked continuously for the welfare of his charges.</p>
-<h4>Oasis State Park</h4>
-<p>One of the state&rsquo;s newest parks, Oasis is seven miles northeast of Portales
-along State Highway 467. This shady place of cottonwood trees amid
-sand dunes has long been a favorite picnic spot. The sand dunes form an
-irregular ridge separating Portales Valley to the south from Blackwater
-Draw to the north. In Blackwater Draw have been found bones of ancient
-animals and the weapons used by early man some 12,000 years ago. Portales
-Valley is the sand-filled remnant of the early Pleistocene Brazos
-River Valley that once drained eastward into Texas. About 800,000 years
-ago, the Pecos River to the west &ldquo;captured&rdquo; the headwaters of this former
-Brazos River and left the Portales Valley high and dry.</p>
-<h4>Valley of Fires State Park</h4>
-<p>This park, about five miles west of Carrizozo on U.S. Highway 380,
-features picnic tables amid the Carrizozo lava flow, or malpais, one of the
-youngest in the United States. The lava flowed out of Little Black Peak
-about 1000 years ago in a series of individual &ldquo;rivers&rdquo; of hot black basalt.
-The composite flow is 44 miles long, 0.5 to 6 miles wide, and is made up
-of about 1 cubic mile of basalt; it moved southward down the lowest part
-of the northern Tularosa Basin.</p>
-<p>Climb around on the lava and note the ropy nature of the surface
-(<i>pahoehoe</i> of the Hawaiians), the many frozen gas bubbles in the rocks
-(vesicles), the squeeze-ups where once-liquid lava protrudes through cracks
-in the hardened crust, the pressure ridges where the hardened crust arched
-and broke, and collapsed lava tunnels where the outer lava froze and the
-molten interior ran out, leaving an open tube or cave.</p>
-<h4>Ute Lake State Park</h4>
-<p>Ute Dam, two miles southwest of Logan, provides a 4200-acre reservoir
-along the Canadian River and Ute Creek stocked with rainbow trout, bass,
-crappie, and catfish. Camping, picnicking, and boating facilities are available
-along the valley walls, which are cut in the brown Santa Rosa Sandstone
-and overlying maroon to green Chinle shales.</p>
-<h4>Santa Fe River State Park</h4>
-<p>Bordering the Santa Fe River in downtown Santa Fe, this city park
-merges with the State Capitol grounds. It provides picnic tables and
-benches in the shade of tall trees amid the picturesque ancient city.</p>
-<h4>Elephant Butte Lake State Park</h4>
-<p>The giant Elephant Butte Reservoir, impounded behind the dam five
-miles east of Truth or Consequences, provides year-around fishing, boating,
-water skiing, and camping. Built in brown to gray Cretaceous sandstone
-and shale, the dam is overlooked by the brownish-black volcanic neck that
-<span class="pb" id="Page_112">112</span>
-is Elephant Butte. Eastern shores are carved from the purplish and maroon
-McRae layers. This is the main storage reservoir for the water that irrigates
-the lush Rio Grande Valley to the south near Las Cruces and El Paso.</p>
-<h4>Caballo Lake State Park</h4>
-<p>Caballo Reservoir, downstream from Elephant Butte, offers excellent
-facilities for water sports, its bass and crappie fishing being notable. The
-State Park is fourteen miles south of Truth or Consequences and six
-miles north of the dam. The spectacular rugged front of the Caballo
-Mountains looms to the east, with sharp canyons and ribbed cliffs along
-the valley walls cut in the tan layers of the Santa Fe Formation.</p>
-<h4>Rio Grande Gorge State Park</h4>
-<p>From Velarde (twelve miles north of Espanola) for seventy miles northward
-to the Colorado state line, the Rio Grande Gorge is carved 500 to 800
-feet into black basalt flows and tan Santa Fe Formation layers. Fishing is
-exciting in the fast waters, although the northern part of the gorge is
-difficult to reach. Foot and horseback trails lead to the bottom at the mouth
-of Red River west of Questa where picnic units have been built.</p>
-<h4>Alamogordo Lake State Park</h4>
-<p>The dam of Alamogordo Reservoir blocks the Pecos River and Alamogordo
-Creek northwest of Fort Sumner. Picnic, camp, and water sports
-facilities lie along U.S. Highway 84 about sixteen miles northwest of
-Fort Sumner. Juniper trees dot the low valley walls where the maroon to
-green shale and sandstone of the Chinle Formation crop out.</p>
-<h4>Rock Hound State Park</h4>
-<p>Lying on the west flank of the Little Florida Mountains, Rock Hound
-State Park, twelve miles southeast of Deming, offers camping and picnicking
-facilities and many varieties of agate in the volcanic rocks. A few miles
-to the south tower cliffs of the Florida Mountains, a landmark of southwestern
-New Mexico and also happy hunting grounds for rock hounds.</p>
-<h4>Clayton Lake State Park</h4>
-<p>Serving the northeast corner of New Mexico, Clayton Lake State Park
-lies twelve miles north of Clayton on State Highway 370, impounded by a
-dam across Cieneguilla Creek. The stream bed cuts brown Dakota Sandstone,
-and rolling grassy hills to the south overlie weathered basalt flows.</p>
-<h4>Morphy Lake State Park</h4>
-<p>Morphy Lake, backed up from a dam across Rito Morphy, lies three
-miles west of Ledoux in southwestern Mora County and thirty-one miles
-north of Las Vegas off State Highway 94. The 15-acre lake provides fine
-trout fishing and picnicking amid stately ponderosa pines, with the canyon
-walls formed by tier upon tier of Pennsylvanian limestones.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_113">113</div>
-<h2 id="c13"><span class="small">Angling in the Desert&rsquo;s Waters</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Fred A. Thompson</span><a class="fn" id="fr_5" href="#fn_5">[5]</a></p>
-<p>Water in the great Southwest, of which the State of New Mexico is a
-part, has made for a colorful and historical background. Water, perhaps
-more than anything else, has molded the lives of all inhabitants of the
-area from the pueblo and lodge of the early Indian to the civilization we
-know today. The fish and wildlife resources as related to water have played
-an important part in everyday living and economy.</p>
-<p>From data gathered by archeologists there are indications that the early
-Indian used fish as part of his diet. Fish bones are found in excavated
-ruins, and fish pictures are occasionally found as petroglyphs and on
-pottery (<a href="#fig49">fig. 1</a>). Although the use of fish was limited, it was widespread
-throughout the Southwest, not being confined to one Indian tribe or
-nation.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig49">
-<img src="images/p38.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="528" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 1. <span class="sc">Bowl depicting fish, found in ruins of Mimbres Indians</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_114">114</div>
-<p>The use of fish by the white settler was likewise restricted, but it increased
-as time progressed and knowledge and equipment improved. There
-is only limited reference to fish for either food or sport fishing until after
-the middle of the nineteenth century. Early explorers made records of fish
-in various waters of New Mexico and in most instances described the new
-species.</p>
-<p>Originally, the waters of the desert also could be described as fish
-deserts. Only three recognized kinds of food fish, as we know them today,
-inhabited the waters of this region. The trout was limited to the cutthroat
-species or subspecies. These were found as one subspecies in the
-Rio Grande drainage and the other subspecies in the Arkansas River
-drainage. The latter is reduced in numbers but a few remnants remain in
-the headwaters. The former is being artificially propagated and is being
-maintained successfully. The trout found in the Gila River drainage,
-originally thought to be a cutthroat, then a rainbow, has been recently
-described as a separate species. These trout, like the Arkansas River fish,
-remain as remnants in the headwaters. For the most part, the native trout
-have had a difficult time surviving in recent years because of the change
-in water and land use; the habitat has become exceedingly restricted.</p>
-<p>Channel catfish were originally found in the Rio Grande drainage
-and continue to maintain themselves satisfactorily. Water and land manipulation,
-however, present a serious threat, even to this hardy fish.</p>
-<p>There are records that the gulf eel once came up the Rio Grande during
-part of its life cycle. This fish of the ocean has long since disappeared&mdash;the
-fate of many migrating fish when confronted with man-made obstructions
-in the watercourses.</p>
-<p>Waterfowl were in great abundance once, in both the upper Rio
-Grande and the Pecos River drainages. These birds utilized the vast marsh
-areas of the valleys during spring and fall migrations. It is presumed that
-there was very little nesting of waterfowl in the early years.</p>
-<p>The mammals that live in or near the water, principally fur bearers,
-were in abundance as long as water habitat was abundant and prior to
-unrestricted trapping. With the exception of the beaver (since restocked
-and protected), many of the fur bearers once numerous are now extremely
-limited in numbers or approaching extinction. There is only an occasional
-sighting of the otter which was once relatively plentiful.</p>
-<p>Habitat for the various water mammals, birds, and fish is found in the
-drainage systems. The major system is the Rio Grande that flows through
-the center of the state; the Pecos River is its tributary. In this system are
-six of the seven life zones and conditions of habitat suitable to almost
-any form of water-dwelling life.</p>
-<p>There is a noticeable habitat change due to several causes, such as
-ranching, irrigation, urban development, and a general minor change in
-climatic conditions. Many variations are in direct relation, such as improper
-grazing, unscreened irrigation diversions, dams, and sewage disposal,
-to mention a few. There is an indication of a long-term warming
-<span class="pb" id="Page_115">115</span>
-of the general Southwest, and though this change is fractional, it does
-have a basic effect on habitat.</p>
-<p>The effect of habitat change can be noted in the life of the cutthroat
-trout. Early records reveal that this trout, liking cool clear water, was once
-caught in the Rio Grande in the lower part of the box canyon north of
-Pe&ntilde;ablanca. It was also caught near the town of Pecos. The fish can no
-longer survive in the changed water conditions and is found now only in
-the headwaters. Even the catfish has difficulty surviving in some sections
-of the rivers for lack of water. In the lower Pecos, the catfish finds difficulty
-in reproducing because of the high salt content of the river water.</p>
-<p>As has already been noted, the fish that are recognized as game fish
-today were in short supply a hundred years ago. It was not until the railroads
-entered New Mexico that fish were imported to supplement the
-native supply. In an unpublished report by the author, it was pointed out
-that almost every kind of fish propagated in the United States has been
-imported and stocked in waters of New Mexico. Of these, some have
-survived beyond expectations and others have disappeared entirely.</p>
-<p>When the railroads entered New Mexico, there were already requests
-for fish in the hands of the United States Fish Commission. Fish were
-delivered in especially designed fish-distribution cars and the consignee
-met the cars at designated rail sidings. From the distribution cars, the
-fish were further transported by wagons in water containers of various
-descriptions, usually wooden barrels or watertight wooden boxes, to streams
-or lakes as assigned. Because of the mode of travel at the time, the quantities
-of fish so stocked were limited, but they did provide seed stock from
-which their population could grow. Fish were packed on back and on
-horses into relatively inaccessible areas. The procedures and techniques of
-fish transportation have evolved to the present highly specialized equipment
-and methods of operation.</p>
-<p>It is interesting to note that the quantities of fish imported and planted
-increased in relation to the improved transportation. The early records
-indicate the numbers in the hundreds and in just a few locations; later
-plantings increased both in numbers stocked and in waters stocked. The
-first fish imported to supplement the native fish was the German carp. In
-fact, this was the only fish imported for eight consecutive years, 1883-1890.
-These early plantings were followed by catfish, German brown trout, brook
-trout, yellow perch, largemouth black bass, crappie, rock bass, tench,
-rainbow trout, strawberry bass, black spotted trout, bream, smallmouth
-bass, salmon, white bass, and walleyed pike.</p>
-<p>All the fish imported are classed as game fish except carp and tench
-(the latter did not survive). The various species met their habitat requirements,
-and although there were no survivals in some locations, they did
-acclimate in others and have developed into a substantial fishery. Some
-species are predominant while others, like the rock bass, are remnant and
-taken only occasionally. The fish most sought now and predominant in
-the fishery are rainbow (<a href="#fig50">fig. 2</a>) and brown trout, catfish, largemouth bass,
-crappie, and walleyed pike.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_116">116</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig50">
-<img src="images/p39.jpg" alt="" width="689" height="801" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 2. <span class="sc">Joy of the fisherman, rainbow trout</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Management of the fishery has progressed with technical development.
-When fish were planted in early years, very little thought was
-given about the habitat except that it was water. There was little known
-of the requirements of fish. As a result, fish were placed in waters only to
-perish. To maintain a fish population now, all techniques available are employed
-and fish are stocked where water and species are compatible.</p>
-<p>Water in the desert is always at a premium for the inhabitants. The
-early Indian cultures used water for irrigation, and there are still vestiges
-of canals used by Indians to convey water to their crops. The use of water
-by the Indians then had little or no effect on fish life, but as irrigation
-development increased, a new habitat was formed. The once free-flowing
-<span class="pb" id="Page_117">117</span>
-rivers became dry in places, and new waters were developed in the drainage
-ditches in the Rio Grande Valley. The competition for water is very
-keen and fish and wildlife uses come after domestic, commercial, and irrigation
-purposes.</p>
-<p>The water requirements are so great, in fact, that it has been necessary
-to control water and its use by laws. The law of 1876 provided that water
-could not be refused a traveler. Community ditch commissioners were
-established by law in 1895. The basic laws governing water rights were
-established in 1907. These laws have been amended or added to as
-conditions dictate. Conservancy districts were recognized by law in 1927,
-and underground waters came under law in 1931. The Interstate Stream
-Commission was created in 1935. At present, New Mexico water laws are
-considered some of the best in the nation; however, it has been only recently
-that water for fish and wildlife has been recognized as one of the
-beneficial uses.</p>
-<p>Converse to the use of water to the detriment of fish and wildlife,
-there are several areas in which water has been developed and impounded
-to the benefit of the fishery. Although some impoundments were single-purpose
-developments, they supply habitat in conservation pools or during
-years of abundant water supply.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig51">
-<img src="images/p39a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="543" />
-<p class="pcap">Figure 3. <span class="sc">Find the elephant!&mdash;at Elephant Butte reservoir</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Waters impounded by man but used as a fishery are Elephant Butte
-Reservoir (<a href="#fig51">fig. 3</a>), 40,096 surface acres when full. It contains largemouth
-black bass, crappie, walleyed pike, catfish, and sunfish. This lake has not
-been full for many years; but like Alamogordo Reservoir (4650 surface
-acres), Caballo Reservoir (11,532 surface acres), McMillan Reservoir
-<span class="pb" id="Page_118">118</span>
-(2500 surface acres), Conchas Reservoir (16,640 surface acres), and Avalon
-Reservoir (950 surface acres), it has produced excellent fishing. These
-are large irrigation lakes and are all stocked generally with the same species
-of fish.</p>
-<p>The lakes built for irrigation but utilized for trout are usually much
-smaller. The principal ones are Navajo Reservoir (15,600 surface acres)
-and El Vado (3500 surface acres). There are also Miami Lake (190 surface
-acres) and several others of small size.</p>
-<p>In addition, several small lakes have been built or acquired for the
-primary purpose of providing fishing. A few of these are Hopewell Lake
-(14 surface acres), Lake Roberts (73 surface acres), and Charette Lakes
-(400 surface acres). There are many more varying in size. The smaller
-lakes are primarily for trout fishing, but a few in the southern part of
-the state do have species usually found in warmer waters.</p>
-<p>In the process of reservoir construction, waterfowl habitat and resting
-areas are created. These new lakes, however, are a poor substitute for the
-natural marshes and potholes originally frequented by ducks and geese.
-Water mammals, likewise, find the artificial impoundments undesirable
-in comparison, and the increased water has added very little to this
-resource.</p>
-<p>Every water development has with it the appeal of recreation other
-than fishing. Now a lake must have such facilities as picnic and camping
-areas, launching ramps, good accessibility, boat rentals, and a concessionaire.
-There is no single-purpose reservoir in respect to recreation.</p>
-<p>Finally, it is concluded that the old adage, &ldquo;fishing ain&rsquo;t what it used to
-be,&rdquo; should no longer be true for New Mexico. The fishing water has been
-added to greatly and the fish are managed better. The only problem is
-one of increased human population. Where there was one fisherman fifty
-years ago, there are a thousand now.</p>
-<p>Truly, the water of the desert is used to the limit.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_119">119</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig52">
-<img src="images/p40.jpg" alt="" width="600" height="912" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">The past living today&mdash;San Miguel, early mission church still used daily in Santa Fe</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_120">120</div>
-<h2 id="c14"><span class="small">The Indians of New Mexico</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Paige W. Christiansen</span></p>
-<p>People entering New Mexico today find Indian cultures and Indian
-villages with traditions and ways of life that have changed little in many
-centuries. In this respect, man in the twentieth century shares an experience
-in common with Coronado, O&ntilde;ate, and all the other <i>conquistadores</i>
-who visited New Mexico so many generations ago. They, too, found the
-ancient Indian cultures strangely magnetic and exciting. If we could
-but remove the asphalt highways, the billboards, the telephone poles, and
-fences that seem always to surround us, the Indian villages in many parts
-of the state would look very much as they looked to the early Spanish explorers
-who were the first Europeans to see them. To meet the Indians of
-New Mexico and to visit their homes, if possible, is one of the greatest experiences
-available to residents and visitors alike. Although words are inadequate
-to give the true flavor and excitement of the Indian and his way
-of life, they are all we have to introduce the various people who make up
-the Indian population of New Mexico.</p>
-<p>There are two main groups that should be known. First, the Pueblo
-Indians, those who developed sedentary village life and who are the
-descendants of the first Americans in New Mexico. Second, the &ldquo;newcomers&rdquo;
-to the state, those who, for some reason or other, moved into the
-state to replace earlier cultures. Let us, then, visit some of these people&rsquo;s
-homes.</p>
-<h4>Acoma Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Acoma Indian Pueblo, the Sky City, is famous in both history and
-legend. Built on the top of a lofty, almost inaccessible, redrock mesa some
-357 feet high, it is one of the most picturesque of all New Mexico Indian
-pueblos. No other pueblo gives one such a clear sense of living in ancestral
-times. The movements of the people up and down the steep trails,
-the untiring vistas, and the ancient homesites are reminiscent of the life
-and times of the cliff dwellers. Here the archeologists can search out the
-secrets of ancient life by direct observation. Here, too, is brought forth in
-the fullness of its bloom an Indian culture of outstanding achievement.</p>
-<p>The Indians of Acoma participated in the great Pueblo Revolt of
-1680. They killed their priest, Fray Lucas Maldonado, in the first frenzy
-of the rebellion. Because of their isolation and the inaccessibility of the
-village, they were spared the vengeance of the Spaniards under de Vargas
-during the reconquest in 1692. There was an attempt by the Spanish in
-1696 to take Acoma, but they succeeded only in destroying the crops
-and in capturing five Acoma warriors. The Indians held out until July 6,
-1699, when they submitted to the Spanish governor of New Mexico, Governor
-Cubero. Thereafter, Acoma became an integral part of the mission
-complex established in New Mexico by the Spanish.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_121">121</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig53">
-<img src="images/p41.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="578" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by Starr Jenkins</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Aspen Basin in Sangre de Cristo Mountains near Santa Fe</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig54">
-<img src="images/p41a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="580" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Tent Rocks in Jemez Mountains</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_122">122</div>
-<p>Acoma is noted for its excellent pottery. The ware is fashioned from
-clay of fine quality, is very well fired, and is carefully decorated in typical
-Acoma designs. Here is an excellent example of Indian artistic ability.
-Some weaving, such as belts and headbands, is engaged in and a few
-baskets are produced, but Acoma is most famous for its pottery.</p>
-<p>One of the landmarks at Acoma is the great church which brave Fray
-Juan Ramirez toiled to create in the early seventeenth century. Surely there
-are few memorials of the Spanish epoch in the Southwest that present
-such a picture of dauntless faith in spiritual ideals as does this fortress
-church silhouetted high against the sky above the bare-rock mesa. It measures
-150 feet in length and has walls that are 60 feet high and 10 feet
-thick. Timbers 40 feet long and 14 inches through support the roof and
-make a handsome ceiling. There are, of course, no seats and little decoration.
-And what a location for so magnificent a spiritual center it is! From
-there one may lift his eyes in rapt admiration of the splendid panorama
-of the great plain and the encircling mountains, and thereby appreciate
-more fully the work of the Deity.</p>
-<p>The Acoma are agriculturists, cultivating their lands by irrigation;
-they raise corn, wheat, melons, squashes, and hay. Now, however, most
-of the people of Acoma do not live on their mesa which protected them
-for so many centuries. The dangers of attack are no longer present, and
-the farmers find it more advantageous to live closer to their irrigated plots.
-The result is that the people of Acoma are now scattered throughout
-several villages. Their great culture, their traditions, their fierce pride,
-and their deep reverence for their spectacular history is visible in their
-faces and manners. Acoma, the Sky City, remains the eternal city of
-New Mexico.</p>
-<h4>Cochiti Pueblo</h4>
-<p>The Indians of Cochiti Pueblo claim the famed cave dwellings and
-ruins of the Rito de Frijoles (Bandelier National Monument) as their
-ancestral home. Failure of timber and water resources plus the constant
-attack of the various Apache Indian tribes over several centuries caused
-the residents of the Rito de Frijoles to seek a better home. This probably
-occurred about 1200 <span class="small">A.D.</span> In 1598, when Juan de O&ntilde;ate, colonizer of New
-Mexico, arrived, the Indians of Cochiti were living in their present village.
-For a short time following the reconquest of New Mexico by de Vargas
-after the Pueblo Revolt, the people of Cochiti lived in Ca&ntilde;ada de Cochiti,
-which was in a better position for defense against Spanish reconquest. In
-1694, de Vargas took the canyon village by storm, burned it, and forced
-the people to return to the older village of Cochiti where they remain
-to this day.</p>
-<p>The population of the village is slightly more than 300, and there has
-been little growth in the past thirty years. Like the other New Mexico
-pueblos, the main occupation is agriculture. Their ancient traditions are
-<span class="pb" id="Page_123">123</span>
-well preserved, among them the well-known Rain Dance held during
-the annual festival of San Buenaventura in July.</p>
-<p>Located at the pueblo is the ancient and beautiful Spanish mission,
-San Buenaventura de Cochiti, built in the early seventeenth century. To
-step into this church is to return to the Spanish days of yore. There are
-no seats, women kneel on one side, the men on the other, and the services
-are a mixture of old world orthodoxy and new world Indian traditions.
-Cochiti represents one of the finest examples of modern Pueblo Indian life.</p>
-<h4>Isleta Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Isleta Pueblo is the southernmost of the pueblos lying along the green
-and lush Rio Grande Valley today. It stands on the same site it occupied
-when Coronado came in 1540 and was a stopping place for every Spanish
-explorer and traveler who passed through New Mexico. It did not take
-part in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, but rather joined the Spanish in the
-retreat to El Paso del Norte (modern Juarez, Mexico). There they founded
-a new village just to the south of modern El Paso which they called
-Isleta del Sur. The main village of Isleta, in New Mexico, remained
-deserted until 1709 when it was re-established by Fray Juan de la Pe&ntilde;a.</p>
-<p>Two different missions were built at Isleta Pueblo. The first, San
-Antonio de Isleta, was constructed about 1629. The church was burned
-in 1680, and in 1681 was being used as a sheep corral. Between 1680 and
-the completion of the reconquest, it was completely destroyed. The second
-mission, still remaining at Isleta, called San Agustin de Isleta, was built
-in 1709 on the old site.</p>
-<p>Agriculture is the primary pursuit of the Indians of Isleta, although
-they do considerable stock grazing. The population of Isleta is nearly
-2000 persons. The annual fiesta takes place in late August.</p>
-<h4>Jemez Pueblo</h4>
-<p>The Jemez Indians were first seen by Europeans in 1541 when they
-were visited by Captain Francisco de Barrio-Nuevo, of Coronado&rsquo;s expedition.
-He counted seven villages, naming them Aguas Calientes because
-of the many hot springs in the canyon of the Jemez River. The ancient
-pueblos are now all in ruins, with one preserved as the Jemez State
-Monument. The present pueblo, built on the mesa where the Jemez
-River leaves the mountains, was constructed after the Pueblo Revolt. The
-Jemez people fled their older villages during the reconquest and for a
-time lived with the Navajo, whom they disliked but preferred to the
-Spanish.</p>
-<p>There have been four notable missions among the Jemez Indians.
-The first, San Diego de Jemez Mission, was built in the early seventeenth
-century. It was one of the most successful of the New Mexico
-missions; reportedly, more than 6000 converts were made among the
-Jemez Indians before 1622. Because of the constant attacks of the Navajo,
-the traditional enemies of the Jemez people, the ancient pueblos gradually
-declined and were finally completely abandoned after Jemez participation
-<span class="pb" id="Page_124">124</span>
-in the Pueblo Revolt. The ruins of this church, now the Jemez State
-Monument, are among the most picturesque in all New Mexico. Its walls
-are three feet thick and were put together with intricate care. In its time,
-it must have been a beautiful building.</p>
-<p>The second, San Juan de Los Jemez Mission, was built in 1617 at a
-village located near the junction of the Guadalupe and Jemez rivers, six
-miles north of the present pueblo. The ruins are faint but still visible.
-The mission was abandoned in 1680.</p>
-<p>The third mission had a very brief history. It was called San Jose de los
-Jemez Mission and was located near San Juan de Los Jemez, of which it
-was a <i>visita</i>. Like San Juan, San Jose was abandoned in 1680.</p>
-<p>The present mission was founded early in the eighteenth century and
-is one of the interesting things to visit at Jemez Pueblo. This old church
-is the center of the annual festival held at Jemez on November 12.</p>
-<p>Jemez is noted for its splendid presentation of the Buffalo Dance in
-the winter and for its Corn Dances during the November festival.</p>
-<h4>Laguna Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Laguna Pueblo is the youngest and second largest of the pueblos in
-New Mexico. Built in 1697, shortly after the reconquest by de Vargas,
-the name was derived from a large lake which existed at one time just
-west of the village. In addition to the main village, a number of small
-settlements have developed where the terrain is suitable for agriculture,
-the main occupation of the Lagunas. The most important of these villages
-are Paguate, Encinal, Paraje, Mesita, Seama, and Casa Blanca. The
-Laguna Indians are of mixed origin, composed of four linguistic stocks:
-Tano, Keres, Shoshone, and Zuni.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig55">
-<img src="images/p42.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="487" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Rock-walled Santa Maria mission, Laguna Reservation</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_125">125</div>
-<p>Although the occupation of the pueblo was traditionally agriculture,
-in recent years a moderate revolution has been visible. The people of
-Laguna are in the middle of one of the richest uranium mining areas in
-the world, and many of them have been employed in mining activities.
-Also, the pueblo lies on the main line of the Santa Fe Railway, allowing
-some employment with the railroad. Laguna Pueblo is one of the most
-progressive of all the Indian groups in New Mexico. It has a population
-well in excess of 3000.</p>
-<p>Located at Laguna is the San Jose de Laguna mission, built in 1699.
-The plaster on the building is native earth. Indian symbols are painted
-on the ceiling of the chancel, and a large picture of St. Joseph done on
-elk skin hangs on the reredos. The halos on the saints are triangular
-rather than circular. The altar is covered with animal skins painted with
-Christian symbols.</p>
-<h4>Namb&eacute; Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Namb&eacute; is one of the smallest of the pueblos but is located in an area
-noted for its scenic beauty and climate. Its population is less than 200. It
-was not always so small; during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries,
-the population was greatly reduced by intertribal war and witchcraft
-executions. The Namb&eacute; people played an active role in the pueblo rebellion
-of 1680, murdering their priest and destroying their church.</p>
-<p>The original church at Namb&eacute; was one of the first missions founded
-after the establishment of the first European settlement of San Gabriel
-at San Juan in 1598. Destroyed in 1680, it was rebuilt in 1696. In 1729,
-the converts had increased to such numbers that a new church was required.
-This church remained in use until 1909 when, because of carelessness
-in keeping it in repair, the roof collapsed during a storm. The
-annual Namb&eacute; fiesta is held in early October.</p>
-<h4>Picur&iacute;s Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Picur&iacute;s is seldom visited by the tourist, for it lies in the mountains
-forty miles north of Santa Fe and can only be reached over a gravel road.
-The people of Picur&iacute;s were among the most warlike of the normally
-peaceful pueblo peoples. They participated actively in the pueblo rebellion
-in 1680, killing their priest and all the Spaniards in the vicinity. They
-also participated in the battle for Santa Fe which broke Spanish power
-in New Mexico until 1692. After the revolt, fear of the Spanish caused
-them to abandon their village until they were induced to return in 1706.
-The population of Picur&iacute;s is very small, being slightly more than 100.</p>
-<p>One of the few old missions left in New Mexico, the San Lorenzo de
-Picur&iacute;s church shows the strange mixture of Spanish and Indian traditions.
-Near the door is a human skull covered with an old cloth, but unfortunately,
-its story is lost to antiquity.</p>
-<p>An interesting feature at Picur&iacute;s is the unusual construction seen in
-some of the buildings. Made of puddled adobe, they are the oldest still
-standing of any pueblo in the Rio Grande Valley. The buildings were
-<span class="pb" id="Page_126">126</span>
-made by pouring adobe mud into wall forms. This is the same kind of
-construction that is found at Casa Grande, Arizona, one of the significant
-prehistoric ruins in the United States.</p>
-<h4>Pojoaque Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Pojoaque, though still listed among the Indian villages of New Mexico,
-is no longer populated by Indians. Two missions were established at
-Pojoaque in the early Spanish days, the first shortly after 1600. This was
-destroyed in the rebellion in 1680. Later, in 1706, a new church was
-constructed which is still in use. The Indian population of Pojoaque was
-gradually reduced until, in 1900, the few remaining families abandoned
-the village. Since that time, Spanish-American families have occupied the
-buildings. It is a picturesque village seldom seen, for it is hidden from the
-passing tourist by a hill. Yet some of the buildings in this ancient village
-date back to pre-Coronado times and are a significant part of the romance
-of New Mexico.</p>
-<h4>Sandia Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Sandia Pueblo is a remnant of the Tiguex villages visited by Coronado
-in 1540. A mission was created at Sandia shortly after the colonization
-by O&ntilde;ate, and it was an important mission center until the Pueblo Revolt.
-After the revolt, Sandia peoples scattered rather than again submit
-to Spanish control. Many of them went to live with the Hopi and there
-founded the village of Payupki on the middle mesa, the walls of which
-can still be found. After 62 years, in 1742, a few families returned to the
-Rio Grande Valley to found the modern pueblo. The old mission remains
-visible, although reduced to a rubble of adobe. Sandia Pueblo remains
-a small village, containing less than 150 people.</p>
-<h4>San Felipe Pueblo</h4>
-<p>San Felipe is one of the most conservative of the pueblos and has retained
-much of its Indian heritage despite the impact of Spanish and
-American influences. It has a close affinity with its neighbors, particularly
-Santo Domingo only five miles distant. San Felipe was a well-established
-village when the Spanish first arrived. Its people joined in heartily when
-the pueblo uprising began in 1680 but abandoned their village during a
-Spanish counteroffensive in 1681 (which failed). When reconquest was
-completed in 1692, the people returned to their village. Thereafter, they
-remained friendly to the Spanish and suffered many attacks from the
-Navajo, who hated them for this loyalty.</p>
-<p>One of the finest remaining structures showing early Franciscan
-mission architecture can be seen at the San Felipe church. The present
-church is not the original mission, for three different churches were located
-at San Felipe over the centuries. The first was built in 1605 and
-destroyed during the Pueblo Revolt. The second was built in a new
-part of the village in 1694, but shortly after 1700, the village was
-<span class="pb" id="Page_127">127</span>
-moved and a new church constructed. The latter church is the one
-now in use at San Felipe. On May 1, the nearly 1000 people of the
-pueblo celebrate their annual fiesta.</p>
-<h4>San Ildefonso Pueblo</h4>
-<p>San Ildefonso has gained fame throughout the world because of the
-excellence of its pottery. The high quality and general acceptance of this
-commodity has made the village prosperous. It boasts some of the most
-famous Indian artists and artisans in the United States, among them Julian
-and Maria Martinez, perhaps the best-known potters in the world.</p>
-<p>San Ildefonso participated in the Pueblo Revolt but did not contest
-the reconquest, at least not at first. In 1694, when de Vargas began
-to wage war on the northern pueblos, San Ildefonso did take part.
-The people fortified themselves on Black Mesa, a high, steep mesa of
-volcanic origin near the pueblo. There they successfully withstood
-Spanish efforts to dislodge them. Notwithstanding their initial success,
-they were ultimately conquered and brought into the Spanish system.
-Today there are several hundred people living in the village, and they
-are among the friendliest of the pueblo peoples. San Ildefonso is easily
-accessible from Santa Fe.</p>
-<p>The mission church dates back to the 1890&rsquo;s, although earlier churches
-at the pueblo played an important role in bringing Christianity to the
-Pueblo Indian world. The older churches are long since gone.</p>
-<h4>San Juan Pueblo</h4>
-<p>San Juan Pueblo is best noted for its close association with the first
-Spanish settlement in New Mexico in 1598. O&ntilde;ate, colonizer of New Mexico,
-selected a site for his first headquarters which was a part of the ancient
-Pueblo of San Juan. The natives living in that part of the village willingly
-gave up their homes to the Spaniards and were taken in by the remainder
-of the people of San Juan. O&ntilde;ate, in appreciation for this hospitality, bestowed
-upon the pueblo the name <i>San Juan de los Caballeros</i>, a name
-which the pueblo is still proud to bear.</p>
-<p>Yet this same friendly people also contributed Po-p&eacute;, the great leader
-of the Pueblo Revolt, to the history of New Mexico. While Po-p&eacute; shared
-with many other pueblo leaders a hatred of the Spanish conqueror, he
-was the spiritual force and the organizer of the rebellion that broke the
-control of the Spaniard for twelve years and returned New Mexico to
-the Indian. This great rebellion stands as one of the significant efforts
-in the history of the world of a people to cast off the bonds of foreign
-control.</p>
-<p>San Juan cannot claim a church dating back to the <i>conquistadores</i>, but
-it does have one of the great landmark churches in the Southwest. In
-1890, the chapel of Our Lady of Lourdes was dedicated at San Juan. It
-was constructed of red volcanic rock found west of the Rio Grande. This
-beautiful structure is an architectural jewel set in desert surroundings.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_128">128</div>
-<p>The nearly 700 people of San Juan welcome visitors to their homes;
-their undecorated burnished black pottery is particularly distinctive and
-popular. The pueblo&rsquo;s annual festival is held in June.</p>
-<h4>Santa Ana Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Santa Ana Pueblo lies along the banks of the Rio Jemez, which enters
-the Rio Grande from the west. The pueblo was visited by O&ntilde;ate and a
-mission was built there about 1600, shortly after his visit. The people of
-Santa Ana joined in the Pueblo Revolt, and since there was no priest
-serving their church in 1680, they joined with the Indians of Santo
-Domingo and San Felipe to massacre the padres at San Felipe. In 1687,
-during one of the Spanish efforts to reconquer New Mexico, Santa Ana
-was destroyed and her people fled. Later, at the urging of de Vargas, the
-modern pueblo was established, along with the church now standing there.
-The population of Santa Ana is nearly 400. Its annual festival takes
-place in August. It is often difficult to find many of the people at the
-main pueblo for they spend most of the growing season at El Ranchito, to
-the east in the Rio Grande Valley.</p>
-<h4>Santa Clara Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Santa Clara Pueblo is near the mouth of Santa Clara Creek, a year-round
-stream flowing out of the Jemez Mountains into the Rio Grande.
-To the west of the pueblo, on lands owned by Santa Clara, are the famous
-Puye Cliff Dwellings ruins. The people of Santa Clara claim these natural
-cliff homes as their ancestral dwelling places, a fact which has been substantiated
-by archeologists. The Santa Clara Indians represent, then, an
-important living Indian group in which one can observe institutions and
-traditions that can be linked to traditions of the cultures that lived in the
-caves and abandoned cities of Southwest antiquity.</p>
-<p>Like most of the pueblo people, Santa Clara joined the Pueblo Revolt,
-but this action did not seriously harm the pueblo. The real damage was
-done to Santa Clara in the late eighteenth century when intertribal warfare
-over witchcraft, plus the ravages of disease, took nearly 500 lives in
-the village. The current population is about 500.</p>
-<p>The church at Santa Clara is quite modern, having been constructed
-in the twentieth century. The old church, built in 1760, was caught up in
-the modernization craze that swept through the pueblo world in the early
-1900&rsquo;s. Perhaps one of the most substantial and beautiful of all pueblo
-churches, the old church collapsed during a storm in 1909 (the same
-storm that destroyed the church at Namb&eacute;); it had been structurally weakened
-by the removal of the roof for remodeling.</p>
-<p>The village has excellent agricultural lands and supplements its income
-by manufacturing an excellent and distinctive pure black pottery.
-Its annual festival is in mid-August.</p>
-<h4>Santo Domingo Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Santo Domingo is one of the largest of the pueblos, having a population
-of nearly 1500. It is also the most conservative in retention of its
-<span class="pb" id="Page_129">129</span>
-native culture. This makes its dances and dress of particular interest to
-the visitor to New Mexico. The present pueblo was established after the
-reconquest in 1692. The Indians of Santo Domingo took a particularly
-active part in the Pueblo Revolt, killing three padres resident at the
-pueblo. When de Vargas moved to retake Santo Domingo, he found the
-people had abandoned the village. They had constructed a village in the
-Jemez Mountains to the west, and it was there that de Vargas defeated
-them. Even then, the people of Santo Domingo did not give up the fight,
-and only after a long series of defeats and serious loss of life did they surrender
-and again return to the vicinity of their original village.</p>
-<p>The church at Santo Domingo is not so old as many other pueblo
-edifices, but its qualities remain among the most typical aspects of early
-New Mexico mission architecture. In early August, during the great
-annual festival, the Indians completely clean and whitewash the church.
-Two large horses are painted on the front of the building by native artists.
-The dances during the Santo Domingo festival are among the most colorful
-and authentic in New Mexico.</p>
-<h4>Taos Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Taos represents the northernmost of the pueblos in New Mexico. It is
-also one of the most scenic, lying at the foot of the Taos Mountains, a spur
-of the mighty Sangre de Cristo range. It is a prosperous village of about
-900 persons. There is no finer example of pueblo apartment architecture
-in New Mexico. The main pueblo building rises five stories above the
-mesa. One must be careful not to confuse the Spanish town, don Fernando
-de Taos, and the old Indian farming center, Ranchos de Taos, with
-the pueblo, San Geronimo de Taos. It is the latter that is Indian and is,
-therefore, by far the oldest of the three.</p>
-<p>The ruins of the old San Geronimo mission at Taos represent one
-of the most historic and fateful in all the Southwest. It was there that
-two priests were murdered in 1680 during the first days of the Pueblo
-Revolt. It was there that Po-p&eacute; sowed the first seeds of that rebellion.
-Again in 1696, the Taos Indians sought to free themselves from Spanish
-control by killing their priests and other Spaniards in the vicinity. Again
-they were subdued. In 1847, when the Americans annexed New Mexico,
-the Taos Indians tried once more to gain their independence. Inflamed
-by Mexican citizens who refused to accept American authority, they
-attacked the Americans at Fernando de Taos, killing nine of them. Governor
-Charles Bent, builder of the famous Bent&rsquo;s Fort on the Santa Fe
-Trail, was among those killed. On February 3, 1847, the American army
-in New Mexico laid siege to the village and the Indians fortified themselves
-in the mission. It became the Alamo of the Taos people. American
-artillery was brought to bear, and the walls of the ancient church were
-battered down; the Indians fled, first to the village and then into the mountains,
-leaving behind 150 dead and many wounded. They were finally
-forced to surrender, and their leaders were hung. Those so hung remain
-martyrs to this day. The ruins of the Taos mission, built three and a quarter
-<span class="pb" id="Page_130">130</span>
-centuries ago, still can be seen. They are a stark landmark to the
-stubborn independence of the people of Taos.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig56">
-<img src="images/p43.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="752" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Souvenir of the American army&rsquo;s work in 1847: Taos Pueblo mission</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>The traditions and ceremonials of Taos are well preserved. Their arts
-and crafts, however, have declined and are not of the high quality found
-in some of the other pueblos. Their ceremonials are excellent and are noted
-for their beauty and precision. The feast day of San Geronimo, September
-30, is the most important event of the year.</p>
-<h4>Tesuque Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Tesuque is a small village, perhaps numbering no more than 150 persons.
-Even though it has always been small, it holds a major place in the
-history of New Mexico. It was at Tesuque that the first blood was shed in
-the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. On August 9, Cristobal de Herrera was murdered,
-and two Tesuque Indians rushed to Santa Fe to warn the Spanish
-governor of the impending rebellion. The Indian leaders, now aware that
-their plot was known, moved the date of the revolt from August 13 to
-<span class="pb" id="Page_131">131</span>
-August 10. On August 10, Father Pio, in charge of the Tesuque mission,
-went out from Santa Fe to say Mass and also was murdered.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig57">
-<img src="images/p43a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="594" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Most-painted church in America?... Ranchos de Taos</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Although its handicrafts are of poor quality, the Tesuque Indian ceremonials
-are colorful and authentic. The people have retained much of
-their early culture while living in proximity to the white man (Santa Fe is
-only nine miles distant). The pueblo&rsquo;s most important festival falls on
-November 12.</p>
-<h4>Zia Pueblo</h4>
-<p>The story of Zia is one of tragedy and difficult problems of existence.
-Located on a basalt flow on the north bank of the Jemez River some
-fifteen miles above its junction with the Rio Grande, Zia has poor land
-and a limited supply of irrigation water. Agriculture is the main economic
-pursuit, but the pueblo&rsquo;s unfortunate location makes trading for part
-of its food supply necessary.</p>
-<p>O&ntilde;ate reported Zia to be a large pueblo. However, it suffered greatly
-because of its participation in the Pueblo Revolt. Some historians estimate
-that during the reconquest, nearly 600 of the people of Zia were killed
-defending themselves from the Spanish. Continued wars and pestilence
-reduced the pueblo to a very few families. Over the past century, the
-group has again showed signs of growth and now has a population of more
-than 300.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_132">132</div>
-<p>The church at Zia dates from 1692, and thus represents one of the fine
-examples of ancient Franciscan architecture in New Mexico. The annual
-festival, dedicated to Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion, is celebrated with
-an excellent Corn Dance on August 15.</p>
-<h4>Zuni Pueblo</h4>
-<p>Zuni has the distinction of being the first of the pueblos seen or visited
-by Europeans. Seen from a distance by Fray Marcos de Niza in 1539,
-it was reported as a rich and extensive city. Nearby were six other pueblos,
-and the Spanish immediately associated the Zuni complex with an old
-Spanish legend about seven golden cities, the Seven Cities of Cibola.
-The expedition of Coronado was formed to explore and conquer the rich
-pueblos of New Mexico. His first contact was at Zuni, then called
-<i>Hawikuh</i>. It was neither golden nor rich.</p>
-<p>Although Zuni was an important stopping place on the early trails to
-Mexico, it managed to remain least influenced by European ideas. The
-Spanish concentrated their efforts in the Rio Grande Valley and Zuni
-went its own way most of the time. While there were missionary efforts
-from time to time, by the nineteenth century, the stout resistance to such
-activity caused it to cease. In recent years, sporadic missionary activity
-has been evident, but it has not been notably successful.</p>
-<p>The most famous of all New Mexico Indian ceremonial dances is held
-at Zuni each year. The Shalako, which occurs in early December, is
-authentic and spectacular. The dancers, carrying huge ceremonial figures
-on their shoulders, must train and practice constantly during the entire
-year.</p>
-<p>Zuni is the largest of the pueblos in New Mexico, with a population
-numbering more than 5000 persons. The main occupation is agriculture.
-The Zunis supplement their income by manufacturing silver inlay
-jewelry that shows great creative skill and is beautiful to behold.</p>
-<h4>Other New Mexico Indians</h4>
-<p>In addition to the well-known Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, there
-are four other areas of Indian lands. Three of these belong to peoples of
-Athapascan origin, sometimes better known as Apache Indians. By name,
-they are the Jicarilla Apache, the Mescalero Apache, and Navajo. The
-fourth group is the Ute Indian.</p>
-<p>The Apache tribes were relative newcomers to the Southwest. Their
-origin was the plains area between the northern Rocky Mountains and
-Hudson Bay in Canada. About 1000 <span class="small">A.D.</span>, a part of these northern Plains
-Indians began a migration that ultimately brought them to New Mexico.
-Down the High Plains across the western Dakotas, western Nebraska,
-Kansas, and finally to western Texas and eastern New Mexico, these
-people came. At about the latitude of Albuquerque, the migration split.
-Part of the group continued south, across the Staked Plains, into southeastern
-New Mexico, west Texas, and northern Coahuila and Chihuahua,
-Mexico. Here they divided into the Lipan, the Mescalero, and the Natage
-<span class="pb" id="Page_133">133</span>
-Apache. Today, in south-central New Mexico are the descendants of the
-Mescalero. The Mescalero Apache reservation is crossed by U.S. Highway
-70, a scenic drive through pine forests. The tribe operates the Sierra
-Blanca ski area, one of the southernmost ski areas in the United States.
-Its annual Crown Dance and coming-of-age ceremonials are held July
-1 to 4, followed by an Apache rodeo. The Lipan and the Natage have
-virtually disappeared.</p>
-<p>The second group of the migration discovered for the first time in their
-long trek down the eastern fringes of the Rockies that the country opened
-up to the west. They poured through the passes and entered the areas
-traditionally controlled by pueblo farmers. Gradually, they took over these
-lands for themselves, driving out the farmers. By the time the Spanish
-came on the scene, most of the peaceful farmers had given way before
-the onslaught of the warlike Athapascan savages. Only one group remained,
-the pueblos of the central Rio Grande Valley. The migration that
-moved into the desert and mountain lands divided into a number of groups
-which are known by modern names: the Chiricahua, White Mountain,
-Western, and Jicarilla Apache and the Navajo. The Jicarilla Apache
-reside mainly in north-central New Mexico on reservation lands, and the
-Navajo reservation lies partly in extreme northwestern New Mexico. Most
-of the Navajo land and all the lands of the others are in Arizona.</p>
-<p>The Ute Indians, driven from the plains by stronger tribes, settled
-in the central Rocky Mountain area. There they raided the wealthy (at
-least in their eyes) pueblos to the south. They fought sporadically against
-white penetration but were finally subdued and placed on reservation
-lands in the Four Corners area, part of which lies in New Mexico.</p>
-<p>While the history of these peoples is fascinating and full of romance,
-there is little besides scenery to be seen when visiting their reservations.
-The populations are often scattered over many hundreds of square miles,
-and the people have only rudimentary handicrafts. The exception is the
-Navajo, and a trip to the Navajo reservation is worthwhile. These Indians
-have developed techniques of weaving and silversmithing that contribute
-significant art forms to Southwest handicrafts.</p>
-<p class="tb">The outstanding Indian event of the year in New Mexico is the
-Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial at Gallup, held during mid-August.
-Some thirty tribes from the Southwest and Midwest meet to compete
-in arts, crafts, and ceremonial dancing.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_134">134</div>
-<h2 id="c15"><span class="small">Reminders of the Past</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Paige W. Christiansen</span></p>
-<p>When driving across New Mexico or when visiting some part of the
-state, one should be aware of the wealth of history that is always close
-at hand. Many people, when faced with what seems like endless miles
-of empty country, fail to realize that the very emptiness is one of the
-charms of the state. They also do not recognize that in the vast expanses of
-mountain and desert, people of the ancient past or a recent past have lived
-and worked and died. Sometimes the fruits of their labor are clear and evident
-and live on in cities and towns. In many instances, however, the
-mountains and desert have reclaimed their own and the works of man have
-succumbed. A mental picture must be cast over the landscape on which
-great historical events took place but which is almost empty of signs of
-man&rsquo;s efforts. If travelers are fortunate, there may still be some sign&mdash;a
-ghost town, a ruined ranch, some old artifacts&mdash;to tell the story; if not,
-imagination must be given rein. The search is the adventure, and to give
-aid in that search, the following might suffice as a faint guiding light.</p>
-<p>To simplify the descriptions of these reminders of the past, New
-Mexico is divided into seven geographical regions which a traveler might
-well visit:</p>
-<blockquote>
-<p>1. <i>North from Santa Fe</i>, including U.S. Highways 64, 285, and 84,
-and connecting state highways.</p>
-<p>2. <i>The northeast</i>, including U.S. 85 from Santa Fe to Raton, U.S. 66
-east from Albuquerque to the Texas line, U.S. 56 from Springer
-to the state line, and connecting state highways.</p>
-<p>3. <i>The northwest</i>, including U.S. 66 west from Albuquerque to the
-Arizona line, U.S. 666 north from Gallup to Colorado, and State
-Highway 44 from Bernalillo to Farmington.</p>
-<p>4. <i>East-central</i>, including U.S. 60 east from Bernardo, U.S. 380 east
-from San Antonio, U.S. 70 from the Mescalero Indian Reservation
-to the Texas line, U.S. 285 from Clines Corners to Roswell, U.S.
-54 from Three Rivers to Santa Rosa, and connecting state highways.</p>
-<p>5. <i>West-central</i>, including U.S. 60 west of Socorro, U.S. 180-260 and
-State Highway 12 in Catron County, U.S. 85 from Los Lunas to
-Elephant Butte, and connecting state highways.</p>
-<p>6. <i>Southeast</i>, including U.S. 70 from Las Cruces to the Mescalero
-Indian Reservation, U.S. 54 from El Paso to Three Rivers, U.S. 62
-from Hobbs to the Texas line, U.S. 285 from Roswell to the Texas
-line, and numerous state roads.</p>
-</blockquote>
-<blockquote>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_135">135</div>
-<p>7. <i>Southwest</i>, including U.S. 85 from Truth or Consequences to El
-Paso, U.S. 180 north from Deming to the Catron county line, U.S.
-70-80 west from Las Cruces to Arizona, and state roads.</p>
-</blockquote>
-<h4>North From Santa Fe</h4>
-<p>The country north of Santa Fe is the heart of Indian and Spanish New
-Mexico. Here, if he looks beyond the narrow boundaries of the highway
-right-of-way, the traveler can see Indian and Spanish villages which have
-not changed significantly in two and a half centuries. Along the lush
-green of the Rio Grande Valley or of its tributaries dashing out of the
-Sangre de Cristo range to the east, these sleepy concentrations of people
-reveal cultural and language patterns which smack of the <i>conquistadores</i> of
-the sixteenth century or of the ancient cliff dwellers. It is a slow and
-easy world, perhaps most representative of the &ldquo;land of ma&ntilde;ana.&rdquo; In a
-region already worked for centuries for what it can produce, there is no
-hurry. It will be there tomorrow and forever. The people of this region
-are typically New Mexican. The hills are dotted with pi&ntilde;on and juniper
-trees which give a greenish to black cast to the land. This, too, is typically
-New Mexican.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig58">
-<img src="images/p44.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="683" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Cool drive on a summer day, Red River Canyon</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_136">136</div>
-<p>There is one short trip that would be fruitful for him who wants to
-know New Mexico, to feel the romance of Spanish culture, and to seek
-adventure off the beaten track. Just north of Espa&ntilde;ola, State Highway 76
-strikes east from U.S. 64. Nowhere in the state can be found so much of
-old world charm or spectacular scenic beauty. Heading east, the traveler
-passes through Chimay&oacute;, a village famed throughout the world for its
-weaving, though seldom visited, then on through Truchas and Las Trampas
-to Penasco, heart of the Penitente country. The Penitentes were a
-religious sect growing out of long isolation from the main threads of
-Roman Catholicism. They gradually reverted to relatively primitive
-Christian practices without guidance from main church centers but within
-the past few years have returned to the Church. The many white crosses
-that can be seen in the area attest to their former activity. From Penasco,
-the traveler can return to U.S. 64 via State Highway 75.</p>
-<p>The area northwest of Santa Fe, stretching some thirty or forty miles
-on the southeast flanks of the Jemez Mountains, is the noted Pajarito
-Plateau, the home of great numbers of Indian cultures, living and dead.
-Many of the modern Indian pueblos will be found in this region. Also,
-some of the most significant ancient Indian ruins are found here, such as
-the Frijoles Canyon (Bandelier National Monument) and Puye Cliff
-Dwellings.</p>
-<p>The entire area north of Santa Fe, then, is alive with history. In every
-village, in every canyon, there is something that will add to the romance
-of Spanish-Indian New Mexico. In our Southwest, the heritage handed
-down by these two great cultures is held dear by the people. To the
-traveler will come a greater appreciation and a greater understanding of
-New Mexico and the Southwest if these are but understood.</p>
-<h4>Northeast New Mexico</h4>
-<p>The section designated as northeast New Mexico is an area of mountains
-and plains, and its historical mosaic shows elements of both: the
-rugged Sandia Mountains near Albuquerque and the southernmost parts
-of the extensive Sangre de Cristo range, which thrusts north from U.S.
-Highway 85 far into Colorado, and part of the famed buffalo plains. The
-area is drained by two main river systems; the Canadian River flows east
-to join the Arkansas and the Mississippi and the Pecos River flows south
-to join the Rio Grande.</p>
-<p>Through this vast area ran one of Americas greatest highways, the
-Santa Fe Trail. Beginning in Missouri communities, the Trail hurled itself
-into the intricate patterns of the Great Plains with all of their dangers&mdash;Indians,
-boredom, violent storms, treacherous rivers, and prairie grass fires.
-Then on into the foothills of the mighty Rocky Mountains and the steep
-and backbreaking approaches to Raton Pass in New Mexico. The new
-highway across this pass (U.S. 85) and the nature of our vehicles have
-made this an easy passage. But the traveler should pause at some high
-point, or perhaps leave the main highway for a moment, and try to imagine
-crossing this rugged land in Conestoga wagons. From Raton, the Santa Fe
-<span class="pb" id="Page_137">137</span>
-Trail continued south to Las Vegas and thence into Santa Fe via Glorieta
-Pass (current route of U.S. 85). Over this trail passed the goods of the
-world. In part, these were intended for the people of New Mexico, but
-over other trails they also found markets in Mexico and in California.
-For the curious and adventurous, sections of the Santa Fe Trail can still
-be seen. Local inquiry will elicit directions to remaining parts of the wide
-rutted Trail, scene of so much of the American westward movement.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig59">
-<img src="images/p45.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="617" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">How To see the Rio Grande Valley&mdash;from Sandia Crest</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>While passing through the mountains between Santa Fe and Las
-Vegas, the traveler should be aware that a critical Civil War battle was
-waged in the fastness of these passes. In 1862, Confederate forces, which
-came up the Rio Grande from Texas and won a series of victories over
-Union troops, met a combined force of Colorado Volunteers and New
-Mexico Union troops in a decisive contest over the control of the American
-Southwest. The Union troops were successful, preserving New Mexico
-and the West for the Union.</p>
-<p>These, then, are some of the things to look for in this region of plains
-and mountains. Picture buffalo by the tens of thousands pushing up the
-Canadian River, or long lines of wagons winding their way along the
-Santa Fe Trail carrying goods and people into new lands, or the Blue and
-the Gray locked in deadly combat far from the thunder of the main Civil
-War battles. The mosaic here is sharp and vividly different.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_138">138</div>
-<h4>Northwest New Mexico</h4>
-<p>Northwest New Mexico is typified as ancient Indian country. While
-seemingly a harsh land, it is only this to the uninitiated, to those who lock
-their minds to beauties of history and lands unlike their own. The Indian
-found this country good and productive. Some of the finest ruins of Indian
-antiquity are in this region&mdash;Chaco Canyon and Aztec, both National
-Monuments, and hundreds more that remain unnamed. The Indians of the
-Four Corners area (named thus because New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, and
-Arizona meet here, the only place in the United States where the lines
-of four states intersect) created levels of culture unsurpassed in what is
-the continental United States; only the Indians of Mexico and Peru claim
-a higher culture. This is a land whose ancient people reached their great
-peak at the same time as the later Romans, as Charlemagne in ancient
-Frankish Europe, and as Mohammed and his successors in the Middle
-East.</p>
-<p>But ancient Indians hold no monopoly on this vast region. Today many
-of the Indians of New Mexico still find homes here. The Navajo Reservation
-lies between Gallup and the Colorado line. Part of the Ute Reservation
-lies along the northern edge of New Mexico, and the Jicarilla Reservation
-is in the eastern part of this region. Many of the pueblo people
-are found between Albuquerque and Santa Fe. At Gallup each year, the
-famed Indian Ceremonials bring together peoples from many of the tribes
-in the United States.</p>
-<p>This region is also renowned as an oil and natural gas producer and is
-one of the booming areas in New Mexico. But this is only one aspect of
-the mineral riches of the northwest; the mines near Grants, between
-Albuquerque and Gallup, produce tremendous quantities of uranium ores.
-The atomic energy capability of the United States begins at Grants. And
-near Gallup and Fruitland are huge open-pit coal mines.</p>
-<p>The northwest is drained by the San Juan River, a tributary of the
-Colorado River, and is therefore a part of the Pacific watershed. The
-Navajo Dam project, just east of Farmington, is a part of this drainage
-pattern.</p>
-<p>Thus the region is characterized by Indians old and new, ancient
-things buried deep beneath the earth, and great beauty in pastel colors
-and subtle contrasts&mdash;the mosaic of the land.</p>
-<h4>East-Central New Mexico</h4>
-<p>East-central New Mexico, like the northeast, is an area of plains and
-mountains. Here the buffalo roamed, and in their place, cattle now utilize
-the hardy and nutritious grasses of the High Plains. Mountains are the
-Manzano, southeast of Albuquerque, and Sierra Blanca, near Carrizozo,
-as well as numerous minor ranges. Also in this region is some harsh and
-desolate country, seared by the southwestern sun and lacking in rainfall,
-but supporting the exotic plants and wildlife typical of the Sonoran desert
-regions.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_139">139</div>
-<p>While the desert regions may not be attractive to the eye, they should
-be appreciated for their part in the historical mosaic. In the area east of
-the Rio Grande is the northern half of the well-known White Sands
-Missile Range, one of the significant test centers in the rocket and space
-age. It was also in this arid region that the first atomic bomb was exploded
-(southeast of Socorro).</p>
-<p>The early use of this desert, however, emphasized its harshness. For
-centuries, the Spanish suffered across this waterless waste on their way
-from Chihuahua in Old Mexico to Santa Fe, for this was the Jornada del
-Muerto, journey of death, the hardest and most dangerous part of the
-trip over the Camino Real. The Camino Real was the lifeline of New
-Mexico from 1598 until the Santa Fe Trail was opened in 1821, and all
-visitors during that period were obliged to cross this arid section. A modern
-rocket crosses in mere seconds what took the Spaniards many days.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig60">
-<img src="images/p46.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="663" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Who says this is desert country?... Sierra Blanca from <span class="smaller">U.S.</span> 70</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>In the Manzano Mountains, there are numerous Indian ruins which
-represent the eastern fringes of the pueblo-building Indians of New Mexico.
-These ruined villages have been given the name by historians of
-&ldquo;cities that died of fear,&rdquo; fear of the vicious Apache and Comanche tribes.
-For centuries, these brave village people tilled their crops and lived peacefully
-on the land. Then, in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_140">140</span>
-the great migrations of Plains Indians that pushed into the Southwest
-gradually did their deadly work. One by one the villages succumbed,
-until by 1700 few people remained, and these were ultimately killed or
-driven into the sanctuary of the Rio Grande pueblos. It is awesome to stand
-mid the rubble of one of those ancient cities and imagine the circumstances
-of its demise.</p>
-<p>In the eastern part of this section was the heart of the High Plains
-cattle empires. Here is a land that once belonged to the great cattle barons,
-a land of free range, the home of the cowboy. Although it is fenced today,
-it is still a land of cattle and is still very close to the early days of the
-cattleman.</p>
-<p>Again, there is an intricate and varied mosaic. No simple land this, but
-a complexity of plains, mountains, and desert, all of which color its
-history. The Indians no longer inhabit their villages, the Spanish no longer
-struggle along the Jornada del Muerto, and the free range of the cattle
-baron is gone, but if the traveler sees it through its historical past, it will
-again come alive.</p>
-<h4>West-Central New Mexico</h4>
-<p>This section is a complex and colorful mass of landforms scattered
-helter-skelter across the western part of the state. It stretches from the
-green Rio Grande Valley, with its irrigated lands, quaint farms, and
-picturesque agricultural villages, up the Valley&rsquo;s steep western slopes to the
-rolling grassland and mesas and alluvial fans, ending in precipitous and
-treacherous canyons in the rugged mountains. Socorro Mountain, the
-Magdalenas, the San Mateos, the Ladrones, and countless others seem always
-to ring the horizon. Some of them are timbered and abound in cool,
-refreshing shade and springs; some are harsh and dry. In the west, the
-famed San Agustin Plains stretch to the sunset, a wide carpet fringed by
-black, timbered hills, site of fabulous cattle drives of a bygone day. The
-complexity of the region&rsquo;s geology, scenery, and terrain is matched by an
-equally complex history.</p>
-<p>The history is a mosaic of many hues, some harsh and stark like its
-dry desert mountains, some inviting like the shade and coolness of its
-timbered canyons and mountain springs. First were the many diverse and
-sometimes hostile Indian cultures. There were peaceful pueblo peoples
-tilling their lands, using the Rio Grande&rsquo;s flowing water to produce
-abundance. Also, prehistoric village dwellers struggled to create agricultural
-societies along the banks of now-dry rivers in the western part of
-the region. And there were the fearsome Apache Indians who founded
-their homes in the broken mountain fastnesses and added their excitement
-and tragedy to the mosaic. So, too, did the Spaniard make his mark and
-the Mexican who followed close behind. The place names of the eastern
-part of the region are primarily Spanish, although the Spanish found the
-area a difficult one in which to maintain themselves. And then the American
-came to dominate this land, adding realism and technology.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_141">141</div>
-<p>Finally, two major economic factors left a profound imprint: stock
-raising and mining. The first began with the Spanish, was continued by
-the Mexicans, and commercialized by the Americans. Everywhere are signs
-of this heritage. Mining also played a dominant role, although of a shorter
-duration. One can hardly lift his eyes to the hills without seeing signs of
-the prospectors shovel or the miner&rsquo;s work. One can hardly converse with
-local citizens without discussing mines of the past or mines of the future.
-Livestock and minerals, then, are woven through the historical pattern
-and are never far from any part of the story.</p>
-<p>Let the traveler be aware of several important facts when he passes
-through this region. First, this is empty country, an area that has fewer
-people now than it had eighty years ago. Its mines are mostly closed and
-the towns that grew with the mines are ghosts. One of the most famous
-of these is the town of Kelly, a short distance from the community of
-Magdalena. Another is Mogollon, off U.S. Highway 180 in the southwestern
-part of this region. Either of these will give to the viewer a vivid
-picture of the mining camps of the nineteenth century.</p>
-<p>To the average tourist crossing the San Agustin Plains, they seem
-desolate and uninteresting. To the traveler with imagination and knowledge
-of the history of this once great inland lake, the trip can be exciting.
-He pictures this great basin full of water, forty-five miles long and fifteen
-miles wide, and sees mountains covered with blue spruce surrounding the
-great lake. His mental motion picture rolls on thousands of years, watching
-the water evaporate and the forest of spruce die, to be replaced eventually
-by the pi&ntilde;on and juniper now dotting the hills. Grass grew in the old lake
-bed, except in the last areas to evaporate, for these had an alkali content
-too high for most grasses. The traveler then watches the Indian enter the
-scene&mdash;not the pueblo builder, except as a transient, for no water is available.
-The nomadic warrior uses the pathway later. In 1774 and in 1776,
-he sees several important battles between the Spanish and the Apaches
-fought on these Plains. Later, the American cattleman dominates them,
-as he does today....</p>
-<p>And so the mosaic grows&mdash;Indians, Spanish, Americans, cattle, and
-mines&mdash;and the spectacular vistas and the vast emptiness add color and
-excitement for the traveler who sees the past with the present.</p>
-<h4>Southeast New Mexico</h4>
-<p>Much of southeast New Mexico is an extension of the Great Plains,
-but it has some rugged mountains and a severe desert in the middle of
-which lie White Sands National Monument and the White Sands Missile
-Range. Mountain ranges include the Sacramento east of Alamogordo and
-the Guadalupe Mountains, in which are located Carlsbad Caverns.</p>
-<p>The plains part of this region are devoted to cattle, potash, and oil.
-Like the other plains regions of New Mexico, the heritage passed on from
-the great cattle empires of bygone days is very strong and detectable in the
-people. Since the early 1930&rsquo;s, oil has come to play an increasingly important
-<span class="pb" id="Page_142">142</span>
-part in the history of this section. This is especially true near
-Hobbs.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig61">
-<img src="images/p47.jpg" alt="" width="622" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Anyone for a hike?... in the Guadalupe Mountains</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>The desert region in the western part of this section has clearly defined
-aspects of the old and the new. The southern part of the dread Jornado
-del Muerto swept across this arid land and only returned to the river near
-modern Hatch, or sometimes farther south, near modern Las Cruces, according
-to the whim of the river. Here also lies the White Sands National
-<span class="pb" id="Page_143">143</span>
-Monument, a desert spot of unusual beauty and interest. Near the Monument,
-the White Sands Missile Range stands as an advanced scientific
-test center for the most modern of vehicles, the rocket. Near Alamogordo,
-another advanced space development and testing facility is located at
-Holloman Air Force Base. So the desert is useful, and it is beautiful, and it
-is full of tragic history.</p>
-<p>This is also Indian land. East of Tularosa is the Mescalero Apache
-Indian Reservation. In a way, this region has always belonged to the
-Apache, at least since he migrated into New Mexico. The area contained
-no sedentary groups and the Apache appropriated it as his own. His
-strongholds were in the Guadalupe and Sacramento mountains. The forts
-along the Rio Grande, like Forts Fillmore and Selden, were located to
-control the Mescalero and other Apache groups. All that remains today are
-the Mescaleros.</p>
-<p>There was little Spanish influence in this area except near El Paso
-and in the Rio Grande Valley. The Spanish were more attracted to the
-upper Rio Grande Valley because of the sedentary nature of the Indians of
-that region. The southeast underwent its greatest development in the
-American period.</p>
-<p>Again, sense the mosaic: These are not blends of land and history; they
-are sharp and distinct, each with its own character. Search for the history
-and the beauty, for they do not come automatically.</p>
-<h4>Southwest New Mexico</h4>
-<p>Finally, the southwest, another region of harsh desert and cool refreshing
-mountains, part of New Mexico&rsquo;s unusual contrast. The country
-south of U.S. 70 is Sonoran desert, thinly populated and poorly watered.
-To the north of the highway lies one of the most spectacular beauty spots
-in the Southwest, the mountains and forests forming the headwaters of
-the Gila River. The Gila River flows west across Arizona until it joins the
-Colorado River which empties into the Gulf of California.</p>
-<p>The Indians in this part of the state fall into two distinct categories:
-The builders, known as the Mimbres culture, constructed homes in caves
-and along the watercourses of the Gila and Mimbres rivers. They reached
-extremely high levels of culture, and then they disappeared. The Apache
-Indians, who entered this country at the same time as they did the rest of
-New Mexico, were responsible for the end of the farmers and builders, at
-least in part. The Apaches were predators and the farmers were peaceful,
-unversed in the arts of war. Finally the Apache ruled supreme, and this
-region became the most important single stronghold of the Indian. It was
-here that Geronimo found sanctuary. But the Apaches, too, were forced
-to surrender their claims and were placed on reservations outside this area.</p>
-<p>Mining is and has been the main source of wealth. The great open-pit
-operation of Kennecott Copper Company is at Santa Rita, east of Silver
-City. This is one of the largest open-pit copper mines in North America.
-To look into that huge man-made pit is a thrilling experience. This mine
-was first opened in 1803 by the Spanish who needed copper badly as a
-<span class="pb" id="Page_144">144</span>
-circulating currency in New Spain (Mexico). For a number of years, the
-coins used for money in Mexico were from copper mined in southwestern
-New Mexico.</p>
-<p>Copper represents only a part of the mining activity in this region.
-Famous mining districts in earlier days were at Kingston and Hillsboro,
-just east of the Black Range on State Highway 90. These areas produced
-considerable quantities of silver. There is some activity yet, but the boom
-has long since passed them by, although they are interesting towns to
-visit. The trip from U.S. 85 to Silver City via State Highway 90 is one
-of the most scenic routes in the state.</p>
-<p>In the region north of Silver City lies high mountain country, much of
-it preserved as the Gila Wilderness Area. Here a person who wishes the
-solitude of forest and mountain, the thrill of trout fishing in a clear cold
-stream, and a wealth of wildlife can find his heart&rsquo;s desire. In the heart
-of this wilderness, the traveler might well find some of the ancient homes
-of the Mimbres people. History and recreation blend into one.</p>
-<p class="tb">These complete the mosaic. Everywhere one travels in New Mexico
-is enchanting history, in the land and/or in the people. This has not been
-an effort to acquaint anyone with the intricate detail of all the history
-of every nook and cranny of this land, but these broad strokes made on
-the canvas may help the traveler, transient or native, to enjoy himself. Let
-him accept the challenge, stop to investigate, search out evidence of the
-history that is there in the colorful and changing land itself, the Indian
-heritage, the Spanish past, the cattleman&rsquo;s range, the miner&rsquo;s endless
-search&mdash;and become enchanted.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_145">145</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig62">
-<img src="images/p48.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="564" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A., by John Whiteside</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Wheeler Peak near Taos&mdash;highest point in New Mexico, 13,160 feet above sea level</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig63">
-<img src="images/p48a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="559" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Courtesy Elliott S. Barker</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Ghost Ranch Mountain north of Abiquiu</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_146">146</div>
-<h2 id="c16"><span class="small">Derricks and Mines</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">George B. Griswold</span></p>
-<p>New Mexico is a mineral-rich state. The gross production value of
-oil, gas, and minerals was $671 million during 1963, making the state
-the sixth ranking mineral producer in the nation. New Mexico ranks
-among other states as follows: first in the production of potash, uranium,
-perlite, and carbon dioxide; third in helium; fourth in copper; fifth in
-natural gas and liquids; and seventh in petroleum. Important amounts
-of zinc, lead, gold, silver, magnesium compounds, coal, gypsum, pumice,
-and salt are also produced from deposits within New Mexico. The oil
-and gas industry holds a dominant position in the state, accounting for
-almost two thirds of the value of minerals produced.</p>
-<h3 id="c17">OIL AND GAS</h3>
-<p>Most of New Mexico&rsquo;s oil and gas are produced in the southeastern
-part, south and east of Roswell. The bustling towns of Hobbs, Artesia, and
-Lovington, as well as Roswell, are headquarters for the many oil companies
-and the associated service and supply organizations operating in the area.
-Oil and gas are produced from numerous reservoirs, called <i>fields</i> or <i>pools</i>,
-in Paleozoic sediments ranging from Ordovician to Permian in age. From
-the standpoint of production, the Eunice-Monument field (lying between
-these two towns) is the largest, having produced more than 250 million
-barrels of oil. Other important fields are Hobbs, Vacuum, Langlie Mattix,
-Denton, and Jalmat. All these fields produce a considerable amount of gas
-associated directly with the oil.</p>
-<p>When driving an automobile through southeast New Mexico, a layman
-finds it difficult to comprehend the immensity of the petroleum industry
-of that region. This is due to the scattering of wells over a large
-area. Seldom are wells spaced closer than one to every ten acres, even
-in the most productive fields. There are, in fact, some 16,000 wells in this
-part of New Mexico, ranging in depth from less than 1000 feet to 17,555
-feet.</p>
-<p>The other oil- and gas-producing area of the state is in the northwest,
-in the San Juan Basin. Farmington serves as the base of operations for
-most of this activity. In 1962, there were 7378 wells in the area, 1770 of
-which were producing oil and gas and 5608 producing gas only. Most of
-the San Juan Basin production is from Cretaceous sandstones, in contrast
-to the southeast where the oil and gas are derived from Paleozoic sediments.
-The development of the San Juan Basin production is relatively
-new; most of the wells have been drilled since World War II. The petroleum
-industry can be proud of the great help it has given to the development
-of this once-almost-forgotten part of the state.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_147">147</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig64">
-<img src="images/p49.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="539" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Courtesy El Paso Natural Gas Co.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">There&rsquo;s the way to refine oil! Look at those mesas, near Gallup</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>The methods of finding and producing oil and gas have come a long
-way from the &ldquo;boom town&rdquo; days when wells were drilled for the most part
-on pure hunches and hopes. The exploration and exploitation of petroleum
-are now highly specialized technologies. All branches of the geologic and
-geophysical sciences are brought into play to piece together a comprehensive
-picture of all the factors which may have made a certain area favorable
-for the accumulation of oil or gas. These factors include such things
-as the age, thickness, and permeability of the sedimentary rocks, the structure,
-old shorelines, and buried reefs. Once a target is selected, a drilling
-rig is moved onto the location to prove or disprove the theory. This is the
-costly step of finding oil. A single 10,000-foot hole may cost $350,000, and
-some individual wells in New Mexico have cost more than $1 million to
-drill. If the well is in a completely untested area, it is called a &ldquo;wildcat.&rdquo;
-Once a discovery is made, then the land around the wildcat is explored
-by &ldquo;offset&rdquo; wells until the complete extent of the new field is proved.</p>
-<p>During 1962, 1666 wells were drilled to an average depth of 5153
-feet. The average drilling cost was $71,000 a well, representing a total
-investment of almost $120 million in a single year! Most of these wells
-were of the development (offset) type, but even then, 27 per cent were
-dry. During 1962, 295 true wildcats were drilled; of these, only 46 found
-oil or gas&mdash;about two out of every thirteen.</p>
-<p>The story of oil just begins with the discovery of a well. Various special
-&ldquo;completion&rdquo; operations are applied to the oil-producing horizon so as to increase
-the flow into the well. The most common techniques are either by
-<span class="pb" id="Page_148">148</span>
-&ldquo;acidizing,&rdquo; pumping acid into the
-formation to increase flow by enlarging
-the pores in the rock, or
-by &ldquo;hydrafracing,&rdquo; whereby actual
-cracks are induced in the formation
-by pumping oil from the surface
-back into the well under very
-high pressure. After the well is
-&ldquo;completed,&rdquo; it may be a natural-flowing
-well if sufficient gas is
-associated with the oil. If sufficient
-gas is not present, then the well
-is pumped.</p>
-<p>In recent years, considerable
-success has been achieved in revitalizing
-old fields where production
-had dropped below the point
-of economic operation. These fields
-are reactivated by forcing either
-water or gas down selected wells
-within the field, thereby forcing
-stagnated oil within the producing
-zone toward the other wells. This
-technique is called <i>secondary recovery</i>.
-Many fields will produce
-more oil under the secondary recovery
-program than they did during their primary life.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig65">
-<img src="images/p50.jpg" alt="" width="485" height="799" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Here&rsquo;s a wildcat for you!</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Once the oil is on the surface, it passes through separators to remove
-any admixed gas from the oil. The gas is sent into pipelines while the oil
-is sent to storage tanks called <i>tank batteries</i>. Periodically, the oil is drawn
-from the tank batteries where it is transported by pipeline or rail to refineries.
-The great bulk of the crude oil leaves New Mexico for refining
-via a major pipeline network extending through Texas to both the Gulf
-and East coasts. Some oil is refined in New Mexico, however. Oil refineries
-in Artesia, Bloomfield, Ciniza, Farmington, and Monument have a combined
-capacity to treat some 30,000 barrels (42 gallons a barrel) of crude
-oil a day. On the other hand, practically all the natural gas is treated in
-New Mexico so as to recover its liquid petroleum constituents before
-sending it out of the state by pipeline.</p>
-<h3 id="c18">MINING</h3>
-<p>The mining industry of New Mexico dates back to the days of Spanish
-rule. Copper was mined from the Santa Rita mine as early as 1800 for
-shipment to Mexico for use in coinage. Significant mining in New Mexico
-did not commence, however, until the late 1800&rsquo;s. There are three major
-centers today: Carlsbad, potash; Silver City area, copper, zinc, and lead;
-and Grants, uranium.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_149">149</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig66">
-<img src="images/p50a.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="561" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Question: where are the other oil pumps and tanks in the San Juan Basin?</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>The potash mining east of Carlsbad, a $75 million-a-year industry employing
-more than 3600 persons, is the largest operation of its kind in the
-world. Six mining companies are active in the area, and a seventh is
-developing yet another mine. <i>Potash</i> is a word used to denote various
-potassium compounds. The principal ore mineral at Carlsbad is sylvanite,
-a mixture of potassium chloride and sodium chloride (common salt). The
-ore contains the equivalent of 21 to 25 per cent potassium oxide (K&#8322;O).<a class="fn" id="fr_6" href="#fn_6">[6]</a>
-Another ore mineral, known as <i>langbeinite</i>, a double salt of potassium and
-magnesium sulfate, is also mined.</p>
-<p>The potash ores occur as horizontal beds sandwiched between thick
-salt and anhydrite layers. These beds are the result of evaporation of large
-quantities of salt waters during the latter part of the Permian period some
-240 million years ago. The potash-bearing horizons now are buried from
-900 to 1800 feet below the surface. The discovery of potash in southeast
-New Mexico was almost by accident. In 1925, the Snowden and McSweeny
-Company drilled a wildcat oil test a few miles east of Carlsbad.
-The hole was dry, but potash minerals were detected in the drill cuttings.
-The discovery generated considerable interest because the United States
-was forced to import most of its potash prior to this time. Further drilling
-proved the existence of tremendous deposits of potassium salts in that area.</p>
-<p>The potash mines are among the most highly mechanized of the
-<span class="pb" id="Page_150">150</span>
-mineral industry. Access to the buried deposits is gained by vertical shafts.
-Actual mining is now done to a large extent by continuous miners, machines
-which bore or rip the potash ore from the face and load it into
-shuttle cars in one continuous operation. The shuttle cars then transport
-the ore to conveyor belts which move it to the shafts for hoisting. Working
-conditions and safety are excellent and have led to high productivity from
-these mines.</p>
-<p>The potash ore is refined or processed by fractional crystallation or
-flotation. These plants remove most of the unwanted sodium chloride
-and other gangue minerals to produce high-quality potassium chloride or
-sulfate. After processing, the potash salts are stored in giant bins to await
-shipment by rail to the major agriculture areas of the United States. The
-Carlsbad mines produce some 15 million tons of ore a year which, when
-refined, produces 4 million tons of marketable potassium salts having
-a K&#8322;O equivalent of 2.5 million tons.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig67">
-<img src="images/p51.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="605" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Courtesy International Minerals &amp; Chemical Corp.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Crunch!... continuous mining machine at work</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Uranium mining is the newest major industry in New Mexico. The
-boom started in 1950 with the discovery of uranium ore west of Grants
-by a Navajo sheep rancher named Paddy Martinez. This discovery started
-one of the most extensive exploration and development campaigns in all
-mining history. By 1957, the area had proved uranium reserves accounting
-for more than half of the entire reserve of the nation. These discoveries
-will make this country self-sufficient in this vital atomic energy metal for
-<span class="pb" id="Page_151">151</span>
-years to come. Five mills were built that are capable of producing &ldquo;yellow
-cake&rdquo; (almost pure uranium oxide) from uranium ores containing as little
-as 0.20 per cent U&#8323;O&#8328;. Four mills are located in the Grants area, ranging
-in capacity from 1500 to 4000 tons a day. The fifth mill, rated at 500 tons
-a day, is at Shiprock.</p>
-<p>There are numerous mines, ranging from tiny two-man operations up to
-great mines producing more than 1000 tons a day. The most prolific
-producing area is the Ambrosia Lake District north of Grants; most of
-these mines are underground. Probably the largest single uranium mine,
-however, is the open-pit Jackpile-Paguate mine of the Anaconda Company
-on the Laguna Indian Reservation some thirty miles east of Grants. The
-mine uses electric shovels capable of loading eight cubic yards of ore at
-a time into large diesel trucks.</p>
-<p>Copper is produced from the Chino mine located at Santa Rita, about
-fifteen miles east of Silver City. This mine, operated by Kennecott Copper
-Corporation, is the showpiece of the New Mexico minerals industry. The
-copper ore is low grade, containing only sixteen pounds a ton of the red
-metal, but the deposit is immense, allowing the mining of 22,500 tons a
-day. The Chino is by far the largest single mining operation in the state.
-A large concentrator and smelter are located at Hurley, about ten miles
-southwest of the pit.</p>
-<p>The Chino pit is a spectacular sight for its scenic setting and its sheer
-size. The deposit is located below the Kneeling Nun, a famous natural
-statue formed by the erosion of a rhyolite flow which caps a high mesa. The
-pit covers almost one square mile and is 800 feet deep. The mining is
-highly mechanized. Large rotary drills make blast holes twelve inches in
-diameter into which explosives are loaded. A single blast may break
-100,000 tons of rock. The ore is loaded with 8-cubic-yard shovels into
-large trucks carrying from 25 to 65 tons each. The trucks transport the ore
-to an inclined skipway on the west end of the pit. The skip then carries
-the ore up to the train level where it is transferred into railroad cars for
-shipment to the mill. Waste rock, too low-grade to justify sending to the
-mill, is transported to the very top of the skip way, where it is trucked to
-the dumps. At Chino, much of the waste rock contains some copper. The
-amount is small, but a part of it can be recovered by leaching-percolating
-water down through the rock to dissolve the copper. At the bottom of the
-dumps, the copper-rich water is collected and sent through precipitating
-tanks containing scrap iron. The copper plates out on the iron, forming
-metallic copper. The dump-leaching program alone at Chino is a substantial
-enterprise.</p>
-<p>The concentrator and smelter at Hurley is the facility which reduces
-the low-grade ore into pure metal. The concentrator first crushes and
-grinds the ore, then recovers the copper-bearing minerals (principally
-chalcocite and chalcopyrite) by flotation. The concentrate of these copper
-sulfides is taken to the smelter to make metallic copper.</p>
-<p>North and west of the Chino mine are important deposits of zinc
-and lead. Two underground mines are now active: the Hanover of the
-New Jersey Zinc Company and the Kearney&mdash;Pewabic of American&mdash;Peru
-Mining Company. Although dwarfed by the Chino mine, these are important
-producers.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_152">152</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig68">
-<img src="images/p52.jpg" alt="" width="846" height="600" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Courtesy The Anaconda Co.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Man, dig this hole!... Jackpile open-pit uranium mine near Laguna</span></p>
-</div>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_153">153</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig69">
-<img src="images/p52a.jpg" alt="" width="626" height="800" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Courtesy Kennecott Copper Corp.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">&ldquo;Just scoop up copper ore, take it to the skipway....&rdquo; up the side of the Chino Mine at Santa Rita</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Copper, potash, and uranium are not the only mining operations of
-New Mexico. Perlite is recovered from deposits near No Agua in Taos
-County and just north of Grants. Two new gypsum plants are now operating
-<span class="pb" id="Page_154">154</span>
-northeast of Albuquerque, and a cement plant is located east of that
-city. High-grade copper veins are worked south of Lordsburg. Coal mining
-is being reactivated, with producing mines near Gallup, Fruitland, and
-Raton. A new molybdenum mine is under development east of Questa.
-New Mexico&rsquo;s mineral industry is on a broad and firm base.</p>
-<p>Mines and derricks are ever-present aspects of New Mexico&rsquo;s landscapes;
-they are seen by every citizen of the state and every tourist as he
-travels across the plains, valleys, and mountains. The derricks and the
-mine openings are merely surface features through which the vast wealth
-of the underground is exploited, but they are a monetarily important part
-of New Mexico&rsquo;s scenery, rocks, and history.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_155">155</div>
-<h2 id="c19"><span class="small">Enchanting Landscapes</span></h2>
-<p class="center"><i>by</i> <span class="sc">Frank E. Kottlowski</span></p>
-<p>The visitor and the native may be well acquainted with the more
-famous scenic places in New Mexico. Most of these are National or State
-Parks or Monuments&mdash;glistening dunes of White Sands, sandstone cliffs
-of El Morro, canyons eroded in volcanic rocks of Bandelier, the recent
-volcano of Capulin Mountain, multicolored sinkholes at Bottomless Lakes,
-grotesque carvings of volcanic rocks at City of Rocks, and the black tongues
-of cooled lava in the Valley of Fires State Park near Carrizozo.</p>
-<p>Many of the lesser-known spectacular scenic areas are off the beaten
-path, far from the seventy-mile-an-hour Interstate highways. Even a brief
-description of all would fill a thick book. But near the most traveled routes
-are numerous enchanting landscapes. The traveler from the midwest or
-east, driving U.S. Highway 66 (Interstate 40) breaks over the edge of
-the &ldquo;caprock&rdquo; a few miles east of the New Mexico&mdash;Texas line. Atop the
-caprock is Llano Estacado, the Staked Plains, a level surface stretching
-along the southeast edge of New Mexico eastward into Texas. As seen
-south of Tucumcari near Ragland, east of Fort Sumner near Taiban, or
-east of Roswell near Kenna and Caprock, the bluffs of the Llano Estacado
-are topped by caprock, a cliff of white caliche-limestone as much as forty
-feet thick in places. Below, on gentle to steep slopes reaching northward
-toward Tucumcari or westward toward Fort Sumner and Roswell, are the
-varicolored red, purple, green, and gray shales and sandstones of Triassic
-age. Red Lake near Taiban on U.S. Highway 60-84 lies in the red muds
-of these Triassic rocks.</p>
-<p>South of Tucumcari, rising boldly from the red-earth lowlands draining
-to the Canadian River, are Tucumcari Mountain and Mesa Redonda,
-and to the northwest the long buff cliffs of Mesa Rica. The latter mesa
-lies north of Interstate 40 as far west as Newkirk. Patches of the white
-caprock caliche-limestone cap these eastern New Mexico sentinels, whereas
-in other localities, the brown Dakota Sandstone tops the buttes and is
-underlain by pink Jurassic sandstones, with the mesa bases made up of the
-Triassic redbeds.</p>
-<p>Near Santa Rosa, Interstate 40 dips down into the narrow green valley
-of Rio Pecos. Roadcuts lining the steep hills into the city show the red
-and brown sandstones and shales of the Triassic beds.</p>
-<p>Driving westward from Santa Rosa, one crosses rolling hills near Clines
-Corners, then dips gently down into the northern part of the Estancia
-Basin near Moriarty. To the north on the horizon are the snow-capped
-peaks of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. From Moriarty, Interstate 40
-pulls slowly upward toward Edgewood into the eastern foothills of the
-Sandia Mountains, the grassy plains giving way to juniper and pi&ntilde;on
-groves.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_156">156</div>
-<p>From the downgrade into Tijeras Canyon, State Highway 10 leads
-north to San Antonito and the turnoff to Sandia Crest. The crest road
-winds up canyon walls, on sloping limestone mesas, up through thick
-stands of ponderosa pine, aspen, and, near the top, Engelmann spruce and
-corkbark fir. Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep may be seen off the road
-on the high crags. From Sandia Crest, 10,678 feet above sea level, much
-of north-central New Mexico is visible; Mount Taylor to the west, the
-Nacimiento and Jemez mountains to the northwest, the mighty Sangre de
-Cristo Mountains to the northeast, and countless ranges to the south and
-southwest. The city of Albuquerque is spread out at the base of the
-Sandias, and the twisting north-south channel of the Rio Grande stretches,
-glistening, as far left and right as one can see.</p>
-<p>From Tijeras, Interstate 40 plunges into Tijeras Canyon, slicing through
-vertical roadcuts in Pennsylvanian limestones and shales, then through the
-ancient Precambrian granite. At the canyons mouth, the road levels off
-on the broad alluvial plain on which much of east Albuquerque is built,
-although the &ldquo;downtown&rdquo; is really down, in the valley of the Rio Grande.</p>
-<p>Westward, Interstate 40 rolls up out of the valley, crosses windswept
-plains spotted with black volcanic cones, in and out of the shallow brown
-valley of Rio Puerco, and then to the red-cliff-bordered valley of Rio
-San Jose. Cliffs are of brown, buff, and light-gray Jurassic sandstones, with
-the valley carved in Triassic redbeds. Near Laguna, on the north side
-of the valley, white gypsum of the Todilto Formation crops out. Then
-through the pink Jurassic cliffs the canyon winds, and near New Laguna,
-the highway is bordered by the varicolored, uranium-bearing Morrison
-beds, which are overlain by brown sandstones and black shales of Cretaceous
-age.</p>
-<p>But as Interstate 40 approaches Grants, the dominant feature is black
-frozen lava. The mesas surrounding Mount Taylor are capped by black
-basalt, built up in many layers, each individual flows, and loose blocks
-tumble down on the hillsides. Young basalt, twisted and wrinkled as if
-it were still hot, winds along the valley; just east of Grants, a huge &ldquo;field&rdquo;
-of this recent basalt stretches southward beyond the horizon. And above
-all looms Mount Taylor, remnant of an ancient volcano, snow-capped
-in winter, towering 11,389 feet above sea level.</p>
-<p>At Casa Blanca, southeast of Mount Taylor, State Road 23 leads south
-to Acoma Pueblo. Eleven miles to the southwest, Enchanted Mesa, <i>Katsim</i>
-as it is called by the Acomas, towers 450 feet above the surrounding
-valley floor. This sheer-cliffed rock is built by layers of (from the base to
-the top) pink and white Entrada Sandstone, gray Todilto limestone, pink
-and green Summerville beds, a massive cliff of light-tan Zuni Sandstone,
-and a cap of yellow-brown Dakota Sandstone.</p>
-<p>The top of Enchanted Mesa is inaccessible by normal means. Legend
-has it that once the Acomas lived there, and there are Indian ruins up on
-the isolated rim. A terrific rain and lightning storm, one summer day, sent
-huge waterfalls down the sides of the mesa, tearing away large blocks
-of sandstone, and destroyed the trail to the top, a series of narrow zigzag
-<span class="pb" id="Page_157">157</span>
-ledges and toeholds in crevasses. Thus the Acoma Indians moved a few
-miles to the southwest to Acoma, onto the top of another sheer cliff, a rock
-fortress carved in Zuni Sandstone and capped by Dakota Sandstone.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig70">
-<img src="images/p53.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="572" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="sc">Talk about wide open spaces ... around the Enchanted Mesa</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>Southwest of Grants, the forested Zuni Mountains rise, bordered on
-the north by a valley cut in Triassic redbeds and on the east by the recent
-black basalt flows. The hurrying traveler will follow Interstate 40 to
-Gallup around the north edge of the Zuni dome, flanked on the north
-by the spectacular pink, red, brown, and gray cliffs of Jurassic and Cretaceous
-sandstones. If one has time, take the low road, State Highways 53
-and 36, around the southern edge of the Zunis. For almost twenty miles,
-passing through San Rafael, the paved highway parallels the west edge of
-the Grants black basalt flow; then up over low ridges and past black cinder
-cones toward El Morro. In the lava tunnels, perpetual ice stays hidden from
-the sun; these can be visited at Ice Caves.</p>
-<p>El Morro, Inscription Rock, with its towering cliffs of Zuni Sandstone,
-overlooks peaceful green valleys; farther west, the red and brown sandstones
-are carved into many mesas and buttes near Zuni Pueblo. Then
-northward to Gallup, swinging around the west edge of the Zuni Mountains,
-the roller-coaster highway, State 36, cuts through ponderosa pine
-country, bordered by Cretaceous brown sandstones, black shales, and coal
-beds.</p>
-<p>Northeast of Gallup eight miles is Kit Carson&rsquo;s Cave, a gaping door
-on the face of a massive cliff of Jurassic sandstone. A pool of cool water
-lies along its floor. The three-and-a-half-mile drive north of Interstate 40
-<span class="pb" id="Page_158">158</span>
-is through a vast broken country of sandstone spires, pyramids, cliffs, and
-ledges carved in the Jurassic rocks. Near Gallup, the drab coal-bearing
-Cretaceous beds form the landscapes, but westward near the Arizona line,
-erosion has cut down again to the brilliantly colored Jurassic rocks, and
-Interstate 40 is escorted westward into the Grand Canyon State by cliffs
-of white and pink sandstone.</p>
-<p>Californians crossing New Mexico in the winter are likely to travel
-U.S. Highway 70-80 (Interstate 10) eastward. New Mexico is entered
-just before Steins Pass, which is channeled through the tan and green
-volcanic rocks of the Peloncillo Mountains. Then down across the mud
-and salt marshes of Alkali Flats lying in the Animas Valley and up onto
-the north edge of the Pyramid Mountains into Lordsburg. Mine dumps dot
-the Pyramids, and the ghost mining town of Shakespeare lies amid the
-purple volcanic rocks.</p>
-<p>Eastward from Lordsburg for 118 miles are the Antelope Plains; plains,
-plains, plains. Steers graze on the sparse grass, yucca clumps border the
-highway, and here and there sand dunes flee before the restless winds.
-Mountain ranges, like islands on the sea of grass, yucca, and creosote
-bush, rise in the distance. West of Deming, the low Victorio Mountains
-lie south of the highway, made up of dolomite, limestone, and andesite
-ridges. Southeast of Deming are the lofty Florida Mountains, their northern
-toe crossed by Interstate 10. Volcanic hills dot the landscape east of
-Las Cruces, Sierra de las Uvas&rsquo; purple slopes to the north, and the Potrillo
-Mountains and Mount Riley to the south. The latter are part of a spectacular
-volcanic field where black cinder cones and basalt flows cover hundreds
-of square miles, and craters such as Kilbourne Hole are sunk below
-the plains.</p>
-<p>The descent into the Rio Grande Valley is awesome, especially if the
-late afternoon sun is dancing on the spires and cliffs of the Organ Mountains
-to the east. From across the brown plains, Interstate 10 winds down
-into the green Mesilla Valley, a different world of cotton and alfalfa fields,
-pecan and cottonwood groves, and red-tile-roofed Spanish homes. The
-view of the Organ Mountains alone is worth the trip.</p>
-<p>At Las Cruces, a city booming on cotton, rockets, and tourists, Interstate
-10 turns south to parallel the east side of the Rio Grande Valley
-down to Texas and El Paso. If one prefers a quiet scenic route, State
-Highway 28 winds its way along the west side of the Valley amid fields
-and groves, through peaceful villages, to end at the bridge over the Rio
-Grande on the edge of El Paso. Here, to the south, is El Cristo Rey, a cone
-of massive andesite, flanked by steeply tilted beds of limestone and shale,
-Early Cretaceous in age, cut in two by the New Mexico-Mexico border.
-Atop the peak is a 29-foot-high, 40-ton, limestone statue of Christ; a
-winding path leads upward from the base for those strong enough of limb
-to make the climb. Beyond, to the south, Ciudad Juarez lies, famous for
-its bordertown flavor, markets, cathedrals, and bull rings.</p>
-<p>The traveler to the east should stay on U.S. 62-180 from El Paso. This
-highway cuts through the Hueco Mountains via Powwow Canyon, a gash
-<span class="pb" id="Page_159">159</span>
-carved from Pennsylvanian and Permian limestones, crosses the Diablo
-Plateau, rolls past the white patches of Salt Flat lakes, then winds up to
-the summit of Guadalupe Pass between the Delaware Mountains on the
-south and the towering Guadalupe Mountains on the north. Looking
-north from the Pass, Guadalupe Peak, highest point in Texas, and El
-Capitan are unforgettable sights, their steep lower slopes ribbed brown and
-green, overshadowed by the 1000-foot limestone cliffs of the peaks. The
-limestone-hewn Guadalupe Mountains parallel the highway in New Mexico
-and are pitted with many caves, with Carlsbad Caverns the largest
-known in the range. Eastward beyond the Pecos Valley stretches the Great
-Plains and Texas.</p>
-<p>A side trip, near Carlsbad, over black-topped and gravel roads leads
-from Seven Rivers, up Rocky Arroyo on State Road 137, into the northern
-foothills of the Guadalupe Mountains to Sitting Bull Falls. Here, cool
-spring waters cascade over limestone ledges to join in green pools lying
-amid the cottonwood groves of the canyon floor.</p>
-<p>Lake McMillan, a reservoir along the Pecos River north of Carlsbad,
-and the many potash mines east of Carlsbad are parts of the enchanting
-landscapes of this southeastern corner. Northward, following the green
-cotton fields bordering the Pecos River, U.S. Highway 285 leads through
-Artesia with its oil refineries to modern booming Roswell, second
-city of the state. East of Roswell, bordering the east side of the Pecos
-Valley, is Bottomless Lakes, azure blue pools spotted in sink holes.</p>
-<p>Eastward from Roswell, on either U.S. Highway 70 or 380, redbeds
-of Permian and Triassic age lie half hidden by pinkish sands up to the
-edge of the caprock; beyond are the fertile grazing and crop lands of the
-Llano Estacado, with its queen cities of Clovis and Portales. Here, deep
-wells pump underground waters to irrigate lush fields that produce peanuts,
-tomatoes, sweet potatoes, melons, strawberries, cucumbers, and
-grapes. On the plains beyond the reach of the wells, wheat, maize, and
-broomcorn are grown. Southeastward, oil derricks dot the plains, surrounding
-Hobbs and Lovington.</p>
-<p>Westward from Roswell, U.S. Highways 70 and 380 run together up
-the rolling limestone hills west of the Pecos Valley before plunging down
-Picacho Hill into the narrow canyon of Rio Hondo. At Hondo they
-divide. U.S. Highway 380 leads northwestward through Lincoln town,
-Billy the Kid&rsquo;s shooting grounds, into Capitan, over Indian Divide, and
-down into sleepy Carrizozo&mdash;paralleled by the forested peaks of Capitan
-Mountains to the north and overshadowed by mighty Sierra Blanca to the
-southwest. U.S. Highway 70 runs up the green canyon of Rio Ruidoso,
-past Ruidoso Downs, past State Highway 37 which leads to Ruidoso and
-the Sierra Blanca Ski Area, up into the ponderosa pines, crossing the divide
-at Apache Summit, then westward and downhill past Mescalero, paralleling
-Rio Tularosa. Suddenly the canyon widens, and ahead is the dry
-Tularosa Basin with the White Sands glistening in the far distance.</p>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_160">160</div>
-<div class="img" id="fig71">
-<img src="images/p54.jpg" alt="" width="654" height="801" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>Forest Service, U.S.D.A.</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Now this is what is meant by forest.... from Monjeau Lookout</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>From Tularosa to Alamogordo, U.S. Highway 70 is along the west
-edge of the Sacramento Mountains wherein tier upon tier of dolomite
-and limestone cliffs rise to the high peaks near Cloudcroft. Southwestward
-from Alamogordo, the highway cuts diagonally across the Tularosa Basin,
-skirting the southern edge of the White Sands, and passing through White
-Sands Missile Range. Ahead lie the fabulous spires of the Organ Mountains;
-to the right, the notched cliffs of the San Andres Mountains stretch
-northward to rounded Salinas Peak and beyond the horizon. Steeply, the
-highway rises to cross San Augustin Pass between the Organ and San
-Andres mountains, past the village of Organ with its crumbling mining
-dumps, before plunging downward onto the southern end of Jornada del
-<span class="pb" id="Page_161">161</span>
-Muerto, and finally, on the east edge of Las Cruces, leaves the creosote
-bush plains to dip into the green Mesilla Valley of the Rio Grande.</p>
-<p>West of Carrizozo, U.S. 380 crosses the black basalt flows of Valley of
-Fires State Park, curves over the Carrizozo dome and up the dip slopes
-of Chupadera Mesa, crosses in red roadcuts the northern tip of Sierra
-Oscura, then westward through sand dunes of the northern Jornada del
-Muerto. Coal beds crop out at Cerro Colorado before the highway sweeps
-down into the Rio Grande Valley to San Antonio.</p>
-<p>U.S. Highway 60 enters the state from the east on the Staked Plains
-near booming Clovis, crosses Rio Pecos Valley at Fort Sumner&mdash;near Billy
-the Kid&rsquo;s grave&mdash;goes straight as a beeline over the plains to Vaughn, then
-crosses the low southern end of the Pedernal Hills where tan Permian
-sandstones lie abruptly on Precambrian granite, quartzite, and schists. Near
-Willard, the highway crosses the southern end of the Estancia Valley,
-with the salt lakes of Laguna del Perro mere remnants of the huge Pleistocene
-lake that once filled the Valley. West from Mountainair, Abo redbeds
-border the highway; limestone walls of Gran Quivira lie to the south
-and the red sandstone church ruins of Abo and Quarai are to the north.
-Through Abo Pass between the Manzano and Los Pinos mountains the
-highway runs, then down the long alluvial fan slopes to the Rio Grande
-Valley at Bernardo. From Bernardo to Socorro, U.S. Highway 60 joins
-Interstate 25; westward from Socorro, the road climbs out of the Valley
-onto Snake Ranch Flats, parallels the snow-tipped Magdalena Mountains
-to Magdalena, then crosses the north end of the grassy San Agustin Plains.
-Westward to Datil and Quemado, the highway is always in sight of volcanic
-mountains, up and down winding canyons, and across intermontane
-plains.</p>
-<p>Still westward into Arizona along U.S. Highway 60 are Springerville,
-fabulous Salt River Canyon, the mining cities of Globe, Miami, and
-Superior, and booming Phoenix.</p>
-<p>Into this west-central New Mexico country of volcanic peaks and grassy
-plains comes U.S. Highway 180 from Deming northwestward. Along
-the scenic, winding route are City of Rocks, the copper smelter at Hurley,
-Santa Rita&rsquo;s huge open-pit copper mine, famous Silver City, colorful canyons
-of the Gila and San Francisco rivers, and, crossed by passes or bordering
-all routes, the rugged rhyolite, andesite, and basalt ledges and cliffs.</p>
-<p>From El Paso to Raton Pass, 515 miles, U.S. Highway 85 (Interstate
-25) crosses New Mexico from south to north, from Mexico to Colorado.
-As far as La Bajada Hill, between Albuquerque and Santa Fe, the highway
-parallels the Rio Grande. Northward from El Paso, past Las Cruces
-to Radium Springs and old Fort Selden, the green Mesilla Valley borders
-the route; then through Selden Canyon into the Hatch Valley near San
-Diego Mountain, and along the west side of the bold cliffs of the Caballo
-Mountains, past Caballo Reservoir to Truth or Consequences (old Hot
-Springs). Eastward lies Elephant Butte Dam and reservoir; the road cuts
-across alluvial plains to the west of the Rio Grande all the way to Albuquerque,
-with the mountains to the west the San Mateo, Magdalena,
-<span class="pb" id="Page_162">162</span>
-Socorro, and Ladron and to the east, the Fra Cristobal, Los Pinos, and
-Manzano.</p>
-<p>Intersecting Interstate 40 at Albuquerque, the Pan-American Central
-Highway, Interstate 25 crosses to the east side of the Rio Grande, the
-sheer cliffs of the Sandia Mountains to the east and the distant dark green
-Jemez Mountains to the northwest. Crossing Galisteo Creek northeast
-of Santo Domingo Pueblo, Interstate 25 turns toward the northeast, climbs
-La Bajada Hill, onto the green plains sloping from Santa Fe. Santa Fe,
-the ancient capital city, is nestled on the edge of the Sangre de Cristo
-Mountains. Southeastward and eastward, U.S. Highway 85 (to be Interstate
-25 here) rolls, skirting the southern end of the Sangre de Cristo
-Mountains, wedged in by the north-facing cliffs of Glorieta Mesa, through
-Glorieta Pass, where the Confederates lost the battle for the Southwest,
-across the upper reaches of Rio Pecos, and around to Las Vegas. Then in
-straight lines across the western edges of the Great Plains where they lap
-up onto the Sangre de Cristo ranges, through Wagon Mound and Springer
-to Raton. The climb up-canyon to Raton Pass, through roadcuts of brown
-sandstone, shale, and coal, leads into Colorado, with a view of much of
-southern Colorado from the Pass.</p>
-<p>Many routes lead northward from ancient Santa Fe. U.S. Highway
-285 crosses the high divide near Bishop&rsquo;s Lodge, follows Rio Tesuque to
-Pojoaque, crosses the Rio Grande near Espanola amid varicolored badlands
-cut in the Santa Fe rocks, then heads northward on the black basalt plateau
-toward Colorado. Black Mesa, a volcanic neck, lies south of Espanola,
-overlooking the green Rio Grande Valley; atop this height, Pueblo Indians
-once defied Spanish guns until they starved. Northward, near Tres Piedras,
-the Ortega and Brazos ranges tower to the west, the perlite-rich hills
-of No Agua lie to the northeast, and across the basalt plains cut by the
-Rio Grande, the lofty, snow-capped Sangre de Cristo Mountains loom.</p>
-<p>At Pojoaque, State Road 4 leads westward, across Otowi bridge of
-the Rio Grande, then winds up into the canyon and mesa country bordering
-the Jemez Mountains. Herein lie Bandelier and Los Alamos, one
-with ancient abandoned pueblos, the other the atomic city. Farther west,
-the road crosses the rim of an ancient volcano into Valle Grande, the
-crater of that volcano&mdash;some 16 miles across. When this volcano spewed
-forth hot ashes about a million years ago, the volcanic dust was wind-blown
-as far as Kansas and Nebraska!</p>
-<p>At Espanola, U.S. Highway 84 breaks away to the northwest to follow
-Rio Chama in its canyon carved from redbeds near Abiquiu, past the
-interesting museum at Ghost Ranch&mdash;where bones of Triassic dinosaurs
-are collected&mdash;Echo Amphitheater, El Vado Lake, through Chama, and on
-up into the San Juan Mountains country of southern Colorado.</p>
-<p>Near Espanola, U.S. Highway 64 splits off to the northeast; this is the
-high road of north-central New Mexico. Paralleling the canyon of the
-Rio Grande to Pilar, the highway climbs up onto the Taos plateau to
-Taos, turns eastward to cut through the Sangre de Cristo Mountains over
-Palo Flechado Pass, down into the grassy Moreno Valley to Eagle Nest
-<span class="pb" id="Page_163">163</span>
-and Eagle Nest Lake, then eastward again following the narrow canyon
-of the Cimarron River to Cimarron and Raton. A loop trip northward
-from Eagle Nest on State 38 goes through ghost town Elizabethtown, over
-Red River Pass, and down the varicolored canyon of Red River to Questa,
-before turning southward toward Taos.</p>
-<div class="img" id="fig72">
-<img src="images/p55.jpg" alt="" width="800" height="658" />
-<p class="pcap"><span class="small">(<i>U.S. Park Service</i>)</span><br /><span class="sc">Subdivision living, pueblo style&mdash;at Aztec National Monument</span></p>
-</div>
-<p>And there is the northwest, the Four Corners region, land of Navajos
-and gas wells, presided over by magnificent Shiprock. State Highway 44
-leaves Interstate 25 at Bernalillo, follows Rio Salado to San Ysidro, which
-nestles at the south tip of the Nacimiento Mountains below White Mesa,
-thence northwestward past Cabezon Peak and coaly La Ventana to Cuba
-in the valley of Rio Puerco. Then, up and down, the winding highway
-cuts transversely across the San Juan Basin, through pine groves at the
-Continental Divide, past the side road to Chaco Canyon National Monument
-at Blanco Trading Post, and among the multicolored Tertiary beds
-carved into badlands. At Bloomfield, oil and gas wells lie all about, and
-the mesa-and-canyon country gives way to the valley of the San Juan
-River. At Aztec, State Road 44 joins U.S. Highway 550 in the narrow
-valley of the Animas River&mdash;a clear cold stream sent rushing down from
-the icy lakes of the San Juan Mountains to the north. Eastward a few
-miles lies Navajo Lake along the San Juan River; northward, U. S. 550
-<span class="pb" id="Page_164">164</span>
-winds up the Animas Valley toward Durango, high Silverton, and Mesa
-Verde National Park. Aztec Ruins National Monument is just to the
-northwest of Aztec.</p>
-<p>Westward from Aztec, U.S. Highway 550 follows the Animas River
-to its junction with the San Juan River, then past the huge Navajo coal
-mine, a long open cut near Fruitland, to junction with U.S. Highway
-666 at Shiprock.</p>
-<p>Shiprock! A buttressed needle, towering 1450 vertical feet above Navajo-land,
-with walls of black igneous rock radiating from its feet like spokes
-on a wheel. This dark-colored spire once filled the throat of a volcano.
-Where are piles of rocks, hundreds of feet thick, that once surrounded it?
-Down the river they went, down the San Juan to the Colorado River,
-and thence to the ocean.</p>
-<p>To the west, as a background, are the forested Carrizo, Lukachukai,
-and Chuska mountains. Off to the east lies Hogback Mountain, an upturned
-ridge of sedimentary rocks producing oil&mdash;the petroleum geologist&rsquo;s
-favorite haunt, an anticline.</p>
-<p>Southward from Shiprock, U.S. 666 passes other volcanic necks such
-as Bennett Peak and Ford Butte. North of Gallup, State Road 68 leads
-westward to Window Rock (Arizona), the Indian Headquarters of the
-Navajo Reservation. Near Gallup, coal beds of Late Cretaceous age crop
-out, Gamerco once being a booming coal-mining town. Now huge dragline
-shovels scoop out the coal from open pits to the northwest of Gallup.
-And at Gallup, the Indian Capital, a loop drive around the San Juan Basin
-is completed; Interstate 40, old U.S. Highway 66, goes eastward to Albuquerque,
-St. Louis, and Chicago, and westward to Grand Canyon, Los
-Angeles, and the blue Pacific.</p>
-<p>Many other scenic places dot the Land of Enchantment; local hosts,
-rancher or city dweller, know of these. Mountain meadows, rushing
-streams, rocky peaks, desert valleys, badlands, grassy plains, thick forests,
-spectacular chasms, needle rocks, and brilliant colors&mdash;they are all here in
-New Mexico.</p>
-<h2><span class="small">Footnotes</span></h2>
-<div class="fnblock"><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_1" href="#fr_1">[1]</a>New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_2" href="#fr_2">[2]</a>National Park Service.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_3" href="#fr_3">[3]</a>Forest Service, Southwestern Region, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_4" href="#fr_4">[4]</a>Information on monuments and parks developed since this publication was first printed may be obtained from The New Mexico State Park and Recreation Commission, Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_5" href="#fr_5">[5]</a>New Mexico Department of Game and Fish.
-</div><div class="fndef"><a class="fn"  id="fn_6" href="#fr_6">[6]</a>K&#8322;O is the common unit used in pricing and assaying potassium salts. However,
-the potash is sold as purified potassium chloride or sulfate.
-</div>
-</div>
-<table class="center" summary="">
-<tr><td class="r"><i>Composition</i>: </td><td class="l">Linotype Fairfield</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">Text&mdash;10/11</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">Index&mdash;8/9 (reduced to 6/7)</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">Display heads&mdash;18 pt. Bulmer italic</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"><i>Presswork</i>: </td><td class="l">38&Prime; Miehle Single Color Offset</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">29&Prime; Harris Single Color Offset</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"><i>Binding</i>: </td><td class="l">Smyth sewn and glued</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"><i>Paper</i>: </td><td class="l">Text&mdash;70# white matte</td></tr>
-<tr><td class="r"> </td><td class="l">Cover&mdash;12 pt. Kivar</td></tr>
-</table>
-<div class="pb" id="Page_165">165</div>
-<h2 id="c20"><span class="small"><i>Index</i></span></h2>
-<p class="center"><a class="ab" href="#index_A">A</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_B">B</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_C">C</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_D">D</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_E">E</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_F">F</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_G">G</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_H">H</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_I">I</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_J">J</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_K">K</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_L">L</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_M">M</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_N">N</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_O">O</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_P">P</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_Q">Q</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_R">R</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_S">S</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_T">T</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_U">U</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_V">V</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_W">W</a> <span class="ab">X</span> <a class="ab" href="#index_Y">Y</a> <a class="ab" href="#index_Z">Z</a></p>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_A"><b>A</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Abiquiu">Abiquiu</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Abo">Abo</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</dt>
-<dd>church, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pass, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Redbeds, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dd>
-<dd>State Monument, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Acevedo">Acevedo</a>, Fray Francisco de, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Acoma">Acoma</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Indian, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</dd>
-<dd><a id="index_AcomaPueblo">Pueblo</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Agave">agave</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_AguaChiquita">Agua Chiquita</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_AguasCalientes">Aguas Calientes</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_AlamoCanyon">Alamo Canyon</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Alamogordo">Alamogordo</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Creek, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</dd>
-<dd><a id="index_AlamogordoLake">Lake State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Reservoir, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Albuquerque">Albuquerque</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-45, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Alfalfa">alfalfa</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Algae">algae</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_AlkaliFlats">Alkali Flats</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_AlluvialFan">alluvial fan</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Alma">Alma</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Alpine">Alpine</a> [Zone], <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_AmbrosiaLakeDistrict">Ambrosia Lake District</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_AmericanGypsumCompany">American Gypsum Company</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ammonites">ammonites</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Amphibians">amphibians</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Anasazi">Anasazi</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Basketmakers, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Indians, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Andesite">andesite</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Anhydrite">anhydrite</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Animas">Animas</a></dt>
-<dd>Formation, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></dd>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dd>Valley, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Antelope">antelope</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Apache">Apache</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a> (<i>see also</i> under tribal names);</dt>
-<dd>Canyon, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Creek, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</dd>
-<dd>National Forest, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</dd>
-<dd>plume, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Reservation, map <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Summit, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Tejo, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Aragonite">aragonite</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ArcheologicalSites">archeological sites</a>, map <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ArcticAlpineZone">Arctic-alpine Zone</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a> (<i>see also</i> <a href="#index_Alpine">Alpine</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ArkansasRiver">Arkansas River</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ArmyOfTheWest">Army of the West</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ArroyoHondo">Arroyo Hondo</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ArroyoPenascoFormation">Arroyo Penasco Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Artemisia">artemisia</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Artesia">Artesia</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Group, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Aspen">aspen</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Athapascan">Athapascan</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dt>
-<dt><i>atlatl</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Avalon">Avalon</a> Reservoir, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Aztec">Aztec</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</dt>
-<dd><a id="index_AztecRuins">Ruins National Monument</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_B"><b>B</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BacaFormation">Baca Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Badger">badger</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bajada">bajada</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bandelier">Bandelier</a> National Monument, illus. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>-85, illus. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BandtailPigeon">bandtail pigeon</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="#index_Doves">doves</a>)</dt>
-<dt>barite, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BarellaMesa">Barella Mesa</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Basalt">basalt</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Basin">basin</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a> (<i>see also</i> under proper names: <a href="#index_Delaware">Delaware</a>, <a href="#index_Galisteo">Galisteo</a>, <a href="#index_Gallina">Gallina</a>, <a href="#index_Great">Great</a>, <a href="#index_Largo">Largo</a>, <a href="#index_Orogrande">Orogrande</a>, <a href="#index_Paradox">Paradox</a>, <a href="#index_SanJuan">San Juan</a>, <a href="#index_Tularosa">Tularosa</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bass">bass</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bats">bats</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BattleOfValVerde">Battle of Val Verde</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BattleshipRock">Battleship Rock</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Baylor">Baylor</a>, Col. J. B., <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Beans">beans</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bear">bear</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</dt>
-<dd>state mammal, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Beargrass">beargrass</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Beaver">beaver</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Beaverhead">Beaverhead</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BeaverNationalForest">Beaver National Forest</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Belemnoids">belemnoids</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Benavides">Benavides</a>, Fray Alonso de, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><i>Ben Hur</i>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BennettPeak">Bennett Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bent">Bent</a>, Governor Charles, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Bent&rsquo;s Fort, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_BernalFormation">Bernal Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bernalillo">Bernalillo</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bernardo">Bernardo</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Beryl">beryl</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BidahochiFormation">Bidahochi Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BigDogCanyon">Big Dog Canyon</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BigHatchet">Big Hatchet</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BillyTheKid">Billy the Kid</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bioherm">bioherm</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Biotite">biotite</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Birds">birds</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-31, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BishopsLodge">Bishop&rsquo;s Lodge</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bison">bison</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BlackGold">black &ldquo;gold</a>,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Black">Black</a></dt>
-<dd>Mesa, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd><a id="index_BlackRange">Range</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dd>
-<dd>River Valley, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_BlackwaterDraw">Blackwater Draw</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BlancoBasinFormation">Blanco Basin Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BlancoTradingPost">Blanco Trading Post</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BlissSandstone">Bliss Sandstone</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bloomfield">Bloomfield</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bluebird">bluebird</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BlueSpruce">blue spruce</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bluewater">Bluewater</a> Lake, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</dt>
-<dd><a id="index_BluewaterLake">State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Bobcat">bobcat</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BoneSpringFormation">Bone Spring Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BonitoCreek">Bonito Creek</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BosqueRedondo">Bosque Redondo</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bottomless">Bottomless</a> Lakes, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dt>
-<dd><a id="index_BottomlessLakes">State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Botts">Botts</a>, Judge C. M., <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Brachiopods">brachiopods</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Brachiosaurus">Brachiosaurus</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Brazos">Brazos</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BrazosRiverValley">Brazos River Valley</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bream">bream</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Broomcorn">broomcorn</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Bryozoans">bryozoans</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Buffalo">buffalo</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BuffaloDance">Buffalo Dance</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_BugScuffleHill">Bug Scuffle Hill</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Burro">Burro</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ButterfieldTrail">Butterfield Trail</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_C"><b>C</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Caballo">Caballo</a></dt>
-<dd><a id="index_CaballoLake">Lake State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dd>Reservoir, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_CabezaDeVaca">Cabeza de Vaca</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CabezonPeak">Cabezon Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cacti">cacti</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Calcite">calcite</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Caldera">caldera</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CaliforniaColumn">California Column</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-74</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Camels">camels</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cambrian">Cambrian</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</dt>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_CaminoReal">Camino Real</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="#index_RoyalRoad">Royal Road</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CanadianRiver">Canadian River</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CanadianZone">Canadian Zone</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Canby">Canby</a>, Col. E. R. S., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Canjilon">Canjilon</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CanyonDeChelly">Canyon de Chelly</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CapilloPeak">Capillo Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Capitan">Capitan</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dt>
-<dd>limestone, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pass, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Reef, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dd>
-<dt>caprock, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt>Caprock [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CapulinMountain">Capul&iacute;n Mountain</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</dt>
-<dd>National Monument, illus. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-82, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_CapulinPeak">Capulin Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CarbonDioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Carlsbad">Carlsbad</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dt>
-<dd>reef limestones, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_CarlsbadCaverns">Carlsbad Caverns</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dt>
-<dd><a id="index_CarlsbadCavernsPark">National Park</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>-78, illus. <a href="#Page_77">77</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Carleton">Carleton</a>, Gen. J. H., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Carnallite">carnallite</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Carp">carp</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Carrizo">Carrizo</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Carrizozo">Carrizozo</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dt>
-<dd>dome, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Carson">Carson</a>, Kit, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a> (<i>see also</i> under <a href="#index_Kit">Kit</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CarsonNationalForest">Carson National Forest</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-95, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CasaBlanca">Casa Blanca</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CasaGrande">Casa Grande</a> [Ariz.], <a href="#Page_126">126</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CastileAnhydrite">Castile Anhydrite</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</dt>
-<dd>gypsum sample, illus. <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Catfish">catfish</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CatronCounty">Catron County</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cattle">cattle</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cedar">cedar</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cement">cement</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> Era, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-38, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</dt>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Centipede">centipede</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CenturyPlant">century plant</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cephalopods">cephalopods</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cerro">Cerro</a></dt>
-<dd>Blanco, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dd>
-<dd>Colorado, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dd>Pedernal, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_ChacoCanyon">Chaco Canyon</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</dt>
-<dd>National Monument, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Chalcocite">chalcocite</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Chalcopyrite">chalcopyrite</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Chama">Chama</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dt>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Charette">Charette</a> Lakes, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Chert">chert</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Chihuahua">Chihuahua</a> [Mexico], <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ChihuahuaDesert">Chihuahua desert</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Chimayo">Chimay&oacute;</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ChinleFormation">Chinle Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ChinoMine">Chino mine</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_153">153</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ChiricahuaApache">Chiricahua Apache</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Chivington">Chivington</a>, Col. John M., <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Chollas">chollas</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ChupaderaMesa">Chupadera Mesa</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Chuska">Chuska</a></dt>
-<dd>Formation, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Cibola">Cibola</a> National Forest, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-99</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CieneguillaCreek">Cieneguilla Creek</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cimarron">Cimarron</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</dt>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Ciniza">Ciniza</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></dt>
-<dt>&ldquo;cities that died of fear,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CityOfRocks">City of Rocks</a> State Park, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CivilWar">Civil War</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-74, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Clams">clams</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Clay">clay</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Clayton">Clayton</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</dt>
-<dd><a id="index_ClaytonLake">Lake State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Cliff">Cliff</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt class="pb" id="Page_166">166</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ClinesCorners">Clines Corners</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cloudcroft">Cloudcroft</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Clovis">Clovis</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Man, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</dd>
-<dd>points, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Coal">coal</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CochiseCulture">Cochise Culture</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cochiti">Cochiti</a>, Ca&ntilde;ada de, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-123</dd>
-<dt><a id="index_CoconinoSandstone">Coconino Sandstone</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Colorado">Colorado</a></dt>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dd>state line, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dd>Volunteers, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_ColumbiteTantalite">columbite-tantalite</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Columbus">Columbus</a> [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Comanche">Comanche</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Conchas">Conchas</a></dt>
-<dd>Dam, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dd>
-<dd><a id="index_ConchasLake">Lake State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-109</dd>
-<dd>Reservoir, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Confederate">Confederate</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dt>
-<dd>campaign, map <a href="#Page_73">73</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Conglomerate">conglomerate</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Conifers">conifers</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt>
-<dt><i>conquistadore</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ContinentalDivide">Continental Divide</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ContinuousMiner">continuous miner</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cony">cony</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CookesCanyonSpring">Cooke&rsquo;s Canyon; Spring</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Copper">copper</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Corals">corals</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Corn">corn</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CornDance">Corn Dance</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CoronadoFranciscoVasquezDe">Coronado (Francisco Vasquez de)</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Coronado">Coronado</a></dt>
-<dd>National Forest, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></dd>
-<dd>State Monument, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Cotton">cotton</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cottonwood">cottonwood</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt>coyote, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt>Coyote [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CoyoteCreek">Coyote Creek</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Crane">crane</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Crappies">crappies</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CreosoteBush">creosote bush</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</dt>
-<dd>beds, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Period, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</dd>
-<dd>sandstone, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</dd>
-<dd>seas, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</dd>
-<dd>time, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Crinoid">crinoid</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Crocodiles">crocodiles</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CrownDance">Crown Dance</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cuba">Cuba</a> [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_CubMountainFormation">Cub Mountain Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Cucumbers">cucumbers</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Culiacan">Culiacan</a> [Mexico], <a href="#Page_6">6</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Culture">Culture</a></dt>
-<dd>Archaic, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Cochise, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Desert, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dd>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_D"><b>D</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_DakotaSandstone">Dakota Sandstone</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Datil">Datil</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Formation, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_DatilMogollonPlateau">Datil-Mogollon plateau</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_DeadMansPeak">Dead Man&rsquo;s Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Deer">deer</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</dt>
-<dd>desert mule, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</dd>
-<dd>mule, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Rocky Mountain mule, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Sonoran fantail, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</dd>
-<dd>whitetail, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_DeLaLlana">de la Llana</a>, Fray Geronimo, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Delaware">Delaware</a></dt>
-<dd>basin, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Deming">Deming</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_DeNiza">de Niza</a>, Fray Marcos, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_DeVargas">de Vargas</a>, don Diego, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Devonian">Devonian</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</dt>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</dd>
-<dd>seas, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</dd>
-<dd>time, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_DeweyLakeRedbeds">Dewey Lake Redbeds</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Diablo">Diablo</a></dt>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></dd>
-<dd>Plateau, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Dinosaur">dinosaur</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Dixon">Dixon</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_DockumGroup">Dockum Group</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Dolomite">dolomite</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_DonaAna">Do&ntilde;a Ana</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</dt>
-<dd>County, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Historical Society, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Doniphan">Doniphan</a>, Col. Alexander W., <a href="#Page_64">64</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Doves">doves</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Dragonflies">dragonflies</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ducks">ducks</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_E"><b>E</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Eagle">eagle</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_EagleCreek">Eagle Creek</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dd><a id="index_EagleNest">Nest</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Lake, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_EarlyHunters">Early Hunters</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Earthquake">earthquake</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_EchoAmphitheater">Echo Amphitheater</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Edgewood">Edgewood</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Eel">eel</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ElCapitan">El Capitan</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ElCristoRey">El Cristo Rey</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ElephantButte">Elephant Butte</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Dam, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dd>
-<dd><a id="index_ElephantButteLake">Lake State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Reservoir, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Elephants">elephants</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Elizabethtown">Elizabethtown</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Elk">elk</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Elkhorn">elkhorn</a> (cacti), <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Elm">elm</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ElMorro">El Morro</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</dt>
-<dd>National Monument, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-90, illus. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_ElPalacio">El Palacio</a> [State Monument], <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-105</dt>
-<dd>(<i>see also</i> <a href="#index_PalaceOfTheGovernors">Palace of the Governors</a>)</dd>
-<dt><a id="index_ElPaso">El Paso</a> [Tex.], <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ElPasoDelNorte">El Paso del Norte</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ElPasoLimestone">El Paso Limestone</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ElRanchito">El Ranchito</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ElRito">El Rito</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</dt>
-<dd>de los Frijoles, illus. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Formation, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_ElVadoDam">El Vado Dam</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt>
-<dd><a id="index_ElVado">Lake</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dd>
-<dd><a id="index_ElVadoLake">State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dd>
-<dd>Reservoir, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Emory">Emory</a>, Lieutenant, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_EnchantedMesa">Enchanted Mesa</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_EngelmannSpruce">Engelmann spruce</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_EntradaSandstone">Entrada Sandstone</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_EscabrosaLimestone">Escabrosa Limestone</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Espanola">Espanola</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_EspejoExpedition">Espejo Expedition</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_EspinasoBeds">Espinaso beds</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Estancia">Estancia</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Basin, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Eunice">Eunice</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Eurypterids">eurypterids</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_F"><b>F</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Farmington">Farmington</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Feldspar">feldspar</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ferns">ferns</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FigTrees">fig trees</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Finch">finch</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Fir">fir</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</dt>
-<dd>corkbark, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Douglas, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Fish">fish</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-118, illus. <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FishersPeak">Fishers Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Flint">flint</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Florida">Florida</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Folsom">Folsom</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</dt>
-<dd><a id="index_FolsomMan">Man</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</dd>
-<dd>State Monument, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</dd>
-<dd>points, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Foraminifers">foraminifers</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FordButte">Ford Butte</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Fort">fort</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-74, map <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt>
-<dt>Fort (<i>see also individual listing</i>)</dt>
-<dd>Bascom, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dd>
-<dd>Defiance [Ariz.], <a href="#Page_90">90</a></dd>
-<dd>Floyd, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dd>
-<dd>Lowell, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dd>
-<dd>Lyon, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dd>
-<dd>McLane, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dd>
-<dd>McRae, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dd>
-<dd>Thorn, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dd>
-<dd>Tularosa, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dd>
-<dd>Webster, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dd>
-<dd>West, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_FortBayard">Fort Bayard</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-72, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Reservation, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_FortBliss">Fort Bliss</a> [Texas], <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FortConrad">Fort Conrad</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FortCraig">Fort Craig</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>-69, illus. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FortCummings">Fort Cummings</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FortFauntleroy">Fort Fauntleroy</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-67, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FortFillmore">Fort Fillmore</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FortMarcy">Fort Marcy</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FortSelden">Fort Selden</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-71, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dt>
-<dd>State Monument, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_FortStanton">Fort Stanton</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-70, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FortSumner">Fort Sumner</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FortUnion">Fort Union</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-66, illus. <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</dt>
-<dd>National Monument, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_FortWingate">Fort Wingate</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-67, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Ordnance Depot, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Fossil">fossil</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</dt>
-<dd>fish, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</dd>
-<dd>hash, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</dd>
-<dd>reefs, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_FourCorners">Four Corners</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Fox">fox</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FraCristobal">Fra Cristobal</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Franciscan">Franciscan</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</dt>
-<dd>missionaries, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Order, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Franklin">Franklin</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="#index_ElPaso">El Paso</a>, Texas)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_FrijolesCanyon">Frijoles Canyon</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Fruitland">Fruitland</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Formation, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_FusselmanDolomite">Fusselman Dolomite</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Fusulinids">fusulinids</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_G"><b>G</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_GadsdenPurchase">Gadsden Purchase</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Gas">gas</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-148, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Galisteo">Galisteo</a> Basin, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></dt>
-<dd>Creek, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd>Formation, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Gallina">Gallina</a> basin, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Gallinas">Gallinas</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dd>Peak, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Gallup">Gallup</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Gamerco">Gamerco</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Geese">geese</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_GemStones">gem stones</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_GeologicHistory">geologic history</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-53</dt>
-<dd>time table, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Geronimo">Geronimo</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_GhostRanch">Ghost Ranch</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Mountain, illus. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Museum, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_GhostTowns">ghost towns</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Gila">Gila</a></dt>
-<dd>Apache, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></dd>
-<dd><a id="index_GilaCliffDwellings">Cliff Dwellings</a> (National Monument), <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dd>
-<dd>Conglomerate, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dd>
-<dd>National Forest, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dd>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dd>Wilderness (Area), <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_GiusewaPueblo">Giusewa Pueblo</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Glacier">glacier</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Glauconite">glauconite</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Glenwood">Glenwood</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Glorieta">Glorieta</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Mesa, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pass, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Sandstone, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Gneiss">gneiss</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Goats">goats</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_GoatSeepReef">Goat Seep Reef</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Gobernador">Gobernador</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt class="pb" id="Page_167">167</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Gold">gold</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Graben">graben</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_GramaGrass">grama grass</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_GranChaco">Gran Chaco</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Granite">granite</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_GranQuivira">Gran Quivira</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dt>
-<dd>National Monument, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Grants">Grants</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Grapes">grapes</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Gravel">gravel</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Greasewood">greasewood</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Great">Great</a></dt>
-<dd>Barrier Reef, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dd>
-<dd>Basin, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dd>
-<dd>Kiva, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></dd>
-<dd>Lakes, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dd>
-<dd>Plains, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Greenstone">greenstone</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Grouse">grouse</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></dt>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dd>Pass, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dd>Peak, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_GulfOfCalifornia">Gulf of California</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Gypsum">gypsum</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</dt>
-<dd>&mdash;anhydrite, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</dd>
-<dd>dunes, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dd>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_H"><b>H</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Halite">halite</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HallOfGiants">Hall of Giants</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_77">77</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HanoverMine">Hanover mine</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HardingPegmatite">Harding pegmatite</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Hatch">Hatch</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Valley, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Hawk">hawk</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Hay">hay</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Helictites">helictites</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HeliographStation">heliograph station</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Helium">helium</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HelmsFormation">Helms Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Hematite">hematite</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Herrera">Herrera</a>, Cristobal de, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HidalgoCounty">Hidalgo County</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HighPlains">High Plains</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Hillsboro">Hillsboro</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Hobbs">Hobbs</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HogbackMountain">Hogback Mountain</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HohokamPeople">Hohokam people</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HollomanAirForceBase">Holloman Air Force Base</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Hondo">Hondo</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Hopewell">Hopewell</a> Lake, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Horse">horse</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Hopi">Hopi</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HotSprings">Hot Springs</a> [N. Mex.] (<i>see</i> <a href="#index_TruthOrConsequences">Truth or Consequences</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Hueco">Hueco</a></dt>
-<dd>Limestone, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Hummingbirds">hummingbirds</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HuntersAndGatherers">Hunters and Gatherers</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Hurley">Hurley</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_HydeMemorial">Hyde Memorial</a> State Park, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_I"><b>I</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_IceCaves">Ice Caves</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ImmaculateConceptionChurch">Immaculate Conception (church)</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Indian">Indian</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-63, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-133, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Divide, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dd>
-<dd>pueblo, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, map <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-133, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</dd>
-<dd>reservations, map <a href="#Page_56">56</a></dd>
-<dt>Inscription Rock (<i>see</i> <a href="#index_ElMorro">El Morro</a>)</dt>
-<dt>Interstate Highway</dt>
-<dd>10: <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dd>
-<dd>25: <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dd>40: <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_InterTribalIndianCeremonial">Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Iron">iron</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Isleta">Isleta</a></dt>
-<dd>del Sur, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dd>
-<dd>San Agustin de, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dd>
-<dd>San Antonio de, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dd>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_J"><b>J</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_JackpilePaguateMine">Jackpile-Paguate mine</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_152">152</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Javelina">javelina</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Jay">jay</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Jemez">Jemez</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Division, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Indians, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Mission, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,</dd>
-<dd class="t">San Diego de, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>,</dd>
-<dd class="t">San Jose de los, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,</dd>
-<dd class="t">San Juan de Los, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-124;</dd>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Springs, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</dd>
-<dd>State Monument, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-107, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Jicarilla">Jicarilla</a></dt>
-<dd>Apache, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dd>
-<dd>Division, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dd>
-<dd>Indian Reservation, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_JohnsonMesa">Johnson Mesa</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_JornadaDelMuerto">Jornada del Muerto</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-161</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_JoshuaTree">Joshua tree</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Juarez">Ju&aacute;rez</a> [Mexico], <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Juniper">juniper</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Jurassic">Jurassic</a></dt>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dd>
-<dd>sandstones, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dd>
-<dd>time, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dd>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_K"><b>K</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_KaiserGypsumCompany">Kaiser Gypsum Company</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_KaiserSteelCorporation">Kaiser Steel Corporation</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_KangarooRats">kangaroo rats</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Kearny">Kearny</a>, Gen. Stephen W., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Kelly">Kelly</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Kenna">Kenna</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_KennecottCopperCompany">Kennecott Copper Company</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Keres">Keres</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Kern">Kern</a>, R. H., <a href="#Page_90">90</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_KilbourneHole">Kilbourne Hole</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Kingston">Kingston</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Kiowas">Kiowas</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_KirtlandShale">Kirtland Shale</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_KitCarsonMemorial">Kit Carson Memorial</a> <a id="index_Kit">State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt>
-<dd>(<i>see also</i> under <a href="#index_Carson">Carson</a>)</dd>
-<dt><a id="index_KitCarsonsCave">Kit Carson&rsquo;s Cave</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Kiva">kiva</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_KneelingNun">Kneeling Nun</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Koehler">Koehler</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Kuaua">Kuaua</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_L"><b>L</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LaBajadaHill">La Bajada Hill</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ladron">Ladron</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt>Laguna, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</dt>
-<dd>del Perro, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Indians, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Mission, San Jose de, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Santa Maria, illus. <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-125;</dd>
-<dd>Reservation, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Lagunitas">Lagunitas</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lakes">Lakes</a> and/or Reservoirs (<i>see</i> individual entries: <a href="#index_Alamogordo">Alamogordo</a>, <a href="#index_Avalon">Avalon</a>, <a href="#index_Bluewater">Bluewater</a>, <a href="#index_Bottomless">Bottomless</a>, <a href="#index_Caballo">Caballo</a>, <a href="#index_Charette">Charette</a>, <a href="#index_Clayton">Clayton</a>, <a href="#index_Conchas">Conchas</a>, <a href="#index_EagleNest">Eagle Nest</a>, <a href="#index_ElephantButte">Elephant Butte</a>, <a href="#index_ElVado">El Vado</a>, <a href="#index_Hopewell">Hopewell</a>, <a href="#index_Lea">Lea</a>, <a href="#index_Lost">Lost</a>, <a href="#index_Lucero">Lucero</a>, <a href="#index_Mcgaffey">McGaffey</a>, <a href="#index_Mcmillan">McMillan</a>, <a href="#index_Miami">Miami</a>, <a href="#index_Morphy">Morphy</a>, <a href="#index_Navajo">Navajo</a>, <a href="#index_Red">Red</a>, <a href="#index_Roberts">Roberts</a>, <a href="#index_SanGregorio">San Gregorio</a>, <a href="#index_Stewart">Stewart</a>, <a href="#index_Storrie">Storrie</a>, <a href="#index_Truchas">Truchas</a>, <a href="#index_Ute">Ute</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lucero">Lake Lucero</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Roberts">Lake Roberts</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LakeValleyLimestone">Lake Valley Limestone</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LaMadera">La Madera</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LaMesilla">La Mesilla</a> State Monument, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LanceolatePoints">lanceolate points</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Langbeinite">langbeinite</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LaramideRevolution">Laramide revolution</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Largo">Largo</a> basin, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LasCruces">Las Cruces</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LasTrampas">Las Trampas</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LasVegas">Las Vegas</a> [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lava">lava</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LaVentana">La Ventana</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lead">lead</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lea">Lea</a> Lake, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Leasburg">Leasburg</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ledoux">Ledoux</a> [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LepidoliteMica">lepidolite mica</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Letrado">Letrado</a>, Father Francisco, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Limestone">limestone</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lincoln">Lincoln</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dt>
-<dd>County Courthouse, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</dd>
-<dd>County War, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</dd>
-<dd>National Forest, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-100;</dd>
-<dd>State Monument, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_LipanApache">Lipan Apache</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LittleBlackPeak">Little Black Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LittleColoradoRiver">Little Colorado River</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LittleFlorida">Little Florida</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Livestock">livestock</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lizard">lizard</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt>
-<dt>Llano Estacado (<i>see</i> <a href="#index_StakedPlains">Staked Plains</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Logan">Logan</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LookoutMountain">Lookout Mountain</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lordsburg">Lordsburg</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LosAlamos">Los Alamos</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LosLunas">Los Lunas</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LosPinos">Los Pinos</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lost">Lost</a> Lake, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lovington">Lovington</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Lukachukai">Lukachukai</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_LunaCounty">Luna County</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Luxan">Lux&aacute;n</a>, Diego P&eacute;rez de, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_M"><b>M</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Macarthur">MacArthur</a>, Gen. Douglas, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-71, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_McdermottFormation">McDermott Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mcgaffey">McGaffey</a> Lake, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mcmillan">McMillan</a> Reservoir, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_McraeFormation">McRae Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Magdalena">Magdalena</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-162;</dt>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Magma">magma</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MagnesiumCompounds">magnesium compounds</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MagnoliaTrees">magnolia trees</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Magpie">magpie</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Maguey">maguey</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Maize">maize</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Maldonado">Maldonado</a>, Fray Lucas, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Malpais">malpais</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mammals">mammals</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-32, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</dt>
-<dd>prehistoric, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Mammoth">mammoth</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Manganese">manganese</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MancosShale">Mancos Shale</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mano">mano</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Manzano">Manzano</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Peak, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Maple">maple</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Marten">marten</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt>Martinez, Julian and Maria, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt>
-<dt>Martinez, Paddy, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dt>
-<dt>Martinez, Padre Jos&eacute;, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mastodon">mastodon</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mayhill">Mayhill</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Melons">melons</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt>Mesa</dt>
-<dd>Redonda, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dd>
-<dd>Rica, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dd>
-<dd>Verde [Colo.], <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;</dd>
-<dd class="t">National Park, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_MesaverdeGroup">Mesaverde Group</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mescal">mescal</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mescalero">Mescalero</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Apache, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Indian Reservation, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Mesilla">Mesilla</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Valley, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a></dt>
-<dd>Era, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-51</dd>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dd>
-<dd>seas, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Mesquite">mesquite</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Metate">metate</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_59">59</a></dt>
-<dt class="pb" id="Page_168">168</dt>
-<dt>Mexican, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Colonial, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</dd>
-<dd>War, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Mexico">Mexico</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dt>
-<dd>City, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Miami">Miami</a> Lake, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mica">mica</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</dt>
-<dd>schist, illus. <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Mice">mice</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Microcline">microcline</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Miles">Miles</a>, General, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MimbrenoApache">Mimbreno Apache</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mimbres">Mimbres</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</dt>
-<dd>culture, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</dd>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Minerals">minerals</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a> ff.</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mink">mink</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mining">mining</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>-154, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Missions">mission(s)</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</dt>
-<dd>churches, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</dd>
-<dd>ruins, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Mississippian">Mississippian</a></dt>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dd>
-<dd>seas, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dd>
-<dd>time, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_MockingbirdGap">Mockingbird Gap</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MoenkopiFormation">Moenkopi Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mogollon">Mogollon</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Apache, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</dd>
-<dd>culture, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</dd>
-<dd>people, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Mollusks">mollusks</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MonjeauLookout">Monjeau Lookout</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MontoyaDolomite">Montoya Dolomite</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Monument">Monument</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MoraCounty">Mora County</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MorenoValley">Moreno Valley</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Moriarty">Moriarty</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Morphy">Morphy</a> Lake, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</dt>
-<dd><a id="index_MorphyLake">State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_MorrisonFormation">Morrison Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MoscaPeak">Mosca Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mountainair">Mountainair</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MountainLion">mountain lion</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_MountainMahogany">mountain mahogany</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt>mountains (<i>see</i> under proper name: <a href="#index_Animas">Animas</a>, <a href="#index_BigHatchet">Big Hatchet</a>, <a href="#index_BlackRange">Black Range</a>, <a href="#index_Brazos">Brazos</a>, <a href="#index_Burro">Burro</a>, <a href="#index_Caballo">Caballo</a>, <a href="#index_Capitan">Capitan</a>, <a href="#index_Carrizo">Carrizo</a>, <a href="#index_Chuska">Chuska</a>, <a href="#index_Datil">Datil</a>, <a href="#index_Delaware">Delaware</a>, <a href="#index_Diablo">Diablo</a>, <a href="#index_Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="#index_FraCristobal">Fra Cristobal</a>, <a href="#index_Gallinas">Gallinas</a>, <a href="#index_Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a>, <a href="#index_Hueco">Hueco</a>, <a href="#index_Jemez">Jemez</a>, <a href="#index_Ladron">Ladron</a>, <a href="#index_LittleFlorida">Little Florida</a>, <a href="#index_LosPinos">Los Pinos</a>, <a href="#index_Lukachukai">Lukachukai</a>, <a href="#index_Magdalena">Magdalena</a>, <a href="#index_Manzano">Manzano</a>, <a href="#index_Mogollon">Mogollon</a>, <a href="#index_Nacimiento">Nacimiento</a>, <a href="#index_Organ">Organ</a>, <a href="#index_Ortega">Ortega</a>, <a href="#index_PedernalHills">Pedernal Hills</a>, <a href="#index_Peloncillo">Peloncillo</a>, <a href="#index_Potrillo">Potrillo</a>, <a href="#index_Pyramid">Pyramid</a>, <a href="#index_Rocky">Rocky</a>, <a href="#index_Sacramento">Sacramento</a>, <a href="#index_SanAndres">San Andres</a>, <a href="#index_Sandia">Sandia</a>, <a href="#index_SangreDeCristo">Sangre de Cristo</a>, <a href="#index_SanJuan">San Juan</a>, <a href="#index_SanMateo">San Mateo</a>, <a href="#index_Taos">Taos</a>, <a href="#index_Victorio">Victorio</a>, <a href="#index_Zuni">Zun&iacute;</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Mount">Mount</a></dt>
-<dd>Baldy, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dd>
-<dd>Riley, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dd>
-<dd>Robledo, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></dd>
-<dd>Taylor, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dd>
-<dd>Withington, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_MulePeak">Mule Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Museum">museum</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Muskrat">muskrat</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_N"><b>N</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Nacimiento">Nacimiento</a></dt>
-<dd>Formation, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dd>Peak, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Nambe">Namb&eacute;</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</dt>
-<dd>mission, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Nana">Nana</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_NatageApache">Natage Apache</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_NationalForests">National Forests</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-103, map <a href="#Page_94">94</a> (<i>see also</i> under proper names: <a href="#index_Apache">Apache</a>, <a href="#index_Beaver">Beaver</a>, <a href="#index_Carson">Carson</a>, <a href="#index_Cibola">Cibola</a>, <a href="#index_Coronado">Coronado</a>, <a href="#index_Gila">Gila</a>, <a href="#index_Lincoln">Lincoln</a>, <a href="#index_SantaFe">Santa Fe</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_NationalMonuments">National Monuments</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-92, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a> (<i>see also</i> under proper names: <a href="#index_AztecRuins">Aztec Ruins</a>, <a href="#index_Bandelier">Bandelier</a>, <a href="#index_CarlsbadCavernsPark">Carlsbad Caverns (Park</a>), <a href="#index_CapulinMountain">Capulin Mountain</a>, <a href="#index_ChacoCanyon">Chaco Canyon</a>, <a href="#index_ElMorro">El Morro</a>, <a href="#index_FortUnion">Fort Union</a>, <a href="#index_GilaCliffDwellings">Gila Cliff Dwellings</a>, <a href="#index_GranQuivira">Gran Quivira</a>, <a href="#index_Pecos">Pecos</a>, <a href="#index_ValleGrande">Valle Grande</a>, <a href="#index_WhiteSands">White Sands</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_NationalParkSystem">National Park System</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Service, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Navajo">Navajo</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Dam, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Indian Reservation, map <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Lake, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</dd>
-<dd><a id="index_NavajoLake">State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Reservoir, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Neogene">Neogene</a></dt>
-<dd>Period, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></dd>
-<dd>time, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Newkirk">Newkirk</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_NewMexicoDepartmentOfPublicWelfare">New Mexico Department of Public Welfare</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_NewMexicoVolunteers">New Mexico Volunteers</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Niobium">niobium</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_NiobraraLimestone">Niobrara limestone</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_NoAgua">No Agua</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_O"><b>O</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Oak">oak</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Oasis">Oasis</a> State Park, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Obsidian">obsidian</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ochoan">Ochoan</a></dt>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dd>
-<dd>Series, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Ocotillo">ocotillo</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_OgallalaFormation">Ogallala Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Oil">oil</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-148, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</dt>
-<dd>fields, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</dd>
-<dd>pumps, illus. <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</dd>
-<dd>refinery, illus. <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dd>
-<dd>secondary recovery, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_OjoCaliente">Ojo Caliente</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_OjoDelOsoBearSprings">Ojo del Oso (Bear Springs)</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_OnateDonJuan">O&ntilde;ate (Don Juan)</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Opuntia">opuntia</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ordovician">Ordovician</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Period, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</dd>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</dd>
-<dd>seas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</dd>
-<dd>time, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Organ">Organ</a> [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_OrganMountains">Organ Mountains</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Oriole">oriole</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Orogrande">Orogrande</a> basin, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ortega">Ortega</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Orthoclase">orthoclase</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_OtowiBridge">Otowi bridge</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Otter">otter</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_OurayLimestone">Ouray Limestone</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_OurLadyOfLourdes">Our Lady of Lourdes</a> (chapel), <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Oysters">oysters</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_P"><b>P</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PaintedCave">Painted Cave</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PaintedDesert">Painted Desert</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PajaritoPlateau">Pajarito Plateau</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PalaceOfTheGovernors">Palace of the Governors</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
-<dd>(<i>see also</i> <a href="#index_ElPalacio">El Palacio</a>)</dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Paleogene">Paleogene</a></dt>
-<dd>Period, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dd>
-<dd>time, map <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Era, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>-48;</dd>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</dd>
-<dd>time, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_PalmTrees">palm trees</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PaloFlechadoPass">Palo Flechado Pass</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Paloverde">paloverde</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PanAmericanCentralHighway">Pan-American Central Highway</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PanchoVilla">Pancho Villa</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</dt>
-<dd>State Park, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_PanhandleAspect">Panhandle Aspect</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ParadiseFormation">Paradise Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Paradox">Paradox</a> Basin, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Partridge">partridge</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Peanuts">peanuts</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pecan">pecan</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pecos">Pecos</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Baldy, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Basin, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</dd>
-<dd>&ldquo;diamonds,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Division, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Horseshoe, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</dd>
-<dd>mission, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</dd>
-<dd>National Monument, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</dd>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>,</dd>
-<dd class="t">Forest Reserve, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</dd>
-<dd>State Monument, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Valley, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Wilderness (Area), <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_PedernalHills">Pedernal Hills</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pegmatite">pegmatite</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Peloncillo">Peloncillo</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pena">Pe&ntilde;a</a>, Fray Juan de la, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Penablanca">Pe&ntilde;ablanca</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Penasco">Penasco</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Penitente">Penitente</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pennsylvanian">Pennsylvanian</a></dt>
-<dd>limestone, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dd>Period, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dd>time, map <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Perch">perch</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PerchaShale">Percha Shale</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Perlite">perlite</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Permian">Permian</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Period, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</dd>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-48;</dd>
-<dd>seas, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</dd>
-<dd>time, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Pershing">Pershing</a>, Gen. John J., <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PetrifiedForestNationalMonument">Petrified Forest National Monument</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PetrifiedWood">petrified wood</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Petroglyphs">petroglyphs</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Petroleum">petroleum</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Phoenix">Phoenix</a> [Ariz.], <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Phytosaur">phytosaur</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PicachoHill">Picacho Hill</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PicturedCliffsSandstone">Pictured Cliffs Sandstone</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Picuris">Picur&iacute;s</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-126;</dd>
-<dd>San Lorenzo de, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_PierreShale">Pierre Shale</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pike">pike</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pilar">Pilar</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pine">pine</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</dt>
-<dd>dwarf, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</dd>
-<dd>ponderosa, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dd>
-<dd>yellow, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dd>
-<dt>pi&ntilde;on, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt>Pi&ntilde;on, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PinosAltos">Pinos Altos</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Piro">Piro</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PitHouses">pit houses</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PlainsIndians">Plains Indians</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Epoch, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Ice Age, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_PoisonCanyonFormation">Poison Canyon Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pojoaque">Pojoaque</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Polyhalite">polyhalite</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PoPe">Po-p&eacute;</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Poplar">poplar</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Porciuncula">Porciuncula</a>, Church of ... de, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Porcupine">porcupine</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Portales">Portales</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Valley, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Potash">potash</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Potatoes">potatoes</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Potrillo">Potrillo</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pottery">pottery</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</dt>
-<dd>black-on-white, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</dd>
-<dd>brown, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</dd>
-<dd>brownware, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</dd>
-<dd>white with black, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_PowwowCanyon">Powwow Canyon</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Precambrian">Precambrian</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Era, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-40;</dd>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_PresidioOfSantaFe">Presidio of Santa Fe</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PricklyPears">prickly pears</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Protozoans">protozoans</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ptarmigan">ptarmigan</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt>Pueblo</dt>
-<dd>Bonito, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></dd>
-<dd>Indians, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a> ff., <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd>periods:</dd>
-<dd class="t">Classic (or Great), <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></dd>
-<dd class="t">Developmental, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></dd>
-<dd class="t">Historic, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></dd>
-<dd class="t">prehistoric, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></dd>
-<dd class="t">Regressive, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></dd>
-<dd>Revolt, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></dd>
-<dd>ruins, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Pumice">pumice</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PuntaDeAgua">Punta de Agua</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_PuyeCliffDwellings">Puye Cliff Dwellings</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt class="pb" id="Page_169">169</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Pyramid">Pyramid</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_Q"><b>Q</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Quail">quail</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Quarai">Quarai</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></dt>
-<dd>church, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></dd>
-<dd>State Monument, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Quartzites">quartzites</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Quemado">Quemado</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Questa">Questa</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_R"><b>R</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Rabbit">rabbit</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_RadiumSprings">Radium Springs</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ragland">Ragland</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Rattlesnakes">rattlesnakes</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Railroads">railroads</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_RainDance">Rain Dance</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ramah">Ramah</a> [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ramirez">Ramirez</a>, Fray Juan, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_RancheriaLimestone">Rancheria Limestone</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Raton">Raton</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dd>Basin, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dd>
-<dd>Formation, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dd>
-<dd>Mesa, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dd>
-<dd>Pass, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Raven">raven</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Redbeds">redbeds</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_RedLake">Red Lake</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Redondo">Redondo</a> Peak, cover</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Red">Red</a> River, <a href="#Page_95">95</a> (town), <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a> (river)</dt>
-<dd>Canyon, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_135">135</a></dd>
-<dd>Pass, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dd>Ski Area, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Reeds">reeds</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Reef">reef</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Reptiles">reptiles</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Reserve">Reserve</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
-<dt>Reservoirs (<i>see under</i> <a href="#index_Lakes">Lakes</a> for individual listing)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Rhyolite">rhyolite</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt>Rio</dt>
-<dd>Bonito, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></dd>
-<dd>Chama, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd>de Gallo, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dd>
-<dd>Grande (<i>see</i> <a href="#index_RioGrande">separate entry</a>)</dd>
-<dd>Hondo, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dd>Penasco, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dd>
-<dd>Puerco, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dd>Ruidoso, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dd>Salado, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dd>San Jose, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dd>
-<dd class="t">Valley, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dd>
-<dd>Tesuque, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd>Tularosa, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_RioGrande">Rio Grande</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dd>Gorge, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,</dd>
-<dd class="t"><a id="index_RioGrandeGorge">State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dd>graben, illus. <a href="#Page_37">37</a></dd>
-<dd>pueblos, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></dd>
-<dd>Valley, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_RitoDeFrijoles">Rito de Frijoles</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_RitoMorphy">Rito Morphy</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Roadrunner">roadrunner</a> (chapparal), <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_32">32</a></dt>
-<dd>state bird, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dd>
-<dt>rocks (<i>see</i> under proper name: <a href="#index_Cambrian">Cambrian</a>, <a href="#index_Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>, <a href="#index_Devonian">Devonian</a>, <a href="#index_Jurassic">Jurassic</a>, <a href="#index_Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>, <a href="#index_Mississippian">Mississippian</a>, <a href="#index_Ochoan">Ochoan</a>, <a href="#index_Ordovician">Ordovician</a>, <a href="#index_Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>, <a href="#index_Permian">Permian</a>, <a href="#index_Precambrian">Precambrian</a>, <a href="#index_Silurian">Silurian</a>, <a href="#index_Triassic">Triassic</a>, <a href="#index_Volcanic">volcanic</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_RockHound">Rock Hound</a> State Park, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Rocky">Rocky</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_RockyArroyo">Rocky Arroyo</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Roswell">Roswell</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Roy">Roy</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_RoyalRoad">Royal Road</a> (Camino Real), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Rudistids">rudistids</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ruidoso">Ruidoso</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dd>Creek, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dd>
-<dd>Downs, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Ruins">ruins</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Rushes">rushes</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>-44</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_RustlerDolomite">Rustler Dolomite</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_S"><b>S</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SacramentoMountains">Sacramento Mountains</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sacramento">Sacramento</a> [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sage">sage</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Saguaros">saguaros</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SaintFrancis">Saint Francis</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SaintJoseph">Saint Joseph</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SaladoSalt">Salado Salt</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SalinasPeak">Salinas Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SalineMissions">Saline Missions</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Salmon">salmon</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Salt">salt</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Saltbush">saltbush</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SaltFlatLakes">Salt Flat lakes</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanAgustinPlains">San Agustin Plains</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanAndres">San Andres</a></dt>
-<dd>Limestone, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SanAntonio">San Antonio</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanAntonito">San Antonito</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanAugustinPass">San Augustin Pass</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanBuenaventura">San Buenaventura</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dd>de Cochiti, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Sand">sand</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sandia">Sandia</a></dt>
-<dd>Cave, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dd>
-<dd>Crest, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd>points, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></dd>
-<dd>Ski Area, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SanDiegoMountain">San Diego Mountain</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sandstone">sandstone</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanFelipe">San Felipe</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dt>
-<dd>church, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-127</dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SanFranciscoRiver">San Francisco River</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanGabriel">San Gabriel</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanGeronimo">San Geronimo</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SangreDeCristo">Sangre de Cristo</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SangreDeCristoRedbeds">Sangre de Cristo Redbeds</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanGregorio">San Gregorio</a></dt>
-<dd>de Abo, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dd>
-<dd>Lake, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SanIldefonso">San Ildefonso</a>, pottery, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dt>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SanIsidro">San Isidro</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanJoseFormation">San Jose Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanJuan">San Juan</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dt>
-<dd>Basin, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dd>de los Caballeros, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-128</dd>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dd>Valley, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SanLorenzo">San Lorenzo</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanMateo">San Mateo</a> Mountains, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanMiguel">San Miguel</a></dt>
-<dd>mission church, illus. <a href="#Page_119">119</a></dd>
-<dd>Pueblo ruins, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SanPedroWildArea">San Pedro Wild Area</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-98</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SanRafael">San Rafael</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SantaAnaPueblo">Santa Ana Pueblo</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SantaBarbara">Santa Barbara</a> [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SantaClara">Santa Clara</a></dt>
-<dd>Creek, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_128">128</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SantaFe">Santa Fe</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dd>Formation, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dd>Group, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dd>
-<dd>National Forest, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-98</dd>
-<dd>Railway, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></dd>
-<dd><a id="index_SantaFeRiver">River State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dd>
-<dd>Ski Basin, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></dd>
-<dd>Trail, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SantaMaria">Santa Maria</a> mission, illus. <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Santander">Santander</a>, Father Diego de, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SantaRita">Santa Rita</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SantaRosa">Santa Rosa</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dd>Sandstone, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SantoDomingo">Santo Domingo</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-129, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SanYsidro">San Ysidro</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Schist">schist</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Science">science</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Scorpion">scorpion</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dd>sea, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SeaLilies">sea lilies</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SecondaryRecovery">secondary recovery</a> (oil), <a href="#Page_148">148</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Selden">Selden</a> Canyon, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SevenCitiesOfCibola">Seven Cities of Cibola</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SevenRivers">Seven Rivers</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ShalakoDances">Shalako dances</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Shakespeare">Shakespeare</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Shale">shale</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sheep">sheep</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></dt>
-<dd>Barbary, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dd>
-<dd>bighorn, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</dd>
-<dd>desert, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Rocky Mountain, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Shells">shells</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Shiprock">Shiprock</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Shoshone">Shoshone</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sibley">Sibley</a>, General Henry H., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SierraBlanca">Sierra Blanca</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dd>Ski Area, illus. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Sierra">Sierra</a></dt>
-<dd>County, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dd>
-<dd>de las Uvas, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dd>
-<dd>Grande, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dd>
-<dd class="t">Arch, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dd>
-<dd>Oscura, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SilicifiedWood">silicified wood</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Silt">silt</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>,41, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Siltstone">siltstone</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Silurian">Silurian</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Silver">silver</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SilverCity">Silver City</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Simpson">Simpson</a>, Lt. J. H., <a href="#Page_90">90</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SipapuWinterSportsArea">Sipapu Winter Sports Area</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-95</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SittingBullFalls">Sitting Bull Falls</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Skipway">skipway</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_153">153</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Skunk">skunk</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SkyCity">Sky City</a> (<i>see</i> <a href="#index_AcomaPueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a>)</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sloths">sloths</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Slough">Slough</a>, Col. J. P., <a href="#Page_92">92</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SmokeyTheBear">Smokey the Bear</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Snails">snails</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SnakeRanchFlats">Snake Ranch Flats</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Snakes">snakes</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Socorro">Socorro</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dd>Mountain, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_SodiumChloride">sodium chloride</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sonoran">Sonoran</a></dt>
-<dd>desert, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></dd>
-<dd>Lower Zone, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dd>
-<dd>Upper Zone, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_25">25</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Sotol">sotol</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SouthTruchasPeak">South Truchas Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Spanish">Spanish</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dd>dagger, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dd>
-<dd>Peaks, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Sparrow">sparrow</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Spider">spider</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SpiritLake">Spirit Lake</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Spodumene">spodumene</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt class="pb" id="Page_170">170</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Springer">Springer</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Spruce">spruce</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</dt>
-<dd>blue, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Engelmann, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Squash">squash</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Squirrel">squirrel</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_StakedPlains">Staked Plains</a> (Llano Estacado), <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Stalactites">stalactites</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Stalagmites">stalagmites</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></dt>
-<dt>state</dt>
-<dd>bird, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dd>
-<dd>Capitol, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dd>
-<dd>flower, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dd>
-<dd>mammal, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dd>
-<dt>State Highway</dt>
-<dd>4: <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd>10: <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dd>
-<dd>12: <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dd>
-<dd>17: <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dd>
-<dd>23: <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dd>
-<dd>25: illus. <a href="#Page_103">103</a></dd>
-<dd>26: <a href="#Page_71">71</a></dd>
-<dd>28: <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dd>
-<dd>36: <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dd>
-<dd>37: <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dd>38: <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dd>44: <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dd>53: <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dd>
-<dd>68: <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dd>75: <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dd>
-<dd>76: <a href="#Page_136">136</a></dd>
-<dd>78: <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dd>
-<dd>90: <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dd>
-<dd>94: <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dd>120: <a href="#Page_109">109</a></dd>
-<dd>137: <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dd>180: <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dd>
-<dd>370: <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dd>467: <a href="#Page_111">111</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_StateMonuments">State Monuments</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-107, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dd>(<i>see also</i> under proper names: <a href="#index_Abo">Abo</a>, <a href="#index_Coronado">Coronado</a>, <a href="#index_ElPalacio">El Palacio</a>, <a href="#index_FolsomMan">Folsom Man</a>, <a href="#index_GranQuivira">Gran Quivira</a>, <a href="#index_Jemez">Jemez</a>, <a href="#index_LaMesilla">La Mesilla</a>, <a href="#index_Lincoln">Lincoln</a> (County Courthouse),<a href="#index_Pecos"> Pecos</a>, <a href="#index_Quarai">Quarai</a>, <a href="#index_Selden">Selden</a>)</dd>
-<dt><a id="index_StateParks">State Parks</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>-112, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dd>(<i>see also</i> under proper names: <a href="#index_AlamogordoLake">Alamogordo Lake</a>, <a href="#index_BluewaterLake">Bluewater Lake</a>, <a href="#index_BottomlessLakes">Bottomless Lakes</a>, <a href="#index_CaballoLake">Caballo Lake</a>, <a href="#index_CityOfRocks">City of Rocks</a>, <a href="#index_ClaytonLake">Clayton Lake</a>, <a href="#index_ConchasLake">Conchas Lake</a>, <a href="#index_ElephantButteLake">Elephant Butte Lake</a>, <a href="#index_ElVadoLake">El Vado Lake</a>, <a href="#index_HydeMemorial">Hyde Memorial</a>, <a href="#index_KitCarsonMemorial">Kit Carson Memorial</a>, <a href="#index_MorphyLake">Morphy Lake</a>, <a href="#index_NavajoLake">Navajo Lake</a>, <a href="#index_Oasis">Oasis</a>, <a href="#index_PanchoVilla">Pancho Villa</a>, <a href="#index_RioGrandeGorge">Rio Grande Gorge</a>, <a href="#index_RockHound">Rock Hound</a>, <a href="#index_SantaFeRiver">Santa Fe River</a>, <a href="#index_StorrieLake">Storrie Lake</a>, <a href="#index_UteLake">Ute Lake</a>, <a href="#index_ValleyOfFires">Valley of Fires</a>)</dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Staurolite">staurolite</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_40">40</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Stegosaurus">Stegosaurus</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SteinsPass">Stein&rsquo;s Pass</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Stewart">Stewart</a> Lake, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_StoneLions">Stone Lions</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Storrie">Storrie</a> Lake, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</dt>
-<dd><a id="index_StorrieLake">State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Strawberries">strawberries</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SugarlumpWeldedRhyoliteTuff">Sugarlump Welded Rhyolite Tuff</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Summerville">Summerville</a></dt>
-<dd>beds, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dd>
-<dd>Formation, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Sunfish">sunfish</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Swan">swan</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_SycamoreTrees">sycamore trees</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sylvanite">sylvanite</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Sylvite">sylvite</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_T"><b>T</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Taiban">Taiban</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tajique">Tajique</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tano">Tano</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TansillFormation">Tansill Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Taos">Taos</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Canyon, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</dd>
-<dd>County, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</dd>
-<dd>don Fernando de, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Indians, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</dd>
-<dd>mission, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-130;</dd>
-<dd>Ranchos de, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</dd>
-<dd>San Geronimo de, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Ski Valley, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Tapirs">tapirs</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tarantula">tarantula</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TeakettleRock">Teakettle Rock</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tench">tench</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TentRocks">Tent Rocks</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_121">121</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TererroFormation">Tererro Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Terrapin">terrapin</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tertiary">Tertiary</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tesuque">Tesuque</a></dt>
-<dd>Indians, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>-131</dd>
-<dd>River, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_ThreeRivers">Three Rivers</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TierraAmarilla">Tierra Amarilla</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tiguex">Tiguex</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tijeras">Tijeras</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Canyon, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Timber">timber</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Titanium">titanium</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Toad">toad</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TodiltoFormation">Todilto Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tomatoes">tomatoes</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Torreon">Torreon</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tortoise">tortoise</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tramway">tramway</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TransitionZone">Transition Zone</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TresPiedras">Tres Piedras</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TresRitos">Tres Ritos</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Triassic">Triassic</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dt>
-<dd>age, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Period, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</dd>
-<dd>redbeds, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</dd>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</dd>
-<dd>time, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Triceratops">Triceratops</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Trilobite">trilobite</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TrinidadSandstone">Trinidad Sandstone</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Trout">trout</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</dt>
-<dd>black spotted, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</dd>
-<dd>brook, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</dd>
-<dd>brown, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</dd>
-<dd>German brown, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</dd>
-<dd>cutthroat, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</dd>
-<dd>rainbow, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_116">116</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Truchas">Truchas</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Lakes, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_TruthOrConsequences">Truth or Consequences</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tucumcari">Tucumcari</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Mountain, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Tuff">tuff</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Tularosa">Tularosa</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Basin, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Turkey">turkey</a> (wild), <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_102">102</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Turquoise">turquoise</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Turtles">turtles</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_TyuonyiPuebloRuin">Tyuonyi Pueblo ruin</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_U"><b>U</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_UncompahgreRange">Uncompahgre Range</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></dt>
-<dt>Union [forces], <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></dt>
-<dt>U.S. Highway</dt>
-<dd>54: <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dd>
-<dd>56: <a href="#Page_134">134</a></dd>
-<dd>60: <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dd>62: <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dd>
-<dd>64: <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd>66: <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dd>70: <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dd>
-<dd>80: <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></dd>
-<dd>84: <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd>85: <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd>180: <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dd>260: <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dd>285: <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dd>
-<dd>380: <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dd>
-<dd>550: <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dd>666: <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dt>U.S. Public Health Service, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Uranium">uranium</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Ute">Ute</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Creek, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Dam, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Indian, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</dd>
-<dd><a id="index_UteLake">Lake State Park</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Reservation, map <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></dd>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_V"><b>V</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ValleGrande">Valle Grande</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-86, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</dt>
-<dd>&mdash;Bandelier National Park, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</dd>
-<dd>caldera, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_ValleyOfFires">Valley of Fires</a> State Park, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Valverde">Valverde</a> [N. Mex.], <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ValverdeLandAndIrrigationCompany">Valverde Land and Irrigation Company</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Vanadium">vanadium</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Vaughn">Vaughn</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Velarde">Velarde</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_VermejoFormation">Vermejo Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Vertebrate">vertebrate</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Victorio">Victorio</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Peak Limestone, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></dd>
-<dt>&ldquo;Village of the Humanas,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_89">89</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Vinegarroon">vinegarroon</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Volcanic">volcanic</a></dt>
-<dd>activity, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></dd>
-<dd>neck, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></dd>
-<dd>rocks, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Volcano">volcano</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_W"><b>W</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_WagonMound">Wagon Mound</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Wallace">Wallace</a>, Gov. Lew., <a href="#Page_105">105</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Warbler">warbler</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_WarmSpringsApache">Warm Springs Apache</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Water">water</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</dt>
-<dd>laws, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</dd>
-<dd>lilies, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Waterfowl">waterfowl</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Watrous">Watrous</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Weasel">weasel</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Wheat">wheat</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_WheelerPeak">Wheeler Peak</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Wild Area, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_White">White</a></dt>
-<dd>Mesa, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountain Apache, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></dd>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Wild Area, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></dd>
-<dd>Rock Canyon, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_WhiteSands">White Sands</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Missile Range, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</dd>
-<dd>National Monument, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-79, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-143, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_WhitewaterCanyon">Whitewater Canyon</a>, <a href="#fig1">frontispiece</a>; Creek, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Wildcat">wildcat</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Wildlife">wildlife</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-32, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_WildernessTrailIllus">Wilderness trail (illus.)</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Willard">Willard</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_WillowCreek">Willow Creek</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_WingateSandstone">Wingate Sandstone</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Wolf">wolf</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Woodchuck">woodchuck</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_WoodRats">wood rats</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_WorldWarI">World War I</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</dt>
-<dd>II, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_Wren">wren</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_Y"><b>Y</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_YankeeTraders">Yankee traders</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_YapashiPuebloRuins">Yapashi Pueblo ruins</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></dt>
-<dt>&ldquo;yellow cake,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_YesoFormation">Yeso Formation</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Yucca">yucca</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, illus. <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</dt>
-<dd>state flower, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></dd>
-<dt><a id="index_YumanForagers">Yuman Foragers</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></dt>
-</dl>
-<dl class="index">
-<dt class="center" id="index_Z"><b>Z</b></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_ZiaPueblo">Zia Pueblo</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-132</dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Zinc">zinc</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Zirconium">zirconium</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></dt>
-<dt><a id="index_Zuni">Zuni</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</dt>
-<dd>Mountains, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Pueblo, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</dd>
-<dd>Sandstone, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></dd>
-</dl>
-<hr />
-<h2><span class="small"><i><span class="ss">Traveler&rsquo;s-Eye View of New Mexico</span></i></span></h2>
-<p>A truly representative picture of New Mexico is presented
-in this guide for visitor and resident. The traveler gains a background
-knowledge of the State&rsquo;s centuries-old history, desert-to-alpine flora and
-fauna, geological past, ancient Indians, and frontier forts. He learns of
-the numerous recreational and scenic attractions of its nine National
-Monuments, seven Forests, and one Park and nine State Monuments
-and twenty-one Parks. Unusual features such as the Antelope Plains,
-Ghost Ranch Museum, Sitting Bull Falls, Jackpile open-pit uranium
-mine, Jornada del Muerto, and Abo Pass redbeds are described, as are
-nineteen Indian pueblos. Routes given include both major highways
-and good secondary roads; all are well designated and easy to follow on
-the full-color general map.</p>
-<p class="tbcenter"><span class="ss">NEW MEXICO BUREAU OF MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES</span></p>
-<h2>Transcriber&rsquo;s Notes</h2>
-<ul>
-<li>Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication.</li>
-<li>Corrected a few palpable typos.</li>
-<li>In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mosaic of New Mexico's Scenery, Rocks,
-and History, by Various
-
-*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOSAIC OF NEW MEXICO'S SCENERY ***
-
-***** This file should be named 55800-h.htm or 55800-h.zip *****
-This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
-        http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/8/0/55800/
-
-Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
-be renamed.
-
-Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
-law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
-so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
-States without permission and without paying copyright
-royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
-of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
-concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
-and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
-specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
-eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
-for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
-performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
-away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
-not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
-trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
-
-START: FULL LICENSE
-
-THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
-PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
-
-To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
-distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
-(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
-Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
-www.gutenberg.org/license.
-
-Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-
-1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
-and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
-(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
-the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
-destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
-possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
-Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
-by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
-person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
-1.E.8.
-
-1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be
-used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
-agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
-things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
-paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
-agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
-
-1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the
-Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
-of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
-works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
-States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
-United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
-claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
-displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
-all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
-that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
-free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
-works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
-Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
-comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
-same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
-you share it without charge with others.
-
-1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
-what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
-in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
-check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
-agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
-distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
-other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
-representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
-country outside the United States.
-
-1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
-
-1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
-immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
-prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
-on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
-phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
-performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
-
-  This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-  most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-  restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-  under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-  eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
-  United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
-  are located before using this ebook.
-
-1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is
-derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
-contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
-copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
-the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
-redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
-Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
-either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
-obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
-with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
-must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
-additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
-will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
-posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
-beginning of this work.
-
-1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
-work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
-
-1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
-electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
-prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
-active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm License.
-
-1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
-compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
-any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
-to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
-other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
-version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
-(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
-to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
-of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
-Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
-full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
-
-1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
-performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
-unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
-
-1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
-access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
-provided that
-
-* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
-  the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
-  you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
-  to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
-  agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
-  within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
-  legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
-  payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
-  Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
-  Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
-  Literary Archive Foundation."
-
-* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
-  you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
-  does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
-  License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
-  copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
-  all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
-  works.
-
-* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
-  any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
-  electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
-  receipt of the work.
-
-* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
-  distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
-
-1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
-are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
-from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
-Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
-trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
-
-1.F.
-
-1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
-effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
-works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
-Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
-contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
-or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
-intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
-other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
-cannot be read by your equipment.
-
-1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
-of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
-Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
-liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
-fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
-LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
-PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
-TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
-LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
-INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
-DAMAGE.
-
-1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
-defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
-receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
-written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
-received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
-with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
-with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
-lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
-or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
-opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
-the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
-without further opportunities to fix the problem.
-
-1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
-in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
-OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
-LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
-
-1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
-warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
-damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
-violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
-agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
-limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
-unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
-remaining provisions.
-
-1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
-trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
-providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
-accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
-production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
-electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
-including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
-the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
-or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
-additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
-Defect you cause.
-
-Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
-electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
-computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
-exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
-from people in all walks of life.
-
-Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
-assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
-goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
-remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
-Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
-and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
-generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
-Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
-www.gutenberg.org
-
-
-
-Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
-
-The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
-501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
-state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
-Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
-number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
-U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
-
-The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the
-mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
-volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
-locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
-Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
-date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
-official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
-
-For additional contact information:
-
-    Dr. Gregory B. Newby
-    Chief Executive and Director
-    gbnewby@pglaf.org
-
-Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
-Literary Archive Foundation
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
-spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
-increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
-freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
-array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
-($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
-status with the IRS.
-
-The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
-charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
-States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
-considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
-with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
-where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
-DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
-state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
-have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
-against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
-approach us with offers to donate.
-
-International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
-any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
-outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
-
-Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
-methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
-ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
-donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate
-
-Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.
-
-Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
-Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
-freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
-distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
-volunteer support.
-
-Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
-editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
-the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
-necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
-edition.
-
-Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
-facility: www.gutenberg.org
-
-This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
-including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
-Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
-subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-</body>
-</html>
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/cover.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/cover.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 7349056..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/cover.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/map_hr.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/map_hr.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f9544ca..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/map_hr.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/map_lr.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/map_lr.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f41dd1b..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/map_lr.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p01.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p01.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index da1bbdb..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p01.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p03.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p03.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5c2b395..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p03.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p04.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p04.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a4f7d75..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p04.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p05.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p05.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5bcfcdc..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p05.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p06.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p06.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c26f587..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p06.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p07.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p07.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b2de839..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p07.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p08.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p08.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6356404..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p08.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p08a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p08a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 586dbd6..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p08a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p09.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p09.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 211d6fc..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p09.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p10.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p10.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b4a37b5..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p10.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p11.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p11.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 048b706..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p11.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p12.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p12.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2918203..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p12.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p12a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p12a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 8f0293b..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p12a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p13.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p13.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5fa8458..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p13.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p14.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p14.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4fca0ab..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p14.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p15.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p15.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ca44702..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p15.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p16.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p16.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ce6db7c..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p16.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p16a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p16a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6ba5eeb..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p16a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p16c.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p16c.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 79f64d1..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p16c.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p17.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p17.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1ef77b4..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p17.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p17a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p17a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5099850..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p17a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p17c.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p17c.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c0dc35a..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p17c.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p17d.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p17d.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d2398dc..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p17d.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p18.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p18.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 388d757..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p18.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p19.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p19.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4190813..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p19.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p20.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p20.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b6b1e42..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p20.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p20a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p20a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d05f641..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p20a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p21.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p21.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6e16278..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p21.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p22.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p22.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c5aa0a8..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p22.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p22a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p22a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b23c1da..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p22a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p23.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p23.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 19a157c..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p23.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p24.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p24.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 52a9a00..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p24.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p24a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p24a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ce08fb5..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p24a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p25.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p25.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index fff2435..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p25.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p26.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p26.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 50f32bb..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p26.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p27.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p27.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0aac3f7..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p27.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p28.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p28.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2f8fa55..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p28.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p29.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p29.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 28da56f..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p29.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p30.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p30.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b6916ee..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p30.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p31.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p31.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a47cf5d..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p31.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p32.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p32.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index aeb905e..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p32.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p33.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p33.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5900993..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p33.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p34.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p34.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d5ce2cf..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p34.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p34a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p34a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6d73562..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p34a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p35.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p35.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 5655fc7..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p35.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p36.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p36.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 0d157de..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p36.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p36a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p36a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index cdb26ba..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p36a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p37.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p37.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 999b9f8..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p37.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p38.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p38.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f4460f2..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p38.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p39.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p39.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index d8beb48..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p39.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p39a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p39a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2ec3990..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p39a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p40.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p40.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index a256899..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p40.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p41.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p41.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 499aedb..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p41.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p41a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p41a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index eb988e2..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p41a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p42.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p42.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 496cd47..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p42.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p43.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p43.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 907ca03..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p43.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p43a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p43a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 90d7ade..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p43a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p44.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p44.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 4eee834..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p44.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p45.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p45.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ffc21a1..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p45.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p46.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p46.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index e90fd26..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p46.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p47.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p47.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index ff66c27..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p47.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p48.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p48.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index b26729a..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p48.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p48a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p48a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c0b6834..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p48a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p49.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p49.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 1b8ac28..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p49.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p50.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p50.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 6040dc6..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p50.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p50a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p50a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index fa697c7..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p50a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p51.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p51.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 2f50c02..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p51.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p52.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p52.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 489ae16..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p52.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p52a.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p52a.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index 55ea10f..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p52a.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p53.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p53.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index c1df175..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p53.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p54.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p54.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index f48d8f1..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p54.jpg
+++ /dev/null
diff --git a/old/55800-h/images/p55.jpg b/old/55800-h/images/p55.jpg
deleted file mode 100644
index dd7857b..0000000
--- a/old/55800-h/images/p55.jpg
+++ /dev/null