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diff --git a/old/55593-0.txt b/old/55593-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3c63639..0000000 --- a/old/55593-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21352 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Travels in Peru and India, by Clements Robert Markham - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Travels in Peru and India - While Superintending the Collection of Chinchona Plants - and Seeds in South America, and Their Introduction into - India. - -Author: Clements Robert Markham - -Release Date: September 21, 2017 [EBook #55593] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TRAVELS IN PERU AND INDIA *** - - - - -Produced by Josep Cols Canals, Alan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - TRAVELS - - IN - - PERU AND INDIA. - -[Illustration: HINCHONA-PLANTS AT OOTACAMUND, - -In August 1881 (from a Photograph). A flowering branch of Chinchona in -the foreground. FRONTISPIECE. Page 487] - - - - - TRAVELS - - IN - - PERU AND INDIA - - WHILE SUPERINTENDING THE COLLECTION OF CHINCHONA - PLANTS AND SEEDS IN SOUTH AMERICA, AND - THEIR INTRODUCTION INTO INDIA. - - - BY CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, F.S.A., F.R.G.S., - - CORR. MEM. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHILE; - AUTHOR OF 'CUZCO AND LIMA.' - - WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - LONDON: - JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. - - 1862. - - _The right of Translation is reserved._ - - - LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, - AND CHARING CROSS. - - - - -PREFACE. - -[Illustration] - -THE introduction of quinine-yielding Chinchona-trees into India, and -the cultivation of the "Peruvian Bark" in our Eastern possessions, -where that inestimable febrifuge is almost a necessary of life, has -for some years engaged the attention of the Indian Government. In 1859 -the author of the present work was intrusted, by the Secretary of -State for India in Council, with the duty of superintending all the -necessary arrangements for the collection of Chinchona-plants and seeds -of the species esteemed in commerce, in South America, and for their -introduction into India. This important measure has now been crowned -with complete success, and it is the object of the following pages -to relate the previous history of the Chinchona-plant; to describe -the forests in South America where the most valuable species grow; to -record the labours of those who were engaged in exploring them; and to -give an account of all the proceedings connected with the cultivation -of Chinchona-plants in India. - -In the performance of this service it was a part of my duty to explore -the forests of the Peruvian province of Caravaya, which has never yet -been described by any English traveller; and the first part of the work -is occupied by an account of the various species of Chinchona-plants -and their previous history, a narrative of my travels in Peru, and a -record of the labours of the agents whom I employed to collect plants -and seeds of the various species of Chinchonæ in other parts of South -America. - -The traveller who ascends to the lofty plateau of the Cordilleras -cannot fail to be deeply interested in the former history and -melancholy fate of the Peruvian Indians; and some account of their -condition under Spanish colonial rule, and of the insurrection of -Tupac Amaru, the last of the Incas, will, I trust, not be unwelcome. -I have devoted three chapters to these subjects, which will form a -short digression on our way to the Chinchona forests. I am indebted -to the late General Miller, and to Dr. Vigil, the learned Director of -the National Library at Lima, for much new and very curious material -throwing light on that period of Spanish colonial history which -includes the great rebellion of the Peruvian Indians in 1780. - -The second part of the work contains a narrative of my travels in -India, a description of the sites selected for Chinchona-plantations, -and an account of the progress of the experimental cultivation of those -inestimable trees, from the arrival of the plants and seeds, early in -1861, to the latest dates. - -In conducting the operations connected with the collection of -Chinchona-plants and seeds in South America, I obtained the services -of Mr. Spruce, Mr. Pritchett, Mr. Cross, and Mr. Weir; and it affords -me great pleasure to have this opportunity of publicly recording their -perseverance in facing many dangers and hardships, and in doing the -work that was allotted to them so ably, and with such complete success. - -To Mr. Richard Spruce, an eminent botanist who has for eight years -been engaged in exploring the basin of the Amazons, from Para to the -peaks of the Quitenian Andes, and from the falls of the Orinoco to the -head-waters of the Huallaga, the largest share of credit, so far as -the South American portion of the enterprise is concerned, undoubtedly -belongs. I have endeavoured to do justice to his untiring energy and -zeal, and to the important service which he has rendered to India. - -But the collection of plants and seeds in South America, and their -conveyance to the shores of India, would have been of little use if -they had not been delivered into competent hands on arriving at their -destination. To the scientific and practical knowledge, the unwearied -zeal, and skilful management of Mr. McIvor, the Superintendent of the -Government Gardens at Ootacamund, on the Neilgherry hills, is therefore -due the successful introduction of Chinchona-plants into India. His -care has now been fully rewarded, and the experiment has reached a -point which places it beyond the possibility of ultimate failure. - -I am indebted to Sir William Hooker, who has, from the first, taken a -deep interest in this beneficial measure, for many acts of kindness, -and for his readiness to give me valuable advice and assistance; while -he has rendered most essential service in successfully raising a large -number of Chinchona-plants at Kew. To Dr. Weddell my thanks are due -for much information most promptly and kindly supplied; and to Mr. -Howard for the important suggestions and information with which he -has frequently favoured me, and which no scientific man in Europe is -better able to give. It is a fortunate circumstance that his invaluable -and superbly illustrated work on the Chinchona genus should have been -published just at the time when the Chinchonæ are about to be planted -out in India and Ceylon, for from no other source could the cultivators -derive so large an amount of valuable information. Mr. Howard has -likewise done good service by presenting the Indian Government with -a fine healthy plant of _Chinchona Uritusinga_, a species which had -not previously been introduced. I take this opportunity of expressing -my thanks for much assistance from Dr. Seemann, the able Editor of -the 'Bonplandia;' from Mr. Dalzell, the Conservator of Forests in -the Bombay Presidency; from Dr. Forbes Watson, the Reporter on the -vegetable products of India, at the India Office; from Mr. Veitch, of -the Royal Exotic Nursery at Chelsea; and from many kind friends both -in Peru and India. I am also indebted to Mr. Alexander Smith, son of -Mr. John Smith, the Curator of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, for -an interesting note on the principal plants employed by the natives of -India on account of their real or supposed febrifugal virtues, which -will be found in an Appendix. - -The botanical name for the plants which yield Peruvian bark was given -by Linnæus, in honour of the Countess of Chinchon, who was one of the -first Europeans cured by this priceless febrifuge. The word has been -generally, but most erroneously, spelt _Cinchona_; and, considering -that such mis-spelling is no mark of respect to the lady whose memory -it is intended to preserve, while it defeats the intention of Linnæus -to do her honour, I have followed the good example of Mr. Howard and -the Spanish botanists in adopting the correct way of spelling the -word--_Chinchona_.[1] The Counts of Chinchon, the hereditary Alcaides -of the Alcazar of Segovia, do not hold so obscure a place in history as -to excuse the continuance of this mis-spelling of their name. - -After much anxiety, extending over a period of three years; after all -the hardships, dangers, and toils which a search in virgin tropical -forests entails; and after more than one disappointment, it is a -source of gratification and thankfulness that this great and important -measure, fraught with blessings to the people of India, and with no -less beneficial results to the whole civilized world, should have been -finally attended with complete success, in spite of difficulties of no -ordinary character. How complete this success has been, will be seen -by a perusal of the two last chapters of the present work, and of Mr. -McIvor's very interesting Report in the Appendix; it is sufficient here -to say that it has exceeded our most sanguine expectations. - - - - - CONTENTS. - -[Illustration] - - TRAVELS IN PERU. - -[Illustration] - - PREFACE PAGE V - - - CHAPTER I. - - DISCOVERY OF PERUVIAN BARK. - - The Countess of Chinchon--Introduction of the use of bark into - Europe--M. La Condamine's first description of a - _chinchona_-tree--J. de Jussieu--Description - of the chinchona region--The different valuable species--The - discovery of quinine 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - THE VALUABLE SPECIES OF CHINCHONA-TREES--THEIR HISTORY, THEIR - DISCOVERERS, AND THEIR FORESTS. - - I. The Loxa region and its _crown barks_ 21 - - II. The "_red-bark_" region, on the western slopes of - Chimborazo 26 - - III. The New Granada region 27 - - IV. The Huanuco region in Northern Peru, and its - "_grey barks_" 30 - - V. The _Calisaya_ region in Bolivia and Southern Peru 35 - - - CHAPTER III. - - Rapid destruction of chinchona-trees in South America--Importance - of their introduction into other countries--M. Hasskarl's - mission--Chinchona plantations in Java 44 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - INTRODUCTION OF CHINCHONA-PLANTS INTO INDIA. - - Preliminary arrangements 60 - - - CHAPTER V. - - Islay and Arequipa 69 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - Journey across the Cordillera to Puno 88 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - LAKE TITICACA. - - The Aymara Indians--Their antiquities--Tiahuanaco--Coati--Sillustani - --Copacabana 108 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE PERUVIAN INDIANS. - - Their condition under Spanish colonial rule 117 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - Narrative of the insurrection of José Gabriel Tupac Amaru, the last - of the Incas 134 - - - CHAPTER X. - - Diego Tupac Amaru--Fate of the Inca's family--Insurrection of - Pumacagua 158 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - Journey from Puno to Crucero, the capital of Caravaya 180 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE PROVINCE OF CARAVAYA. - - A short historical and geographical description 199 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - Caravaya--The valley of Sandia 216 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - Coca cultivation 232 - - CHAPTER XV. - - CARAVAYA. - - Chinchona forests of Tambopata 240 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - General remarks on the chinchona-plants of Caravaya 267 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - JOURNEY FROM THE FORESTS OF TAMBOPATA TO THE PORT OF ISLAY. - - Establishment of the plants in Wardian cases 275 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF PERU. - - Population--Civil wars--Government--Constitution--General Castilla - and his ministers--Dr. Vigil--Mariano Paz Soldan--Valleys on the - coast--Cotton, wool, and specie--The Amazons--Guano--Finances - --Literature--Future prospects 288 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - Mr. Spruce's expedition to procure plants and seeds of the - "red bark," or _C. succirubra_--Mr. Pritchett in the Huanuco region, - and the "grey barks"--Mr. Cross's proceedings at Loxa, - and collection of seeds of _C. Condaminea_ 313 - - - CHAPTER XX. - - CONVEYANCE OF CHINCHONA-PLANTS AND SEEDS FROM SOUTH AMERICA TO - INDIA. - - Transmission of dried specimens--Voyages of plants in Wardian cases - --Arrival of plants and seeds in India--Depôt at Kew--Treatment of - plants in Wardian cases--Effects of introduction of chinchona-plants - into India on trade in South America--Neilgherry hills 331 - -[Illustration] - - TRAVELS IN INDIA. - -[Illustration] - - CHAPTER XXI. - - MALABAR. - - Calicut--Houses and gardens--Population of Malabar--Namburi Brahmins - --Nairs--Tiars--Slaves--Moplahs--Assessment of rice-fields, - of gardens, of dry crops--Other taxes--Voyage up the Beypoor river - --The Conolly teak plantations--Wundoor--Backwood cultivation - --Sholacul--Sispara ghaut--Blackwood--Scenery--Sispara--View of the - Nellemboor valley--Avalanche--Arrival at Ootacamund 341 - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - NEILGHERRY HILLS. - - Extent--Formation--Soil--Climate--Flora--Hill tribes--Todars - --Antiquities--Badagas--Koters--Kurumbers--Irulas--English - stations--Kotergherry--Ootacamund--Coonoor--Jakatalla--Government - gardens at Ootacamund and Kalhutty--Mr. McIvor--Coffee cultivation - --Rules for sale of waste lands--Forest conservancy 358 - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - SELECTION OF SITES FOR CHINCHONA-PLANTATIONS ON THE NEILGHERRY - HILLS. - - The Dodabetta site--The Neddiwuttum site 379 - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - JOURNEY TO THE PULNEY HILLS. - - Coonoor ghaut--Coimbatore--Pulladom--Cotton cultivation--Dharapurum - --A marriage procession--Dindigul--Ryotwarry tenure--Pulney hills - --Kodakarnal--Extent of the Pulneys--Formation--Soil--Climate - --Inhabitants--Flora--Suitability for chinchona cultivation--Forest - conservancy--Anamallay hills 390 - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - MADURA AND TRICHINOPOLY. - - Arrive at Madura--Peopling of India--The Dravidian race--Brahmin - colonists in Southern India--Foundation of Madura--Pandyan dynasty - --Tamil literature--Aghastya--Naik dynasty--The Madura pagoda--The - Sangattar--The Choultry--Tirumalla Naik's palace--Caste prejudices - --Trichinopoly--Coleroon anicut--Rice cultivation--The palmyra - palm--Caroor--Return to the Neilgherries--Shervaroy hills - --Courtallum 408 - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - MYSORE AND COORG. - - Seegoor ghaut--Sandal-wood--Mysore--Seringapatam--Hoonsoor--The - tannery--Fraserpett--Mercara--The fort--The Rajahs of Coorg--The - Coorgs--Origin of the river Cauvery--Coorg--Climate--Coffee - cultivation--Sites for chinchona-plantations--Caryota Urens - --Virarajendrapett--Cardamom cultivation--Kumari--Poon, blackwood, - and teak--Pepper cultivation in Malabar--Cannanore--Nuggur and Baba - Bodeen hills--The Beebee of Cannanore--Compta--Sedashighur--Arrive - at Bombay 432 - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - THE MAHABALESHWUR HILLS AND THE DECCAN. - - Journey from Bombay to Malcolm-penth--The Mahabaleshwur hills--The - village and its temples--Elevation of the hills--Formation--Soil - --Climate--Vegetation--Sites for chinchona-plantations--Paunchgunny - --Waee--Its temples--The babool-tree--Shirwul--The village system - --Village officials--Barra-balloota--Cultivators--Festivals--Crops - and harvests--Poona--The Bhore ghaut--Return to Bombay 458 - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - - Cultivation of the chinchona-plants in the Neilgherry hills, under - the superintendence of Mr. McIvor 483 - - - CHAPTER XXIX. - - CHINCHONA CULTIVATION. - - Ceylon--Sikkim--Bhotan--Khassya hills--Pegu--Jamaica--Conclusion - 509 - - - APPENDIX A. - - General Miller and the Foreign Officers who served in the Patriot - Armies of Chile and Peru, between 1817 and 1830 521 - - - APPENDIX B. - - Botanical descriptions of the genus Chinchona, and of the species - of Chinchonæ now growing in India and Ceylon 530 - - - APPENDIX C. - - Notes on the principal plants employed in India on account of their - real or supposed febrifuge virtues: by Alexander Smith, Esq. 546 - - - APPENDIX D. - - Report, by Mr. McIvor, on the cultivation of Chinchona-plants in - Southern India 566 - - - APPENDIX E. - - Note on the export-trade in Peruvian bark from the South American - ports, and on the import-trade into England 571 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PAGE - - Chinchona-plants at Ootacamund _Frontispiece_. - - Chinchona Micrantha _to face_ 32 - - Arequipa " 75 - - Arequipa Cathedral " 76 - - A Cholo of Arequipa 87 - - Balsa on Lake Titicaca 107 - - The Towers of Sillustani _to face_ 111 - - Genealogical Table of the Family of the Incas of Peru " 134 - - The Sondor-huasi, at Azangaro " 193 - - Chinchona Nitida Trees " 323 - - Chinchona Chahuarguera " 329 - - Canoe on the Beypoor river 520 - - Capsules and parts of the flower of Chinchona Chahuarguera--magnified - and natural size 532 - - Capsule and parts of the flower of Chinchona Succirubra 534 - - Parts of the flower and fruit of Chinchona Micrantha 539 - - * * * * * - - Map to illustrate Mr. Spruce's journeys to the forests on the - Western slopes of Chimborazo _to face_ 313 - - Map of part of Peru, to illustrate Mr. C. Markham's journey to - the Chinchona forests of Caravaya _at the end._ - - - - - POSTSCRIPT. - - OCT. 16, 1862. - -[Illustration] - -LATEST INTELLIGENCE OF THE CHINCHONA PLANTS, FROM THE NEILGHERRY HILLS. - -Number of Chinchona plants on the Neilgherry Hills on August 31st, 1862. - - Species. Number. - - _C. Succirubra_ 30,150 - - _C. Calisaya_ 1,050 - - _C. Condaminea_ (var. _Uritusinga_) 41 - - _C. Condaminea_ (var. _Chahuarguera_) 20,030 - - _C. Condaminea_ (var. _Crispa_) 236 - - _C. lancifolia_ 1 - - _C. nitida_ 8,500 - - _C. micrantha_ 7,400 - - _C. Peruviana_ 2,295 - - Species without name 2,440 - - _C. Pahudiana_ 425 - ________ - Total 72,568[2] - -The total number of plants permanently placed out in the plantations, -on August 31st, 1862, was 13,700, and, although only recently -transplanted, they are in a very promising condition. The number placed -out, at the same date, in the nurseries in the open air, and in the -hardening-off frames, was 18,076, all in the finest possible state of -health. The number of small plants under glass, including those used -for the production of wood for propagation, was 40,792. - -There are four plantations for Chinchona cultivation, either cleared -and planted, or about to be cleared, at Neddiwuttum and Pycarrah; -besides the loftier one at Dodabetta. At Neddiwuttum the "Denison -Plantations" will contain about 210 acres of planted land, the "Markham -Plantation" about 200 acres; and near Pycarrah about 250 acres are to -be planted, of fine well-watered land, completely sheltered from the -west winds, to be called the "Wood Plantation," after the Secretary of -State for India: altogether about 660 acres, besides the Dodabetta site. - -Plants are to be disposed of to private individuals who may be desirous -of undertaking the cultivation, and 22,000 had already been ordered in -the beginning of September. - - * * * * * - -LATEST INTELLIGENCE FROM DARJEELING. - -Dr. Anderson, who is in charge of the Chinchona cultivation in Bengal, -brought the plants to the Darjeeling Hills early in May 1862. He -then had 84 plants of _C. succirubra_, 44 of _C. micrantha_, 48 of -_C. nitida_, 2 of _C. Peruviana_, 5 of _C. Calisaya_, and 53 of _C. -Pahudiana_. On July 26th these had been increased, by layers and -cuttings, to 140 of _C. succirubra_, 53 of _C. nitida_, 43 of _C. -micrantha_, 7 of _C. Calisaya_, and 3 of _C. Peruviana_. _See page 512._ - - * * * * * - -LATEST INTELLIGENCE FROM CEYLON. - -On July 29th, 1862, Mr. Thwaites had raised 960 young plants of _C. -Condaminea_ from seeds. At the same date the plants of _C. succirubra_ -were thriving admirably, several being planted out in the hill garden, -and a few at Peradenia. The other species were doing well, and Mr. -Thwaites was propagating as fast as possible from cuttings. _See page -509._ - - * * * * * - -C. PAHUDIANA.--THE DUTCH SPECIES. - -The _C. Pahudiana_, which forms the bulk of the Java plantations, is -now generally acknowledged to be worthless. A tree of this species -has been chemically analyzed by Professors G. F. Mülder and F. A. W. -Miquel, and, in consequence of the joint report of these gentlemen, -the Dutch Government have determined to put an entire stop to its -cultivation. _See page 56. See letter from M. Hasskarl, dated May 23rd, -1862._ - - - - -TRAVELS IN PERU. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DISCOVERY OF PERUVIAN BARK. - - The Countess of Chinchon--Introduction of the use of bark into - Europe--M. La Condamine's first description of a _Chinchona_-tree--J. - de Jussieu--Description of the Chinchona region--The different - valuable species--The discovery of quinine. - - -THE whole world, and especially all tropical countries where -intermittent fevers prevail, have long been indebted to the mountainous -forests of the Andes for that inestimable febrifuge which has now -become indispensable, and the demand for which is rapidly increasing, -while the supply decreases, throughout all civilized countries. There -is probably no drug which is more valuable to man than the febrifugal -alkaloid which is extracted from the chinchona-trees of South America; -and few greater blessings could be conferred on the human race than the -naturalization of these trees in India, and other congenial regions, so -as to render the supply more certain, cheaper, and more abundant. - -It will be the principal object of the following pages to relate the -measures which have been adopted within the last two years to collect -plants and seeds of these quinine-yielding chinchonæ, in the various -regions of South America, where the most valuable species are found; -and to give an account of their introduction into India, and of the -hill districts in that country where it is considered most likely that -they will thrive. But it is necessary that the reader should have a -general knowledge of these precious trees, and of their history, before -he accompanies the explorers who were sent in search of them over the -cordilleras of the Andes, and into the vast untrodden forests. - -It would be strange indeed, if, as is generally supposed, the Indian -aborigines of South America were ignorant of the virtues of Peruvian -bark; yet the absence of this sovereign remedy in the wallets of -itinerant native doctors who have plied their trade from father to son, -since the time of the Incas, certainly gives some countenance to this -idea. It seems probable, nevertheless, that the Indians were aware of -the virtues of Peruvian bark in the neighbourhood of Loxa, 230 miles -south of Quito, where its use was first made known to Europeans: and -the Indian name for the tree _quina-quina_, "bark of bark," indicates -that it was believed to possess some special medicinal properties.[3] -The Indians looked upon their conquerors with dislike and suspicion; -it is improbable that they would be quick to impart knowledge of this -nature to them; and the interval which elapsed between the discovery -and settlement of the country and the first use of Peruvian bark by -Europeans may thus easily be explained.[4] The conquest and subsequent -civil wars in Peru cannot be said to have been finally concluded until -the time of the viceroy Marquis of Cañete, in 1560; and J. de Jussieu -reports that a Jesuit, who had a fever at Malacotas,[5] was cured by -Peruvian bark in 1600. M. La Condamine also found a manuscript in the -library of a convent at Loxa, in which it was stated that the Europeans -of the province used the bark at about the same time. Thus an interval -of only forty years intervened between the pacification of Peru and the -discovery of its most valuable product. - -It may be added, however, that though the Indians were aware of the -febrifugal qualities of this bark, they attached little importance -to them, and this may be another reason for the lapse of time which -occurred before the knowledge was imparted to the Spaniards. Referring -to this circumstance La Condamine says, "Nul n'est saint dans son -pays." This indifference to, and in many cases even prejudice against -the use of the Peruvian bark, amongst the Indians, is very remarkable. -Poeppig, writing in 1830, says that in the Peruvian province of Huanuco -the people, who are much subject to tertian agues, have a strong -repugnance to its use. The Indian thinks that the cold north alone -permits the use of fever-bark; he considers it as very heating, and -therefore an unfit remedy in complaints which he believes to arise from -inflammation of the blood.[6] Humboldt also notices this repugnance -to using the bark amongst the natives; and Mr. Spruce makes the same -observation with respect to the people of Ecuador and New Granada.[7] -He says that they refer all diseases to the influence of either heat -or cold; and, confounding cause and effect, they suppose all fevers to -proceed from heat. They justly believe bark to be very heating, and -hence their prejudice against its use in fevers, which they treat with -_frescos_ or cooling drinks. Even in Guayaquil the prejudice against -quinine is so strong that, when a physician administers it, he is -obliged to call it by another name. - -In about 1630 Don Juan Lopez de Canizares, the Spanish Corregidor of -Loxa, being ill with an intermittent fever, an Indian of Malacotas is -said to have revealed to him the healing virtues of quinquina bark, -and to have instructed him in the proper way to administer it, and thus -his cure was effected. - -In 1638 the wife of Luis Geronimo Fernandez de Cabrera Bobadilla -y Mendoza, fourth Count of Chinchon, lay sick of an intermittent -fever in the palace at Lima. Her famous cure induced Linnæus, long -afterwards, to name the whole genus of quinine-yielding trees in her -honour _chinchona_. The godmother of these priceless treasures of the -vegetable kingdom has, therefore, some claim upon our attention. - -This Countess of Chinchon was a daughter of the noble house of Osorio, -whose founder was created Marquis of Astorga by Henry IV., King of -Castille. The eighth marquis, who died at Astorga in 1613, had a -daughter by his wife Dona Blanca Manrique y Aragon, named Ana,[8] -born in 1576; and the ruins of the palace in the curious old town of -Astorga, in which she passed her childhood, are still standing.[9] -At the early age of sixteen she was married to Don Luis de Velasco, -Marquis of Salinas, who was about to assume the important office of -viceroy of Mexico. She probably accompanied her husband to Mexico, and -afterwards to Lima, as he was viceroy of Peru from 1596 to 1604. In the -latter year he resumed his former office in Mexico, and, on his return -to Spain, he became President of the Council of the Indies from 1611 to -1617.[10] The lady Ana had thus been a great traveller, when, in the -latter year, she found herself a widow. In 1621 she was married, in the -city of Madrid, to her second husband the fourth Count of Chinchon, -who was descended from a long line of proud and valiant Catalonian -ancestors. One of his forefathers, Don Andres de Cabrera, who was -created Marquis of Moya in 1480, married Beatriz de Bobadilla, so well -known in history as the faithful attendant and confidential friend of -Queen Isabella the Catholic. The Emperor Charles V., remembering the -services and ancient dignity of the illustrious families of Cabrera and -Bobadilla, created the second son of the Marquis of Moya, by Beatriz -de Bobadilla, Count of his town of Chinchon, in the kingdom of Toledo, -in 1517.[11] The third Count was one of the over-worked ministers -of that most indefatigable of "red-tapists" Philip II.; and his son -became the husband of the widow Ana, who accompanied him to Lima on his -appointment as viceroy of Peru in 1629. Thus, for the second time, this -lady entered the City of the Kings as Vice-Queen. - -While the Countess Ana was suffering from fever in 1638, in her -sixty-third year, the Corregidor of Loxa, Don Juan Lopez de Canizares, -sent a parcel of powdered quinquina bark to her physician, Juan de -Vega, who was also captain of the armoury, assuring him that it was a -sovereign and never-failing remedy for "tertiana." It was administered -to the Countess and effected a complete cure; and Mr. Howard is -of opinion that the particular plant which had this honour, and -which, therefore, yields the true and original Peruvian bark, is the -_Chahuarguera_ variety of the _C. Condaminea_.[12] This kind contains a -large percentage of _chinchonidine_, an alkaloid, the great importance -of which is only now just beginning to be recognised, so that it is -to _chinchonidine_, and not to _quinine_, that the Countess's cure is -due.[13] - -The Count of Chinchon returned to Spain in 1640, and his Countess, -bringing with her a quantity of the healing bark, was thus the first -person to introduce this invaluable medicine into Europe.[14] Hence -it was sometimes called Countess's bark, and Countess's powder. Her -physician, Juan de Vega, sold it at Seville for one hundred reals the -pound. In memory of this great service Linnæus named the genus which -yields it _Chinchona_, and afterwards the lady Ana's name was still -further immortalized in the great family of _Chinchonaceæ_, which, -together with _Chinchonæ_, includes ipecacuanhas and coffees. By modern -writers the first _h_ has usually been dropped, and the word is now -almost invariably, but most erroneously, spelt _Cinchona_. - -After the cure of the Countess of Chinchon, the Jesuits were the -great promoters of the introduction of bark into Europe. In 1639, as -the last act of his viceroyalty, her husband did good service to the -cause of geographical discovery, by causing the expedition under the -Portuguese Texeira to proceed from Quito to the mouth of the Amazons, -accompanied by the Jesuit Acuña, who wrote a most valuable account of -the voyage.[15] From that time the missionaries of Acuña's fraternity -continued to penetrate into the forests bordering on the upper waters -of the Amazons, and to form settlements; and Humboldt mentions a -tradition that these Jesuits accidentally discovered the bitterness -of the bark, and tried an infusion of it in tertian ague. In 1670 the -Jesuit missionaries sent parcels of the powdered bark to Rome, whence -it was distributed to members of the fraternity throughout Europe -by the Cardinal de Lugo, and used for the cure of agues with great -success. Hence the name of "Jesuits' bark," and "Cardinal's bark;" and -it was a ludicrous result of its patronage by the Jesuits that its use -should have been for a long time opposed by Protestants and favoured -by Roman Catholics. In 1679 Louis XIV. bought the secret of preparing -quinquina from Sir Robert Talbor, an English doctor, for two thousand -louis-d'ors, a large pension, and a title. From that time Peruvian -bark seems to have been recognised as the most efficacious remedy for -intermittent fevers. The second Lord Shaftesbury, who died in 1699, -mentions in one of his letters--"Dr. Locke's and all our ingenious and -able doctors' method of treating fevers with the Peruvian bark:" he -declares his belief that it is "the most innocent and effectual of all -medicines;" but he also alludes to "the bugbear the world makes of it, -especially the tribe of inferior physicians." - -There can be no doubt that a very strong prejudice was raised against -it, which it took many years to conquer; and the controversies which -arose on the subject between learned doctors were long and acrimonious. -Dr. Colmenero, a professor of the University of Salamanca, wrote a -work in which he declared that ninety sudden deaths had been caused by -its use in Madrid alone.[16] Chiflet (Paris, 1653) and Plempius (Rome, -1656), two great enemies of novelty, prophesied the early death of -quinquina, and its inevitable malediction by future ages; while the -more enlightened Badius (Genoa, 1656) defended its use, and quoted more -than twelve thousand cures by the aid of this remedy, performed by the -best doctors of the hospitals in Italy. In 1692 Dr. Morton, one of the -opponents of its use, was obliged to retract all he had said against -quinquina; and it was then that it began to be generally admitted -as a valuable medicine. It still, however, remained a subject of -controversy, and as late as 1714 two Italian physicians, Ramazzini and -Torti,[17] held opposite views on the subject. Ramazzini wrote against -its use with much violence, while Torti maintained that, in proper -doses, it would arrest remittent and intermittent fevers.[18] - -Whilst the inestimable value of Peruvian bark was gradually forcing -conviction on the most bigoted medical conservatives of Europe, and -whilst the number and efficacy of cures effected by its means were -bringing it into general use, and consequently increasing the demand, -it was long before any knowledge was obtained of the tree from which it -was taken. In 1726 La Fontaine, at the solicitation of the Duchess of -Bouillon, who had been cured of a dangerous fever by taking Peruvian -bark, composed a poem in two cantos to celebrate its virtues; but the -exquisite beauty of the leaves, and the delicious fragrance of the -flowers of the quinquina-tree, with allusions to which he might have -adorned his poem, were still unknown in Europe. - -The first description of the quinquina-tree is due to that memorable -French expedition to South America, to which all branches of science -owe so much. The members of this expedition, MM. De la Condamine, -Godin, Bouguer, and the botanist Joseph de Jussieu, sailed from -Rochelle on the 16th of May, 1735, to measure the arc of a degree near -Quito, and thus determine the shape of the earth. After a residence -at Quito, Jussieu set out for Loxa, to examine the quinquina-tree, in -March, 1739, and in 1743 La Condamine visited Loxa, and stayed for some -time at Malacotas, with a Spaniard whose chief source of income was the -collection of bark. He obtained some young plants with the intention of -taking them down the river Amazons to Cayenne, and thence transporting -them to the Jardin des Plantes at Paris; but a wave washed over his -little vessel near Para, at the mouth of the great river, and carried -off the box in which he had preserved these plants for more than eight -months. "Thus," he says, "I lost them after all the care I had taken -during a voyage of more than twelve hundred leagues."[19] This was the -first attempt to transport chinchona-plants from their native forests. - -Condamine described the quinquina-tree of Loxa in the 'Mémoires de -l'Académie;'[20] he was the first man of science who examined and -described this important plant; and in 1742 Linnæus established the -genus CHINCHONA, in honour of the Countess Ana of Chinchon. He, -however, only knew of two species, that of Loxa, which was named _C. -officinalis_, and the _C. Caribæa_, since degraded to the medicinally -worthless genus of _Exostemmas_. - -Joseph de Jussieu, whose name is associated with that of La Condamine -in the first examination of the chinchona-trees of Loxa, continued his -researches in South America after the departure of his associate. He -penetrated on foot into the province of Canelos, the scene of Gonzalo -Pizarro's wonderful achievements and terrible sufferings; he visited -Lima with M. Godin; he travelled over Upper Peru as far as the forests -of Santa Cruz de la Sierra; and he was the first botanist who examined -and sent home specimens of the coca-plant, the beloved narcotic of the -Peruvian Indian. After fifteen years of laborious work he was robbed -of his large collection of plants by a servant at Buenos Ayres, who -believed that the boxes contained money. This loss had a disastrous -effect on poor Jussieu, who, in 1771, returned to France, deprived of -reason, after an absence of thirty-four years. Dr. Weddell has named -the shrubby variety of _C. Calisaya_ in honour of this unfortunate -botanist _C. Josephiana_. - -For many years the quinquina-tree of Loxa, the _C. officinalis_ of -Linnæus, was the only species with which botanists were acquainted; -and from 1640 to 1776 no other bark was met with in commerce than that -which was exported from the Peruvian port of Payta, brought down from -the forests in the neighbourhood of Loxa. The constant practice of -improvidently felling the trees over so small an area for more than a -century, without any cessation, inevitably led to their becoming very -scarce, and threatened their eventual extinction. As early as 1735 -Ulloa reported to the Spanish Government, that the habit of cutting -down the trees in the forests of Loxa, and afterwards barking them, -without taking the precaution of planting others in their places, would -undoubtedly cause their complete extirpation. "Though the trees are -numerous," he added, "yet they have an end;" and he suggested that the -Corregidor of Loxa should be directed to appoint an overseer, whose -duty it should be to examine the forests, and satisfy himself that a -tree was planted in place of every one that was felled, on pain of a -fine.[21] This wise rule was never enforced, and sixty years afterwards -Humboldt reported that 25,000 trees were destroyed in one year. - -The measures adopted by the Spanish Government towards the end of the -last century, in sending botanical expeditions to explore the chinchona -forests in other parts of their vast South American possessions, led to -the discovery of additional valuable species, the introduction of their -barks into commerce, and the reduction of the pressure on the Loxa -forests, which were thus relieved from being the sole source whence -Peruvian bark could be supplied to the world. - -The region of chinchona-trees extends from 19° S. latitude, where -Weddell found the _C. Australis_, to 10° N., following the almost -semicircular curve of the cordillera of the Andes over 1740 miles of -latitude. They flourish in a cool and equable temperature, on the -slopes and in the valleys and ravines of the mountains, surrounded -by the most majestic scenery, never descending below an elevation of -2500, and ascending as high as 9000 feet above the sea. Within these -limits their usual companions are tree ferns, melastomaceæ, arborescent -passion-flowers, and allied genera of chinchonaceous plants. Below them -are the forests abounding in palms and bamboos, above their highest -limits are a few lowly Alpine shrubs. But within this wide zone grow -many species of chinchonæ, each within its own narrower belt as regards -elevation above the sea, some yielding the inestimable bark, and others -commercially worthless. And the species of chinchonæ, in their native -forests, are not only divided from each other by zones as regards -height above the sea, but also by parallels of latitude. In Bolivia -and Caravaya, for instance, the valuable _C. Calisaya_ abounds, but it -is never found nearer the equator than 12° S. Between that parallel -and 10° S. the forests are for the most part occupied by worthless -species, while in Northern Peru the important grey barks of commerce -are found. In each of these latitudinal regions the different species -are again divided by belts of altitude. Yet this confinement within -zones of latitude and altitude is not a constant rule; for several of -the hardier and stronger species have a wider range; while the more -sensitive, and these are usually the most precious kinds, are close -prisoners within their allotted zones, and never pass more than a -hundred yards beyond them. All the species are, of course, affected by -local circumstances, which more or less modify the positions of their -zones, as regards altitude. - -Thus, to give a geographical summary of the chinchona region, beginning -from the south, it commences in the Bolivian province of Cochabamba in -19° S., passes through the yungus of La Paz, Larecaja, Caupolican, and -Munecas, into the Peruvian province of Caravaya; thence through the -Peruvian forests, on the eastern slopes of the Andes, of Marcapata, -Paucartambo, Santa Anna, Guanta, and Uchubamba, to Huanuco and -Huamalies, where the grey bark is found. It then continues through -Jaen, to the forests near Loxa and Cuenca, and on the western slopes of -Chimborazo. It begins again in latitude 1° 51´ N. at Almaguer, passes -through the province of Popayan, and along the slopes of the Andes of -Quindiu, until it reaches its extreme northern limit on the wooded -heights of Merida and Santa Martha. - -Humboldt remarks that, beyond these limits, the Silla de Caraccas, and -other mountains in the province of Cumana, possess a suitable altitude -and climate for the growth of chinchona-trees, as well as some parts -of Mexico, yet that they have never been found either in Cumana or -Mexico; and he suggests that this may be accounted for by the breaks -which take place in Venezuela on the one hand, and on the isthmus of -Panama on the other, where tracts of country of low elevation intervene -between the lofty mountains of Cumana and Mexico and the chinchona -region of the main Andes. In these low districts the chinchona-trees -may have encountered obstacles which prevented their propagation to -the northward: otherwise we might expect to find them in the beautiful -Mexican woods of Jalapa, whither the soil and climate, and their usual -companions the tree ferns and melastomaceæ, would seem to invite -them.[22] - -Be this how it may, the chinchona-plant has never been found in any -part of the world beyond the limits already described. - -The chinchonas, when in good soil and under other favourable -circumstances, become large forest trees; on higher elevations, and -when crowded, and growing in rocky ground, they frequently run up to -great heights without a branch; and at the upper limit of their zone -they become mere shrubs. The leaves are of a great variety of shapes -and sizes, but, in most of the finest species, they are lanceolate, -with a shining surface of bright green, traversed by crimson veins, -and petioles of the same colour. The flowers are very small, but hang -in clustering panicles, like lilacs, generally of a deep roseate -colour, paler near the stalk, dark crimson within the tube, with white -curly hairs bordering the laciniæ of the corolla. The flowers of _C. -micrantha_ are entirely white. They send forth a delicious fragrance -which scents the air in their vicinity. - -The earliest botanists gave the name of Chinchona to a vast number of -allied genera, which have since been separated, and grouped under other -names.[23] There are three characteristics by which a true chinchona -may invariably be known; the presence of curly hairs bordering the -laciniæ of the corolla, the peculiar mode of dehiscence of the capsule -from below upwards, and the little pits at the axils of the veins -on the under sides of the leaves. These characters distinguish the -chinchona from many trees which grow with it, and which might at -first sight be taken for the same genus. The fact, established by the -investigations of chemists, that none of these allied genera contain -any of the medicinal alkaloids, has confirmed the propriety of their -expulsion from the chinchona genus by botanists; and Dr. Weddell gives -a list of seventy-three plants, once received as Chinchonæ, which are -now more properly classed under allied genera, such as _Cosmibuena_, -_Cascarilla_, _Exostemma_, _Remijia_, _Ladenbergia_, _Lasionema_, -&c.[24] - -Thus thinned out and reduced in numbers, the list of species of -Chinchonæ has been established by Dr. Weddell at nineteen, and two -doubtful;[25] but even the classification of this eminent authority, -published in 1849, already requires much alteration and revision. For -instance: Dr. Weddell gives no place to the "red-bark" species, the -richest in alkaloids, and one of the most important, which, through -the recent investigations of Mr. Spruce, will now probably be admitted -by botanists as a distinct species, the _C. succirubra_ (Pavon). A new -grey bark now introduced into India as _C. Peruviana_ (Howard), and -the _C. Pahudiana_ (Howard), a worthless kind, cultivated by the Dutch -in Java, will also be received as additional species. It seems likely -also that the _C. Condaminea_ requires to be divided into two or three -distinct species; while the _C. Boliviana_ (Weddell) will sink into a -mere variety of the _C. Calisaya_. - -The commercially valuable species, however, comprise but a small -proportion of the whole; and, as all these have now been introduced -into India, they alone deserve our attention. They are as follows:-- - - _C. succirubra_ (Pavon) yielding _Red bark._ - {_C. Chahuarguera_ (Pavon) } - _C. Condaminea._ {_C. crispa_ (Tafalla)} " _Crown bark._ - {_C. Uritusinga_ (Pavon) } - {_C. lancifolia_ (Mutis) " _Carthagena bark._ - _C. nitida_ (Ruiz & Pavon)} - _C. micrantha_ (Ruiz & Pavon)} " _Grey bark._ - _C. Peruviana_ (Howard) } - _C. Calisaya_ (Weddell) " _Yellow bark._ - -These species yield five different kinds of medicinal barks, which -are collected from five different regions in South America; and in -the following chapter I propose to give a brief account of each of -these regions, of their chinchona-trees, and of the investigations of -botanists down to the time when measures were taken to introduce these -inestimable plants into Java and India. Such an account will naturally -divide itself into five sections:-- - - I.--The Loxa region, and its _crown barks_. - II.--The _red-bark_ region, on the western slopes of Chimborazo. - III.--The New Granada region. - IV.--The Huanuco region in Northern Peru, and its _grey barks_. - V.--The _Calisaya_ region, in Bolivia and Southern Peru. - -Before entering on this subject, however, it will be well to cast a -hasty glance at the progress of those investigations which ended in the -discovery of the febrifugal principle in Peruvian bark. - -The roots, flowers, and capsules of the chinchona-trees have a bitter -taste with tonic properties, but the upper bark is the only part which -has any commercial value.[26] The bark of trees is composed of four -layers--the epiderm, the periderm, the cellular layer, and the liber or -fibrous layer, composed of hexagonal cells filled with resinous matter -and woody tissue. In growing, the tree pushes out the bark, and, as the -exterior part ceases to grow, it separates into layers, and forms the -dead part or periderm; which in chinchonas is partially destroyed, and -blended with the thallus of lichens. The bark is thus formed of the -dead part, or periderm, and the living part, or derm. On young branches -there is no dead part, the exterior layers remaining entire, while -the inner layers have not had time to develop. In thick old branches, -on the contrary, the periderm or dead part is considerable, while the -fibrous layer of the derm is fully developed. In preparing the bark -the periderm is removed by striking the trunk with a mallet, and the -derm is then taken off by uniform incisions. The thin pieces from small -branches are simply exposed to the sun's rays, and assume the form of -hollow cylinders, or quills, called by the natives _canuto_ bark. The -solid trunk bark is called _tabla_ or _plancha_, and is sewn up in -coarse canvas and an outer envelope of fresh hide, forming the packages -called _serons_. - -The character of the transverse fracture affords an important criterion -of the quality of the bark. Cellular tissue breaks with a short and -smooth fracture, woody tissue with a fibrous fracture, as is the case -with the _calisaya_ bark. The best characteristics by which barks -containing much quinine may be distinguished are the shortness of the -fibres which cover the transverse fracture, and the facility with which -they may be detached, instead of being flexible and adhering as in bad -barks. Thus, when dry _calisaya_ bark is handled, a quantity of little -prickles run into the skin, and this forms one of its distinguishing -marks.[27] - -Until the present century Peruvian bark was used in its crude state, -and numerous attempts were made at different times to discover the -actual healing principle in the bark, before success was finally -attained. The first trial which is worthy of attention was made in -1779 by the chemists Buguet and Cornette, who recognised the existence -of an essential salt, a resinous and an earthy matter in quinquina -bark. In 1790 Fourcroy discovered the existence of a colouring matter, -afterwards called _chinchona red_, and a Swedish doctor named Westring, -in 1800, believed that he had discovered the active principle in -quinquina bark. In 1802 the French chemist Armand Seguin undertook -the bark trade on a large scale, and found it necessary to study -the means of discovering good barks, and distinguishing them from -bad ones. He found that the best quinquina bark was precipitated by -tannin, while the bad was not precipitated by that substance. In 1803 -another chemist found a crystalline substance in the bark which he -called "_sel essentiel fébrifuge_" but it was nothing more than the -combination of lime with an acid which was named _quinic acid_. Reuss, -a Russian chemist, in 1815, was the first to give a tolerable analysis -of quinquina bark; and about the same time Dr. Duncan of Edinburgh -suggested that a real substance existed as a febrifugal principle. -Dr. Gomez, a surgeon in the Portuguese navy, in 1816, was the first -to isolate this febrifugal principle hinted at by Dr. Duncan, and he -called it _chinchonine_.[28] - -But the final discovery of quinine is due to the French chemists -Pelletier and Caventou, in 1820. They considered that a vegetable -alkaloid, analogous to morphine and strychnine, existed in quinquina -bark; and they afterwards discovered that the febrifugal principle was -seated in two alkaloids, separate or together, in the different kinds -of bark, called _quinine_ and _chinchonine_, with the same virtues, -which, however, were much more powerful in quinine. It was believed -that in most barks chinchonine exists in the cellular layer, and -quinine in the liber, or fibrous layer; but Mr. Howard has since shown -that this view is quite incorrect.[29] In 1829 Pelletier discovered a -third alkaloid, which he called _aricine_, of no use in medicine, and -derived from a worthless species of chinchona, growing in most of the -forests of Peru, called _C. pubescens_.[30] - -The organic constituents of chinchona barks are-- - - Quina. | Kinovic acid. - Chinchonia. | Chinchona red. - Aricina. | A yellow colouring matter. - Quinidia. | A green fatty matter. - Chinchonidia. | Starch. - Quinic acid. | Gum. - Tannic acid. | Lignin. - -These materials are in different proportions according to the barks. -Grey bark chiefly contains chinchonine and tannin; Calisaya, or yellow -bark, much quinine, and a little chinchonine; red bark holds quinine -and chinchonine in nearly equal proportions; while the barks of New -Granada chiefly contain chinchonidine and quinidine. The two latter -alkaloids were definitively discovered in 1852 by M. Pasteur; although -the Dutch chemist Heijningen had, in 1848, found what he called β -quinine or quinidine. Chinchonidine is only second to quinine itself in -importance as a febrifugal principle. - -_Quinine_ is a white substance, without smell, bitter, fusible, -crystallized, with the property of left-handed rotatory polarization. -The salts of quinine are soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. Of -all the salts the bisulphate of quinine is preferred, because it -constitutes a stable salt, easy to prepare, and containing a strong -proportion of the alkaloid. It is very bitter and soluble, and -crystallizes in long silky needles. It is prepared by adding sulphuric -acid to the sulphate.[31] - -_Chinchonine_ differs from quinine in being less soluble in water, -and being altogether insoluble in ether. It has the property of -right-handed rotatory polarization. - -_Quinidine_ also has the property of right-handed rotatory -polarization, and forms salts like those of quinine. It becomes green -by successive additions of chlorine and ammonia. - -_Chinchonidine_ has not the property of turning green, and forms a -sulphate almost exactly like sulphate of quinine.[32] - -The discovery of these alkaloids in the quinquina[33] bark, by enabling -chemists to extract the healing principle, has greatly increased the -usefulness of the drug. In small doses they promote the appetite -and assist digestion; and chinchonine is equal to quinine in mild -cases of intermittent fever; but in severe cases the use of quinine -is absolutely necessary. Thus these alkaloids not only possess -tonic properties to which recourse may be had under a multitude of -circumstances, but also have a febrifugal virtue which is unequalled, -and which has rendered them almost a necessary of life in tropical -countries, and in low marshy situations where agues prevail. Many a -poor fellow's life was saved in the Walcheren expedition by the timely -arrival of a Yankee trader with some chests of bark, after the supply -had entirely failed in the camp.[34] Dr. Baikie, in his voyage up the -Niger, attributed the return of his men alive to the habitual use of -quinine; and the number of men whose lives it has saved in our naval -service and in India will give a notion of the vast importance of a -sufficient and cheap supply of the precious bark which yields it. -India and other countries have been vainly searched for a substitute -for quinine, and we may say with as much truth now as Laubert did in -1820--"This medicine, the most precious of all those known in the art -of healing, is one of the greatest conquests made by man over the -vegetable kingdom. The treasures which Peru yields, and which the -Spaniards sought and dug out of the bowels of the earth, are not to be -compared for utility with the bark of the quinquina-tree, which they -for a long time ignored.[35] - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - The valuable species of Chinchona-trees--their history, their - discoverers, and their forests. - - -I.--THE LOXA REGION, AND ITS _CROWN BARKS_. - -THE region around Loxa, on the southern frontier of the modern republic -of Ecuador, is the original home of the Chinchona, and nearly in the -centre of its latitudinal range of growth. On the lofty grass-covered -slopes of the Andes, around the little town of Loxa, and in the -sheltered ravines and dense forests, those precious trees were found -which first made known to the world the healing virtues of Peruvian -bark. They were most plentifully met with in the forests of Uritusinga, -Rumisitana, Cajanuma, Boqueron, Villonaco, and Monje, all within short -distances of Loxa. - -Linnæus had named these trees _Chinchona officinalis_; but when -Humboldt and Bonpland examined them, the discovery of other species -yielding medicinal bark had rendered the name inappropriate, and they -very properly re-christened them, after the distinguished Frenchman -who had originally described them, _Chinchona Condaminea_. Humboldt -says that they grow on mica slate and gneiss, from 6000 to 8000 feet -above the sea, with a mean temperature between 60° and 65° Fahr. In -his time the tree was cut down in its first flowering season, or in -the fourth or seventh of its age, according as it had sprung from a -vigorous root-shoot, or from a seed. He describes the luxuriance of -the vegetation to be such that the younger trees, only six inches in -diameter, often attain from fifty-three to sixty-four English feet in -height. "This beautiful tree," he continues, "which is adorned with -leaves above five inches long and two broad, growing in dense forests, -seems always to aspire to rise above its neighbours. As its upper -branches wave to and fro in the wind, their red and shining foliage -produces a strange and peculiar effect, recognisable from a great -distance."[36] It varies much in the shape of the leaves, according -to the altitude at which it grows, and bark-collectors themselves -would be deceived if they did not know the tree by the glands, so long -unobserved by botanists. The _C. Condaminea_ described by Humboldt -is the same as the _C. Uritusinga_ of Pavon. It once yielded great -quantities of thick trunk bark, but, owing to reckless felling through -a course of years, it is now almost exterminated, and its bark is -rarely met with in commerce. The distinguished botanist Don Francisco -Caldas examined the chinchona forests of Loxa after Humboldt, between -1803 and 1809. He says that the famous quina-tree of Loxa grows in the -forests of Uritusinga and Cajanuma, at a height of from 6200 to 8200 -feet above the sea, in a temperature of 41° to 72° Fahr.; but that it -is only found between the rivers Zamora and Cachiyacu.[37] He describes -the tree as from thirty to forty-eight feet high, with three or more -stems growing from the same root; the leaves as lanceolate, shining on -both sides, with veins a rosy colour, a short and tender pubescence -on the under side when young, and when past maturity a bright scarlet -colour; the bark black when exposed to the sun and wind, a brownish -colour when closed in by other trees, and always covered with -lichens;[38] and the rock on which the trees grow, a micaceous schist. - -Don Francisco José de Caldas, a native of New Granada, was one of -the most eminent scientific men that South America has yet produced. -He was associated with Mutis in the botanical expedition of New -Granada; he explored the chinchona region as far as Loxa; and thus -takes his place as one of those to whom we are indebted for throwing -light on the nature of the trees yielding Peruvian bark. Caldas was -born at Popayan in the year 1770; and, from early youth, devoted -himself to the pursuits of science with untiring energy, especially -studying botany, mathematics, meteorology, and physical geography. He -constructed his own barometer and sextant, and, ignorant of the methods -adopted in Europe, he discovered the way of ascertaining altitudes by -a boiling-point thermometer. He has left many memoirs on botanical and -other subjects behind him, and his style is always animated, clear, -and interesting; but many of the productions of this remarkable man -are still in manuscript,[39] and others are lost to us for ever. Above -all, it is to be regretted that his botanical chart of the chinchona -genus, which he promised in one of his memoirs, has never seen the -light. After the declaration of independence Caldas was nominated by -the Congress at Bogota to publish the works of his friend the botanist -Mutis. When the brutal Spanish General Morillo entered Bogota in June -1816, he perpetrated a series of savage massacres, in which more than -600 of the most distinguished men in the country fell victims. Among -them was Caldas, who was shot through the back on the 30th of October -1816.[40] - -The Spanish botanists Ruiz and Pavon also examined the chinchona-trees -of Loxa; and the latter described two species, _C. Uritusinga_, -named from the mountain on which it was once most abundant, and _C. -Chahuarguera_, so called from a fancied resemblance of the bark to -a pair of breeches (_huara_ in Quichua) made from the fibre of the -American aloe (_chahuar_). To these the botanist Tafalla added the -_C. crispa_. These three species are all included in Humboldt's _C. -Condaminea_, which is readily known by the little pits, bordered -with hairs, at the axils of the veins on the under side of the leaf. -It would appear that at one period of growth these little pits or -scrobicules are wanting, but when the plant is in full vigour they are -markedly prominent. The _C. Chahuarguera_[41] is described by Pavon as -growing from eighteen to twenty-four feet in height; although now the -trees, which yield the Loxa bark of commerce, do not attain a height -of more than four to nine feet. It is met with on the grassy open -crests of mountain ridges, in light sandy soil interspersed with rocks, -amongst shrubs and young plants. The barks of Loxa were called _crown -barks_, because they were reserved for the exclusive use of the royal -pharmacy at Madrid; and they originally sold at Panama for five and -six dollars, and at Seville for twelve dollars the pound; but in later -times they were much adulterated, and the price fell to one dollar the -pound. - -The _C. Chahuarguera_ is the _rusty crown bark_ of commerce,[42] and -the _C. crispa_ is the _quina fina de Loxa_ or _crespilla negra_ of the -natives. A parcel of it has quite recently sold at a higher price than -_Calisaya_ quills. With this _rusty crown bark_ are mixed larger quills -particularly rich in the alkaloid called chinchonidine.[43] The _C. -Uritusinga_ grew to the height of a lofty forest tree, but it is now -nearly exterminated. The leaves assume a red colour before they fall, -acquiring the most beautiful tints, and the tree is one of the finest -in those forests.[44] It is said that there is a great difference in -the bark, according as it is grown on the sides of mountains most -exposed to the morning or evening sun; and its position is believed to -have a great influence on the quality of its alkaloids. The usual yield -of the large quills is 3.5 to 3.6 per cent.[45] - -The bark-collectors of Loxa are said to show some little forethought, -a quality which is entirely wanting in most of their fraternity. To -save the trees they occasionally cut off the whole of the bark, with -the exception of one long strip, which gradually replaces its loss; -and the second cutting is called _cascarilla resecada_. This practice -was in use in the days of the botanist Ruiz, who protested against -it, and declared that it was very injurious to the trees, many having -been destroyed by it.[46] Later accounts, however, show that the -bark-collectors of Loxa are as thoughtlessly destructive as those in -other parts of South America. They often pull up the roots, while the -annual burning of the slopes, and the continual cropping of the young -shoots by cattle, assist the work of destruction.[47] - -It is, therefore, well that the _C. Chahuarguera_ and _C. Uritusinga_, -the earliest known and among the most valuable of the chinchona-trees, -should have been saved from extinction by timely introduction into -India. - -The annual export of Loxa bark, from the port of Payta, is from 800 to -1000 cwts. - - -II.--THE "RED-BARK" REGION, ON THE WESTERN SLOPES OF CHIMBORAZO. - -The species yielding "red bark," the richest and most important of -all the Chinchonæ, is found in the forests on the western slopes of -Mount Chimborazo, along the banks of the rivers Chanchan, Chasuan, San -Antonio, and their tributaries. So early as 1738 Condamine spoke of -"red bark" (_cascarilla colorada_) as being of superior quality;[48] -and Pavon sent home specimens of the "red bark of Huaranda," and named -the species _C. succirubra_. Some of these are now in the British -Museum; and in the collection of Ruiz and Pavon, in the botanical -gardens at Madrid, I found capsules, flowers, and leaves marked -"_cascarilla colorada de los cerros de San Antonio_." In 1857 Dr. -Klotzsch, an eminent German botanist, read a paper at Berlin,[49] -elaborately describing the "red bark" as a product of _C. succirubra_, -from a very good specimen of Pavon's in the Berlin Museum. Mr. Howard -has also received a specimen from Alausi, and he is inclined to the -belief that there are several varieties of _C. succirubra_, and one or -two allied species, as yet undescribed.[50] Much light was thrown upon -the history of this valuable species by Mr. Spruce, when he penetrated -into the forests to collect seeds and plants for transmission to India -in 1860. - -Though little was known of the tree until quite lately, there was never -any doubt concerning the value of the bark. In 1779 a Spanish ship -from Lima, bound to Cadiz, was captured off Lisbon by the 'Hussar' -frigate, and her cargo consisted chiefly of "red bark," part of which -was imported into England. In 1785 and 1786 Ruiz states that the -collectors began to gather the bark of _C. succirubra_, and sell it at -Guayaquil, and from that time it continued to be found in the European -markets. It contains a larger proportion of alkaloids than any other -kind, amounting to as much as from 3 to 4 per cent. of the substance of -the bark, and of this a fair share is quinine. Fine samples yield 3.9 -per cent., selling at 8_s._ 9_d._ per lb.; and the quill bark from the -smaller branches 3.6 per cent.[51] Mr. Howard has recently procured 8.5 -per cent. of alkaloids from a specimen of "red bark." A large supply -of plants of this species is flourishing in India and Ceylon, and, -from the richness of the species, the comparatively low elevation at -which it thrives, and its hardy nature, it may be expected to become a -cultivated plant of great value and importance. - -In 1857 the export of bark from the port of Guayaquil, the place of -shipment for the _C. succirubra_, amounted to 7006 quintals, valued at -23,353_l._[52] In 1849-50 Dr. Weddell gives the amount at 1042 quintals. - - -III.--THE NEW-GRANADA REGION. - -The importance of the chinchona-trees was fully established in the -middle of the last century, and, Don Miguel de Santistevan, the -director of the mint at Bogota, having addressed a memorial on the bark -trade (_estanco de cascarilla_) to the Viceroy Marquis of Villar in -1753, the attention of the Spanish Government was seriously turned to -the subject. When the Viceroy Don Pedro Mesia de la Cerda, Marquis de -la Vega de Armijo, went out to Bogota in 1760,[53] he was accompanied -by the botanist Don José Celestino Mutis, a native of Cadiz, who was -appointed to conduct a botanical survey of New Granada, and especially -to investigate the bark of the chinchona-trees.[54] - -In 1772 Mutis found these trees in the neighbourhood of Bogota, and -described four kinds in 1792, which he called _C. lancifolia_, _C. -cordifolia_, _C. oblongifolia_, and _C. ovalifolia_, yielding four -kinds of barks--_anaranjada_, _amarilla_, _roja_, and _blanca_, or -orange-coloured, yellow, red, and white.[55] He declared the _C. -lancifolia_ to be excellent for intermittent fevers, in which he was -right, and to be identical with the _C. Condaminea_ of Loxa, in which -he was wrong; the _C. cordifolia_ he recommended for remittent fevers, -and the other two for inflammatory diseases. In reality the two last -are not chinchonas at all, but belong to the genus _Ladenbergia_, -and contain no fever-dispelling alkaloids whatever; while the _C. -Cordifolia_ is so poor in alkaloids as to be practically worthless. - -While Mutis, and his disciples Caldas and Zea, were prosecuting their -researches in New Granada, an expedition under the botanists Ruiz and -Pavon was sent to Peru; and an acrimonious paper war sprang up between -the rivals, as to the respective merits of the barks of New Granada -and Peru. Ruiz declared the New Granada kinds to be inferior to those -of Peru, while Mutis contradicted him, and Zea[56] went so far as to -maintain that the species found by Ruiz and Pavon in Peru were mere -varieties of the four chinchonas of Mutis, growing near Bogota.[57] - -The _C. lancifolia_ of Mutis is dispersed in wild inaccessible -forests, while the other three kinds grow in partly cultivated and -inhabited regions, and their barks are therefore much more easy to -collect. These worthless barks were, therefore, largely exported from -Carthagena and Santa Martha, while the valuable _C. lancifolia_ was -neglected; and the consequence was that the barks of New Granada fell -entirely into discredit for many years. In about 1849, however, Dr. -Santa Maria of Bogota discovered the _C. lancifolia_ afresh, producing -the _quina anaranjada_, and it has recently been found in the whole -cordillera from Bogota to Popayan, and largely exported between 1849 -and 1855, when the supplies began to fail. - -Dr. Karsten, a distinguished German botanist, has lately returned -from a residence of some years in New Granada, where he thoroughly -examined the region of _C. lancifolia_. His remarks on the production -of alkaloids in chinchona barks are very important. He came to the -conclusion that the content of alkaloids was not always the same in -the same species of chinchona, and that the soil and relations of -climate, on which the nourishment of the plant depends, exercise -considerable influence. He also assumes, what is undoubtedly true, that -the chinchonæ with the capsule opening from the base and crowned by -the calyx, with a corolla of delicate texture and bearded edges, and -generally unindented seed-lobes, give febrifugal barks; but his further -position that the short oval or elliptic capsules are a sign of a -regularly larger content of alkaloids, while long capsules show a small -quantity or total absence of quinine and chinchonine, though doubtless -correct so far as Dr. Karsten's personal observation extended, will not -bear general application. The _C. succirubra_, the richest of all the -barks in alkaloids, would certainly come under the latter head. Dr. -Karsten's observations on the differences in the structure of the false -and true barks are also exceedingly valuable. - -The _C. lancifolia_ of New Granada has been found to contain as much as -2-1/2 per cent. of quinine and from 1 to 2 per cent. of chinchonine. -The trees are found in forest-regions veiled in fog and rain, and often -exposed to frost, where the temperature ranges from freezing-point to -77° Fahr., at heights of 7000 feet and upwards above the level of the -sea. They attain a height of 80 feet and 5 feet in diameter, but the -average size is 30 or 40 feet high and 3 feet in girth.[58] Seeds of -this species, collected by Dr. Karsten, were sent to Java, and there -are now several plants raised from these seeds in India.[59] - -I find that between 1802 and 1807 the export of New Granada bark from -the port of Carthagena was 3,340,000 lbs.; the largest quantity in one -year being 48,330 lbs. in 1806. The first arrivals in Spain sold at -5 to 6 dollars a pound, but in 1808 they were worth next to nothing, -owing to the damaged state in which the bark arrived.[60] - - -IV.--THE HUANUCO REGION IN NORTHERN PERU, AND ITS GREY BARKS. - -The chinchona-trees, in the forests of the province of Huanuco, in -Northern Peru, were discovered by Don Francisco Renquifo in 1776, on -the mountain of San Cristoval de Cuchero or Cocheros; and Don Manuel -Alcarraz brought the first sample of bark from Huanuco to Lima. - -At almost the same time the Spanish government was organizing a -botanical expedition to explore the chinchona forests of Peru; -composed of the botanists Don José Pavon, Don Hipolito Ruiz, -the Frenchman Dombey, and two artists named Brunete and Galvez. -They embarked at Cadiz on November 4th, 1777, and reached Callao -April 8th, 1778. Having made a large collection of plants in the -neighbourhood of Lima, and despatched them to Spain,[61] they crossed -the Andes, explored the forests of Tarma, and then proceeded to -Huanuco. They traversed the valley of Chinchao, explored the hill of -Cuchero or Cocheros, near Huanuco, and discovered seven species of -chinchona-trees,[62] returning to Lima laden with the precious spoils -of their expedition. They then sailed for Chile, and, after exploring -the greater part of that province, they returned to Lima, and sent off -their botanical collections in fifty-three boxes, which were all lost -in the shipwreck of the 'San Pedro de Alcantara,' off the coast of -Portugal, in 1786. M. Dombey returned to Europe at about the same time. - -Ruiz and Pavon then returned to Huanuco, explored the courses of the -rivers Pozuzu and Huancabamba, and eventually established themselves -at the farm of Macora, near Huanuco, where they resided for two months -with Don Francisco Pulgar and Don Juan Tafalla, who, by order of the -king, had joined them as pupils and associates in their labours--the -first as an artist, the second as a botanist. In August, 1785, a fire -broke out in their house, which destroyed all their journals and -collections; and they then undertook journeys through the forests of -Muña, Pillao, and Chacahuasi, examining new species of chinchonæ.[63] -On April 1st, 1788, taking leave of Pulgar and Tafalla, they sailed -from Callao, and reached Cadiz in September, when they commenced the -publication of their great work the 'Flora Peruviana.'[64] - -Tafalla continued his researches in the province of Huanuco, and -discovered the _C. micrantha_ in 1797, in the cool and shady forests of -Monzon and Chicoplaya. Pavon calls him "noster alumnus." - -The expeditions and discoveries of the Spanish botanists induced the -merchants of Lima to speculate in bark, and brought the grey barks of -Huanuco into the European markets.[65] In 1785 Don Juan de Bezares, -a Lima merchant, devoted 2000 dollars to the exploration of the -forests of Huamalies. He penetrated along the banks of the Monzon to -Chicoplaya, passing mountains thickly covered with chinchona-trees, -and engaged people to collect bark. Thousands of arrobas were thus -obtained of the bark of _C. glandulifera_; and having been appointed -Governor of Huamalies by the Viceroy Don Teodoro de Croix in 1788, -Bezares commenced the construction of a good road down the valley of -the Monzon.[66] Up to 1826 the principal supplies of grey bark were -derived from _C. nitida_, but since that time they are believed to have -come chiefly from _C. micrantha_. - -Science owes much to the labours of Spanish botanists: the Spanish -nation has every reason to be proud of her sons who explored the -forests of the Andes with such untiring energy and distinguished -ability; and the names of Mutis, Ruiz, Pavon, and Tafalla occupy no -unimportant place in the history of botanical research. Nor, in this -respect, have the natives of South America been behindhand. Caldas -and Zea were worthy successors of Mutis; Franco Davila[67] represents -the botanical learning of Peru; while in more modern times the name of -the South American Triana is not unworthy to stand side by side with -those of the best botanists in Europe. - -[Illustration: CHINCHONA MICRANTHA. (From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia de -Pavon.') Page 32.] - -After the days of Ruiz and Pavon, our chief authority on the grey barks -of Huanuco is Dr. Poeppig, now a professor in Leipsic, who travelled in -Chile and Peru between the years 1827 and 1832.[68] He says that, as in -New Granada, the grey barks of Huanuco soon fell into discredit in the -European markets, owing to the adulterations of small speculators, and -that after 1815 the trade almost entirely ceased.[69] In 1830 scarcely -1250 lbs. of bark found their way from Huanuco to Lima. - -In the flourishing times of the Huanuco bark trade the _cascarilleros_, -or bark-collectors, entered the forests in parties of ten or more, with -supplies of food and tools. They penetrated for several days into the -virgin forest until they came to the region of the chinchona-trees, -when they built some rude huts and commenced their work. The -_cateador_, or searcher, then climbed a high tree, and, with the aid of -experience and sharp sight, soon discovered the _manchas_ or clumps by -their dark colour, and the peculiar reflection of the light from their -leaves, easily observable even in the midst of these endless expanses -of forest. The _cateador_, then, with never-erring instinct, conducted -the party for hours through the tangled brushwood, to the chinchona -clump, using the wood-knife at every step. From a single clump they -often obtained a thousand pounds of bark, which was sent up to be dried -beyond the limits of the forest. All depended on the success of this -operation, for the bark easily becomes mouldy and loses its colour. The -_cascarilleros_ got two rials for every twenty-five pounds of green -bark stripped, from the speculator, and, as they could easily strip -three hundred pounds, they made two dollars a day. The bark cost the -speculator about four dollars, and the price at Lima was sixteen to -twenty dollars the arroba of twenty-five pounds.[70] - -Dr. Poeppig makes some important remarks on the supposed danger of -the total extirpation of the chinchona-trees by reckless felling. -Condamine and Ulloa believed that this would be the case in the Loxa -forests, and Poeppig thinks that their apprehensions were well founded, -because there the trees are not felled, but left standing deprived of -their bark, in which case they are attacked by rot with extraordinary -rapidity in tropical forests, hosts of insects penetrate to the stem, -and the healthy roots become infected. But it is only necessary to -observe the precaution of hewing the stem as near as possible to the -root, in order to be sure of its after-growth. After six years, near -Cuchero, the young stems may already be felled again; but, at higher -altitudes, where the most effective chinchonas are found, it requires -twenty years.[71] - -The _C. micrantha_ abounds in the province of Huanuco, and the bark -is known as _Cascarilla provinciana_. It yields 2.7 per cent. of -chinchonine, and is much sought after for the Russian market. - -The _C. nitida_ is a lofty tree growing in the higher regions of -Huanuco, and is known by the natives as _quina cana legitima_ (genuine -grey bark). It grows at a greater height than the former species, and -yields 2.2 per cent. of chinchonine. - -The _C. Peruviana_, so named by Mr. Howard, is the _Cascarilla de -pata de gallinazo_ of the natives. It grows in the forests at a lower -elevation than _C. nitida_, and yields 3 per cent. of chinchonine -and chinchonidine, consequently indicating a considerable amount -of febrifugal power. Quinine has also been found in samples of grey -bark.[72] - -The name of _grey_ bark refers to the striking effect of the -overspreading thallus of various _Graphideæ_, forming groups, and -indicating that the tree has grown in an open situation, exposed to -rain and sunshine. A large supply of all the best kinds of grey bark is -now growing in India.[73] - - -V.--THE CALISAYA REGION IN BOLIVIA AND SOUTHERN PERU. - -The chinchona region of Bolivia and Southern Peru, although one of -the most important, was the last to contribute supplies of bark -to the European markets. The trees first became known through the -investigations of the German botanist Thaddæus Haenke, and a Spanish -naval officer named Rubin de Celis, who drew the attention of the -inhabitants to the valuable forests on the eastern slopes of the -Bolivian Andes in 1776, though the unfortunate French naturalist Joseph -de Jussieu had previously explored some portions of those forests.[74] -But it was not until 1820, when quinine was first discovered as the -febrifugal principle of bark, that the _Chinchona Calisaya_[75] was -recognised as containing more of that alkaloid than any other species. - -After 1820 the demand for _calisaya_ bark increased enormously; great -numbers of _cascarilleros_, or bark-collectors, entered the forests, -and in a short time scarcely a tree remained in the vicinity of the -inhabited places; and the bark was exported in such quantities that -the price fell very much.[76] It was not, however, until 1830 that -the Bolivian Government interfered in the bark trade. It was then -considered necessary by General Santa Cruz's administration to check -the drain of this precious source of wealth by limiting the quantity -of bark to be cut or exported; and in November, 1834, the Bolivian -Congress decreed a law on the subject, which, however, never took -effect. Finally, the cutting was prohibited for five years, but before -the expiration of that period the decree was abrogated, and an export -duty of twelve dollars to twenty dollars the quintal, or cwt., was -imposed. - -In 1844 the Bolivian Congress authorized the President, General -Ballivian, to negotiate for the establishment of a national bank of -bark, with the requisite capital, to export all the quinquina bark -produced in the country. This Bolivian legislation on the chinchona -bark, which is considered, with justice, the most important product -of their country, is very curious, and sufficiently demonstrates the -futility of attempting a system of protection and monopoly. Instead -of taking measures to prevent the reckless destruction of the trees, -to establish extensive nurseries for young plants, and thus ensure a -constant and sufficient supply of bark, these Bolivians have meddled -with the trade, attempted to regulate European prices by the most -barbarous legislation, and allowed the forests to be denuded of -chinchona-trees. In 1845 the bark monopoly was given to Messrs. Jorge -Tesanos Pinto and Co., for five years, for the sum of 119,000 dollars, -during which time not more than 4000 quintals of bark were to be -exported annually. This company gave such iniquitously low prices to -the _cascarilleros_ for their bark, that a clamour was raised against -it, and the President, General Belzu, put an end to its existence in -March 1849. - -Free trade, with a duty of twenty dollars the quintal, was then -established during one year; but in 1850 exclusive privileges were -again granted to Messrs. Aramayo Brothers and Co., who were to pay -the Government 142,000 dollars a year for the right of exporting 7000 -quintals of bark annually, to be purchased of the _cascarilleros_, the -_tabla_ or trunk bark at sixty dollars the quintal, and the _canuto_ -or quill bark at thirty to thirty-six dollars the quintal. The Pinto -company had only paid eighteen to twenty-two dollars the quintal for -_tabla_, and eight to ten dollars for _canuto_ bark. The favourable -conditions thus offered to _cascarilleros_ induced so great a number -of persons to undertake the business, that at the end of the first -year more than 20,000 quintals of bark arrived at La Paz--that is to -say, more than twice as much as the company had agreed for, and more -than the Pinto company had exported in five years. The Government then -issued a decree to prevent the smuggling of bark, and another that no -bark should be cut except for the company: but these measures caused -much discontent, and in 1851 the Congress voted that the Executive -had exceeded its powers in making these arrangements with the Aramayo -company, and declared them to be null and void. The Aramayo company -purchased 14,000 quintals of the bark, and agreed to take the same -quantity during the two following years, paying only a third of the -price in ready money; but a new company, formed under the name of Pedro -Blaye and Co., engaged to purchase all the bark that was for sale, both -at La Paz and Cochabamba, for ready money. It was evident that one or -the other of these companies must break, and finally that of Blaye -fell. The Government then determined to export the bark which remained -in store on its own account, paying the same price as had been agreed -on by the company. - -These two companies lasted for two years, during which time the -Bolivian forests yielded 3,000,000 lbs. of bark. Such was the result of -the high prices which followed the fall of the Pinto monopoly; but it -was the rich contractors, and not the poor bark-collectors, who derived -benefit from the change.[77] - -In 1851 Government prohibited the cutting of bark entirely, from the -1st of January, 1852, to the 1st of January, 1854.[78] In 1858 a decree -was issued to regulate the transition of the system of monopoly to that -of free-trade in bark, which caused an improvement in the prices in -European markets; and in November, 1859, Dr. Linares, then President -of Bolivia, declared the right to cut bark in the forests to be free, -and reduced the duty 25 per cent. on the current prices, to be fixed at -the beginning of each year.[79] This is the law which now regulates the -bark trade in Bolivia, and, after a course of short-sighted meddling -legislation, extending over twenty years, in 1850 it still brought -142,000 dollars annually into the public treasury, being a fifteenth -part of the whole revenue of the Republic. - -For exportation the bark is wrapped in fresh bullock-hides, having been -previously sewn up in thick cotton bags containing 155 lbs. each. These -hide packages are called _serons_, a mule-load being 285 lbs., and the -transport to the coast costing about ten dollars for each mule-load. - -It is to the persevering energy and great talent of that distinguished -French botanist Dr. Weddell that we owe our knowledge of the chinchona -regions of Bolivia and Southern Peru, and especially of the inestimable -quinine-yielding species which he identified as the _C. Calisaya_. -Dr. Weddell accompanied the scientific expedition of the Count de -Castelnau, which was sent out by Louis Philippe to South America, -and, after crossing the vast empire of Brazil, entered Bolivia by the -country of the Chiquitos in August, 1845. It was Dr. Weddell's chief -object to examine the chinchona region of this country, and his first -step was to proceed to Tarija, to ascertain the extreme southern limit -of the chinchona-trees, which he discovered in 19° S. lat. He named -the species _C. Australis_. Dr. Weddell then commenced a thorough -exploration of the Bolivian chinchona forests, making his way over the -most difficult country, from Cochabamba, through Ayopaya, Enquisivi, -and the _yungus_[80] of La Paz; where the species of chinchonæ -continued to multiply under his eye. In Enquisivi he first met with and -studied the _C. Calisaya_, which he named and described, collecting -much information respecting the trade, and the methods of collecting -bark. In 1847 he entered the province of Capaulican, descending the -river Tipuani, where he was attacked by fever, and ascending the -Mapiri. At Apollobamba, the centre of the most ancient bark-collecting -district, he found that the surrounding forests were quite cleared -of chinchona-trees, and that it was necessary to seek for them at a -distance of ten or twelve days' journey from any inhabited place. -In June 1847 Dr. Weddell entered the Peruvian province of Caravaya, -examined the chinchona forests of the valleys of Sandia (San Juan del -Oro) and Tambopata, and concluded his investigations by a visit to the -lovely ravine of Santa Anna, near Cuzco. - -Dr. Weddell was accompanied in his visit to the valleys of Santa -Anna by M. Delondre, a manufacturer of quinine at Havre, who, after -contemplating the project of paying a personal visit to the chinchona -forests for twenty years, had at length set out, landed at Islay in -July, 1847, and proceeded by way of Arequipa to Cuzco. M. Delondre -appears to have employed a contractor to supply him with bark, who -failed in his engagements, and of whom the French quinine manufacturer -bitterly complains as a second Dousterswivel.[81] MM. Weddell and -Delondre finally left the chinchona forests in September, 1847, and -set out for the coast of Peru. Dr. Weddell's valuable monograph on -the chinchona genus, '_Histoire naturelle des Quinquinas_,' the most -important work that has yet appeared on the subject, was published at -Paris in 1849. - -In 1851 Dr. Weddell undertook a second voyage to South America, and -in 1852 he entered the Bolivian chinchona region of Tipuani by way of -Sorata. In descending the eastern slopes of the Andes he describes -the vegetation as taking new forms at every mile of the descent. The -undergrowth was formed of _Melastomaceæ_ with violet-coloured flowers -(_Chætogastra_), myrtles, _Gaultherias_, and _Andromedas_; lower down -there were many superb species of _Thibaudias_; and, where the great -forests succeed to the smaller growth of the more elevated region, -the predominant trees were _Escallonias_, arborescent _Eupatorias_, -_Bocconias_, and a fruit-bearing _Papilionacea_ with a scarlet corolla. -He encountered the first forest chinchona-trees at an elevation of 7138 -feet, being the _C. ovata var. α vulgaris_. Descending still, he came -to paccay-trees (_Mimosa Inga_) in flower, and met with the first plant -of the shrubby variety of _C. Calisaya_, on an open grassy ridge or -_pajonal_, at an elevation of 4800 feet. - -Dr. Weddell descended the river Tipuani to Guanay, a mission of -Lecos Indians, and ascended the Coroico in a canoe made of the -wood of a species of _Bombax_. The forests bordering on the river -Coroico abounded in many species of palms, chiefly _Maximilianas_ and -_Iriarteas_, the latter a singular kind with a trunk supported on long -aërial roots. There were also many trees of _C. micrantha_ on the -banks of the Coroico, a species of chinchona, the peculiarity of which -is its fondness for the bottoms of valleys and banks of rivers, while -most of the others prefer elevated ridges or slopes of the mountains. -With it were growing trees of the beautiful _Cascarilla magnifolia_, an -allied genus with deliciously fragrant flowers. - -The _cascarilleros_ of Bolivia lead a hard and dangerous life. They -only value the _C. Calisaya_, the other species being for them -_carhua-carhua_, a name given to all the inferior kinds. Those who -carry the bark on their shoulders from the interior of the forests -receive fifteen dollars for every quintal, and they also have to carry -all their provisions and covering for the night. If by any accident -they are lost, or their provisions are destroyed, they die of hunger. -Dr. Weddell, on one occasion, while ascending the Coroico, landed -with the intention of passing the night on a beach well shaded by -trees. Here he found the hut of a _cascarillero_, and near it a man -stretched out on the ground in the agonies of death. He was nearly -naked, and covered with myriads of insects, whose stings had hastened -his end. His face was so swollen as to be wholly unrecognisable, and -his limbs were in a frightful state. On the leaves which formed the -roof of the hut were the remains of this unfortunate man's clothes, a -straw hat and some rags, with a knife, and an earthen pot containing -the remains of his last meal, a little maize, and two or three -_chuñus_. Such is the end to which their hazardous occupation exposes -the bark-collectors--death in the midst of the forests, far from all -friends--a death without help, and without consolation. - -Dr. Weddell returned to La Paz by ascending the Coroico, and the -results of his second visit to the chinchona forests appeared in an -entertaining book of travels.[82] To this able botanist and intrepid -explorer science is indebted, to no small extent, for the present state -of our knowledge of the chinchona genus. - -The _C. Calisaya_ species has been divided by Dr. Weddell into -two varieties, namely, a _vera_ and β _Josephiana_. The former, -when growing under favourable circumstances, is a tall tree, often -larger round than twice a man's girth, with its leafy head rising -above all the other trees of the forest. The leaves are oblong or -lanceolate-obovate, pitted in the axils of the veins, with a shining -green surface, and reddish veins. The flowers, which hang in large -panicles, are a rosy-white colour, with laciniæ rose-colour, and -bordered by marginal white hairs. The capsule is smooth, and about -twice as long as broad. This tree grows on declivities, and steep -rugged places of the mountains, from 4900 to 5900 feet above the sea, -in the forests of Enquisivi, Capaulican, Apollobamba, and Larecaja -in Bolivia, and of Caravaya in Peru. The trunk may be known by the -periderm of the bark, sometimes of a greyish-white, sometimes brown -or blackish, being always marked by longitudinal ridges or cracks, a -characteristic remarked of no other tree of these forests, excepting -one or two of the same family. The taste is strongly bitter, which -is apparent directly the tip of the tongue touches it, and, when the -exterior receives a cut, a yellow gummy resinous matter exudes from it. -The bark comes off with great ease, like peeling a mushroom, while, in -the inferior kinds, and above all in the false chinchonas, it strips -transversely, and with much greater difficulty. A good tree yields 150 -to 175 pounds of dried bark. - -The other variety of _C. Calisaya_, called _ychu cascarilla_, or -_cascarilla del pajonal_, by the natives, was named _Josephiana_ by -Dr. Weddell after the unfortunate French botanist Joseph de Jussieu. -It is a shrub, not attaining a greater height than six and a half to -ten feet, and growing on open grassy slopes, at much higher elevations -than the tree _Calisaya_. There is another tree variety with a somewhat -darker leaf, which Dr. Weddell classed as a distinct species, and -called _C. Boliviana_ in 1849, but which he now considers to be a -mere variety of _C. Calisaya_. The other good kinds in the forests -of Bolivia and Caravaya are _C. micrantha_, and two varieties of _C. -ovata_. - -Dr. Weddell brought seeds of _C. Calisaya_ to Paris, which were raised -in the Jardin des Plantes in 1848, and others in the garden of the -Horticultural Society in London, where one of the plants flowered.[83] -Many of these plants were given away, and some of them were sent by the -Dutch Government to Java. - -Plants of _C. Calisaya_ are now flourishing in India. The yield of -quinine for the best kinds of _calisaya_ bark is 3.8 per cent., that -for the _Josephiana_ variety 3.29.[84] - -Arica and Islay are the ports for the shipment of _calisaya_ bark; and -in 1859 the quantity and value exported were:-- - - From Arica 1926 quintals, worth £17,334 - " Islay 1365 " " 12,383 - ---- ------ - 3291 29,717 - ---- ------ - - Jan. 1st to Nov. 30th, 1860, Arica $160,260 = £35,000 (about). - 1860, Islay, 1077 quintals. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - Rapid destruction of chinchona-trees in South America--Importance - of their introduction into other countries--M. Hasskarl's - mission--Chinchona plantations in Java. - - -THE collection of bark in the South American forests was conducted from -the first with reckless extravagance; no attempt worthy the name has -ever been made either with a view to the conservancy or cultivation -of the chinchona-trees; and both the complete abandonment of the -forests to the mercy of every speculator, as in Peru, Ecuador, and New -Granada, and the barbarous meddling legislation of Bolivia, have led -to equally destructive results. The bark-collector enters the forest -and destroys the first clump of chinchona-trees he finds, without a -thought of any measure to preserve the continuance of a supply of bark. -Thus, in Apollobamba, where the trees once grew thickly round the -village, no full-grown one is now to be found within eight or ten days' -journey:[85] and so utterly improvident are the collectors that, in the -forests of Cochabamba, they bark the tree without felling, and thus -ensure its death; or, if they cut it down, they actually neglect to -take off the bark on the side touching the ground, to save themselves -the trouble of turning the trunk over.[86] - -A century ago Condamine[87] raised a warning voice against the -destruction that was going on in the forests of Loxa. Ulloa[88] advised -the Government to check it by legislation; soon afterwards Humboldt -reported that 25,000 chinchona-trees were destroyed every year, and -Ruiz[89] protested against the custom of barking the trees, and leaving -them to be destroyed by rot. But nothing was ever done in the way -of conservancy, either by the Government, or by private speculators -whose subsistence depended on a continued supply of bark. Dr. Weddell, -alluding to this recklessness as regards _C. Calisaya_, observes that -"the forests of Bolivia, rich as they are, cannot long resist the -continued attacks to which they have been recently exposed. He who, in -Europe, sees these enormous and ever-increasing masses of bark arrive, -may perhaps believe that they will continue to do so; but he who sees -the chinchona-trees in their native forests, and knows the real truth, -is obliged to think otherwise." - -There is, however, no danger of the actual extirpation of the trees -unless the plan is adopted of leaving them standing, and stripped -of their bark, as in the Loxa forests. Poeppig says that, in these -cases, the trees in the tropical forests are attacked by rot with -extraordinary rapidity; hosts of insects penetrate the stem to complete -the work of destruction, and the healthy root becomes infected. Thus -the valuable species called _C. Uritusinga_ has really been almost -exterminated. - -But where the trees are felled it is only necessary to observe the -precaution of hewing the stem as near as possible to the root, in order -to be sure of its after-growth.[90] Under these circumstances, after -six years the young trees are ready to be felled again in the milder -regions, and after twenty years in cold and exposed localities. From -the base of the stems, when not barked, a number of shoots spring out -between bark and wood; and Dr. Karsten says that, though an interval -of rest of twelve or fifteen years must be given to the forests where -the chinchona-trees have thus been felled, this only promotes further -investigation in the endless untrodden forests, while, in the mean -time, the younger generation is growing up in those which have already -been exhausted.[91] - -The danger, therefore, is not in the actual annihilation of the -chinchona-trees in South America, but lest, with the increasing demand, -there should be long intervals of time during which the supply would -cease, owing to the forests being exhausted, and requiring periods -of rest. In many districts this is already the case. The bark which -comes from Loxa is in the minutest quills, and in the forests of -Caravaya, after an interval of rest of several years, the root-shoots -had scarcely grown to a sufficient size to yield anything but quill -bark. Then again the supplies of bark from South America are not nearly -sufficient to meet the demand, and the price is kept so high as to -place this inestimable remedy beyond the means of millions of natives -of fever-visited regions. For these reasons the incalculable importance -of introducing the chinchona-plant into other countries adapted for its -growth, and thus escaping from entire dependence on the South American -forests, has long occupied the attention of scientific men in Europe. - -In 1839 Dr. Royle, in his 'Illustrations of Himalayan Botany,'[92] -recommended the introduction of the chinchona-plants into India, -pointing out the Neilgherry and Silhet hills as suitable sites for -the experiment, and Lord William Bentinck took some interest in the -project. M. Fée had previously recommended the introduction of these -plants into the French colonies;[93] and in 1849 both Dr. Weddell[94] -and M. Delondre[95] strongly urged the adoption of this measure. The -former declared that posterity would bless those who should carry this -idea into execution.[96] - -The Dutch, who possess in the island of Java a range of forest-covered -mountains admirably adapted for chinchona cultivation, were, however, -the first to take active steps for its introduction into the Eastern -Hemisphere; and their praiseworthy exertions deserve, what they lay -claim to with justice, the approbation of the whole civilized world. -The experiment in Java, however, has only been tried with a very -limited number of valuable species of chinchonæ, and has met with very -limited success, owing to the introduction of worthless kinds, and to -mistakes in the cultivation, committed during the first few years. - -For the last thirty years Dutch scientific men, among whom the name -of the botanist Blume may be mentioned, had urged their Government -to undertake the introduction of chinchona-plants into Java. But it -was not until the year 1852 that M. Pahud, the Dutch Minister of the -Colonies, was authorized to employ an agent to collect plants and seeds -of valuable species in Peru, and to convey them to Java. He selected, -for this important mission, M. Justus Charles Hasskarl, a botanist who -had for some time superintended the gardens in Java, but who was a -stranger to South America--ignorant of the country, the people, and the -languages--unacquainted with the forests where the chinchona-trees are -found, and who had never seen them growing in their natural state. He -sailed for Peru in December, 1852, with orders not to confine himself -to the _Calisaya_ plant, but to collect plants and seeds of as many -different species as possible. His original orders were to proceed -from Guayaquil to the chinchona-forests of Loxa in the first instance; -but he changed his plan, and, landing at Lima, crossed the cordilleras -in May, 1853. - -It would be difficult, in making a chance journey from the coast to -the forests of the Eastern Andes, to hit upon a part where valuable -species of chinchona-trees are not known to exist. There are such -spaces--forest tracts--intervening between the more favoured regions, -where only species of little value are found, such as _C. pubescens_, -_C. scrobiculata_, &c.; and on one of these, between the region of grey -barks in Huanuco and that of _C. Calisaya_ in Caravaya, M. Hasskarl, -through being unacquainted with the localities, was so unfortunate as -to stumble. He crossed the Andes by the road from Lima to Tarma, and -descended the eastern slopes into the montañas of Vitoc, Uchubamba, -and Monobamba; returning thence by Xauxa into the loftier region -of the Andes. Near Uchubamba he saw trees which he believed to be -_C. Calisaya_; but that species is never found to the north of the -province of Caravaya. He however collected a quantity of seeds of -this imaginary _C. Calisaya_, and four packets of a species which he -called _C. ovata_, with smaller quantities of _C. pubescens_ and _C. -amygdalifolia_. - -The species called by M. Hasskarl _C. ovata_ now forms the bulk of -the chinchona-plantations in Java. He found it on dry sunny hills, -without much shelter from the sun, in a very sandy micaceous soil, -at an elevation of 5500 to 6000 feet above the sea. It is sometimes -a mere shrub, but occasionally rises to fifteen or twenty-five feet, -with elegant pink flowers and reddish fruit. The native name is -_cascarilla crespilla chica_; and as the _crespilla grande_ is the -_C. ovata_ of Weddell, it is probable that M. Hasskarl was thus led -into the mistake of calling his new species _C. ovata_. The leaves are -smooth above, with a felt-like pubescence on the under surface, and -the hairy capsules are probably an indication of the worthlessness -of the species.[97] In fact, no good kinds are found in this part of -the country, and all the seeds sent home by M. Hasskarl were equally -valueless. He collected specimens of _C. lanceolata_ of Pavon, at a -place called "Escalera de San Rafael," on the road between Uchubamba -and Xauxa.[98] - -From Xauxa M. Hasskarl went to Cuzco, and thence in September to -Sandia in the province of Caravaya; but finding that the seeds of -chinchona-trees are ripe in August, and that he had arrived too late, -he returned to Lima, and finally took up his abode at Arequipa until -the following year. In March, 1854, he again set out, crossed the Andes -to Puno, and, after wandering over part of Bolivia, at length reached -the little village of Sina in Caravaya, near the frontier between Peru -and Bolivia, in April. He had assumed the feigned name of José Carlos -Müller, and had printed it on his cards, one of which he presented to -the governor of Sina, Don Juan de la Cruz Gironda, requesting him to -procure a supply of chinchona-plants for him. Gironda refused, but -introduced the stranger to a Bolivian named Clemente Henriquez, a -clever and intelligent, but dishonest and unscrupulous man. Henriquez -agreed to procure 400 plants of _C. Calisaya_ for a certain sum, part -of which was to be paid down, and the remainder on delivery of the -plants. M. Hasskarl then went on to the village of Sandia, where he -took up his abode, without entering the chinchona forests, and waited -there until the plants should arrive. Meanwhile Henriquez employed an -Indian to collect the stipulated number of plants, round a place called -Ychu-corpa,[99] on the frontier of Bolivia; and when they were brought -to him he went to Sandia, delivered them to M. Hasskarl, and received -his money. An outcry was afterwards raised against Henriquez, by the -people inhabiting villages bordering on the chinchona forests, who -considered that their interests would be injured by the exportation of -the plants: they declared they would cut his feet off if they caught -him, and he has ever since been obliged to live at Pelechuco, in -Bolivia.[100] This feeling has rendered any future operations of a like -nature exceedingly difficult. - -M. Hasskarl left Sandia with these plants in June, 1854, but they -were not placed in Wardian cases at the port of Islay until August, -and on the 27th of that month he finally left the coast of Peru in a -sailing vessel, and shaped his course direct for Java.[101] He arrived -at Batavia with twenty Wardian cases on December 13th, but all his -plants have since died except two.[102] On his arrival M. Hasskarl was -intrusted with the cultivation of chinchona-plants in Java, with the -rank of Assistant-Resident, and was made a Knight of the Netherlands -Lion, and Commander of the Order of the Oaken Crown.[103] - -Besides the plants brought by M. Hasskarl, a plant of _C. Calisaya_, -raised in Paris from seeds sent home by Dr. Weddell, had arrived in -Java; as well as plants raised from seeds previously sent from Peru, -and seeds of _C. lancifolia_ sent by Dr. Karsten from New Granada, -through the Governor of Curaçoa; and thus the experimental chinchona -cultivation in Java was commenced. - -Although through various circumstances the mission to South America was -not very successful, yet M. Hasskarl deserves the greatest credit for -the zeal and determination displayed by him in his journeys, during -which he was surrounded by no ordinary amount of difficulties and -dangers. He certainly proved himself to be a most indefatigable and -courageous traveller. - -M. Hasskarl, and his associate M. Teysmann, selected the site for the -first chinchona plantation, at a place called Tjibodas, thirty miles -south of Batavia, on the northern slope of the volcanic range which -traverses Java from east to west, and 4400 feet above the sea. Ground -was also prepared at Tjipannas, half a mile above Tjibodas, and 4700 -feet above the sea. These sites were covered with rasamala-trees of -immense size (_Liquidambar Altingia_,[104] _Blume_), which had to -be felled. The superintendents, deceived by the sight of such large -trees, imagined that the soil was deep and good, but in reality it was -not more than six inches deep, and underneath there was a formation -completely impenetrable to roots, called _tjadas_, composed of sand -and small stones of trachytic origin, strongly cemented together by -crater slime, the whole being as hard as rock. Not one of the huge -rasamala-trees in reality pierced this _tjadas_ with their roots, but -ran along its surface horizontally for hundreds of feet. In these -localities the chinchona-plants continued to languish during the year -1855, and in the end of that year the experiment presented a most -hopeless appearance. - -The causes of this failure are sufficiently evident. After the felling -of the rasamala-trees, the young chinchona-plants were exposed to -the full force of a burning sun, without any shade whatever, in an -extraordinarily thin soil upon a rocky bank impenetrable to roots. The -dead and rotted roots of the rasamala-trees were allowed to remain, -developing fungi which attacked the chinchona-roots; and the sites -themselves were in much too low and warm a climate. In consequence of -the combined effects of these adverse influences, there were only 300 -chinchona-plants in Java, in a sickly unpromising condition, after the -lapse of the first eighteen months. - -In December, 1855, Dr. Franz Junghuhn came to Java with 139 -chinchona-plants, raised from seeds in Holland. They were delivered -over to M. Hasskarl, and in six months seventy-six of them were dead. -In June, 1856, M. Pahud, who had been Minister of the Colonies, and -was then Governor-General of Netherlands India, relieved M. Hasskarl -of his duties, and gave the entire charge of the chinchona experiment -to Dr. Junghuhn, an experienced scientific botanist. Dr. J. E. de -Vry, a chemist of some eminence, was also sent to Java, charged with -the special duty of applying chemical tests to the barks of the -chinchona-plants, to ascertain their intrinsic value. - -When Dr. Junghuhn took charge the prospects of the experiment were -very far from promising, and he has displayed an amount of intelligent -perseverance, combined with much practical knowledge, which is -deserving of all praise. He found the 139 chinchona-plants which -he himself brought out reduced to sixty-three; the seeds of _C. -lancifolia_ represented by three sickly plants; the collection of -plants of _C. Calisaya_ brought by M. Hasskarl from Peru, also reduced -to three; two plants of _C. Calisaya_ raised from seeds sent home by -Dr. Weddell; and the remainder, consisting of the worthless species -collected by M. Hasskarl in Uchubamba, making a total of only 300 -plants. - -In 1856 a new system was introduced, money was lavishly expended, an -efficient establishment was formed, and a great effort was commenced -to secure the successful cultivation of the chinchona-plants. The -superintendent receives 1350_l._ a year, the chemist 1100_l._ a year, -and under them there are eight Dutch overseers; the total amount paid -in salaries being 3256_l._ a year.[105] It was ordered that, until -the cultivation is considered as quite successful, it should remain -under the management of scientific men, but that finally it should be -handed over to the ordinary direction of the chiefs of the provincial -government, under the Director of Cultures; and a memorandum of -instructions, consisting of eighteen articles, was drawn up for the -guidance of Dr. Junghuhn and his subordinates. - -Finding the chinchona-plants in so deplorable a condition, one of -Dr. Junghuhn's first measures was to transplant them from Tjibodas -to a more suitable site on the Malawar mountains, a very delicate -and hazardous operation, which was, however, successfully performed: -in 1857 plants both of _C. Calisaya_ and of the worthless species -blossomed, and in 1858 bore fruit. Dr. Junghuhn found that the latter -could not be the _C. ovata_ as named by M. Hasskarl; but he was -himself equally mistaken in naming it _C. Lucumæfolia_, from a fancied -resemblance to that species of Pavon.[106] The great mistake of the -Dutch has been in propagating this worthless species, and spending -vast sums of money on its cultivation, tempted by finding that its -nature was hardy, and that it required less care than the delicate _C. -Calisaya_. - -In 1858 several of the plants sickened from the attacks of destructive -insects (_Bostrichus_ or _Dermestes_), not larger than the head of a -pin, which pierced horizontally into the bark and wood of the stem -and branches, where they laid their eggs and died. Dr. Junghuhn -conjectures that they were imported from Peru; as they are not natives -of the Java forests, and I found these boring insects in the wood of -chinchona-trees in the forests of Caravaya. Twenty-nine trees were thus -attacked in Java, and died. - -Dr. Junghuhn established his new plantations on the slopes of the -Malawar mountains, where he has found that the _C. Calisaya_ is much -more sensitive than his so-called _C. Lucumæfolia_; and that very -slight differences in temperature, in elevation, in light, in shade, -and in moisture, exercise a very evident influence on the former, while -the latter remain quite unaffected by them. He considers that the best -conditions for the growth of _C. Calisaya_ on the Malawar mountains -(between latitude 7° and 8° S.) are good loose forest soil and moderate -shade, at an elevation from 5000 to 5700 feet above the sea. The _C. -Calisayas_, when they receive light only on their crowns, and are -surrounded by the dark wood, have a rapidly rising, slender, tall stem, -devoid of side branches; whilst, when they stand on clear open spots, -they grow much stronger in width and thickness, but are shorter, and -have numerous side branches. - -The following is Dr. Junghuhn's method of cultivation. Pots, made of -bamboo-joints, are loosely filled with finely-sifted earth, composed -of one-fourth part of black volcanic sand (felspar, hornblende, and -magnet iron) mixed with brown forest soil. The pots are then placed in -the interior of the forests, on beds of heaped-up earth laid out in -the form of terraces, on the declivities of the mountains. A roof of -dry grass, supported by stakes, and high enough to admit a side light, -protects the pots from the falling rain-drops. These seed-beds are from -200 to 500 feet long, and extend in parallel lines between the trees, -like the steps of an amphitheatre. Each pot receives only one seed, and -the earth is kept constantly moist by watering twice daily with the -squeeze of a sponge.[107] - -The pots remain standing on the seed-beds until the plants are about -half a foot high, which takes about eight months; and during this -time they are turned every five or eight days, in order to prevent -the crooked growth of the plants, which always turn to the side where -most light falls on the beds. For the purpose of planting out, a few -principal broad roads are made along the mountain ridge through the -wood, united at intervals by cross footpaths, twenty-five feet asunder. -At the side of these footpaths, and twenty-five feet from each other, -wide trenches are dug, and filled up with cleansed earth, so as to make -slightly raised mounds, with gutters to carry off the rain-water. The -young plants are placed in the loose earth on these mounds, and four -strong stakes, driven into the ground round them, are fastened together -four or five feet above their heads. This protects them from falling -boughs, drip, and wild animals, for some years. Thus thousands of paths -have been cut in the forests, and planted with chinchona-trees, which -are growing well. There are now nine nurseries in Java--Tjibodas on -Mount Gêdé; Tjiniruan on the south-west slope, and Tjiborum on the -southern slope of Mount Malawar; Genting; Reong Gunung; Kawah Tjirvidei -in the Kendeng mountains; one on Mount Patna; and two others. - -Dr. Junghuhn, in adopting the above method of cultivation, and in -altering M. Hasskarl's arrangements, has run into an opposite extreme. -His system of planting the young chinchonas in the forests under dense -shade[108] is most erroneous; and the way in which the seeds are -treated quite accounts for the small number which germinate. - -On the 31st of December, 1860, the number of chinchona-plants in Java -was as follows:-- - - _C. Calisaya_ 7,316 plants, and 1030 cuttings. - _C. lancifolia_ 80 " " 28 " - Species procured by M. Hasskarl 939,809 " " 18 " - -------- - Total 947,205 plants.[109] - -Besides 700,264 seeds in stock, or sown. The extreme height attained -by the tallest _C. Calisaya_ was, at the same date, fifteen feet, and -by the worthless species twenty-eight feet. One of the trees of _C. -lancifolia_ had also attained a height of fifteen feet. - -Dr. de Vry, the eminent chemist who is associated with Dr. Junghuhn, -and who had for two years previously occupied himself with the study -of the chinchona alkaloids, has been actively engaged in careful -investigations of the chinchona barks in Java. With regard to the _C. -Calisaya_ his results have been very satisfactory. From the trunk-bark -of a plant of this species, six years old, he obtained, in August, -1860, 5 per cent. of alkaloids; and from that of the branches, 2-1/2 -per cent. But the specimens of _C. Calisaya_ bark from Java, which have -been sent to the Exhibition of 1862, have a very different appearance, -and are much thinner than those from South America. This circumstance -leads to the inference that the present system of cultivation in Java -is erroneous. With the species introduced by M. Hasskarl, Dr. de Vry -was not so successful. The leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of this -species were sent to Mr. Howard by Dr. Junghuhn; and it was found -that the names of _C. ovata_, given it by M. Hasskarl, and of _C. -Lucumæfolia_ by Dr. Junghuhn, were equally erroneous. It was clear that -it was one of the numerous worthless species, not previously described, -and Mr. Howard, in the seventh number of his work, has named it _C. -Pahudiana_,[110] after M. Charles F. Pahud, who, as Minister of the -Colonies, sent M. Hasskarl to South America in 1852, and who, being -appointed Governor-General of Netherlands India in 1855,[111] did so -much to ensure the success of the chinchona experiment in Java. Up -to 1860 Dr. de Vry had only obtained 0.4 per cent. of alkaloids from -the bark of _C. Pahudiana_, and Mr. Howard's examination coincides -with the analysis of Dr. de Vry in pronouncing it an inferior sort. -In 1861, however, he obtained 3 per cent. of alkaloids from the bark -of the roots of a _C. Pahudiana_ plant eight years old, and 1-1/4 per -cent. from the trunk-bark. From a tree aged two years and three months -he only got 0.09 per cent. from the trunk-bark, and 1.9 per cent. from -the root-bark, of which he states the greater part to be quinine; -while in the trunk-bark there was not a trace of that alkaloid. This -result leads Dr. de Vry to conjecture that the quinine, once formed in -the roots, is employed in the growth of the plant, and that, when it -attains its full growth, the trunk-bark will also be rich in quinine. -If this should not be the case, he hopes that the roots of the young -plants may be used profitably for the manufacture of quinine. It is -to be feared that the quinine in the trunk-bark will not increase -with age, for, while in the younger tree there was 1.9 per cent. of -alkaloids in the roots, chiefly quinine, and 0.09 in the trunk-bark, -in the older one there was 3 per cent. in the roots, of which 1.8 was -quinine, and 1-1/4 per cent. in the trunk-bark, in which there was only -the minutest trace of quinine. Thus, while the quantity of quinine -decreased or remained stationary in the roots, the trunk-bark was still -destitute of that precious alkaloid. - -It is possible that Dr. de Vry, in his earnest desire to discover -quinine in a species upon which so much labour and anxiety, and such -vast sums of money, had been expended, may have been deceived by -appearances. Both from the form of the capsules, the absence of quinine -in the upper bark, and the locality whence it was procured, there is -every reason to fear that the _C. Pahudiana_ is a worthless kind; and -the bark of this species, which has been sent to the Exhibition of -1862, is so evidently valueless that no dealer would buy it. In all -valuable species there is a good percentage of alkaloids in the upper -bark, and a very much smaller proportion, which, too, is amorphous -and of little commercial value, in the bark of the roots. This law of -nature, the existence of which is proved by all experience, would have -to be reversed in order to enable the Dutch to extract large supplies -of quinine from the roots of a species, such as _C. Pahudiana_, which -contains none in the upper bark. - -It is much to be regretted that the scientific men in Java, instead -of exerting all their skill and talent in the work of cultivating _C. -Calisaya_ and _C. lancifolia_, of the value of which there is no doubt, -should have filled the forests of Java with a kind which from the first -was known to be of very doubtful value, was unknown in commerce, and -the cultivation of which will, it is to be feared, only end in loss and -disappointment. - -The valuable species were found to be much more tender, and more -sensitive to external unfavourable influences, than the _C. Pahudiana_; -the latter was therefore propagated rapidly, and unwisely allowed to -outstrip the other kinds in the race, and the consequence has been that -it has gained an immense preponderance. Thus, so far as valuable species -of chinchona-plants are concerned, the Dutch experiment in Java has -been attended by a very small measure of success. After three years -the Dutch gardeners only had forty plants of valuable species in -Java, and after six years they had only increased their stock to seven -thousand plants. It will presently be seen that far greater results -were attained in India within eighteen months of the first introduction -of the chinchona-plants. - - ----------------+--------------+-------------+-------------+---------- - | 1857.[9] | December, | December, | - | At Tjibodas. | 1859.[112] | 1860.[113] | 1861. - +--------------+-------------+-------------+---------- - _C. Calisaya_ | 37 | 3,201 | 7,316 | ? - | | | | - _C. lancifolia_ | 3 | 45 | 80 | ? - | | | | - _C. Pahudiana_ | 60 | 96,838 | 939,809 | Millions. - ----------------+--------------+-------------+-------------+---------- - -Yet, so great are the difficulties of this most important undertaking, -that, in spite of the comparative failure in Java, the highest praise -and admiration are due both to M. Hasskarl and to his successors. They -have devoted great ability, no ordinary amount of scientific knowledge, -and untiring perseverance to this good work; and, now that they have -received plants of other really valuable species from India, there is a -prospect that the chinchona cultivation in Java may eventually attain -such a measure of success as will entitle Dr. Junghuhn and Dr. de Vry -to the gratitude of their countrymen.[114] - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -INTRODUCTION OF CHINCHONA-PLANTS INTO INDIA. - - -PRELIMINARY ARRANGEMENTS. - -THE distribution of valuable products of the vegetable kingdom amongst -the nations of the earth--their introduction from countries where they -are indigenous into distant lands with suitable soils and climates--is -one of the greatest benefits that civilization has conferred upon -mankind. Such measures ensure immediate material increase of comfort -and profit, while their effects are more durable than the proudest -monuments of engineering skill. With all their shortcomings, the -Spaniards can point to vast plains covered with wheat and barley, -to valleys waving with sugar-cane, and to hill-slopes enriched by -vineyards and coffee-plantations, as the fruits of their conquest of -South America. On the other hand, India owes to America the aloes which -line the roads in Mysore, the delicious anonas, the arnotto-tree, -the sumach, the capsicums so extensively used in native curries, the -pimento, the papaw, the cassava which now forms the staple food of the -people of Travancore, the potato, tobacco, Indian corn, pine-apples, -American cotton, and lastly the chinchona: while the slopes of the -Himalayas are enriched by tea-plantations, and the hills of Southern -India are covered with rows of coffee-trees. - -It is by thus adding to the sources of Indian wealth that England -will best discharge the immense responsibility she has incurred by -the conquest of India, so far as the material interests of that vast -empire are concerned. Thus too will she leave behind her by far the -most durable monument of the benefits conferred by her rule. The -canals and other works of the Moguls were in ruins before the English -occupied the country; but the melons which the Emperor Baber, the -founder of the Mogul dynasty, introduced into India, and which caused -him to shed tears while thinking of his far-off mountain-home, still -flourish round Delhi and Agra. Centuries after the Ganges canal has -become a ruin, and the great Vehar reservoir a dry valley, the people -of India will probably have cause to bless the healing effects of the -fever-dispelling chinchona-trees, which will still be found on their -southern mountains. - -The introduction of the chinchona-plant into India was surrounded by -difficulties from which all other undertakings of a similar nature -have been free. When tea was introduced into the Himalayan districts, -it had been a cultivated plant in China for many ages, and experienced -Chinese cultivators came with it. But the chinchona had never been -cultivated; since the discovery of its value in 1638 it had remained -a wild forest tree; all information concerning it was solely derived -from the observations of European travellers who had penetrated into -the virgin forests; and the only guidance for cultivators in India is -to be found in the reports of these travellers, and in the experience -slowly acquired by careful and intelligent trials.[115] Great as these -difficulties were, they were probably exceeded by the perils and risks -of every description which must be encountered in collecting plants and -seeds in South America, and conveying them in safety to India. - -But the vast importance of the introduction of these plants into -our Indian empire, and the inestimable benefits which would thus be -conferred on the millions who inhabit the fever-haunted plains and -jungles, were commensurate with the difficulties of the undertaking. -The subject had occupied the attention of the Indian Government from -time to time, ever since Dr. Royle in 1839 advocated the introduction -of quinine-yielding trees into India, in his work on Himalayan Botany; -but it was not until twenty years afterwards, in 1859, that any -adequate steps were taken to effect this most desirable end, and to -bring an antidote within the reach of the fever-stricken people of -India, while adding a new source of wealth to the resources of that -great dependency. - -The proposal to introduce the chinchona-plants into India was -first made officially in a despatch from the Governor-General, -dated March 27th, 1852. It was referred to the late Dr. Royle, the -reporter on Indian products to the East India Company, who drew up -an able memorandum on the subject, dated June, 1852:--"To the Indian -Government," he said, "the home supply of a drug which already costs -7000_l._ a year would be advantageous in an economical point of -view, and invaluable as affording means of employing a drug which is -indispensable in the treatment of Indian fevers. I have no hesitation -in saying that, after the Chinese teas, no more important plant could -be introduced into India." The only result of this application from -India was that the Foreign Office was requested to obtain a supply of -plants and seeds from the consuls in South America, and instructions -to that effect were sent out to them in October, 1852. In the -autumn of 1853 Mr. Mark wrote from Bogota that some delay would be -necessary, and nothing more was heard from that quarter; Mr. Sullivan, -the consul-general in Peru, replied that it would be impossible to -accomplish a successful result, through the jealousy of the people; -but Mr. Cope, the excellent and venerable consul-general at Quito, -made a more satisfactory and substantial answer, in the shape of a box -of chinchona plants and seeds from Cuenca and Loxa. They, however, -did not long survive the voyage to England. Seeds of _C. Calisaya_, -procured through Mr. Pentland, were sent to the botanical gardens -at Calcutta, but did not germinate; and in 1853 six plants of the -same valuable species, contributed by the Horticultural Societies of -Edinburgh and London, raised from seeds sent home by Dr. Weddell from -Bolivia, were taken out to Calcutta by Mr. Fortune. They arrived in -good order, but all died through gross carelessness in their removal to -Darjeeling. In May, 1853, Dr. Royle drew up a second long and valuable -report upon the subject, and the question was then allowed to drop for -some years. - -It is a curious coincidence that at the very time when Dr. Royle was -writing this report I was actually exploring some of the chinchona -forests of Peru. But the object of my travels was of an antiquarian and -ethnological character, and I was in ignorance of the desire of the -Indian Government to procure supplies of those plants, which I then -only admired for their beauty. - -In March, 1856, Dr. Royle made a final attempt to induce the East India -Company to take efficient steps to procure supplies of chinchona plants -and seeds from South America; and proposed to employ Dr. Jamieson, the -able Professor of Botany in the University of Quito, for this purpose. -The lamented death of that eminent botanist Dr. Royle, to whom India -owes so much, again put an end to all discussion of the subject for -some time; but in 1859 energetic measures were set on foot, which at -length effected the desired object fully and completely. Dr. Royle is -well known as the author of works on Himalayan botany, on the cotton -cultivation and on the fibres of India, and of a 'Materia Medica' -containing a valuable article on the chinchona genus, which he caused -to be printed separately for circulation in India. For several years he -took the warmest interest in the proposed measures for the introduction -of chinchona-plants into India, and used every influence at his -command to effect this most important object. But he was not destined -to see the final achievement of a design which he seems to have had so -much at heart. - -In 1859 my services were accepted to superintend the collection of -chinchona plants and seeds in South America, and their introduction -into India; and I was authorised by Lord Stanley, then Secretary of -State for India, to make such arrangements as should best ensure the -complete success of an enterprise, the results of which were expected -to add materially to the resources of our Indian Empire. The urgent -necessity of this measure had become more apparent since Dr. Royle's -time. Then the Government of India expended 7000_l._ a year upon -quinine; but in 1857 the expenditure had risen to 12,000_l._, and -continued to increase during the following years.[116] - -I at once determined to take measures for obtaining plants and seeds of -all the valuable species of chinchonæ described in a former chapter; to -arrange so that, if possible, they should be collected simultaneously -in the different regions separated by many hundreds of miles from each -other; and that, warned by the fatal error of the Dutch in Java, no -species should be introduced into India which did not possess bark of -well-established commercial value. In one of his reports Dr. Royle -had most truly said that "the greater the number of species obtained, -as well as the greater the extent of country over which the seeds -are collected, the greater is the probability of finding soils and -climates in India for their successful culture." It was thus necessary -to employ competent persons to collect in New Granada, Ecuador, the -Huanuco forests of Northern Peru, and Caravaya or Bolivia at the same -time. I considered that it was essential that the proceedings should -be completed during the first year if possible, in order to give as -short a time as was practicable for the awakening of that narrow-minded -jealousy in the people of the South American Republics, which I was -well aware would sooner or later be aroused. It was also my duty to -get the work done economically, and there could be no doubt that the -employment of several agents for a few months would cost less than the -mission of a single traveller, who would have to make his way over -thousands of miles, for three or four years. Time also was an object -with regard to the establishment of plantations in India. - -The Secretary of State for India sanctioned all the details of my plan, -with the exception of the expedition to New Granada,[117] and the -provision of a steamer to convey the plants direct across the Pacific -to India. But it was no easy matter to find agents possessed of the -necessary qualifications for the work. A personal acquaintance with the -chinchona forests, a knowledge of the country, of the people, and of -the languages, were essential, as well as of the particular species of -chinchona-trees growing in each region; and, as the service was to be -performed without delay, no time could be spared for acquiring any of -these qualifications. - -For the chinchona forests in Ecuador I was so fortunate as to secure -the services of Mr. Spruce, an excellent botanist and most intrepid -explorer, who had been engaged for several years in the examination -of the wilds of South America, and who was actually on the spot. Of -his qualifications there could be no doubt, but I could scarcely have -ventured to hope that the service which he undertook to perform would -have been done so completely and so thoroughly, and would have been -crowned with such undoubted success. It is perhaps invidious to make -distinctions, where all have worked so zealously; but it is due to Mr. -Spruce to say that by far the largest share of credit is due to him, -and that his name must take the most prominent place in connection -with the introduction of these precious plants into India. The region -assigned to him was the most important, as it yielded the "red-bark" -tree (_C. succirubra_), containing a larger percentage of febrifugal -alkaloids than any other species; and I felt more sanguine of success -in this quarter than in any other, because the country of the "red -bark" was more accessible than any of the others, the forests being -on the western slopes of the Andes, navigable rivers flowing through -them to the Pacific Ocean, and there being, therefore, no necessity of -conveying the plants over the snowy wilds of the cordilleras. I also -requested Mr. Spruce to make an arrangement for procuring seeds of the -valuable species from the forests of Loxa. - -For the forests of the Peruvian province of Huanuco I procured the -services of Mr. Pritchett, a gentleman who had passed some years in -South America, and who was well acquainted with that particular region. -He was to collect plants and seeds of the species yielding grey bark. - -I myself undertook to explore the forests either of Caravaya or -Bolivia, and to collect the _C. Calisaya_ and other important species -of that more distant region. This part of the enterprise was surrounded -by peculiar difficulties, arising from the jealousy of the people, -habitual with the Bolivians, and recently excited in the minds of the -Peruvians of Caravaya by the proceedings of M. Hasskarl, the Dutch -agent; while the forests are far more inaccessible, and the journey to -the coast is longer and more formidable. - -It was the opinion of Sir William Hooker, who gave me the advantage -of his valuable advice, that a good practical working gardener should -accompany both Mr. Spruce and myself, and he considered this an -imperative requirement, in order that they might attend to the packing -of the plants in the forests, their establishment in Wardian cases, and -have charge of them during the voyage to India. I appointed Mr. Cross, -at his recommendation, to act under the orders of Mr. Spruce; and Mr. -Weir, who was recommended to me by Mr. Veitch, accompanied me to the -chinchona forests of Caravaya. - -In employing several agents in districts widely removed from each -other, my chief object was to effect the introduction of as many -valuable species as possible; but I also reflected on the extreme -difficulty of the undertaking, and the overwhelming chances against -success which confronted a single-handed attempt. In such wild -unfrequented regions all is uncertainty. Along the dizzy paths of the -Andes a single false step may dash the fairest hopes, disappoint the -most careful calculations. Add to these dangers the probability of -obstacles raised by the natives, and it will at once be seen that three -independent expeditions materially increased the chances of ultimate -success. - -By the end of 1859 I had completed all the preliminary arrangements; -and there was at length a prospect of securing the successful -introduction into India of a plant the inestimable value of which had -been felt, and the importance of its cultivation discussed, for twenty -years. On December 17th, 1859, we sailed from England, and, crossing -the isthmus of Panama, arrived in Lima, the capital of Peru, on January -26th, 1860. Thirty Wardian cases for the plants had been sent out round -Cape Horn, and I forwarded fifteen to Guayaquil for Mr. Spruce's -collection, and fifteen to the port of Islay in Southern Peru, to await -my return from the chinchona forests. After a month's residence in Lima -we embarked on board one of the mail-steamers for the southward, and on -the 2nd of March, 1860, we landed at Islay, which is more conveniently -situated than any other port for a journey to the chinchona forests of -Southern Peru or Bolivia. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -ISLAY AND AREQUIPA. - - -THE port of Islay is the commercial outlet of the departments of -Arequipa, Cuzco, and Puno, in Southern Peru; and thus a small town, -dating from about 1830,[118] has risen up on the rocky barren coast, -surrounded by a sandy desert, and shut in from the interior by a range -of sterile mountains. The coast consists of inaccessible cliffs, -perforated with deep caves by the incessant surge of the ocean, with -several rocky islets off the shore. The anchorage[119] is formed by -a slight indentation of the coast, and the landing is effected at a -small iron jetty clamped to the rocks, under which the swell breaks -and chafes with a ceaseless roar. A very steep path leads up the cliff -to a custom-house, forming one side of the little _plaza_, which is -constantly filled with droves of mules from the interior. A single -street leading up from the plaza, with a few lanes off it, forms the -town of Islay; and a brief statement of the trade of this port will -give an idea of the importance of the country to which it forms an -outlet. - -The principal articles of export are alpaca and sheep's wool, vicuña -wool, copper, bark, and specie; the total value in 1859 being -336,842_l._,[120] and the value of the imports, consisting chiefly of -European goods, is about equal to that of the exports. - -The country round Islay is as dreary and arid a waste as the eye could -rest on; yet from July to October, when there is the greatest amount of -moisture on the coast, the otherwise barren mountains, which rise up -abruptly from the desert, at a distance of about three miles from the -sea, are green and carpeted with flowers, while the plain nearer Islay -is also dotted over with vegetation. This maritime range is called -the "Lomas." In consequence of the unusual quantity of rain which -fell in the early part of 1860, the Lomas had broken out in renewed -freshness in March. The country, close to Islay, was covered with a -scattered growth of Compositæ, wild tobacco, Nympha, Oxalis, Salvia, -an Umbellifer with a large white flower, Verbena, Heliotrope, a purple -Solanum, an Amaranth, and other flowers. It is broken up into abrupt -ravines; and, near the foot of the mountains, some of them contain -deposits of soil washed down by little streams which flow during the -wet season, sufficient to sustain small groves of fig and olive trees, -the abodes of numerous flocks of doves. Such is the case in the ravines -called Catarindo, Yutu, and Matarani, from the latter of which the -water is led in pipes to supply the town of Islay. The guardian of this -water-supply is an Irishman, generally known as Juan de la Pila (John -of the fountain), an active obliging man, who also follows the trades -of carpenter, cooper, and blacksmith; and to whom we were indebted for -much valuable assistance in procuring soil for the Wardian cases, and -in giving us the use of his yard. - -The soil in the richest parts of these ravines, which had been washed -down from the higher slopes of the Lomas, is several feet deep, and -appeared sufficiently good to be used for the Wardian cases, in the -event of its being found impossible to obtain soil from any more -promising locality; and the great number of wild flowers which were -growing in it convinced me that it could not contain anything very -pernicious.[121] - -The formation consists of granite, with veins of very pure quartz; but -the plains are covered with large patches of fine dust, consisting -chiefly of silica, containing potash and mica, with small quantities of -the débris of the rocks associated with the soil, which Admiral FitzRoy -suggests may have been the ashes ejected, at some remote period, from -the volcano of Arequipa. Near the sea-shore, and about half a mile -south-east of Islay, there is a very curious result of the constant -action of the weaves, in two immense cavities hollowed out of the rock, -called the _Tinajones_ (jars). They are circular holes about thirty -yards across, and of great depth, separated from the sea by a wall -of cliffs not more than four yards wide, the lower part of which is -undermined, and forms a passage by which the waves rush into the great -_tinajon_, or bowl, with a mighty roar; and, dashing themselves against -the rocky sides, throw back clouds of white spray. The only vegetation -near the coast consists of lowly little _Mesembryanthema_, scattered -about at long intervals, and an occasional stonecrop (_Sedum_). - -During our stay at Islay we enjoyed the hospitality of Mr. Wilthew, -H.B.M. Consul, and his wife, to whom we were indebted for much -thoughtful kindness. The rest of the inhabitants consist of Peruvian -officials, agents of commercial houses in Arequipa, and a few -shopkeepers and artisans, besides the muleteers and other birds -of passage, and the porters and boatmen of mixed Indian and negro -extraction. The supplies for the market come almost entirely from the -rich valley of Tambo, some leagues down the coast. - -On March 6th, our mules and horses having arrived, we started for -Arequipa in the morning, a distance of ninety miles, and, crossing the -country near Islay, entered a gorge in the mountains, which winds up to -the great desert above, at the commencement of which there is a grove -of dusty olive-trees. This dismal ravine, with arid scarped mountains -rising up on either side, here and there a tall gaunt cactus, and -everywhere a dense cloud of white dust, leads up to a little post-house -built of canes, called the "Tambo de Guerreros," eighteen miles from -Islay. - -Guerreros is at the head of the gorge leading down to Islay; and, from -a rising ground a little beyond the tambo,[122] the great desert of -Arequipa opens upon the view, bounded by a range of mountains which -are crowned by the snowy peak of the volcano. At this point there is a -wooden cross which marks the grave of a poor soldier belonging to the -fugitive army of Salaverry, in 1836, who, worn out with fatigue and -thirst, had here sunk down to die, and had been lightly covered over -with sand. The flesh was in perfect preservation. We then entered the -great desert of Arequipa, extending to the horizon on the right and -left, and ending in front at the foot of the rocky range of mountains -separating the sandy waste from the fertile campiña of Arequipa. -The desert consists of hard ground, without a blade of vegetation, -affording good riding; but it is covered at short intervals with mounds -of the finest white sand, from twenty to thirty feet high, all in -the shape of a half-moon, with their horns pointing north-west, and -thus denoting the prevailing wind. They are called _Medanos_. These -_Medanos_ shift their positions, and the breeze, whirling the sand in -eddies on their summits, often causes a singing noise in the early -dawn. Frequently they form athwart the road, which has to deviate in -a half-circle, and rejoin the old track on the other side; but they -all resemble each other exactly, and afford no landmark to the lost or -benighted traveller. - -In the centre of the desert is the post-house or tambo of La Joya, -twenty miles from Guerreros, kept by an Englishman, whose homely name -of Jimmy Eyres has been converted into the more grandiloquent and -euphonious Spanish one of Don Santiago Casimiro de los Ayres. Water -and fodder for the beasts are brought from a great distance, and their -price is of course proportionately high; but, considering its position -in the midst of a desert and many leagues from all supplies, the little -tambo, consisting of several rooms of deal planking roughly knocked -together, was very comfortable. - -Starting at four on a bright starlight morning, the perfect stillness -and the wild grandeur of the boundless desert were very impressive, -while there was a delicious freshness in the cool air. As the sun rose -behind the mighty cordilleras which bounded the view, the whiteness -of their snowy peaks became quite dazzling. Immediately in front was -the perfect cone of the volcano of Arequipa; to the right the glorious -peaks of Charcani and Chuquibamba; to the left the remarkable range of -Pichupichu. It is probable that in no part of the world is so sublime a -view of mountain peaks to be found as is presented at early dawn from -this desert. But its sublimity is similar to that which is witnessed -in a sunrise at sea; it fills the mind with an idea of vastness and -grandeur, while it wants all the details which usually accompany and -form no small part of the enjoyment derived from ordinary mountain -scenery. Yet here, while gazing on those magnificent peaks, with no -middle distance and no foreground, save the flat sea-like wilderness, -we felt that any addition would have marred the simple glories of this -unparalleled view. The desert is between 4000 and 5000 feet above the -sea, and the cordillera peaks are, some more, some a little less, than -20,000 feet in height; so that, within a distance of under forty miles, -we beheld mountains rising upwards of 16,000 feet from the point on -which we stood: of no other mountains in the world could such a view be -obtained. In this land of the Incas Nature has done her work on a truly -gigantic scale. - -The desert, from Guerreros to the entrance to the gorge leading through -the rocky hills which divide it from the plain of Arequipa, is upwards -of forty miles across, while its length from the transverse valley of -Tambo to that of Vitor must be about sixty. During the greater part of -the day we were threading our way through arid mountain gorges, and -up and down zigzag rocky paths strewn with the bones and carcasses -of mules, under a scorching sun. A little pale purple _Nemophila_, a -small _Crucifer_, and the weird _Cacti_, the appropriate inhabitants -of the desert, are the only plants of this cheerless region; and a few -obscene gallinazos, floating lazily in the upper air, with their -keen-piercing eyes watching for some luckless mule to sink under its -burden, were the sole representatives of animal life. - -[Illustration: AREQUIPA. Page 75.] - -At length our eyes were gladdened by the sight of the green vale of -Tiavaya, in the campiña of Arequipa. The rows of tall willows, the -bright green fields of lucerne, and white farm-houses, were a blessed -relief after the monotonous glare of barren rocks and sand; but it was -not until late at night, and after a ride of more than fifty miles, -that we reached our hospitable lodging in the city of Arequipa. - -Arequipa, the second city in Peru, is built on the banks of the rapid -river Chile, and at the foot of the great volcano, called Misti, which -rises up in a perfect cone to the height of 17,934 feet, its upper half -covered with snow. Arequipa itself is 7427 feet above the sea, so that -the mountains ascend in one unbroken sweep upwards of 10,500 feet. The -climate, during my stay from March 11th to March 22nd, was as follows:-- - - Mean temperature 64-1/3 - Mean minimum at night 60-1/2 - Highest observed 67 - Lowest 58 - Range 9 - -The town is built of a white stone of volcanic origin, being a -trachytic tuffa containing pumice and lava, dug out of quarries at -the foot of the volcano. The houses are usually of one story, built -solidly and substantially, with vaulted stone ceilings, the better to -resist the shocks of the frequent earthquakes. Like almost all Spanish -American cities, the streets are straight and at right angles to each -other, with an _azequia_ flowing down the centre. Wheeled vehicles -of any description are unknown, and the traffic consists of horses, -droves of mules, donkeys laden with lucerne, and flocks of llamas. The -principal streets all lead to the great square, which forms a busy -and most interesting scene in the morning, the time for marketing. It -is then filled with gaily-dressed Indian women, some sitting under -shades, with their goods spread out on the ground before them, and -others, in constant movement, threading their way amongst the sellers. -Their dresses are of baize, manufactured at Halifax,[123] of the gayest -colours--consisting of a skirt and mantle of the two most brilliant -colours they can find, red and blue, green and crimson, or purple and -orange. The effect of these bright-coloured groups, in constant motion, -as they move about buying fruit or vegetables, potatoes, earth-nuts, -medicinal drugs, corn, articles of dress, and other necessaries, is -very pleasing. The background is formed by the handsome new cathedral -of whitest stone, behind which the noble volcano, and the peaks of -Charcani (18,558 feet above the sea) dazzle the eyes by the brilliancy -of their snowy covering. - -The campiña of Arequipa, which surrounds the city, is about five miles -broad from the foot of the cordillera to the arid range of hills which -separates it from the wilderness of the coast; and about ten or twelve -miles long, being bounded at each end by a sandy desert. It is watered -by the river Chile,[124] coming from a chasm in the cordillera, on the -north-west side of the volcano, and by the streams called Posterio and -Savandia, which flow from the Pichu-pichu mountains to the eastward -of the volcano. These several streams unite on leaving the campiña, -and finally fall into the river of Quilca. The campiña contains, -besides the city of Arequipa, a number of small villages, and numerous -farm-houses. In March the view from the hills above the city is most -beautiful. The brilliant green of the campiña, with its fields of maize -and alfalfa, its rows of tall willows, and orchards of fruit-trees, -is dotted with houses and villages, while it forms an emerald -setting to the white city. Looking from the other side of Arequipa, -the view, though not so beautiful, is more imposing: the snow-capped -volcano rearing its majestic head above the stunted towers of the -town. There is a great deal of maize grown in the valley, and guano is -extensively used as manure; but the wealth of the campiña is chiefly -derived from its mules, which monopolize the carrying-trade from the -coast to Arequipa, and from Arequipa to the interior. A quantity of -lucerne or _alfalfa_ is raised for their sustenance, and the _arrieros_ -or muleteers are a wealthy class of men, generally possessing a -_chacra_ or farm of their own, besides considerable sums in ready -money. They are, as a rule, good-looking, well-grown men, with fresh -complexions, and little mixed blood, which is also made evident by the -comparatively fair complexions of their wives and daughters. - -[Illustration: AREQUIPA CATHEDRAL. From a Photograph. Page 76.] - -The families of the upper classes of Arequipa usually own estates in -the neighbouring warm valleys of the coast, such as Vitor, Tambo, -Siguas, Majes, and Camana, where the rich vineyards yield them a -profitable return by the sale of aguardiente. Their houses in the -city are built round a _patio_ or courtyard, on which the principal -rooms open. Their sons are frequently the leaders of the turbulent -_Cholos_ in revolt, and follow the professions of _abogados_, lawyers -or politicians, traders, and _haciendados_ or farmers, while the more -ambitious adopt a military life, the _carrera de armas_. The ladies are -considered the most beautiful and intelligent in Peru, and, at Lima, -the most attractive women are usually Arequipeñas. Perhaps the majority -have never moved beyond the campiña, and adjacent warm valleys, and -many have never seen the sea. Yet they are sprightly and agreeable in -society, full of intelligent curiosity, and almost invariably excellent -musicians. They frequently sing the plaintive _despedidas_, and other -sonnets of their native poet Melgar, whose love for a fair townswoman -was unrequited, and whose melancholy fate has surrounded his name with -a halo of romance. He was barbarously shot, after having been taken -prisoner by the Spaniards, at the battle of Umachiri in 1815, the first -attempt which the Peruvians made for their independence. - -During the winter months the wealthier families remove to villages in -the campiña, either to Tingo, Tiavaya, or Savandia, taking furniture -with them. At the commencement of the season droves of mules leave -the city laden with beds, chairs, and tables, to render the country -houses habitable. Here the Arequipeños enjoy the delights of the -country and of bathing in large swimming-baths faced with masonry, -and planted round with rows of tall willows. The rides in the country -which surrounds these villages are exceedingly pretty. The trees -consist chiefly of tall willows and of the _Schinus molle_ with its -bunches of red berries, while bushes of fragrant white _Daturas_ and -of the beautiful _Bignonia fulva_ fill the hedges, and the streams -are bordered by masses of _Nasturtiums_. The fields either bear crops -of vivid green alfalfa, or tall Indian corn, six to eight feet high, -over which the _Tropæolum canariensis_ creeps in golden masses, and at -whose feet the bright blue _lupins_, and a _Solanum_ with rich purple -flowers, grow as weeds. From many points of view the rapid waters of -the river Chile complete the picture, while far away the snowy peaks -of Chuquibamba, Charcani, and the volcano glisten in the beams of the -sun. Above Arequipa the river flows through the valley of Chilinos, -the steep sides of which are lined with _andeneria_, or terraced -maize-gardens, with here and there a picturesque group of the stone -huts of the Indians, often completely hidden by the dark green leaves -and golden flowers of the gourds which cover them. The courtyards of -the houses are frequently ornamented with a beautiful passion-flower, -which creeps over the trellised verandahs, and is covered with flowers. -It is a species of _Tacsonia_, called by the natives _tumbo_. The -flower has a very long tube, and is of a deep rich rose-colour: and a -delicious _fresco_, or sherbet, is made of the egg-shaped fruit. - -In addition to the baths of pure spring-water at Tingo and Savandia, -the medicinal baths of Yura are a great resort during the winter -months. Yura is thirty miles to the north-west, and is situated, -like Arequipa, just under the range of the cordilleras. The road -leads over very broken ground, where the rugged spurs from the Andes -project out into the desert. In March the weary arid wilderness was -enlivened by wild flowers, bushes of yellow and purple _Solanums_, -bright orange _Compositæ_, and, in one place, a carpet of little purple -dwarf iris. The baths are in a green ravine, with tall willow-trees -and maize-fields, watered by a little rivulet. In this narrow glen, -bounded on one side by sandstone mountains, which here form the base -of the volcano, and on the other by a ridge of trachyte, there are -two places where thermal waters bubble out of the rocks, one being -ferruginous and the other sulphurous. At the sulphurous baths there -are some solid stone buildings, intended as lodgings for the bathers, -with heavy arcades, and long vaulted rooms with no windows, and without -furniture, for, as at Tingo and Savandia, all visitors bring their -beds, tables, chairs, crockery, and cooking utensils with them. In the -bath-room there are four square basins, faced with stone, of different -temperatures, and called the _Vejeto_ (87° Fahr.), the _Desague_ (88°), -the _Sepultura_ (89°), and the _Tigre_ (90°). They are said to cure -dysentery, rheumatism, and cutaneous diseases. The rivulet flows down -the glen and joins the river of Yura near a village called Calera, -where most of the soap is manufactured which is consumed in Arequipa. -Great quantities of carbonate of soda are collected from the sandstone -rock, which gives employment to the people of the village. The land is -divided into _topos_ (5000 square yards), each valued at a thousand -dollars, and every six weeks a harvest of _salitre_ (carbonate of soda) -is reaped. From Calera there is a fine view of the green valley of -Yura, and of a grand range of porphyritic mountains. - -The population of the campiña and town of Arequipa is reckoned at about -50,000.[125] The place was first colonized by the Inca Mayta, who -established a body of _mitimaes_ or colonists there, from the village -of Cavanilla, near Puno, and ordained that they should remain and -settle there. Hence the name "_Ari quepay_," "Yes! remain:" or more -probably it is derived from the words "_Aric quepa_," "Behind the sharp -peak." These _mitimaes_ were the ancestors of the present Indians, -or _Cholos_ as they are called, and were established in villages in -the campiña, occupied in the cultivation of maize; but the city is -purely Spanish, and was founded by Pizarro in 1540, at which time the -stone-quarries first began to be worked. - -The _Cholos_ or Indians of Arequipa have long been notorious for their -turbulence, and for the eagerness with which they join any attempt -at revolution, apparently from mere love of excitement. They are -addicted to the use of _chicha_--a fermented liquor made from Indian -corn--to such an extent that it is said that nearly all the maize which -is raised in the campiña is used in brewing this liquor; under the -influence of which the Cholos have established the fame of Arequipa as -the grand focus of Peruvian revolutions. But this habit of drinking to -excess has rendered the Cholos, though capable of fighting desperately -behind walls, quite worthless as soldiers in a campaign; and their -habit of body becomes so bad that a slight wound is frequently fatal. - -Though the received idea in Europe, that Peru is constantly in a state -of civil war, is erroneous in fact, as well as unjust,[126] yet it is -true that the period of tranquillity which had lasted from 1844 to -1854 was broken in the latter year by the successful revolution of -General Castilla--the result of the discontent caused by the dishonest -financial measures and the embezzlements of his predecessor; and two -years afterwards the Cholos of Arequipa commenced a rebellion against -Castilla. A brief account of the siege of that city, which followed, -will give a good idea of the endurance and fighting qualities of the -Cholos. - -In October 1856 two young men of good family, named Gamio and Masias, -collected a handful of Cholos, and sent a message to the Prefect -Canseco, telling him that he must either evacuate the city with his -troops, or lay down his arms. The prefect marched out, and left -Arequipa in the hands of the insurgents, who proclaimed the exiled -General Vivanco President of Peru, and appointed Don José Antonio -Berenguel prefect of the town; and most of the soldiers who had -marched out with Canseco returned on the following day to join the -rebels. Vivanco was an exile in Chile, but, on receiving the news, he -started for Islay by the English mail steamer, and reached Arequipa -in December; while General San Roman, who had been sent from Lima -to propose terms of accommodation with the rebels, was dismissed, -and retired into the interior to collect forces for the support of -Castilla's government. - -While the Cholos of Arequipa were maturing their rebellion, a fortunate -event placed the Peruvian navy at the disposal of Vivanco. Their -largest frigate, the 'Apurimac,' was lying off Arica, and, while her -captain, a rough old Chilian seaman named Salcedo, was on shore, the -crew, led by Lizardo Montero, one of her lieutenants, a young man and -native of Piura, mutinied, declared for Vivanco, and steamed away, -leaving Salcedo storming on the beach. The 'Apurimac' went at once to -Islay, where Montero captured the port, and where he was joined by two -smaller steamers, the 'Loa' and 'Tumbez.' - -Vivanco, meanwhile, had proclaimed himself "Regenerator" of Peru, -and offered his services as a lawgiver and restorer of prosperity to -his country, which were not accepted or appreciated, as none of the -other great towns followed the example of Arequipa. Leaving a ministry -consisting of young inexperienced lawyers, who had nothing to lose and -all to gain, in charge of affairs at Arequipa, he embarked on board the -'Apurimac,' in the end of December, 1856, and sailed for Callao, but -did not venture to disembark. He then went on board the 'Loa,' leaving -the 'Apurimac' to watch Callao, and proceeded to Truxillo; while the -'Apurimac' went down to the Chincha Islands, and began shipping off the -guano to any one who would buy it, thus leaving the port of Callao open. - -General Castilla is an old Indian, possessed of great military talent -and extraordinary energy and intrepidity; while Vivanco is a native of -Lima, of pure Spanish descent, indolent, dilatory, and without personal -courage; but eloquent and persuasive, and possessed of qualities which -have surrounded him with numerous warm partisans and personal friends. -Between such men the issue could not be doubtful. - -The veteran Castilla, as soon as the 'Apurimac' had sailed for the -Chincha Islands, formed the daring plan of attacking his enemy in the -north; and, in spite of the Navy, which had declared against him, -he bought an old steamer, the 'Santiago,' belonging to the English -Steam Navigation Company, and boldly steamed away in search of the -Regenerator. On hearing of his approach, Vivanco was seized with a -panic, and, evacuating the places he had occupied, retreated to his -ships. He now thought that, in the absence of Castilla, he might -succeed in an attempt on the capital, and, collecting all his vessels, -he retraced his steps southward, and arrived in Callao bay on April -22nd, 1857. A night attack was then made on the fort, but, after some -hard street fighting, Vivanco's party were obliged to retire to their -ships; and, his expedition having proved a complete failure, the -Regenerator returned to Islay, and proceeded at once to Arequipa. - -While Vivanco was absent in the north, General San Roman had collected -a considerable force in the interior, with which he marched towards -Arequipa. The warlike Cholos came out to meet him, and a skirmish -followed, which they call the battle of Yumina. It consisted of a -considerable waste of powder, the two parties firing at each other, -at very long ranges, across a ravine; and in the afternoon the -Cholos returned in triumph to Arequipa. Having missed Vivanco in the -north, old Don Ramon Castilla steamed away to Arica in the same old -'Santiago,' safely passing the rebellious fleet at Islay, collected -a force at Tacna, and, marching by land, arrived in the campiña -of Arequipa in the end of July; soon afterwards establishing his -head-quarters at the village of Sachaca, some miles below the city, on -the banks of the river Chile. A detachment occupied Tiavaya, to cut off -Vivanco's communication with Islay. - -The people of Arequipa were now hard at work to place the city in a -proper state of defence; barricades were erected in the most important -streets, and day and night the Cholos were under arms. But, supplies -having now entirely ceased from the custom-house at Islay, Vivanco -found himself in great difficulties; for people, having little faith -in the success of his revolution, were unwilling to advance money in -exchange for his _vales_ or promissory notes, even at a discount of -fifty per cent. The needy Regenerator then resorted to more violent -methods of raising money, and, breaking open several of the principal -shops, began to sell their contents to the highest bidder. - -Castilla made constant sham attacks upon the town, which kept the -inhabitants in a continual state of alarm; but all his supplies were -derived from Arica, by way of Tacna, as the port of Islay remained in -the hands of Vivanco's party. This was his weak point; and when the -'Apurimac' arrived off Arica, and her commander Montero, after a sharp -street fight, got possession of that port in February, 1858, Castilla -found himself in a position of great difficulty. His supplies were -entirely cut off, and it became necessary for him to assault Arequipa -at all hazards. Accordingly he moved from his quarters at Sachaca -and Tiavaya, marched round the south side of the city, and early in -the morning of March 5th, 1858, commenced an attack on the eastern -suburbs. His troops first stormed the church of San Antonio, and then -advanced to the attack of San Pedro, which had also been occupied by -the besieged. Here the Cholos held their ground for four hours, from -eight to twelve A.M., in spite of the desperate attacks of Castilla's -best troops, and the well-directed fire of his artillery. At length, -overpowered by numbers, they were forced to retire, disputing every -inch of the ground. They rallied at the convent of Santa Rosa, and -obstinately defended the position for several hours, until night -closed in upon the combatants. Next morning, being the 7th of March, -some further resistance was made, but the troops of Castilla finally -stormed the barricades, and drove everything before them. Vivanco -escaped in the disguise of a friar to Islay, and thence to Chile, while -his officers looked after themselves, leaving the gallant defenders -of Arequipa to their fate. Tacna and Arica at once returned to their -allegiance, and the 'Apurimac' was given up to Castilla's ministers at -Lima by the mutinous Montero. - -The Cholos of Arequipa thus defended their position, with great bravery -and resolution, against Castilla's disciplined army for upwards of -eight months; and during the assault, which lasted for two days, their -desperate valour was as remarkable as their extraordinary endurance, -for, such was the negligence of Vivanco and his officers, that they -were kept without refreshment or even water during the many hours in -which they sustained a deadly and unequal struggle against Castilla's -troops. It should also be recorded to their credit, that, although the -town was on several occasions entirely in their hands, there was no -instance of any act of pillage or excess being committed by them; and, -when all authority was withdrawn, they showed no disposition to take -advantage of their power, but displayed a regard for order which would -not be found among the lower orders of most other countries during -periods of great excitement. - -There is a very striking difference, however, between the Cholos of -Arequipa and the Inca Indians of the interior, who appear in the -streets with their llamas laden with silky vicuña-wool: the former a -turbulent, excitable race, who will fight desperately behind walls, but -who are without stamina and quite unable to endure fatigue; the latter -a patient, long-suffering people, capable of extraordinary endurance, -and, as soldiers, in the habit of marching distances which appear -incredible to those whose experience is confined to the movements of -European troops. There is an evident mixture of Spanish blood in the -people who inhabit Arequipa and its campiña, while the Indians of the -interior are for the most part of pure descent. - -The road over the cordilleras to Cuzco and Puno leaves Arequipa by -the southern suburb, and, after a few miles, ascends a rocky ridge to -the more elevated valley of Chihuata or Cangallo (9676 feet above the -sea[127]), at the foot of the southern spur of the volcano. A wretched -stone hut with a mud floor is here the only shelter for the traveller. -At one end a fire of sticks, where an old hag acted as cook, filled the -interior with smoke, and at the other each wayfarer, as he arrived, -made a shakedown of blankets and ponchos, sipped his chocolate, and, -after a short conversation, composed himself for the night. The fire -gradually smouldered and went out, and the old woman, with a brood of -children, made a heap at the further corner. - -At early dawn of the 23rd of March we were all in motion, and our -companion of the previous night, a Spaniard with a large _tropa_ of -mules laden with aguardiente, was busily preparing for a start. As the -sun rose, the dazzling white of the snowy peaks of Pichu-pichu and -the volcano, with fleecy clouds above their summits, gave a glorious -effect. The rest of the sky was blue, gradually clouding over as the -morning advanced; and the valley was covered with alfalfa-fields of the -richest green, with the pretty little village of Cachimarca perched on -a rounded hill to the southward. The flowering shrubs by the roadside -are the same as in the campiña of Arequipa, except that a small yellow -Calceolaria is more abundant. The morning air was fresh and bracing as -we mounted our mules and faced the long zigzag path up the "alto de los -huesos," the southern spur of the volcano, so called from the bones of -thousands of mules which are met at every turn. This ascent conducts -the traveller from the temperate valley of Cangallo to the bleak and -chilling plains of the upper cordillera. - -[Illustration: A CHOLO OF AREQUIPA. From a Photograph See page 80.] - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -JOURNEY ACROSS THE CORDILLERA TO PUNO. - - -IN the region of the cordillera of the Andes, in Northern and Central -Peru, the country is broken up into deep warm valleys and profound -ravines, separated by lofty precipitous ridges and snowy peaks, which -combine to form some of the most magnificent scenery in the world. -Vast flocks of sheep and alpacas find pasture on the upland slopes, -while abundance of wheat is grown lower down. Indian corn generally -flourishes at a still lower elevation, though it is grown as high -as 13,000 feet on the islands of lake Titicaca, and sugar-cane is -cultivated in the deep valleys. This is the nature of the country -between Ayacucho and Cuzco, and in the valley of Vilcamayu, which -extends from the foot of the Vilcañota range until it subsides into the -vast tropical plains to the north and east of Cuzco. - -But the southern part of the interior of Peru, and the northern portion -of Bolivia, present a very different character. From the Vilcañota -mountains the Andes separate into two distinct chains, namely, the -cordillera or coast-range, and the Eastern Andes, which include the -loftiest peaks in South America, Illimani and Sorata, or Illampu. The -region between these two ranges contains the great lake of Titicaca, -and consists of elevated plains intersected by rivers flowing into -the lake, at a height never less than 12,000 feet above the sea. The -magnificent scenery of Northern and Central Peru is wanting in this -southern part of the country, which composes the department of Puno, -and is usually called the _Collao_. It, however, possesses features of -its own which are at once striking and imposing, while the land which -is drained by the lake of Titicaca was the cradle of the civilization -of the Incas. - -The journey up the "Alto de los huesos" is very fatiguing, and the -change from the pleasant exhilarating air of Chihuata, to the chilling -icy blasts which constantly sweep over the upper region of the -cordillera, was severely felt. As the afternoon advanced a drizzling -mist came on, and added to the cheerless desolation of the plains -it was necessary to traverse before reaching the post-house of Apo. -Occasionally a drove of llamas, with their Indian driver, loomed for a -moment through the mist, and at nightfall we arrived at the post-house -of Apo (14,350 feet), tired, drenched, and cold. - -The rainy season of the cordilleras commences in November, and -continues until the end of March, and during most of that time the -discomfort of travelling is so great, and the rivers so swollen, that -a journey is seldom undertaken by an ordinary traveller. In March, -however, the rain does not fall continuously or in any quantity. The -early morning is generally clear, but in the afternoon mists, rain, or -snow begin to fall, and continue until far into the night. From April -until October is the dry season, and in May, June, July, and August a -cloud is scarcely ever seen in the sky. - -The post-houses in the desolate mountains between Arequipa and Puno -are all of the same character. They consist of a range of low stone -buildings surrounding a courtyard on three sides, and consisting of -five or six rooms with mud floors, a rough table, and a platform of -stone and mud at one end, which is intended for a bed-place. The roof -is badly tiled or thatched, and the doors are so roughly fitted that -it is impossible to close them. Both man and beast are subject to a -most distressing illness, caused by the rarefaction of the air at -these great altitudes, which is called _sorochi_ by the Peruvians. I -had suffered from a sharp attack of illness at Arequipa, so that I was -probably predisposed to a visitation from _sorochi_, which I certainly -endured to its fullest extent. Before arriving at Apo, a violent -pressure on the head, accompanied by acute pain, and aches in the back -of the neck, caused great discomfort, and these symptoms increased in -intensity during the night at the Apo post-house, so that at three -A.M., when we recommenced our journey, I was unable to mount my mule -without assistance. - -A ride of seven hours across grassy plains covered with herbage, with -patches of snow here and there, and ranges of hills with fine masses -of rocks, forming a setting to the distant peaks of the cordillera, -brought us to the post-house of Pati. During this ride we had to ford -the river, which flows past Arequipa as the Chile, more than a dozen -times. The only living creatures are the _lecca-leccas_, a bird which -frequents the numerous streams, and the graceful flocks of vicuñas. -The _lecca-lecca_ is a large plover, with red legs, white head, grey -body, white under the breast and tail, and wings and tail broadly edged -with black. It incessantly utters a wild shrill scream. The vicuñas, a -species of llama with the habits of an antelope, are very beautiful and -graceful creatures. They have rich fawn-coloured coats, with patches -of white across the shoulders and inside the legs, and long slender -necks. They are constantly met with in the most desolate parts of the -cordillera, browsing on the tender shoots of the tufts of _ychu_, or -galloping along with their noses close to the ground, as if they were -scenting out the best pasture. - -At Pati a range of abrupt porphyritic cliffs rises from the plain, up -which a rough zigzag pass leads to the "Pampa de Confital,"[128] the -loftiest part of the road over this pass of the cordillera. A storm of -hail began to fall, which turned into snow as we reached the pampa, and -a ride of many hours over a succession of wild desolate plains, in an -incessant snow-storm, brought us to the "alto de Toledo," the highest -part of the road, and 15,590 feet above the level of the sea.[129] -Some glorious snowy peaks appeared through the gloom at sunset, and -after several weary hours in the darkness we at length arrived at the -post-house of Cuevillas. - -In the neighbourhood of Cuevillas there are large sheep-farms, one -called Toroya, near the "alto de Toledo," and another called Tincopalca -farther on. The sheep, at this enormous height, lamb in March and July, -and, of the March lambs, usually about fifty per cent. survive. Beyond -Cuevillas there are two large Alpine lakes, whence a river flows down -into Titicaca, and we thus passed the watershed between the Pacific -and the great lake. The scenery is grand and desolate, reminding me, -in some respects, of the interior of Cornwallis Island in the Arctic -regions. The road passes between the two lakes, and we reached the -post-house of La Compuerta as the afternoon rain commenced. The hills -are covered with tufts of coarse grass (_Stipa ychu_), of which the -llamas eat the upper blades, while the sheep browse on the tender -shoots underneath; and with two kinds of shrubby plants, one a thorny -_composita_ called _ccanlli_, and the other called _tola_ or _ccapo_, -which is a resinous _Baccharis_,[130] and is used for fuel.[131] - -The gorge in which the La Compuerta post-house is situated is the only -outlet for the waters of the lake. Mountains of great height rise up -on either side, clothed, at this season, with herbage of the richest -green, while ridges of scarped cliffs of dark porphyritic rock crop -out at intervals. The river dashes noisily over huge boulders, and -near its left bank are the rough stone buildings of the post-house. -Great quantities of ducks, gulls, coots, godwits, and sandpipers -frequent the shores of the lake. The postmaster supplied _alfalfa_ for -the mules, and a _chupé_ consisting of potatoes and salt mutton for -the travellers, at exorbitant prices; the mules were freed from their -cargoes, which were placed within the porch, ready lashed up in their -_redecillas_ or hide nets; and we were soon rolled up in blankets and -ponchos, while the snow continued to fall unceasingly through the early -part of the night. When we got up next morning the thermometer was at -31° Fahr. indoors. - -Starting at dawn, we descended the gorge, passing two ruined mining -establishments, San Ramon and Santa Lucia, into green plains with large -flocks of sheep scattered over them. - -In these uninhabited wilds it is an event to meet a traveller, and his -appearance is the signal for a succession of questions and answers. We -here passed a _cavallero_, in whose dress and general appearance we -saw a reflection of our own, excepting the comforters. He wore a large -poncho of bright colours, reaching nearly to his heels; a broad-brimmed -felt hat with a blue cotton handkerchief passed over it, and tied in -a knot under his chin; an immense woollen comforter passed round his -throat and face, until nothing appeared but his eyes; a pair of woollen -gaiters, bright green, with black stripes; and huge spurs. He was an -officer on his way to Arequipa, and complained of the severity of the -weather and the heaviness of the roads. After a short conversation the -traveller passed on, followed by his cargo-mules, and soon became a -speck in the distance. - -In the afternoon we came to the first signs of cultivation, since -leaving the valley of Cangallo, in the neighbourhood of the great -sheep-farm of Taya-taya--patches of quinoa, barley, and potatoes, with -the huts of Indians scattered amongst them; and, crossing a rocky -ridge, we came in sight of a vast swampy plain, with the little town -of Vilque, at the foot of a fine rocky height, in the far distance, -which we reached at sunset. The long rows of thatched brown huts -dripping with rain, and the muddy streets, looked melancholy. But at -the time of the great fair, in June, Vilque presents a very different -appearance. The plains, for several miles beyond this little town, -were so swampy as to be rendered almost impassable. It was with the -greatest difficulty that we made our way across them, constantly wading -and splashing through water, and in some places sinking so deep in the -adhesive mud, that it was not without desperate exertions that the -mules could extricate themselves. At length we came to a rocky ridge -which bounded the vast pampa of Vilque, and continued our journey over -rather drier ground. - -Since leaving La Compuerta we had been continually descending; the -vicuñas had disappeared, as they confine themselves to the loftiest -and wildest parts of the cordillera; but, in the lower region between -Vilque and Puno, the feeling of desolation and solitude is dissipated -by the numbers of birds which enliven the country, and by the increased -quantity and variety of wild flowers. - -The _lecca-leccas_ or plovers were very numerous, screaming shrilly -as they flew in circles, or ran along the ground. In the clefts of -the rocks there were many birds, like creepers, called _haccacllo_ by -the Indians, and _pito_ in Spanish--beaks curved downwards, black on -the top of the head, white underneath, red at the back of the neck, -speckled wings, white breast, and a black line from the beak to the -back of the neck. We also saw many small green paroquets, bright yellow -finches called _silgaritos_, a kind of partridge called _yutu_, and, -above all, the glorious _coraquenque_ or _alcamari_, the royal bird of -the Incas, whose black and white wing-feathers surmounted the imperial -_llautu_ or fringe of the sovereigns of Peru. The _alcamari_ is a -large and noble-looking bird of prey, with a scarlet head, black body, -and long wing-feathers of spotless white. Wherever the plains are -intersected by ridges of rocky cliffs, which is frequently the case, -there are swarms of large rodents, called _biscaches_, which sat on -their hind legs, and looked about inquisitively as we rode past. - -Riding over several wide grassy plains, and passing the village of -Tiquillaca, we arrived at the banks of the river Tortorani, which was -so swollen as to be quite impassable. By following its course for -about half a mile, we came to a place where the whole volume of water -precipitates itself down a sheer declivity of 250 feet, and forms a -magnificent cascade. A league below the falls we found a bridge, and, -at sunset, we came in sight of the great lake of Titicaca, with the -snowy range beyond. A steep zigzag descent leads down to the city of -Puno, which is close to the shores of the lake, and hemmed in by an -amphitheatre of argentiferous mountains. - -Puno, the capital of the department, owes its origin and former -prosperity to the rich veins of silver-ore in the surrounding country. -It is approached, from the north, by a stone archway built over the -road by General Deustua, who was prefect in 1850; and the streets -slope by a gradual descent towards the lake. The houses are built -of small-sized brown _adobes_, with roofs of thatch or red tiles, -and courtyards very neatly paved with round pebbles and llama's -knuckle-bones in patterns. There are scarcely any with more than a -ground-floor, and the rooms open on to the court; but, though at this -elevation, 12,874 feet above the sea, it is extremely cold at night, -stoves are unknown; and the unusual luxury of a fireplace, which exists -in one house, is merely a luxury to the eye, for it is never lighted. -The streets are clean and well paved, and the stone church in the -_Plaza_, dating from 1757, has an elaborately carved front and two -towers. In another plaza is the college, a large building with an upper -story, also built by General Deustua; and both these public squares -have bronze fountains erected by the Government of General Echenique, -the late President, besides drinking fountains in the corners of -several of the streets. The water is excellent. - -Puno is surrounded by heights covered with patches of potatoes, -barley, and quinoa (_Chenopodium quinoa_), the huts of Indians being -interspersed amongst them; and immediately over the town there is -an isolated rocky ridge of carboniferous limestone perforated by -several natural caverns, called the Huassa-pata. The shores of the -lake are a few hundred yards from the town, and at the little port -there are always a number of balsas, made of large bundles of reeds -tied together, with a reed sail.[132] The view to seaward is, however, -confined by the peninsula of Capachica, and two islands at the mouth of -the bay of Puno. A canal to enable balsas to come up nearer the town -was made by the Spanish Intendente Gonzalez Montoya in the beginning of -the present century.[133] - -The flora of a country which, though within the tropics, is at an -elevation of nearly thirteen thousand feet above the sea, must -necessarily be meagre, and the few plants are lowly and inconspicuous. -I noticed the following in the immediate vicinity of Puno. The -only tree was one of stunted growth, with a pretty pink and white -flower, and dark-green leaves, almost white underneath, called "oliva -silvestre" by the Spaniards, and _ccolli_ in Quichua (_Buddlea -coriacea_); and of these there were not more than a dozen, sheltered -behind walls. By far the greater number of plants are _Compositæ_: of -these I observed three species of _Tagetes_--one with a small yellow -flower; another very sweet, called by the Indians _huaccatay_ and -_chicchipa_, and used to flavour their chupes; and a large shrubby -marygold, called _sunchu_;[134] also the common sow-thistle, a -_Hieracium_, and the _tola_ and _ccanlli_ before mentioned, used for -fuel. I found two Verbenas and a Solanum, all with purple flowers; -a clover, a creeping cucurbitaceous plant, two Cacti, a large dock, -three Geraniums, all with pink flowers; three Crucifers, very small -herbs, one with a white flower, one with a yellow flower, and the third -the common shepherd's-purse; a Gilium with a minute white flower, a -small legume with tomentose leaves, a pretty little creeping Adoxa, -a Statice, a wild Chenopodium, a Veronica, a minute Stellaria, a -Rhinanthus, a mallow, a plantago, and three species of wild Oxalis, two -very minute with white flowers, and one with a yellow flower. There -were also two ferns, one a very beautiful Gymnogramma with silvery -fronds; nine grasses, the most abundant of which was the coarse _Stipa -ychu_; and a few mosses. On the shores of lake Titicaca I saw rushes -in great quantities, a Mimulus, a Ranunculus, a Rumex, and three -grasses. These plants, though lowly and unpretending, are in sufficient -abundance to cover the country with verdure and pretty wild flowers, -and brighten those parts which are not cultivated. The cultivation -consists of quinoa, cañahua (both _Chenopodia_), barley, potatos, ocas -(_Oxalis tuberosa_), and wheat in very small quantities, which does not -ripen. - -Close to Puno, on the south, are the famous silver-bearing mountains -of Cancharani and Laycaycota, to which Puno owes her existence: and to -the discovery and working of the Laycaycota mine in the middle of the -seventeenth century a very curious history is attached; which is always -talked of by the people of Puno as one of the principal events in the -annals of their city. - -In about 1660 an exceedingly rich vein of silver had been discovered -on the hill of Laycaycota, by one José de Salcedo, which was called -the "Veta de la Candelaria." One account says that the secret of its -existence was revealed to Salcedo by an Indian girl. José de Salcedo, -and his brother Gaspar, continued to work this vein, and several others -which were opened on the Cancharani and Laycaycota hills; enormous -quantities of silver were extracted; and the fame of his enormous -wealth, and its source, attracted crowds of unruly people to the spot, -from the various towns of Peru.[135] Salcedo is said to have been -generous and open-handed in finding employment for applicants, but, -from some unexplained cause, tumults took place at the mines in 1665, -which, from first to last, are said to have caused 450 violent deaths. -The governor of the district, Don Angelo de Peredo, seems to have taken -part against the Salcedos, who retired to the village of Juliaca, -with a body of armed followers, in November, 1665. In March, 1666, -they attacked the governor's people who had possession of the mines; -Salcedo neglected repeated orders to come to Lima; and was accused of -having threatened to extort a general pardon from the Viceroy, at the -head of a thousand men. Salcedo himself, however, appears to have been -absent at Cuzco when the attack was made on the mines. These tumults, -accompanied by much bloodshed, continued until 1669, when the Viceroy -Count of Lemos came to Puno in person, and settled the question by -sending José and Gaspar de Salcedo to Lima, where José was tried, -condemned, and executed. Gaspar was detained a prisoner in Callao -castle. - -It was the general impression at the time, and is so still at Puno, -that jealousy and envy of their riches occasioned the persecution of -these men; for not only were the charges against them most frivolous, -but the Count of Santistevan, the predecessor of the Count of Lemos, -had caused the Bishop of Arequipa to publish a general pardon of all -offences in 1666. The accusations against José Salcedo were that he -went about with armed men, took a seat next to the corregidor at -a bull-fight in Cuzco, and neglected to obey the order to come to -Lima.[136] - -A petition was afterwards sent to Spain, representing that the Salcedos -were the victims of injustice, and not guilty of disloyalty; that the -Viceroy's proceedings were irregular; and that the heirs of the Count -of Lemos were bound to make reparation for the evils caused to these -deserving men. The petition also prayed that the President of the -Council of the Indies might not be allowed to decide the case, because -he was related to the Count of Lemos.[137] This petition seems to have -received favourable consideration; for I find that the son of José de -Salcedo was afterwards created Marquis de la Villa Rica de Puno, and -that he took a leading part in subsequent mining operations. - -The most remarkable part of this story is that on the day of Salcedo's -death the mine became full of water, and the Viceroy was thus -disappointed in his expectation of succeeding to the wealth of which -he had deprived his victim. This curious coincidence made a great -impression on the Indians, which is not yet effaced; and they still -point out a small lake or pond that is said to cover the once rich vein -or "Veta de la Candelaria." - -Salcedo's son, the Marquis of Villa Rica, attempted to reach his -father's source of wealth by cutting a horizontal adit or _socabon_ in -the side of the hill looking on lake Titicaca; and he is said to have -penetrated nearly 700 yards, and within sixty yards of his father's -perpendicular shaft; but his funds failed him, and he died mad. In -spite, however, of the filling up of the "Candelaria," great numbers -of other shafts were sunk, and much silver was extracted, both by the -Marquis, and by other speculators. A report, dated 1718, mentions as -many as forty-six shafts on the hills near Puno, which were then being -worked.[138] In 1740 a native company attempted to finish the _socabon_ -which had been commenced by the Marquis, but their workmen were unable -to cut through the masses of porphyry, and, after vast expense, it was -abandoned a second time. - -From 1775 to 1824 the mines near Puno yielded ores worth 1,786,000 -marcs of silver, at seven to nine dollars the marc; the richest year -being 1802, when the yield was 52,000 marcs; but since 1816 it has been -steadily decreasing, and in 1824, the year after the expulsion of the -Spaniards, it had sunk very low. In 1826 the _manto_ mine, to which -the socabon leads, which was excavated by the Marquis of Villa Rica, -was granted to General O'Brien, a gallant and enthusiastic old Irish -hero of South American independence, who resumed the work, but without -any success. Mr. Begg, an enterprising English merchant, undertook the -completion of the _socabon_ in 1830. He imported expensive machinery -from England, employed an intelligent engineer named Patterson, and -continued to work the _manto_ mine until 1839. He built himself a house -furnished with every English comfort, and lived in very good style; but -the speculation was a failure, and he left the country a poor man in -1840, and died in Chile. After the departure of Mr. Begg, some Peruvian -speculators continued to work at the same mine, but without any energy; -and, at the time of M. de Castelnau's visit in 1845, only thirty -workmen were employed.[139] When Lieut. Gibbon, U.S.N., passed through -Puno in 1851, the _manto_ was still being worked, but at the time of my -visit it had been entirely abandoned since 1858. - -It is one of the great evils arising from the political condition of -Peru since the independence that there is a complete want of confidence -in each other amongst the moneyed classes, and an absence, to a great -extent, of the spirit of enterprise; so that any combination on a -large scale for mining, or other purposes of a similar nature, is -almost impossible. Peru is still a very young country, and there is -reason to hope that this state of things will not continue; but now a -feeling of suspicion, added to a want of energy, prevents the formation -of native companies. Thus the _manto_ is abandoned, and the numerous -mines which once covered the hills of Cancharani and Laycaycota, and -actually created the city of Puno, which nestles at their feet, are -not worked. At present there is only one small mine at work, high up -on the hill of Cancharani, called the Cachi Vieja. Its proprietor, Don -Manuel Ferrandis, is an upright, intelligent, and most kind-hearted old -gentleman, who has had much experience in mining operations; and on the -29th of March he took me to visit the abandoned _manto_, and his own -works at Cachi Vieja. - -About two miles south of Puno is the establishment built by Mr. -Begg, at the foot of the Laycaycota mountain, and facing the lake. -The buildings stand round a long courtyard, containing four trees of -the _oliva silvestre_, probably, as the only trees in the country, -once carefully tended by the former English residents. There is a -steam-engine which turns a large stone wheel, twelve feet in diameter, -for grinding the ores; and the quicksilver was separated by the heat of -fires of llama-dung and _tola_,[140] the only fuel to be had. In the -house there were papered rooms, fire-grates, and English conveniences, -now all in ruins, and the rooms used as stables for donkeys. At a short -distance from Mr. Begg's ruined house, and a little higher up the -mountain, is the entrance to the famous "_Socabon de Vera Cruz_" of the -_manto_ mine, commenced by the Marquis of Villa Rica, and finished by -Mr. Begg. The "_socabon_" penetrates into the mountain, in a generally -south-west direction, for a distance of a mile and a quarter; the first -900 yards having a depth of some feet of water, which is dammed up -at a little distance outside the entrance. This part of the gallery -is navigated by an iron canoe about a foot and a half wide; but the -canal is so narrow that the canoe frequently grates on both sides at -once against the rocks. The roof of the excavation, too, is very low, -and several times we actually had to crouch down in the bottom of the -canoe, to avoid knocking our heads. Thus we penetrated into the bowels -of the earth by this subterranean navigation, with an Indian holding -a burning torch in the bows. From the entrance, for about 300 yards, -the excavation traverses a mass of grey porphyry. In the 900 yards of -navigation there are six locks; and when the water terminates, the -gallery continues for a hundred yards, where there is an iron tramway -laid down. The metal was dragged down to the head of navigation in -cars, by two old mules, one of which had not seen daylight for fifteen -years when they ceased to work the mine. At the point where the tramway -comes to an end, the gallery still continues for 1200 yards; but this -part is very narrow and tortuous, and the metal was carried down to -the cars on the backs of Indians. The rock at the extreme end of the -excavation is a very hard green porphyry, with quartz and veins of -silver ore. - -The Cachi Vieja works are high up on the Laycaycota hill, and not far -from the famous "Veta de la Candelaria." The mouth of the shaft is in a -building opening on a courtyard, where women were sorting the ores in -small heaps. The most abundant ore is called _brosa_, containing forty -marcs of silver in the cajon of fifty quintals (cwts.); other ores are -called _rosicler_, _pavonado_, and _polvarilla_. The _rosicler_, or -ruby silver, is a most beautiful rose-coloured mineral, containing a -considerable quantity of silver.[141] - -Besides Cachi Vieja in the immediate vicinity of Puno, there are some -very productive silver-mines at San Antonio de Esquilache, twenty miles -south-west of that town, which have been worked since 1847 by Don -Manuel Costas, one of the most influential citizens of Puno, and my -host during my stay in that city. - -Wool and silver are the great staple products of the department of -Puno; the whole value of exported articles being about 1,200,000 -dollars.[142] The population is rather under 300,000 souls; that of -the town of Puno 9000.[143] Upwards of 1,500,000 dollars come into the -department yearly, either in payments for wool, or in salaries for -officials, without counting the expenditure for the troops; and it is -calculated that more than half this sum eventually finds its way into -the hands of the Indians, who bury it. Thus, in considering the mineral -wealth of Peru, the enormous quantities of coined money, and vases or -other articles made of the precious metals, which have been buried -by the Indians, must be taken into consideration; for this practice -has been going on since the time of the Incas. Now that the currency -consists almost entirely of the debased half-dollars of Bolivia, if -a Spanish dollar or any other good coin is accidently received by an -Indian, it is immediately buried. - -The principal people in Puno, during my visit, were General San Roman, -in command of the army of the South, an old man with the face and head -of a pure Indian, and plenty of white hair brushed off his forehead, -who has been mixed up in all the wars since 1822, and from whom I -received much information respecting the Indian rebellion of Tupac -Amaru in 1780, and of Pumacagua in 1815; Señor Garces, the Prefect; Don -Juan Francisco Oviedo; Don Manuel Costas; and Don Manuel Ferrandis, -the proprietor of the mine on the Laycaycota hill. Every evening there -was a party assembled at the house of the latter to drink coffee, -and talk over the news of the day. On these occasions, amongst other -topics of conversation, the possibility of forming a company for the -navigation of lake Titicaca was frequently discussed. Costas had first -been struck by the immense good that steam navigation on the lake would -bring to the department of Puno in 1840, and in 1846 he purchased a -small steamer called the 'Titicaca,' and had her sent out in pieces. -He sold her to the Government, on condition that they would defray the -expense of sending her up to the lake; but this was never done. It is -considered that any steamers which may hereafter be ordered for this -purpose should be about forty tons, drawing four and a half feet, with -paddles (as a screw would inevitably foul amongst the rushes), and -accommodation for passengers on deck. They would take all the products -of the Bolivian forests, bark, timber, chocolate, coca, fruit, and -arnotto, to Puno; European manufactured goods, sugar of Abancay, and -aguardiente of the coast, from Puno to Bolivia; provisions and traffic -of all kinds amongst the Indians of the shores; and copper of Coracora -to Puno. Timber in vast quantities might be felled in the forests of -Caravaya, and floated down the rivers of Azangaro and Ramiz during the -rainy season, which, with the coal on the island of Soto, would furnish -supplies of fuel. Markets and easy means of communication having been -formed, the trade would rapidly increase on all sides. The face of -the country would be entirely changed; the people, finding new wants, -would become more civilised; and Puno, instead of a city with empty -silent streets, and half a dozen balsas at its anchorage, would be a -flourishing and busy port.[144] These bright prospects, however, will -require time, and a total change in the political condition of Peru, -for their realization in a somewhat distant future. - -It is also a very important question whether larches, firs, and -birch-trees might not be naturalized in the more sheltered ravines -of these lofty treeless regions; where large plantations might be -formed for the supply of timber and fuel. The Indians are now entirely -dependent, for the framework of their roofs, on the crooked poles of -the _queñua_ tree (_Polylepis tomentella_); and for fuel on llama's -dung and the _tola_ shrubs (_Baccharis_). The winters, from May to -September, are not nearly so cold as in Scotland, though very dry; -and, during the summer or rainy season, though it is cold, there is -plenty of moisture. The introduction of these plantations would change -the whole face of the country, and the introducer would confer an -inestimable blessing on the inhabitants. - -I remained for some time at Puno, in order to collect information, -and come to a determination respecting the best course to pursue in -the performance of the service on which I was employed. The supply of -the bark of _Chinchona Calisaya_ trees is now entirely procured from -the forests of Munecas, Apollobamba, Yuracares, Larecaja, Inquisivi, -Ayopaya, and the _yungus_ of La Paz in Bolivia; but I found that the -difficulties in the way of making a collection of plants and seeds in -these districts would be very great, and it afterwards turned out that -these difficulties would have been insurmountable. As a considerable -part of the revenue of Bolivia is derived from the bark trade, which is -not the case in Peru, the Bolivians are exceedingly jealous of their -monopoly; and the nature of my mission was already suspected. Moreover -there was an imminent prospect of a war between Peru and Bolivia; a -large army was massed in three divisions--at Puno under General San -Roman, at Vilque under Beltran, and at Lampa under Frisancho; and, as -soon as hostilities commenced, it would have been next to impossible -for a private person to preserve his mules from seizure. This war -did not actually take place, but Linares, the President of Bolivia, -issued a decree on May 14th prohibiting all traffic, or the passage -of travellers, from one country to the other;[145] a decree which was -strictly enforced, and which would have rendered it impracticable at -that time to have conveyed myself and companion, with laden mules, from -Bolivia to the coast, without long delays and detentions. One of the -pretexts for this threatened war is perhaps the most extraordinary -that has ever been alleged in modern times; namely, that the Bolivian -Government persisted in coining and deluging Peru with debased -half-dollars. A strange way of settling a financial difficulty! - -While these objections weighed against an attempt to collect plants -in the forests of Bolivia, I found that, with regard to the chinchona -forests of the Peruvian province of Caravaya, on the frontier of Peru -and Bolivia, the facilities for such an enterprise would be much -greater. I had reason to believe, though I afterwards found myself in -error, that, as there was no bark trade in Peru of any importance,[146] -no jealousy would be felt at the nature of my mission. Any hostile -proceedings on the Bolivian frontier would not materially affect the -route between the Caravaya forests and the coast; and, above all, -Caravaya is much nearer and more accessible, as regards an available -seaport, than any part of the chinchona forests of Bolivia. This latter -point was of the very greatest importance, because success depended -chiefly on the rapidity with which the plants could be conveyed -across the frozen plains of the cordilleras. I knew from Dr. Weddell -that, though the bark trade from Caravaya has now ceased, and bark -from that district is of no market value, owing to a foolish habit -of adulteration amongst speculators in former times, yet that young -plants, and trees bearing fruit, of the _Chinchona Calisaya_, and other -valuable species, were abundant in the forests of that province, as far -north as the valley of Sandia. - -I, therefore, after much anxious consideration, determined to proceed -direct from Puno to the forests of Caravaya. - -During my stay at Puno I had opportunities of examining some -interesting ruins, and of collecting information respecting the Indian -population of Peru, especially with regard to the great insurrections -of Tupac Amaru and Pumacagua in 1780 and 1815. Much of this information -is quite new; and I, therefore, trust that a description of ancient -ruins near Puno, and an account of some of the most stirring events -connected with the Indians since the Spanish conquest, may prove of -sufficient general interest to justify a halt on the road to the -chinchona forests, and a brief digression from the principal subject of -the present work. - -[Illustration: BALSA ON LAKE TITICACA. See page 95] - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -LAKE TITICACA. - -The Aymara Indians--Their -antiquities--Tiahuanaco--Coati--Sillustani--Copacabana. - - -THE region which is drained by rivers flowing from the maritime -cordillera and the eastern range of the Andes into lake Titicaca -consists of elevated plateaux, seldom less than 13,000 feet above the -sea, which were originally inhabited by the Aymara race of Indians, -a people differing in some respects from the Indians of Cuzco and -further north, and whose civilization dates from a period far anterior -to that of the Incas. Their language is different from the Quichua of -the Incas, though evidently a sister tongue, and it is still spoken -by the Aymara Indians from Puno to the central parts of Bolivia, -including all the shores of lake Titicaca. I did not, however, observe -much difference between the Indians of Puno, who speak Aymara, and the -Quichua Indians of Cuzco. The men are, perhaps, somewhat stouter; but -they are the same race in all essential points. - -The lake of Titicaca, the great feature in the region inhabited by the -Aymara Indians, is about eighty miles long by forty broad; being by -far the largest lake in South America. It is divided into two parts by -the peninsula of Copacabana; the southern division, called the lake of -Huaqui, being eight leagues long by seven, and united to the greater -lake by the strait of Tiquina. A number of rivers, which are swollen -and of considerable volume during the rainy season, flow into the lake. -The largest of these is the Ramiz, which is formed by the junction of -the two rivers of Pucara and Azangaro, and enters the lake at its -north-west corner. The Suchiz, formed by the rivers of Cavanilla and -Lampa, also flows into the lake on its north side, as well as the Yllpa -and Ylave; while on the eastern side are the rivers Huarina, Escoma, -and Achacache, all flowing from a low lateral chain, parallel with -the great eastern Andes, whose gigantic peaks of Illimani and Sorata -form the principal feature of the views from all parts of the lake. -Much of the water thus flowing in is drained off by the great river -Desaguadero, which flows out of the south-west corner, and disappears -in the swampy lake of Aullagas, in the south of Bolivia; and perhaps a -greater quantity is taken up by evaporation; for the volume of water -which flows in during the rainy season, when the sun travels north, -is drunk up again when the tutelar deity of the lake returns, between -April and September.[147] Indeed it is evident that the waters are -steadily receding, under the combined influence of evaporation and of -the sediment brought down by the rivers. Lake Titicaca is very deep in -some places, the deepest part being on the Bolivian side; but in others -it is so shoal that there is only just room to force the balsas through -the rushes. The winds blow from the eastward all the year round, -sometimes in strong gales, so as to raise a very heavy sea, during -the day-time; but at night they are occasionally westerly. Along the -western shore there are acres of tall rushes, and the east winds blow -all the dead rushes to the western side, mixing with the living beds, -and forming a dense tangled mass. The lake abounds in fish of very -peculiar forms, and in aquatic birds. - -The principal islands of the lake are those of Titicaca and Coati, near -the peninsula of Copacabana; that of Campanario in the east, opposite -the town of Escoma, and nine miles from the shore; Soto, also in the -northern part, which is said to contain coal;[148] and Esteves, in the -bay of Puno, where the patriot prisoners were confined by the Spaniards -during the war of independence; besides a small archipelago in the lake -of Huaqui. - -A very ancient civilization existed on the shores of lake Titicaca long -before the appearance of the first Inca of Peru; the principal remains -of which are to be found at Tiahuanaco,[149] near the southern shore of -the lake of Huaqui. An extensive tract is here covered by huge blocks -of carved stone. It was with much regret that I was obliged, by my -duty, to give up my intention of visiting these interesting remains. -M. de Castelnau mentions two colossal statues of a man and a woman, -crowned with a kind of turban; a colossal head and a lizard carved on -blocks of stone; a great conical artificial hill; and a monolithic -doorway, the upper part of which is covered with very curious -sculpture. In the centre there is a figure, probably representing -the Sun, and on each side a number of figures all turned towards it, -with wings, and sceptres in their hands: those on one side with their -heads crowned, and those on the other with heads of griffins, and the -bodies adorned with garlands of human heads.[150] All who have visited -these ruins consider them to be of a distinct character from those -of Cuzco, and other works of the Incas. The stones are more richly -carved, and many of them have been united by means of a metal poured -into transverse grooves. M. de Castelnau considers that the chief -characteristic of Aymara ruins is the minute detail in the carving on -the stones, while that of the Incas consists in the grand simplicity of -the masonry.[151] - -[Illustration: THE TOWERS OF SILLUSTANI. Page 111.] - -On the islands of Titicaca and Coati there are also extensive ruins, -the remains of temples and convents of virgins dedicated to the worship -of the Sun and Moon; and Dr. Weddell mentions that there is a kind of -phlox on these islands (_Cantua buxifolia_), its very elegant long -scarlet flower being called by the Aymara Indians the "flower of the -Incas."[152] - -Although I was unable to visit either the ruins at Tiahuanaco or those -on the islands, I found time to examine ruins of the same character on -the shores of the lake of Umayu near Vilque, where the great cemetery -of the chiefs of the Aymara tribes of the Collao appears to have been. -These ruins are at a place called Sillustani, on the north side of the -lake of Umayu, where a high rocky table-land juts out so as to form a -peninsula, which is literally covered with places of sepulture. Four -of them are towers of finely-cut masonry, equal to that of Cuzco, with -the sides of the stones dovetailing into each other. On climbing up -the steep rocky path which leads to the table-land, the first on the -right-hand side is perched on the very edge of the northern precipice. -Half of it is destroyed, the other half is of well-cut stones, with -a broad rounded cornice near the summit, and a vaulted roof, part of -which remains entire. In the interior, near the foundation, there -is a vaulted chamber entered by a small aperture, and full of human -bones. The rest of the tower was filled up with small stones and earth, -leaving a narrow shaft which ascended from the chamber to the summit, -down which the bodies may have been lowered into the chamber. - -On the left there is another smaller tower of exactly similar -construction. Further on, and near the verge of the southern precipice, -there are two other towers close together. One is thirty-six feet high, -and built of the same well-cut masonry, with a cornice and vaulted -roof, and a great lizard carved in relief on one of the stones near -the base, which measures six feet by three.[153] The other tower was -apparently exactly similar, but it is now in a very ruinous state. - -Besides these more remarkable edifices, the table-land is covered -with other towers of rough unhewn stone and earth, and there are the -remains of two square edifices built of cyclopean stones. The fallen -parts of the towers were covered with masses of bright yellow compositæ -called _suncho_, and a purple solanum; and they were frequented by the -creepers called _haccacllo_, little green paroquets, a small quail -called _pucupucu_, and the little ground-dove _cullca_; numbers of -_biscache_ rabbits burrowed in the ruins, while two or three lordly -_coraquenques_ soared in circles over the table-land. After carefully -examining the old towers of Sillustani, I passed the night in a very -small hut, close to the lake of Umayu, the waters of which were smooth -as glass, an island in the centre, and blue ranges of mountains capped -with snow in the distance. To get into the hut it was necessary to go -on hands and knees, the doorway being only three feet high, with a hide -door stretched on a wooden frame. The hut was built of rough stones and -thatched with barley-straw; but inside there was a hospitable welcome -and good cheer: the old Indian who dwelt there, and his young daughter, -providing excellent boiled potatoes, cream-cheese, and fresh milk. - -The ruins of Tiahuanaco, and on the islands in the lake, and the -towers of Sillustani, are the principal remains of ancient Aymara -civilization. Nothing is known respecting the people who raised these -imperishable monuments, except that, in the middle of the eleventh -century, a man and woman, declaring themselves to be children of the -Sun, are said to have first appeared on the shores of the great lake, -and, marching north, to have founded the empire of the Incas. The -circumstance that Manco Ccapac, the first Inca of Peru, originally -appeared in the country of the Aymaras, has led to the belief that -he was himself a chief of that nation; but I am more inclined to the -opinion that he was one of a band of adventurers who had been brought -from Asia, or her vast archipelago of islands, by the westerly winds -of the South Pacific, and the southerly breezes of the coast, to the -port of Arica; that he thence made his way to the banks of the great -lake, where he became indoctrinated in the religion of the people; and -that, for some reason, he continued his wanderings, until he finally -collected a sufficiently numerous following to found an independent -state at Cuzco. It seems certain, from emblems found carved upon the -ruins, and from tradition, that the worship of the Sun and Moon was -established amongst the Aymaras for ages before the conquest of their -country by the Incas of Cuzco. - -It was not for several generations after the foundation of the empire -of the Incas, that their conquests were extended over the Aymara nation -of the Collao; and it was not until about the middle of the eleventh -century that the country on the shores of lake Titicaca became part of -the great empire whose centre and capital was at Cuzco. From that time -the islands of Titicaca and Coata, and the peninsula of Copacabana, -became the most sacred and venerated spots within the dominions of the -Incas; as the localities where their great progenitor Manco Ccapac was -believed to have made his first appearance. - -Copacabana means "the place of a precious stone," _copa_ being a -precious stone, and _cavana_ a place where anything is seen.[154] A -rock called Titicaca gave its name to the island and lake: _titi_ being -Aymara for a cat, and _caca_ a rock, for on this rock a cat is said -to have sat with fire shooting from its eyes.[155] In Quichua _titi_ -means lead. On this rock, which is at the west end of the island of -Titicaca,[156] there was an altar where the Aymaras adored the Sun, and -near it there were three idols joined in one, called _Apu Ynti_ (the -Chief Sun), _Churip Ynti_ (the Son's Sun), and _Yntip Huauqui_ (Brother -of the Sun). The Inca Tupac Yupanqui (A.D. 1439-75) founded a palace -and a village about half a league from the rock, and established a -convent of virgins there.[157] - -The island of Coata, a league to the eastward of Titicaca, was -dedicated to the Moon, the name being derived from Coyata, the -accusative of Coya, a queen; the Moon ranking as wife to the Sun. The -ruins of the _Accla huasi_, or convent of virgins, on Coata island, are -120 feet long, the interior being divided into numerous cells, with -rows of niches in the walls. They are now overshadowed by queñua-trees, -whose dark foliage adds to the sombre melancholy of these silent -memorials of the past. On both the islands there were, in the time -of the Incas, large establishments of Virgins of the Sun, who were -divided into three grades, according to their beauty. The most lovely -were called _Guayruro_; the next _Yurac Aclla_, or white maidens; and -the plain ones _Paco Aclla_, or beast maidens. Each grade was governed -by a _Mamacona_ or nurse, and an _Apu-panaca_ or governor lived near -the convent, who guarded it, and supplied its inmates with provisions. -The occupations of the virgins were weaving, embroidery, and brewing -sacrificial _chicha_, to be poured out on the altar of the deity.[158] - -After the conquest, the Spanish Viceroys handed over the province of -Chucuito, and the islands in the lake, to the Dominican friars, who -succeeded in introducing far grosser and more degrading superstitions -amongst the Indians than they had ever practised on the islands of -Titicaca and Coata; and in establishing, on the adjacent peninsula -of Copacabana, a shrine, the pretended sanctity of which attracted -devotees and rich presents from all parts of Spanish America. - -Its origin appears to have been as follows:--A member of the family of -the Incas, named Francisco Titu Yupanqui, not having money enough to -buy an image of the Virgin for his church, painted a very bad picture, -and the cura, Antonio de Almeida, either to please the Indian, or -because there were few images or pictures in the country, allowed it -to be placed near the altar. But the next cura, Antonio de Montoro, -seeing that it caused more laughter than devotion, ordered it to be -put in a corner of the sacristy. The poor artist then went to Potosi -to learn to paint, and, after much labour, he succeeded in completing -a picture which, the moment it was placed in the church at Copacabana, -began to work miracles. It was set up in 1583, and the Inca painter -died in 1608. The first thing the picture did was to banish all devils -out of the province, and to cure many Indians of their diseases; and -its fame became so great that in 1588 the Count of Villar, viceroy of -Peru, solemnly delivered it to the care of the Augustine friars by a -royal edict. Between 1589 and 1652 it is said to have performed 186 -miracles. One Alonzo de Escote, for favours received, saved up money -for the purpose of giving the Virgin a lamp, and at length he presented -the richest then to be found in the Spanish colonies, twenty feet long, -with sockets for as many candles as there are days in the year, all of -solid silver. Even as late as 1845, when Dr. Weddell saw the church, it -was very richly gilt. - -"Other images," says Father Calancha, "in Europe and Asia perform -miracles in their own towns or provinces, but this picture of -Copacabana performs them all over the new world, and in parts of -Europe!"[159] - -Thus the Spanish conquerors supplied the Aymara Indians of the shores -of lake Titicaca with an object of devotion in the shape of this old -picture; which was to replace their former simple worship of the Sun -and Moon on the sacred islands of the lake. It will be interesting -to examine briefly the way the Spaniards treated the people they -subjected, in other respects, and to glance at the kind of government -which they substituted for the mild rule of the Incas. - -The forefathers of the present Aymara Indians established a -civilization of which we have no record save the silent evidence of -those cyclopean ruins which have just been described. Subsequently, for -nearly four centuries, from the middle of the twelfth to the sixteenth, -they formed a part of the empire of the Incas, and their land was then -called Collasuyu. During this period the Incas followed their constant -policy of superseding the language of the conquered land by their own -more polished Quichua; and they so far succeeded that the Aymara, which -once extended and was spoken all over the Collao, as far as the pass -of Ayaviri, on the road to Cuzco, has been entirely superseded in all -parts north of Puno by the Quichua, and is now only spoken between Puno -and La Paz, and farther south. Nevertheless the people enjoyed a long -period of tranquillity and prosperity during the happy rule of the -Incas, and the population continued to increase. With the introduction -of Spanish rule a blight fell upon them: and we shall now see how the -beneficent laws of the sovereigns of Castile were administered by their -unworthy servants. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE PERUVIAN INDIANS: - -Their condition under Spanish colonial rule. - - -IN reviewing the deplorable results of Spanish domination in South -America, it may at once be conceded that the legislation which -originated from the councils of the kings of Castile was always, except -in matters connected with religion, remarkable for beneficence and -liberality in all that concerned the natives; and that, in the words -of Mr. Helps, "those humane and benevolent laws, which emanated from -time to time from the Home Government, rendered the sway of the Spanish -monarchs over the conquered nations as remarkable for mildness as any, -perhaps, that has ever been recorded in the pages of history."[160] It -may also be allowed that the Viceroys of Peru were generally earnest -and zealous statesmen, who conscientiously strove to enforce the -regulations which they from time to time received from the council of -the Indies. - -But it was almost as impossible for the viceroys to exercise efficient -personal supervision over the government of so enormous a country, -while residing at Lima, as it would have been if they had remained at -the council-table in Seville; and their subordinates were, as a body, -untrustworthy, extortionate, rapacious, and often remorselessly cruel. -Thus the benign laws of the Spanish kings became a dead letter in -South America, and the natives groaned, for three centuries, under a -yoke which crashed them to the earth, and converted vast tracts of once -thickly populated country into uninhabited deserts. - -Yet the humane intentions of the Spanish government, and the labours -of the Peruvian viceroys, were not wholly without results; and it is -partly due to them that a system of worse than African slavery was not -established in Peru, and that the native race has not long ago become -entirely extinct. - -At the time of the Spanish conquest Pizarro was empowered, in 1529, -to grant "_encomiendas_," or estates, to his fellow-conquerors, the -inhabitants of which were bound to pay tribute to the holders of the -grants; and in 1536 these _encomiendas_ were extended to two lives. -The consequent exactions and cruelties were so intolerable that the -good Las Casas, and other friends of the Indians, at length induced -the Emperor Charles V. to enact the code so well known as the "New -Laws," in 1542; by which the _encomiendas_ were to pass immediately to -the Crown after the death of the actual holders; all officers under -government were prohibited from holding them; all men who had been -mixed up in the civil wars of the Pizarros and Almagros were to be -deprived at once; a fixed sum was to be settled as tribute to be paid -by the Indians; and all forced personal labour was absolutely forbidden. - -The promulgation of these beneficent laws excited a howl of furious -execration from the conquerors,--the wolves who were thus to be dragged -away, when their fangs were actually fixed in the flesh of their -victims. Gonzalo Pizarro rose in rebellion in Peru, and defeated and -killed Blasco Nuñez de Vela, the viceroy who had arrived to enforce -these "New Laws;" while the more politic Belalcazar, at Popayan, -though professing obedience, contrived to evade the execution of his -orders, after a fashion which gave rise to the well-known saying--"_se -obedece, pero no se cumple_"--"he obeys, but does not fulfil." Their -unpopularity was so great that it was considered unsafe to persist -in the attempt to enforce them, and they were revoked in 1545. The -President Gasca re-distributed the "_encomiendas_" in 1550, and they -were granted for three lives in 1629. Gasca, who showed more regard for -his own safety and convenience than for the public service, arranged -that his settlement of the _encomiendas_ should not be promulgated -until he had sailed for Spain, and he suspended the law prohibiting the -forced personal service of the Indians. The latter enactment, however, -was boldly promulgated by the Judges of the Royal Audience in 1552, and -was, as might have been expected, immediately followed by a ferment -amongst the conquerors and a formidable rebellion. Finally the Marquis -of Cañete arrived in Peru, as viceroy, in 1554; and, by a mixture of -severity and prudent conciliation, trod out the last sparks of revolt -amongst the Spaniards. - -In 1568 the viceroy Don Francisco de Toledo established the system -under which the native population of Peru was professedly ruled for -the two succeeding centuries. Toledo was a bigot, without pity, and -inexorably cruel. Justice or humanity had no weight with him if they -stood in the way of any policy which he deemed to be advisable, as -was shown in the judicial murder of the young Inca Tupac Amaru. But -he was a faithful servant of his sovereign, and resolutely determined -to enforce the edicts of the Council of the Indies; a statesman of -considerable ability and untiring industry. He was so prolific in -legislation that, on the subject of coca-cultivation alone, he issued -seventy ordinances; and future viceroys referred to his rules and -enactments as to a received and authoritative text-book. The viceroy -Marquis of Montes Claros, in 1615, declared that "all future rulers of -Peru were but disciples of Francisco de Toledo, that great master of -statesmanship." - -By his _Libro de Tasas_, or Book of Rules, Toledo fixed the tribute to -be paid by the Indians, exempting all men under the age of eighteen, -or over that of fifty. The Indians were governed by native chiefs of -their own people, whose duty it was to collect the tribute, and pay it -in to the Spanish corregidor or governor of the province, as well as -to exercise subordinate magisterial functions. These chiefs, called -_Curacas_ in the time of the Incas, were ordered by Toledo to be named -_Caciques_, a word brought from the West Indian islands;[161] and under -them there were two other native officials--the _Pichca-pachacas_, -placed over 500 Indians, and the _Pachacas_ over 100. These offices -were inherited from father to son, and their possessors enjoyed several -privileges, such as the exemption from arrest, except for grave -offences, and they received a fixed salary. The native Caciques were -often men of considerable wealth; some of them were members of the -royal family of the Incas; they were free from the payment of tribute -and from personal service; and thus occupied positions of importance -amongst their countrymen.[162] They wore the same dress which -distinguished the nobles of the Inca's court, consisting of a tunic -called _uncu_, a rich mantle or cloak of black velvet called _yacolla_, -intended as mourning for the fall of their ancient rulers; and those of -the family of the Incas added a sort of coronet, whence a red fringe -of alpaca-wool descended as an emblem of nobility. This head-dress -was called _mascapaycha_. They had pictures of the Incas in their -houses, and encouraged the periodical festivals in memory of their -beloved sovereigns, when plays were enacted, and mournful music was -produced from the national instruments, drums, trumpets, clarions, and -_pututus_, or sea shells.[163] All these customs were left unchanged by -Toledo, and the system so far resembles that which now prevails in the -Dutch colony of Java.[164] - -But, in addition to the tribute, the amount of which as established -by Toledo was not excessive, and which was rendered still less -objectionable to the Indians from being collected by their native -chiefs, there was the _mita_ or forced labour in mines, manufactories, -and farms,[165] which became the instrument of fearful oppression -and cruelty. Toledo enacted that a seventh part of the adult male -population of every village should be subject to the _mita_, and -ordered that the Caciques should send these _mitayos_, as they were -called, to the public squares of the nearest Spanish towns, where they -might be hired by those who required their services; and laws were -enacted to regulate the distance they might be taken from their homes, -and their payment.[166] It appears, however, that this seventh part -of the working men who were told off for forced labour was exclusive -of those employed in the mines, so that, even in theory, the _mita_ -condemned a large fraction of the population to slavery.[167] - -There was a class of Indians, numbering about 40,000 souls in the time -of Toledo (1570), called _Yanaconas_, who were scattered over Peru, and -forced to work on the lands of Spaniards, or as domestic servants. -They may have been descendants of captives in war, or of persons who -had been condemned to slavery in the time of the Incas, and thus -became the property of the conquerors; but in 1601 an enactment was -promulgated to ameliorate their condition, and fix the terms of their -service.[168] - -In matters connected with religion the Spanish legislators allowed of -no temporizing policy. All signs of idolatry must disappear, and with -the new religion came additional exactions, in the shape of fees for -masses, burials, and christenings. Toledo enacted many laws for the -suppression of the old religion of the Incas: any Indian who married -an idolatrous woman was to receive one hundred stripes, "because that -is the punishment which they dislike most;" the people were prohibited -from using surnames taken from the names of birds, beasts, serpents, -or rivers, which was their ancient custom; and no Indian who had been -punished for idolatry, joining in infidel rites, or dancing the dance -called _arihua_, could be appointed to hold any public office.[169] - -On the whole, however, the legislation of the Spanish kings, and the -reports of the viceroys of Peru, display an earnest desire to protect -the Indians from tyranny, and to render their condition tolerable. -In 1615 the Marquis of Montes Claros impressed on his successor the -importance of obliging all classes of Spaniards to treat the Indians -well, and of chastising oppression with rigour. In 1681 the Count -of Castellar states that one of the points most dwelt upon in the -instructions given to the viceroys, and in repeated royal enactments, -was the humane treatment of the Indians; and he declares that he -always sought to enforce these orders from the day that he landed in -Peru; and words to the same effect are to be found in the reports of -most of the other viceroys.[170] - -But side by side with these evidences of the good intentions of the -Government, is the testimony of the viceroys that their efforts to -comply with these beneficent orders, and enforce these humane laws, -were fruitless, and rendered of no effect by the unworthiness of their -subordinates; and almost all complain of the rapid depopulation of the -country. In 1620 the Prince of Esquilache reported that "the arm of the -viceroy was not powerful against the negligence and maladministration -of the corregidors;" in 1681 the Count of Castellar said that he had -to correct and punish the excesses both of the corregidors and the -curas; in 1697 the Duke of La Palata speaks of the depopulation of the -villages and towns, caused by the forcible detention of the Indians to -work at the mines, in cloth and cotton workshops, and in farms; and -another viceroy attributes the rapid depopulation of the country to the -same causes, and also to drink, and urges a closer supervision of the -conduct of the corregidors and curas. - -I have, in a former work, given a brief account of the treatment of -the Indians, and of the way in which the laws intended for their -defence were evaded; from the evidence of the brothers Ulloa, who were -commissioned to make a special and secret report on the subject to the -King of Spain in 1740.[171] I have since collected abundant testimony -to the same effect, printed and in manuscript, both at Madrid and in -Peru; but I have only space for a few brief notes, which must serve to -illustrate this part of the subject. - -The mines of Potosi were supplied with labourers from the nearest -provinces, by enforcing a _mita_ of a seventh of the adult male -population. In 1573 this _mita_ consisted of 11,199 Indians, in -1620 of 4249, and in 1678 of 1674,[172] a decrease which marks the -rapid depopulation of the country; and, at the latter date, when -the authorities at Potosi failed to receive a sufficient number of -labourers by the ordinary _mita_, they kidnapped people in their homes, -and on the roads, and carried them off to forced labour in the mines. -The law was that the _mitayos_ should be paid for coming and going, and -that they should not be forced to work at night; but these laws were -habitually set at nought, and Potosi became an exhausting drain to the -surrounding country.[173] - -The mines of Huancavelica, which supplied the quicksilver necessary -for extracting the silver of Potosi from its ores,[174] also desolated -the ten adjoining provinces. In 1645 the _mita_ or seventh part of the -adult male population amounted to 620, and in 1678 to only 354 Indians. -The _mita_ was a service which was abhorred and dreaded by the people, -and mothers maimed the arms and legs of their children to deliver them -from this slavery. Don Juan de Padilla relates that, in 1657, when he -was at Santa Lucia, in the province of Lucanas, he saw the women of -the village go out to assist each other in sowing their fields, and, -at the end of their labour, they returned hand in hand, singing a most -melancholy song, and lamenting the cruel fate of their husbands and -brothers, who were slaving in the mines of Huancavelica, while they -were obliged to work in the fields like men. They declared that when -a man was once taken for the _mita_ his wife seldom or never saw him -again, unless she went herself to the place of his torments.[175] - -The oppression of the owners of _obrajes_ or manufactories of coarse -woollen and cotton cloths, in enforcing the _mitas_, was as crushing -as that of the miners. These people employed men, called _guatacos_, -to hunt the Indians, and drive them into the _obrajes_. If they could -not find the particular men for whom they were in search, they took -their children, wives, and nearest neighbours, robbed them of all they -possessed, and frequently violated the women and young girls.[176] The -masters, in the _obrajes_, then forced their victims to get deeply in -debt to them, and thus obtained an excuse for keeping them in perpetual -slavery. In many _obrajes_ there were Indians who had not been outside -the walls for forty years and upwards. The law was that the natives -should be free from tribute and personal service until they attained -the age of eighteen; but it was the general practice to drag children -from their homes at the ages of six or eight, force them to work hard -at twisting woollen and cotton threads, and flog them cruelly.[177] - -Thus the work of depopulation went on until, in 1622, many -_encomiendas_ which originally contained a thousand adult male Indians, -and yielded eight thousand dollars of tribute, were reduced to a -hundred; yet these unfortunate survivors were forced to continue the -payment of the original tribute, or to render personal service instead. -There was an _encomienda_ in Huanuco where the Indians had paid more -than one hundred thousand dollars over and above what was legally due, -during fifty years.[178] - -It may well be asked of what use were the humane and beneficent laws -enacted by the kings of Spain if this was the way in which they were -universally evaded by corregidors, curas, and Spanish settlers of all -ranks? The caciques sorrowfully watched the gradual extinction of their -people, perhaps secretly hoped for an opportunity of revenge, but were -without power to prevent the cruel oppression which they deplored, -though they did not neglect, from time to time, to protest against the -lawless exactions and cruelties of the Spaniards.[179] - -But the Indians did not endure their fate without occasional attempts -at resistance. On one occasion the people on the western shore of lake -Titicaca rose against the _mita_ of Potosi, and retreated amongst -the beds of rushes on the shores of the lake, which, in some places, -are nine leagues long and one broad. In the midst of these rushes -there was an island, whence secret lanes were cut through the tangled -mass, which the fugitives navigated in their balsas. Secure in their -retreat, they continued to make inroads on the Spanish towns near the -lake, until at last, in 1632, the viceroy Count of Chinchon ordered -his nephew, Don Rodrigo de Castro, to chastise them. Five of their -leaders were captured and hung at Zepita, and their heads were stuck -on the bridge over the Desaguadero. This only exasperated the Indians, -who elected a brave and enterprising leader named Pedro Laime, and, -suddenly attacking the bridge over the Desaguadero, they carried off -the heads of their former chiefs. The Spaniards marched along the shore -and waded to some islets, while the Indians hovered round them in -their balsas, and prevented them from advancing further. At length the -Spanish troops were embarked in twenty balsas, and came in sight of the -hostile squadron commanded by Laime. The Indians went in and out of -the lanes of rushes only known to themselves, baffled their oppressors, -and cut off several of the Spanish balsas. A party of cavalry advancing -into the swampy ground was suddenly surrounded and cut to pieces, the -Indians only losing three men.[180] - -Thus the fugitive Indians retained their liberty for many years in -these inaccessible fastnesses of lake Titicaca, and the Augustine friar -Calancha confesses that "the rebellion was caused by the injustice and -tyranny of the Spaniards, who forced the Indians to work without pay, -and seized on their goods." - -This was not a solitary instance of rebellion, though, on the whole, -the Indians endured their cruel fate with meekness and long suffering. -Yet they are not a mean-spirited people, and at length they showed -their oppressors that it was possible to press the yoke down too hard -even for their powers of endurance. - -The tribute, the _mita_, the exactions of the curas, and the -_alcabala_, or excise duties,[181] were all patiently borne; -but another method of extortion, the "_repartimiento_," or -"_reparto_,"[182] at length exhausted the patience of the over-tasked -Indians. The _reparto_ was a system, ostensibly for distributing -European goods to the Indians, which was converted into a means of -wholesale robbery by the Spanish corregidors, and finally led to a -general rebellion. An Indian chieftain thus describes the _reparto_ -system:--"Abandoning their souls for their avarice, the corregidors -have the assurance to distribute (_repartir_) by force, and against -all reason, baize and cloths worth two rials for one dollar, and in -the same proportion with knives, needles, dice, pins, cards, trumpets, -rings, and pewter mirrors, which are all quite useless to the Indians; -besides velvets and silks, which the poor people cannot use; for they -are obliged to dress in the coarsest clothes, to sleep on beds of -rags, and feed on roots; while the corregidors and their dependants -commit the most unjust extortions and outrages. They even exceed the -legal quantity of _repartos_ assigned to their respective provinces; -for example, that of Tinta was ordered to be 112,500 dollars, and the -corregidor made it 500,000 dollars, as was proved by his books and -papers."[183] General del Valle, who commanded the troops employed to -put down Tupac Amaru's rebellion, complained that the avarice of the -corregidors, in recovering their claims on the Indians for _repartos_, -was such that they refused him the aid of their people in pacifying the -country. Their obstinacy and avarice, he declared, had reached to such -a point that, if they were informed that the rebels had reached the -very suburbs of their towns, they would rather see the defeat of the -king's troops than send away a single Indian who might owe them a yard -of cloth.[184] - -This unblushing dishonesty and extortion, which was winked at by the -Royal Audience at Lima, the highest court of judicial appeal, drove -the Indian population to a state of desperation, which only required a -spark to set it in a blaze. The humane laws, and the elaborate system -of legislation for the Indians, had, after 200 years of hopeless -inefficiency, ended in this. The careful enactments to limit the amount -of tribute, to prevent the Indians from suffering by forced personal -service, the laws of ecclesiastical councils to protect them from the -exactions of the curas, the benevolent intentions evinced in declaring -all Indians to be minors in the eye of the law, the "_residencias_," -or arrangements for examining the conduct of every official at the -close of his term of office; all these provisions, which have justly -called forth the praise of Mr. Helps, Mr. Merivale,[185] and other -modern writers, had become dead letters, absolutely and hopelessly, -towards the end of the last century. The laws remained the same, -but they were habitually set aside by those whose duty it was to -administer them. The tribute fixed for villages when they contained a -thousand men was continued the same when the population had decreased -to a hundred;[186] the _mita_ was enforced so mercilessly that whole -districts were left without a single adult male inhabitant;[187] the -curas extorted exorbitant fees from their victims, in spite of the -law;[188] and the judges, who were sent to take the "_residencias_," -received bribes to overlook all offences, and usually handed over the -complaints which were submitted to them to the officials who were -complained of in exchange for a sum of money, the price of their -silence.[189] These evils were long borne patiently; but when the -shameless enormities of the _Repartos_ were superadded, the poor -remnant of the descendants of the subjects of the Incas at length rose -as one man against their oppressors. - -There were not wanting, amongst the Spaniards in Peru, as well as -amongst the native Caciques, many good and humane men who raised their -voices against the lawless cruelty of the majority of the officials, -and earnestly warned the Government of the inevitable consequences. -Don Ventura Santalices, the Governor of La Paz, devoted his time and -fortune to the cause of the oppressed Indians, and was appointed to -a seat in the Council of the Indies, but he was poisoned on his -arrival in Spain: the energetic remonstrances of Blas Tupac Amaru, a -descendant of the Incas, caused him also to be summoned to Spain, where -he obtained promises of many concessions, but he was assassinated at -sea, during the return voyage: and the names of other bold and fearless -defenders of the Indians deserve to be recorded, such as Don Manuel -Arroyo, Don Ignacio Castro, Don Agustin de Gurruchategui, Bishop of -Cuzco, and Don Francisco Campos, Bishop of La Paz. - -But their remonstrances bore no fruit, and, in 1780, the Corregidor of -Chayanta having exacted three _repartos_ in one year, an Indian chief, -named Tomas Catari, set the example of revolt; thousands flocked to -his standard, and to those of his brothers Damaso and Nicolas; in a -few months the whole of Upper Peru (the modern Bolivia) was in revolt, -and an army of Indians under Julian Apasa, a baker of Hayohayo near -Sicasica, besieged La Paz.[190] At the same time there was an uneasy -feeling at Cuzco and throughout Peru, and whispers of a conspiracy -amongst the Indians. Don Pedro Sahuaraura, the Cacique of Oropesa, near -Cuzco, reported that one Ildefonso del Castillo had solicited him to -join the conspiracy; suspicion was thrown on several other influential -Indians; and in June 1780 this Castillo, Bernardo Tambohuacto, the -Cacique of Pissac, and six others, were put to death at Cuzco.[191] In -the following November the Cacique José Gabriel Condorcanqui, better -known as Tupac Amaru, raised the standard of revolt, and the last -desperate struggle for liberty was commenced by the descendant of the -Incas.[192] - -"It would be difficult," says Dean Funes, "to find in the history of -revolutions one more justifiable and less fortunate than that of -Tupac Amaru. America had, in those days, become the theatre of the -most wide-spread tyranny; but the Indians of Peru were those on whose -necks the yoke weighed heaviest. _Mitas_ and _repartos_ were, in Peru, -the deadly plagues of Spanish invention, which devoured the human -race."[193] - -I am enabled to give a more correct and circumstantial account of the -great rising of the Peruvian Indians in the end of the last century -than has yet appeared in Europe; although, as this interesting subject -is a digression from the main purpose of the present work, I shall be -obliged to compress my narrative within the narrow limits of one or -two chapters.[194] In this brief sketch of the state of the Peruvian -Indians under Spanish rule, I have endeavoured to establish the fact -that Tupac Amaru's rebellion was justified because the oppression -of his people had become intolerable, and because all law was set -at defiance by the Spanish officials. He protested, not against the -tyranny of the laws, but against the infringement of laws, and the -oppressive acts done in spite of the laws, by those whose duty it was -to administer them. - -In writing on this subject one is apt to be carried away by indignation -against the Spanish rulers in South America; yet, if we look round at -the systems of colonization pursued by other European nations, it will -be found difficult to say who has a right to cast the first stone. -The Spanish colonies, however, cannot properly be compared with those -modern English settlements, to which thousands of the labouring classes -have emigrated, and either annihilated the natives, or fenced them off -by a system of reserves and isolation. No European labouring class was -introduced into South America; the Indians still continued to be the -cultivators, the shepherds, and the artizans; and the Spaniards were -merely the dominant race. This state of things is more allied to the -conditions which now exist in British India or Dutch Java, and there is -thus no analogy between the South American settlements and any British -colony in the proper acceptation of the word. - -Yet to Spain the credit is due, in spite of numerous shortcomings, -and notwithstanding the oppression of her subordinates, of having -endeavoured to establish the wisest, the most humane, and the only -successful system of treating natives of an inferior race. It is -certain that such a race must either continue to form the mass of the -population, amalgamate with their conquerors, or be annihilated. The -two former of these three alternatives were adopted in Peru, partly -from natural causes, but partly also owing to the incessant exertions -of the earlier Spanish viceroys, and of the "Defenders of the Indians;" -and this result was achieved in spite of the oppression and cruelty of -their subordinates. The Indians have continued to form the labouring -class of Peru; amalgamation has taken place, to a very large extent, -with Europeans; and the native race has thus been preserved from -extinction.[195] In the English colonies, on the other hand, owing -to the influx of settlers of the labouring class, the aborigines -have either been exterminated, or, through a system of isolation, -are rapidly and inevitably advancing on the melancholy road to final -annihilation. - -But it was the intention of the Spanish system to do more for the -aboriginal race than merely to preserve it from extinction. By -adopting a system of tutelage, as regarded the Indians, the Spanish -Government endeavoured to defend them, in legal matters, from the -superior intelligence of a more civilized race; and Mr. Helps points -out that it is hardly possible to carry legislation further, in favour -of any people, than by considering them as minors in the eye of the -law, in order to protect them from being imposed upon in their dealings -with their conquerors.[196] The opposite plan, which has been adopted -in some of the English colonies, of making native tribes equal to -Europeans in the eye of the law, is a mere mockery, and cannot by any -possibility exist in reality.[197] - -It may then be readily allowed that the intentions of the Spanish -Government towards the Indians were humane and just; that their -legislation was invariably marked by tenderness and concern for the -subject race; and that their policy, had it been carried into effect, -was far more wise and generous than that by which modern nations -have generally been influenced in dealing with the aborigines of -their colonies. But I think I have clearly shown that, through the -unworthiness of their subordinates, this policy was only very partially -enforced; that the cruelty and oppression of the colonial officials at -length became insufferable; and that no cause could be more just than -that in which Tupac Amaru, the last of the Incas, at length drew his -sword. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -NARRATIVE OF THE INSURRECTION OF JOSÉ GABRIEL TUPAC AMARU, THE LAST OF -THE INCAS. - - -THE basin of lake Titicaca is bounded on the north by the mountains -of Vilcañota, which unite the maritime cordillera with the Eastern -Andes, and the river of Vilcamayu rises in these mountains, and flows -north through a fertile and well-peopled valley, which is covered with -fields of Indian corn. The road from Puno to Cuzco, after crossing the -Vilcañota range by the pass of Santa Rosa, descends the valley of the -Vilcamayu, passing through the towns of Marangani, Sicuani, Cacha, -Tinta, Checacupe, Quiquijana, and Urcos; and then leaves the river -near Oropesa, and ascends a valley for three leagues to the city of -Cuzco. On either side of the ravine of Vilcamayu are lofty table-lands, -which only yield potatoes and quinoa; the wild hills are covered with -coarse grass, often weighed down with snow; and in several places -there are large Alpine lakes. Uninviting as this bleak region appears, -it still contains several Indian villages, ruled in 1780 by native -caciques, who were subject to the corregidor of Tinta, in the valley. -The principal villages under the jurisdiction of Tinta in this cold and -lofty district are Sangarara, Lanqui, Pampamarca, Surimani, Yanaoca, -and Tungasuca--the latter of which was the home of Tupac Amaru. It is a -small village, with a few patches of potatoes and quinoa round it, near -the banks of a wild-looking lake, with rocky mountains rising abruptly -from the water. - -[Illustration: FAMILY OF THE INCAS OF PERU. -Arms of the Incas, granted by Charles V., A.D. 1544. -_Tierce in fess: on a chief azure, a Sun with glory or: on a fess vert, -an eagle displayed between a rainbow and two serpents proper: and on a -base gules, a castle proper._ _To face page 134._] - -José Gabriel Condorcanqui or Tupac Amaru,[198] the son of the Cacique -Miguel Tupac Amaru by his wife Rosa Noguera, was born at Tinta in -the year 1742, and baptized at Tungasuca, the birthplace of his -father.[199] He claimed to be the representative of the family of the -Incas, as fifth in lineal descent from Tupac Amaru, the son of the Inca -Manco, who was judicially murdered by the Viceroy Toledo in 1571. - -The young José received the first rudiments of his education from two -neighbouring clergymen, Antonio Lopez, Cura of Pampamarca, a native -of Panama, and a man of considerable talent; and Carlos Rodriguez, -Cura of Yanaoca, a native of Guayaquil. At a very early age, however, -he was sent to the Jesuit college of San Borja at Cuzco, which had -been established for the education of young Indian chiefs. He is said -to have been particularly noticed by the professors for his close -application, capacity, and excellent disposition; and his scholastic -acquirements were not inconsiderable. He spoke Spanish with fluent -accuracy, and his vernacular Quichua with peculiar grace.[200] - -Before he was twenty he succeeded his father as Cacique of Tungasuca, -Pampamarca, and Surimani, three villages situated on the cold and lofty -region which overhangs the valley of the Vilcamayu; and in 1760 he was -married to Micaela Bastidas, a beautiful Indian girl of Abancay.[201] - -In person José Tupac Amaru was five feet eight inches in height, -well-proportioned, sinewy, and firmly knit. He had a handsome Indian -face, a slightly aquiline nose, full black eyes, and altogether -a countenance intelligent, benign, and expressive. His address, -remarkable for gentlemanlike ease, was dignified and courteous towards -superiors and equals; but in his intercourse with the aborigines, -by whom he was profoundly venerated, there was a sedateness not -inconsistent with his legally-admitted claims (de jure) to the diadem -of the Incas. In mind he was enterprising, cool, and persevering. -He lived in a style becoming his rank, and, when residing at Cuzco, -usually wore a black velvet coat and small-clothes in the fashion of -the day, a waistcoat of gold tissue, embroidered linen, a Spanish -beaver dress hat, silk stockings, and gold knee and shoe-buckles, and -he allowed his glossy black hair to flow in ringlets which extended -down nearly to his waist.[202] The chief source of his income arose -from thirty-five _piaras_ or troops of mules, each _piara_ consisting -of ten, which were regularly employed or hired out in the transport of -merchandise, home-made stuffs, sugar, and quicksilver to Potosi and -other parts.[203] He had travelled over a considerable portion of -Peru, and had two or three times resided in Lima; and in his journeys -he was always attended by a small retinue of Indians, and sometimes -accompanied by a chaplain. - -In about 1770 Tupac Amaru went to Lima to establish his claim to the -Marquisate of Oropesa, which had been granted to his family by Philip -II. After some delay his claim was acknowledged by the Royal Audience, -and, in a judgment pronounced by the Fiscal Don Serafin Leytan y Mola, -he was declared to be the heir to the marquisate, as fifth in lineal -descent from the Inca Tupac Amaru; but it would appear that this -judgment was withheld from official publication. It was said that the -fiscal paid the successful suitor so many honours, and said so many -complimentary things concerning his nobility and royal descent, that he -grew proud;[204] and it certainly appears that he adopted a style of -living in his mountain home at Tungasuca, after his return from Lima, -which he had not previously assumed.[205] It is remarkable that, in -1618, the Viceroy Prince of Esquilache wrote a despatch on the claims -to jurisdiction of the members of the Inca family, who were heirs to -the marquisate of Oropesa. He represented that very great inconvenience -might arise from any descendant of the Incas, particularly of the -family of Oropesa, so closely representing the direct line, holding any -jurisdiction in Peru. The estates of the marquisate were the richest -and best in Peru, and situated near Cuzco, where the memory of the -Incas was most cherished. Many descendants of the Incas, he added, -were then living, subject to no tribute and no personal service, and -very rich and powerful; and he recommended that all claimants to the -marquisate should be obliged to live in Spain, and that an equivalent -should be paid them for their estates.[206] This advice was not adopted -by the Council of the Indies. - -The young Inca at this time dropped his surname of Condorcanqui, -and assumed that of Tupac Amaru Inca. He governed his villages of -Tungasuca, Surinani, and Pampamarca exceedingly well, and was highly -esteemed by the corregidor of the province, Don Pedro Muñoz de Arjona, -and his successors, who admired his punctual attention to his duty, and -therefore distinguished him above all the other caciques. He habitually -cultivated the acquaintance of the Spanish curas and officials, and -never let pass an opportunity of representing to them, in impassioned -language, the deplorable condition of the Indians.[207] He assisted the -distressed, paid tribute for the poor, and sustained whole families -which had been reduced to ruin.[208] He cherished the traditions -of his people, and such customs as were not inconsistent with his -profession of Christianity; and he especially delighted in the dramatic -representations which recalled the glorious memories of the past. One -of his most intimate friends was Dr. Antonio Valdez, Cura of Sicuani, -a perfect master of the Quichua language, and author of a play called -'Ollantay,' founded on ancient tradition, which was frequently acted -before Tupac Amaru at Tungasuca.[209] - -The oppression of the Indians by means of the _mitas_ and _repartos_ -excited the indignation of the Inca Tupac Amaru; but he exerted -himself for years, and exhausted every means of obtaining redress, -before he was finally driven to take up arms in their defence. Moved -by his earnest and incessant appeals, and his piteous account of the -sufferings of his people, the Bishops of Cuzco and La Paz forwarded -them to the king through Don Ventura Santalices; and Blas Tupac Amaru, -the Inca's uncle, also undertook a voyage to Spain; but death put -an end to the humane missions both of the Spaniard and the Indian. -Nevertheless, Tupac Amaru persevered in remitting renewed petitions; -while the corregidors not only eluded compliance with the royal -decrees, but also increased the burdens of the Indians. At length his -patience came to an end, and he resolved to make an appeal to arms, not -to throw off the yoke of Spain, but to obtain some guarantee for the -due observance of the laws, and their just administration. His views -were certainly confined to these ends when he first drew his sword, -although afterwards, when his moderate demands were only answered by -cruel taunts and brutal menaces, he saw that independence or death were -the only alternatives. - -The most merciless oppressor of the Indians of Peru was Don Antonio -Aliaga, Corregidor of Tinta, and therefore Tupac Amaru's immediate -superior; and the Inca determined to commence his revolt by punishing -this great culprit. The Inca's old tutor, Dr. Carlos Rodriguez, Cura -of Yanaoca, in celebration of his name-day, gave a dinner to the -corregidor of Tinta, and the Inca Tupac Amaru, on the 4th of November, -1780. The Inca, on pretence that some person had arrived at his house -from Cuzco, withdrew from the banquet early, and placing himself in -ambush on the road, with some attendants, made the corregidor prisoner -on his return, taking him to Tungasuca,[211] and placing him in close -confinement. Tupac then wrote a letter marked _reservadissima_, which -he obliged Aliaga to sign, ordering his cashier at Tinta to remit the -public money in the provincial treasury to the Inca, assigning as -a reason that it was necessary to set out forthwith to the port of -Aranta,[212] threatened by a descent from English cruisers. The Inca -thus received 22,000 dollars, some gold ingots, seventy-five muskets, -baggage-horses, and mules. Recruits were also ordered to be embodied, -and sent to Tungasuca. - -Having thus drawn together a considerable force, he sent for his old -master, Dr. Antonio Lopez, the Cura of Pampamarca,[213] and ordered him -to make known to the corregidor that he must die, and to administer -to him the consolations of religion. A scaffold was then erected in -the plaza of Tungasuca, around which the retainers of the Inca were -ranged in three ranks, the first armed with muskets, the second with -pikes, and the rear rank with treble-loaded slings. Aliaga was then led -out and publicly executed on November 10th. Tupac Amaru at the same -time addressed the astonished multitude, in Quichua, as to his present -conduct and ulterior views. Mounted on a fiery charger, attired in the -princely costume of his ancestors, with a banner bearing the figure of -an Inca encircled by embroidered chains of gold and silver, and two -armorial serpents,[214] he exhorted his followers to lend an attentive -ear to the legitimate descendant of their ancient sovereigns, promising -to abolish the _mitas_ and _repartos_, and to punish the extortionate -corregidors. - -The whole multitude, with one accord, vowed implicit obedience to -his orders, and he at once began to form the Indians into companies, -and to nominate officers. Next day he marched to Quiquijana, in the -valley of the Vilcamayu, the capital of the province of Quispicanchi, -which he entered at daybreak on the 12th, but the corregidor had fled. -After hearing mass Tupac returned towards Tungasuca, destroying the -_obraje_ of Parapuquio on his way, where he found large quantities -of woollen clothes, which were distributed amongst his followers. He -also demolished the _obraje_ of Pumacancha, where he found property -valued at 200,000 dollars, consisting of 18,000 yards of woollen cloths -(_bayeta_), 60,000 of cotton cloths (_tocuyo_), some fire-arms, and two -pieces of artillery, belonging to the Corregidor of Quispicanchi.[215] -These _obrajes_ were odious to the Indians, their owners having -enforced the _mita_ far beyond the limits assigned by the law, and -perpetrated great cruelties on the women and children of the _mitayos_. -The Inca had now mustered 6000 troops, 300 armed with muskets, and the -rest with pikes, clubs, and slings. Nearly the whole population of the -provinces of Tinta, Quispicanchi, Cotabambas, Calca, and Chumbivilicas -rose in his favour, with the exception of a few whites. - -The news of Tupac Amaru's revolt was brought to Cuzco on the 12th, by -Cabrera, the Corregidor of Quispicanchi, who had so narrowly escaped -capture. It created the greatest alarm, as the city was only garrisoned -by two regiments. The college of the expelled Jesuits was turned into a -kind of citadel, into which private and public property was taken for -security; the white part of the population was enrolled; requisitions -for troops were sent to the neighbouring provinces; and an express was -despatched to Lima, imploring speedy succour. - -Next day 450 men, under the command of Don Tiburcio de Landa, Governor -of Paurcartambo, marched out of Cuzco, accompanied by the Cacique -of Oropesa, Juan Sahuaraura, with 700 Indians of his _ayllu_, or -tribe. Landa was ordered to wait for reinforcements at a place called -Huayra-pata; but the Corregidor Don Fernando Cabrera, who accompanied -him, enraged at the loss of property which he had sustained, induced -him to advance to the village of Sangarara, within five leagues of -Tinta, which he reached on the 17th. At dawn on the following morning -it began to snow, and, finding himself surrounded by a superior force -of hostile Indians, Landa retreated into the church. Tupac Amaru -then wrote to him, offering terms, which were refused; and he again -wrote to the cura, who was also in the church, urging him to retire -with the women and children. The Spanish troops, however, prevented -them from coming out, a scuffle ensued, the stock of powder ignited, -and the roof and one of the walls were blown out. The Spaniards -then made a dash forward, and fought bravely until they were nearly -all killed.[216] Only twenty-eight wounded remained, who were cured -and set at liberty by order of the Inca. Landa,[217] his lieutenant -Escajadillo, Cabrera, and the Cacique Sahuaraura[218] were amongst the -slain. - -The news of the disaster at Sangarara reached Cuzco on the 19th, and -produced indescribable confusion. The Cabildo immediately began to -collect arms, make powder, repair six old field-pieces, and on the -20th Don Juan Nicolas de Lobaton y Zavala, Marquis of Rocafuerte, -arrived from Urubamba with reinforcements. Every citizen came forward -to serve, and a corps of volunteers was formed under Don Faustino -Alvarez de Foronda, Count of Vallehermoso. The Bishop ordered all the -clergy to assemble, formed them into four companies, and gave the -command to the Dean, Dr. Manuel de Mendieta. More troops soon came -in from Calca, under Don Pablo Astete, and from other parts, and by -the end of November there were 3000 men in arms at Cuzco. Anxious to -pacify the Indians, the Cabildo then issued a proclamation abolishing -the _repartos_, and the _alcabala_, or excise on provisions, and -declaring that the Indians should never again be forced to work in the -_obrajes_, if they remained faithful. Defensive works were thrown up in -the city and suburbs, and religious processions paraded the streets. - -At this moment Tupac Amaru might probably have entered Cuzco without -opposition; but unfortunately, relying on the justice of his cause, he -beguiled himself into the belief that he could accomplish by argument -and negotiation what could only be obtained by the sword. He threw -up embankments and entrenched himself in an encampment near Tinta, -throwing out videttes to within three leagues of Cuzco; and on the -27th he issued an edict from his head-quarters at Tungasuca, setting -forth the causes of his revolt. In this document he recapitulated the -grievances which his people suffered, declared the tyranny of the -Spanish officials to be impious and cruel, and called upon the Indians -to rally round his standard. - -Early in December 1780 Tupac Amaru crossed the Vilcañota range, by the -pass of Santa Rosa, and, entering the Collao, advanced by Pucara to -Lampa. At every village he addressed the people from the church-steps, -saying that he came to abolish abuses and punish the corregidors; and -that he was "the liberator of the kingdom, the restorer of privileges, -and the common father of those who groan under the yoke of _repartos_." -Nothing was heard amongst the Indians but acclamations for their Inca -and Redeemer.[219] On the 13th of December he entered the town of -Azangaro, where he destroyed the houses of the Cacique Chuquihuanca, -who had refused to join the insurrection. A private letter, dated -January 1781,[220] says that he rode into Azangaro on a white horse, -with splendidly-embroidered trappings, and that two fair men, like -Englishmen, of commanding aspect, were on his right and left. He was -armed with a gun, sword, and pistols, and was dressed in blue velvet, -richly embroidered with gold, with a three-cornered hat, and an _uncu_, -in the shape of a bishop's rochet, over all, with a gold chain round -his neck, to which a large golden sun was attached. Having received -repeated letters from his wife, reporting the threatening assembly of -troops at Cuzco, he retraced his steps, by Asillo and Orurillo, to the -valley of the Vilcamayu, obliging the curas of the villages through -which he passed to receive him in their churches under a canopy, and to -chant the _Te Deum_. - -On the 28th the heights of Picchu, overhanging Cuzco on the west, -were covered with his army. His cousin Diego Tupac Amaru was detached -to the eastward with 6000 men, to occupy the provinces of Calca and -Paucartambo. Another detachment under Antonio Castelo, one of the -Inca's most trusted followers, marched along the direct road to Cuzco, -but was defeated two leagues from the city at a place called Saylla, -and finally effected a junction with the main body on the heights of -Picchu. - -Before attempting to force his way into Cuzco, the Inca addressed -a letter to the cabildo, and another to the bishop, on the 3rd of -January, 1781. To the cabildo he said that, as the heir of the Incas, -the ancient kings of the realm, he was stimulated to endeavour by all -possible means to put an end to abuses, and to see men appointed to -govern the Indians who would respect the laws of the King of Spain. -The punishment of the Corregidor of Tinta was, he declared, absolutely -necessary as an example to others: and he announced the object of his -rebellion to be the entire abolition of _repartos_; the appointment of -an _alcalde mayor_, or judge of the Indian nation, in every province; -and the establishment of an _audiencia_ or court of appeal at Cuzco, -within reach of the Indians. "This," he concluded, "is at present -the extent of my wishes, leaving to the King of Spain his former -dominion." To the bishop he said that he had come forward, on behalf -of the whole nation, to put an end to the robberies and outrages of -the corregidors; and he promised to respect the priests, all church -property, and all women and inoffensive unarmed people.[221] - -But the garrison of Cuzco had, in the mean while, been reinforced by -Pumacagua, the Cacique of Chinchero, and by 200 mulatto soldiers from -Lima under Don Gabriel de Aviles, who arrived by forced marches on -January 1st. The cabildo, therefore, refused to entertain any proposals -from the Inca. The Spaniards came out to attack him under Don Pablo -Astete, and the Caciques of Chinchero and Anta, Pumacagua and Rosas. -There was a long skirmish in the broken ground, which was brought to -a conclusion by the evening snow; but on the 8th a sanguinary battle -was fought in the suburbs and on the heights, which lasted two days, -and during which a Dominican friar, named Ramon de Salazar, concealed -behind a rock, did effective service with his musket, and contributed -to throw the Indians into confusion. The Inca finally retreated to -Tinta, to re-organize his forces. - -His cousin Diego Tupac Amaru was also unsuccessful to the eastward. -His division was detached from the main army at Checacupe, where -he crossed some mountainous country, and again descended into the -valley of the Vilcamayu, following the course of the river until he -encountered the forces under the command of the Marquis of Rocafuerte, -consisting of the levies of Pumacagua, Cacique of Chinchero, and those -of the Caciques of Maras and Huayllabamba. An engagement took place at -Huaran, on the banks of the river, near Calca, when Diego was defeated, -many of his Indians being drowned in the river; and he again suffered -defeat at Yucay on December 23rd. The Indian chief then left the valley -of the Vilcamayu, crossed a range of mountains, and laid siege to -the town of Paucartambo, on the banks of the rapid river of the same -name, while his videttes hovered over the heights above the Vilcamayu -valley, threatening the towns of Calca, Pissac, and Taray. Don José -Antonio Vivar was sent to occupy the bridge at Urubamba, and watch -the movements of the Indians. Paucartambo, and a strong fort built on -a rocky height on the opposite side of the river, were desperately -defended by the Spaniards under Don Lorenzo Lechuga, who had fortified -and garrisoned the place. Astete was sent across the bridge at -Urubamba, with 400 men, to relieve it; they had several encounters with -the Indians on the march, and on reaching the besieged town they found -that Lechuga had expended all his ammunition; but the besieging force, -under Diego Tupac Amaru, fell back towards Tinta, on the approach of -Astete, on the 18th of January, 1781. Having re-organized his army at -Tinta, the Inca, accompanied by his cousin Diego, made another attack -upon Paucartambo on the 11th of February; but, after several fruitless -assaults, the Indian army finally retreated to Tinta on the 14th.[222] - -Tupac Amaru had now assembled a force of 60,000 men in and around -Tinta; but they were wholly undisciplined, and only a few hundreds -were armed with muskets. All the caciques in Peru, with the exception -of sixteen,[223] had, however, declared in favour of the Inca; and the -whole Indian and mestizo population, except the _ayllus_ or tribes of -the sixteen Hispanicized caciques, longed earnestly for the success of -this truly national insurrection. After the retreat from Paucartambo -in February, the Inca occupied himself in strengthening his position -round Tinta, and in visiting the distant provinces of Chuquibamba and -Cotabambas, while one Isidro Mamani, an Indian of ferocious character, -born at Pomata, on the banks of lake Titicaca, Pedro Vargas, and Andres -Ingaricona, held the open country in the Collao. - -The whole of the interior of Central and Upper Peru was in revolt, and -the viceroys of Peru and Buenos Ayres, Don Augustin de Jauregui and Don -Juan José de Vertiz, were thoroughly alarmed. The former despatched -Don José Antonio Areche, as "visitador," with extraordinary judicial -powers, and a force commanded by Don José del Valle as Mariscal del -Campo, to Cuzco; while the latter named Don Ignacio Flores, then -Governor of Moxos, as commandante-general, to put down the rebellion in -Upper Peru. - -Areche, accompanied by General José del Valle, and Don Benito de la -Matta Linares, a judge of the Royal Audience at Lima, arrived at Cuzco -on February 23rd, 1781, where an army of 15,000 men was collected, -consisting of the tribes of the recreant caciques, negroes and mulattos -from the coast, and a small force of Spaniards. - -Early in March General del Valle prepared to commence the campaign. -But, before his army marched out of Cuzco, the visitador Areche -received a letter from Tupac Amaru, in which he represented the -earnest endeavours he had made to obtain justice for his people; the -habitual violation of the law by the Spanish officials; the cruel and -intolerable oppression caused by the _repartimentos_ and the _mita_; -and the absolute necessity of some reform in the administration. He -concluded by proposing a negotiation by which these ends might be -attained without bloodshed. This despatch is very ably written, and -is a monument of the noble and enlightened views of this great but -most unfortunate patriot.[224] The answer of the visitador Areche was -a brutal menace, better suited to a follower of Zengis Khan than to a -Christian judge. He refused all negotiation, vowed the most horrible -vengeance, and concluded by saying that, if the Inca surrendered at -once, the cruelty of the mode of his execution would be lessened. The -Spanish General del Valle protested against the brutality of this -reply.[225] - -Tupac Amaru now prepared to resist to the utmost, as it became -evident to him that complete independence or death were the only -two alternatives which were left by the barbarous policy of the -bloodthirsty visitador; but his edicts were still marked by humanity -and good sense. It does not appear that he ever actually proclaimed -himself a sovereign independent of Spain; yet the draft of an edict was -found amongst his papers, in which he styles himself "Don José I., by -the grace of God, Inca, King of Peru, Quito, Chile, Buenos Ayres, and -the continents of the South Sea, Lord of the River of the Amazons, with -dominion over the Grand Paytiti." The document is headed by a portrait -of Tupac Amaru, crowned, with Spanish trophies at his feet. It states -that the King of Castille had usurped the crown and dominions of Peru, -imposing innumerable taxes, tributes, duties, excises, monopolies, -tithes, fifths; appointing officers who sold justice, and treating -the people like beasts of burden. For these causes, and by reason of -the cries which have risen up to Heaven, in the name of Almighty God, -it is ordered that no man shall henceforward pay money to any Spanish -officer, excepting the tithes to priests; but that tribute shall be -paid to the Inca, and an oath of allegiance to him be taken in every -town and village. The document is without date.[226] - -On March 12th, 1781, the army under General del Valle marched out -of Cuzco. A detachment of 2000 men was sent against the insurgents, -commanded by the Caciques Parvina and Bermudez,[227] in the province -of Cotabambas, who were both killed in a desperate action. Tupac Amaru -used to call these brave chiefs his right and left arms. Meanwhile the -main body of the royalist army advanced slowly along the mountains to -the westward of the valley of the Vilcamayu, suffering much from the -snow-storms, the want of food and fuel, and the shameful neglect of -all commissariat arrangements by Areche. On the 18th the Inca sent -a message to the Spanish General, saying that the morrow, being the -festival of San José, would be an appropriate day for settling their -differences; and that he should prepare his troops for a movement of -which, in compliment to the name-day of both himself and Del Valle, he -deemed it courteous to apprise his adversary. In consequence of this -message the Spaniard kept his men under arms all night, but no attack -took place, and in the morning the Inca's army was found to be gone. -Tupac had intended a stratagem, and had retired into an unfrequented -ravine: on the 21st a snow-storm favoured his design, and his plan -would have succeeded, had not a traitor, named Zunuario de Castro, -given Valle notice of his movements. The Spaniards changed their -position, and the Inca passed the night in vainly searching for it. - -General del Valle was upwards of seventy years of age, and, unable -longer to endure the excessive cold of the mountains, he descended -into the valley of the Vilcamayu, and captured Quiquijana, hanging -the Cacique Luis Poma Inca, who defended it. On the 6th of April -the Spanish army advanced up the valley, meeting with considerable -opposition, and reached Checacupe early in the day. Near this village -the Inca had taken up a position, defended by a ditch and parapet -stretching across the valley, and manned by 20,000 men, but he had -neglected to provide any defence for his flanks. A Spanish division -stole unperceived to the back of the position, while the main body -assaulted it in front; and after an heroic defence the Indians, -attacked both in front and rear, fell back to another entrenched -position at Combapata, a league from Tinta, where the village was -surrounded by a mud wall, covered at the top with thorny bushes. The -Spaniards, following up their success, played upon the village with -their field-pieces for several hours, then carried the position at the -point of the bayonet, and made a bloody entry into Tinta. - -Tupac Amaru, with his wife and three sons, fled to Lanqui, a village -about twenty miles to the westward, on the shores of a wild Alpine -lake. Here he intended to have rallied his disordered troops, but he -was betrayed by one of his own officers, named Ventura Landaeta, who, -assisted by the cura of the place, basely delivered the illustrious -Inca and his family into the hands of the Spaniards. On the same day -General del Valle hung sixty-seven Indian prisoners at Tinta, whose -heads he stuck on poles by the road-side.[228] Diego Tupac Amaru, his -nephew Andres Mendagure, and Mariano, the second son of the Inca, -fortunately escaped. - -On the 8th of April Francisco, the aged uncle of the Inca,[229] was -also seized, and the prisoners were marched bareheaded into Cuzco, the -visitador Areche coming out as far as Urcos to meet them. They were -all separated from each other, and told that they would not meet again -until the day of execution. - -The chief prisoners were the Inca Tupac Amaru, his wife, his two sons -Hipolito and Fernando, his uncle Francisco, his brother-in-law Antonio -Bastidas, his maternal cousin Patricio Noguera, his cousin Cecilia -Tupac Amaru with her husband Pedro Mendagure, a number of captains in -the Inca's army and other officials, and Aliaga's executioner named -Antonio Oblitas,[230] a negro slave. - -It is necessary to record the diabolical cruelties of the visitador -Areche, and his assistant Matta Linares, in order to complete the -narrative of the ill-fated Inca's life, and to show into whose hands -the fate of the Peruvian Indians was placed by the Spanish viceroy, -and of what devilish atrocities they were capable. On the 15th of May, -1781, the visitador Areche pronounced a lengthy sentence, in which he -declared that it was necessary to hasten its execution, in order to -convince the Indians that it was not impossible to put a man of such -elevated rank to death, merely because he was the heir of the Incas -of Peru. He then accused the Inca of rebellion, of destroying the -_obrajes_, of abolishing the _mita_, and of causing pictures to be -painted of himself dressed in the imperial insignia of the _uncu_ or -mantle, and _mascapaicha_ or head-dress; and others representing the -triumph of his arms at Sangarara. He condemned his victim to behold -the execution of his wife, his son, his uncle, his brother-in-law -Antonio Bastidas, and of his captains; to have his tongue cut out, -and afterwards to have his limbs secured to the girths of four horses -dragging different ways, and thus to be torn in pieces. His body to -be burnt on the heights of Picchu, his head to be stuck on a pole -at Tinta, one arm at Tungasuca, the other in Caravaya, a leg in -Chumbivilicas, and another in Lampa. His houses to be demolished, -their sites strewn with salt, all his goods to be confiscated, all his -relations declared infamous, all documents relating to his descent to -be burnt by the hangman, all dresses used by the Incas or caciques -to be prohibited, all pictures of the Incas to be seized and burnt, -the representation of Quichua dramas to be forbidden, all the musical -instruments of the Indians to be destroyed, all signs of mourning -for the Incas to be forbidden, all Indians to give up their national -costumes, and dress henceforth in the Spanish fashion, and the use of -the Quichua language to be prohibited. - -In the annals of barbarism there is probably not to be found a document -equalling this in savage wickedness and imbecile absurdity: and this -was written by a Spanish judge only eighty years ago.[231] - -This hideous cruelty was literally carried into effect, in all its -revolting details. On Friday the 18th of May, 1781, after the great -square had been surrounded by Spanish and negro troops, ten persons -came forth from the church of the Jesuits. One of these was the Inca -Tupac Amaru, who had, in the early morning, been visited in prison by -Areche, and urged to betray all the accomplices in his rebellion.[232] -"You and I," he replied, "are the only conspirators: you for having -oppressed the country with exactions which were unendurable, and I for -having wished to free the people from such tyranny."[233] The Inca's -companions in misfortune were his wife Micaela, his sons Hipolito and -Fernando, his brother-in-law Antonio Bastidas, his uncle Francisco -Tupac Amaru, Tomasa Condemaita the Cacica of Acos, José Verdejo and -Andres Castelo, captains in the Inca's army, and the executioner -Oblitas. - -Verdejo, Castelo, Oblitas, and Bastidas were hung at once. The rest -were heavily chained, tied up in the bags which are used for carrying -the maté or Paraguay tea, and dragged backwards into the centre of the -square by horses. Francisco and Hipolito Tupac Amaru, the one an old -man verging on fourscore years, the other a youth of twenty, then had -their tongues cut out, and, with Tomasa Condemaita, were garrotted by -an iron screw, the first that had been seen in Cuzco. Micaela, the -wife of the Inca, was then placed on the same scaffold, her tongue was -cut out, and the screw was placed round her neck in presence of her -husband; but she suffered cruelly, because her neck was so small that -the screw failed to strangle her. The executioners then placed a lasso -round her neck, and pulled different ways, at the same time kicking her -in the stomach and bosom until they succeeded in killing her. The Inca -was then taken into the centre of the square, his chains were taken -off, and his tongue was cut out. He was then thrown on the ground; -lassos, secured to the girths of four horses, were fastened to his -wrists and ankles, and the horses were made to drag different ways, "a -spectacle never before seen at Cuzco." As the unfortunate Inca's body -was thus raised into the air, his youngest son Fernando, a child of ten -years, who had been forced to witness this horrible massacre of his -relations, uttered a heartrending shriek, the knell of which continued -to ring in the ears of those who heard it to their dying day.[234] The -horses did not pull at the same time, and the body remained suspended -like a spider for many minutes, until at last the brutal miscreant -Areche, who was looking on from a window in the College of the Jesuits, -caused the head to be cut off.[235] The child Fernando was then passed -under the scaffold, and sentenced to be banished for life to one of the -penal settlements in Africa. - -Many of the Spanish citizens were present, but not an Indian was to be -seen. They afterwards declared that, while the horses were torturing -the Inca, a great wind arose, with torrents of rain, and that even -the elements felt the death of the Inca, whom the inhuman and impious -Spaniards were torturing with such cruelty.[236] - -The heads, bodies, and limbs of the victims were sent to the different -towns of Peru, and to the villages round Cuzco,[237] in order to -strike terror into the hearts of the Indians; but this proceeding of -course had the opposite effect, and goaded them to fury. By the humane -exertions of the Inca the war had hitherto been carried on without -unnecessary bloodshed, and he had always protected unarmed persons and -women; but, after the perpetration of these barbarities in Cuzco, it -became a war of extermination, and during the following year not less -than 80,000 people fell victims to the vengeance of the Indian and -Spanish troops. - -In the revolting cruelty of Areche may be traced the abject terror of -a dastardly and craven mind; and to this cowardice may also be imputed -the concessions which were afterwards wrung from him.[238] Tupac Amaru -did not die in vain; for, after the suppression of his revolt, the -_repartos_ were abolished, and the _mitas_ were much modified. - -Thus fell the last of the Incas. He was a man of whom his nation might -well be proud, and will bear comparison with the greatest monarchs -of his race. Having enjoyed the best education which Spanish policy -at that time permitted to the people of the colonies, he brought a -cultivated mind, a clear understanding, untiring industry, and devoted -zeal for the welfare of his countrymen to his important duties as a -wealthy and influential cacique. When he afterwards undertook the -office of defender of the oppressed Indians he displayed an amount -of patient perseverance, combined with great ability in the advocacy -of their cause, which excited the admiration of the Bishop of Cuzco -and others of the more enlightened Spaniards. Finally, after he had -unwillingly become convinced that all remonstrance was useless, he, -in his appeal to arms, combined promptitude of action with great -moderation in his demands; his edicts were remarkable for their good -sense and humanity; and had his efforts been met by the Spaniards in -a corresponding spirit, the viceroy of the King of Castille might at -length have succeeded in enforcing the practical observance of the -humane laws of his master. - -But this was not to be. Instead of a calm and enlightened statesman, -and Spain had many such, the viceroy placed full powers in the hands of -a wretch whose conduct was a mixture of cowardice, atrocious cruelty, -and incapacity. Fortune decided in favour of the Spaniards, and the -Inca fell into the power of a man whose vile nature was excited to -acts of unequalled barbarity by the terror which his position and his -incompetence had caused him. I have felt obliged to relate the shocking -circumstances of the death of Tupac Amaru in justice to the Indians; -for who can be surprised if afterwards they frequently refused to give -quarter to any of the hated race of _Chapetones_, as they called the -Spaniards? and no atrocity was ever perpetrated by them which can be -compared to the execution of the Inca and his family, committed by the -deliberate sentence of a Spanish judge.[239] - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -DIEGO TUPAC AMARU--FATE OF THE INCA'S FAMILY--INSURRECTION OF PUMACAGUA. - - -WHILE the events occurred in the valley of Vilcamayu which ended in the -capture of the Inca Tupac Amaru and his family, the whole of the Collao -was in a state of insurrection, and all Spaniards had to escape for -their lives to Puno, La Paz, or Arequipa. - -Don Joaquim Antonio de Orellana,[240] Governor of Puno, made a -most gallant defence of that town, with a force consisting of 180 -musketeers, 647 pikemen, 44 artillerymen with 4 guns, and 254 cavalry. -He retreated behind his entrenchments when the Inca advanced as far -as Lampa, in December 1780; but in February 1781, in spite of the -heavy rains, he marched to Lampa, where he flogged an Indian until -he confessed that his rebel countrymen were on an adjacent mountain -called Catacora. Orellana found the rebel army drawn up in an almost -inaccessible position, with colours flying; and, while seeking for a -place where his troops might ascend, they suffered from a storm of -hail and snow. The Spaniards were divided into two assaulting parties, -but the showers of stones which the Indians hurled from their slings -obliged them to retreat, and Orellana himself was wounded in the jaw. - -He found it prudent to fall back towards Puno, and, on the 16th, -encamped on the banks of the river of Juliaca, near a place called -Mananchili. The Indian army followed the Spaniards and offered them -battle--the chiefs sending a message to Orellana to tell him that they -acknowledged no king but their Inca Tupac Amaru. They formed their -forces in a semicircle--the right being led by the Cacique Andres -Ingaricona, the left by Mamani, and the centre by a chief of Caravaya -named Alejandro Calisaya. The battle began at four P.M., and, after -a sharp fight, Mamani's division fled to the adjacent heights, and -Ingaricona was also routed. The Indians left 370 killed on the field; -among whom there were many women who came to fight by the sides of -their husbands and brothers, armed with bones sharpened at one end. -Notwithstanding this success, Orellana made a rapid retreat to his -entrenched position at Puno, collected provisions, and sent messengers -to Arequipa for reinforcements.[241] - -On the 18th of March the Indian army came in sight, extending for -three miles along the heights round Puno, with colours flying and a -great noise of drums and clarions, entirely surrounding the town, -except on the side of the lake. It was commanded by the Caciques Andres -Ingaricona and Pedro Vargas. The dismal news of the capture of Tupac -Amaru reached the besieging Indians on April 12th, when they retreated, -followed by a Spanish force under Nicolas de Mendiosala of Chucuito. -He overtook them posted on a hill called Condorcuyo, to the left of -the road to Cuzco, when a furious struggle commenced; but the Indians -fought most gallantly, and defeated Mendiosala, who retreated in -disorder. This success encouraged the rebels as much as it disheartened -the Spaniards, and Chucuito and the other towns on the western -banks of the lake of Titicaca fell into their hands. They committed -indiscriminate slaughter in revenge for the cruel death of the Inca, -and only a few Spaniards escaped to Puno. The governor Orellana sent -balsas to rescue some fugitives who were concealed in the rushes on the -shores of the lake, he himself being confined to his house[242] by a -wound in his foot. Meanwhile the Indians of Azangaro, by capturing the -town and peninsula of Capachica, completed the conquest of the province -of Chucuito, and the rebel chiefs prepared for a second siege of Puno. - -Diego Cristoval Tupac Amaru the Inca's cousin, with his nephew Andres -Mendagure, Mariano the young son of the Inca, and Miguel Bastidas a -nephew of the Inca's wife, escaped when the rest of their family were -betrayed and captured at Lanqui. They now joined the rebel army in the -Collao, Diego took the command, and on the 9th of May he invested Puno -on all sides, and commenced the second siege. - -The Indians were formed in a semicircle on the sides of the surrounding -hills; while Orellana had deepened his entrenchments, and occupied a -very strong position on the Huassa-pata hill, above Puno: he also built -two forts, one called Santa Barbara, where the triumphal arch now is, -and the other called Horca-pata, on the descent from the heights of -Cacharani. The corners of the plaza and of the streets were barricaded. -On the 10th there were skirmishes all day, and on the 11th the Indians -carried the forts of Santa Barbara and Horca-pata by assault, and -penetrated into the streets, but failed in their attack on the rocky -height of the Huassa-pata.[243] On the 12th the besiegers suddenly -retreated, at the approach of the army advancing from Cuzco. - -General del Valle, after defeating the Indians at Combapata, continued -his march up the valley of the Vilcamayu, crossed the pass of Ayaviri, -and, entering the Collao, advanced towards Puno, where he arrived in -the middle of May. But the Indians of his army were disgusted at the -excessive rigour with which the rebels were treated; they deserted in -great numbers,[244] and assisted the troops of Diego Tupac Amaru in -harassing the Spaniards, and cutting of all supplies. The army of del -Valle had been shamefully neglected by the visitador Areche, who was -too busy in torturing his prisoners to attend to the commissariat. -The troops were wretchedly clad, unpaid, without medical stores, -or biscuit, or fresh meat. Under these circumstances the General -reluctantly determined to retreat to Cuzco, taking with him the -garrison and inhabitants of Puno, which place was evacuated by Orellana -on the 26th of May. The army which had left Cuzco in March 15,000 -strong was now reduced, by desertions and sickness, to 1443 men, with -which force General del Valle commenced the retreat, closely followed -and constantly harassed by the Indians. He reached Cuzco on the 4th -of July, when a paper war ensued between him and Areche, the latter -blaming him for evacuating Puno, while the General retorted that Areche -had shamefully neglected the wants of his army, and failed to make any -attempt to subdue the country round Cuzco.[245] - -The Viceroy seems to have taken the part of the General in this -controversy; and the foul vulture Areche, with his companion Matta -Linares, was recalled. He reached Lima on August 23rd, 1781, and -embarked for Spain with the poor little Fernando, son of Tupac Amaru, -who was sentenced to imprisonment for life. - -The Indians still remained in arms round Cuzco, especially in the -heights above Urubamba and Calca, and at Lauramarca and Ocungate. Those -near Calca fortified themselves in a place called Chayña-ccasa, against -whom the General sent a force of 400 men under Don José de Barela, -and the Indians were defeated with great slaughter; while Don Joaquim -Balcarcel kept the insurgents in check, who continued to threaten -Paucartambo. - -After the retreat of General del Valle from Puno, Diego Tupac Amaru -established his head-quarters at the town of Azangaro, while Andres -Mendagure and Miguel Bastidas overran the provinces on the eastern -shore of lake Titicaca, captured the town of Sorata, and placed -themselves in communication with the insurgent forces in Upper Peru. -It is said that fifteen mule-loads of treasure, consisting of spoils -from the provinces of Omasuyos and Larecaja, were brought into Azangaro -at this time and buried. Diego Tupac Amaru occupied a house near -the plaza, where he gave audience in a long sala; and he went from -this house to the church every night, wrapped in a large cloak. This -story made people believe that he was concealing treasure, and many a -fruitless search has since been made for it.[246] - -The hopes of the Indians were now beginning to wane. Diego, though a -man of considerable talent, was not possessed of the same influence -over the people as his unfortunate cousin; and the Spanish officials -were rapidly receiving reinforcements from Buenos Ayres, while the -slaughter of the Indians had been prodigious. In August, 1781, Diego -issued a decree, ordering that all women, children, and priests, -should be respected during the war;[247] and on the 18th of October he -promulgated a manifesto setting forth the numerous violations of law -habitually committed by the corregidors, the exactions of the curas, -and the extortionate duties imposed by the aduaneros.[248] This is a -very able and telling document, and, together with the more detailed -writings of the unfortunate Inca, forms a most complete vindication of -this memorable insurrection.[249] - -On September 12th, 1781, the viceroy of Peru, Don Augustin de Jauregui, -had issued a proclamation offering pardon, on submission, to Diego -Tupac Amaru and all his followers.[250] It would swell this short -narrative to an undue length if I attempted to give any account of the -events in Upper Peru during this period;[251] but the final suppression -of the revolt in that part of the country by the Spanish commanders -Flores, Reseguin, and Segurola, induced Diego Tupac Amaru to accept the -Viceroy's offer of pardon, give up the cause, and place himself in the -power of a faithless enemy. Dr. Antonio Valdez, cura of Sicuani, the -friend of the Inca, and author of the Quichua play of 'Ollantay,' was -sent to Azangaro by the Spanish authorities to persuade Diego to adopt -this course. They held their conferences on the subject while walking -up and down on the banks of the river; and there is a tradition that -Pedro Vilca Apasa, one of Diego's bravest officers, overheard one of -these conversations, and remonstrated violently against the madness of -trusting to the word of a Spaniard. But the advice of Valdez prevailed, -Diego sent young Miguel Bastidas to open a negotiation with the Spanish -Colonel Reseguin in November; and on December 11th he gave himself up -to Don Ramon de Arias, commandant of the column of Arequipa. At the -same time Mariano Tupac Amaru, the son of the Inca, Andres Mendagure, -and Miguel Bastidas, surrendered to Don Sebastian de Segurola at La -Paz. Bastidas was sent to Buenos Ayres. - -Diego Tupac Amaru received his pardon at Sicuani, from General del -Valle in the name of the viceroy, on January 26th, 1782; and on the -same day the Bishop of Cuzco[252] solemnly absolved him in the church. -But Vilca Apasa, Alejandro Calisaya, and other chiefs of Diego's army, -refused to submit, and continued in arms in the provinces of Caravaya -and Azangaro. General del Valle marched against them in March 1782, and -took most of them prisoners. Vilca Apasa was captured in his native -village of Tapa-tapa, eighteen miles east of Azangaro, where his -descendants still live. He was torn to pieces by horses in the plaza of -Azangaro, and his limbs were stuck on poles by the road-side.[253] An -old lady told me that she could remember seeing one of his arms on a -pole near her father's house. Calisaya, and many others, were hung. The -Spanish General had the cruelty to force Diego Tupac Amaru to accompany -him, and to witness the execution of his old friends. Del Valle then -marched over the cordilleras of Lauramarca and Ausangate, where the -Indians had been in rebellion, taking Diego with him in a sort of -triumph, and returned to Cuzco in August. The old general was taken ill -soon afterwards, and died at Cuzco on the 4th of September, leaving the -command of the troops to Don Gabriel de Aviles. - -Diego Tupac Amaru was permitted to retire to Tungasuca; and young -Mariano Tupac Amaru, with his cousin Andres Mendegure, lived at -Sicuani. But it would appear that the Spanish authorities had no -intention of keeping their faith with these unfortunate Indians, and -it was soon seen that the distrust of Vilca Apasa was but too well -founded. The Spaniards were only waiting for an excuse before they -completed the extirpation of the whole family of the Incas. This was -soon found in a rebellion of the Indians of Marcapata and Lauramarca, -who, on the approach of a force under the Corregidor Necochea in -January 1783, retired to the lofty and almost impenetrable heights -of Hapo and Ampatuni. In February their leader, Santos Huayhua, was -captured with his family, and torn to pieces by horses.[254] - -Thus the desired excuse for treachery and faithlessness was furnished. -All the surviving members of the family of the Inca Tupac Amaru were -arrested, by order of the viceroy of Peru.[255] The accusations against -them were frivolous, and, so far as appears in the sentences, without -a shadow of proof to support them. Diego was accused of calling the -Indians his sons, of living in a way unbefitting a pardoned rebel, and -of performing funeral rites for his cousin the Inca; young Mariano -Tupac Amaru of rescuing his lady-love on September 9th, who had been -forced to become a novice in the monastery of Santa Catalina in Cuzco; -Andres Mendagure of conducting himself in a suspicious way; Manuela -Castro, the mother of Diego, of keeping up disaffection amongst the -Indians; and Lorenzo and Simon Condori, the brothers-in-law of Diego, -of assisting the rebels in Marcapata. The rest of the family were -accused of being relations. - -Diego was imprisoned with his kindred on the 15th of April, 1783, -by Don Raymundo Necochea, Corregidor of Quispicanchi;[256] while -Mariano Tupac Amaru and Andres Mendagure were sent to Lima, put on -board a ship, butchered at sea, and their bodies thrown overboard. -The vulture Matta Linares, who was still an Oidor of the Audienica at -Lima, scented carrion from afar, and arrived at Cuzco on April 20th, -with the same extraordinary judicial powers as had previously been -given by the viceroy to Areche. On the 17th of July he sentenced Diego -Tupac Amaru to be dragged at the tail of a mule, with a rope round his -neck, to the place of execution in the plaza of Cuzco, there to be -hung and quartered, his body and limbs to be distributed amongst the -towns of Tungasuca, Lauramarca, Paucartambo, and Calca, his goods to be -confiscated, and his houses destroyed; his mother, Marcela Castro, to -be hung and quartered, and her body to be burnt in the plaza; Lorenzo -and Simon Condori to be hung; and Manuela Titu Condori, the wife of -Diego, to be banished for life.[257] These sentences were executed -on the 19th of July 1783; and Matta Linares obliged the good cura of -Sicuani, Dr. Valdez, by whose persuasion, as the ancient friend of the -Inca Tupac Amaru, Diego had been induced to accept the treacherous -pardon, to witness the executions.[258] Matta Linares is still -remembered in Cuzco for his barbarous, immoral, and sneaking conduct. -He died in Spain in about 1818, having been one of the first among the -unworthy Spaniards who declared in favour of Joseph Buonaparte. - -At about the time of Diego's execution, the last spark of insurrection -was trampled out in Huarochiri, a province in the Andes near Lima. -The Indians of the villages near Caramporna had risen under one Felipe -Velasco Tupac Inca Yupanqui, who declared that the Inca was not dead, -but that he was alive and crowned in the "Gran Paytiti."[259] Don -Felipe Carrera, who had been appointed Corregidor of Parinacochas, was -sent to Huarochiri, and by a rapid march succeeded in capturing the -chief. Towards evening, however, he was surrounded by a large body of -Indians armed with slings and poles, in a narrow and dangerous part -of the road. He retreated to an eminence with his prisoner, where he -defended himself until dark against the storm of stones, and then -escaped to Lima. After daily fights with the Indians the rebellion was -put down in June, 1783. Felipe Velasco, and his lieutenant Ciriaco -Flores, were hung in the great square of Lima on July 7th, 1783.[260] - -Having, after two years and a half, succeeded in quelling the -insurrection, it remained for the viceroy to extirpate all the -innocent members of the family of the Incas, and all who were -connected with them by marriage. Ninety members of the family were -sent to Lima in chains, among whom were Bartolomé Tupac Amaru, the -venerable great-uncle of the Inca; Marcela Pallocahua, the mother of -the Inca's wife Micaela Bastidas; and Manuela Condori, the wife of -Diego. Soon after his arrival at Lima Bartolomé Tupac Amaru died at -the extraordinary age of 125. A life of temperance had given this aged -prince the strength to endure months of solitary confinement at Cuzco, -to sustain blows from muskets and staves in the plaza, to undergo a -cruel journey on foot and in chains of 400 miles, but the horrors of -the Lima prison at length killed him. The unhappy survivors were -shipped off at Callao, in two ships, the 'Peruana' and the 'San Pedro,' -and thrown into cells in Cadiz for three years, when Charles III. -caused them to be distributed, apart from each other, in prisons in -the interior of Spain, until their sufferings were relieved by death. -Once during the voyage they were allowed by the brutal captain of the -transport 'Peruana,' named José Cordova, to wash their tattered clothes -at Rio; but their fetters were never removed, and, though the captain -gave his word of honour to a Frenchman who mended his damaged rudder, -that he would take them off, he unblushingly perjured himself; and the -horrors which were suffered by these innocent persons, many of them -aged women and young children, were never relaxed until they arrived at -Cadiz.[261] - -Fernando, the youngest child of the Inca, "whose shrill cry smote every -heart with electric sympathy"[262] when he beheld the cruel tortures -of his parents, was taken to Spain by the visitador Areche in 1781. -He was then only ten years of age. In 1783 one Don Luis Ocampo, a -citizen of Cuzco, went to Spain, and heard that young Fernando was a -close prisoner in the castle of San Sebastian at Cadiz. Through the -aid of an Irish gentleman, who was intimately acquainted with the -town major, Ocampo applied for a pass to visit him, but was refused. -He, nevertheless, made his way into the fort, and, looking round at -the iron gratings of the cells, at length caught sight of a youth -whose countenance bespoke his origin. He addressed him in Quichua, -and found that he was speaking to Fernando Tupac Amaru. While talking -to him Ocampo received a blow from the butt end of the musket of a -Swiss sentry, whom, however, he induced to permit him to continue the -conversation. It appeared that the government allowed Fernando six -rials a day, but that the soldiers of the guard cheated him of half. -Ocampo gave him two or three dollars a week during his stay in Cadiz; -and this is the last we know, for a certainty, of the last surviving -child of the unfortunate Inca.[263] - -The fate of these poor Indians, the remaining descendants of those -Incas of Peru whose remarkable civilization, and great power and -wealth, became a proverb during the sixteenth century, will not -fail to be interesting to those who have become acquainted, through -the pages of Robertson, Prescott, or Helps, with the history of the -Spanish conquest of Peru. The sufferings and death of Tupac Amaru and -his family form a very sad story, yet they did not suffer and die in -vain: and it must be recorded of them that, unlike other dispossessed -families, they sacrificed themselves, not for their own selfish ends, -but in the hope of serving their people. They did not die in vain, -for in their fall they shook the colonial power of Spain to its -foundation. Not only was the system of _repartos_ at once abolished, -and the _mitas_ considerably modified, but in 1795 the hated office of -corregidors was replaced by that of intendentes, and from the cruel -death of the last of the Incas may be dated the rise of that feeling -which ended in the expulsion of the Spaniards from Peru. - -The rebellion which broke out in Cuzco, thirty-four years after the -death of Tupac Amaru, is historically important, not on account of -the patriotism of its leaders, for they were almost all men of small -weight and selfish ends, but because the great body of the Indians rose -as one man at the first signal, in the hope of freeing their country -from a foreign yoke. In 1809 the people of Upper Peru had formed an -independent government, which they called an "Institucion de Gobierno," -and the viceroy sent General Goyeneche against them with 5000 men from -Cuzco. The rebels, ill-provided with arms, were defeated at Huaqui, -near lake Titicaca, and slaughtered without mercy;[264] but General -Pezuela, who succeeded Goyeneche in the command, had to face a patriot -army from Buenos Ayres under Belgrano, which kept him fully employed. -Then it was that the opportunity was seized of commencing a rebellion -at Cuzco; and this enemy in the rear of the royal army placed Pezuela -in a most critical position. - -The leader of the rebellion was Mateo Garcia Pumacagua, Cacique of -Chinchero near Cuzco, then a very old men. In January 1781, when Tupac -Amaru occupied the heights of Picchu above Cuzco, he had marched from -Chinchero with Indians to join him, but, hearing that a large Spanish -army was advancing from Lima, he changed his mind, and took part -against his countrymen with such zeal, that the viceroy created him -a brigadier in the Spanish service. On August 3rd, 1814, this Indian -Cacique Pumacagua, with the three brothers Vicente, Mariano, and José -Angulo, Don Gabriel Bejar, Hurtado de Mendoza, Astete, Pinelo, Prado, -and others, raised the cry of independence in Cuzco; and so unanimous -was the feeling against Spanish rule, that the whole population of -that city joined heart and soul in the insurrection.[265] The brothers -Angulo were men of low birth, and vulgar both in their language and -their persons;[266] but Astete and Prado were gentlemen of good family -and position. It is possible that they made use of Pumacagua, as an -Indian cacique, that his countrymen might more readily be induced to -join their cause. - -Having occupied Cuzco, the insurgents divided their forces into three -divisions, which separated in different directions, to excite the -other provinces to revolt. Mariano Angulo, Bejar, and Mendoza, who -was nicknamed Santafecino, marched to Guamanga, assaulted the house -in which several Spaniards had taken refuge, and hung two officers -in the plaza. Colonel Vicente Gonzalez was sent against them from -Lima, and attacked the insurgents, who had been joined by a body of -Morochuco Indians, near Guanta, in September. The rebels were defeated, -and several Morochuco Indians were shot at Guamanga, but the country -continued in a disordered state until Santafecino was finally routed at -Matara in April 1815. - -Pinelo, and the cura of Munecas in Upper Peru, entered Puno without -resistance with another division on August 29th, advanced to La Paz, -and took it by assault after a siege of two days, on September 24th. - -The main division, led by Pumacagua in person, and Vicente Angulo, -marched on Arequipa. - -The position of the royalist army under Pezuela, with the Buenos Ayrean -army of independence in front, and this formidable insurrection in the -rear, was most critical: for the Indians, believing that the rule of -their Incas was to be restored, and that Pumacagua would succeed where -Tupac Amaru had failed, were flocking in thousands to the standard of -the old cacique. Pezuela organized a division of his army, 1200 strong, -commanded by General Don Juan Ramirez, who marched from Oruro in -October, and fell upon the rebels, numbering 4000 men, 500 armed with -muskets, and the rest with slings, who were encamped on the heights -above La Paz. The rebels retired in good order to Puno, and Ramirez -entered La Paz, and, having extorted 63,000 dollars from the citizens, -continued his march to Puno, which he occupied on November 23rd, and -pressed on towards Arequipa on the 26th.[267] - -In the mean while Pumacagua and Angulo had been joined by many caciques -with their _ayllus_ or tribes, and he organized his army at Cavanilla, -giving the rank of generals and colonels to the Indian chiefs.[268] -From Cavanilla the rebel forces marched along the road from Puno to -Arequipa, descended the "alto de los huesos," and encountered the -Spanish troops under Brigadier Picoaga in the plain of Cangallo. -Picoaga was defeated and taken prisoner, and the Indians entered -Arequipa in triumph, where the greatest enthusiasm prevailed for the -cause of independence. Picoaga and Moscoso, the Intendente of Arequipa, -were shot by order of the Angulos, who, early in December, issued a -proclamation, declaring that Peru was free; that there had been a -revolution in Lima; and that the viceroy Don José de Abascal was in -prison. These falsehoods were intended to excite the Spanish Americans -to revolt; but, indeed, they required no such stimulus, for the people -of all races and classes were burning to throw off the yoke of Spain. - -It was at this time that Melgar, the enthusiastic young poet of -Arequipa, joined the national army, and became secretary to Vicente -Angulo. - -On the approach of Ramirez, Pumacagua evacuated Arequipa, and manœuvred -for some days on the lofty plains between Apo and the post-house of -Pati. Ramirez steadily advanced, and came in sight of the Indian army -at a little hut called Chillihua, near the head of the "alto de los -huesos;" but Pumacagua, avoiding a battle, retreated hastily into the -interior, and Ramirez entered Arequipa without opposition on December -9th. His first act was to shoot Don José Astete, and other patriots who -had compromised themselves during the time that Pumacagua was in the -city. - -The enthusiasm of the Indians was so great that, notwithstanding the -affair at Chillihua, which one authority describes as a retreat,[269] -and another as a disastrous defeat,[270] they again flocked to the -standard of the old cacique at Pucara, where he soon had another -undisciplined half-armed force around him, numbering 40,000 men. -Ramirez organized a force at Arequipa of 1200 men armed with muskets, -and fifty dragoons; and, commencing his march on February 11th, 1815, -he encamped round the town of Lampa on March 1st. On that day he -received a letter from Vicente Angulo, protesting against the war -being carried on in a savage and relentless spirit, representing that, -when a whole people rises in arms, the insurgents ought to be granted -belligerent rights; and urging the duty of concluding the war by -negotiation, and not by bloodshed. "It is not fear," Angulo continues, -"that induces me to write thus, but a feeling of humanity."[271] -Ramirez answered that he would accept nothing but unconditional -surrender. On March 4th he advanced to Ayaviri, on the Vilcañota range, -which separates the Collao from the valley of the Vilcamayu. Here -he received a letter from Pumacagua. The cacique asked the Spanish -general for whom he was fighting, seeing that Ferdinand VII. had been -sold to the French, and that no man knew where he had been taken to; he -declared that there was now no other king but the caprice of Europeans, -and that, therefore, he desired to establish a national Government; and -he told him that he was ready to meet the Spanish army on the field of -battle.[272] Ramirez replied that a general of the king's army would -not waste words with vile and insolent rebels, and that his bayonets -would soon make them alter their tone.[273] - -From the 6th to the 10th of March both armies marched in parallel -lines, separated by the rivers Umachiri and Ayaviri. On the 10th -Pumacagua drew up his army behind the river Cupi, which was much -swollen by the rains. He had 30,000 men, of whom 800 only were armed -with muskets, and forty field-pieces, said to have been cast at Cuzco -by an Englishman named George ----,[274] some of them of very large -calibre, with which he annoyed the Spaniards during the night before -the battle. Ramirez had only 1300 men; but they were all disciplined -and well-armed soldiers. He crossed the river Cupi, near Umachiri, -in spite of opposition; charged and dispersed the Indians, killing a -thousand men, and captured all their cannon. The rout was complete, and -the chiefs of the patriot army sought safety in flight.[275] - -The poet Mariano Melgar was taken prisoner, and immediately shot on -the field of battle. The fate of this young man was very melancholy: -an unrequited passion led him to join the desperate cause of the -insurgents, and he is now chiefly remembered by his melancholy -love-songs and _despedidas_.[276] - -Ramirez, immediately after the battle of Umachiri, marched to Cuzco, -where he arrived on the 25th; but he detached a portion of his troops -in pursuit of the Indians, who were again defeated close to the town -of Azangaro. The Spaniards cut off the ears of all their prisoners, -flogged them cruelly, and sent them to tell their comrades that they -would be treated in the same way unless they instantly laid down their -arms. The Indians fled over the hills, followed by the Spaniards, who -again defeated them on a hill near Asillo, six leagues to the north. -Amongst the prisoners at Asillo were the mutilated Indians who had been -sent to terrify the rest, still bravely fighting against their tyrants. -Of such heroism is the usually meek and docile Indian capable.[277] - -After the battle of Umachiri, Pumacagua had escaped to the heights of -Marangani; but he was betrayed by an Indian whom he had sent down to -buy some food, and brought a prisoner into Sicuani. After a sort of -confession had been extorted from him, he was hung, not even with a -respectable halter, but with a lasso, being seventy-seven years of age. -José, Mariano, and Vicente Angulo, Gabriel Bejar, and many others were -shot at Cuzco by Ramirez, who, in the following June, again united his -forces with those of General Pezuela, in Upper Peru. Thus ended the -last great rising of the Indians under one of their own chiefs, after a -campaign which lasted ten months. - -Ten years after the death of Pumacagua every Spanish soldier had -been driven out of the country. Peru was independent, and the Indians -received equal rights with citizens of Spanish descent in the new -Republic, at least so far, and only so far, as the law could give them. -The _mita_ or forced labour was entirely abolished in 1825; but the -tribute or capitation-tax continued to be exacted until 1854 in Peru, -and is still the principal source of revenue in Bolivia, the Upper -Peru of Spanish times. It is not, however, quite exact to suppose that -this tribute was a capitation-tax; it was practically at least a rent -or tax on the produce of the land, and more resembled the land-tax -of India. The tribute was levied on every male between the ages of -eighteen and fifty; but, in point of fact, nearly every individual -between those ages cultivated his own piece of land, or shared the -produce of a larger piece with several others. Latterly the tribute -paid by each Indian generally amounted to five dollars a year; but, -in some villages, the Indians paid double that amount, the exact rule -being handed down by tradition, and known to the caciques. Those who -paid most enjoyed a more dignified position. The department of Puno -yielded 300,000 dollars; that of Cuzco, 400,000. The entire abolition -of the tribute by General Castilla in 1854 is a portion of that mad -and reckless system of finance by which the revenue of Peru is made -to depend almost exclusively on the yield of guano from the Chincha -Islands. - -In Bolivia the tribute is still paid by men between the ages of -eighteen and fifty: the amount being six to ten dollars a year for -proprietors of land, and five dollars for strangers. The revenue from -this source amounted, in 1850, to 4,595,000 dollars. - -But though the _mita_, the _reparto_, and the tribute have all been -abolished by law in Peru, the deplorable civil wars, and the system of -keeping up a large standing army, which is not only unnecessary, but -most mischievous, have entailed much oppression on the Indians in the -shape of impressment for the army. Villages are frequently surrounded -by a party of soldiers, and all the able-bodied men that can be caught -are driven away to serve in the ranks. This deplorable waste of human -life is rapidly reducing the already scanty population; and the system -is more oppressive and cruel because it is done in defiance of the -law, by the military presidents and generals who have hitherto been -able to set the laws enacted by civilians at defiance, when it suits -their purpose.[278] Yet on the whole the condition of the Indians is -immeasurably more endurable under the Republic than it was when they -groaned under the _mitas_ of the Spanish corregidors. - -The history of these Peruvian Indians has been a very melancholy one. -The early accounts which the Spanish chroniclers gave of the great -empire of the Incas represented the Indians as a people ruled by laws -and usages which provided for almost every action of their lives; -neither a thief nor a vicious man was known amongst them; and they -lived in happiness and contentment, but under a most rigid system of -tutelage and subjection. Then came the Spanish conquerors, and, after -a quarter of a century of bloodshed and rapine, the people found -themselves bowed down by a grievous yoke. While the most beneficent -laws were enacted by the Council of the Indies, their humane provisions -continued to be either entirely evaded, or converted into pretexts -for additional modes of oppression. From upwards of thirty millions -the population was reduced to three millions within the space of -two centuries; and all that can be said of the much-lauded colonial -legislation of Spain is that it prevented the Indians from being -actually exterminated; and that, when Peru gained her independence, -there were a few million survivors, scattered in villages at wide -intervals over a region once thickly peopled by their ancestors. The -Council-room at Seville was, like another place, thickly paved with -good intentions. - -I was thrown a great deal amongst the Indians, and at one time I had -the most excellent opportunities of judging of their character, and -I was certainly most favourably impressed. They now have many vices -engendered by centuries of oppression and evil example, from which -their ancestors were probably free: they are fond of chicha and -aguardiente, and are very suspicious; but I found that this latter -feeling disappears when the occasion for it is found not to exist. They -have had but too good reason for their suspicion generally. On the -other hand, they are intelligent, patient, obedient, loving amongst -each other, and particularly kind to animals. Crimes of any magnitude -are hardly ever heard of amongst them; and I am sure that there is -no safer region in the world for the traveller, than the plateaux -of the Peruvian cordilleras. That the Indians are not cowardly or -mean-spirited when once roused was proved in the battles which they -fought under the banner of Tupac Amaru in 1781; and a people who could -produce men capable of such heroic constancy as was displayed by the -mutilated heroes of Asillo should not lightly be accused of want of -courage. When well led they make excellent soldiers. - -Although there is so large a proportion of _mestizos_, or half-castes, -in Peru, it is very remarkable how isolated the Indians still remain. -They have their separate language, and traditions, and feelings, apart -from their neighbours of Spanish origin; and it is even said that -there are secret modes of intercourse, and even secret designs amongst -them, the knowledge of which is guarded with jealous care. In 1841, -when General Gamarra was at Pucara, on his way to invade Bolivia, it -was reported that certain influential Indians, from all parts of the -country, were about to assemble in the hills near Azangaro, for the -discussion of some grave business; and that they were in the habit -of assembling in the same way, though in different localities, every -five years. The object of these assemblies was unknown--it may have -been merely to converse over their ancient traditions--but it was -feared, at the time, that it was for some far deeper and more momentous -purpose. It is believed that similar meetings have since taken place -near Chayanta[279] in Bolivia, near Quito, and in other parts, but the -strictest secrecy is preserved by the Indians themselves. The abolition -of the tribute has probably had the effect of separating the Indians -still more from the white and mixed races, for they used to have -constant intercourse connected with the payments to the authorities, -which brought them into the towns, while now they live apart in their -solitary huts in the mountain fastnesses, or in distant villages. - -It may be that this unhappy people, descendants of the once mighty -race which, in the glorious days of the Incas, conquered and civilised -half a continent, is marching slowly down the gloomy and dark road to -extinction; "the fading remains of a society sinking amidst storms, -overthrown and shattered by overwhelming catastrophes."[280] But I -trust that this may not be so, and that a fate less sad is still -reserved for the long-suffering gentle children of the Sun. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -JOURNEY FROM PUNO TO CRUCERO, THE CAPITAL OF CARAVAYA. - - -ON April 7th we left Puno on the road to the chinchona forests -of Caravaya. There are three modes of travelling in Peru: one by -purchasing all the required mules and employing servants; the second, -by hiring an _arriero_, or muleteer, who supplies the mules at so much -for the journey; and the third, by using the wretched animals which -are provided at the post-houses, and changing them at each stage, but -this can only be done on the main roads. The latter way, though the -least comfortable, is by far the most economical, and I therefore -determined to adopt it, yet I should probably have hesitated had I -known the trouble it would entail. I bought a fine mule for a hundred -dollars, with the gentle _paso llano_, the easiest pace imaginable, for -myself, and sent to the post-house at Puno for beasts for Mr. Weir, the -gardener who accompanied me, and for the baggage. Four vicious-looking -brutes accordingly made their appearance, and we started; but no sooner -had we reached the plain at the top of the zigzag path leading out of -Puno to the north, than they all ran away in different directions, -kicking violently. After hours of this kind of annoyance I at last got -one of the brutes into a corner of a stone-fenced field, but, just -as I was about to catch him, he gave a kick, jumped over the wall, -and went off again. It ended in our having to drag the mules by their -lassos until our arms were nearly torn out of the sockets; and thus we -ignominiously entered the village of Paucar-colla late in the evening, -a distance of only twelve miles from Puno. As for the scenery, or the -nature of the country, between Puno and Paucar-colla, I can remember -nothing but vicious mules with their hind legs kicking up in the air. - -Paucar-colla is built on an eminence, surrounded by broad grassy -plains, which slope down to the shores of the lake of Titicaca. It -consists of a few streets of mud-built, red-tiled huts, ranged round -a large plaza, with a church in a dilapidated state, also of mud. At -this place I saw the last of the Aymara Indians, or at least of their -women, who can always be distinguished by their dress, which differs -from that worn by the Inca or Quichua Indians. The Aymara women wear -an _uncu_, or garment brought together over each shoulder, and secured -in the mode of the classic Greeks, with two _topus_, or large pins, -generally in the shape of spoons. The head-dress is a curiously-shaped, -four-cornered red cap, the sides curving outwards and stiff, with black -flaps suspended from it, sometimes hanging down, and at others thrown -up over the top. The Quichua dress, used by the women from here as far -as Cuzco, is quite different: they have a full woollen skirt, reaching -down half-way between the knee and ankle; a bright-coloured _lliclla_, -or mantle, over the shoulders, secured across the bosom by a single -_topu_; and as a head-dress the broad-brimmed black velvet _montero_, -with red and blue ribbons. - -I left Paucar-colla early next morning, and passed by several fields of -_quinoa_ (Chenopodium quinoa), the harvest of which was just beginning. -The stalks are cut and tied up in heaps, and then the grain is beaten -out with sticks. It is used by the Indians in their universal dish, -the _chupe_, and in various other ways; but it is an insipid and not -very nutritious grain. Just beyond the village there is a stream called -the Illpa, which, in the dry season, scarcely wets the mules' hoofs; -but at this time of year it was swollen into a broad river, and it -was necessary to cross it on reed balsas, with the luggage, while the -mules swam. A very large troop of mules, laden with aguardiente, was -passing over at the same time--a long and tedious business. There are -many streams crossing these roads, which are swollen during the rainy -season, and very serious delays are thus caused for want of a few -bridges. From the Illpa to Caracoto there is a broad plain extending -to the shores of the lake, with the town or village of Hatun-colla on -one of the last spurs of the cordillera to the west.[281] This wide -expanse, in the rainy season, is swampy and half submerged. It was -covered with flocks and herds, with huts and out-buildings scattered -over it, and surrounded by mud walls. Here and there we passed pretty -little cow-girls and shepherdesses, now dressed in the Quichua, not -the Aymara, costume. Some of these little maidens, as they stood by -the wayside spinning wool, had such pretty faces, with the rosy colour -showing through their soft, brown skins, and their figures were so -graceful and dignified, that they strongly reminded me of the pictures -of young Inca princesses in the churches of Santa Anna, and of the -Jesuits, at Cuzco:-- - - "La vi tan fermosa - Que apenas creyera - Que fuese vaquera - De la Finojosa." - -Potatoes, quinoa, and barley were cultivated in the skirts of the hills -bordering on the plain. - -The village of Caracoto is at the extreme end of a long rocky spur, -running out across the plain; a street of neat mud huts, with a plaza -and dilapidated church. At the post-house a child had died, which was -set out on a table with candles burning before it, and the friends of -the postmaster were holding a wake, singing, fiddling, and drinking. -Between Caracoto and the next village of Juliaca there is another -swampy plain: most of the road was under water, and we encountered a -heavy hail-storm. The lights and shades on the cordilleras and nearer -hills, the heavy black masses of cloud in one part of the heavens, and -the sun's rays breaking through in the other, were very fine. Juliaca -is a small town built under a spur of the mountains, with a handsome -stone church. It was Easter-Sunday, and I was invited to meet all the -principal families at dinner at the house of the cura. Several Indian -alcaldes were in attendance; consequential old fellows in full dress, -consisting of broad-brimmed black felt hats, sober-coloured ponchos, -and black breeches very open at the knees, no stockings, and _usutas_ -or sandals of llama-hide. The distinctive mark of the alcaldes, of -which they are very proud, is their staff of office, with silver or -brass head and ferule, and rings round it according to the number of -years the owner has held office. The Indians here wear the hair in -numbers of very fine plaits reaching half-way down their backs. An -Indian always accompanied the post-mules from one village to another, -in order to take back the return-mules; and at Juliaca, while I was -quietly enjoying the cura's hospitality, the Indians took my own mule -back to Caracoto, as well as the post-mules. Next morning, therefore, -I sent for it, and received an answer that the postmaster knew nothing -about it. I was eventually obliged, after seeing the gardener and -luggage on their way to Lampa, to go back to Caracoto, where the -postmaster was drunk and insolent; and at length I found it, with a -troop of others, on the great plain beyond Caracoto. Several Indians -took much trouble for me in catching my mule; and it was late in the -afternoon before I got back to Juliaca, and was ready to set out on my -journey to Lampa. I mention this incident in order to show the trouble -and inconvenience of acting as one's own muleteer, although such a -mode of travelling is certainly four or five times as cheap as hiring -an arriero; and I may add that the travelling by post-mules caused me -incessant annoyance and trouble. Whenever they saw a chance the vicious -brutes always ran off the road in different directions, bumped their -cargo against rocks, and tried to roll, keeping us constantly employed -in galloping after them, and greatly increasing the fatigues of the -journeys. On several occasions, too, an animal was provided which was -so weak or tired that it sank under its cargo before it had gone a -league, and obliged me to return to the post-house for another. The -adjustment and lashing of the cargos, like everything else, requires -considerable knack and skill, which is only acquired by experience; the -Indians were as ignorant in such matters as we were; and during the -first three or four journeys our troubles were increased by the cargos -constantly slipping on one side, when the mules always seized the -opportunity of rushing off the road and kicking furiously. - -A few miles north of Juliaca there is a large river, formed by the -junction of those of Lampa and Cavanilla, the latter being the same -which rises in the lake on the road between Arequipa and Puno, and -flows by the post-house of La Compuerta. We crossed it in a reed -balsa while the mules swam. Beyond the river is the great plain of -Chañucahua, which was covered with large pools of water, at this -season frequented by ducks and sandpipers. Close under the mountains, -which bound it on every side, were a few sheep-farms, one of them -the property of Don Manuel Costas of Puno, and the sheep roamed at -will over many leagues of pasture-land. At the northern extremity of -the plain the road ascends and descends a range of steep hills, and, -turning a rocky spur, I came in sight of the town of Lampa. It was just -sunset; the tall church-tower rising over the town, and a stone bridge -spanning the river, were clearly defined by the crimson glow in the -western sky, while the lofty peaked mountains forming the background -were capped by masses of black threatening clouds. At that moment a -tremendous thunder-storm, with flashes of forked lightning and torrents -of rain, burst over the town. - -Lampa is the capital of a province in the department of Puno, and I -was hospitably received by the Sub-prefect, Don Manuel Barrio-nuevo, -who occupied a good house in the plaza. A portion of the army of the -South was quartered in the town; and the General came every evening to -have tea with the Sub-prefect and his lady, a handsome Arequipeña. On -these occasions the party consisted of General Frisancho and several -officers, and ladies who came attended by their little Indian maids, -carrying shawls, and squatting on the floor in comers during the visit. -After tea and conversation the company generally sang some of the -_despedidas_ and love-songs of their national poet Melgar, in parts; -and one young lady sang the plaintive _yaravis_ of the Indians in -Quichua. - -The church of Lampa is a large building of stone, dating from 1685, -with a dome of yellow, green, and blue glazed tiles, of which I was -informed there was formerly a manufactory in Lampa. The tower is -isolated, and about twenty yards from the church, apparently of a -different date. Rows of Indian girls, in their gay-coloured dresses, -were sitting in the plaza before their little heaps of chuñus, ocas, -potatoes, and other provisions, amongst which, at the season of -Easter, there are always great quantities of herbs gathered on the -mountains, possessing supposed medicinal virtues. Among these a fern, -called _racci-racci_, is used as an emetic; _churccu-churccu_, a small -wild oxalis, is taken as a cure for colds; _chichira_, the root of -a small crucifer, for rheumatism; _llacua-llacua_, a composita, for -curing wounds; _quissu_, a nettle, used as a purgative; _cata-cata_, -a valerian, as an antispasmodic; _tami-tami_, the root of a gentian, -as a febrifuge; _quachanca_, a euphorbia, the powdered root of which -is taken as a purgative; _hama-hama_, the root of a valerian, said -to be an excellent specific against epilepsy;[282] and many others, -the native names of which, with their uses, were given me, but I was -unacquainted with their botanical names. Generally when the name of a -plant is repeated twice in Quichua it denotes the possession of some -medicinal property. - -On the morning of our departure from Lampa the ground was covered -with snow, which was slowly melting under the sun's rays. Immediately -after leaving the town the path winds up a steep mountain range -called Chacun-chaca, the sides of the precipitous slopes being well -clothed with _queñua_-trees (_Polylepis tomentella_, Wedd.), which are -gnarled and stunted, with dark-green leaves, and the bark of the trunk -peeling like that of a yew. Their sombre foliage contrasted with the -light-green tufts of _stipa_, and the patches of snow. The pass was -long and dangerous, with little torrents pouring down every rut; and on -its summit was the usual _pacheta_, or cairn, which the Indians erect -on every conspicuous point. The path descends on the other side into a -long narrow plain, with the hacienda of Chacun-chaca on the opposite -side. The buildings are surrounded by queñua-trees, and in their rear -two remarkable peaked hills rise up abruptly, clothed with the same -trees, with ridges of rock cropping out at intervals. Their sides were -dotted with cattle, tended by pretty little cow-girls, armed with -slings, and some of them playing the _pincullu_, or Indian flute. The -plain was covered with long grass, in a saturated and spongy state, and -groves of queñua-trees grew thickly in the gullies of the mountains on -either side. After a ride of several leagues over the plain, latterly -along the banks of the river Pucara, I turned a point of the road, and -suddenly came in sight of the almost perpendicular mountain, closely -resembling the northern end of the rock of Gibraltar, which rises -abruptly from the plain, with the little town of Pucara nestling at -its feet. The precipice is composed of a reddish sandstone, upwards of -twelve hundred feet above the plain, the crevices and summit clothed -with long grass and shrubby queñuas. Birds were whirling in circles at -a great height above the rock, which, in the Spanish times, was famous -for a fine breed of falcons, which were carefully guarded and regularly -supplied with meat. They tell a story at Pucara that one of these birds -was sent to the King of Spain, and that it returned of its own accord, -being known by the collar. - -Pucara means a fortress in Quichua; and here Francisco Hernandez Giron, -the rebel who led an insurrection to oppose the abolition of personal -service amongst the Indians, was finally defeated in 1554. The town is -a little larger than Juliaca, with a handsome church in the same style, -and a fountain in the plaza. I dined and passed the evening with the -aged cura, Dr. José Faustino Dava, who is famous for his knowledge of -the Quichua language, in its purest and most classical form. The fame -of Dr. Dava's learning, in all questions connected with the antiquities -of the Incas and the Quichua language, had reached me in England, and I -was glad to obtain his valuable assistance in looking over a dictionary -of the rich and expressive language of the Incas, on which I had been -working for some time. - -Owing to the diminution of the aboriginal population in Peru, and the -constantly increasing corruption of the ancient language, through -the substitution of Spanish for Quichua words, the introduction of -Spanish modes of expression, and the loss of all purity of style, -that language, once so important, which was used by a polished court -and civilized people, which was spoken through the extent of a vast -empire, and the use of which was spread by careful legislation, is -now disappearing. Before long it will be a thing that is past, or -perhaps fade away entirely from the memory of living generations. With -it will disappear the richest form of all the great American group of -languages, no small loss to the student of ethnology. With it will be -lost all the traditions which yet remain of the old glory of the Incas, -all the elegies, love-songs, and poems which stamp the character of a -once powerful, but always gentle and amiable race. - -Unlike the English in India, the half-Spanish races of Peru have paid -little attention to the history and languages of the aborigines, within -the present century; and, if left to them, all traces of the language -of the Incas, and of the songs and traditions which remain in it, -would, in the course of another century, almost entirely disappear. A -few honourable exceptions must, however, be recorded. The late Mariano -Rivero paid much attention to the antiquities of his country, and the -results of his labours have been published at Vienna.[283] The curas -of some of the parishes in the interior, also, especially Dr. Dava of -Pucara, Dr. Rosas of Chinchero, and the Cura of Oropesa, near Cuzco, -are excellent Quichua scholars, but they are very old men, and their -knowledge will die with them. - -Dr. Dava had a large collection of the finches, and other birds of the -loftier parts of the Andes, hanging in wicker cages along the wall of -his house. Amongst them were a little dove called _urpi_; the bright -yellow little songster called _silgarito_ in Spanish, and _cchaiña_ in -Quichua; the _tuya_, another larger warbler; the _chocclla-poccochi_ -or nightingale of Peru; and a little finch with glossy black plumage, -pink on the back, and whitish-grey under the wings. He also had some -small green paroquets, with long tails and bluish wings, which make -their nests under the eaves of roofs, at a height of fourteen thousand -feet above the sea. At Pucara some of the inhabitants have small -manufactories for making glazed earthenware basins, pots, plates, and -cups,[284] which find an extensive market in the villages and towns of -the department of Puno, and which will probably long hold their own -against the same kind of coarse wares from Europe or the United States. - -From Puno to Pucara I had travelled along the main-road to Cuzco; but, -at the latter place, I branched off to the eastward, to pass through -the province of Azangaro to that of Caravaya. The main-road continues -in a northerly direction, crosses the snowy range of Vilcañota near -Ayaviri, and descends the valley of the Vilcamayu to Cuzco. At Pucara I -left post-houses and post-mules behind me, for they only exist on the -main-roads between Arequipa, Puno, Cuzco, and Lima; henceforth I had to -depend on being able to induce private persons to let out their mules -or ponies to me. - -About 500 yards from the town of Pucara is the river of the same name, -which flows past Ayaviri in the mountains of Vilcañota. It was very -full, and eighty yards across. The mules swam, and we had to cross in a -rickety balsa made of two bundles of reeds, which had to go backwards -and forwards five times before all the gear and baggage was on the -eastern side. After riding over a plain which became gradually narrower -as the mountains closed in, I began the ascent of a rocky _cuesta_, -with a torrent dashing down over huge boulders into the plain. There -was a splendid view of the distant rock of Pucara, with the snowy -peaks of the Vilcañota range behind. A league further on there was an -alpine lake, with a fine peaked cliff rising up from the water's edge. -There were many ducks and widgeons, and large coots were quietly busy, -swimming about and building their nests on little reed islands; also -jet-black ibises, with dark rusty red heads and long curved bills. -After a ride of several leagues over a grassy country covered with -flocks of sheep, I reached the summit of a range of hills, and got a -distant view of the town of Azangaro, in a plain with several isolated -steep grassy mountains rising from it, and the snowy Andes of Caravaya -in the background. After a very wearisome descent I reached the plain, -and, riding into Azangaro, was most hospitably and kindly received by -Don Luis Quiñones, one of the principal inhabitants. - -The region which I had traversed between Puno and Azangaro is all of -the same character--a series of grassy plains of great elevation, -covered with flocks and herds, and watered by numerous rivers flowing -into lake Titicaca, which are traversed by several mountain-ranges, -spurs from the cordillera, which sometimes run up into peaks almost -to the snow-line, and at others sink into rocky plateaux raised like -steps above the plain. What strikes one most in travelling through -this country is the evidence of the vast population it must have -contained in the days of the Incas, indicated by the ruined remains of -_andeneria_, or terraces for cultivation, rising in every direction -tier above tier up the sides of the hills. But it is now almost -exclusively a grazing country, and the Indians, employed in tending the -large flocks of sheep, only raise a sufficient supply of edible roots -for the consumption of their families, and the market of the nearest -town. Frequently the shepherds are what are called _yanaconas_, or -Indians kept to service by the owners of the flocks, which vary from -400 to 1000 head. The condition of this class of Indians is very hard, -as they get only a monthly allowance of an _arroba_ of chuñu (frozen -potato) or quinoa, and a pound of coca, or four dollars a month in -money. - -Puno, Juliaca, Lampa, Pucara, and Azangaro, are all between 12,800 -and 13,000 feet above the sea. Between March 28th and April 15th, the -indications of the thermometer at these places were as follows:-- - - Mean temperature 52-1/2° - Mean minimum at night 37-1/4 - Highest observed 58 - Lowest 37 - Range 21 - -Azangaro is the capital of the province of the same name. There is a -tradition that, when the Indians were bringing gold and silver for -the ransom of the Inca Atahualpa, they received news of his murder -by Pizarro, at Sicuani, and at the same time orders came from Inca -Manco, who was at Cuzco, to remove the treasure to a greater distance; -and that they buried it near this town. _Asuan_ is "more," _carun_ -"distant;" hence _Azangaro_. It is generally believed that this -treasure, worth 7,000,000 dollars, as well as the fifteen mule-loads -of church-plate brought into the town by Diego Tupac Amaru in 1781, -are concealed somewhere, and that some of the Indians know the place -well, but will not divulge it. Hence there have been numerous attempts -to discover it, and one sub-prefect made several excavations under the -pavement in the church, but without any success. On one occasion, not -long ago, an old Indian, who had been a servant in the house where -Diego Tupac Amaru lodged, told the sub-prefect that in the centre of -the _sala_, after digging down for about two feet, a layer of gravel -from the river would be reached; a little further down a layer of -lime and plaster; a little further a layer of large stones; and that -beneath the stones would be the treasure. The excavation was commenced, -and great was the excitement when all the different layers were found -exactly as the Indian had described them; but there was no treasure. It -is not unlikely that the Indian only knew or only told half the clue; -and that these layers were some mark, whence a line was to be measured -in some particular direction, and to a certain distance, to denote the -spot under which the treasure was deposited. Yet the searches have not -been wholly unsuccessful. There are several subterranean passages and -chambers under Azangaro, and one was discovered a few years ago which -had been made by the Indians in ancient times. It led towards the -plaza, and ended in a recess, where there were several mummies, adorned -with golden suns and armlets, and golden semispheres covering their -ears--now the property of my host, Don Luis Quiñones. - -Azangaro is _par excellence_ the city of hidden treasure. The houses -are built of mud and straw, and thatched with coarse grass (_stipa -ychu_), the better sort being whitewashed. To the north of the town -there is a long ridge of rocky heights; to the south an isolated peaked -hill nearly overhangs the town; to the east is the river; and to the -west is a plain bounded by the mountains towards Pucara. The church, -in the plaza, is like a large barn outside, with walls of mud and -straw, and a tower with broad-brimmed red-tiled roof; but on entering -it I was astonished at its extraordinary magnificence, so entirely out -of proportion to the wealth or importance of this little town. The -nave is lined with large pictures on religious subjects, by native -artists, in frames of carved wood richly gilt. The elaborate gilded -carving was very striking; the leaves, bunches of grapes, and twisted -columns, being the workmanship of the famous carvers of Cuzco. Over -the arch leading to the chancel there is a picture representing the -Triumph of the Faith, in bright colours. The high altar is plated with -massive silver, with gilded columns, pictures, and images, in gorgeous -profusion up to the roof. On either side are two very remarkable -pictures, filling the walls between the altar and the chancel-arch. On -the right an allegorical picture, and the Shepherds worshipping. One -figure, in the latter picture, a girl holding a basket on her head, -is of great merit, and exactly resembles the 'Santa Justa' of Murillo -in the Duke of Sutherland's collection. On the left is a picture of -the 'Woman taken in Adultery,' and an excellent copy of the well-known -'Worshipping of the Magi,' by Rubens, in the Madrid gallery. In a side -chapel there is a copy of Leonardo da Vinci's 'Last Supper,' with -portraits of two caciques--the heads of the two great families of -Azangero--with their wives, one of them very pretty, looking on in a -corner. These copies, which are excellent, must have been procured from -Europe at very great expense. - -[Illustration: THE SONDOR-HUASI, AT AZANGARO. Page 193.] - -The author of all this magnificence, according to the inscription on -his portrait, which is fixed in a handsome gilt frame by the side -of the chancel arch, was the Bachiller Dr. Don Basco Bernardo Lopez -de Cangas, a native of Cuzco, and Cura of Azangaro. The interior -decorations were completed on January 12th, 1758, and the cura died in -1771. He must have been possessed of enormous wealth, to have enabled -him thus to beautify and adorn his church with such lavish profusion. - -In the days of the Incas the two great families of Azangaro, whose -heads ranked as Curacas, were the Murumallcucalcinas and Chuquihuancas; -and they retained the office of cacique until recent Spanish times. -The Murumallcucalcina family is now extinct: they lived in the town, -and a portion of their house still remains, called the _Sondor-huasi_, -dating from the time of the Incas, and the greatest curiosity in the -place. It is a circular building, about twelve feet in diameter, with -walls twelve feet high, of mud and straw, very strong and thick. The -dome-shaped roof of thatch also dates from the time of the Incas. The -outside coating consists of a layer of _stipa ychu_, two feet thick, -placed in very regular rows, and most carefully finished, so as to -present a smooth surface to the weather. Next there is a thick layer of -the same grass placed horizontally, netted together with reeds; and -finally an inner perpendicular layer; the whole thatch being five feet -thick. The interior framework consists of twelve perfect circles of -bent wands, with others descending in curves from the apex of the roof -to the crest of the wall, and where they cross there are lashings of a -tough reed. The whole is finished with most admirable neatness, forming -a perfect dome. This is the only roof of the time of the Incas still -remaining in Peru, and hence its great importance in an antiquarian -point of view. It has been said that the colossal and highly-finished -masonry of the Incas, and their poor thatched roofs, formed a barbaric -contrast; but the Sondor-huasi proves that their roofs rivalled -their walls in the exquisite art and neatness of their finish. The -Sondor-huasi is now in a very dilapidated state, and is used as a -kitchen by the degenerate collateral heirs of the old caciques. - -The Chuquihuanca family had a country house about a league from -Azangaro, which was destroyed by the army of Tupac Amaru in 1780, -because the Chuquihuancas deserted their countrymen and adhered to -the Spanish cause. I accompanied Don Luis Quiñones, and the whole -of the society of Azangaro, to a picnic at the ruined house of the -Chuquihuancas; and it was amusing to see all the masters of families, -the Sub-Prefect Don Hipolito Valdez, the judge, the cura, and every -one else, locking the great folding-doors leading into their _patios_, -and putting the keys into their pockets. Azangaro was entirely -deserted. We were all well mounted, and there were fourteen young -ladies of the party, fresh pleasant girls, who thoroughly enjoyed -a good gallop. The ruined house was in a corner of the plain, and -surrounded on three sides by steep overhanging cliffs. There are the -remains of a house, with a long corridor of brick arches, behind -which several broad terraces rise up the face of the cliff, which -are still ornamented with some fine _oliva silvestre_ and _queñua_ -trees, a few ancient apple-trees, and a dense growth of bright-yellow -Compositæ, and Solanums with a purple flower. A noisy torrent foamed -down the cliffs and over the terraces to the plain below. It was a -very pretty spot, but in a most desolate condition, and many small -doves made their nests in the trees. Lupins (_ccerra_[285]) and -nettles (_itapallu_) were growing in the crevices of the rocks. We -had an excellent and very merry dinner; a large amount of Moquegua -wine, and of the better-clarified and more generous liquor from Don -Domingo Elias's vineyards at Pisco, were drunk; and guitar-playing and -samocueca-dancing finished the day's entertainment. We returned to -Azangaro after dark. Don Luis assured me that the people of this little -town were like one family; and that, though election-time or periods -of civil dissension sometimes caused estrangement amongst them, the -habitual concord and friendship always returned when the excuse for -alienation had passed away. - -Azangaro is a great cattle-breeding province, and there is a -considerable trade in cheeses with Arequipa and other parts. I found -very great difficulty in procuring animals to enable me to continue -my journey. At length I succeeded in hiring four miserable-looking, -vicious, undersized ponies; and, having crossed the Azangaro on balsas, -by far the largest river I had passed over since leaving Puno, the -way led over the rocky range of Pacobamba hills into another plain, -where there were several cattle and sheep farms; and the village of -Corruarini, consisting of a ruined church and a dozen huts. The river -Azangaro rises in the snowy mountains of Caravaya, forms an immense -curve of nearly half a circle in a course of about two hundred miles, -and, uniting with the river of Pucara, falls into the lake of Titicaca -as the river Ramiz, the largest of its affluents. After a ride of six -leagues we reached the little village of San José, under a conical -hill, and close to the snowy mountains of Surupana. - -I dined with the cura, Fray Juan de Dios Cardenas, who gave me a -list of medicinal herbs used in Azangaro; and the beasts from that -place were so infamous that I was obliged to invoke his assistance -to procure fresh ones. It appeared that two Frenchmen had passed a -few days before, on their way to establish a saw-mill in the Caravaya -forests, with a view to floating timber down the river of Azangaro to -lake Titicaca, and that they had ill-treated some Indians. It was thus -very difficult to induce them to furnish ponies, but the alcaldes, -with their great hats and long sticks, were summoned, and, after some -negotiation, they were induced to supply four ponies to go as far as -Crucero, the capital of the province of Caravaya. It was most fortunate -that I was enabled to do this, for, during the night, the owners of the -Azangaro ponies came out to San José, and stole them, so that we should -have been left without even this wretched means of conveyance. - -From San José the path winds up a long ravine for several leagues, -down which a torrent dashes furiously over the rocks, descending -from the snowy peak of Accosiri. The mountain scenery, consisting -of steep grassy slopes, masses of rock, torrents, and distant snowy -peaks, was very fine. The ravine led up to the summit of the pass -of Surupana, where it was intensely cold, and the height of which -I roughly estimated, with a boiling-point thermometer, at 16,700 -feet above the sea. Here I met an active young vicuña-hunter, well -mounted, and provided with a gun, who said he was a servant of the -Cacique Chuquihuanca of Azangaro, on his way to buy wool in Caravaya. -He continued in my company during most part of the day. Loud claps -of thunder burst out in different directions, and a snow-storm was -drifting in our faces. The ravines were covered with deep snow, -between high dark mountains, with abrupt cliffs cropping out. A -flock of vicuñas dashed across our path, disappearing again in the -driving sleet. After wading through snow and mud for several leagues -the weather cleared up, and we began to descend a splendid gorge, -exactly like some of the finest coombs on the north coast of Devon, -on a gigantic scale. This led us down into a valley, where I parted -with my young vicuña-hunter, who had been a very pleasant companion. -Riding down the grassy valley, and passing many flocks of sheep, I rode -through the village of Potoni, a dozen huts on the side of a hill; -forded the river Azangaro, which is here but a small stream even in the -rainy season; and riding up the opposite bank, got a magnificent view -of the snowy mountains of Caravaya, with their sharp needle-like peaks. -Two leagues brought me to Crucero, the capital of the province of -Caravaya, so called from the cross-roads which here branch off to the -various villages in the forests on the other side of the snowy barrier -which rises up close to the town, to the eastward. - -Crucero is a collection of comfortless mud-houses, with a small -dilapidated church in the plaza, on a very elevated swampy plain. It -was intensely cold, with heavy snow-storms during the nights, and -the people sat wrapped up in cloaks without fires, shivering in a -dreary helpless way, and going to bed soon after sunset, as the only -comfortable place. I was most kindly received by the sub-prefect, Don -Pablo Pimentel, a veteran soldier, and an official who had served many -years at the head of the Government in Caravaya, and in Lampa. Dr. -Weddell had named a new genus of chinchonaceous plants _Pimentelia_, -in honour of the worthy old sub-prefect, which had pleased him very -much. I remained a few days in Crucero, before setting out for the -chinchona-forests in the valleys of Sandia and Tambopata; and during -that time I obtained a good deal of information from Don Pablo -Pimentel, and from Señor Leefdael the Judge, respecting the province -of Caravaya. Don Pablo had travelled over almost every part of it; and -I also received much information at Arequipa from Don Agustin Aragon, -a former sub-prefect, who has a large estate in the Caravaya forests. -From these sources I am enabled to offer some account of those parts -of Caravaya which I did not visit, and which will form the subject of -the following chapter. Caravaya is a region of which little is known to -European geographers, and, so far as I am aware, no traveller has yet -given any account of it to the English public. - - Puno to Paucar-colla 9 miles. - " Caracoto 18 " - " Juliaca 6 " - " Lampa 21 " - " Pucara 27 " - " Azangaro 16 " - " San José 18 " - " Crucero 36 " - --- - 151 " - --- - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE PROVINCE OF CARAVAYA. - -A short Historical and Geographical Description. - - -THE Peruvian province of Caravaya is drained by streams which form part -of the system of one of the largest and least known of the tributaries -of the Amazon--the river Purus. - -The Purus is the only great affluent flowing into the Amazon from -the south, the course of which has never yet been explored. We have -detailed accounts of the Huallaga from Maw, Smyth, Poeppig, and -Herndon; of the Ucayali from Smyth, Herndon, and Castelnau; and of -the Madeira from Castelnau and Gibbon; but of the Purus, the largest -apparently, and one which, in course of time, will probably become the -most important, we have next to nothing. Its mouth, and the course of -its tributaries, near the base of the Andes, are alone described. - -Condamine and Smyth, in descending the Amazon, mention the great depth -and volume of water at the mouth of the Purus: Herndon heard from -a Brazilian trader at Barra, who had ascended its stream for some -distance, that it was of great size, and without obstructions; and -Haënke, in the last century, arguing from reliable geographical data -which he had collected from Indians, stated his conviction that a very -large river, flowing from the Andes east of Cuzco, reached the Amazon -to the westward of the mouth of the Madeira. - -This is the sum of our knowledge of the mouth and lower course of the -Purus. The tributaries which flow into it drain the eastern slopes -of the Andes, from the latitude of Cuzco quite to the frontier of -Bolivia--that frontier dividing the streams flowing into the Purus, on -the Peruvian side, from those which feed the Beni, on the Bolivian. -These affluents of the Purus are divided into three distinct systems: -the furthest to the north and west, consisting of the streams flowing -through the great valley of Paucartambo, which unite under the name -of the Madre de Dios, or Amaru-mayu; the middle system, draining the -ravines of Marcapata and Ollachea; and the southern and eastern, being -the numerous rivers in the province of Caravaya, as far as the Bolivian -frontier, which unite as the Ynambari. The Madre de Dios and Ynambari -together form the main stream of the Purus. - -The Paucartambo system is the only one which has, as yet, been -described by modern explorers. In Spanish times the streams which -compose it were explored, and farms of cacao and coca were established -on their banks; and in the end of the last century an expedition was -sent to explore the course of the Madre de Dios, under an officer -named Don Tiburcio de Landa. This must have been at some time previous -to 1780, for Landa was killed in that year in the great rebellion of -the Indians under Tupac Amaru.[286] After the declaration of Peruvian -independence, General Gamarra, the first Republican Prefect of Cuzco, -sent an expedition to protect the farms in the valley of Paucartambo -from the encroachments of the wild Chuncho Indians, and to explore -the Madre de Dios. It was commanded by a Dr. Sevallos, now a very -old man, retired to a farm in the Caravaya forests, but he has, -unfortunately, lost his journal. General Miller made an expedition -into the same region in 1835, and penetrated to a greater distance -than any other explorer before or since. A very brief account of his -journey was published in the 'Royal Geographical Society's Journal' -for 1836; but there is a much fuller and most interesting journal kept -by this gallant veteran, which has never been printed. In 1852 Lieut. -Gibbon, U.S.N., entered the valleys of Paucartambo; and in 1853 I -explored a part of the course of its principal stream, the Tono.[287] -Another expedition to explore this region, under the sanction and with -the aid of the Peruvian Government, was undertaken by some native -adventurers, accompanied by a few Americans, and an English artist -named Prendergast, in 1856, but it completely failed. Since that time -the wild Chuncho Indians have continued to attack and encroach upon the -few farms which existed in these valleys at the time of my visit in -1853, and at the present moment there is not one remaining. The rich -valleys of Paucartambo, once covered with flourishing cacao and coca -farms, have again become one vast uncultivated tropical forest. - -Following the eastern slopes of the Andes to the south and east, we -next come to the streams which drain the valleys of Marcapata and -Ollachea, but of these very little is known. These valleys are in the -province of Quispicanchi, in the department of Cuzco; and it is said -that in times past they were cultivated with advantage, and contained -many coca farms. In the beginning of the last century a Jesuit found -gold in a hill called Camante, in the Marcapata valley, situated -between two ravines, in one of which, called Garrote, a Spanish company -established gold-washings. The leading man of this company, named -Goyguro, employed hundreds of Indians, and extracted gold from the -Camante hill in lumps; but one day an immense landslip fell into the -Vilca-mayu,[288] the chief stream of Marcapata, and all the workmen -ran away, and could not be induced to return. This was in about the -year 1788. - -For forty years after this event coca-farms and gold-washings were -alike abandoned in Marcapata, until in 1828 the cura of the village -of that name, Dr. Pedro Flores, again opened a road into the valleys, -and, with some associates, established several farms for raising coca -and fruit. In 1836 a company was formed by several young adventurers, -the chief of whom were José Maria Pacheco of Cuzco and José Maria -Ochoa[289] of Huara, with the object of again discovering the -long-lost golden hill of Camante. The party assembled at Ocongate, -in the cold region of the Andes, whence the distance to Marcapata, -at the commencement of the warm valleys, is fourteen leagues over a -bad road, which traverses the cordillera of Ausungate and Pirhuayani. -From Marcapata the two adventurers Pacheco and Ochoa, both active and -intrepid young men, advanced into the forests with fourteen Indians, -and a stock of chuñus and dried meat. These explorers penetrated for -several leagues, following the course of the Vilca-mayu, but their -expedition led to no practical results.[290] In 1851 Colonel Bologenesi -became the manager of an expedition for collecting chinchona-bark in -the forests of Marcapata, and proceeded to the scene of his labours, -accompanied by a young Englishman named George Backhouse. They advanced -into the forests until they fell in with parties of wild Chuncho -Indians, who were propitiated by presents of knives and other trifles, -and induced to assist young Backhouse and his party in collecting bark. -Some of the Chunchos, however, who had received knives, neglected to -work, which enraged the Indians in Backhouse's service, and a quarrel -ensued, ending in the massacre of Backhouse and all his party. Those -who were out collecting bark, on discovering what had happened, fled to -Colonel Bologenesi; but in their retreat, while fording a river, the -Chunchos poured in a volley of arrows amongst them, and killed forty of -their number. Bologenesi then collected a military force and advanced -into the forests, where he suffered great hardships, fighting with the -Chunchos all day, and harassed by alarms during the night. He, however, -collected a thousand quintals of bark, at a cost of fifty lives and -three hundred thousand dollars. During this expedition indications were -met with of the ancient gold-washings. - -It will thus be seen that fevers and perilous roads are not the only -dangers to be apprehended in a search for chinchona-plants. - -Lastly, and extending for a distance of one hundred and eighty miles, -from Marcapata to the frontier of Bolivia, is the watershed along that -part of the eastern Andes known as the Snowy Range of Caravaya, where -the numerous streams take their rise which unite to form the Ynambari. -The Madre de Dios, Marcapata, and Ynambari are thus the three great -sources of the Purus. The tributaries of the latter drain the province -of Caravaya. - -The first mention of this region is to be found in the pages of the -old Inca historian, Garcilasso de la Vega, who says that "the richest -gold-mines in Peru are those of Collahuaya, which the Spaniards call -Caravaya, whence they obtain much very fine gold of twenty-four carats, -and they still get some, but not in such abundance."[291] The Jesuit -Acosta also mentions "the famous gold of Caravaya in Peru."[292] After -the final overthrow of the younger Almagro in the battle of Chupas in -1542, some of his followers crossed the snowy range, and descended -into the great tropical forests of Caravaya,[293] where they discovered -rivers, the sands of which were full of gold. On the banks of these -rivers they built the towns of Sandia, San Gavan, and San Juan del -Oro; large sums in gold were sent home to Spain, and the last-named -settlement received the title of a royal city from Charles V. In 1553 -these settlers received a pardon from the Viceroy Don Antonio de -Mendoza, in consideration of the gold they sent home to the Emperor. It -is said that they sent him a nugget weighing four arrobas, in the shape -of a bullock's head; and that afterwards another nugget, in the shape -of a bullock's tongue, was sent to Philip II., but that the ship which -carried it was lost at sea. Eventually the wild Chuncho Indians of the -Sirineyri tribe fell upon the gold-washers, and overpowered them. In -the following century certain mulattos occupied the gold-washings in -Caravaya, and the king, as a reward for their labours in extracting -treasure, offered to comply with any request they might make. The -mulattos asked to be called Señores, and for the privilege of entering -every town on white mules with red trappings, and the bells ringing. -The Señores mulattos were finally expelled for knocking the priest of -San Juan del Oro on the head while he was saying mass, after a drunken -broil. There are many vestiges of washings, bridges, and cuttings made -by these mulattos, in different parts of Caravaya.[294] - -The Spaniards, however, long continued to extract gold from the rivers -of Caravaya, and established coca-farms and coffee-plantations in some -of the ravines formed by spurs of the cordillera. Gold, however, was -the product for which Caravaya was most famous. - -In 1615 the viceroy Marquis of Montes Claros spoke of the rich -_lavaderos_ or gold-washings of Caravaya;[295] and his successor, -the Prince of Esquilache, wrote a long report upon them in 1620. It -appears that, at that period, the richest of the Caravaya mines was -called Aporuma, and that it had then been worked for fifteen years -by a company of adventurers. These men, the chief of whom were named -Quiñones, Frisancho, and Perez, had excavated very extensive works to -drain off the water, and they petitioned the Viceroy to grant them -a _mita_ of Indians to complete the works, for that thus the royal -fifths would be augmented. The Prince of Esquilache wrote a marginal -note, which may still be seen on the original petition, ordering -Don Pedro de Mercado, the "visitador-general" of Caravaya, to grant -them a _mita_ of Indians within a circuit of twenty leagues of the -Aporuma mine, with three dollars a month each, besides salt-meat and -other provisions.[296] In 1678 the yield of the royal fifths from -the Caravaya gold-washings was at the rate of 806 dollars in three -months.[297] From this time to the end of the seventeenth century -Franciscan missionaries were at work amongst the wild Chunchos in the -forests of Caravaya.[298] Towards the end of the last century Caravaya -was separated from Peru to form part of the new viceroyalty of Buenos -Ayres, and the population of whites and civilised Indians was then only -estimated at 6500 souls. Just before that period the town of San Gavan, -with four thousand families and a large treasure, had been surprised -and entirely destroyed by the Carangas and Suchimanis Chunchos. This -calamity took place on the 15th of December, 1767. The viceroy Don -Manuel Amat swore vengeance on the Chunchos; but his famous mistress, -Mariquita Gallegas, better known as La Perichola, interceded for them, -and eventually nothing was done. The other town of San Juan del Oro had -been abandoned some time before; and the very sites where they stood -are now uncertain. - -In the great rebellion of Tupac Amaru the caciques and people of -Caravaya took part with the Indians, probably owing to the influence -possessed by the Inca, arising from the large coca estate which -belonged to him near San Gavan.[299] At the independence Caravaya -became a part of the Peruvian department of Puno. - -In 1846 Don Pablo Pimentel was appointed Sub-prefect of Caravaya, and -he endeavoured, by giving a glowing account of its vast capabilities, -to induce the government to make roads and develop the resources -of this important province. Shortly afterwards, in 1849, Caravaya -attracted notice as a land rich in the precious metal, and it soon -became the California of South America. In July of that year two -brothers named Poblete, in searching for chinchona-bark, discovered -great abundance of gold-dust in the sands of one of the Caravaya -rivers, and the news soon spread far and wide. Up to 1852 crowds of -adventurers, among whom were many Frenchmen, continued to follow in the -footsteps of the Pobletes, but most of them returned empty, and the -excitement has now died away. The trade in chinchona-bark, which once -was remunerative, and in which many Peruvians displayed extraordinary -energy and endurance of fatigue, ceased to exist in 1847, owing to the -habit of adulterating the Calisaya bark with inferior kinds, which gave -the Caravaya article a bad name in the market, and at length rendered -it unsaleable. This adulteration was practised either through fraud -or ignorance. If the former, it was certainly very short-sighted; -but Don Pablo Pimentel declares that it was done through ignorance, -the bark-collectors mistaking the _motosolo_ (C. micrantha) and -_carhua-carhua_ (Cascarilla Carua) for the Calisaya bark.[300] - -The above meagre notices are all that I have been able to glean -respecting the history of Caravaya; and I will now give a brief -description of the geographical features of this interesting region. - -The province of Caravaya consists of a narrow strip of lofty -table-land, bordering on that of Azangaro; the snowy range of the -Eastern Andes for a distance of 120 miles; and the boundless tropical -forests to the eastward, stretching away towards the frontier of -Brazil. It is bounded on the east and south by Bolivia, on the N.W. by -the province of Quispicanchi in the department of Cuzco, on the north -and N.E. by the illimitable forests, and on the west by Azangaro. - -The lofty table-land to the westward of the snowy Andes extends for 120 -miles, the whole length of Caravaya, but is only from five to ten miles -broad. It is 13,000 feet above the level of the sea, and here, about a -century ago, after the destruction of San Gavan, the town of Crucero -was founded, as a central position for the capital of the province, and -as being free from the attacks of wild Indians. It derives its name -from the numerous roads which branch from it to the villages on the -eastern slopes of the Andes. This narrow plain, on which Crucero[301] -is situated, is very swampy, covered with long tufts of _ychu_ grass, -and intensely cold. It yields pasture to immense flocks of sheep; and -to the curious hybrid, first bred by the cura Cabrera in 1826, between -an alpaca and a vicuña, called the paco-vicuña, with a black and white -fleece of long fine wool, which is wove into fabrics like the richest -silk.[302] - -But the largest and only important part of Caravaya consists of the -forest-covered valleys to the eastward of the Andes. On the western -side that mountain-chain rises abruptly into peaks covered with snow, -from an elevated plateau 14,000 feet above the sea; but on its eastern -side the descent is rapid into tropical valleys. Long spurs run off the -main chain to the northward, gradually decreasing in elevation; and it -is sometimes a distance of sixty or eighty miles before they finally -subside into the boundless forest-covered plains of the interior of -South America. Numerous rivers flow through the valleys between these -spurs, to join the Ynambari; and in these valleys, near the foot of -the main chain of the eastern Andes, are the few villages and coca and -coffee plantations of Caravaya. In these long spurs and deep valleys -Caravaya differs in geographical character from the more northern -region of Paucartambo, where the Andes subside much more rapidly into -the level plain. - -In the warm valleys are to be found all the wealth and population of -Caravaya. The population consists of 22,000 souls, almost all Indians; -and the wealth, besides the flocks of sheep on the western table-land, -is created by the produce of coca, coffee, sugar-cane, and aji-pepper -plantations, fruit-gardens, and gold-washings. Correct statistical -returns are unknown in Peru; but, as near as I could make out, there is -an annual yield of 20,000 lbs. of coffee and 360,000 lbs. of coca.[303] -I could obtain no reliable statements respecting the yield of gold. - -The Caravayan valley which is furthest to the north and west is that -of Ollachea, bordering on Marcapata, where there is a small village -at the foot of the Andes. Next come those of Ituata and Corani. -The little village of Ayapata, near the source of the river of the -same name, comes next; and thirty miles further in the interior, an -intelligent and enterprising Peruvian, named Don Agustin Aragon, has -established a sugar-cane estate called San José de Bella Vista. It -is situated at the junction of two rivers, and he is thus protected -from the attacks of the savage Chuncho Indians who prowl about in the -surrounding forests. He has made a road practicable for mules from -the village of Ayapata to his estate; and he finds the manufacture of -spirits from the sugar-cane far more profitable than digging for gold -or hunting for chinchona-bark. He is a man full of energy and resource. -His attempt to establish a manufactory of india-rubber only failed -through the refusal of the Peruvian government to give him a contract -for supplying the army, and thus assist his first efforts; in 1860 he -sent an expedition into the forests to collect wild cacao-plants; any -scheme for developing the resources of the country is sure to receive -his advocacy; and he looks forward with confidence to the day when a -steamer shall ascend the Purus and Ynambari, and return to the Atlantic -with a cargo of the produce of Caravaya. It would be well for Peru if -she contained many such men as Don Agustin Aragon. - -It is supposed that the old Spanish town of San Gavan was situated near -a river of the same name, about twenty miles from Aragon's estate. -The site is now overgrown with dense forest, and it has never been -visited since its destruction; yet it is believed that vast treasure -lies concealed amongst the tree-covered ruins, because the attack of -the Chunchos was sudden, and at once successful; they care nothing -for the precious metals, and San Gavan contained a royal treasury, -and was a central deposit for the gold of Caravaya. The Chunchos, -in former times, were in friendly communication with, and even took -service under, the Spaniards; but the tyranny of the latter at length -exasperated them, and led to the destruction of San Gavan. Since that -time the Chunchos have wandered in the forests in small tribes,[304] -the implacable enemies of all white men and Inca Indians. - -Following the eastern slopes of the Andes to the south-east, the next -village to Ayapata, at the head of another deep ravine, is Ccoasa, and -next follow Usicayus, Phara, and Limbani. Phara is in a ravine on the -eastern slope of the Andes, about thirty-five miles from Crucero. Here -many gold-mines were worked by the Señores Mulattos, and at no great -distance is the famous gold-mine of Aporuma, in the ravine of Pacchani. -Phara is on the road to the gold-diggings, which were discovered by -the brothers Poblete, and which attracted so many luckless adventurers -between 1849 and 1854. They are at a distance of fifteen leagues to -the northward. The path lies along a long ridge, gradually descending -for six leagues to a little hamlet called La Mina. Thence to the banks -of the river Ynambari, here called Huari-huari, is a distance of -three leagues, down a very dangerous road, covered with huge blocks -of schist, and skirting along fearful precipices. For this distance -the road is passable for mules. The river is seventy yards broad, and -is crossed by an _oroya_, or bridge of ropes, traversed by a sort of -net or cage, into which the passenger gets, and is hauled over to the -other side, at a giddy height above the boiling flood. On the other -side, at the junction of the Huari-huari and the golden river of -Challuma,[305] there is a place which has been named Versailles by -some French adventurers, of whom the most daring and energetic is a M. -La Harpe. The road, so far, was opened by a party of soldiers of the -batallion Yungay. From Versailles to the _lavaderos_ or gold-washings -is a distance of six leagues up a narrow forest-covered ravine; and, -in this distance, it is necessary to wade across the river Challuma no -less than fifty-three times--the water coming up to the waist, the feet -constantly slipping over loose rounded stones, the only support a long -staff, and where one false step would be inevitable destruction. At -the end of this perilous journey there is a place called Alta-garcia, -where the _administradores_ of the company of first discoverers were -established in 1850. Thence to Quimza-mayu (three rivers) is half a -league, and here the _lavaderos_ commence. In this part of its course -the river is called Taccuma. Many of the gold-seekers, such as the -Señores Carpio, La Harpe, Valdez, Tovar, Cardenas, and Costas, have -been men who were formerly engaged in the chinchona-bark trade, and who -know the country thoroughly. The tributaries of the Challuma, called -Quimza-mayu, rise in hills completely isolated from the Andes, and -their sands are full of gold, both in dust and nuggets. Immediately -above the _lavaderos_ rises a hill called Capacurco, and by the French -adventurers Montebello, formed of quartz and other primitive rocks, -with rich veins of gold. Here Don Manuel Costas of Puno erected a -house, and brought out machinery for crushing the quartz, but the -undertaking failed through the badness of the machinery, and the -immense cost and difficulty of transporting materials through such -a country. A few adventurers, however, still continue to wash for -gold in the Challuma or Taccuma. In the part of its course above -the _lavaderos_ this river descends rapidly from an isolated range -of forest-covered precipitous hills, and in one place its waters -plunge down in a cascade, with a sheer fall of forty feet.[306] The -gold-seekers of the Challuma have penetrated further into the forests, -and nearer to the main stream of the Purus, than any other explorers; -and their discovery of the Challuma, and of the auriferous hills near -its banks, has added something to our geographical knowledge of this -region. - -The remaining villages on the eastern slopes of the Caravayan Andes -are Patambuco, Sandia, Cuyo-cuyo, Quiaca, Sina, and the farm of Saqui, -on the frontier of Bolivia. The river of Sandia has one of its sources -near the pass twenty miles north-east of Crucero, whence it flows past -Sandia, and for many leagues down a narrow gorge, with magnificent -mountains rising up abruptly on either side. At a distance of twenty -miles below Sandia, in a part of the ravine called Ypara, the coca -and coffee plantations commence, at a height of 5000 feet above the -sea. Beyond Ypara cultivation ceases, and the river, now increased to -double its former size by its junction with the Huari-huari, flows for -many leagues between mountains covered from their summits with a dense -tropical forest. This region is known as San Juan del Oro, once famous -for its gold-washings; and here the royal town of the same name stood, -founded by the fugitive Almagristas, and afterwards tenanted by the -Señores Mulattos, but long since destroyed and abandoned. The forests -contain chinchona-trees of valuable species, and, until the last -fourteen years, they were frequented by bark-collectors. - -While flowing through the forests of San Juan del Oro the river takes -a turn to the westward, and, at a distance of sixty miles from Sandia, -enters the Hatun-yunca, or Valle Grande, where the people of Sandia -have very extensive coca and coffee plantations. The curve here made -by the river is so considerable that the people from Sandia reach -their farms in the Valle Grande by leaving the ravine above Ypara, and -making their way across the grass-covered mountains. The coffee-plants -in these farms receive no attention whatever from the time they are -planted, so that, instead of the dense well-pruned bushes of India or -Ceylon, they grow into tall straggling trees about twelve feet high, -with a very small harvest of berries on each, but each berry well -exposed to the sun. The coffee is certainly excellent. - -Passing through the Valle Grande the river flows on past Versailles, -where it receives the golden Challuma, and, uniting with all the other -rivers of Caravaya, becomes that great Ynambari which finally effects -a junction with the Madre de Dios, and forms the main stream of the -mighty Purus. - -The river Huari-huari, which is formed by two streams flowing from the -villages of Sina and Quiaca, joins the river of Sandia about thirty -miles below that town, and their united streams compose the Ynambari. -Finally the river Tambopata rises near a farm called Saqui, just within -the boundary between Peru and Bolivia, at the foot of a ridge of the -Eastern Cordillera. After a course of forty miles it receives the river -of San Blas, on the banks of which the people of the Sina village have -their coca-plantations. Eighty miles lower down the Tambopata unites -with the river Pablo-bamba, on its right bank, at a place called -Putina-puncu. The Pablo-bamba rises in a hill called Corpa-ychu on -the very frontier of Bolivia, and is only divided from the Tambopata, -during its whole course, by a single range of hills. The frontier -between the two republics has never been surveyed. Below Putina-puncu -the united waters of the two rivers enter the vast forest-covered -plains into which the spurs of the Andes finally subside, and -henceforth its course is entirely unknown. I think it probable, -however, that the Tambopata finds its way direct to the Purus, without -previously uniting with the Ynambari. - -The respective distances and populations of the villages of Caravaya -are as follows:-- - - Miles. Population. - Ollachea to Ituata 12} - " Corani 10} - " Ayapata 18} - " Ccoasa 10} 12,000 - " Usicayus 18} - " Phara 20} - " Limbani 8} - " Patambuco 16 1,000 - " Sandia 12 4,000 - " Cuyo-cuyo 15 2,000 - " Quiaca 21 600 - " Sina 20 600 - " Bolivian frontier 12 - --- ------ - 192 20,200 - --- - Macusani to Crucero 30 1,800 - ------ - Population of Caravaya 22,000 - ------ - -But some of these villages are at greater distances from the foot -of the Andes than others; thus they are not in a straight line, and -the direct distance from Ollachea to the Bolivian frontier is a good -deal under 180 miles. The valleys in which the Caravaya villages are -situated are separated from each other by spurs of the Andes, many of -them so wild and precipitous as to be quite inaccessible; and there -is no means of passing from village to village, in many instances, -without crossing the Andes to Crucero or Macusani, and descending again -by another pass. For this reason Crucero, being in the most central -position, has been chosen as the site of the capital of the province, -though in a bleak and intensely cold region. - -The geological formation of Caravaya is composed of non-fossiliferous -schists, micaceous and slightly ferruginous, with veins of quartz. It -is a portion of the extensive system of rocks which Mr. Forbes has -grouped together as belonging to the Silurian epoch, and which extends -almost continuously over an extent from north-west to south-east of -more than seven hundred miles, forming the mountain-chain of the -Eastern Andes, continuous from Cuzco, through Caravaya, to Bolivia. -These rocks throw off spurs along the eastern side of the main chain. -Of this formation, too, are the loftiest mountain-peaks in South -America:--Illampu, or Sorata (24,812 feet), and Illimani (24,155 -feet). Illampu, Mr. Forbes assures us, is fossiliferous up to its very -summit.[307] - -Such is a brief account of the geography of Caravaya, and especially -of the streams which combine to form the great river Purus, from the -rivers of the Paucartambo valley on the extreme north-west, to the -Pablo-bamba on the frontier of Bolivia. The streams flowing from the -Eastern Andes to the north-west of the Paucartambo system combine to -swell the Ucayali, while those to the south-east of the Pablo-bamba -fall into the Beni, one of the chief tributaries of the Madeira. The -intermediate streams are the sources of the unknown Purus, they are -all more or less auriferous, they flow through forests abounding in -valuable products, and through countries of inexhaustible capabilities. -Yet the courses of very few of them have been explored to distances of -seventy miles from their sources, and the main stream of the Purus, one -of the principal affluents of the Amazon, may be said to be entirely -unknown to geographers. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -CARAVAYA.--THE VALLEY OF SANDIA. - - -On the 18th of April I left Crucero, on my way to the chinchona -forests, rather late in the afternoon, accompanied by Mr. Weir the -gardener, a young mestizo named Pablo Sevallos, and two cargo-mules. -After a ride of three leagues along the bleak plain of Crucero, covered -with coarse _Stipa_ and stunted _Cacti_, we reached a little shepherd's -hut, called Choclari-piña, at dusk. It was built of loose stones, -with a sheepskin hung across the doorway, but with no plaster or mud -between the interstices of the stones, so that the piercingly cold wind -blew right through the hut.[308] The poor Indian family were kind and -hospitable, and gave us plenty of fresh milk. Next morning we continued -the journey along the same plain, with the snowy peaks of the Caravayan -Andes on the left, and the glorious nevada of Ananea ahead, whence rise -the rivers of Azangaro flowing into lake Titicaca, and of Ynambari -finding its way to the Atlantic. A ride of twelve miles brought us to -a hut called Acco-kunka (neck of sand), at the foot of long ridges of -dark-coloured cliffs, with huge boulders of rock scattered over the -sides of the hills. A hard white frost covered the ground. - -At Acco-kunka I met a red-faced man, about fifty years of age, who gave -his name as Don Manuel Martel. He said that he had been a colonel, -and had suffered persecution for being faithful to his party; that -he had lost much money in the _cascarilla_ trade; and that he was -now making a clearing in the forests of Caravaya, for the purpose of -growing sugar-cane. He talked about M. Hasskarl, the Dutch agent, who -was employed to obtain chinchona-plants in 1854, under his assumed name -of Müller; said that he employed an agent named Clemente Henriquez to -collect the plants; and vowed that if he, or any one else, ever again -attempted to take _cascarilla_ (chinchona) plants out of the country, -he would stir up the people to seize them and cut their feet off. There -was evidently some allusion to myself in his bluster; and I suspected, -what afterwards proved to be the case, that Martel had, by some means, -got information respecting the objects of my journey, and was desirous -of thwarting them. I had always carefully avoided any mention of -the subject since leaving Arequipa. Martel said he was going to buy -gold-dust at Poti, so I soon got rid of him; and, passing an alpine -lake, full of water-fowl, we began the descent into the golden valleys -of Caravaya. - -On the left a black cliff, perpendicular, and fully 2000 feet high, -formed one side of the descent, and the space on its inner side was -occupied by a small glacier, the only one I have ever seen in the -Andes; whence descends, in a long waterfall, the source of the little -river Huaccuyo, which dashes down the ravine. For the first thousand -feet the vegetation continues to be of a lowly alpine character, -consisting of coarse grass and flowering herbs, chiefly _Compositæ_, of -which there were several _Senecios_, generally with yellow flowers, a -gentian with violet-coloured flowers, a _Bartsia_ with a yellow flower, -a little _Plantago_, and a _Ranunculus_. As we continued the descent, -the scenery increased in magnificence. The polished surfaces of the -perpendicular cliffs glittered here and there with foaming torrents, -some like thin lines of thread, others broader and breaking over -rocks, others seeming to burst out of the fleecy clouds; while jagged -black peaks, glittering with streaks of snow, pierced the mist which -concealed their bases. After descending for some leagues through this -glorious scenery, the path at length crossed a ridge, and brought us to -the crest of the deep and narrow ravine of Cuyo-cuyo. - -The path down the side of the gorge is very precipitous, through a -succession of _andeneria_, or terraced gardens, some abandoned, and -others planted with ocas (_Oxalis tuberosa_), barley, and potatoes; -the upper tiers from six to eight feet wide, but gradually becoming -broader. Their walled sides are thickly clothed with Calceolarias, -Celsias, Begonias, a large purple Solanum, and a profusion of ferns. -But it was not until reaching the little village in the bottom of the -hollow that all the glories of the scene burst upon me. The river -of Sandia, which takes its rise at the head of the ravine, flows by -the village of Cuyo-cuyo, bordered by ferns and wild flowers. It is -faced, near the village, with fern-covered masonry, and is crossed by -several stone bridges of a single arch. Almost immediately on either -side, the steep precipitous mountains, lined, at least a hundred deep, -with well-constructed _andeneria_, and faced with stone, rise up -abruptly. In several places a cluster of cottages, built on one of the -terraces, seemed almost to be hanging in the air. Above all the dark -rocks shoot up into snowy peaks, which stood out against the blue sky. -A most lovely scene, but very sad, for the great majority of those -carefully-constructed terraces, eternal monuments of the beneficence -of the Incas, are now abandoned. The alcalde of Cuyo-cuyo received me -most hospitably. In the early morning numbers of lambs and young llamas -were playing about in the abandoned terraced gardens near the village. -Besides Cuyo-cuyo, there are two small hamlets, called Muchucachi and -Sullanqui, and several scattered huts in the ravine, the population of -which is estimated at 2000 souls. - -In the morning of April 20th I rode down the beautiful gorge to the -confluence of the rivers of Sandia and Huaccuyo. After this junction -the stream becomes a roaring torrent, dashing over huge rocks, and -descending rapidly down the ravine towards Sandia. On both sides vast -masses of dark frowning mountains rear themselves up for thousands of -feet, and end in fantastically shaped peaks, some of them veiled by -thin fleecy clouds. The vegetation rapidly increased in luxuriance -with the descent. At first there were low shrubs, such as _Baccharis -odorata_, _Weinmannia fagaroides_, &c.; which gradually gave place to -trees and large bushes; while all the way from Cuyo-cuyo there were -masses of ferns of many kinds, Begonias, Calceolarias, Lupins, Salvias, -and Celsias. Waterfalls streamed down the mountains in every direction: -some in a white sheet of continuous foam for hundreds of feet, finally -seeming to plunge into huge beds of ferns and flowers; some like driven -spray; and in one place a fall of water could be seen between two -peaks, which seemed to fall into the clouds below. - -A most glorious and enchanting scene, allowing little time to think -of the road, which was very bad, and in many places most perilous. -In its best parts it was like a steep back-attic staircase after an -earthquake. Three leagues from Cuyo-cuyo is the confluence of the -torrent of Ñacorequi with the river of Sandia; and after this point -maize begins to be cultivated, where the craggy jutting cliffs permit, -between the river and the mountains. The Indians live in eyrie-like -huts, perched at great heights, here and there, amongst the maize -terraces. The village of Sandia is at a distance of fifteen miles from -Cuyo-cuyo, down this ravine, a dilapidated little place, with more than -half the houses roofless and in ruins. It is built along the banks of -the river, and has a church in the _plaza_. The mountains rise up all -round it, almost perpendicularly, forming a close amphitheatre; and in -two places glittering cascades foam down from their very summits, into -the bushes on a level with the town. - -The descent from the summit of the pass over the Caravayan Andes to -Sandia is very considerable, nearly 7000 feet in thirty miles, from an -arctic to a sub-tropical climate. The height of Crucero is 12,980 feet; -of the pass 13,600; of Cuyo-cuyo 10,510; and of Sandia 6930 feet above -the sea.[309] - -The four mountains closely hemming in the village of Sandia are mount -Chicanaco, which is beautified by a splendid cascade; mount Vianaco, -which ends in two fine wooded peaks, between which a long slender -thread of water descends into the foliage midway; mount Camparacani, -on the other side of the river, which rises up to a stupendous height, -ending in a jagged rocky peak; and mount Catasuyu, which completes -the circle, rising abruptly above the church. The name of Sandia -is probably a corruption of the Spanish word _sandilla_, the first -settlers having mistaken the quantities of gourds which grow here for -_sandillas_ or water-melons. - -When I arrived in Sandia the governor was absent on his estate; the -cura, my good friend Dr. Guaycochea, was getting in his maize-harvest -on his land near Cuzco; and the principal remaining inhabitants were -the Juez de Paz, Don Francisco Farfan, and one Don Manuel Mena, who -was drunk in bed when I arrived, but who afterwards received me very -hospitably. These good people are, in manners and education, the -roughest backwoodsmen, much too fond of aguardiente, and addicted to -chewing coca to excess; but they are warm-hearted and neighbourly, -while they display some energy in working the coffee and coca estates -in the distant montaña, and in making roads, such as they are, from -these estates to Sandia. The richer people of Sandia all have more or -less of Indian blood, and their wives and daughters are unable to -speak any language but Quichua; and thus they seem to be more closely -united in interests and feelings with the mass of the population than -in any other part of Peru. The Indians of the district of Sandia are -divided into six _ayllus_ or tribes, besides the inhabitants of the -villages of Sandia, Cuyo-cuyo, and Patambuco. These _ayllus_ are -established on the mountains around Sandia, living in scattered huts, -some cultivating maize and potatoes, others raising barley and alfalfa -for mules. The _ayllus_ are called Laqueque, about a league up the -river, on the right bank; Cuyo-cuyo (not the village), behind mount -Camparacani; Oruro, on the heights below Cuyo-cuyo; Quiaca (not the -village), near Oruro; Quenequi, about a league down the river; and -Apabuco, behind mount Catasuyu. The population of the parish of Sandia -is about 7000; 4000 in Sandia and its six _ayllus_, 2000 in the village -and ravine of Cuyo-cuyo, and 1000 in Patambuco. As many as 1000 souls -fell victims to the dreadful pestilence of 1855, which raged over all -parts of the Andes of Peru. Nearly every Indian family, besides land -near Sandia, owns a small farm of coca or coffee down in the montaña, -to which men, women, and children go at harvest-time. As in all parts -of the Andes, so in the Sandia ravine, I constantly found the Indians -civil, obliging, and respectful, always saluting with an "Ave Maria -Taytay!" and a touch of the hat in passing. They are reserved and -silent, it is true, and superficial observers take this for stupidity. -Never was there a greater mistake: their skill in carving and all -carpenter's work, in painting and embroidery, the exquisite fabrics -they weave from vicuña-wool, the really touching poetry of their -love-songs and _yaravis_, the traditional histories of their _ayllus_, -which they preserve with religious care, surely disprove so false a -charge. - -The houses in Sandia are the merest barns, with mud-walls, and roofs -which let the water in. All the family sleep together in a promiscuous -way; pigs and fowls wandering over the floor at early dawn. The Juez -de Paz, Francisco Farfan, administers justice in such a place as this, -lounging on a sort of mud-platform at one end of the room, where -his bed is made up, while the culprit, and a crowd of alcaldes and -spectators, stand before him. Every one chatters at the same time for -about ten minutes, and the prisoner is sent to the lock-up. The Jueces -de Paz have to render periodical accounts of all their cases, attested -by witnesses, to the Juez de Primera Instancia in the capital of the -province. - -While upon the subject of these local authorities, it will be well to -give an account of the powers placed in their hands by the Constitution -of 1856, by which Peru is now governed; both because the measures then -adopted will, I believe, have a lasting and beneficial effect on the -people, and because the persons so vested with power endeavoured to -display their patriotic zeal by throwing obstacles in my way. By this -constitution it was provided that in the capital of each department -there should be a _Junta Departmental_,[310] the members of which -should be elected in the same way and with the same qualifications as -those for the National Congress, to meet every year. These _Juntas_ -were to deliberate and legislate for the advancement and material -progress of the departments, their decrees being null if contrary -to any law of Congress. The evident objection to this measure is -its tendency to split the country up into small communities with -separate interests, which has always proved to be most disastrous in -thinly-peopled and half-civilized states. This view is taken in a very -able article on the constitution, in a periodical published at Lima, -where the _Juntas Departmentales_ are declared to be the initiation -of a system of "federation," the result of which has always been to -dismember countries into so many small depopulated districts, as in -Mexico, Central America, New Granada, and the Argentine Republic, -introducing civil war, anarchy, and dissolution. The writer might now -add the dis-United States of North America also.[311] - -But the institutions to which I before alluded, as having had a -beneficial effect, are the _Juntas Municipales_,[312] which were to be -established in every district where materials existed to form them, -and to have the regulation of the local funds and improvements. They -were to consist of the most influential citizens, elected by their -fellow townsmen, and were to attend to local interests, have charge -of the civic registers, take the census, &c. The same writer speaks -of these municipalities in terms of unqualified praise, and says that -their establishment is a positive good, without in any way promoting -a federation which would be ruinous to Peruvian nationality.[313] -They will give young men the opportunity of becoming acquainted with -public affairs, teach them habits of business, and gradually train them -for more important political duties. I look upon these institutions -as one of the sources of hope for a brighter future for Peru; and as -long as they show activity, whether in a right or wrong direction, -they must be productive of good. The habit of taking an active part in -public affairs must be better than the torpor and indifference which -formerly prevailed. I saw several signs of activity in these _Juntas -Municipales_ during my journey from Puno. At Lampa they were actively -engaged in an endeavour to re-establish a manufactory of glazed tiles -in that town; in Azangaro they were collecting subscriptions for a -bridge across the river, to which one of their body had contributed -half the required sum; and in Sandia they were drawing up a report on -the state of the roads, with an estimate of the sum required for their -thorough repair and bridging. I was happy to be able to assist the -Sandia Municipality, by preparing a map for them, to illustrate their -report. The _Juntas Municipales_ of Sandia and Quiaca also, especially -the latter, took measures to prevent me from procuring a supply of -chinchona-plants or seeds, influenced by motives which exposed their -ignorance of political economy, while it displayed their activity and -patriotic zeal. - -In Sandia the municipal body consists of the Alcalde Municipal, who -presides, the Teniente Alcalde, the Syndic, two Judges of the Peace, -three Regidores, one of whom is Don Manuel Mena, and a Secretary. - -My original plan had been to examine the chinchona forests during -this month, make as many meteorological and other observations as was -possible, and perhaps send down a small collection of plants to the -coast; but to make the principal collection of plants and seeds in -August, the month when the seeds of _C. Calisaya_ are ripe. I had not, -however, been two days in Sandia before I discovered that Martel had -already written to several of the inhabitants, urging them to prevent -me from taking chinchona plants or seeds out of the country, and to -bring the matter before the _Junta Municipal_ of the district. I heard -also that he was busying himself in the same way in other villages -bordering on the chinchona forests. My mission was becoming the talk -of the whole country; and I at once saw that my only chance of success -was to commence the work of collecting plants without a moment's delay, -and, if possible, anticipate any measures which might be taken to -thwart my designs. - -It was at Sandia that it became necessary to make final preparations -for a journey into the forests, for beyond this point the possibility -of procuring supplies of any kind is very doubtful. I here laid in a -stock of bread to last for about a month, which was toasted in the oven -belonging to the cura, the only one in the place, and which, together -with some chocolate and cheese, formed the provisions for myself and -the gardener. I then persuaded the judge to order the alcaldes of -four of the _ayllus_ to procure four Indians and two cargo-mules, the -Indians to bring their own provisions with them, for which I advanced -them money. After considerable delays my little expedition was ready -to start, consisting of myself, Mr. Weir the gardener, Pablo Sevallos -the mestizo, four Indians, and two mules. The supplies and provisions -were packed in six leathern bags, containing tea and sugar, chocolate, -toasted bread, cheese, candles, concentrated beef-tea, changes of -clothes, instruments, powder and shot, besides a tent, an air-bed, -gutta-percha robes, ponchos, a wood-knife and trowel, and maize and -salt meat for Pablo and the Indians. It took several days to complete -these preparations. - -The climate of Sandia, at this time of the year, is exceedingly -agreeable, the days being fine and clear until late in the afternoon, -and not too hot. The prevailing wind blows up the ravine from the -north-east, being the trade which comes across the vast forest-covered -plains of the interior. It is this warm trade-wind which produces a -much milder climate and more tropical vegetation in Cuyo-cuyo than in -Arequipa, though the former place is three thousand feet higher than -the latter. In Sandia, just after sunset, it feels rather chilly, and -during the middle of the day the sun is exceedingly hot. Light clouds -generally hang about the highest peaks. The variety of most beautiful -and graceful ferns on the walls of the houses, and near the banks of -the river, is endless. - -I had the satisfaction of seeing, in the house of Don Manuel Mena, -before leaving Sandia, a bundle of small branches of the _ychu -cascarilla_ (_C. Calisaya, var. β Josephiana_), with leaves and -flowers, which had been collected as a tonic medicine for a little -daughter of my host. - -On the 24th of April, late in the afternoon, we left Sandia, and -reached the _tambo_, or travellers' hut, called Cahuan-chaca, before -dark. The road leads down the ravine, along narrow ledges overhanging -the river, which dashes furiously along, in most places between -perpendicular cliffs. The path is very narrow and dangerous, but the -scenery is superb, and the vegetation becomes richer and more tropical -at every league of the descent. - -One of the Indians traitorously fled on the first day, and my -party was thus reduced to three, who were barely able to carry the -necessary provisions. These three men proved faithful and willing -fellow-labourers. Their names were Andres Vilca of the Oruro _Ayllu_, -Julian Ccuri of Cuyo-cuyo, and Santos Quispi of Apabuco. They were -fine-looking young fellows, wearing their hair in long plaits down -their backs, coarse canvas trousers and shirts. They carry the cargos -in large cloths tied in bundles, and placed in other cloths, which are -passed over one shoulder and tied across the chest, called _ccepis_. -They stoop forward and step out at a great rate; and it is in this -way that Indians carry their burdens along the roads, and women their -children, throughout Peru. The _tambo_ of Cahuan-chaca is a shed, with -one side open, and we slept in company with three Indians and a woman -on their way to get in a coca-harvest in the Hatun-yunca, who were -living very well on salt mutton, eggs, and potatoes. - -The river rushing down the valley winds along the small breadth of -level land, striking first against the precipitous cliffs on one side, -and then sweeping over to the other, so that a road in the bottom -of the valley would require a bridge at almost every hundred yards. -It has, therefore, been necessary to excavate a path in the sides -of the mountains, high above the river, which in some places has a -breadth of three feet only, with a perpendicular cliff on one side, -and a precipice six or seven hundred feet deep on the other; while, -in others, it zigzags down amongst loose stones, where one false step -would be immediate destruction. But the scenery continued to increase -in beauty, and the cascades were really splendid:-- - - "A land of streams! some, like a downward smoke, - Slow-dropping veils of thinnest lawn, did go; - And some thro' wavering lights and shadows broke, - Rolling a slumbrous sheet of foam below." - -The river dashed noisily through the centre of the gorge, and the -masses of green on either side were toned down by many flowers in -large patches, bright purple _Lasiandræ_, orange _Cassiæ_, and scarlet -_Salviæ_. I also saw an _Indigofera_ growing in this part of the ravine. - -A mile from the hut of Cahuan-chaca is the confluence of the river -Huascaray; and a league lower down is the little shed or tambo of -Cancallani. Here bamboos and tree-ferns first appear, and coca is -cultivated in terraces which are fringed with coffee-plants, with -their rich green foliage and crimson berries. I observed that the -huts in the middle of these patches of coca or maize had no doors, -showing the confidence of the inmates in the honesty of the numerous -passers-by, who go to and fro between Sandia and the more distant coca -estates.[314] I passed the estate of Chayllabamba, with terraces of -coca at least fifty deep, up the sides of the mountains; and Asalay, a -coffee estate, with groves of orange and chirimoya-trees, the extreme -point reached by M. Hasskarl, the Dutch collector, in 1854. At the -confluence of the rivers Asalay and Sandia perpendicular cliffs rise -abruptly from the valley to a stupendous height on both sides, and -the path winds up in a serpentine slippery staircase, to creep along -the edge of the steep grassy slopes or _pajonales_, far above the -tropical vegetation of the ravine. Winding along this path, we came to -the _tambo_ of Paccay-samana, on the grassy _pajonal_, the mountains -rising up on the opposite side of the ravine only about sixty yards -distant; yet the river, in the bottom of the gorge, was many hundreds -of feet below. There were thickets with masses of bright flowers in -the gullies, and glorious cascades shimmering in the sunlight on the -opposite mountain-sides. - -It was at this spot that we first encountered chinchona-plants. A -number of young plants of _C. Calisaya_, _var. β Josephiana_, were -growing by the side of the road, with their exquisite roseate flowers, -and rich green leaves with crimson veins. The rock is a metamorphic -slate, unfossiliferous, slightly micaceous, and ferruginous, with -quartz occurring here and there: the soil a stiff brown loam. Above -the tambo there was a small thicket of gaultherias, called _ccarani_ -in Quichua, and Melastomaceæ with bright purple flowers (_Lasiandra -fontanesiana_), in a shallow gully, surrounded by the rich broad-bladed -grass of the _pajonal_. Here there were some fine plants of the -chinchona named by Dr. Weddell _C. Caravayensis_; and further on more -plants of _C. Josephiana_, called _ychu cascarilla_ by the natives. The -height of this spot is 5420 feet above the sea. A tree-fern and many -_Trichomanes_ were growing with the chinchonæ. Paccay-samana is sixteen -miles from Sandia. - -Animal life did not appear to be very abundant. There were plenty of -large doves, some ducks near the river, and a brilliant woodpecker. I -also saw great numbers of large swallow-tailed butterflies, purple with -light-blue spots on the upper wings; and others with white upper wings -edged with jet black and rows of white spots, the lower wings orange. - -Beyond Paccay-samana there were several more plants of _C. Josephiana_, -rising out of masses of maiden-hair and _Polypodia_. After following -the edge of the pajonal for about a mile, we descended by a precipitous -zigzag path and crossed over the river Pulluma, at its confluence with -the Sandia. Here the road to the Hatun-yunca or Valle Grande branches -off up the mountain of Ramas-pata, while our way continued down the -ravine. The scenery is here remarkably beautiful. Lofty mountains, -with their bright cascades, are clothed to their summits with rich -grass, while their gullies are filled with flowering trees and shrubs. -Half-way up, in many directions, the stone terraces of coca rise tier -above tier, fringed with ferns and begonias, and filled with the -delicate coloured green coca-branches, diversified occasionally by the -darker hues of the coffee. The ravine is filled with masses of purple -Melastomaceæ, and the river is fringed with tree-ferns, plantains, and -bamboos. - -This purple Melastomacea (_Lasiandra fontanesiana_), called in Quichua -_panti-panti_, in the brilliancy and abundance of its flowers, -bears the same relation to this part of the Peruvian Andes as the -rhododendron does to the Himalayas. The effect in masses is much the -same, but the _Lasiandra_ appears to me to be a more graceful and -delicate tree, with a more beautiful flower. In this ravine we have the -shrub chinchonæ on the high grassy slopes, perhaps the finest coffee -in the world near the banks of the river, and a little galium by the -road-side--all chinchonaceous plants. - -At noon on April 26th we rested in the tambo of Ypara, in the centre -of coca cultivation, and in the afternoon, crossing the river by a -wooden bridge, we had to travel along the skirts of the mountains, at -a considerable height, in the region of the _pajonales_. No gullies or -large cascades cut up the face of these mountains, which were entirely -exposed to the full glare of the sun, and here, though there was a -profusion of purple Melastomaceæ in some of the shallow indentations, -there were no chinchonæ. Towards evening we came to a lofty spur of the -mountain, called Estanqui, at a great height above the ravine, whence -there was a most extensive view. To the left was the valley of Sandia, -with little coca-farms nestling in all the sheltered gullies; and I -could just make out the boys and girls far far below, like specks, busy -with the coca-leaves in the drying-yards. In front there was a distant -view of the hills in the direction of San Juan del Oro, covered with -virgin forest; while at our feet, and a thousand feet below us, was the -confluence of the rivers Sandia, Llaypuni, and Huari-huari, which unite -to form the great river Ynambari. - -It was my intention, after marking down all the eligible plants of -the shrubby _Calisaya_, to be taken up on our return, to make for the -forest-covered valley of Tambopata, which is full of chinchona-trees; -and I therefore left the ravine of the Sandia river at this point, -and, by a rapid descent, went down from the grassy uplands to a region -of tropical forest, full of palms and tree-ferns. We thus reached the -banks of the Huari-huari. This river flows through a deep and very -narrow ravine, lined with forest, for about 500 feet, above which rise -grassy mountains to an immense height. Though only 30 feet across, and -confined by dark polished rocks, the Huari-huari is very deep, and -decidedly a more important stream than the Sandia, at their junction. - -We established ourselves under a rock, where there was no room to -pitch the tent, and thus our first night of camping out commenced, for -previously we had slept in the road-side _tambos_. The Indians carried -little earthen pots for cooking, in their _ccepis_, and got up a fire -of dry sticks with great rapidity. I had a delicious bath in the river, -where the tall forest trees overshadowed the water on either side. At -night the moon streamed its floods of light over the forest, and the -brilliant sparks from myriads of fire-flies shone from the trees in -every direction up the side of the opposite mountain; but in the early -morning the sky clouded over, and a heavy drizzling rain began to fall, -which prevented sleep, and made us wish for day. - -From this encampment our way led up the precipitous sides of the -mountain, to the grassy _pajonales_ which divide the valleys of Sandia -and Tambopata; but I will here halt awhile to give a brief account of -the cultivation of that plant, of which we had lately seen so much, and -which enabled me to ascend the mighty passes of the Andes on foot with -ease and comfort--the strength-giving, invigorating coca. - -A general geographical description of all this country has been given -in the preceding chapter. - -During my stay at Sandia the indications of the thermometer were as -follows, between the 20th and 25th of April:-- - - Mean temperature 63-1/5° - Minimum temperature at night 50-1/2 - Highest observed 65 - Lowest 47 - Range 18 - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -COCA-CULTIVATION. - - -THE coca-leaf is the great source of comfort and enjoyment to the -Peruvian Indian; it is to him what betel is to the Hindoo, kava to -the South Sea Islander, and tobacco to the rest of mankind; but its -use produces invigorating effects which are not possessed by the -other stimulants. From the most ancient times the Peruvians have -used this beloved leaf, and they still look upon it with feelings of -superstitious veneration. In the time of the Incas it was sacrificed -to the Sun, the Huillac Umu or high priest chewing the leaf during the -ceremony; and, before the arrival of the Spaniards, it was used, as the -cacao in Mexico, instead of money. After the conquest, although its -virtues were extolled by the Inca Garcilasso de la Vega,[315] and by -the Jesuit Acosta,[316] some fanatics proposed to proscribe its use, -and to root up the plants, because they had been used in the ancient -superstitions, and because its cultivation took away the Indians from -other work. The second council of Lima, consisting of bishops from all -parts of South America, condemned the use of coca in 1569 because it -was a "useless and pernicious leaf, and on account of the belief stated -to be entertained by the Indians that the habit of chewing coca gave -them strength, which is an illusion of the devil."[317] - -In speaking of the strength the coca gives to those who chew it, -Garcilasso do la Vega relates the following anecdote. "I remember a -story which I heard in my native land of Peru, of a gentleman of rank -and honour, named Rodrigo Pantoja, who, travelling from Cuzco to Rimac -(Lima), met a poor Spaniard (for there are poor people there as well -as here) who was going on foot, with a little girl aged two years on -his back. The man was known to Pantoja, and they thus conversed. 'Why -do you go laden thus?' said the knight. The poor man answered that he -was unable to hire an Indian to carry the child, and for that reason he -carried it himself. While he spoke Pantoja looked in his mouth, and saw -that it was full of coca; and, as the Spaniards abominate all that the -Indians eat and drink, as though it savoured of idolatry, particularly -the chewing of coca, which seems to them a low and vile habit, he said, -'It may be as you say, but why do you eat coca like an Indian, a thing -so hateful to Spaniards?' The man answered, 'In truth, my lord, I -detest it as much as any one, but necessity obliges me to imitate the -Indians, and keep coca in my mouth; for I would have you to know that, -if I did not do so, I could not carry this burden; while the coca gives -me sufficient strength to endure the fatigue.' Pantoja was astonished -to hear this, and told the story wherever he went; and from that time -credit was giving to the Indians for using coca from necessity, and not -from vicious gluttony." - -The Spanish Government interfered with the cultivation from more -worthy motives, and _mitas_ of Indians, for the purpose of collecting -coca-leaves, were forbidden in 1569, owing to the reputed unhealthiness -of the valleys.[318] Finally Don Francisco Toledo, viceroy of Peru, -permitted the cultivation with voluntary labour, on condition that the -Indians were well paid, and that care was taken of their healths. This -most prolific of Peruvian legislators issued no less than seventy -_ordenanzas_ on this subject alone, between the years 1570 and 1574. -Coca has always been one of the most valuable articles of commerce in -Peru, and it is used by about 8,000,000 of the human race. - -The coca-plant (_Erythoxylon coca_)[319] is cultivated between 5000 -and 6000 feet above the level of the sea, in the warm valleys of the -eastern slopes of the Andes, where almost the only variation of climate -is from wet to dry, where frost is unknown, and where it rains more or -less every month in the year. It is a shrub from four to six feet high, -with lichens, called _lacco_ in Quichua, usually growing on the older -trunks. The branches are straight and alternate; leaves alternate and -entire, in form and size like tea-leaves; flowers solitary with a small -yellowish-white corolla in five petals, ten filaments the length of the -corolla, anthers heart-shaped, and three pistils. - -Sowing is commenced in December and January, when the rains begin, -which continue until April. The seeds are spread on the surface of -the soil in a small nursery or raising-ground called _almaciga_, over -which there is generally a thatch roof (_huasichi_). At the end of -about a fortnight they come up; the young plants being continually -watered, and protected from the sun by the _huasichi_. The following -year they are transplanted to a soil specially prepared by thorough -weeding, and breaking up the clods very fine by hand; often in terraces -only affording room for a single row of plants, up the sides of the -mountains, which are kept up by small stone walls. The plants are -generally placed in square holes called _aspi_, a foot deep, with -stones on the sides to prevent the earth from falling in. Three or -four are planted in each hole, and grow up together. In Caravaya and -Bolivia the soil in which the coca grows is composed of a blackish -clay, formed from the decomposition of the schists, which form the -principal geological features of the mountains. On level ground the -plants are placed in furrows called _uachos_, separated by little walls -of earth _umachas_, at the foot of each of which a row of plants is -placed; but this is a modern innovation, the terrace cultivation being -the most ancient. At the end of eighteen months the plants yield their -first harvest, and continue to yield for upwards of forty years. The -first harvest is called _quita calzon_, and the leaves are then picked -very carefully, one by one, to avoid disturbing the roots of the young -tender plants. The following harvests are called _mitta_ ("time" or -"season"), and take place three times and even four times in the year. -The most abundant harvest takes place in March, immediately after the -rains; the worst at the end of June, called the _mitta de San Juan_. -The third, called _mitta de Santos_, is in October or November. With -plenty of watering, forty days suffice to cover the plants with leaves -afresh. It is necessary to weed the ground very carefully, especially -while the plants are young, and the harvest is gathered by women and -children. - -The green leaves, called _matu_, are deposited in a piece of cloth -which each picker carries, and are then spread out in the drying-yard, -called _matu-cancha_, and carefully dried in the sun. The dried leaf -is called _coca_. The drying-yard is formed of slate-flags, called -_pizarra_; and, when the leaves are thoroughly dry, they are sewn up -in _cestos_ or sacks made of banana-leaves, of twenty pounds each, -strengthened by an exterior covering of _bayeta_ or cloth.[320] They -are also packed in _tambores_ of fifty pounds each, pressed tightly -down. Dr. Poeppig reckoned the profits of a coca-farm to be forty-five -per cent. - -The harvest is greatest in a hot moist situation; but the leaf -generally considered the best flavoured by consumers, grows in drier -parts, on the sides of hills. The greatest care is required in the -drying; for too much sun causes the leaves to dry up and lose their -flavour, while, if packed up moist, they become fetid. They are -generally exposed to the sun in thin layers. - -Acosta says that in his time the trade in coca at Potosi was worth -500,000 dollars annually; and that in 1583 the Indians consumed -100,000 _cestos_ of coca, worth 2-1/2 dollars each in Cuzco, and 4 -dollars in Potosi. In 1591[321] an excise of 5 per cent. was imposed -on coca; and in the years 1746 and 1750 this duty yielded 800 and -500 dollars respectively, from Caravaya alone. Between 1785 and 1795 -the coca traffic was calculated at 1,207,430 dollars in the Peruvian -viceroyalty; and, including that of Buenos Ayres, 2,641,487 dollars. - -In the district of Sandia, in Caravaya, there are two kinds of coca, -that of Ypara and that of Hatun-yunca, which has a larger leaf. The -yield is 45,000 cestos a year. In the yungus of La Paz, in Bolivia, -the yield is about 400,000 cestos. The coca-trade is a government -monopoly in Bolivia, the state reserving the right of purchasing from -the grower, and reselling to the consumer. This right is generally -farmed out to the highest bidder. In 1850 the coca-duty yielded 200,000 -dollars to the Bolivian revenue. - -The approximate annual produce of coca in Peru is about 15,000,000 -lbs.,[322] the average yield being about 800 lbs. an acre. More than -10,000,000 lbs. are produced annually in Bolivia, according to Dr. -Booth of La Paz; so that the annual yield of coca throughout South -America, including Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Pasto, may be estimated -at more than 30,000,000 lbs. At Tacna the _tambor_ of 50 lbs. is -worth 9 to 12 dollars, the fluctuations in price being caused by the -perishable nature of the article, which cannot be kept in stock for -any length of time. The average duration of coca in a sound state, on -the coast, is about five months, after which time it is said to lose -flavour, and is rejected by the Indians as worthless. - -The reliance on the extraordinary virtues of the coca-leaf, amongst the -Peruvian Indians, is so strong, that, in the Huanuco province, they -believe that, if a dying man can taste a leaf placed on his tongue, it -is a sure sign of his future happiness.[323] - -No Indian is without his _chuspa_ or coca-bag, made of llama-cloth, -dyed red and blue in patterns, with woollen tassels hanging from it. -He carries it over one shoulder, suspended at his side; and, in taking -coca, he sits down, puts his _chuspa_ before him, and places the leaves -in his mouth one by one, chewing and turning them till he forms a ball. -He then applies a small quantity of carbonate of potash, prepared -by burning the stalk of the quinoa-plant, and mixing the ashes with -lime and water; thus forming cakes called _llipta_, which are dried -for use, and also kept in the _chuspa_.[324] This operation is called -_acullicar_ in Bolivia and Southern Peru, and _chacchar_ in the North. -They usually perform it three times in a day's work, and every Indian -consumes two or three ounces of coca daily. - -In the mines of the cold region of the Andes the Indians derive great -enjoyment from the use of coca; the running _chasqui_, or messenger, -in his long journeys over the mountains and deserts, and the shepherd -watching his flock on the lofty plains, has no other nourishment than -is afforded by his _chuspa_ of coca, and a little maize. The smell of -the leaf is agreeable and aromatic, and when chewed it gives out a -grateful fragrance, accompanied by a slight irritation, which excites -the saliva. Its properties are to enable a greater amount of fatigue -to be borne with less nourishment, and to prevent the occurrence of -difficulty of respiration in ascending steep mountain-sides. Tea -made from the leaves has much the taste of green tea, and, if taken -at night, is much more effectual in keeping people awake. Applied -externally coca moderates the rheumatic pains caused by cold, and cures -headaches. When used to excess it is, like everything else, prejudicial -to the health, yet, of all the narcotics used by man, coca is the least -injurious, and the most soothing and invigorating. - -The active principle of the coca-leaf has, a few years ago, been -separated by Dr. Niemann, and called _cocaine_. Pure _cocaine_ -crystallizes with difficulty, is but slightly soluble in water, but is -easily dissolved in alcohol, and still more easily in ether.[325] - -I chewed coca, not constantly, but very frequently, from the day of my -departure from Sandia, and, besides the agreeable soothing feeling it -produced, I found that I could endure long abstinence from food with -less inconvenience than I should otherwise have felt, and it enabled -me to ascend precipitous mountain-sides with a feeling of lightness -and elasticity, and without losing breath. This latter quality ought -to recommend its use to members of the Alpine Club, and to walking -tourists in general, though the sea voyage would probably cause the -leaves to lose much of their virtue. To the Peruvian Indian, however, -who can procure it within a few weeks of its being picked, the coca is -a solace which is easily procured, which affords great enjoyment, and -which has a most beneficial effect.[326] - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -CARAVAYA. - -Chinchona forests of Tambopata. - - -ON the morning of April 27th we crossed a rude bridge over the -Huari-huari, and began to make our way up the face of the steep -mountain on the other side, first through a thick forest, and then up -into the grassy highlands, until, after several halts, we at length -reached the summit of the ridge, though a mountain-peak still rose -up in our rear. From this point there was a most extensive panoramic -view. A sea of ridges rose one behind the other, with stupendous snowy -peaks in the background, and, more than a thousand feet below, the -rivers of Sandia and Huari-huari, reduced to mere glittering threads, -could be seen winding through the tortuous ravines. We had now reached -the _pajonales_, and were on a ridge or back-bone between the rivers -of Laccani and San Lorenzo, two tributaries of the Huari-huari; -a grass-covered and comparatively cold region, interspersed with -thickets, forming the crest of the tropical forests which line the -sides of the ravines through which the rivers wind, far below. - -When there is sunshine, these _pajonales_ form a very pleasant -landscape: the broad expanse of grass, dotted over with a graceful -milk-white flower called _sayri-sayri_, is intersected by dense -thickets, some in the gullies and watercourses, and others in clumps, -like those in an English park, the palms and tree-ferns raising their -graceful heads above the rest of the trees. Here and there a black pool -of sweet water is met with at the edge of the thicket, with chinchona -and _huaturu_-trees drooping over it. Everywhere there is an abrupt -boundary to the foreground in the profound forest-covered ravines, with -splendid views of mountain ranges in the distance. - -The vegetation of the thickets in these _pajonales_ consists of -_palms_, _tree-ferns_, _Melastomaceæ_ (_Lasiandra fontanesiana_) with -bright showy flowers, exceedingly pretty _Ericaceæ_ (_Gaultheriæ_), -_Vacciniæ_, the _huaturu_ or incense-tree in great quantities, and -_Chinchonæ_, chiefly consisting of _C. Caravayensis_ (Wedd.), with a -few plants of _Calisaya Josephiana_, but the latter are much more rare -here than in the neighbourhood of Paccay-samana. The _C. Caravayensis_, -a worthless species, has panicles of beautiful deep roseate flowers, -large coarse hairy capsules, and lanceolate leaves, above smooth with -purple veins, and hairy on the under side. It can probably bear greater -cold than any other chinchona.[327] - -The afternoon was passed in searching for plants of the shrubby -_Calisaya_, but with little success. During our examination of the -thickets we found a single specimen, evidently belonging to the -_Calisaya_ species, but in the form of a tree, and not of a shrub. -Its height was eighteen feet six inches; its girth, two feet from the -ground, eight and a half inches; and the position in which it was -growing was 5680 feet above the level of the sea. I was uncertain -whether it belonged to the tree variety (_Calisaya vera_, Wedd.), or -to the shrub (_Calisaga Josephiana_); for Dr. Weddell only gives the -height of the latter at eight or ten feet. - -Near the banks of one of the black pools, overhung by spreading -branches, we found a shed, a roof of coarse grass raised on four sticks -four and a half feet high, and here we encamped for the night. It had -been made by some party of incense-collectors from Bolivia, who wander -through these wilds. Towards sunset it began to pour with rain, and -continued through the night. - -From this point to the Tambopata valley the road was unknown to my -Indians, and had not been traversed since the time of the bark-trade, -which came to an end fifteen years ago. It was supposed that any path -which might once have existed would be entirely choked up by the -forest, and I therefore started early in the morning, with Andres -Vilca, to reconnoitre. The backbone of the ridge along which we -travelled was not level, but up and down like a saw, and very rough -work. After walking for a league the ridge ended where a transverse -range of hills, at a lower elevation, connects the mountains on the -further sides of the rivers of San Lorenzo and Laccani, and, closing -up the ravines, contains their sources. This range, at right angles -with the one over which we had journeyed, is called the _Marun-kunka_, -and is covered with dense forests. It was necessary to force our way -through this formidable obstruction, and we plunged into it at once. -Our progress was vigorously opposed by closely matted fallen bamboos -for the first few hundred yards, and afterwards we followed the course -of a torrent, deeply cut in the rock, and forming a passage four to -six feet deep, and about three feet across, with masses of ferns -and the roots of enormous forest-trees interlacing across overhead, -and two feet of exceedingly tenacious yellow mud underfoot. In many -places it was almost dark at midday, while in others the rays of the -sun succeeded in forcing their way through the ferns, and throwing -a pale light across the otherwise gloomy passage. It was a weird -unearthly scene. After several hours of very laborious travelling we -at length forced our way across the Marun-kunka, and came out upon -another _pajonal_, on the eastern side, whence there was a grand view -of the forest scenery towards Tambopata, and the snowy peaks of the -cordillera above Quiaca and Sina to the right. - -The afternoon was again devoted to searching for plants of _Calisaya -Josephiana_ in the thickets; where the _C. Caravayensis_ was very -plentiful, together with several plants of the shrubby _Calisaya_, -and four or five trees of the normal tree _Calisaya_, from 20 to 30 -feet high. The elevation of this place was 5600 feet above the sea. -Later in the day the journey was continued over a most difficult -country, sometimes over grassy _pajonales_, and at others painfully -struggling through forests like those on the Marun-kunka. In one of -these forests I came upon a _Calisaya_-tree, 38 feet high, and 1 foot -3 inches in girth at a distance of 3 feet from the ground, which was -several feet deep in dead leaves, chiefly the smooth leathery leaf of -the _huaturu_-tree. At length we commenced the descent into the valley -of Tambopata, 1200 feet down slippery rocks and grass, then through a -belt of forest, until we suddenly emerged on an open space on the banks -of the large rapid river, where there was a bamboo hut. A little coca -and sugar-cane was planted, but the occupant was absent. With touching -confidence he had left his door open, so my Indians established -themselves comfortably, while Weir and I pitched the tent. - -The river of Tambopata, descending from the farm of Saqui near the -frontier of Bolivia, here flows in a northerly direction. Up the stream -I could see a few little clearings, but looking down nothing appeared -but the virgin forest. A most magnificent range of mountains, with a -fine growth of forest trees, rises up on either side, and the rapid -swollen river rushed through the centre of the ravine. The rock of all -the ranges of hills between the Huari-huari and Tambopata rivers is -a yellow clay-slate, with masses of white quartz cropping out on the -_pajonales_. - -Early in the morning we continued our journey down the valley, through -a forest of grand timber, passing the little hut of Tambopata which -Dr. Weddell had mentioned to me as having been the great rendezvous -for _cascarilleros_ or chinchona-bark collectors, at the time of his -visit. After wading across the rapid little river of Llami-llami, which -enters the Tambopata on the left bank, we came to a small clearing, -planted with sugar-cane, the property of a very energetic and obliging -old Bolivian, named Don Juan de la Cruz Gironda. He was living in -a shed, open on two sides, and with a young son, and two or three -Indians, was actively clearing, planting sugar-cane, and making rum in -an extemporized distillery of his own manufacture. This little farm was -the extreme outpost of civilisation in this direction, and had only -been commenced since December 1859. - -Gironda was cultivating sugar-cane, maize, and edible roots; and, at -the time of my visit, he was just commencing his _michca_, or small -sowing of maize. His people were driving holes in the ground with long -poles, about a foot deep, into which they drop four to six grains, and -cover over. The holes are four feet apart, for here the maize grows -to an immense height. The agricultural tools were of a most primitive -kind. The ground is first broken and cleared with a bit of old iron, -fastened, at an acute angle, on a short handle. It is further broken -up by an attempt at a spade, an oblong piece of iron, bent at one end -round a long pole. The weeds and brushwood are cleared away by an -instrument like the first, only turned a different way, both being -secured to their handles by leathern thongs. They reap with the blade -of an old knife, and where the clods require to be broken up very -fine, as in coca plantations, it is done by hand. The only use that -Gironda puts his small supply of sugar-cane to, as yet, is making -spirits and a small quantity of treacle. The cane is expressed by a -very primitive mill of three upright rollers of hard wood, worked -by a single capstan-bar and a mule, the juice flowing into a gutter, -and running thence, through a bamboo, into a large jar. The juice is -then placed in two long canoes, hollow trunks of trees, where it is -allowed to ferment. In about eight days the fermentation is over, and -it is ready for distilling. This sugar-beer is called _huarapu_, and -is rather good. The juice is then poured into a large jar, over an -oven, and above the mouth of this jar he places the broken side of -another smaller one, covering the joining round with mud. From the -mouth of the second jar a bamboo is led through a large canoe to the -mouth of a third jar. The fire is lighted in the oven, the canoe is -filled with cold water to condense the vapour as it comes up through -the bamboo, and the work of distilling begins; the clear colourless -rum soon commencing to flow out of the bamboo into the receiving-jar. -The sugar-cane is of the purplish-brown kind, which is said to ripen -quickest. - -Gironda also raises a few edible roots, such as _yucas_ (_Jatophra -manihot_), _aracachas_[328] (_Conium maculatum_), _camotes_ or sweet -potatoes, and _ocas_. He gave me the following information respecting -the climate and seasons in the valley of Tambopata, which is worthy of -attention, as this is the very centre of the _C. Calisaya_ region. - - January.--Incessant rain, with damp heat day and night. Sun never - seen. Fruits ripen. - - February.--Incessant rain and very hot. Sun never seen. A coca harvest. - - March.--Less rain, hot days and nights, little sun. Bananas yield most - during the rainy season. - - April.--Less rain; hot, humid nights, and little sun in the daytime. - - May.--A showery month, but little heavy rain. This is the month for - planting coca and sugar-cane, and what is called the _michca_, or - small sowing of maize, as well as yucas, aracachas, camotes, and other - edible roots. Coffee-harvest begins. - - June.--A dry hot month. Much sun and little rain. Coca-harvest early - in the month. Oranges and paccays ripen. Cool nights, but a fierce - heat during the day. - - July.--The hottest and driest month, but with cool nights. Very few - showers. Time for sowing gourds, pumpkins, and water-melons. - - August.--Generally dry. Trees begin to bud. A month for planting. - - September.--Rains begin. Time for blossoming of many trees. - Coca-harvest. - - October.--Rains increasing. Maize-harvest, and time for the "sembra - grande," or great sowing of maize. - - November.--Heavy rains. A coca-harvest. - - December.--Heavy rains. Pumpkins ripen. - -The inhabitants of the valley of Tambopata consist of Gironda, his two -little boys, one Victorio Jovi, Villalba, and the _cascarillero_ named -Martinez. Another _cascarillero_, named Ximenes, has lately died. They -live with their families at a place called Huaccay-churu, about half a -mile up the Llami-llami river, where there are a few huts, and a small -clearing. Gironda's little farm is the last inhabited spot; beyond -is the illimitable virgin forest, stretching away for hundreds, nay -thousands of miles, to the shores of the Atlantic. This forest has not -been traversed since 1847, when the bark trade ceased, and it is quite -closed up. - -By the desertion of one of my Indians on the day we left Sandia, the -other three and Pablo Sevallos were barely able to carry the provisions -and other necessaries, so that, on reaching Gironda's clearing, which -is called Lenco-huayccu,[329] I found that I had only sufficient food -to last for six days. Gironda himself was little better off, and was -living on roots, and _chuñus_ or potatoes preserved by being frozen in -the loftiest parts of the Andes. I determined, however, to penetrate -into the forest, in search of chinchona-plants, for six days, and to -trust to Gironda's kindness to supply me with provisions to enable me -to return to Sandia. - -I was so fortunate as to secure the services of Mariano Martinez, an -experienced _cascarillero_, who had acted as guide to Dr. Weddell, -on the occasion of his visit to the valley of Tambopata in 1846. -He was thoroughly acquainted with all the different species of -chinchona-trees, and, reared from a child in these forest solitudes, he -was a most excellent and expert woodman, intelligent, sober, active, -and obliging. - -On May 1st we prepared to enter the dense entangled forest, where -no European had been before, and no human being for upwards of -thirteen years, except the Collahuayas and incense-collectors. Our -party consisted of seven: the three Indians, Weir, Pablo, Martinez, -and myself. The Indians, each with their _chuspas_ of coca, and a -_chumpi_ or belt round their waists, carried the _ccepis_ or bundles of -provisions; Pablo bore the tent; and we were all armed with _machetes_, -or wood-knives, to clear the way. My people were all dressed in coarse -cotton cloth, and I wore a leathern hat, red woollen shirt, fustian -trousers, and the indispensable _polccos_, or shoes made of _bayeta_ or -felt, always used in these forests. We were all mustered and ready to -start on the verge of Gironda's clearing, which is surrounded by tall -forest trees, with the river rushing noisily past, and the opposite -mountains covered to their summits with fine timber, when half a -dozen pale-faced men emerged from the tangled thicket in our front. -They looked wan and cadaverous like men risen from the dead, and worn -out by long watching and fatigue. They turned out to be Collahuayas, -collectors of drugs and incense, who penetrate far into the forests to -obtain their wares, and come forth, as we then saw them, looking pale -and haggard. - -These Collahuayas, called also Chirihuanos on the coast of Peru, -Yungeños, and Charasanis, are a very peculiar race. They come from -three villages in the forest-covered ravines of the Bolivian province -of Larecaja, called Charasani, Consata, and Quirbe; and their -knowledge of the virtues of herbs has been handed down from father to -son from time immemorial. They traverse the forests of Bolivia and -Caravaya collecting their drugs; and then set out as professors of -the healing art, to exercise their calling in all parts of America, -frequently being two and three years away from their homes, on these -excursions. With their wallets of drugs on their backs, and dressed -in black breeches, a red poncho, and broad-brimmed hat, they walk in -a direct line from village to village, exercising their calling, and -penetrating as far as Quito and Bogota in one direction, and to the -extreme limits of the Argentine Republic in the other. Their ancestors -did the same in the time of the Incas, and Garcilasso de la Vega gives -some account of the medical treatment adopted by the ancient Peruvian -physicians. They were in the habit of letting blood and purging, they -administered the powdered leaf of the _sayri_ (tobacco) for headaches, -_mulli_ (_Schinus molle_) for wounds, and a host of other simple herbs -for other ailments. Both Garcilasso[330] and Acosta[331] mention their -knowledge of the virtues of sarsaparilla, yet it is remarkable that the -Collahuayas should never have discovered the febrifugal qualities of -chinchona bark. - -We saluted these hard-working physicians, and then entered the forest -from which they had just emerged. A short walk brought us to the river -Challuma,[332] a tributary of the Tambopata, which we waded across. -Martinez told me that this was the extreme point reached by Dr. -Weddell, and that he came here to see a tree of _C. micrantha_ growing. - -Beyond the Challuma there is no road at all, and the really serious -forest work began; two hornets stinging me on the temple and back of -the neck, as I forced my way through the first bush. Martinez went in -front as pioneer, clearing away obstructions with his _machete_, and -the rest of our little party followed. Between lordly trees of great -height the ground was entirely choked up with creepers, fallen masses -of tangled bamboo, and long tendrils which twisted round our ankles, -and tripped us up at every step. Ten miles on open ground is only equal -to one over such country as this. In many places we had to scramble -through the same dense forest, along the verge of giddy precipices -which overhung the river. Often we came upon tracks where a giant of -the forest had fallen, bearing all before it, and finally dashing over -the cliff into the river below. The Tambopata was boiling and surging -over a rocky bed, at times far below us, while at others we took -advantage of a short strip of rocky beach to escape the forest. Thus we -struggled on until sunset, when we reached a stony beach, and encamped -for the night. This had been a most fatiguing march. In some places we -were a quarter of an hour forcing and cutting our way through a space -of twenty yards, and the halt was most welcome. It was a wild scene -as the darkness closed round: the camp-fire and Indians on the beach, -the dense gloomy forest close behind, the boiling river in front, and -forest-clad mountains rising up on the other side. - -From this, the first day of our forest-life, until the 14th of May, -being just a fortnight, we were actively engaged in the examination -of the chinchona region, and in the collection of plants. As the best -way of recording the results of our investigations, I now propose to -give a detailed account of our proceedings from day to day; and, in -the following chapter, to recapitulate our observations with special -reference to the climate, soil, and general habit of those species of -chinchonæ which came immediately under our notice. I owe much to the -intelligent assistance of our guide Martinez, who, to great experience -in woodcraft, added a lynx's eye for a _Calisaya_-plant; and it -required no little quickness and penetration to distinguish these -treasures, amidst the close entanglement of the undergrowth, in the -dense forests. Martinez spoke Spanish very imperfectly, and, without a -knowledge of Quichua, I should have found much difficulty in conversing -with him; but he had a most complete and thorough knowledge of all -forest-lore, and was acquainted with the native name of almost every -plant, and with the uses to which they were or might be applied. - -At dawn the Indians found the marks of a jaguar on the beach close -to the tent; and a huge snake wriggled through the fallen trees as -we re-entered the forest. The brilliant colours and great variety of -butterflies were very striking. I particularly noticed one, bright -blue and crimson above, with the underside marked with a pattern, as -if drawn by a crow-quill on a snow-white ground, edged with deep blue. -After struggling through the forest for about a mile we came to the -foot of the tremendous precipices, one on either side of the river, -which Martinez called Ccasa-sani. That on our (the western) shore rises -up perpendicularly from the water to a height which we estimated at 500 -feet, ending in a rocky peak. Its sides are masses of bare polished -rock, except in the rear, and in some crevices, where vegetation finds -a foothold. Amongst other trees the paccay (_Mimosa Inga_), with its -cottony fruit, was drooping over the bubbling waves. The river, surging -furiously over and around huge masses of rock, dashed noisily on -between the two precipices. - -We had to ascend the western precipice of Ccasa-sani by a frightful -kind of ladder, formed of ledges in the rock, or half-rotten branches -of trees, here and there having to cross a yawning chasm on the fallen -stems of tree-ferns rotting from age. Near the summit we had a glorious -view of the forest-covered mountains, running up into sharp peaks, -with graceful palms rising above the other trees on their crests, and -standing out against the sky. Several _Calisaya_-trees were growing -on the summit, with bunches of young capsules, in company with the -leathery-leafed _huaturu_, and the _Aceite de Maria_ (_Elæagia Mariæ_, -Wedd.). The latter is a tree about thirty feet high, with bark covered -with white lichens. Among the numerous ferns the most conspicuous was -a very large _Polypodium_, called _calaguala_. Descending the rocks of -Ccasa-sani, we had to continue the work of cutting our way through the -forest, our passage being opposed by matted entanglements of bamboo, -and a _Panicum_ with blades, the edges of which cut like a penknife, -called _challi-challi_. On many of the trees there were hornets'-nests, -globes of mud fixed to the leaves, and covered with the insects. I was -inadvertently going to touch one, which was attached to the back of -a large fern-frond, when Martinez, with great dexterity, hurled the -plants down the precipice, before the savage creatures were aware of -their danger. - -We were now in the midst of the chinchona region; and passed several -trees of _C. ovata_ (_morada ordinaria_) and _C. micrantha_ (_verde -paltaya_). There were also great quantities of a false chinchona, -called by Martinez _Carhua-carhua blanca_. We passed through several -large groves of this species, which appeared to be a _Lasionema_, but -differed in several respects from the _L. chinchonoides_, mentioned -by Dr. Weddell as growing in the Caravayan forests. The tree is very -common near the banks of the river Tambopata, frequently with its -boughs, large coarse leaves, and panicles of flowers, drooping over the -water.[333] - -The magnitude and variety of the trees of the forest were very -striking; and the imposing character of the scenery, in these vast -solitudes, was a source of constant enjoyment, and lightened the -fatigues of the journey. Among the wonders of the forest there were -enormous trees with great buttressed trunks, others sending down -rope-like tendrils from the branches in every direction, the gigantic -balsam-tree, the india-rubber tree, and many others. A list of the -ferns or mosses, endless in the variety of their shape and size, would -fill volumes. Of palms, also, there were many kinds. The tall _chonta_, -with its hard serviceable wood; the slender beautiful _chinilla_ -(_Euterpe?_); the towering _muruna_ (_Iriartea?_), with its roots -shooting out in every direction from eight feet above the ground, and -triangular-notched leaflets; the _chaquisapa_ (_Astrocaryum?_), with -its lofty stem thickly set with alternate rings of spines, and thorny -leaves; the _sumballu_ (_Giulielma?_), a beautiful palm with a slender -stem covered with long sharp spines, numerous graceful leaves, and an -edible fruit; and above all the _sayal_, the monarch of the palms of -these forests, with a rather short thick stem, inner fibres of the -stalks like black wool, but with enormous leaves growing rather erect -from the stem to a length of at least forty feet--I should think they -must be the largest leaves in the whole vegetable kingdom. Among the -bright flowers there were crimson _Melastomaceæ_, called _ccesuara_, a -scarlet _Justitia_, the _Manetia coccinea_, and many beautiful orchids -in the branches of the trees. - -At length, after a very hard day's work, we reached the mouth of -the Yana-mayu[334] or Black river; and attempted to wade across the -Tambopata, but found it too powerful. I was particularly anxious to -effect this, as Martinez assured me that chinchona-trees were most -abundant on the right or eastern bank. We, however, managed to get upon -an island, near the left bank, and encamped for the night on a shingly -beach. After sunset it came on to rain very heavily, and the waters -foamed furiously around us in the inky darkness. The rain continued -to pour down, and the waters to rise through the night, and I hourly -expected the island to be submerged; but, fortunately, we escaped this -danger, though the river came up to within a very few feet of the -tent-door. I served out a dram of brandy to all hands. - -In the morning of May 3rd I continued my attempts to cross the river, -by stripping and trying the water for a ford at several points, with -a long pole as a support. But the water was deep, much swollen, and -very rapid; and, after having twice been as nearly as possible carried -away by the fury of the stream, I was obliged unwillingly to give up -the attempt for the present. I considered it prudent also to remove -our encampment from the island, and to establish it on a narrow beach -overshadowed by the forest, at the point where the muddy waters of the -Yana-mayu unite with those of the Tambopata. - -These arrangements having been made, we devoted the day to an -examination of the adjacent forest. The spot on which we were encamped -was about 4600 feet above the sea. Our tent was pitched close to the -foaming torrent, and behind rose up the tall dark forests. In front -were the steep green sides of the Yana-mayu ravine, while looking down -the river the view was bounded by forest-covered mountains, surmounted -by the lofty peak of Corimamani. On the actual banks of the river -there were trees of _C. micrantha_, with large bunches of lovely and -deliciously sweet white flowers; many _carhua-carhua blancas_; and a -chinchonaceous tree, which Martinez called _Huiñapu_. The _Huiñapu_ -grows low down and near the banks of rivers. Its capsules are three -inches long; and the veins of the leaves are a pale purple. Dr. Weddell -tells me that he recollects gathering the leaves of the _Huiñapu_, and -that he took it to be a variety of _Cascarilla magnifolia_. - -We commenced the day's work in the forest on the south-west slopes of -the Yana-mayu ravine, scrambling up the steep forest-covered declivity -amongst palms, tree-ferns, bamboos, and trees with buttressed trunks of -stupendous size. Here too were the vast leaves of the _sayal_ palm. At -a height of 400 feet above the river the _Calisaya_ region commences; -while in the lower belt, from the river banks to a height of 400 feet, -the most abundant chinchonaceous plant is the _Carhua-carhua grande_ -(_Cascarilla Carua_, Wedd.), with very fragrant white flowers. I met -with flowers and capsules together on the same tree, which is forty -feet high, with a thick trunk, fine spreading branches, and masses of -beautiful white flowers. - -I found that the _C. Calisaya_ region extended in a belt from 450 -to 650 feet above the banks of the river; bamboos, large palms, -_C. micranthas_, _Huiñapus_, _Lasionemas_, and the _Cascarilla -carua_ being found below that line, and other species of chinchonæ -and chinchonaceous plants above it. We collected twenty-five -_Calisaya_-plants, two of them fine strong seedlings, and the remainder -root-shoots springing up from trees which had been cut down by -_cascarilleros_ in former times, but with good spreading roots of their -own. The search was exceedingly hard work, scrambling through matted -undergrowth, and up steep ascents, through masses of rotting vegetation. - -The afternoon was devoted to an examination of the heights on the -north-east side of the Yana-mayu, where, at an elevation of 450 feet, -there is a level table-land, covered with palms and bamboos. The -search was chiefly conducted along a ridge above this plateau, where -the bamboos ended. We obtained twenty more plants of _C. Calisaya_, -one of which was declared by Martinez to be a _Calisaya morada_ (_C. -Boliviana_, Wedd.), and the leaf agreed well with Dr. Weddell's -description, though that botanist believed that the species was not -found in this part of Caravaya, but only in the valleys of Ayapata, -further north. To-day we saw a couple of _tunquis_,[335] birds with -the most gorgeous plumage I ever beheld. They are the size of large -pigeons, with orange-scarlet feathers on the head, neck, breast, and -tail, black wings, light-grey back, and scarlet crest. They have -a shrill, harsh cry. The butterflies and moths were numerous and -brilliant, but so tame, and in such swarms, as to be a perfect plague. -There was one bright swallow-tail, with blue wings, fringed with -crimson. The torments from venomous insects were maddening; especially -from a kind of fly which in a moment raised swellings and blood-red -lumps all over the hands and face, causing great pain and irritation. -During the night it rained heavily, with peals of thunder, and vivid -flashes of lightning, while the river increased in size, and roared -past the tent noisily. - -The collection of chinchona-plants was deposited in a shady place, near -the tent, the roots being well covered over with soft moss. - -On the morning of May 4th the river was so swollen as to destroy -all hopes of crossing it for the present. It frequently changed its -colour, on one morning the surging flood being black, on another -tolerably clear, and on another a light muddy colour. By these means -Martinez could always tell where the rains had been heaviest, and what -stream was contributing an unusual freshet to swell the waters of the -Tambopata. - -I devoted the day to examining the forest on the declivities -overhanging the left bank of the Tambopata, and this was by far the -most toilsome and dangerous forest journey we had yet made, rendered -worse by a comparative want of success. The whole way was along giddy -precipices, seeming to hang half way between the sky and the roaring -torrent, with no foothold but decaying leaves, nothing to grasp but -rotten branches, every motion a drenching bath from wet leaves, every -other step a painful and dangerous slip or fall, besides hornets, -and endless thorns. Among the latter I was struck by a tree called -_itapallu_, with trunk and branches thickly set with thorns, very -large leaves, and the fruit in clusters, like bunches of pearls with -purple stalks. We met with large pigeons, flocks of green parrots, -paroquets, and tunquis. The forest peeps across the river were -superb, but it was difficult to enjoy them. Martinez pointed out a -small _Asplenium_, called _espincu_, which has a sweet taste, and is -sometimes chewed by the Indians for want of coca; and the _panchi_, -a tall slender malvaceous tree, with large round leaves on spreading -branches at the top, and very white wood. It is used by the Chunchos -for procuring fire by friction, and the bark, which peels off in long -strips, is serviceable for girdles. During this day we came to the -largest _Calisaya_ we had yet seen, and Martinez operated on the bark -to show his dexterity as a cascarillero, which was remarkable.[336] -Our collection only amounted to fourteen plants, among them two fine -seedlings of _C. Calisaya_, two of _C. micrantha_, two of _C. ovata, -var. β rufinervis_, and the remainder root-shoots of _C. Calisaya_: -seedlings of the latter species are exceedingly rare. We returned to -our camp dead beat, and drenched to the skin, only to find that my -Indians were mutinous, declaring that they had been away long enough, -that they had no maize or coca left, and that they must return to -their homes at once. Our only hope rested upon them, and, if they -had deserted, all our plans would have been entirely frustrated. It, -however, required no little persuasion and eloquence to induce them to -change their minds, and, as they had nothing left to eat, I sent Andres -Vilca back to Gironda, to entreat him to supply us with a few chuñus -and a little coca. I then told the others, in their own expressive -language, that if they deserted me they were liars, thieves, traitors, -and children of the Devil, whose punishment would soon overtake them; -while if they were true to me they would be well rewarded, and would -enjoy the friendship of a Viracocha. After this great effort in -Quichua, the evening ended pleasantly. The Indians had built themselves -a little shed of palm-leaves near the tent door, a bright fire was -lighted, and its cheery reflection danced on the waves of the noisy -flood. - -It rained heavily through the night, and in the morning, hearing from -Martinez that the varieties of _C. ovata_, the collection of which had -been recommended to me by Dr. Weddell, were only found in a zone at a -much greater elevation than that of the _C. Calisayas_, I devoted the -day to a search in an almost vertical direction, on the north-east side -of the Yana-mayu, towards some heights called Pacchani. - -Ascending the steep sides of the ravine of Yana-mayu for about two -hundred feet, we reached a narrow level shelf covered with ferns and -the huge leaves of the _sayal_ palm. The locality was very damp and -shady, and the _C. micrantha_, _Huiñapu_, and _Cascarilla Carua_ -were in great abundance. We continued to ascend through the forest -which covered the sides of the steep mountain, for several hours -continuously; the footing consisting of decayed leaves and rotten -trunks, moss and ferns covering every tree, and all the vegetation -intensely humid. At a height of 750 feet above the river we came to -some trees of the _beno-beno_ (_Pimentelia gomphosia_,[337] Wedd.), -with its bright laurel-like leaves and minute capsules; the _C. -pubescens_, called by Martinez _cascarilla amarilla_, still only in -bud, which was very abundant; and large trees of the _morada naranjada_ -(_C. ovata, var. α vulgaris_, Wedd.). Near this place a troop of about -twenty monkeys went chattering along the tops of the trees, and while I -was looking at them a huge black hornet rushed up out of the moss and -stung me on the chin. These savage creatures make their nests under the -earth, and are called _huancoyru_. - -After a long and wearisome but fruitless search for young plants of -the _zamba morada_ (the _β rufinervis_ variety of _C. ovata_) in these -excessively damp forests, we began the descent again. Nothing struck -me so much as the extraordinary variety of forms and shapes in which -nature works in these tropical forests. One is amazed to see enormous -trees with their gigantic roots separating at least twenty feet above -the ground, and forming perfect Gothic arches. In one place a giant -of the forest had grown on the edge of a ridge of rock, and the roots -had combined with the stone to form a spacious vaulted cave large -enough to hold ten men comfortably. Beautiful variegated leaves of -_Colocasiæ_, and a scarlet-flowered _Justitia_, with bright purple -leaves, united with a profusion of ferns to ornament the opening, while -some tree-ferns, and a _chinilla_, the most slender and elegant of the -palms of the forest, guarded the entrance. Rays of the sun struggled -through a network of bamboos on an opposite bank, and penetrated into -the recesses of the cavern. While I gazed on this lovely scene, the -plaintive mournful notes of the little "_Alma perdida_" reached me from -the boughs of the great tree. This is a small bird of the finch tribe, -of which there are two kinds, one black, the other chesnut with black -wings. Their loud clear note is peculiarly sad. Such peeps as these -into the secret beauties of the innermost forest recesses are rewards -for many hours of toil and disappointment. - -Late in the evening I returned to the tent dead tired, sodden and -wet to the skin, covered with moss and fungus, bitten all over by -mosquitos, stung by a hornet, and with hands sliced in pieces by the -sharp blades of a _Panicum_ called _challi-challi_, but with only three -plants of the valuable variety of _C. ovata_. It is most provoking that -only the seedlings of all the worthless species of Chinchonæ should be -in great abundance; the reason is of course connected with the general -felling of the trees of valuable species by the cascarilleros, years -ago. - -There was little rain during the night, and on May 6th we commenced the -search of a range of forest on the south-west side of the Yana-mayu -ravine, where we found a large supply of plants of _C. Calisaya_. At a -height of 500 feet above the river there was a ridge of rock jutting -out from the forest-covered sides of the ravine. In this spot the -ground was not nearly so thickly covered with vegetation; there were -no palms, tree-ferns, or plants requiring extreme moisture, and young -plants received shade from taller trees, while they also enjoyed plenty -of sunshine through the spreading branches. The most abundant plants -were _Melastomas_, _huaturus_, and _Panica_, which climb amongst the -branches to a height of thirty feet and upwards. These afford but very -slight shade, and below there is an undergrowth of ferns, _Colocasiæ_, -and young plants. In different parts of this ridge we collected 124 -young _C. Calisaya_ plants, most of them root-shoots, and a few -seedlings. There were also two young trees bearing capsules. The _C. -Calisaya_ plants were all growing out of the moss which covered the -rock to a thickness of eight inches or a foot, together with beautiful -_Hymenophylla_,[338] but there was scarcely any soil. The roots -spread along the face of the rock, which is a metamorphic clay slate, -unfossiliferous, slightly micaceous, and ferruginous;[339] and is -easily broken up into thin layers by the growth of the plants. In this -situation the _C. Calisayas_ were more numerous than in any other we -have yet seen. - -Two bears had made themselves a comfortable and very carefully -prepared bed on the summit of the ridge, whence there was an extensive -bird's-eye view of the windings of the river, and of the forest-covered -mountains beyond. On the opposite mountains there were two or three -long bare places--tremendous landslips, not unfrequent occurrences in -the forest. There is a sudden crash, when masses of rock, huge trees, -and underwood come rushing down in one fell irresistible swoop. A -beautiful white _Stephanotis_ was climbing over the rocks. We returned -to the camp in a heavy fall of rain, after a very severe but successful -day's work, and found that both the Indians and ourselves had come to -the end of our provisions, and that Andres Vilca Lad not returned. - -On May 7th we rose to find only a few bread-crumbs in the corner of our -bag, and, as famine was thus knocking at the door, it became necessary -to beat a hasty retreat. The plants were carefully packed in layers -of moss, and sown up in two bundles of Russia matting, which we had -brought with us, containing about 200 chinchona-plants. In the absence -of Andres Vilca, Mr. Weir showed much zeal and energy in undertaking -to carry one of these bundles, four and a half feet in circumference, -over the slippery and dangerous road, in doing which he fell into the -river. - -On the morning of May 7th, when we commenced our retreat, it was -pouring with rain, and the forest was saturated, our bodies sodden, -our hands crumpled like washerwomen's, and our powder damp. We had to -wade across many little streams falling into the Tambopata. The first, -after leaving the Yana-mayu, was called Churu-bamba, because it empties -itself just opposite an island (_churu_, in Quichua). The next stream -was _Uma-yuyu_, _uma_ being water in Aymara, and _yuyu_ a plant with -a large cordate dock-like leaf, used in _chupes_. Thus every little -stream and hill had received a name from the cascarilleros of former -times, from some peculiarity of position or other similar circumstance, -which would easily impress it on the memory. What an improvement on -the nomenclature in new countries discovered by Englishmen, where -we have an endless succession of Jones's rivers, Smith's mountains, -and Brown's islands! Near the banks of these streams there are very -large snail-shells, and Martinez described the snails as "large kind -of hornets, all made of flesh, which do not sting." He called them -_Mamachuru_, or "Mother of the Island." - -On reaching the precipice of Ccasa-sani we scrambled along its slippery -sides, in the pouring rain, to collect plants of _C. Calisaya_, and -obtained twenty-one good ones. They were growing in a similar situation -to those above the Yana-mayu, in company with a number of _Aceite de -Maria_ trees (_Elæagia Mariæ_),[340] and completely exposed to the -sun, without any shade whatever. Passing the precipice, we continued -our damp weary journey, Martinez pointing out everything that -was noticeable by the way, especially the _palo santo_ (_Guaiacum -sanctum_), a very tall tree, the stem 60 to 70 feet high, without a -branch, with a few short horizontally spreading branches at the summit, -with pinnate leaves. When the bark is cut, a host of stinging ants -come forth. There was also a plant, which he called _achira silvestre_ -(_Canna achira?_) with a rhizome, and bunches of rank red berries. We -passed through groves of paccays (_Mimosa Inga_), a creeping legume -with bright flowers, wild coca, many _Lasionemas_, with their large -coarse leaves drooping over the river, and a melastomaceous plant with -a crimson fruit. After having been nearly carried away by the force of -the Challuma river, in wading across it, I reached Gironda's hospitable -shed, after a journey of more than thirty miles, in pouring rain. - -On May 8th I left Gironda's clearing, with Martinez, in order to -examine the forests above the hut of Tambopata, for plants of _C. -Calisaya_. Here, in almost exactly a similar ridge of rock to those -which proved so prolific of these precious plants on the heights -above the Yana-mayu, and on the precipice of Ccasa-sani, I found a -number of plants of _Calisaya morada_ (_C. Boliviana_, Wedd.), growing -out of moss, amongst the rocks, with scarcely any soil. They were -overshadowed by numerous trees, called by Martinez "Compadre[341] de -Calisaya" (_Gomphosia chlorantha_, Wedd.), one of the most graceful and -beautiful of the chinchonaceous plants, with deliciously sweet flowers. -Dr. Weddell exactly describes it as rising without a branch above -all the trees of the forest, and then spreading out in the form of a -chandelier, and attracting the attention of the traveller from afar. -The bark of this tree, with its transverse cracks, can with difficulty -be distinguished from that of _C. Calisaya_. Whilst climbing amongst -these rocks, I nearly put my hand on a small viper of a most venomous -kind, 18 inches long, with a black skin marked with yellow rings, -edged with white. In the evening we returned to Gironda's clearing at -Lenco-huayccu, with eighty-seven chinchona-plants, sixteen of Calisaya -fina (_C. Calisaya, var. α vera_), and sixty-nine of Calisaya morada -(_C. Boliviana_, Wedd.). - -We found Gironda, on whom we were now entirely dependent for food, very -little better off than ourselves. His supplies consisted of maize, -yucas, aracachas, chuñus or frozen potatoes, and quispiñas, made of -boiled quinoa-grains dried in the sun, ground, and preserved as little -gritty hard lumps. He also had some _achocches_, which are poor watery -cucurbitaceous things, squeezed, and served up in chupes. No salt. - -Though frequently baffled, and more than once exposed to much risk in -making vain attempts, I had never given up my determination to have at -least one day's work on the right bank of the Tambopata. For some days -the volume of water had been gradually decreasing, but it was still -40 yards across, and rushing with great velocity over a ford which -Gironda believed to exist a little below Lenco-huayccu. I stripped and -went in, with the stem of a young _chonta_ palm as a support, but, on -approaching the mid-channel, the water came up above my middle, the -large pebbles slipped and rolled under my feet, and for some time it -was with the utmost difficulty that I held my own; but finally we all -reached the right bank in safety. - -We were rewarded by a very successful day's work. After ascending the -steep ravine, through the zone of bamboos, to a height of 400 feet, we -reached a ridge of rocks, where we collected 109 good chinchona-plants -of the _Calisaya morada_ species. The leaves of the chinchonæ, and -more especially the _Calisaya_ species, are invariably perforated -by holes in every direction. Much of this mischief is the work of -caterpillars, but it may partly be attributed to the effects of drip -from the trees which overshadow them. In this forest there were trees -of great height, without a branch for a distance of 50 or 60 feet -from the ground, which Martinez called _canela_. The inner bark had a -strong taste of cinnamon, and they use it to scent and flavour their -_huarapu_, or fermented juice of the sugar-cane. On many trees, in -the forest, there are immense masses of earth fixed on the trunk, -called _cotocuro_. They consist of exceedingly thin layers, one added -to another until they are sometimes of an immense size, eight to ten -feet high, and three or four feet across. They are made by myriads and -myriads of small yellowish lice, which swarm between each thin layer. - -In the evening we incurred the same risks in wading across the river -again, but arrived without any accident at Gironda's clearing, where we -now had a depôt of 436 chinchona-plants. - -On May 10th I resolved to make a search on the heights immediately -above Lenco-huayccu, called Gloriapata, for the valuable red-nerved -variety of _C. ovata_. I first paid a visit to the poor little Indian -wife and children of Martinez at Huaccay-churu, in a hut of split -bamboos, surrounded by aracachas, yucas, camotes with their white -convolvulus flowers, plantains, frijoles or beans, and the _Amaranthus -caudatus_, which they call _jataccu_ and _cuimi_, using the leaves in -_chupes_. We then struck right up the steep declivity of Gloriapata, -making our way with difficulty through the dense bamboo thickets, -which, in spite of their obstinate obstructiveness, make excellent -cisterns, and their joints will always afford a good drink of cool -water. For some time we followed a pathway made by a herd of peccaries, -until it ended at the mouth of a cave which, though low, appeared to -be of considerable size. These peccaries come down in herds of thirty -or forty to the clearings, during the night, and do much damage amongst -the roots. Some are black and white, and others of a leaden colour. - -After ascending for several hundred feet we came to trees of _C. -pubescens_, which appear to belong to a zone just below, but in contact -with the _C. ovatæ_. Their leaves were eaten by a caterpillar, red at -both ends, with a horn, red stripe down the back, and red spots on each -side, body striped green and yellow. Some hundred feet higher there -were large trees of both varieties of _C. ovata_, growing in very moist -parts of the forest, where the trees were covered with _Hymenophylla_ -and dripping moss, the former a sure sign of extreme humidity. The -ground was covered with fallen leaves to a great depth, and there -was a good deal of shade. We collected seven plants of _C. ovata, -var. α vulgaris_, and eleven of _C. ovata, var. β rufinervis_, five -of which were strong healthy seedlings, the remainder being suckers, -with spreading roots of their own. With the _C. ovatæ_ grows the -_Carhua-carhua chica_ (_Cascarilla bullata_, Wedd.). - -In descending from these heights I came to a tree which Martinez called -_copal_, but the trunk rose to such an extraordinary height, without -branches, that I was unable to make out the appearance of the leaves or -flowers. The bark was covered with a milk-white fragrant resin, of a -nature analogous to _gum thus_ or _gum elemi_. The forest also abounds -in vegetable and bees' wax, and in many varieties of gums and resins. - -On May 11th, as we had now collected a sufficient number of -chinchona-plants, including those of the shrub _Calisaya_ which we -intended to take up on our return across the _pajonales_, to fill -the Wardian cases at Islay, Mr. Weir began to make up the plants in -layers, with plenty of moss between them, ready for sewing up in the -Russia matting. Having heard that a young man, a nephew of Gironda's, -had planted a _C. Calisaya_ in a small clearing a few leagues up the -ravine, I went to examine it. The clearing was on a steep declivity -sloping down to the river, and had been partly planted with coffee -and coca by its solitary occupant. The tree was a _Calisaya morada_, -having been a root-shoot twelve inches high when it was planted in -January, 1859. It is now seven feet high, six inches and four-tenths -in circumference round the trunk, and three feet three inches across -the longest branches from one side of the stem to the other. It was -growing on the side of a steep hill, quite open to the south, east, -and south-east, at the edge of a clearing, while mountains covered -with forest rise up close behind it, on the north and west, to a great -height. It is planted in a soil consisting of stiff yellowish loam, -composed of vegetable matter, mixed with the disintegration of the -soft clay slate. This is probably the only cultivated chinchona-tree -in Peru. In returning to Lenco-huayccu I saw a flock of _Alectors_, -large birds analogous to turkeys, and many parrots; and on my arrival I -found that Mr. Weir had already made up the chinchona-plants, in four -Russia-matting bundles, ready to start for Sandia on the following -morning. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CHINCHONA-PLANTS OF CARAVAYA. - - -THE range of my observations in the chinchona-forests extended for -a distance of forty miles along the western side of the ravine of -Tambopata, and one day's journey on the eastern side. This region -is covered, with few exceptions, from the banks of the river to -the summits of the mountain-peaks, by a dense tropical forest. The -formation is everywhere, as I have before said, an unfossiliferous, -micaceous, slightly ferruginous, metamorphic clay-slate, with veins -of quartz, and the streams all contain more or less gold-dust. When -exposed to the weather this clay-slate quickly turns to a sticky yellow -mud,[342] and lower down it is very brittle, and easily breaks off -in thin layers. The soil formed by the disintegration of the rock, -mixed with decayed vegetable matter, is a heavy yellowish brown loam, -but there is very little of it on the rocky sides of the ravine, and -no depth of soil except on the few level spaces and gentle slopes -near the banks of the river. Mr. Forbes, in speaking of the extensive -range of Silurian formation, of which the Tambopata hills form a part, -attributes the frequent occurrence of veins of auriferous quartz, -usually associated with iron pyrites, to the proximity of granite, -whence they have been injected into the Silurian slates. In the cooling -and solidification of granite the quartz is the last mineral element -to crystallize and become solid, and he suggests that, during the -cooling, the consequent expansion due to the crystallization of the -constituents has forced the quartz and gold, still fluid, into the -fissures of the neighbouring rocks, and so formed the auriferous quartz -veins. These are only developed in the slate rocks, which, when such -veins occur, must be at no great distance from granitic eruptions, -either visible, or such as may be inferred to exist.[343] - -The chinchona forests which I examined in the Tambopata valley are -between lat. 13° and 12° 30´ S. The elevation above the sea, on the -banks of the river, is 4200 feet, while the loftiest crests of the -mountains which overhang it on either side attain an elevation of about -5000 feet. In the preceding chapter I have given a general idea of the -nature of the climate throughout the year, and my stay was too short to -enable me to give any more detailed information for most of the months; -but I did not fail to take careful observations while I remained in -the valley, which will give an accurate idea of the climate during the -month of May. During the fourteen first days of May the results were as -follows:-- - - Mean temperature 69-5/6° Fahr. - " " at 7 A.M. 68 - " " at 3 P.M. 71-1/2 - " " at 9 P.M. 69 - Mean minimum in the night 62-5/7 - Highest temperature observed 75 - Lowest " " 56 - Entire range 19 - Mean variation in the 24 hours 10-1/3 - Greatest " " 15 - Least " " 6 - Mean of the dew-point 61-4/5 } - " " at 7 A.M. 61.9 } Dry bulb - " " at 3 P.M. 62.5 } as above. - " " at 9 P.M. 60.9 } - -The wind generally blows up the valley during the daytime, when the -clouds ascend, to be condensed by the colder night-air. Thus we -almost invariably had rain at night, generally in a heavy fall, but -occasionally in small drizzle, which usually continued until the -forenoon. At noon it cleared up for a fine afternoon, and only on two -occasions did we have rain throughout the day. The valley, and the -course of the river, bear N.N.W. and S.S.E. - -The three valuable species of chinchonæ found in Tambopata grow in -distinct zones as regards elevation, together with other chinchonaceous -plants, up the declivitous sides of the ravine. - -From the banks of the river to about 400 feet up the mountains, the -forest consists of bamboos, several genera of palms, tree-ferns, -paccays, and other _Leguminosæ_, _Lasionemas_, _Cascarilla Caruas_, -and the _Chinchona micrantha_, together with the chinchonaceous -tree called by Martinez _Huiñapu_. This is the lower zone. The _C. -micrantha_, called by Martinez _verde paltaya_ and _motosolo_,[344] -was in flower in May. I met with it constantly in moist low places; -and several trees, with their very large ovate leaves, and bunches of -white fragrant flowers, were actually drooped over the waters of the -river. It produces a good quality of bark, and I collected seven fine -seedling-plants of this species. - -From 400 to 600 feet above the river is the middle zone, and that which -contains the Calisaya-plants. The vegetation chiefly consists of huge -balsam and India-rubber trees, _huaturus_, _Melastomaceæ_, Aceite de -Maria (_Elæagia Mariæ_), Compadre de Calisaya (_Gomphosia chlorantha_), -and occasional trees of _Cascarilla Carua_, which straggle up from -the lower zone. Here the young trees of _C. Calisaya_ grow in great -abundance, but the cascarilleros had certainly done their work well in -former years, for every single tree of any size had been felled, though -many of the young root-shoots were 20 and 30 feet high, and covered -with capsule-bearing panicles. These precious trees were most plentiful -under the ridges of rock which crop out at intervals, where the ground -was not so thickly covered with vegetation, and where the young plants -obtained plenty of light and air, while they were partially protected -from the direct rays of the sun by the spreading branches of taller -trees. The _Calisaya_-trees, on the Ccasa-sani precipice, however, -had no shade whatever. They were covered with capsules. I observed -that when the young plants of _C. Calisaya_ grew up the sides of the -rocks, and actually came in contact, they often threw out roots from -their stems or branches. The _C. Calisaya_ is by far the most beautiful -tree of these forests. Its leaves are of a dark rich green, smooth and -shining, with crimson veins, and a green petiole edged with red, and -the deliciously sweet bunches of flowers are white, with rose-coloured -laciniæ, edged with white marginal hairs. But it was evident that we -did not see them to advantage in these forests; they ran up tall and -straggling, as if seeking the sun, and seemed to pant for more light -and air, and a deeper and richer soil. Martinez told me that, when the -Calisaya is much overshadowed by other trees, it loses the crimson -colour on the petioles and veins of the leaves; and that fifteen -leagues lower down the river (I suppose at about four thousand feet -above the sea) the leaves of the _Calisaya morada_ become quite bright -purple all over the under side. - -Gironda and Martinez told me that there were three kinds of -Calisaya-trees; namely, the _Calisaya fina_ (_C. Calisaya, α vera_, -Wedd.), the _Calisaya morada_ (_C. Boliviana_, Wedd.), and the tall -_Calisaya verde_. They added that the latter was a very large tree, -without any red colour in the veins of the leaves, and generally -growing far down the valleys, almost in the open plain. A tree of this -variety yields six or seven quintals of bark, while the _Calisaya fina_ -only yields three or four quintals; and Gironda declared that he had -seen one, in the province of Munecas in Bolivia, which had yielded ten -quintals of _tabla_ or trunk-bark alone. - -My remarks respecting the position of _C. Calisaya_ trees, on the -sides of the ravine, only apply to the forest below Lenco-huayccu; -above that position they are not found so high up the sides of the -mountains, probably owing to their greater proximity to the snowy -region of the cordillera. The nearest snow may be about forty miles -from Lenco-huayccu, as the crow flies. I also found that the _Calisaya -fina_ was most abundant about the Yana-mayu, while the variety called -_morada_ was plentiful in the upper part of the ravine. But it was very -difficult for an unpractised eye to detect the slightest difference -between these two varieties, until their leaves were placed side by -side, when that of the _morada_ appeared to be just a shade darker -green. Dr. Weddell has, in his work, named the _Calisaya morada_, as a -distinct species, _C. Boliviana_, but I understand that he is now of -opinion that it is scarcely more than a variety of the _Calisaya vera_, -its bark being very generally collected and sold as that of the latter. -No plants which I saw in the forests could be compared, for vigour and -regularity of growth, with the tree which I have already described as -having been planted on the edge of a clearing; and I think this tends -to prove that plenty of light and air is essential to the vigorous -growth of the _C. Calisaya_, so long as there is a sufficient supply -of moisture, and protection from the direct rays of a scorching sun -for the first year or two. The _C. Calisaya_ is undoubtedly the most -delicate and sensitive of all the species of chinchona. - -Above the region occupied by _C. Calisayas_, in the forests, is the -third or upper zone, from 600 to 800 feet above the river. Here, amidst -very dense humid vegetation, covered with ferns and mosses, are first -met the trees of _C. pubescens_, and _Pimentelia glomerata_, and a -little higher up are numerous trees of the two valuable species of -_C. ovata_, namely, α _vulgaris_ and β _rufinervis_, with very large -ovate leaves, the latter being distinguishable by the deep red of the -leaf-veins. The _Cascarilla bullata_ grows with them, and extends still -higher up the sides of the mountains. The bark of the β _rufinervis_ -variety is habitually used to adulterate the Calisaya, which it very -closely resembles, and is called _zamba morada_ by the cascarilleros, -while the α _vulgaris_ variety is known as _morada ordinaria_. Martinez -said that the _zamba morada_ was very tenacious of life, and that, -having once thrown away a branch amongst some moss, he found it a -fortnight afterwards, still throwing out shoots. Both varieties of _C. -ovata_ yield valuable barks. - -Above the zone of the _C. ovatas_, and nearer the snowy cordillera (for -lower down the valley the forests cover the crests of the mountains), -commence the open grassy _pajonales_, which I have already described. -Here the formation is exactly the same as that in the valley of -Tambopata; and the vegetation of the thickets which fill the gullies, -and are interspersed over the grassy glades, consists of _huaturus_, -_Gaultheriæ_, _Vacciniæ_, _Lasiandræ_, and other _Melastomaceæ_, -_Chinchonæ_, palms, and tree-ferns. The chinchonæ consist of _C. -Caravayensis_, and of the shrubby variety of _C. Calisaya_, which -is called _ychu cascarilla_ by the natives. The shrub _Calisaya_ (β -_Josephiana_) is generally from six and a half to ten feet high, but -I met with an individual plant which I believe to belong to this -variety, which had attained a height of eighteen and a half feet; and -this inclined me to think, at the time, that this shrubby form could -not even be considered as a variety of the normal _C. Calisaya_, and -that its more lowly habit was merely due to the higher elevation and -more rigorous climate in which it grew. Dr. Weddell remarks that its -appearance varies very much according to the situation in which it -grows, and that the colour and texture of the different parts change -according to the amount of exposure. - -I found the shrub _Calisaya_ in flower in the end of April. - -We crossed two _pajonal_ regions, one above the valley of Sandia, and -the other between the valleys of Sandia and Tambopata. The height of -the former above the level of the sea was 5422 feet, and of the latter -5600 feet. The time of my visit was the end of April and beginning of -May, and I traversed both regions twice, so that an abstract of my -meteorological observations will give a tolerably correct idea of the -climate at that time of the year; although they only extend over the -25th, 26th, 27th, and 28th of April, and a few days in the middle of -May. - - Mean temperature 59° Fahr. - Mean minimum at night 52 - Highest temperature observed 67 - Lowest " " 49 - Entire range 18 - Mean of the dew-point 53.6 (dry bulb as above). - -In the early morning there were generally masses of white clouds lying -in the ravines, and in the afternoon a thick mist drifted across the -_pajonal_, with drizzling rain. - -The shrub-Calisayas, which were growing plentifully by the roadside, -above the valley of Sandia, were entirely exposed, without any shade -whatever, and the hill on which they grew had a western aspect. There -is a difference in elevation of about 1000 feet between the locality -where we saw the shrub-Calisayas, and the region of the normal -tree-Calisaya in the Tambopata forests; and the shrubby form is also -many leagues nearer the snows of the cordillera. These circumstances -are alone sufficient to account for the difference in the habit of -these two forms of _C. Calisaya_; and there seems to be no doubt that -the barks of the shrubby varieties of chinchonæ are specially good when -their stunted growth is owing to the altitude of the locality. - -Our collection of chinchona-plants in the Tambopata forests, and on the -_pajonales_, was completed on May 14th, as follows:-- - - No. of Plants. - _C. Calisaya_ (_calisaya fina_) 237 - _C. Boliviana_ (_calisaya morada_) 185 - _C. ovata, var. α vulgaris_ (_zamba ordinaria_) 9 - _C. ovata, var. β rufinervis_ (_zamba morada_) 16 - _C. micrantha_ (_verde paltaya_) 7 - _C. Calisaya, var. β Josephiana_ (_ychu cascarilla_) 75 - --- - Total 529 - === - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -JOURNEY FROM THE FORESTS OF TAMBOPATA TO THE PORT OF ISLAY. - -Establishment of the plants in Wardian cases. - - -ON May 11th Mr. Weir completed the packing of the plants, and we were -preparing for the journey up into the _pajonales_ on the following day, -having previously fixed on the _Calisaya_-trees from which we intended -to obtain a supply of seeds in August, when Gironda received an ominous -letter from Don José Mariano Bobadilla, the Alcalde Municipal of -Quiaca, ordering him to prevent me from taking away a single plant; to -arrest both myself and the person who had acted as my guide; and to -send us to Quiaca.[345] I found that an outcry against my proceedings -had been raised by Don Manuel Martel, the red-faced man whom I had met -on the road to Sandia, and that the people of Sandia and Quiaca had -been excited by assertions that the exportation of cascarilla-seeds -would prove the ruin of themselves and their descendants. Gironda, -though friendly and hospitable, feared that the finger of scorn would -be pointed at him, as the man who had allowed the stranger to injure -his countrymen. He wanted to throw away all the plants, except a few -which we might take without observation, and, if we had not kept -constant guard over them, he would have carried his views into effect -without consulting us. I saw that in an immediate retreat was the only -hope of saving the plants; and I explained to Gironda that his views -were incorrect, and that, if necessary, we were prepared to defend our -property by force. - -At the same time I addressed a letter to Don José Bobadilla, stating -that his interference was an unwarrantable step which I would not -tolerate; and that, as I understood the provisions of the Constitution -of 1856, the functions of the _Juntas Municipales_ were purely -consultative and legislative, conferring no executive powers whatever, -concluding with an expression of my sense of his patriotic zeal, and of -regret that it should be accompanied by such misguided and lamentable -ignorance of the true interests of his country. Nevertheless, I felt -the imperative necessity of immediate flight, especially as I obtained -information from an Indian of Quiaca that Martel's son and his party, -who had brought the letter, were only the vanguard of a body of -mestizos, who were coming down the valley to seize me, and destroy my -collection of chinchona-plants. - -Early in the morning of May 12th we took leave of our kind and -hospitable old friend Gironda, without whose assistance we should have -been exposed to much suffering from want of food; and of the honest -forester Martinez. I expressed my sincere regret to Gironda that any -misunderstanding should have arisen at the close of our acquaintance, -and promised Martinez to obtain guarantees that he should suffer no -molestation on account of the services he had rendered to me. The most -melancholy part of travelling is the parting with friends, never to -meet again. - -After a laborious ascent through the forest we found Martel's son and -his party stationed on the verge of the _pajonal_. They were evidently -waiting for us, but did not attempt to impede our passage, and a -display of my revolver, although it may have been very efficacious, -was perfectly harmless, as the powder was quite damp. The young Martel -asked the Indians in Quichua how they dared to carry the plants, and -called after them that they would be seized at Sandia; but he was -civil to me, and we continued our journey peaceably, though full of -apprehensions at the turn affairs might take on our arrival at Sandia. - -We had to cross the same country as we had traversed in our journey -to the Tambopata valley; and, in skirting along the verge of a ridge, -near the Marun-kunka, the cargo-mule fell headlong down a precipice of -twenty feet, into a dense mass of trees and underwood. We could see the -poor beast's legs kicking in the air, but it was long before we could -reach her, and more than two hours before a circuitous path could be -cut and cleared away to extricate her. We encamped on the pajonal, and -next day, after a very laborious walk of twelve hours, we reached the -Ypara tambo, in the valley of Sandia, Mr. Weir having collected twenty -plants of _Calisaya Josephiana_ on the way. On May 14th we continued -our journey towards Sandia, and collected fifty-five more plants -of _Calisaya Josephiana_ on the pajonal of Paccay-samana, chiefly -seedlings. - -The water of the numerous cascades is very refreshing, and as beautiful -in its limpid transparency as when it dashes down the rocks in dazzling -streams of purest white. We were now too in the land of luscious -oranges and chirimoyas. The commonest bird in the valley of Sandia is -the _cuchu_, a kind of large crow, with a shrill weak caw. It has a -long yellow bill, greenish-brown body and wings, rump-feathers red, -and a long bright yellow tail, with a black line down the centre. The -_cuchus_ walk about the fields eating the young maize, and perch upon -the adjoining trees. Humming-birds are numerous, and very beautiful; I -saw also a little cream-coloured hawk, and lordly eagles were soaring -over the ravine, having their eyries in the inaccessible parts of the -lofty cliffs. Approaching Sandia in the early morning of May 15th, I -came upon many groups of Indians, with their wives and daughters, who -had slept in the road, on their way to and from their coca-harvests. -They were boiling their breakfasts of potatoes over little fires of -dry sticks, which crackled pleasantly. Grand precipices towered up -on either side of the valley, and in the bottom, where the bright -river was murmuring on its way, there was a hut in a field of maize, -surrounded by the drooping crimson flowers of the "love-lies-bleeding," -with a girl in a bright blue woollen dress sitting at the door. - -On arriving at Sandia I went through the ceremony of paying off my -Indians, and taking leave; and Vilca, Ccuri, and Quispi returned to -their homes. I formed a very high opinion of the Indian character -from my experience with these my fellow-labourers. Suspicious they -certainly were at times, and with good reason after the treatment -they have usually met with from white men, but willing, hard-working, -intelligent, good-humoured, always ready to help each other, quick in -forming the encampments, conversing quietly and without noise round the -camp-fires, and always kind to animals; altogether very efficient and -companionable people. - -I found things at Sandia in a very alarming state; most of the people -had been excited by letters from Quiaca to prevent me from continuing -my journey with the chinchona-plants, and a sort of league had been -made with other _Juntas Municipales_ to protect their interests, and -prevent foreigners from injuring them. The tactics which were adopted -would have succeeded in their object, but for a great piece of good -luck. I was prevented from hiring mules, except to go to Crucero, where -I knew Martel was stationed, with the intention of raising obstacles -to my further progress until the plants had been killed by the frost. -I was in despair, and meditated setting out on foot, with all the -four bundles of plants on my own mule, when Don Manuel Mena told me -confidentially that, if I would give him my gun, he would get an Indian -to supply beasts, and accompany me to Vilque, on the road to Arequipa. -I willingly agreed to this bargain, and sent Mr. Weir and Pablo to -Crucero, so as to throw Martel off the scent, while I hurried the -plants down to the coast by the most unfrequented line of country. - -An alarm had, however, been spread through all the villages bordering -on the chinchona forests, both in Caravaya and Bolivia, and I -ascertained that effectual measures had been taken to prevent my -return for seeds in August. Martel had also written to the towns and -villages between Crucero and Arequipa, to put obstacles in the way of -my retreat, so that I found it necessary to avoid entering any town -or village, and to shape a direct compass-course over the cordilleras -from Sandia to Vilque. I also reluctantly abandoned my intention of -returning to collect seeds in August, and made the best arrangements in -my power to obtain a supply, through a reliable agent, in the ensuing -year. Martel was a mischievous meddling fellow, but the members of -the _Juntas Municipales_ may have been influenced by misguided zeal -for the interests of their country, and for the preservation of a -strict monopoly in a trade which has ceased to exist, for no bark is -now-exported from Caravaya. - -In the morning of May 17th I left Sandia on my own trusty mule, -driving two others with the plants before me, and accompanied by -their owner on foot, an Indian named Angelino Paco, a middle-aged -respectable-looking man, who had been one of the Alcaldes of Sandia -in 1859. Mr. Weir started for Arequipa on the same day, by way of -Crucero. Passing through Cuyo-cuyo without stopping, I continued to -ascend a mountain-gorge, by the side of the stream, but Paco had never -been out of the valley of Sandia before, and was useless as a guide. -All along the banks of the stream there were square pools dammed up -and filled with heaps of potatoes and ocas, placed there to freeze -into _chuñus_, the principal food of the Indians when in the forests, -or on the coffee or coca estates. Higher up the gorge all signs of -habitation cease, though there are still abandoned tiers of ancient -terraces, and the mountain scenery is quite magnificent. Night coming -on without a moon, I halted under a splendid range of frowning black -cliffs, and succeeded in pitching the tent in the dark, but there -was no fuel, and on opening the leathern bag I found that my little -stock of food and lucifer-matches had been stolen in Sandia. I was -thus entirely dependent for existence on Paco's parched maize, which -proved uncommonly hard fare. The cold was intense during the night, and -penetrated through the tent and clothes to the very marrow. - -At daybreak Paco and I loaded the mules, and continued to ascend the -gorge by the side of the river of Sandia, which becomes a noisy little -rill, and finally falls, as a thin silvery cascade, over a black -cliff. Reaching the summit of the snowy cordillera of Caravaya, we -commenced the journey over lofty grass-covered plains, where the ground -was covered with stiff white frost. There were flocks of vicuñas on -the plain, and _huallatas_, large white geese with brown wings and -red legs, on the banks of the streams; but as we advanced even these -signs of life ceased, and, when night closed in, I looked round on -the desolate scene, and thought that to make a direct cut across the -cordilleras to Vilque by compass-course was a very disagreeable way of -travelling, though, in this case, a necessary one. I had been eleven -hours in the saddle, when Paco found an abandoned shepherd's hut, built -of loose stones, three feet high, and thatched with _ychu_ grass. The -minimum thermometer, during the night, was as low as 20° Fahr. by my -side. - -At daylight on May 19th Paco complained of having to rise before the -sun, although he must have been half-frozen. The mules had escaped, and -we were fully three hours in catching them. The ground was covered with -a crisp frost, and during the forenoon we were traveling over the same -lofty wilderness, consisting of grassy undulating hills, with ridges -of cliffs, and huge boulders here and there. The view was bounded on -the north and east by the splendid snowy peaks of the Caravayan range, -and to the north-west by those of Vilcañota. The only living things, in -these wild solitudes, are the graceful _vicuñas_, which peered at us -with their long necks from behind the grassy slopes, the _guanacos_, -the _biscaches_ burrowing amongst the rocks, and the _huallatas_ or -large geese on the margins of streams or pools of water. - -At about noon we began to descend a rocky dangerous cuesta, where there -was much trouble with the mules, which were constantly attempting to -lie down and roll with the plants. The steep descent led into the -plain of Putina, which was covered with flocks of sheep, with small -farms, shaded by clumps of _queñua_-trees, nestling under the sandstone -cliffs which bound the plain. Crossing another range, we reached a -swampy plain, with sheep and cattle scattered over it, and stopped at -an abandoned shepherd's hut, the exact counterpart of last night's -lodging. I had been ten hours in the saddle, and was faint from hunger, -but had to go supperless to bed. Paco was nearly breaking down from a -bad wound in his foot, but I bandaged it with lint, and he was able to -proceed. He had an _alco_ or Peruvian dog with him, which was devotedly -attached to its master. These dogs are something like Newfoundlands, -only much smaller, generally black or white, and seldom bark. - -On the morrow the way, for the first two hours, led over grassy -hills covered with flocks of sheep, with shepherd-lads playing on -_pincullus_, or flutes, the sound of which came floating pleasantly -on the air, from every direction far and near. We passed several -blue mountain-lakes, with islands of rushes, and many ducks. From -10 A.M. until sunset the whole day was occupied in crossing a vast -plain covered with sheep and cattle, and just after sunset we reached -a small _estancia_ or sheep-farm. It was occupied by a large family -of good-tempered Indians, whose eyes glistened when I offered them a -_cesto_ of coca which I had with me, in exchange for unlimited supplies -of milk and cheese. It was pleasant to see their happiness at the -acquisition of this treasure, which was shared by the children and -dogs. The place was full of guinea-pigs, which are considered great -delicacies. The extreme hunger from which I had suffered since leaving -Sandia was here relieved by plenty of milk, cheese, and parched maize. -Every night I had wrapped the Russian mats, which enveloped the plants, -in warm ponchos, and the tent. The crooked wriggling queñua-branches, -which formed the roof of the hut, looked like snakes in the dim light -after sunset. - -At sunrise on May 21st there was a white frost, and the deep blue sky -was without a single cloud. Suddenly an immense flock of flamingos, -called _parihuanas_[346] in Quichua, rose in a long column from the -margin of the river of Azangaro, which flows through the plain. These -birds, with their crimson wings, and rose-coloured necks and bodies, -whirring up in a long spiral column, formed one of the most beautiful -sights I ever saw. - -Crossing a range of rocky hills, we entered a plain, which extended to -the banks of a large lake, with the little town of Arapa built along -the shore. Dark mountains rise up immediately in the rear. I believe -that I am the first English traveller who has ever visited this lake, -and M. de Castelnau, who obtained some information respecting it at -Puno, says that it is not to be found in any map.[347] Along the -shores there were long rows of flamingos, standing like a gigantic -regiment, with a few skirmishers thrown out fishing. There were also -_huallatas_, ibises, ducks, and a stout-built stunted sort of crane. -Journeying on, we began to cross a vast plain which extends for many -leagues round the north-west corner of lake Titicaca, and is dotted -with walled _estancias_ and flocks of sheep. At length we reached the -ford over the river of Azangaro, in sight of the little village of -Achaya, to the left. The water came above the mules' bellies, and, -crossing half a mile of swampy ground, we came to another ford over -the river of Pucara. The two rivers, uniting just below Achaya, form -the Ramiz, the largest feeder of lake Titicaca. We continued our way -for many hours over the plain, until we reached an Indian's hut long -after dark, having been twelve hours in the saddle, at the slow tedious -pace of a tired mule. The cargo-mules had played every kind of vicious -trick throughout the day, running off in different directions at every -opportunity, and constantly trying to roll. - -Starting at daybreak on the 22nd, we forded the river of Lampa, crossed -the road between Lampa and Puno, passed over a rocky cordillera and -a wide plain, and reached the little town of Vilque by four in the -afternoon. The place presented a very different appearance from the -time when we passed through it in March, on our way to Puno. It was -now the time of the great yearly fair, when buyers and sellers from -every part of South America flock to the little _sierra_ town. This -great gathering was first established in the time of the Spaniards, and -it is not improbable that the Jesuits, who once possessed the great -sheep-farm of Yanarico near Vilque, and who always looked well after -the improvement of their property, may have been the great promoters of -the fair. - -Outside the town there were thousands of mules from Tucuman waiting for -Peruvian arrieros to buy them. In the plaza were booths full of every -description of Manchester and Birmingham goods; in more retired places -were gold-dust and coffee from Caravaya, silver from the mines, bark -and chocolate from Bolivia, Germans with glass-ware and woollen knitted -work, French modistes, Italians, Quichua and Aymara Indians in their -various picturesque costumes--in fact, all nations and tongues. In the -plaza, too, there were excellent cafés and dining-rooms, all under -canvas; but house-rent was exorbitant, and a lodging was not to be had -for love or money. There was much complaint of the injury done to trade -by the threatened war with Bolivia, and the edict of President Linares, -prohibiting all intercourse with Peru. - -I placed the bundles of plants, carefully wrapped round with ponchos, -in a barley-field occupied by arrieros, covered over with their warm -_aparejos_; but the thermometer was down to 23° Fahr. in the night. - -In the afternoon of the 23rd I left Vilque for the sheep-farm of -Taya-taya, in company with Dr. Don Camillo Chaves the superintendent. -The road was crowded with people coming from Arequipa to the fair -at Vilque: native shopkeepers, English merchants coming to arrange -for their supplies of wool, and a noisy company of arrieros on their -way to buy mules, and armed to the teeth with horse-pistols, old -guns, and huge daggers, to defend their money-bags. Many of them were -good-looking fellows, the older ones bearing signs of hard drinking. - -The sheep-farm of Taya-taya,[348] four leagues from Vilque, is a large -range of mud-plastered buildings with thatched roofs, built round -a large _patio_, on a bleak plain surrounded by mountains. In the -morning a flock of forty llamas were being laden with packs of wool in -the patio, at which they were making bitter lamentations. We started -early on May 24th, and encountered a cold gale of wind, blowing in -icy squalls over the cordillera. I reached the posthouse of Cuevillas -in the night, a distance of 45 miles; got as far as the posthouse of -Pati the next day; encountered a tremendous gale of wind on the skirts -of the volcano of Arequipa, but descended to the valley of Cangallo -on the 26th; and rode into the city of Arequipa, with my plants, on -the morning of the 27th of May. Mr. Weir arrived from Crucero on the -29th, having, as I expected, found Martel in that town, whose designs -were thus baffled. From Sandia to Arequipa is a distance of nearly 300 -miles. No opposition was made to my departure from Arequipa, although -the local newspaper had something to say afterwards,[349] and on June -1st the plants were safely deposited by the Wardian cases at the port -of Islay. - -"John of the Fountain" had provided plenty of soil, and by the 3rd all -the plants were established in the Wardian cases by Mr. Weir. But the -difficulties of getting the plants out of the country were not entirely -ended by my escape from Martel and the _Juntas Municipales_ of the -interior. The Superintendent of the custom-house of Islay declared it -to be illegal to export cascarilla-plants, and refused to allow them -to be shipped without an express order from the Minister of Finance -and Commerce at Lima. He had probably received intelligence respecting -the contents of the cases from Vilque, where all news centres at the -time of the fair. This obliged me to go to Lima to obtain the necessary -order from Colonel Salcedo, the Minister of Finance, which, after much -difficulty, I succeeded in doing, and returned with it to Islay on June -23rd.[350] - -Meanwhile, since the plants had been established in the Wardian cases, -they had begun to bud and throw out young leaves, which seemed to prove -that they had quite recovered from their journey across the arctic -climate of the Andes. In the evening of the 23rd the cases were hoisted -into a launch, ready to go on board the steamer on the following -morning; and during the night attempts were made to bribe the man in -charge to bore holes and kill the plants by pouring in boiling water, -but without success. On the following day they were safely lodged on -board the steamer bound for Panama. - -It was impossible not to feel regret that H. M. steamer 'Vixen,' then -lying idle at Callao, had not been ordered to take the plants direct -across the Pacific to Madras, when a majority would have arrived in -perfect order. But this was not to be, and we had to look forward to -long voyages, several trans-shipments, and the intense heat of the Red -Sea, before this most valuable collection of plants could reach their -destination in Southern India. - -Yet it could not but be satisfactory to look back upon the -extraordinary difficulties we had overcome, the hardships and dangers -of the forests, the scarcity of the plants, the bewildering puzzle to -find them amidst the dense underwood, the endeavour to stop my journey -first at Tambopata and then in Sandia, the rapid flight across unknown -parts of the cordillera, and the attempts first to stop and then to -destroy the plants at Islay: it was a source of gratification to look -back upon all this, and then to see the great majority of the plants -budding and looking healthy in the Wardian cases. - -The climate at Islay, during the time that the plants remained there, -was as follows, from the 1st to the 24th of June:-- - - Mean temperature 69° Fahr. - Mean minimum at night 60 - Highest temperature observed 73 - Lowest 58 - Entire range 15 - -The temperature is almost exactly the same as that of the Tambopata -forests in May; but the forests were always exceedingly moist, while -Islay is intensely dry. This, however, was unimportant to the plants in -their cases. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -PRESENT CONDITION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF PERU. - - Population--Civil wars--Government--Constitution--General - Castilla and his ministers--Dr. Vigil--Mariano Paz - Soldan--Valleys on the coast--Cotton, wool, and specie--The - Amazons--Guano--Finances--Literature--Future prospects. - - -AFTER a sojourn of a few days at Lima we took a final farewell of the -land of the Incas, on June 29th, 1860. As we steamed along the coast, -in sight of the emerald-green valleys, surrounded by trackless wastes -of sand, and of the glorious cordilleras which towered up behind them, -a long train of memories passed in array before us. In this land -alone, of all the nations of the earth, did the ideal of a perfect -patriarchal form of government become a reality. Here, too, are the -scenes of the most romantic episode in modern history, comprised in the -career of the Pizarros. The sufferings of the gentle Indians excited -the indignation of the Elizabethan chivalry; the fabulous riches -extracted from the mines of Peru attracted the adventurous spirit of -the buccaneers of a baser age; and the brave struggle for independence -led more than one gallant Englishman to shed his blood in the cause of -Peruvian liberty.[351] What is now the state of this famous land, and -what prospect is there of the glowing hopes expressed in Mr. Canning's -well-known speech ever being fulfilled, are questions which cannot fail -to arouse some passing interest. - -In giving an account of the present condition and future prospects of -Peru, the invariable kindness and frank hospitality of its inhabitants -impose an obligation to speak with as much leniency and forbearance -as the interests of truth will admit. The South American Republics -are peopled by races of mixed origin, who are doubtless inferior to -Europeans, both mentally and physically; and the unsettled condition -of those countries, which inevitably succeeded the struggles for an -independence for which the people were unprepared, has continued longer -than might justly have been expected. But it appears to be a generally -received idea in England, originating from the accounts of travellers -unacquainted with the people, and ignorant of their language, that the -South Americans are a mongrel degraded race, incapable of improvement, -and hopelessly degenerate.[352] So far as my experience extends, and -after a careful consideration of the subject, I can see no grounds for -resigning the hope that a brighter future is yet in store for the land -of the Incas. - -It is true that, after a casual and superficial glance at the state -of affairs in South America since the expulsion of the Spaniards, the -prospect appears sufficiently gloomy. But a more intimate acquaintance -with the subject, and especially a knowledge of the tone of thought -amongst the younger men, as expressed in conversation and in their -writings, would show that, under the surface, noble aspirations and -steady enlightened views prevail, which must eventually yield fruit, -and thus justify our hopes for the future. When independence was -established in South America, there were two principal causes which led -to the civil wars which ensued; namely, the question between a federal -or a centralized form of government, and the disputes respecting -boundaries. The power attained during the revolution by the armies, and -the selfish ambition, treason, and corruption of public men, aggravated -these sources of evil to a melancholy extent. But other countries, -far greater and nobler than these poor struggling republics, have had -to pass through as long and as degrading a crisis in their history. -Englishmen must remember the thirty years comprising the reigns of the -two last Stuarts with quite as much shame as the great-grandchildren of -the present Peruvians will experience when they learn the history of -their country for the first forty years after its independence. It is -recorded that in a British House of Commons there was but one Andrew -Marvel. To my personal knowledge there are now several Andrew Marvels -in Chile and Peru. These young and inexperienced countries have had to -pass through a fierce ordeal, and, truth to say, they have played their -part but indifferently as yet. They indeed require forbearance, but let -us not turn from them with disdain and contempt, in the pride of our -present grandeur and prosperity. Were treason and corruption and base -selfish faction never rife in England's court and parliament? - -The fatal mistake of several of the old Spanish colonies was in -establishing a federal system of government, in imitation of the United -States. This was the case in Mexico, Central America, New Granada, and -the Argentine Confederation. No system can possibly be more entirely -unsuited to a thinly-peopled mountainous region, without roads, and -unprovided with a sufficient number of capable educated men in the -distant provinces to undertake the local government. Power necessarily -falls into the hands of any cunning adventurer, every little state -becomes a focus for revolution, and an endless succession of civil wars -are the result. Such, in fact, has been the fate of those republics -where federation has been established. Pernicious as centralization -always is when carried too far in old and densely-peopled countries, -it is an absolute necessity in young states, with a small population -thinly scattered over a vast extent of country. The distant -inaccessible districts do not possess the materials for self-government -within themselves, and necessarily depend for their prosperity and -advancement on the capital. - -Peru has only once been subjected to the federal experiment, and she -has not suffered so much from internal dissensions as the unfortunate -countries above mentioned. She holds a central position amongst the -South American republics, not so cruelly torn by anarchy as Mexico on -the one hand, and not enjoying so good and settled a government as -Chile on the other. Her people too are perhaps inferior in capacity and -mental endowments to the Chilians and the natives of New Granada, but -infinitely superior to those of Central America and Mexico. She may, -therefore, be taken as an average example of these half Spanish, half -Indian states; and as such I will proceed to give some account of her -people, her government, and her material resources. - -The population of Peru, by the latest accounts, was 1,880,000 souls: -the whole of the labouring classes in the interior being pure Indians; -the artizans and shopkeeping classes in the towns partly Indians and -partly half-castes or mestizos; the lower orders on the coast being -negros, or zambos, a caste between negros and Indians, with some -imported Chinese; and the upper classes being chiefly of Spanish -descent with a slight dash of Indian blood, many nearly or quite -half-castes, not a few pure Indian, and an exceedingly small proportion -of pure Spanish descent.[353] The men of Indian extraction display -perhaps more energy and equal ability with their fellow-countrymen of -pure Spanish origin; and many Indians are wealthy enterprising men, -while others have held the highest offices in the state. The Peruvians -are intelligent and quick of apprehension, exceedingly hospitable -and kind-hearted, and remarkably humane and forgiving, as a rule, in -the conduct of their civil wars; but they are apt to be fickle and -volatile, incapable of any long-sustained effort, and inclined to -indolence. Corruption, bribery, treason, and pusillanimity are but -too common; but may not these be the vices engendered by civil strife -and periods of anarchy, rather than the normal characteristics of the -people? With the exception of the negro races on the coast, there are -few people among whom crime is more uncommon. - -The causes of the civil and foreign wars which have retarded the -progress of Peru since her independence may be explained in a very few -sentences. - -The first of these has arisen from disputes with her neighbours -respecting boundaries. On her southern frontier the ambitious policy -of Bolivar created a small republic, from no reason or motive that -was apparent, beyond the childish vanity of having a country called -after his name. This country was to all intents and purposes a part of -Peru. Her people, her languages, her traditions and feelings were the -same, and, until the latter part of the last century, she had formed -a part of the Peruvian viceroyalty. No good end was attained by this -division; while disputes respecting a doubtful unsurveyed boundary, -jealousies and misunderstandings arising from all imported goods -from Europe having to be landed at the Peruvian port of Arica, and -conveyed to Bolivia across Peruvian territory, has created a hostile -feeling, embittered year by year, between people who should have lived -as brothers under a single government. On her northern frontier Peru -has the little republic of Ecuador, until 1830 a portion of Colombia; -which possesses the only good port, with the exception of Callao, on -the western coast of South America, that of Guayaquil. This port has -always been coveted by Peru; and the question of the frontier was -further confused by the civil jurisdiction in Peru and Quito, during -Spanish times, having been divided by one line, and the ecclesiastical -by another. The generally recognised rule for deciding the frontiers -between the South American Republics is the _uti possidetis_, as -regards the former colonial jurisdictions, at the time of the war of -independence. - -These frontier disputes, carried on with feelings embittered by former -jealousies, led to a war between Colombia and Peru in 1828,[354] in -which the latter republic was worsted; and a campaign, ending in a -treaty, between Peru and Bolivia at the same time. - -The second and more disastrous cause for civil dissensions was the -question between a federal and a centralized form of republican -government. Peru enjoyed a period of peace between the war with -Colombia in 1828 and the year 1834; but between the latter period -and the year 1844 the unfortunate country was subject to a constant -series of civil wars and insurrections. The ten years between 1834 -and 1844 was Peru's most miserable time. Her public men were corrupt, -pusillanimous, and selfishly ambitious; she was given up to be torn -and distracted by wretched military adventurers; and the marches of -armies, with their system of forced recruiting, banished all attempts -at advancement or improvement from the country. Yet even during this -dark interval there was a space of two years, when General Santa Cruz -established his dream of a federal republic under the name of the -Peru-Bolivian Confederation, during which the land enjoyed peace and -some signs of revived prosperity. The able and vigorous administration -of Santa Cruz, whose mother was an Indian chieftainess, was the one -bright spot in this dreary waste of anarchy. - -For the following ten years Peru enjoyed a period of peace, under -the rule of General Don Ramon Castilla, an old Indian of Tarapaca, -for the first six years, and afterwards of General Echenique. During -this period the country advanced rapidly in material prosperity, but -in 1854 it was again convulsed by a revolution, caused by the general -discontent of the people at the gross malversations and unblushing -robbery of Echenique's Government. Castilla placed himself at the head -of this movement, and, with the aid of a large army, has retained his -power up to the present day. The insurrection at Arequipa, and mutiny -in the fleet, in 1857-58, were purely local, and did not affect the -general tranquillity of the country. - -Towards the close of Peru's ten years of convulsion, a constitution was -adopted, establishing a strictly centralising form of government, in -1839, in which immense power was placed in the hands of the executive. -But during the ten years of peace which followed the election of -Castilla in 1844, men's minds were strongly influenced by European -travel and by more extended reading, extreme liberal views were very -generally adopted, and the old constitution was felt to be out of -date. In 1856, therefore, a new constitution was promulgated by a -national assembly summoned for the purpose by General Castilla, in -which abstract ideas of what is just and right were unhesitatingly -and heedlessly adopted; and a strong tendency to federalism and local -self-government was displayed. - -By a stroke of the pen the capitation-tax paid by the Indians, the -principal source of revenue in ordinary times, the slavery of negros -on the coast, and all capital punishments were entirely abolished. -There would have been some nobleness in the abolition of slavery, and -the grant of 1,780,000 dollars as compensation, as well as a display -of liberal sentiment, if it had in any way increased the burdens -of the people, but this was not the case. For the same reason the -discontinuance of the tribute paid by the Indians was a mere act of -recklessness. In this constitution there were two legislative chambers, -a Senate and a House of Representatives; but half the representatives -were chosen by lot to form a Senate, so that one chamber was a mere -counterpart of the other. The most remarkable clauses, however, were -those in which measures leading to the federal form of government, a -plagiarism of the disastrous system of the United States, were adopted. -Peru continued to be divided into Departments governed by Prefects -appointed by the President; but it was now enacted that in the capital -of each Department there should be a sort of state legislature called -a _Junta Departmental_, the members being elected by the people, and -empowered to deliberate and legislate for the good of the Department. -This measure was but a commencement of that fatal system which had -convulsed some of the other republics; and its tendency was so apparent -that Castilla was accused of intending to divide Peru into a dozen -petty states, and to rule as a Dictator, by fomenting dissensions -among them.[355] A wiser and more useful measure was the establishment -of what are called _Juntas Municipales_ in the towns and unions of -villages, composed of the principal residents, who are intrusted with -the supervision and promotion of all local interests and improvements. - -In November 1860 this constitution was reformed, improvements were -introduced, and some of its more absurd and injurious provisions -were repealed. Capital punishment for the crime of murder was again -enacted. The Congress was to meet every two years on the 28th of July; -a third of their number to be renewed every two years; and, during the -recess, a permanent committee of the Congress, consisting of seven -senators and eight deputies, to be elected at the end of each session, -was to watch the execution of acts passed by the Congress, and to -exercise its functions. A great improvement was also adopted in the -constitution of the Senate. The members of that body are to be elected -by the Departments, each one electing a certain number according to the -number of its provinces, and the qualification of a senator is raised -to 1000 dollars a-year. Thus there is now an intelligible difference -between the two chambers, and, in the formation of the Senate, one of -the few good points of the constitution of the United States has been -wisely adopted. The executive power is in the hands of a President -and two Vice-Presidents elected for four years, and a council of -ministers. Finally the mischievous _Juntas Departmentales_, which I -believe had never been allowed to meet, were abolished, while the -municipal institutions of the constitution of 1856, which could only be -productive of good, remained in full force. - -Such is the present form of government in Peru, perhaps as good a one -as the country is fit for, and capable, in firm and honest hands, -of meeting all the present requirements of the people; but it is of -more importance to know in whose hands the government of the country -is placed, and what manner of men are intrusted with the destinies -of a country so rich in memories of the past, as well as in material -resources; a young republic still bleeding at every pore from a series -of civil wars, yet with a growing desire to struggle up, through shame -and misfortune, to a respectable place among the nations. I will give a -few hasty sketches of the men who formed the executive power during my -stay at Lima in 1860. - -General Ramon Castilla, the President, is a native of Tarapaca in the -extreme south of Peru, and must now be close upon seventy years of age. -He is the son of Pedro Castilla, who worked the refuse silver-ores of -the mines of El Carmen,[356] and young Ramon acted as his father's -_leñatero_, or woodcutter. He, afterwards, entered the Spanish army, -and on the arrival of the patriot forces from Chile in 1821 he joined -their cause, and attained the rank of colonel. After the independence -he was appointed Sub-prefect of his native province of Tarapaca, in -1826; and he was Prefect of Puno from 1834 to 1836; but he was mixed up -in all the civil wars, and, after a victory gained by him in 1844, he -was elected President of the Republic. Castilla is a small spare man, -with an iron constitution, and great powers of endurance. His bright -fierce little eyes, with overhanging brows, stiff bristly moustaches, -and projecting under lip, give his countenance a truculent expression, -which is not improved by a leathery dried-up complexion; but he has a -look of resolution and an air of command which is almost dignified. -This remarkable man is an excellent soldier, brave as a lion, prompt -in action, and beloved by his men. Uneducated and illiterate, his -political successes and management of parties almost amount to -genius, while his victories have never been stained by cruelty, and -his antagonists have seldom been proscribed for any length of time, -generally pardoned at once, and often raised by him to posts of -importance in the service of the Republic. His firm and vigorous grasp -of power has secured for Peru long periods of peace; faction has been -kept under, while an incalculable blessing has thus been conferred on -the country; and probably no other man had the ability and the nerve -to effect this. But Castilla, though a necessity, has been a necessary -evil. His want of education renders him useless as a statesman. He -has generally shown himself indifferent to all public works, and to -measures for the moral or material benefit of the country, while -he insists on keeping up an enormous standing army, and on spending -untold sums on a costly navy, thus squandering the public money, and -continuing a pernicious and ruinous system. The brave old man has been -a necessity. He alone has been able to keep the peace, and give time -to the Peruvians slowly to develop the resources of their country; -and through this period of tranquillity, when he shall have passed -away, interests and influences may have insensibly risen up, which -will prevent the recurrence of such periods of anarchy as preceded -Castilla's first accession to power. - -Juan Manuel del Mar, the first Vice-President, a tall, sallow, -earnest-looking man, is a native of Cuzco, the old capital of the -Incas. He has held office for some years, and has more than once been -in supreme command during the absence of Castilla. This statesman was -called to the bar in 1830, and has led an active public life as deputy -to Congress, judge, or minister ever since. He is thoroughly honest, -possessed of enlightened views and some ability, very popular, and -universally and deservedly respected. - -The second Vice-President, elected under the provisions of the reformed -constitution of 1860, is General Pezet, the son of a physician of -French extraction, who died in Callao Castle when it was held by the -Spaniards, and stood a long siege. General Pezet, a native of Lima, -joined the patriot ranks when they landed in Peru in 1821, then only -eleven years of age; and was at once sent on active service. Thus he -was present at the battles of Junin and Ayacucho, which destroyed the -Spanish power, and was mixed up in the subsequent civil wars. - -Castilla's ministers, at the time of my visit, were far from -representing the most able and distinguished class of Peruvians. -Colonel Salcedo, the Minister of Finance, a native of Lampa, was born -in 1801. He was one of the few members of Congress who, in 1824, -firmly opposed and defeated the ambitious designs of Bolivar; and he -has since almost constantly served as sub-prefect or prefect, or as -a member of Congress. Another minister was Don José Fabio Melgar, -a brother of the famous poet of Arequipa, whose melancholy death I -have already mentioned. He has served as chief clerk in one or other -of the public offices since 1833, is an amiable man, well read, and -intelligent, but with only moderate abilities, and no originality or -force of will. The minister of Foreign Affairs was Don Miguel del -Carpio, a veteran statesman, born in 1795, and who, having joined the -patriots and been taken prisoner by the Spaniards in 1822, was long -kept in prison, and heavily chained. Since the independence he has held -important offices both in Bolivia and Peru. - -But old Castilla requires obedient clerks around him, not independent -ministers, and the more able and active-minded Peruvians are not to -be found filling high political posts. The best specimens of the -natives of Peru are either to be met with leading unobtrusive literary -lives, and preparing for better times; or on their estates actively -and energetically developing the resources of their country. Such men -are Mariategui, Felipe Pardo, Vigil, Paz Soldan, and Elias, whose -patriotism and great ability would do honour to any country. - -Dr. Vigil is one of Peru's most distinguished sons. In early life -he was an active and eloquent member of Congress; subsequently he -was engaged on one of the most learned, as well as the most liberal -works that a Roman Catholic clergyman has ever ventured to publish on -the Papacy; and now in his old age he continues to advocate, in his -forcible writings, every cause and every measure which is intended to -advance religious freedom, or the moral well-being of his countrymen. -Dr. Vigil fears that liberal views on religious subjects, such as -toleration, the marriage of the clergy, and independence of Rome, -cannot be expected to make any rapid progress at present, but he -is confident that a future generation will appreciate his works, -and introduce the measures which he advocates. One of his strongest -convictions is that priests will never lead virtuous lives until they -are humanized by family ties: and that, while now they live for the -Church--that is for themselves and their order--they ought to live for -their flocks. - -While the learned and amiable Vigil represents the literary men of -Peru, Mariano Paz Soldan is one of the best specimens of the men of -action. His benevolent mind was shocked at the wretched condition -of the prisons in Peru, and he has displayed an amount of energy -and ability in endeavouring to remedy this evil which goes far to -vindicate the Peruvian character from the charge of indolence and -procrastination. In 1853 Paz Soldan published a very able and detailed -report on the prisons of the United States; and in 1856, by dint of -unceasing representations, he obtained the necessary grant from the -Government for the erection of a penitentiary on the most improved -principle at Lima. The work was at once commenced with vigour. The -foundations, basement, and first story are built of a very hard -porphyritic stone, brought from the hills about two miles from Lima, -where a quarry was opened for the first time by Paz Soldan, with a -tramroad direct to the works. The entrance is by a flight of four -steps, cut out of a single block of this porphyritic rock. The second -story is of brick, and all the iron for gratings, doors, bolts, and -roofing came out ready made from England. The wards for men, women, and -children are separated, each with its large well-ventilated workroom, -exercising yard, and cells; and everything is arranged on the best -English and American models. It will hold 52 women, 52 boys, and 208 -men. This great public work will be a credit to the country, and a -lasting monument of the energy and perseverance of its projector, who -trusts that it will be but the first of a series of such penitentiaries -in different parts of the country. Don Mariano Paz Soldan is also -engaged in organizing a general topographical survey of Peru. - -There are many landed proprietors and others, of Paz Soldan's stamp, -who have availed themselves of the period of tranquillity since 1844, -interrupted only by one year of revolution, to improve their estates, -and thus add to their country's wealth, especially in the valleys on -the coast. The long slip of land between the Andes and the Pacific -Ocean enjoys an equable climate, rain and heavy storms are nearly -unknown, and refreshing dews descend during the night. The greater -part of this region consists of sandy desert, traversed by ridges of -rocky barren hills; but wherever a stream, descending from the Andes, -is of sufficient volume to reach the ocean, a rich and fertile valley -borders its banks. These valleys, of greater or less extent, and at -various intervals, break the monotony of the desert from the bay of -Guayaquil to the river Loa, which separates Peru from Bolivia. They are -admirably adapted for the cultivation of cotton, the vine, the olive, -and sugar-cane. - -Immense wealth is already derived from these valleys, and, with -judicious outlay for obtaining more regular supplies of water, their -capabilities might be multiplied indefinitely. The valley of Cañete, -south of Lima, which is in the hands of six enterprising proprietors, -is covered with sugar-cane plantations. In 1860 it yielded sugar -worth 1,000,000 dollars, all raised by Chinese and free negro labour. -Further south, the valleys of Pisco and Yca, thanks chiefly to Don -Domingo Elias and his sons, yield 70,000 _botijas_ of a spirit called -pisco, 10,000 barrels of excellent wine, 800,000 lbs. of cotton, and -40,000 lbs. of cochineal. Still further south there are many valleys -which render their owners wealthy by the produce of cane-fields and -vineyards, in the departments of Moquegua and Arequipa; and in the -valley of Tambo, near Arequipa, there are 5000 olive-trees and seven -mills. - -Now that the question of cotton-supply is attracting so large a share -of attention in England, it is gratifying to be able to state that -landed proprietors on the coast of Peru have seriously turned their -attention to the subject, and that in 1860 the cultivation of cotton -was becoming a favourite speculation. The soil and climate of these -coast valleys are admirably adapted for its growth, and, though the -quantity that could be drawn from them would be insignificant when -compared with the vast demands of Manchester, yet the quality is good, -and they will supply one out of many sources which may hereafter -render us partially independent of the Confederate States. The estates -of Don Domingo Elias and others, in the valleys of Yca, Palpa, San -Xavier, and Nasca, yield 800,000 lbs. of excellent cotton. I visited -these cotton estates in 1853, and found that the cotton was carefully -picked, and packed by screw presses. A great deal of cotton is also -shipped from the port of Payta, which sells in Liverpool at 8_d._ -to 9-1/2_d._ the lb.; and in the valley of Lambayeque,[357] between -Payta and Lima, cotton cultivation has lately been undertaken on a -very large scale. In 1860, in the four districts of Talambo, Cayalti, -Collus, and Calupe, there were already 600,000 plants in the ground, -and in neighbouring estates extensive tracts of land had been prepared -for cotton by the house of Zaracondegui and others. At Talambo, in -the valley of Pacasmayo, there are many Biscayan families, numbering -in all 176 souls, who are exclusively engaged in cotton cultivation; -and the yield in that district in the first year was 800,000 lbs. -In the province of Chiclayo 700,000 plants were put in the ground -during 1860, and land was being prepared for the growth of cotton -crops to a much larger extent. These cotton-growing provinces of -Lambayeque, Chiclayo, and Truxillo are fertile and well watered; -storms of rain are unknown, and they enjoy an equable climate with -a mean temperature between 70° and 84° Fahr. It has been calculated -that, after leaving a fifth of the available land for crops to supply -provisions for the inhabitants, as many as 140,000 _fanegadas_[358] -might be brought under cotton cultivation in these provinces alone. -Allowing four feet for each plant, and that each plant yields four -pounds a year, this extent of land would produce 580,000,000 lbs. of -cotton annually, worth twelve dollars the cwt. at the port of shipment, -or 69,600,000 dollars. Deducting 22,400,000 for expenses, this would -leave 47,200,000 dollars profit. But these provinces only contain a -small fraction of the fertile coast valleys of Peru; and it is clear -that, if the speculations of 1860 yield a reasonably profitable return, -the cultivation of cotton may, in all probability, be undertaken -over a vast area, and render Peru an important source of supply for -Manchester.[359] - -The lofty table-lands of the cordillera of the Andes produce -sufficient maize, wheat, and sugar for home consumption; but their -chief exportable wealth is to be found in the vast flocks of sheep and -alpacas which find pasture on those grassy uplands, and in the veins -and washings of silver and gold. About 400,000_l._ worth of wool is -annually exported, of which 5,017,100 lbs., valued at 287,339_l._, were -embarked from the port of Islay in 1859, and 4,214,000 lbs. in 1860. -The export of specie amounted to about 200,000_l._ in 1859, of which -34,705_l._ were exported from Islay, and 32,000_l._ from Arica. But of -this a portion is in coined money and _chafalonia_, or old plate. - -Besides the raising of the various valuable products suitable to the -coast valleys and the _sierra_, the vast forests to the eastward of the -Andes, and the great fluvial highways which flow through them to the -Atlantic, offer an inexhaustible field for Peruvian enterprise. The -incredible resources of this portion of Peru are only now beginning to -be fully appreciated, though ten, and even twenty years ago, there were -evident symptoms of the first early pulsations of life and commerce -on the mighty river Amazons and its tributaries. Petty traders, the -pioneers of a stirring future, were then busy, each in his little -traffic; canoes laden with hammocks, hats, wax, sarsaparilla, copaiba, -and other products of the forest, found their way to Para at the mouth -of the Amazons, and returned with European manufactured goods. - -But of late years an immense stride in advance has been taken; and in -1857 a Brazilian company was working eight steamers on the Amazons -and its tributaries, conveying passengers, and bearing up and down -a ceaseless ebb and flow of commerce. Measures were adopted in 1853 -to connect the Brazilian line of steamers with a Peruvian line -navigating the upper waters, and two small steam-vessels were sent out -from New York for the purpose, called the "Tirado" and "Huallaga." -The revolution of 1854 temporarily put a stop to these efforts, -and the two steamers were left to rot at Nauta, 2300 miles up the -Amazons. Latterly, however, steps have again been taken to supply -the Peruvian tributaries of the Amazons with steam navigation, and -thereby to encourage settlement, attract commerce, and thus develop the -incalculable wealth of Peru's Amazonian provinces. - -In October 1858 a fluvial convention was signed between Brazil and -Peru, establishing the free navigation of the Amazons, under certain -restrictions; and in February 1860 the Brazilian steamer 'Tabatinga' -arrived at Laguna on the Peruvian river Huallaga, upwards of 3000 miles -from the mouth of the Amazons. Meanwhile the Peruvian Government have -ordered steamers to be constructed to work on the upper waters of the -Amazons, in conjunction with the Brazilian line; and roads are to be -made connecting inland towns with the nearest navigable points on the -tributaries of the Amazons. In June 1860 a party of sixty men left the -town of Huanuco to explore the wide forest-covered plains known as the -"Pampas del Sacramento" to the eastward; and in July a road had already -been commenced, which is to connect Huanuco with a navigable part of -the river Ucayali, a distance of 150 miles. A small colony of Germans -has been established on the river Pozuzu. Other measures of a similar -nature are in contemplation, and it is impossible to estimate the rapid -and certain increase of wealth which will accrue to this hitherto -neglected region, when steam communication has thus brought one of the -richest regions in the world within reach of a market. Para, at the -mouth of the Amazons, already exceeds, in the number of its staple -commodities of export, all indigenous to the regions of which it forms -the outlet, almost any other port on the surface of the globe. My space -will not allow me to dilate further on this most interesting subject; -but it is assuredly one which well deserves the attention of commercial -men in England. - -The most remarkable source of Peruvian wealth, and one which has -caused effects on her financial system which are perhaps unique in the -history of any country, is the guano on the desert islands off the -coast. When the South American Republics were thrown open to the trade -of Europe, the value of guano as a manure was soon discovered, the -demand rapidly increased, and the Peruvian Government were not long in -availing themselves of this, as they believed, inexhaustible source of -riches.[360] The three Chincha islands, in the bay of Pisco, contained -a total of 12,376,100 tons of guano in 1853, and, as since that time -2,837,365 tons have been exported up to 1860, there were 9,538,735 tons -remaining in 1861.[361] In 1860 as many as 433 vessels, with a tonnage -of 348,554, loaded at the Chincha islands; so that, at the above rate, -the guano will last for twenty-three years, until 1883. The guano -monopoly brings in a revenue to the State of 14,850,000 dollars. - -In Peru even the arid deserts are the sources of enormous wealth; for -while the desolate Chinchas pour millions into the treasury, the pampa -of Tamarugal, in the Tarapaca province, contributes its nitrate of soda -(_salitre_) and borate of lime to swell the riches of this favoured -land. It is calculated that the nitrate of soda grounds in this -district cover fifty square leagues, and, allowing one hundred pounds -weight of nitrate for each square yard, this will give 63,000,000 -tons, which, at the present rate of consumption, will last for 1393 -years.[362] In 1860 the export of nitrate of soda from the port of -Iquique amounted to 1,370,248 cwts., and a good deal of borax is also -exported, though its shipment is prohibited by the Government. - -The extensive use of mineral substances, such as guano and nitrate of -soda, as a top-dressing for corn-crops, is a discovery of modern times, -and these manures were not generally appreciated in England until a -period between 1824 and 1829. I believe that farmers consider guano and -nitrate of soda to be about equally efficacious as a top-dressing for -corn; and it is now a matter of pressing interest to the agricultural -community in England to reduce their prices, which are as high as -twelve and sixteen pounds a ton respectively. But, with this view, -a careful search for deposits of guano in other parts of the world -has only led to the discovery of those at Ichaboe, on the coast of -Africa, in 1843, and of those on the Arabian Kooria Mooria islands -more recently. The deposit at Ichaboe was all carried off by the end -of 1845, while that on Jibleea, one of the Kooria Moorias, is still -being worked; but it is very inferior to the guano of the Peruvian -islands.[363] - -On the whole these attempts to find other deposits of guano, which -would tend to bring down the price in England, have failed of success; -and the Peruvians may consider themselves secure of their strange -source of revenue for some twenty years to come. And a stranger means -of defraying nearly the whole expenditure of the state was never before -heard of. In 1859 the disbursements amounted to 20,387,756 dollars, of -which sum three-fourths were raised by shovelling heaps of dirt off a -desolate island on the coast! - -A prudent Government would have looked upon the guano monopoly as -an extraordinary item in the receipts, and would have reserved it -for paying off the internal and foreign debt, for public works, and -improvements; but the heads of the Peruvians appear to have been -turned by this wonderful increase of their revenue, and they have -squandered it with ruinous and dishonest recklessness. It is true that -the interest of the foreign debt has been paid,[364] but otherwise the -large receipts have either been embezzled, as in General Echenique's -time, or spent on immense and unnecessary armaments, and in jobbing -salaries and pensions. Thousands of families now live on the public -money, and, when the guano receipts fail, the ruin and suffering will -be severe and widely spread. On the strength of the guano monopoly -almost all the taxes have been abolished, the tribute of the Indians -amongst them, and the revenue is composed mainly of three items--guano, -customs, and stamps. A biennial budget, containing the receipts and -disbursements, is laid before Congress every session. I have these -budgets before me for several years back; but that for 1859 will -suffice to show the extraordinary nature of the revenue, and the still -more extraordinary way in which it is spent:-- - - _Receipts._ | _Disbursements._ - | - Dollars. | Dollars. - Guano 15,875,352|Pay, &c., to members of Congress 211,084 - Customs, &c. 5,079,439|Army and navy, with pensions 9,746,432 - Surplus from 1858 938,389|Civil expenses, with pensions 2,129,904 - |Payments to ecclesiastics 63,296 - |Public works 718,124 - |Education and charitable - |institutions 332,471 - |Police 92,807 - |Compensation for slaves - |and internal debt 1,576,004 - |Redemption of Bonds 3,218,700 - |Miscellaneous 107,146 - |Interest of all kinds 2,191,777 - | 20,387,745 - --------- | Surplus 1,505,435 - 21,893,180 | 21,893,180 - ---------- | - -The foreign debt is 24,205,400 dollars, and the internal debt and -compensation for slaves amount to a still larger sum. But the great -drag upon the public treasury is the enormous army of 15,000 men for a -population under two million, with upwards of 2000 officers, those who -are unattached being still retained on full pay. This will give some -idea of the number of families who are living in luxury and idleness -on the public money, and of the distress that will follow the sudden -stoppage of their incomes, which is inevitable when the guano comes -to an end. It will be an embarrassing and difficult question for some -future Government to decide upon the proper measures for the disposal -of an unwieldy army and a crowd of hungry beggared officers. The best -suggestion on this subject has come from the late General Miller, -who, when governing Cuzco in 1836, proposed to establish military -colonies in the forests to the eastward of the Andes, and thus convert -a mischievous and dangerous tool for treason and faction into a means -of enriching the country. - -The administration of justice in Peru, though the laws are excellent, -and have been codified and ably edited, is so corrupt that it is better -to pass over the subject with a hope that things may be better in a -future generation; and the police administration, especially round -Lima, is disgraceful. - -Much indeed will be required, and much I trust is to be hoped, from the -rising generation of young men who are now about to enter upon public -life. Many of them have been educated in Europe, a large proportion -are well-informed, polished by travel and extensive reading, and -ardently desirous of distinguishing themselves in the service of the -State. In literature they have already displayed considerable industry -and ability. The 'Revista de Lima,' a bi-monthly periodical, contains -archæological, biographical, historical, and financial articles and -reviews, generally very ably written, in an enlightened and liberal -spirit, and by men who evidently take an earnest view of life. The -contributors, among whom are the Señores Lavalle, Ulloa, Pardo, Flores, -Masias, and the painter Laso, are all young men with a career before -them. It is a good sign, too, that effective steps have been taken -to edit and reprint historical materials which have long remained in -manuscript, or in scarce old editions. Thus Don Manuel A. Fuentes has -recently brought out six most interesting volumes containing reports of -the administrations of several of the Spanish viceroys of Peru,[365] -and a new edition of the 'Mercurio Peruano.' His 'Estadistica de Lima' -is also a work which displays considerable merit: and Don Sebastian -Lorente's well-known learning, and habit of careful research, promise -that his history of Peru, now on the point of being published in Paris, -will be a work of great value. - -This hasty glance at the present state of Peru, as regards its -government, material resources, and literature, will, I trust, have -shown that the people of these South American states are not altogether -the hopelessly degraded race that they are often represented; and that -there are grounds for believing that there is yet a happier future in -store for them. For, be it remembered, that Peru is far from being the -best specimen of these republics, and that the Chilians have displayed -tenfold the ability, both in governing, in commercial and agricultural -pursuits, and in literature. I think there can be no doubt that a -hasty conclusion respecting the South American races, founded on their -history since the independence, is likely to be erroneous and unfair; -and that, under more favourable circumstances, they are in every way -capable of better things. - -I cannot better conclude this chapter than by quoting the words of that -noble old warrior General Miller, written only a few months before -his death, in November 1861. This most excellent of men fought all -the battles of independence from 1817 to 1824; he was covered with -wounds and riddled with bullets[366] while striving for South American -freedom; he had watched with sorrowful attention the subsequent anarchy -and civil wars, and his words carry great weight with them. It will -be seen that he does not despond, but looks forward with hope to the -future. - -He says, "South America, with good reason, must feel for ever proud -of Camilo Henriquez, Vigil, and Mariategui, Olmedo and Felipe Pardo, -San Martin and O'Higgins, and many others of her illustrious sons. And -what may not be expected from the rising and future generations, now -that there are such universities as that of Santiago de Chile, and -such men as Bello to direct and foster them! Who can be blind to the -genius and great natural abilities of the Peruvian youth, now shooting -forth, notwithstanding the great disadvantages under which Peru at -present labours, with regard to the state of her colleges? With her -immense resources, a good government, and tranquillity, what may not be -expected! But every nation has its beginning, an inevitable and perhaps -necessarily rough ordeal to undergo, and South America must not expect -to make a leap that no other country has been able to do." - -[Illustration: Map to illustrate M^R. SPRUCE'S REPORTS on the "RED -BARK" REGION OF ECUADOR.] - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - - Mr. Spruce's expedition to procure plants and seeds of the "red bark" - or _C. succirubra_--Mr. Pritchett in the Huanuco region, and the "grey - barks"--Mr. Cross's proceedings at Loxa, and collection of seeds of - _C. Condaminea_. - - -IN a previous chapter I have given an account of the arrangements -which I made for procuring the various species of Chinchonæ in -districts other than that of the Calisaya, and it now remains for me to -record the labours of those whom I employed on this service, and the -successful results with which those labours were rewarded. And first, -both in importance and success, stands the expedition of Mr. Spruce, to -collect the seeds and plants of the "red-bark" tree or _C. succirubra_, -of whose services it would be impossible to speak too highly. I may -mention, at starting, that he received my first letter, requesting him -to undertake the work, on July 2nd, 1859, and such was his zeal that on -the 22nd of the same month he was on his way to the chinchona forests, -at his own expense, to ascertain the best locality for collecting the -plants and seeds. - -The species of chinchona, known as the "red-bark" tree, yields a larger -per-centage of febrifugal alkaloid than any other, and must therefore -be considered as the most important.[367] Its native forests are on the -western slopes of the famous mountain of Chimborazo, in the Republic -of Ecuador, and for a great many years it has not been found beyond 2° -36´ S. lat., but Mr. Spruce thinks it probable that in former times the -tree grew all along the roots of the Andes of Cuenca and Loxa to the -limits of the Peruvian desert in 5° S. To the north it scarcely passes -the latitude of 1° S.; and these precious trees are thus confined -within a very narrow latitudinal zone.[368] Within the ascertained -limits of the true "red-bark" tree, it exists in all the valleys of -the Andes which debouch on the plain of Guayaquil; but great havoc -has been made amongst the trees of late years by the bark-collectors. -In the valleys of Alausi, Pallatanga, and Chillanes (see map) all the -large trees have already been cut down. At the bases of the ridges of -Angas and San Antonio, the localities originally mentioned by Pavon, -and where "red-bark" trees once grew in abundance, the same destructive -system has been adopted; and now the "red-bark" grounds are confined to -the ravine of the river Chasuan, and its tributaries, which rise on the -northern slopes of Chimborazo, and fall into the river of Guayaquil. - -On the 22nd of July 1859 Mr. Spruce set out from the pleasant town -of Ambato, in the Quitenian Andes, where he was then residing, and, -passing through Alausi, arrived at the banks of the river Chanchan, and -established himself at a place called Lucmas, which is conveniently -near the "red-bark" chinchona forests. Lucmas is a sugar-cane farm, -between 5000 and 6000 feet above the sea; there are forest-trees in -the valleys and on the hills, while the steep slopes are often covered -with scrub and grass. From Lucmas Mr. Spruce went to the forests on -the banks of the river Pumachaca, which rises in the mountain of -Asuay, and falls into the Chanchan, at an elevation of 4000 feet. One -circumstance, among many, will give an idea of the difficulties which -he had to encounter. On reaching the Pumachaca he found that the ford -had been destroyed by the falling of a cliff, and that in its place -there was a deep whirlpool; so, with the driftwood along the banks, a -bridge had to be made where the river was narrowed between two rocks, -by which his party crossed with the baggage. Then, after a long search, -he found a place where the horses could swim across, and, by rolling -down masses of earth and stones, a way was made for them to ascend -on the other side. Once across, a hut was made among vegetable-ivory -palms, thatched with the palm-fronds, and Mr. Spruce commenced the -examination of the forest. - -After a long search, during which he passed several felled trunks of -chinchona-trees, he at length came upon a root-shoot about twenty feet -high. It is very rare to find these root-shoots, because the bark is -stripped from the roots as well as from the trunk. Mr. Spruce, from -his observations in the Pumachaca forest, came to the conclusion that -the "red-bark" trees grow best on stony declivities, where there is, -however, a good depth of humus, at an elevation of from 3000 to 5000 -feet above the sea. The temperature was very like that of a summer -day in London, but with cold mists towards evening, and from January -to May unceasing rain. He found the chinchona-trees, in this part of -the country, almost entirely extirpated, and, after a short stay at -Lucmas, he proceeded to examine the region of the "hill barks" or -_cascarillas serranas_, which is at an elevation of 8500 to 9000 feet, -on both sides of the river Chanchan. In the forest of Llalla, at the -foot of the mountain of Asuay, he found two kinds called by the natives -_cuchi-cara_ (pig-skin) and _pata de gallinazo_;[369] and on a stony -hill-side there were twenty large trees of the former, from 40 to 50 -feet high. - -By this excursion in the summer of 1859 Mr. Spruce ascertained the -districts where he should not go to, a very important point; and he -finally determined to carry on his collecting operations, in the season -of 1860, at a place called Limon, at the junction of a stream of that -name with the river Chasuan, which falls into the river of Ventanas -at a place called Aguacatal. (See map.) The forests are all private -property, and, after much negotiation with the owners, Señor Cordovez -of Ambato, and Dr. Neyra of Guaranda, an agreement was made by which, -on payment of 400 dollars, Mr. Spruce was allowed to take as many seeds -and plants as he liked, on condition that he did not touch the bark. - -Mr. Spruce had made arrangements for Dr. Taylor of Riobamba to proceed -to Loxa, and collect seeds of the _C. Condaminea_ species; but a severe -rheumatic and nervous attack, almost amounting to paralysis, induced -him to resign the duty of collecting the "red bark" to Dr. Taylor, and -it was only at the last moment that he was strong enough to undertake -the journey in company with his friend. During the whole time that -Mr. Spruce was at work he was suffering severely from illness; the -benefit derived from the milder climate of the forests was neutralized -by the fogs and damp; and, to use his own words, "although upheld by -a determination to execute to the best of my ability the task I had -undertaken, I was but too often in that state of prostration when to -lie down quietly and die would have seemed a relief." Leaving the -town of Ambato on the 11th of June, Mr. Spruce and Dr. Taylor reached -Guaranda on the 13th, and continued their journey towards the forests -on the 17th. At a very little below 4000 feet above the sea they -reached the small farms at Limon. Their abode stood on a narrow ridge -sloping gradually to the river Chasuan. It was merely a long low shed, -two-thirds of which was occupied by the rude machinery of a sugar-cane -mill; the remaining third had an upper story with a flooring of -bamboo-planks, half of it open at the sides, and the other half with a -bamboo wall about six feet high, not coming up to the roof in any part -of it. This was their dormitory, and it was reached by a ladder, merely -a trunk of a tree with rude notches for steps. On the ground-floor was -the kitchen, with a wall of rough planks of raft wood, not touching -each other; so that the whole fabric was abundantly ventilated, and -only too often filled with fog, causing coughs, aching limbs, and -mouldy clothes. - -This was their head-quarters during the time that they were collecting -seeds and plants; and the severe hardships, miserable lodging, and -acute sufferings from illness must increase our admiration for Mr. -Spruce's zeal and resolution in performing this great public service. - -Mr. Cross, the gardener whom I had engaged to assist Mr. Spruce, -conveyed the fifteen Wardian cases, which I had previously sent to -Guayaquil, up the river as far as Ventanas, and reached Limon on the -27th of July. - -In the mean while Mr. Spruce had carefully examined the chinchona -forests, and visited all the bark-trees known to exist within reach -of Limon. He found a good crop of capsules on many of them, which had -already nearly reached their full size on the finest trees; on others, -however, there were only very young capsules, and even a good many -flowers, and not one of the late-flowering panicles produced ripe -capsules. On the tree which bore most capsules they began to turn -mouldy, the mould being not fungi, but rudimentary lichens, which, -whilst it proved that the capsules were still alive and growing, -proved also that they were exposed to an atmosphere almost constantly -saturated with moisture. - -The _manchon_ or clump of "red-bark" trees at Limon lies nearly west -from the peak of Chimborazo, and the river Chasuan rises on the -northern shoulder of that mountain. The view from Limon takes in a vast -extent of country, and the whole is unbroken forest, save towards the -source of the Chasuan, where a lofty ridge rises above the region of -arborescent vegetation, and is crowned by a small breadth of grassy -_paramo_. The waters of the Chasuan run over a black or dull blue, -shining, and very compact trachyte, over which, in the bottom of the -valleys at Limon, there is a fine-grained ferruginous sandstone of a -deep brown colour, in thick strata. The soil is a deep loamy alluvial -deposit. The ridges on which the "red-bark" trees grow all deviate -a little from an easterly and westerly direction, and the chinchonæ -are far more abundant on the northern than on the southern slopes. -The northern and eastern sides of the trees, too, had borne most -fruit, and scarcely a capsule ripened on their southern and western -sides. This is explained by the trees receiving most sun from the -east and north, the mornings being generally clear and sunny in the -summer, whilst the afternoons are foggy, and the sun's declination is -northerly. Mr. Spruce also observed that the trees standing in open -ground were far healthier and more luxuriant than those growing in the -forest, where they are hemmed in and partially shaded by other trees; -and he concludes, from this circumstance, that, though the "red-bark" -tree may need shade whilst young and tender, it really requires (like -most trees) plenty of air, light, and room wherein to develop its -proportions. - -The lowest site of the "red-bark" tree at Limon is at an elevation of -2450 feet above the sea, and its highest limit is at an elevation of -about 5000 feet. The trees nearest the plain are generally the largest, -but those higher up have much thicker bark in proportion to their -diameter. - -The havoc committed by the bark-collectors on these trees within the -last twenty years has been very great. The entire quantity of "red -bark" collected in 1859 did not reach to 5000 lbs., and in 1860 no -"red bark" at all was got out, so that the trade is nearly extinct. In -the valleys of the Chasuan and Limon Mr. Spruce saw about 200 of these -trees standing, but only two or three were saplings which had not -been disturbed; all the rest grew from old stools, whose circumference -averaged from 4 to 5 feet. He was unable to find a single young plant -under the trees, although many of the latter bore signs of having -flowered in previous years; and this was explained by the flowering -trees invariably growing in open places, where the ground was either -weeded, or trodden down by cattle. - -Mr. Spruce describes the _C. succirubra_ or "red-bark" tree as very -handsome, and he declares that, in looking out over the forest, he -could never find any other tree at all comparable to it for beauty. -It is fifty feet high, branching from about one-third of its height, -with large, broadly ovate, deep green, and shining leaves, mixed with -decaying ones of a blood-red colour, which give it a most striking -appearance. - -The _Cascarilla magnifolia_, a very handsome tree, with a fragrant -white flower, grows abundantly with the "red bark," and attains a -height of 80 feet. - -After the arrival of Mr. Cross at Limon the work of collecting -commenced in earnest. A piece of ground was fenced in, and Mr. Cross -made a pit and prepared the soil to receive cuttings, of which he put -in above a thousand on the 1st of August and following days; and he -afterwards went round to all the old stools and put in as many layers -from them as possible. "But," as Mr. Spruce most truly observes, "only -those who have attempted to do anything in the forest, possessing -scarcely any of the necessary appliances, can have any idea of the -difficulties, and Mr. Cross's unremitting watchfulness alone enabled -him to surmount them." - -Towards the end of July, in a few sunny days, the fruit of the -"red-bark" trees made visible advances towards maturity; and in the -middle of August the capsules began to burst at the base, and appeared -ripe. An Indian was then sent up the trees, and, breaking the panicles -gently off, let them fall on sheets spread on the ground to receive -them, so that the few loose seeds shaken out by the fall were not -lost. The capsules were afterwards spread out to dry for some days on -the same sheets. In September Mr. Spruce went across to the valley -of the San Antonio, to the southward, in order to secure additional -seeds from "red-bark" trees there, leaving Mr. Cross to watch over the -rooting of the cuttings at Limon. Between the 14th and 19th he gathered -500 well-grown capsules at San Antonio, in addition to 2000 already -collected at Limon. Good capsules contain forty seeds each, so that -at least 100,000 well-ripened and well-dried seeds were now gathered; -and on the 28th of September Mr. Spruce started for Guayaquil.[370] -In November he proceeded up the river again, and purchased one of the -rafts at Ventanas, which are used for conveying cacao to Guayaquil. It -was composed of twelve trunks of raft-wood, sixty-three to sixty-six -feet long and one foot in diameter, kept in their places by shorter -pieces tied transversely, and covered with bamboo planking, fenced -round with rails to a height of three feet, and roofed over. The rope -used for binding the parts of the raft together was the twining stem -of a _Bignonia_. The Wardian cases were got ready on the raft at -Ventanas, and Mr. Cross arrived with the plants from Limon on the 13th -of December, and established them in the cases to the number of 637. - -After encountering several dangers and mishaps in navigating the river, -the raft with its precious freight reached Guayaquil on the 27th of -December; and the plants were safely embarked on board the steamer, in -charge of Mr. Cross, on the 2nd of January, 1861. - -Thus skilfully and successfully did Mr. Spruce, and his able -colleagues, perform this most difficult and important service. Mr. -Spruce, during the whole time that he was in the chinchona forests, -made most careful meteorological observations. From June 19th to -December 8th the results of observations of the thermometer were as -follows:-- - - Mean minimum 61-1/2° - Mean maximum 72-1/3 - Mean temperature at 6-1/2 P.M. 67-3/4 - Highest temperature observed 80-1/2 on July 27th. - Lowest " " 57 on July 11th. - Entire range 23-1/2 - Mean daily variation 10-1/2 - -On the western side of the Quitenian Andes, south of the Equator, the -summer or dry season lasts from June to December, the remaining five -months constituting the wet season. In the summer, at Limon, the early -part of the day is often sunny, and fogs come on in the afternoon and -night; but in the wet season there are fogs in the morning, and heavy -rains during the rest of the day and night. - -A perusal of the foregoing pages, which are nothing more than a brief -abstract from Mr. Spruce's official reports, cannot fail to impress -the reader with the valuable nature of the service which has been -performed, and with the energy and fortitude, combined with great skill -and ability, which enabled Mr. Spruce to overcome so many difficulties; -and almost equal praise is due to Mr. Cross. But in recounting these -arduous labours, only half of Mr. Spruce's services have been recorded. -That gentleman is an accomplished botanist, and most accurate observer; -and he has supplied us with a detailed report which, I do not hesitate -to say, contains a larger amount of valuable information on the -chinchona-forests than any account which has yet appeared in Europe. -In addition to the narrative of his proceedings, and his observations -on the "red-bark" tree, Mr. Spruce here gives a minute account of -the vegetation of the "red-bark" forests of Chimborazo, a detailed -meteorological journal, and important remarks on the climate and -soil.[371] - -My apprehensions respecting the feelings of the natives, when our -proceedings became known, were fully justified by what took place in -Ecuador, as well as in Peru. But the South Americans are, as a rule, -remarkable for the slowness of their movements; and it was not until -May 1st, 1861, that the legislature of Ecuador decreed that every -person, whether foreigner or native, should be forbidden to make -collections of plants, cuttings, or seeds of the quina-tree; and that -precautions should be taken to prevent those articles from passing the -ports and frontiers of the Republic. A fine of 100 dollars on every -plant, and every drachm of seed, was imposed on those who attempted to -break this decree. But by May 1st, 1861, the plants and seeds of the -quina-tree were safe on the Neilgherry hills, in Southern India. - -While Mr. Spruce was engaged in collecting these seeds and plants in -the forests at the foot of Chimborazo, Mr. Pritchett, whose services I -had secured for the Huanuco region in Northern Peru, was employed on -the species of chinchonæ yielding grey bark. - -Mr. Pritchett left Lima on the 18th of May, 1860, and arrived in the -town of Huanuco, the centre of the grey-bark region, on the 28th, where -he made the necessary preparations for a journey into the neighbouring -forests. On the 9th of June he set out for the mountain-range of -Carpis, to the northward, where there are several species of chinchonæ. -The _C. purpurea_ is very abundant; the _C. nitida_ is common on -the north-east side, and on the upper part of the mountains; the _C. -obovata_ is more rare; and the _C. micrantha_ and _C. Peruviana_ are -both inhabitants of the lower slopes. After crossing the Carpis range, -Mr. Pritchett followed the course of the river of Casapi to the village -of Chinchao, and went thence to the coca estate of Casapi, at the -eastern end of the valley, where it joins that of the river Huallaga, -and here he was joined by his guide. - -[Illustration: CHINCHONA NITIDA TREES. - -FROM A SKETCH BY MR. PRITCHETT. Page 323] - -About three leagues from Casapi, and close to the Huallaga, is the -mountain called San Cristoval de Cocheros (Cuchero of Pavon and -Poeppig), which rises from the low land at the junction of the two -rivers to a height of about 1200 feet above them, and is the centre of -the bark district of Huanuco. On the northern side Mr. Pritchett found -abundance of _C. micrantha_, and some trees of _C. Peruviana_; but -the latter species was much more rare. They both grow to a very large -size, some of them being thirty inches in diameter and seventy feet in -height. The trees of _C. nitida_ were at a higher elevation. - -During June and July, though it was the dry season, heavy rains -continued to fall from day to day; but towards the end of July the -weather broke up, and the sun began to make an impression on the solid -banks of cloud which filled the valleys, and then it was that, during -some portion of the day, the sun penetrated to the very underwood of -the forest. In the first half of August there was fine weather, with -only an occasional shower. The seeds on the chinchona-trees ripened -rapidly in the sunshine, and Mr. Pritchett collected them by felling -the trees--a labour which was performed by Indians, whom he hired from -the coca estate of Casapi. Seven large trees were cut down daily, and -denuded of their capsules, for a fortnight; the drying process being -carried on at the estate, where every moment of sunshine was taken -advantage of. On the 13th of August he started for the coast with his -collection of seeds, and half a mule-load of young chinchona-plants, -which were in perfect health when placed in the Wardian cases at Lima. - -Mr. Pritchett reports that in the district around Cocheros, Casapi, -and Carpis, the rocks are of crystalline formation, in many localities -highly disintegrated, and composed of masses of hornblende, felspar, -and mica. He remarks that felspar contains much potash, of which the -chinchona-trees are said to require a large quantity for their full -development; and, as felspar abounds in this region, he attributes the -abundance and size of the chinchona-trees to this circumstance. He also -reports that steatite, a silicate of magnesia and alumina, abounds in -the vicinity of Huanuco. - -He describes the climate as moist and warm, and says that the -difference in the degree of moisture and warmth between the lower -slopes where the _C. micrantha_ flourishes, and the higher parts of -the mountains inhabited by the _C. nitida_, is very striking, while on -the lower slopes the soil is much deeper and richer.[372] He reports -the elevation of Cocheros above the level of the sea to be about 4000 -feet,[373] but he made no meteorological or other observations; and -I think there can be no doubt that the elevation of that mountain -is much greater than Mr. Pritchett supposes. I do not find any -information on this point in Poeppig's travels; but the Huanuco region -is quite a beaten track, and there are several accounts of it by -modern travellers. Huanuco itself is 6300 feet above the sea;[374] -the distance thence to the summit of the cuesta del Carpis, which is -8000 feet above the sea, is about twenty miles, and there is a descent -on the other side into the valley of the Casapi of 2920 feet.[375] -According to this account the village of Chinchao, in the Casapi -valley, would have an elevation of about 5000 feet. From Chinchao to -the foot of the Cocheros mountain is a distance of twenty-five miles -down the Casapi valley,[376] a gentle descent, with numerous cottages -and plantations on both sides of the road.[377] Thus the foot of the -Cocheros mountain would be about 4500 feet above the sea, and its -summit at least 6000 feet. - -We shall not, therefore, be very far from the truth if we place the -region of _C. nitida_ on the Cocheros and Carpis mountains at from 6000 -to 7000 feet above the sea, and of _C. micrantha_ at from 4000 to 5000 -feet. - -Mr. Pritchett performed the portion of this important undertaking which -I intrusted to him with promptitude and zeal. Time was a great object, -and, by going direct from Lima to the best locality in the Huanuco -chinchona region, he completed the necessary collection of plants and -seeds, and returned to the coast in little more than three months.[378] -This shows how essential a previous knowledge of the chinchona region, -of the people, and of the language, was, without which the collector -would probably lose much time, which is the same thing as spending -much money, and eventually wander into a locality where only worthless -species are found, as was the case with the Dutch agent. - -Owing to the unavoidable abandonment of Mr. Spruce's intention of -sending Dr. Taylor to collect seeds of _C. Condaminea_ at Loxa, one -portion of my scheme for introducing all the valuable species into -India remained incomplete at the close of 1860. On my return from -India, therefore, in May 1861, I obtained the sanction of the Secretary -of State for India to take measures for obtaining a supply of seeds -from the Loxa forests. Mr. Cross, the gardener who had so ably assisted -Mr. Spruce, and shared his labours, after safely depositing the -collection of seeds and plants in India, had returned to South America, -attracted by the richness and variety of the flora of the Andes. Having -acquired experience of the people and language, of the localities -where chinchona-trees are found, and of the mode of travelling, during -his former visit, he possessed the necessary qualifications; and, as -Mr. Spruce was too ill to undertake the work, it was intrusted to Mr. -Cross, who performed it with expedition and success. He is an excellent -practical gardener, intelligent and persevering, ardently devoted to -his profession, and thoroughly trustworthy. - -On the 17th of September, 1861, Mr. Cross left Guayaquil in an open -rowing boat, and landed at Santa Rosa, the port of the province of -Loxa, whence he proceeded, by way of Zaruma, to the town of Loxa, which -he reached on the 27th. He had to pass through dense swampy forests, -over dangerous precipitous ridges of the Andes, in crossing one of -which his mule slipped down a deep ravine and was dashed to pieces, and -along barren lofty plains. He mentions that during the ascent to Zaruma -he saw several "red-bark" trees growing at an elevation of eight or -nine thousand feet. - -On the 1st of October he left Loxa, and went to a long low ridge -of hills, called the Sierra de Cajanuma, about eight miles to the -southward, a locality which is mentioned by Humboldt, Bonpland, and -Caldas, as the abode of the most valuable kinds of _C. Condaminea_. He -came to an Indian hut on a little rounded eminence near the summit of -the mountain, which, being far from public roads or other dwellings, -seemed well suited for his head-quarters during the time that he was -searching for seeds. For be it remembered that the Decree of May 1st, -1861, already mentioned, was in full force, and that he was running the -risk of fine and imprisonment in performing this important service. The -owner of the hut, who was an experienced bark-collector, allowed Mr. -Cross to establish himself in a little shed at one end of it, which, -although favourable for drying seeds, was so cold that he was sometimes -compelled, during windy nights, to seek shelter in the bottom of a -neighbouring ravine. - -After many comparatively unsuccessful searches in the surrounding -woods, he was one day passing along the bank of a steep ravine, and, -happening to look over a projecting rock, he saw a number of fine young -trees of the _C. Condaminea_ on the steep slope beneath, some of which -bore a few panicles of seeds, which, on examination, he found to be -perfectly ripe. After this discovery he continued to search all the -ravines in the vicinity from sunrise to sunset, some of which he had to -descend by means of the trailing stems of a species of _Passiflora_, -and in this way a good supply of seeds was collected. He reports that -on the accessible slopes there are few chinchona-trees, owing partly -to the annual burning, and partly to continual cropping of the young -shoots by cattle. He describes the rocks, composed of micaceous schist -and gneiss, as being, in many places, in a state of decomposition, -and states that large portions are frequently tumbling down from the -more elevated summits. The alluvial deposit in the ravines, where -the _C. Condaminea_ is found growing, is shallow, in many places not -more than six inches in depth, and Mr. Cross often gathered seeds -from trees which were growing in clefts of rock, where there was not -a single ounce of soil to be found. He describes the _C. Condaminea_ -as a slender tree, from 20 to 30 feet in height,[379] and from 8 to -10 inches in diameter at the base; but he saw few trees of these -dimensions, and the plants from which the bark of commerce is now taken -are in general not more than 8 to 10 feet in height.[380] When the -plants are cut down, three or four young shoots or suckers generally -spring up, but this does not always happen, as some of the more -industrious bark-collectors frequently pull up the roots, and bark them -also. The bark is taken from the smallest twigs, and thus the annual -growths are often taken, especially if they are strong. The plants are -sometimes found growing in small clumps, and sometimes solitary, but -always in dry situations. - -The temperature of this region ranges according to Humboldt and Caldas -from 41° to 72° Fahr., and according to Mr. Cross from 34° to 70° -Fahr.; but he adds that it seldom falls below 40°, and rarely rises -above 65°; the mean range being from 45° to 60° Fahr. The climate of -Loxa is very moist. The wet season commences in January and lasts until -the end of April or middle of May; in June, July, and August there are -heavy rains, accompanied by strong gales of wind; from September to -January there is generally fine weather, but occasional showers of rain -fall even at that time of year.[381] - -The vegetation on the Sierra de Cajanuma is of a semi-arborescent -character, but some of the higher summits are bare. In the bottoms -of the ravines grow a species of _Alnus_, _Melastomæ_, _Peperomias_, -palms, and two species of tree ferns; and on the slopes throughout the -low-lying country, barley, maize, peas, and potatoes are cultivated. -Mr. Cross sent home a large collection of dried specimens of -plants gathered on the Sierra de Cajanuma. Among them I observed a -_Befaria_ with pretty crimson flowers, of which he says that one -ounce of the roots in two pints of water is taken twice a day by the -Indians for dysentery; a very handsome purple lupin, growing six to -eight feet high; an _Embothrium_, a wide-spreading shrub, growing -in dry situations; another smaller _Befaria_, a beautiful shrub, -growing in very lofty dry localities; a _Veronica_, a shrub six to -eight feet high, with a blue flower; a _Gaultheria_; a wide-spreading -_melastomaceous_ plant, with inconspicuous flowers; and a number of -_Lycopodia_ and ferns. - -[Illustration: CHINCHONA CHAHUARGUERA. - -(From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia de Pavon.') Page 329.] - -Besides the seeds of the _C. Condaminea_, which is identical with -the _C. Chahuarguera_ (Pavon), Mr. Cross succeeded in collecting a -few seeds of _C. crispa_ (Tafalla) after several long journeys up -the mountains. He found this kind growing at a great elevation, in a -deposit of peat, where the temperature sometimes falls to 27° Fahr. -This species of chinchona yields the _cascarilla crespilla negra_, one -of the most esteemed forms of Loxa bark. Mr. Howard[382] mentions that -the _Josephiana_ bears the same relation to the normal _C. Calisaya_ -as the _Crespilla_ bark at Loxa does to the normal and full-grown _C. -Chahuarguera_. - -Mr. Cross did his work right well, and in December, 1861, he returned -to Guayaquil with nearly 100,000 seeds of _C. Chahuarguera_, and a -smaller parcel of _C. crispa_, which were forwarded to India by way of -Southampton.[383] - -Thus were the various operations which I organized for procuring the -valuable species of chinchona-trees in South America satisfactorily -completed; and the labours of Mr. Spruce, Dr. Taylor, Mr. Pritchett, -Mr. Cross, and Mr. Weir, though differing in value and importance, all -deserve the warmest recognition, for all those intrepid and courageous -explorers worked zealously and successfully, and did good service in -furthering this most important public enterprise. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -CONVEYANCE OF CHINCHONA-PLANTS AND SEEDS FROM SOUTH AMERICA TO INDIA. - - Transmission of dried specimens--Voyages of plants in Wardian - cases--Arrival of plants and seeds in India--Depôt at Kew--Treatment - of plants in Wardian cases--Effects of introduction of - chinchona-plants into India on trade in South America--Neilgherry - hills. - - -THE attempt to make simultaneous collections of seeds and plants of all -the valuable species of chinchonæ was thus crowned with almost complete -success. Out of my original scheme the _C. lancifolia_ of New Granada -was the only one which had not been procured. It is unnecessary to -say more respecting the numerous difficulties and dangers which were -encountered by the collectors, for the narrative of the proceedings -detailed in previous chapters will have made these sufficiently -obvious. So far as the labours in South America were concerned, all -obstacles were surmounted, and the objects of this great enterprise -were fully attained. Not only were plants and seeds safely brought -to the coast, but, in every instance, the collectors took care to -provide themselves with botanical specimens from the chinchona-trees. -Thus the leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of each species, which were -brought to England, placed the identity of the valuable species to -which the plants and seeds belonged beyond the remotest possibility -of a doubt.[384] But in conveying these precious mule-loads to the -coast of Peru, and safely embarking them, only half the difficulties -had been overcome; and I could not but feel that some failures and -disappointments must be expected before the chinchona-plants were -fairly established in India. - -There was not much reason for apprehension with regard to the seeds; -but the plants, in the absence of any provision for conveying them -direct across the Pacific, had to undergo an ordeal of unprecedented -duration. Yet the great advantage of introducing plants as well as -seeds, in the immense start they would give to the young plantations in -India, was strongly felt, and the complete success that attended the -hazardous transit of at least one relay, which came under peculiarly -favourable circumstances, fully justified the attempt. - -I gave directions to Mr. Spruce and Mr. Pritchett to send small parcels -of seeds of each species to Jamaica and Trinidad, in obedience to an -order received from England, so that quinine-yielding trees might also -be introduced into our West Indian colonies; and the results of the -experiment in those islands will be given in a future chapter. The -great bulk of the collections, however, were despatched to India, by -the roundabout way of Southampton, directly they arrived on the coast -of the Pacific. - -The thirty Wardian cases which I sent out round Cape Horn were three -feet two inches long, ten feet ten inches broad, and three feet two -inches high; and, with soil and plants, each case weighed a little -over three hundredweight. The collection of plants of _C. Calisaya_, -_C. ovata_, and _C. micrantha_ filled fifteen cases; and the other -fifteen received the collection of _C. succirubra_ at Guayaquil. I also -had six cases of somewhat smaller dimensions constructed at Lima for -the plants from Huanuco. The fifteen cases containing the collection -of chinchona-plants from Caravaya sailed from the port of Islay on the -23rd of June, and reached Panama on the 6th of July, 1860, when 207 had -already begun to throw out green shoots. On their arrival in England, -in August, these 207 plants were in a most flourishing and healthy -condition, and continued so until their arrival at Alexandria early in -September. But the intense heat of the Red Sea, where the thermometer -ranged from 99° in the night to 107° in the day-time, proved too much -for them, and the damage was increased by a detention of a week at -Bombay. Their roots were attacked by rot, yet, on their arrival in -the Neilgherry hills, their leaves still looked fresh, and several -hundred green cuttings were obtained from them, which, however, failed -to strike. The cases containing the chinchona-plants from Huanuco left -Lima in September, and were also in a most promising state when they -reached England, but on their arrival in India they were all dead. The -"red-bark" collection, under the able management of Mr. Cross, sailed -from Guayaquil on the 2nd of January, 1861. On their arrival in England -in excellent order, six of them were left at Kew as a precaution, and -replaced by six plants of _C. Calisaya_ supplied by Sir W. Hooker. At -that season the climate of the Red Sea is cool, and, owing to this -circumstance and still more to the intelligent watchfulness of a good -practical gardener, 463 plants of _C. succirubra_ and six of _C. -Calisaya_ were handed over to the superintendent on the Neilgherry -hills, in as vigorous and healthy a condition as could possibly have -been hoped for after such a voyage. - -The "grey-bark" seeds arrived in the Neilgherry hills early in January, -1861, and the "red-bark" in the following March, and both collections -came up abundantly. The supply of seeds of _C. Condaminea_ reached -their destination in Southern India in February 1862. In order to guard -against all accidents, a portion of the seeds of each species was left -in England, and a depôt of young chinchona-plants has thus been formed -at Kew Gardens, with a view to fall back upon them in the event of -possible failures or misfortunes in India.[385] Seeds of each of the -species were also sent to Ceylon, to which Sir W. Hooker added a few -plants of _C. Calisaya_ from his stock at Kew. - -Thus, in spite of one or two disappointments, the great object of the -undertaking sanctioned by the Secretary of State for India was fully -attained. By the spring of 1861 a large supply of plants and young -seedlings was established in the Neilgherry hills; and at the present -moment we have thousands of chinchona-plants, of all the valuable -species, flourishing and multiplying rapidly in Southern India, and in -Ceylon. When the unprecedented length of the voyages and the numerous -trans-shipments are taken into consideration, the wonder is that any -of the plants should have been successfully conveyed from the slopes -of the Andes in South America to the ghauts in Southern India, over -thousands of miles, through every variety of climate, and subject to -the risk of crossing the isthmus of Panama, of changing steamers at the -island of St. Thomas, at Southampton, at Suez, and at Bombay, and of -the journey through Egypt. - -The most important introduction of plants into India, by means of -Wardian cases, previous to the arrival of the chinchonas, was that -of the tea from China in 1849 and following years by Mr. Fortune. On -those occasions the cases were strongly and coarsely made, the glass -shades firmly fixed, and the glass itself thick, and glazed in pieces -of moderate size. The frames were protected by a grating of iron wire, -with a canvas covering capable of being unrolled so as to screen the -plants from the direct rays of the sun, if necessary. The soil was not -less than eight or ten inches deep, and kept down by cross-battens, and -the plants were fairly established in it before starting. In 1849 Mr. -Fortune sowed large quantities of seeds in the cases, between rows of -young plants, which germinated on their way from China to India, and -reached their destination in the Himalayas in good condition. Out of -250 tea-plants, 215 arrived in perfect order.[386] - -But it was an easy process to convey plants by the short voyage from -China to Calcutta, when compared with the introduction of plants from -the western coast of South America into India; and the performance of -the latter feat, in the case of the chinchona-plants under Mr. Cross's -care, is undoubtedly the most extraordinary success of the kind that -has yet been achieved. - -A few remarks on the treatment of plants in Wardian cases were supplied -to me by Mr. Weir and Mr. Cross, who acquired their experience in the -voyages from South America to India; and by Mr. McIvor, who received -the plants on the Neilgherry hills. The cases were filled with soil to -a depth of nine to ten inches, in which the chinchonas were planted -in rows, from the back to the front of the case. The distance from -plant to plant was regulated by their size, but, in the case of their -having much foliage, they should be rather wide apart, for the crowding -of foliage is always injurious, and often brings on mildew or mould. -After having been planted they were well watered, and shaded from the -glare of the mid-day sun. On the surface of the soil, between each row -of plants, a batten was placed, extending from the back to the front -of the case, and held firmly down by two longer battens extending -lengthways. By this means the soil and plants are not disturbed in the -operation of moving the cases. When the cases are finally closed the -soil should be in a medium state as regards moisture, and all dead -foliage should be removed. The cases should be made as air-tight as -possible by filling the seams with putty, and every precaution must -be taken to preserve the plants from the slightest contact with salt -water.[387] Mr. McIvor strongly recommends that the cases should be -furnished with a false bottom, raised about two or three inches above -the true bottom, by bars of wood of the required thickness being nailed -on the underside. The false bottom should have holes bored in it at -regular intervals, with a few broken pieces of pot and a layer of moss -placed over them. He considers that the best sort of soil is formed of -equal parts of leaf-mould, turfy loam, and sand, mixed in a dry state, -and spread out and exposed to the action of the sun for a few days -before being placed in the cases. During the voyage the plants should -have plenty of light and air, one side of the case being left open for -two or three hours, morning and evening, during fine weather, when dead -leaves should be picked off, and water administered to any plant which -may require it. The soil should be turned up on the surface to the -depth of about half an inch with a small pointed stick every three or -four days, and always kept rough on the surface, so as to allow the air -to circulate in the soil. This circulation of air is also facilitated -by the false bottom. The action of the air on the soil keeps the roots -in fine condition, and entirely prevents the formation of mildew and -damp; but the principal object of the false bottom is to allow any -excess of water to drain off into a place where it cannot _sour_ the -soil, and yet will not be lost. Then, as the soil becomes dry above, -the water will be attracted to it. - -With the exception of the false bottom, all the above suggestions -were carefully attended to by the gardeners who were in charge of the -chinchona-plants during the voyage to India; the partial failures -which attended some of the relays from South America could not, under -the circumstances, have been avoided by any human foresight; and, as -the general result of my arrangements has been to introduce all the -valuable kinds of quinine-yielding plants into India, we have every -reason to congratulate ourselves on the success of our labours. - -With the chinchona-plants I brought from Peru a supply of seeds of the -chirimoya, of aji-pepper, and of the _Schinus molle_, all of which -are coming up well on the Neilgherry hills.[388] They have most of -the other kinds of _Anonas_ in India, but the chirimoya fruit, the -most exquisite of all, has yet to be raised. He who has not tasted -the chirimoya has yet to learn what fruit is. "The pine-apple, the -mangosteen, and the chirimoya," says Dr. Seemann, "are considered the -finest fruits in the world. I have tasted them in those localities -in which they are supposed to attain their highest perfection--the -pine-apple in Guayaquil, the mangosteen in the Indian archipelago, -and the chirimoya on the slopes of the Andes; and, if I were called -upon to act the part of a Paris, I would without hesitation assign the -apple to the chirimoya. Its taste indeed surpasses that of every other -fruit, and Haenke was quite right when he called it the masterpiece of -nature."[389] - -In obtaining plants and seeds of these valuable chinchonas from South -America, it would be a source of deep regret to me if that measure -was attended by any injury to the people or the commerce of Peru or -Ecuador, countries in the welfare of which I have for years taken the -deepest interest. But I have no apprehension that such will be the -result of the cultivation of these plants in other parts of the world. -The demand for quinine will always be in excess of the supply from -South America; and the result of chinchona cultivation in India and -Java will have the effect of lowering the price, and bringing this -inestimable febrifuge within the reach of a vast number of people -who are now excluded from its use, without in any way injuring the -trade of Peru and Ecuador. I trust that not only will this measure -do no injury to the South Americans, but that it may be hereafter -productive of good to them, as well as to the rest of mankind. Hitherto -they have destroyed the chinchona-trees in a spirit of reckless -short-sightedness, and thus done more injury to their own interests -than could possibly have arisen from any commercial competition; but -it may be that the influence of peace and education will inaugurate a -new system in time to come, that more enlightened views will prevail, -and that they themselves may undertake the cultivation of a plant -which is indigenous to their forests, but which, up to this time, they -have so foolishly neglected. It will then be a pleasure to supply them -with the information which will have been gained by the experience of -cultivators in India, and thus to assist them in the establishment of -plantations on the slopes of the eastern Andes. - -Under any circumstances the South Americans, who owe to India the -staple food of millions of their people, and to the Old World most of -their valuable products--wheat, barley, apples, peaches, sugar-cane, -the vine, rice, the olive, sheep, cattle, and horses--have no right -to desire to withhold from India a product which is so essentially -necessary to her welfare. Nor do I believe that the better conditioned -Peruvians have any such desire. On the contrary, many of them have -shown themselves willing to promote a friendly interchange of the -products of the New and Old Worlds; and the foolish decree issued in -Ecuador on the 1st of May, 1861, as well as the numerous obstructions -thrown in my way in southern Peru, may be imputed either to the -narrow-minded selfishness of half-educated officials, or to the -ignorant patriotism of backwoodsmen. These are feelings which are not -shared by either the educated few, or by the Indian population. - -After much careful consideration it had been decided that the best -place for commencing the experimental cultivation of chinchona-plants -in India would be the Neilgherry hills, in the Madras Presidency. Here -are to be found a climate, an amount of moisture, a vegetation, and -an elevation above the sea, more analogous to those of the chinchona -forests in South America than can be met with in any other part of -India. In the Government gardens at Ootacamund, on the Neilgherries, -there were the necessary conveniences for propagating plants and -raising seedlings; and in Mr. William G. McIvor, the Superintendent, -was to be found a zealous, intelligent, and practical gardener, who -had carefully studied the botany of the chinchona genus, and under -whose care the cultivation would be commenced with the best possible -guarantees for its success. - -From the Neilgherries the chinchona-plants will, it is hoped, be -introduced into such other hill districts of Southern India as, after -examination, may be found suitable for their growth; and it was a part -of my duty to visit the most promising localities, and, in conjunction -with Mr. McIvor, to select the sites for chinchona plantations on the -Neilgherry hills. With this object in view we landed at the port of -Calicut, on the coast of Malabar, on the 7th of October, 1861. - - - - -TRAVELS IN INDIA. - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -MALABAR. - - Calicut--Houses and gardens--Population of Malabar--Namburi - Brahmins--Nairs--Tiars--Slaves--Moplahs--Assessment - of rice-fields, of gardens, of dry crops--Other - taxes--Voyage up the Beypoor river--The Conolly teak - plantations--Wundoor--Backwood cultivation--Sholacul--Sispara - ghaut--Black-wood--Scenery--Sispara--View of the Nellemboor - valley--Avalanche--Arrival at Ootacamund. - - -HE who would desire to receive the most pleasant impression of India, -on a first arrival, must follow in the wake of Vasco de Gama, and land -on the coast of Malabar, the garden of the peninsula. Here Nature -is clad in her brightest and most inviting robes, the scenery is -magnificent, the fields and gardens speak of plenty, and the dwellings -of the people are substantial and comfortable. - -As we steamed into the anchorage at Calicut, on board the little yacht -'Pleiad,' no appearance of any town was visible, and no building except -a tall white lighthouse. Thick groves of cocoanut-trees line the shore, -and are divided from the sea by a belt of sand; while undulating green -hills rise up behind, and the background of mountains was hidden by -banks of clouds. The whole scene bore a close resemblance to one of -the Sandwich or Society Islands, down to the canoes which came off to -us the moment the anchor was let go. They are hewn out of the trunk of -the jack-tree, with an upper bulwark fastened with coir twine; and the -canoe-men were naked athletic-looking fellows, with enormous hats made -of a frond of the tallipot palm (_Corypha umbraculifera_). When we -shoved off from the 'Pleiad' a handsome fish-hawk, with white head and -breast, was perched on the fore-topsail yard-arm, and sea-snakes were -playing in the water alongside. In-shore there were a few native craft, -called _pattamars_, at anchor. Pattamars are the vessels which have -carried on the coasting trade on the western side of India from time -immemorial. As in the days of Sinbad the sailor, their planks are not -nailed, but sewn together with coir-twine, and they have high sterns -and bows sheering rapidly aft. The deepest part is at the stem, whence -the bottom curves inwards to the stern. A pattamar has two masts raking -forward, with long picturesque lateen yards slung with one-third part -before the mast, and two-thirds abaft. They never attempt to tack, but -always ware, and if taken aback there is no alternative but either to -wait until she comes round, or to capsize. - -On landing at Calicut, a carriage drawn by two white bullocks was, -through the hospitality of Mr. Patrick Grant, the Collector of Malabar, -waiting for us on the sandy beach, to convey us to his house; a -drive of about two miles. The excellent road, of a bright red colour -from the soil being composed of laterite, passes through groves of -cocoanut-trees, interspersed with many houses, each surrounded by -its garden of mangos, nux vomica trees, jacks with pepper-vines -creeping over them, and palm-trees. The houses are all substantial -and comfortable-looking, built of square blocks of laterite joined -with _chunam_, or lime made from calcined sea-shells, and roofed with -tiles. The laterite or iron-clay is a rock full of cavities and pores -like coral, overlying the granite which forms the basis of Malabar. -When excluded from the air it is so soft that any iron instrument can -readily cut it, and is dug up in square masses with a pickaxe, and -afterwards shaped into blocks with a knife or trowel. After exposure -it soon becomes as hard, and is as durable as bricks. Each house has -a cocoanut safe or store-room on one side, of open wood-work. Many -people were walking along the road, naked men with huge tallipot-palm -hats, and women with nothing on but bright-coloured petticoats, looking -picturesque in the foreground and middle distance of the palm-shaded -vistas. At intervals the cocoanut groves were broken by fields of vivid -green paddy, and tanks filled with red lotus-flowers. - -From Mr. Grant's house, on the top of a rounded grassy hill, there is -an extensive and very beautiful view of the undulating hills and dales -of Malabar, generally covered with forest; with the ocean on one side, -and the Wynaad mountains on the other. Malabar is 188 miles long, 25 -miles broad in the northern, and 70 in the southern half, and contains -6262 square miles. It is divided into 17 _Talooks_ or districts, and -has a population of 1,602,914 souls; of whom 1,165,174 are Hindus, -414,126 Moplahs, and 23,614 Christians. - -The people of Malabar are a thriving active race, the men well built -and handsome, and the women remarkable for their beauty. The highest -caste among the Hindus is that of the Namburi Brahmins, who claim all -the land below the ghauts, and appear to have actually possessed a -large portion of it previous to the invasion of Hyder Ali of Mysore. -They declare that when Parasu Rama, one of the incarnations of Vishnu, -hurled his axe from the mountains, the ocean receded, leaving the -land of Kerala, as Malabar, Cochin, and Travancore were called; which -he gave to the Namburi Brahmins. It is true that the undulating -flat-topped hills, which cover the part of Malabar near Calicut, are -like the waves of the sea, and appear as if the ocean in receding had -forced channels, and thus formed the intervening valleys. The Namburis -are fast dying out: they are landed proprietors, and perform such -offices as bestowing holy water and ashes, or performing _poojah_ or -worship for the other Hindus, but never enter the public service. - -The most important portion of the population is included in the eleven -classes of Nairs,[390] a race of pure Sudra caste. They pretend to be -born soldiers, and formed the armies of the Zamorin and Cochin Rajahs, -the lower castes not being allowed to bear arms. The Nairs now hold -most of the land in Malabar, and are frequently very rich. Both the -Zamorin of Calicut and the Rajah of Cochin are Nairs; and the origin -of their rule is said to have been as follows. About a thousand years -ago, a Viceroy of the Sholum Rajah ruled over Malabar, named Cheruman -Permal, who made himself independent, and divided the country among his -nobles, of whom five were of the Kshatri caste, and seven were Nairs. -After the division it was found that one of his bravest officers, the -ancestor of the present Zamorin or Tamori Rajah, had been left out; -Cheruman Permal, therefore, gave him his sword, and all the territory -in which a cock crowing at a certain small temple could be heard. -Hence Calicut, from _Colicodu_, a cock-crowing.[391] Down to the time -of Tippoo the whole of Malabar was governed by the descendants of the -sisters of these thirteen Nair chiefs. The Zamorin of Calicut has some -influence, though he is much reduced in wealth and importance since the -days of Vasco de Gama. - -The Nairs live under the remarkable institution called -_murroo-muka-tayum_. Sisters never leave their homes, but receive -visits from male acquaintances, and the brothers go out to other -houses, to their lady-loves, but live with their sisters. If a younger -brother settles in a new house, he takes his favourite sister with him, -and not the woman who, according to the custom in all other countries, -should keep house for him. The man's mother manages the house, and -after her death his eldest sister takes her place; but no man has any -idea who his father is, and the children of his sisters are his heirs. -Moveable property is divided amongst the children of the sisters of the -deceased equally, and the land is managed by the eldest male of the -family, but each individual has a right to a share in the income. - -This strange custom gives the women an important position; and as -they are pretty, and take pains with their personal appearance, their -influence is very great. The Nairs are addicted to drink, and may eat -venison, fowls, and fish; and the families are fond of gaiety, and of -visiting among people of their own rank, when there is much talking -and singing. Most of the men, as well as the women, read and write -in their own character, and there is a Government Gazette printed in -the Malayalim language. The Collector was anxious, also, to establish -a paper in Malayalim, containing general information, which would no -doubt have an excellent effect, but the difficulty is to find a good -native editor. - -Next in rank to the Nairs come the _Tiars_ or _Shanars_, a stout, -good-looking, hard-working race, who do not pretend to Sudra origin. -Formerly the Nairs exacted deference from the Tiars with extreme -cruelty and arrogance, treating them more like brutes than men; and if -a Tiar defiled a Nair by touching him, he was instantly cut down. But -British rule is gradually uprooting these caste barbarisms, and the -position of the Tiars is improving. Some of them hold appointments as -clerks in Government offices, and they are protected by just and equal -laws. The Tiars form the mass of the field labourers; but the proper -duty of their caste is to extract juice from the palm-tree, and either -boil it into _jaggery_ (unrefined sugar), or distil it. Their women are -exceedingly pretty, with masses of long hair; but there is a prevalent -custom for all the brothers of a family to have but one wife amongst -them to save expense, which leads to most disastrous consequences. -Below the Tiars there are several outcast tribes; among them the -_Churmas_ or slaves, a miserable and down-trodden race, possibly the -remnant of the aboriginal inhabitants. Even now they are slow to -understand that they are not slaves, and land on which there are most -_Churmas_ still sells at the highest price. - -The _Moplahs_, or Mohammedans of Malabar, are descended from Arab -mariners and traders by native women, and hence their name, from -_Mah-pilla_ "son of the mother." They have certainly been established -in Malabar for a thousand years, if not more, as it is on record that -the Viceroy Cheruman Permal, who then divided the country amongst -his chiefs, was converted by a Moplah, and sailed for Mecca. All the -sympathies of the Moplahs are with Arabia and the Red Sea, and they -frequently undertake pilgrimages to Mecca. Respecting their creed -they are fanatical, and are easily roused to fury by an insult, or -an attempt on the part of the Nairs to treat them as a lower caste. -On these occasions they run mucks; but in ordinary times they are -hard-working, intelligent, abstemious, excellent boatmen, and capital -backwoodsmen. Many of the Moplahs are very wealthy. Their mosques, -however, are poor edifices, not to be distinguished from ordinary -dwelling-houses, and the temples of the Hindus are no better. There is -no attempt at ornamental architecture in the religious buildings of -Malabar. - -One-fifth of the collectorate of Malabar is taken up with rice and -garden cultivation, the remaining four-fifths being covered with -forest, or cleared for dry grains and coffee plantations. The land -revenue, taking the average of five years ending in 1858-59, is -255,000_l._ The assessment of the rice-lands is essentially the -same as that fixed by the Government of Tippoo Sultan of Mysore in -1783-84. Though unequal, and in some places burdensome, it is on the -whole light, and, except in two of the Talooks,[392] it is lighter in -the north than in the south. As an example of the inequality of the -land-tax, I may mention that the district of Pattaumby, on the river -Ponany, is very highly and unfairly assessed, as it is said, from -the following cause. Before the invasion of Tippoo all the land in -Malabar was in the hands of feudal chiefs; there was no land-tax, and -the Zamorin and other Rajahs were supported by the produce of their -own estates. The first ruler who imposed a land-tax was the Mysore -conqueror. Any village which offended his officers was highly assessed; -and hence the present inequalities, which will, however, be corrected -by the new Survey and Assessment Commission. In the case of Pattaumby -the accountant quarrelled with the landowners, and threatened to impose -a heavy assessment, and, when they attempted to murder him, he escaped -to Wynaad, and sent in his report to Tippoo. - -All land in Malabar is private property, and the landlord gets 20 to 40 -per cent. of the net rent, the remainder being the Government demand. -From the gross produce of the rice-fields 20 per cent. is deducted -for reaping and other small charges called _puddum_, the remainder -being available gross rent. From the gross rent one-third is deducted -as the expense of cultivation, called _vitoo vally_; one third as the -cultivator's share, or _koshoo labon_, whether he be a _jemakar_ or -proprietor, a _kanomkar_ or mortgagee, or a _pattamkar_ or renter; and -the remaining third is the _pattom_, net produce, or rent. Of this -last third the Government share is 65 per cent., leaving 35 per cent. -as the share of the proprietor. The Government share is thus a little -less than a quarter of the gross produce. - -The assessment is not calculated on the extent of land, but on the -amount of seed required to sow a given space, according to the quality -of the soil, which is divided into three classes, namely _pasma_ -(clay), _rasee pasma_ (sand and clay), and _rasee_ (sand). On an -average the soil does not yield more than tenfold, and most of it bears -only one crop. Some lands are sown in April or May, and the crops cut -in August or September. These are chiefly in the coast Talooks. Others -are sown in September and October, and the crops cut in January and -February. The seeds are raised on small pieces of land, and the plants, -when young, removed by hand, and planted in the paddy-fields. - -The garden assessment, as it is called, on cocoanut-trees, the great -wealth of Malabar, betel-palms, and jacks, was fixed in 1820. - -The cocoanut-trees are divided according to their situations and soils -into five classes--the first and second classes being _attivepoo_, or -sea-coast; and the third, fourth, and fifth, _karavepoo_, or inland -cocoanut-trees. Each tree pays, on an average, eighteen pies,[393] -those which are unproductive from age or youth being excluded. The -betel-nut palms pay, on an average, six pies, and the jack-trees -twenty-eight pies; but the tax on gardens is not more than forty per -cent. of the landlord's rent. A cocoanut-tree is estimated to bear at -least sixteen to forty nuts in the year, according to its site; and the -owner of a plantation derives profit from the leaves as well as from -the husks and shells of the nut. The leaves, used for covering houses, -sell at two and a half to five Rs. the thousand, each tree yielding -ten to fifteen annually; and the husks, for coir ropes, fetch six annas -the thousand.[394] - -The betel-nut palm (_Areca catechu_), which is also taxed has a -long slender smooth stem, and graceful curving fronds. I have seen -palm-trees in the South Sea islands, many kinds in the forests of South -America, and in India; but, of the whole tribe, the betel-nut palm is -certainly the most elegant and beautiful. Dr. Hooker likens it "to an -arrow shot from heaven, raising its graceful head and feathery crown in -luxuriance and beauty above the verdant slopes." A tree will produce -300 nuts in the year, and continues to bear for twenty-five years. -The nut is very hard, the size of a cherry, and is chewed by all the -natives of India with the leaves of the betel-pepper (_Chavica betel_) -spread with _chunam_. It is cut into long narrow pieces, and rolled up -in the leaves of the betel-pepper or pawn. It makes the mouth and teeth -red, and gives the chewer a disgusting appearance. The consumption -must be enormous, for it is chewed by 50,000,000 of men, and, next to -tobacco, is the most extensively used narcotic; but it has none of the -excellent properties of the coca-leaf of the Peruvians. - -The jack (_Artocarpus integrifolius_), the only other tree which -is taxed in Malabar, grows to a considerable size, and the wood is -much used for furniture of all kinds. The fruit, a favourite article -of food, is of enormous dimensions, and grows out of the trunk. In -Travancore they put the whole fruit in the ground, and, when the young -shoots grow up, the stems are tied together with straw, and by degrees -they form one stem, bearing fruit in six or seven years.[395] Besides -the taxed trees, the gardens round Calicut generally contain mangos and -nux vomica. - -In addition to the rice or wet cultivation, and the above-mentioned -trees, the upland or dry cultivation of rice and sesame or gingelee -oil-seed is assessed on an annual inspection: forty per cent. of the -gross produce of the former being deducted, on account of the peculiar -labour and probable loss, and twenty per cent. of the remainder being -the Government share. The sesame cultivation has no deduction from the -gross produce; and ginger, pepper, and some other dry crops are free -of land-tax. The pepper cultivation is chiefly carried on in northern -Malabar, and ginger in the Shernaad district, south of Calicut, by the -Moplahs.[396] - -The other taxes are _abkarry_, or the privilege of selling -liquors, which is either farmed by public sale, or levied from the -toddy-drawers, when it is called _kutty-chatty_ (knife and pot) tax; -_mohturfa_ on houses, shops, fishing-boats, oil-mills, and looms; -licences, stamps, and the salt monopoly; the whole revenue of Malabar -in 1859 having been 266,860_l._ The income-tax had not yet been levied -at the time of our visit, but its nature had been carefully explained -to the people, it had been stripped of everything that was offensive or -inquisitorial, and no difficulty was anticipated in its introduction, -although it was very generally considered that it was unwise and -impolitic, and that it would be unproductive. In the matter of taxes -there was a striking contrast between Peru, whence we had just come, -and where they are scarcely known, and this land of manifold imposts. - -On the whole, however, Malabar is a splendid possession; the people are -very flourishing, the population increasing, and cultivation rapidly -encroaching on the forests. There is no gang robbery, but occasional -housebreaking, and a good many murders, often caused by jealousy, -the criminals usually making a full confession, and thus saving much -trouble. - -In the evening we embarked in a canoe which had been prepared for us -near the fine timber bridge over the Calicut river, on the road to -Beypoor. The setting sun and banks of rosy clouds were visible through -the graceful fronds of the cocoanut-trees as we drove along the shady -road, with occasional glimpses of the sea. The canoe was very long, -and cut out of one trunk, with raised bow and stern, ornamentally -carved. It was pulled by four tall wiry-looking Moplahs, with nothing -on but clouts and huge umbrella-hats, made of the tallipot palm;[397] -and a fifth steered with a paddle. Their oars were long bamboos, with -circular boards fastened to one end by neat coir seizings. We started a -little after sunset, and passed from the Calicut river by a backwater -into the Beypoor, where there were many shallow places, and the Moplahs -had constantly to jump out and drag the canoe over them. The banks of -the river are wooded down to the water's edge, with groves of slender -betel-nut palms rising aloft, and standing out against the starry sky. -The foliage was covered with brilliant fire-flies, and here and there -we passed a hut, with its owner standing on the shore, waving a burning -brand. All night the boatmen sang noisy glees, and in the morning we -reached the landing-place at Eddiwanna, forty miles from Calicut, and -near the Government teak plantations of Nellamboor. - -These plantations were originated by Mr. Conolly, the late Collector -of Malabar, with a view to the establishment of nurseries for -replenishing the teak forests, as nearly all the fine timber had been -felled many years ago. There is a great deal in North Canara of small -size, and still more in Cochin and Travancore; but the reckless system -of felling threatened the same results as has already overtaken the -supply of chinchona-bark in South America. The only forests containing -teak, in Malabar, in which Government has a proprietary right, are -25 square miles in the Palghat talook, where all the mature trees -have long since gone to the Bombay dockyard; but in 1842 leases of -forest-land were obtained from the Zamorin for the cultivation of -teak, 70 to 80 square miles in extent, chiefly in the Ernaad talook, -near Nellamboor. This most important and now successful measure is -due to the zeal and perseverance of Mr. Conolly, and there is a good -prospect of the stock of teak-timber in these forests being eventually -replenished. The trees, however, require a growth of 60 or 80 years -to reach a maturity fitting the wood for shipbuilding; but it is then -unequalled by any other known timber; it does not injure iron, and is -not liable to shrink in width. - -It was some time before the method of inducing the teak-seeds to -germinate was discovered, and several experiments were tried. In -the forests it was observed that the seeds were prepared for growth -by losing the hard outer shell through the warmth caused by fires -which annually consume the brushwood. Mr. Conolly, therefore, burnt a -coating of hay over the ground where the seeds were sown. This trial -was unsuccessful, and in 1843 it was found that the best method was to -steep the nuts in water for thirty-six hours, then sow them in holes -four inches apart, and half an inch under the surface, covering the -beds with straw, so as to prevent evaporation, and gently watering -them every evening. By following this plan the seeds germinated, and -sprouted in from four to eight weeks. In 1844 as many as 50,000 young -trees, raised in the adjacent nurseries, were planted, eight feet -apart, in the cleared ground near Nellamboor, along the banks of the -Beypoor river, which had been cleared of jungle. The seedlings are -transplanted from the nursery at the age of three months, and for the -first seven or eight years they sprout up very fast, but afterwards -they grow slowly. From 1843 to 1859 as many as 1,200,000 trees have -been put down, and they are now planted at the rate of 70,000 a year. -Much care is required in systematic thinning and pruning, and, for the -superintendence of this important work, an annual visit is paid to the -plantations by Mr. McIvor, who is now so ably conducting the chinchona -experiment on the Neilgherry hills. - -We were met by Mr. McIvor at Eddiwanna, and started for the village -of Wundoor, six miles distant, in _munsheels_ or hammocks, slung to -bamboos with a shade over them, and carried by six men, who kept up -unearthly yells the whole time. The road leads through rice-cultivation -and groves of betel-nut palms, jacks, and mangos. Wundoor is a -pretty village, with an avenue of sumach-trees[398] leading up to -the post-house or travellers' bungalow. These post-houses, which -are erected by the Government at easy stages along all the roads in -India, for the convenience of travellers, are exceedingly comfortable, -and render travelling in India as easy and commodious as it is the -reverse in Peru and other parts of South America. At Wundoor the first -bungalow we had seen put an end to all idea of having to rough it while -travelling in India. The building contained several clean rooms, with -cane-bottom sofas, arm-chairs, and tables; and outside there was a -pleasant verandah, with a glorious view of the Koondah mountains, which -it was necessary to ascend on our road to the Neilgherries. A clump of -trees, consisting of jacks, mangos, and peepuls, formed a huge arch, -through which there was an enchanting landscape of smiling hill and -dale, with the dense forest beyond, crowned by the broken outline of -the distant mountains. - -We set out from Wundoor at daybreak, and passed a house just outside -the village, where, a few days before, a tiger had carried off a child -before the eyes of its parents. Next day the brute had the temerity -to come again and try to force open the door, when a man shot it -from the window. For some hours we rode through a country where the -jungle alternated with cultivation in open glades, which in their -natural state are covered with _Pandanus_, but the people here, as -in other parts of Malabar, are fast encroaching on the forest, and -converting these glades into paddy-fields. As we approached the foot -of the mountains cultivation at last entirely ceased, and the road led -through a dense forest of enormous bamboos, teak-trees with their large -coarse leaves, black-wood, and other fine timber. At noon we reached -the post-house of Sholacul, at the foot of the Sispara ghaut, which -leads up to the summit of the Koondahs, a western continuation of the -Neilgherries. - -The building at Sholacul was surrounded by a very stout pallisade, -to protect it from the wild elephants, who strongly object to all -encroachments on their domain; and even take the trouble of pulling -up the wooden milestones by the side of the roads. We found all the -roads which we travelled over in Malabar excellent, and the ascent -of the Sispara ghaut, though only a zigzag bridle-path, is in very -good order. After leaving Sholacul the road first passes through a -region of gigantic reeds, and then through a belt of black-wood, -palms, and tree-ferns, with an undergrowth of _Curcumas_, ferns, and a -brilliant purple flower (_Torenia Asiatica_). The black or rose-wood -tree (_Dalbergia latifolia_) grows to a height of about fifty feet, -with handsome spreading branches, and pinnate leaves. The timber is -very valuable; it is extensively used in Bombay for making beautiful -carved furniture, and planks are sometimes obtained four feet broad, -after the sap-wood has been removed. In consequence of the increasing -price, Dr. Cleghorn, the able and energetic Conservator of Forests in -the Madras Presidency, has caused a number of seedlings to be planted -at Nellamboor; and plantations have also been formed in N. Canara and -Mysore. - -The occasional openings in the forests, at turns in the road, -afforded us views of the mountains below us covered with the richest -vegetation, and of the rice-fields of Malabar stretching away to the -faintly indicated blending of sea and haze on the horizon; which -almost equalled in beauty the finest parts of the eastern Andes. From -about 1000 to 5000 feet above the sea the jungle is covered with -innumerable leeches, which eagerly fasten on their prey, whether men, -horses, or dogs, and make a journey through this region, in the wet -season, exceedingly disagreeable. Within this leech-zone there is a -considerable clearing called Walla-ghaut, planted with coffee, which is -in a ruinous and abandoned state, chiefly owing to the difficulty of -inducing labourers to venture among the leeches. As we continued the -ascent, the scenery increased in magnificence, the views became more -extensive, and there were mountain-tops crowned with glorious forest -trees far below us. At 6000 feet mosses appear, then lilies, brambles, -and wild strawberries, and occasionally we crossed noisy little streams -overshadowed by the trees. We reached the Sispara bungalow, on the -summit of the ghaut, 6742 feet above the level of the sea, late in the -afternoon. - -The Sispara ghaut takes the traveller from the tropical plains to the -temperate climate of the hills, where the face of nature is entirely -changed. Here the hills are covered with grass, and the ravines only -are filled with trees, forming thickets called _sholas_. In the rear of -the bungalow there is an almost unrivalled view of the Malabar plains, -from the edge of a precipice. The Koondah hills sweep round until they -join the Wynaads, half encircling the Nellamboor valley, which was -thousands of feet below us, and is covered with forest, intersected -in all directions by open glades of a rich light green. The Koondahs -rise up from Malabar like perpendicular walls, so steep that even a cat -could not scale them in any part, for a distance of forty miles; and -the grandeur of the view from this point, with these sublime cliffs, -and the vast expanse of forest-covered plain below, is very striking. - -At daylight next morning we left the Sispara bungalow, and rode -for several miles through a valley interspersed with _sholas_ of -rhododendron-trees. Eighteen miles from Sispara is the Avalanche -bungalow, 6720 feet above the sea, whence there is a good carriage-road -to Ootacamund, the chief European station on the Neilgherry hills. At -Avalanche the Koondah range is considered to cease, and the Neilgherry -hills to commence, but the nature of the country is the same. Between -Avalanche and Ootacamund, a distance of 15 miles, the country consists -of grassy undulating rounded hills, divided from each other by wooded -_sholas_. Herds of fine buffaloes were grazing by the roadside, and -here and there we saw patches of millet (_Setaria Italica_) near the -huts of the natives of these hills. As we rode round the artificial -lake, and, passing several pretty little houses surrounded by -shrubberies, stopped at the door of Dawson's hotel at Ootacamund, -it was difficult to persuade ourselves that we were not again in -England. The garden in front of the house was stocked with mignonette, -wallflowers, and fuchsias, but the immense bushes of heliotrope covered -with flowers, ten feet high and at least twenty in circumference, could -not have attained such dimensions in an English climate. Ootacamund is -nearly in the centre of the table-land of the Neilgherries, at the foot -of the western face of the peak of Dodabetta, and, except to the N.W., -the station is completely surrounded by grass-covered hills. Houses -are scattered about under the shelter of the hills, with gardens and -plantations of _Eucalyptus_ and _Acacia heterophylla_, trees introduced -from Australia, around them; and the broad excellent roads are bordered -by _Cassia glauca_ bushes with a bright orange flower, honeysuckles, -fox-gloves, geraniums, roses, and masses of the tall _Lobelia excelsa_. -A graceful white iris is also common. - -This charming spot, now that the roads are planted with tall trees, and -the hedges filled with all the familiar flowers introduced from old -England, while curling smoke ascends through the foliage, and suggests -the idea of chimneys and warm firesides, is as unlike India, and as -like an English watering-place, as can be imagined. The tower of the -church, seen from many points of view, increases the resemblance, which -is certainly not lessened by the rosy cheeks and healthy looks of the -children, and the fresh invigorating mountain air. But when a few miles -from the station, and out of sight of all English associations, there -was much that reminded me of the _pajonales_ in the chinchona region of -Caravaya at a first glance: and I felt sanguine that all the _pajonal_ -chinchona-trees would thrive in most of the _sholas_ on the Neilgherry -hills, while suitable sites for those species which require a warmer -climate would be found in the forest slopes which overlook the plains. -A closer inspection confirmed me in this opinion. - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -NEILGHERRY HILLS. - - Extent--Formation--Soil--Climate--Flora--Hill - tribes--Todars--Antiquities--Badagas--Koters--Kurumbers--Irulas - --English stations--Kotergherry--Ootacamund--Coonoor--Jakatalla - --Government gardens at Ootacamund and Kalhutty--Mr. McIvor--Coffee - cultivation--Rules for sale of waste lands--Forest conservancy. - - -THE Neilgherry[399] hills, between latitude 11° 10' and 11° 32' N., and -longitude 76° 59' and 77° 31' E., form the most elevated mountain mass -in India, south of the Himalayas; the highest peak, that of Dodabetta, -being 8610 feet above the level of the sea. They are isolated on three -sides, and rise up abruptly from the plains of Coimbatore on the south, -and from the table-lands of Wynaad and Mysore on the north and east, -to a height of 6000 feet above the former, and 2000 to 3000 above the -latter; from which they are divided by the broad ravine of the river -Moyaar. On the west they are united with the Koondah range, which is -a continuation of the western ghauts. The area of the Neilgherries -contains 268,494 acres, of which 24,000 are under cultivation. - -The formation consists of syenitic granite, with veins of basaltic -rock, hornblende, and quartz, while, in some parts, half-decomposed -laterite underlies the soil. The plateau is not a flat table-land, but -a succession of undulating hills and intervening grassy valleys, with -ravines thickly wooded, numerous streams, and occasional rocky ridges -running up into fine mountain-peaks. The streams all go to swell the -great river Cauvery, by its tributaries the Moyaar and Bowany; the -Moyaar descending from the hills by a fine waterfall at Neddiwuttum, on -the northern slope; and the Bowany flowing down between the Koondahs -and Neilgherries to the south. The soil of the plateau is very rich, -being formed by the decomposition of basaltic and hornblende rocks, -mixed with the clayey products of the granite, and much decomposed -vegetable matter. The latter consists of the grass killed down to the -roots by the frost, washed in by the succeeding rains, and mixed with -the subsoil, increasing its richness and depth season after season. The -richest land is on the lower slopes, where there are accumulations of -soil washed from the hills above:[400] and there are extensive deposits -of peat in the valleys, which afford supplies of fuel. The chief defect -in the soil is the absence of lime. - -The temperature and amount of humidity vary according to the locality. -At Ootacamund, 7300 feet above the sea, the means of the thermometer -range from 42° to 68°, while in the two other lower and warmer stations -of Coonoor and Kotergherry, about 6000 feet above the sea, the range -is from 52° to 71°. The annual rainfall at Ootacamund is sixty inches, -at Coonoor fifty-five inches, and at Kotergherry fifty inches. During -the south-west monsoon, from May to September, the rain comes down in -torrents at Sispara, and in the western parts of the Neilgherries, -but their force is somewhat exhausted before reaching Ootacamund, in -the centre of the plateau. At that station the rainfall, during the -south-west monsoon, is about thirty-four inches; and the range of -Dodabetta, which rises up like a wall, immediately to the eastward of -Ootacamund, almost entirely screens the eastern part of the hills from -the rains of the south-west monsoon, and there the rainfall is only -twelve inches from May to September. During the portion of the year -from October to April the western parts of the hills are comparatively -dry, the prevalent winds are from the north-east, and the rains which -they bring with them from the Madras coast do not extend farther west -than the neighbourhood of Ootacamund. Kotergherry, and the eastern -parts of the hills, receive the full benefit of the rains from the -north-east monsoon, but they are not heavy, and the rainfall at -Kotergherry, in that season, is thirty-eight inches. Ootacamund also -gets some of the rain of the north-east monsoon (thirty-six inches), -so that, in that central part of the plateau, there is a belt which -receives a moderate supply of rain throughout the year. In January and -December there are frosts in the night, and the extreme radiation which -goes on in the valleys causes great cold at sunrise; but these frosts -are confined to the valleys in the upper plateau, and they never visit -the higher slopes, or the well-wooded "_sholas_." - -The climates of the Neilgherry hills are the most delightful in the -world; and it may be said of this salubrious region, with its equable -seasons, what the Persian poet said of Kung, "the warmth is not -heat, and the coolness is not cold."[401] On the open plateau, in -the wooded _sholas_, and in the thick forests of the lower slopes, -there is a great variety of beautiful flowering trees and shrubs; and -the vegetation of the hills is both varied and luxuriant. First, in -the brilliant splendour of its flowers, must be mentioned the tree -rhododendron (_Rhododendron arboreum_), which is very common in all -parts of the hills, either forming small thickets or dotted about on -the grassy slopes. It grows to a height of twenty feet, with a gnarled -stunted trunk, and masses of deep crimson flowers. In the "sholas" are -the _Michelia nilagiraca_, a large tree, with yellowish-white fragrant -flowers of great size; the _Symplocos pulchra_, with hairy leaves and -snow-white flowers; the _Ilex Wightiana_, a large umbrageous tree, -with small white flowers and red berries; the pretty pink-flowered -_Rhodo-myrtus tomentosa_, the berries of which are called "hill -gooseberries;" the _Jasminum revolutum_, a shrub with sweet yellow -flowers; the _Sapota elingoides_, a fine forest-tree, with rough -cracked bark, and an edible fruit used in curries; _Crotalariæ_; -_Bignoniæ_; peppers, cinnamon, a number of chinchonaceous shrubs, and -many others. - -In the open grassy slopes and near the edges of the wooded ravines -are several _Vaccinia_, especially the _Vaccinium Leschenaultii_, -a shrub with pretty rose-coloured flowers; the beautiful _Osbeckia -Gardneriana_, with a profusion of large purple flowers; the handsome -_Viburnum Wightianum_; a number of balsams (_Impatiens_ of several -species); the _Gaultheria Leschenaultii_ in great quantities, a pretty -little shrub with white flowers and blue berries; the _Berberis -Mahonia_, with its glossy prickly leaves and long slender racemes of -yellow flowers; and the bright little pink _Indigofera pulchella_; -while the climbing passion-flower (_Passiflora Leschenaultii_) hangs in -festoons over the trees, especially in the eastern parts of the hills. -Among the more inconspicuous plants are the _Gallium requienianum_; -the _Rubia cordifolia_;[402] the thorny _Solanum ferox_, with stem -and leaves covered with strong straight prickles; the _Girardinia -Leschenaultii_,[403] or Neilgherry nettle, a most virulent stinger; -the tall _Lobelia excelsa_; a _Justitia_, with a blue flower, which -entirely covers some of the hills; some pretty _Sonerilas_; several -beautiful _Ipomœas_ and _lilies; elsias_; and the _Hypericum -Hookerianum_, growing plentifully in the meadows, with large orange -flowers; besides ferns, lycopods, and numberless small wild flowers in -the grass and underwood. - -Enjoying a delightful climate, well supplied with water, and with -its gentle undulations of hill and dale in some places clothed with -rich pasture, in others presenting woods of fine timber and beautiful -flowering shrubs, the Neilgherry hills are eminently fitted for the -abode of a thriving and civilized people. Yet for many centuries -it would appear that their sole inhabitants were a strange race of -cowherds, a people differing in all respects from their neighbours in -the plains, and indeed from all the other natives of Hindostan. - -These are the Todars, a race numbering less than a thousand souls, who -now claim to be the original "Lords of the hills." In times so remote -that no record of them remains there are still indications that the -Indian peninsula was peopled by races of Scythic origin: and, when -the Aryan warriors came forth with their Vedic hymns and grand old -civilization from the fastnesses of Sind, they swept irresistibly over -Hindostan, and formed as it were an upper stratum of the population. -The Scythic element either mixed with, or became subservient to the -Aryan in the plains, as the Sudra caste, while in the hill and forest -fastnesses a few tribes remained isolated and independent. Such, -possibly, may have been the origin of the Todars on the Neilgherries. -The Brahmins, characteristically dovetailing every tradition and every -race into one or other of their historical myths, declare that the -Todars came from the north in the army of Rama, when he marched against -the wicked Ravana; and that, deserting their chief, they fled to these -hills. They themselves have no tradition of their origin, but believe -that they were created on the hills. - -They are certainly a very remarkable and interesting people, tall, -well-proportioned, and athletic, and utterly unlike all other natives -of India. They have Jewish features, with aquiline noses, hazel eyes, -thick lips, bushy black beards, and immensely thick clusters of glossy -hair cut so as to stand in dense masses round the sides of the head, a -very necessary protection from the sun, as they never wear any other -head-covering. The old men are very handsome, with long white beards -and upright gait, looking like the patriarchs of the Old Testament, -with their strongly marked Jewish features: but the expressions of -the younger men are less agreeable to look upon. The women are very -careful of their hair, which hangs down in long glossy ringlets; and -both sexes wear nothing but a long piece of coarse cotton cloth, with -two broad red stripes round the edges, worn by the men like a Roman -toga, which sets off their well-shaped limbs to advantage, and exposes -one leg entirely, up to the hip; and by the women so as to form a short -petticoat and mantle. They never wash either their persons or their -clothes from the day of their birth to the day of their death. They -live in small encampments called _munds_, which are scattered over the -hills, and consist of five or six huts, and a larger one used as a -dairy. The families are in the habit of migrating from one _mund_ to -another, at certain seasons of the year; so that we often came upon a -_mund_ apparently abandoned. A Todar's hut is exactly like the tilt of -a waggon, very neatly roofed, with the ends boarded in, and a single -low entrance. They are generally surrounded by a stone wall, and the -dairy, a larger and more important building, is always a little apart. -The only occupation of this singular people is to tend their large -herds of fine buffaloes; they live on milk, and on the grain which they -collect as a due or _goodoo_ from the other hill tribes, and pass the -greater part of their time in idleness; lolling about and gossiping -in their munds, or strolling over the hills. We passed through one of -these munds, about a quarter of a mile from our hotel, almost daily, -but I never remember having seen a Todar engaged in any occupation -whatever. - -The women become the wives of all the brothers into whose families -they marry, the children being apportioned to husbands according to -seniority. This pernicious custom is also common among the Coorg, and -the Tiars of Malabar. The Todars, formerly, only allowed one female -child to live in each family, the rest being strangled; but the -authorities have lately interfered to put a stop to this custom. When -a Todar bride is given away, she is brought to the dwelling of her -husbands, who each put their feet upon her head; she is then sent to -fetch water for cooking, and the ceremony is considered to be complete. - -The German missionaries, who have had a good deal of intercourse with -these people, say that they worship the "sacred buffalo bell," as -a representation of _Hiridea_, or the chief God, before which they -pour libations of milk; and when there is a dispute about wives or -buffaloes it is decided by the priest, who becomes possessed by the -_Bell God_, rushes frantically about, and pronounces in favour of the -richest. Formerly there were seven holy _munds_, each inhabited by -a recluse called _palaul_ (milkman), attended upon by a _kavilaul_ -(herdsman); but three of these are now deserted, and the fourth is -rarely frequented. The rest have a herd of holy buffaloes attached to -them for the use of the sanctified occupants, and no women may approach -them. The only religious festival of any kind celebrated by the Todars, -and that scarcely deserves the name, takes place on the occasion of a -funeral, when there is much dancing and music. The body is burnt, and -buffaloes are slaughtered to go with the spirit, and supply it with -milk. This is called the green funeral. A year afterwards there is -another ceremony called the dry funeral, when forty or fifty buffaloes -were hunted down, and beaten to death with clubs; but the Government -has recently prohibited the immolation of more than two beasts for a -rich, and one for a poor Todar. The burial-places are like gigantic -extinguishers, twelve feet high, and thatched with grass. The bodies -are burnt, and the ashes collected and put into chatties, which are -deposited in the extinguisher. The Todars have no other ceremonies, -care for nothing but their buffaloes, and leave prayers to the _palaul_ -in his lonely retreat, or to the _palikarpal_ or dairyman of each mund, -who covers his nose with his thumb when he enters the sacred dairy, and -says "May all be well!"[404] - -The Todar language is a very rude dialect of the old Canarese, and -similar to that of the Badagas, another hill tribe. It is very poor in -words conveying abstract ideas, as they have few notions beyond their -buffaloes; their verbs have generally but one tense, and they express -the future and past by means of adverbs of time.[405] - -There are many ancient cairns and _tumuli_ on the peaks of the -Neilgherries, and it has been objected that they cannot be assigned -to the ancestors of the Todars, because agricultural implements have -been found in them, and these people never cultivate the ground. But -it must be remembered that the Todars now extort _goodoo_ or tribute -of grain from the other hill tribes, and that it is their only food. -It must be inferred, therefore, that, before they discovered this easy -mode of procuring food, and previous to the arrival of these weaker -agricultural tribes on the hills, the Todars must have been their own -cultivators. The hill people attribute all ancient ruins, of the origin -of which they know nothing, to the Pandus, the famous heroes of Hindu -tradition; and all that can be said of these Neilgherry cairns is that -they are probably the work of an unknown extinct race, who practised -Druidical rites.[406] - -We visited several of these remains of an ancient people. On the summit -of the peak of Kalhutty, on the left hand of the road leading down the -Seegoor ghaut to the Mysore plains, whence there is a grand view of -mountain scenery, forest-clad slopes, and a wide expanse of country -stretching away to the horizon, we found several old cairns. They were -of great size, built of immense stones, and hollow in the centre. On -another peak, called Ibex Hill, one side of which is a scarped cliff -many hundreds of feet in height, overhanging the Seegoor ghaut, we also -found two huge cairns, forming a circle about eight feet in diameter. -There are many others in different parts of the hills, generally on -the highest peaks, and iron spear-heads, bells, sepulchral urns with -figures of coiled snakes, tigers, elephants, dogs, and birds on them, -sickles and gold rings have been found buried under the piles of stones. - -The Todars, as has been said, are the "lords of the hills," and not -only all the other hill tribes pay them tribute, but the English -Government also pays rent to them for the land on which the stations -are situated.[407] But the agricultural tribe of Burghers or Badagas, -who came to the hills several centuries after the Todars, and are -subject to them, are by far the most numerous, numbering 15,000 souls, -and occupying 300 villages. They are divided into eighteen classes or -castes, the members of one of which, called the Wodearu Badagas, wear -the Brahminical string, are proud and lazy, and inhabit five villages -apart from the rest. The villages of the Badagas are scattered all -over the plateau of the hills, and their land occupies two-thirds -of its area. They are much darker, and not nearly such fine men as -the Todars, wear cotton-cloth turbans and clothing much like other -natives of India, and are very superstitious and timid; but they are -industrious, though not so much so as the labourers who come up from -the plains, and kind and affectionate to their women and children. -The Badagas, though they possess herds of buffaloes, are chiefly -employed in cultivation. Their crops consist of _raggee_ (_Eleusine -corocana_), the most prolific of cultivated grasses,[408] which is -made into dark brown cakes and porridge; _samee_ or Italian millet, -barley, an amaranth called _keeray_, some pulses, mustard, onions, and -potatoes. We often passed through the Badaga villages. The houses are -built in a single row, with one thatched roof extending over so as -to form a verandah, supported on poles. In front there is a hard mud -floor, where the piles of grain are heaped up; and there is generally -a _Swami_-house or temple, with a verandah in front supported by -numerous poles, the walls and poles being painted in red and white -stripes, the Hindu holy colour. Round the villages there are cultivated -patches of _raggee_ and _samee_, which they were reaping in December. -In the centre of the fields there is a small threshing-floor, where -we often saw the Badagas sifting the grain from the chaff by shaking -it through sieves, and letting the wind blow the chaff away. A Todar -was generally squatting near, like an old vulture, waiting for his -_goodoo_. The Badagas belong to the Siva sect, their principal deity -being Rungaswamy, whose temple is on the summit of the easternmost peak -of the Neilgherries; but they also worship 338 other idols or _Swamis_, -such as trees, streams, stone pillars, and even old knives. - -Another hill tribe is that of the Koters, who occupy seven large -villages called _Kotergherry_ (cowkiller's hill). They are of very -low caste, and work as carpenters, smiths, rope-makers, and potters, -besides cultivating the ground. The Koters also dress and prepare -buffalo-hides, and they are a squalid dirty race, living on the carrion -they pick up on the road-sides. They number about five hundred souls, -and are the artizans of the hills, repairing the ploughs, hoes, and -bill-hooks for the Badagas. - -The Kurumbers, another tribe, live on the slopes of the hills, in the -most feverish places. They are a short miserable-looking race, and -those called _Mooloo_ or jungle Kurumbers are regular wild men of the -woods, in no respect raised above the beasts of the forest. The others -act as musicians and sorcerers to the Todars and Badagas. - -Lastly, the Irulas live low down the slopes of the hills, perform the -office of priests in the Badagas' temple on the Rungaswamy peak, and -occasionally act plays from the life of Krishna at Badaga festivals. - -These five tribes of Todars, Badagas, Koters, Kurumbers, and Irulas, -appear for centuries to have had the exclusive enjoyment of the -Neilgherry hills; though Tippoo Sultan of Mysore erected a fort -at Kalhutty, half-way up the Seegoor ghaut, and another on the -Hoolicul-droog, overhanging the Coonoor ghaut, which leads up from the -Coimbatore plains. He is said to have used these strongholds for the -detention of prisoners, and to enable his officers to extort tribute -from the hill tribes. The Neilgherry hills were first discovered by two -English civilians who made their way up to the plateau in chasing some -Moplah smugglers.[409] - -In 1820 Mr. John Sullivan, then Collector of Coimbatore, built the -first house in Ootacamund, on the site of a Todar mund of the same -name.[410] It is now used as the building for the Lawrence Asylum. -The first sanatarium on the hills, however, was at Dimhutty, on the -eastern side, and at the adjoining station of Kotergherry, but the -former is now abandoned. The delightful climate soon attracted crowds -of visitors from the burning plains; many houses gradually rose up -on the grassy slopes round the lake which was formed at Ootacamund -by bunding up one end of the valley, and the place rapidly became an -important hill-station. A small native town and bazaar sprang up on -the banks of the lake, a handsome church was erected, a club-house, -and, most conspicuous of all, an immense Parsee shop kept by Framjee -Nusserwanjee of Bombay. The roads are excellent, and planted with tall -graceful Acacia and gum-trees from Australia, and many of the houses -are surrounded by beautiful gardens and shrubberies. The most charming, -perhaps, is that of the late Bishop Dealtry, called Bishops-down, -whence there is a glorious view of the station on one side, and of the -distant Koondah hills, overtopped by the sharp peak of Makoorty, on -the other. Advantage has here been taken of a wooded _shola_ to make -pleasant shady walks, and cut vistas through the trees. - -The warmer station of Coonoor is about nine miles from Ootacamund, at -the head of the ghaut which leads down to the plains of Coimbatore. -Here the scenery is far more beautiful than at the central station, -as the wooded sides of the ghaut run up into a fine peak called the -Hoolicul-droog, and the view extends far away over the plains. The -houses are perched on the rounded tops of a range of hills, and there -is a church with a fine tower, which is a great addition to the view -of Coonoor from the surrounding eminences. A mile from Coonoor, in -the direction of Ootacamund, is the military station of Jakatalla, -the finest barracks I ever saw in any part of the world. It is well -sheltered by high hills from the cold north winds to which Ootacamund -is exposed, as well as from the south-west monsoon, and is in every -respect admirably adapted as a sanatarium for soldiers and their -families. It has been maintained that the children of Europeans cannot -be reared even on the hills of India, though upon what grounds this -extraordinary assertion is based I have not yet learnt. The strongest -arguments against this idea are the fresh rosy cheeks and rude health -of the boys and girls in the Lawrence asylum, and of the boys and -young men at Mr. Pope's[411] and Mr. Nash's schools in Ootacamund, -who present a striking contrast to the children on the plains. The -bracing climate of the upper plateau of these hills appears to me -to be perfectly well adapted for European colonists: it has all the -advantages with none of the disadvantages of England, and there are -no influences which can be detrimental to English constitutions. At -the time of our visit a battalion of the 60th Rifles, and a number -of convalescent soldiers from other regiments, were stationed at -Jakatalla. The quarters for the men are built round a large quadrangle, -with an upper story, and airy corridors for exercise in wet weather. -Beyond are the married quarters for ninety couples, each with two -comfortable rooms and a little garden; and there are also a hospital, -library, schoolrooms, substantially-built skittle-alley with brick -arches, fives-court, and swimming-bath. The officers are quartered -in bungalows on the surrounding hill-slopes, or at Coonoor. It would -be well if the whole of the European troops in the Madras Presidency -were permanently quartered on the Neilgherry and other hills as soon -as the railroads are completed. Many of the married men might be -permitted to cultivate and settle on land of their own, with their -families, subject to the condition of being liable to be called on to -serve if required, and a sort of military colony might thus be formed. -There is excellent pasture for flocks of sheep, wheat may be grown in -any quantity, and there is not the slightest danger to Europeans in -undertaking field labour. - -The English settler on the Neilgherries will find English fruits, -flowers, vegetables, and grasses, the introduction of which is mainly -due to the exertions of Mr. William G. McIvor, the Superintendent of -the Government gardens at Ootacamund, and now also Superintendent -of Chinchona plantations in Southern India. This gentleman has been -in charge of the gardens at Ootacamund since 1848, and unites zeal, -intelligence, and skill to the talent and experience of an excellent -practical gardener. Under his auspices the steep slopes of one of -the spurs, which run off from the peak of Dodabetta, and overlook -the cantonment of Ootacamund, have been converted into a tastefully -laid-out garden, in a succession of terraces. Hampered at first by the -interference of a useless committee, and with no assistance beyond that -of an East Indian foreman and labourers from the Mysore plains, he has -succeeded in changing the wild mountain-sides into a very beautiful -public garden. Every point of view is taken advantage of with admirable -taste, and numerous trees and flowering shrubs have been introduced -from England, Australia, and other countries, while the native flora of -the hills is fully represented. There are English roses and geraniums, -ponds bordered by white arums, shady walks over-arched by trellis-work, -tasteful vases filled with showy flowers, thickets of rhododendrons, -hedges of heliotrope and fuchsia, fine clumps of tall spreading trees, -and, from the upper terraces, between the leafy branches, there are -glorious views of the Ootacamund valley, and of the finely broken range -of the distant Koondah hills. - -Mr. McIvor also has a small branch-garden at Kalhutty, about half-way -down the Seegoor ghaut, leading to the Mysore plains, for raising -fruits which require a warmer climate. This garden is self-supporting. -A magnificent waterfall descends into a rocky basin close beside it, -and the garden contains oranges of many kinds, shaddocks, lemons, -limes, citrons, nutmegs, loquats, and plantains. On this spot the -delicious chirimoyas, the seeds of which we brought from Peru, -will hereafter ripen, and enable the people of India to taste the -"masterpiece of nature." - -European enterprise on the Neilgherries has hitherto been chiefly -directed towards the cultivation of coffee, and there are several -fine estates near Coonoor. On the 15th of November we set out from -Ootacamund to visit them, and rode down the valley of Kaitee, where the -house stands which once belonged to Lord Elphinstone, certainly not in -a well-selected spot. It was originally chosen for a Government farm, -which was given up, and the house was then occupied for a short time by -the Governor of Pondicherry. Lord Elphinstone, when Governor of Madras, -took a fancy to the place, erected a very substantial house, finished -it handsomely, and frequently resided there. In 1845 the property -was bought by Mr. Casamajor of the Civil Service, who established a -school there for Badaga children, on the principle of paying them for -coming, at the rate of 1 anna a day. On his death he left it to the -Basle Evangelical Missionaries, by whom it is now occupied. They have -schools, and labour amongst the Badagas, but as yet with scarcely any -success. - -The stream which drains the Kaitee valley forms a very beautiful -waterfall down the face of a cliff into the Karteri valley, where there -is a small coffee estate worked by a Frenchman; and, after crossing -a range of hills, in parts thickly wooded, and in parts covered -with a shrubby _Justitia_ with a blue flower, we reached the coffee -plantation of Hoolicul,[412] owned by Mr. Stainbank. The highest -part of his estate is 5700 feet above the sea,[413] and here he has -twenty-five acres planted in rather poor soil. Below his house there -are about forty-five more acres planted, down the steep slopes of the -hill, some of the bushes in very good bearing. They are thick, as he -is against pruning the branches, saying that when covered by leafy -branches the fruit ripens by degrees, and consequently requires less -labour in picking. The estate has passed through several hands, and the -oldest trees were planted seventeen years ago. Mr. Stainbank expects -eventually to get fifty tons of coffee off this estate, in the year. An -acre will occasionally yield twenty-five hundredweight. - -The view from the house is very fine. The plantation slopes away by a -very steep descent, and in the distance are the Lambton's Peak range of -mountains, and the wide plains of Coimbatore. - -Leaving Hoolicul, we again descended into the ravine of Karteri, where -the river passes close under the steep face of the hills on which the -station of Coonoor stands, and on the slopes of the opposite mountains -there are several coffee estates. Mr. Dawson, a son of the landlord of -the hotel at Ootacamund, has 100 acres planted; but the most extensive -estate, on the steep slopes overlooking the ghaut leading down into -the Coimbatore plains, belongs to Mr. Stanes. He has 200 acres planted -with 250,000 trees, up the precipitous sides of the mountain, facing -east, and protected from the excessive rains of the S.W. monsoon. The -elevation above the sea is upwards of 4800 feet. On the summits of the -mountains above this estate Mr. Stanes has induced the Todars to form -two cattle crawls, whence manure is washed down to his plantation. The -trees are planted in rows, 6 to 8 feet apart, and regularly topped and -pruned, so as to admit the sun to ripen the fruit on every branch. -They are from 4 to 6 feet high, and planted in holes 20 inches deep -by 18; the young plants being brought from a nursery, where seedlings -are raised. The trees are generally in full bearing in the third year. -After the berries are picked, and brought in baskets to the _godown_ -or warehouse, the pulp or fleshy part has to be removed. The berries -are placed in heaps in a loft, above the _pulper_, looking bright and -red like ripe cherries. They are then sent down a shoot, into which -a stream of water is conducted, and are thus washed into the pulper. -On Mr. Stanes's estate this machine is worked by a water-wheel, but -generally it is turned by hand and a fly-wheel. The pulper is a roller -covered with a sheet of copper, made rough like a nutmeg-grater. The -berries fall on it as it goes round, but there is only room for the -seed to pass, so that the pulp is squeezed off, and carried away by -a stream thrown off by the water-wheel, while the naked coffee drops -on the other side. The seeds are still covered with glutinous matter, -to remove which they are well washed in a cistern, the inferior ones -floating, while the good ones sink. The coffee-seeds are then laid out -on the _barbecus_, square platforms of brick plastered with _chunam_, -with sides a foot high; where they dry in the sun for about three days, -and are afterwards stored in the godowns. - -It is estimated that an acre of jungle on the Neilgherries may be -cleared for 200 Rs., including all expenses. The coffee-seedlings, from -the nursery, may be planted out in seven months, and they will yield a -first crop in three years. Coffee-seeds are 5 Rs. a bushel, and that -quantity will rear 10,000 plants, covering 10 acres. One acre ought to -yield one ton, when well cultivated, selling at Calicut, uncleaned, -for 4 annas the pound. In three years the estate ought to pay 10 per -cent. on the capital expended, if well conducted; the next year the -gross profit should increase to 60 per cent., and afterwards to 100 -per cent. A good dwelling-house will cost 4000 Rs.; the pulping-house, -machinery, and godowns, 4000 Rs. more. Carpenters get 20 Rs. a month, -bricklayers 15 Rs., with 2 annas a day batta for coming out of the -town, and common labourers 4-1/2 Rs. - -The Neilgherry planters have great advantages in the way of means of -conveyance from their estates to Calicut and Beypoor, their ports of -shipment. The coffee is carried down the Coonoor ghaut on pack-bullocks -to Matepoliem, and thence in carts along a good road, by Palghatchery, -to the sea-coast. Generally the coffee from the Neilgherry estates -is bought by Mr. Perry and Mr. Andrews at Calicut, in rather a dirty -state. They have garbling-machines for clearing away all remaining dry -pulp, and removing the outer coat from the seeds; and they make their -profit by shipping the coffee and selling it in a clean state fit for -European use. Neilgherry coffee has an excellent name in the London -market. - -Europeans, on the Neilgherries, hold land by a _puttum_ or grant from -Government, leasing it in perpetuity, so long as the assessment is -paid, which is fixed at 1 R. per acre of coffee-land, levied after -the third year. By the resolution of the Madras Government, dated -August 5th, 1859, the terms on which waste lands can be purchased were -regulated. These orders apply to all the regions in Southern India -which are suited for coffee or chinchona cultivation. It was resolved -to sell outright the fee-simple of all land used for building, and of -waste land in the hills, without reservation of quit-rent, and with an -absolute and indefeasible title, sold to the highest bidder at an upset -price, at twenty times the amount of yearly quit-rent or land-tax. A -title-deed will be given under the seal of the Government, declaring -the absolute title of the holder, free from all demands on account of -land-revenue, with full powers to dispose of the land at pleasure, but -not exempting it from payments for municipal purposes. Other parties, -however, claiming a previous right in the land, will be free to sue -the holder in the Civil Courts, up to a certain time, so that it will -be necessary to make careful investigations on this point before -purchasing. When the land-tax is not redeemed, Government will issue -permanent title-deeds, reserving a quit-rent, and the holder will be -free to redeem the tax, on the same terms, at any future time. - -With regard to labour on the Neilgherries, there used to be abundant -supplies of coolies from Mysore and Coimbatore, but they have recently -fallen off, owing to competition on the railway works. Mr. Stanes was -paying his labourers 4-1/2 Rs. a month, and women 3-1/2 Rs. He told me -that he was particular always to pay every labourer himself, and to -be very kind to them, by which means he never found any difficulty in -procuring labour. Some of the planters get the services of Badagas, and -even of some Kurumbers in the picking-time, but the hill tribes are not -generally willing to work on the coffee plantations. There are fifteen -coffee estates on the Neilgherry hills. - -But the oldest coffee-district in Southern India is Wynaad, a -forest-covered plateau about 3000 feet above the sea, which adjoins the -Neilgherries on the north. In this district there are upwards of thirty -coffee-plantations, some of them, such as that of Messrs. Campbell -and Ouchterlony, near the ascent to the Neilgherry hills, being very -extensive.[414] There is a great rainfall in Wynaad during the S.W. -monsoon, and the crops are very abundant; but at the same time the -coffee is not so good as that grown in drier situations, such as the -Neilgherries near Coonoor, though the yield is greater. Most of the -available land is already taken up. The labour is derived from Mysore, -whence the coolies come, often from distances of sixty or seventy -miles, returning to their families when their wages are paid. In 1860 -the tax on coffee-estates in Wynaad was fixed at 2 Rs. an acre on land -actually planted, to be imposed in the third year, at which time the -trees are in bearing.[415] - -The export trade in coffee, from all the hill-districts of Southern -India, was, in 1859-60, as follows:-- - - Quantity. Value. - From the ports of Malabar 7,35,19,26lbs. 7,35,177 R^s - " " Canara 5,13,36,35 8,66,644 - " " Tinnevelly 23,36,93 23,387 - " port of Madras 8,15,89,74 2,49,846 - ---------- --------- - 20,87,82,28 18,75,054 - ----------- --------- - -In connexion with the clearing of forests for coffee-cultivation, it -is imperative that due attention should be paid to the preservation -of valuable timber, and the conservancy of the belts of wood near the -sources and along the upper courses of streams, so as to ensure the -usual supplies of water, and to retain a due amount of moisture in -the atmosphere. For the superintendence of these important measures, -together with other duties, Dr. Cleghorn has been placed at the head of -a Forest Conservancy Department in the Madras Presidency. He strongly -urges that the high wooded mountain-tops overhanging the low country -should not be allowed to be cleared for coffee-cultivation, lest the -supplies of water should be injured.[416] "The courses of rivulets," -he says, "should be overshadowed with trees, and the hills should -therefore be left clothed for a distance of half their height from -the top, leaving half the slopes and all the valleys for cultivation. -Immense tracts of virgin forest in the valleys of the Koondah hills -are eminently suited for coffee-cultivation. The clearing should only -be allowed from 2500 to 4500 feet, this being the extreme range within -which coffee planted on a large scale is found to thrive." - -There are still thousands of acres of uncleared forests, at suitable -elevations, well adapted for the growth of coffee, in the cultivation -of which the English capitalist would make large and rapid profits; yet -it is not many years since the first coffee-plants were introduced into -these hills. Coffee now forms an important item in the exports from the -Madras Presidency. There is every reason to hope that the bark from -quinine-yielding chinchona-trees may also become one of the valuable -products of the hills; and in the following chapter I propose to give -an account of the selection of the sites for the first experimental -plantations. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII. - -SELECTION OF SITES FOR CHINCHONA-PLANTATIONS ON THE NEILGHERRY HILLS. - -The Dodabetta site--The Neddiwuttum site. - - -IN selecting sites for chinchona plantations in the Neilgherry hills -we had to compare the climate and other conditions of growth which -prevail in the chinchona forests and open _pajonales_ in the Andes -with any similar localities which might be found in Southern India. -For the first experimental sites, it was of course important that the -resemblance, as regards elevation, temperature, and humidity, should be -as close as possible; but there was every reason to hope that, under -cultivation, these plants, like most others, would adapt themselves to -conditions of soil and climate extending over a far more extensive area. - -It was necessary to fix upon two sites in the first instance, one at -the highest point at which chinchona-plants were likely to flourish, -for the species from Loxa and others growing at great elevations, -and as an experimental plantation; and another in a lower and warmer -position for the plants of _C. succirubra_, _C. Peruviana_, _C. -micrantha_, and the tree _C. Calisaya_. The highest point at which -these plants will flourish, and the greatest exposure they will bear -without injury, are the most favourable conditions for the formation of -quinine; while, if the _sholas_ in the upper plateau of the Neilgherry -hills should prove to be adapted for their growth, their cultivation -might be indefinitely extended in a climate suitable for English -settlers. - -Previous to my arrival on the hills Mr. McIvor had selected a site for -the highest plantation in a wooded ravine or _shola_ at the back of the -hills which rise above the Government gardens; and, after a careful -examination, I came to the conclusion that it was well suited for the -growth of the hardier species, and for the experimental culture of all -the kinds which have been introduced into India. It has been named the -"Dodabetta" site, from the peak, the highest point of the Neilgherries, -and 8640 feet above the sea, which rises up immediately behind it. - -With regard to the species for which I considered the Dodabetta site -to be suitable, it will be well in this place to recapitulate the -circumstances under which they grow on their native mountains. - -The shrub variety of _C. Calisaya_ (lat. 13° to 15° S.) flourishes -in open _pajonales_, quite exposed, at elevations from 5000 to 7000 -feet above the sea, and in April and May I found the mean temperature -to be 60-1/3°, minimum 55°, and range 17°. The _C. nitida_ (lat. 10° -S.) grows at similar elevations, but we have no exact information -respecting the temperature and humidity. The varieties of _C. -Condaminea_ (lat. 4° S.) flourish at heights from 6000 to 8000 feet -above the sea, where the mean range is from 45° to 60°, in a moist -climate, and in exposed but always dry situations; and one kind, -the _C. crispa_, the seeds of which have been received in India and -Ceylon, grows in a deposit of peat, 8000 feet above the sea, in a -temperature falling as low as 27°.[417] The _C. lancifolia_ (lat. 5° -N.) is found at 7000 feet above the sea and upwards, where the annual -range is from freezing-point to 75°, in an exceedingly moist climate. -The rainy season lasts for nine months, when the constant rain is -only interrupted in the day by interchanging sun-rays and fog-clouds. -In the dry season cold clear nights follow days in which a warm sun -penetrates through the fog, which almost constantly lies on the damp -foliage of the forest.[418] Mr. Cross mentions that he saw trees of _C. -succirubra_ on his way to Loxa, growing at elevations of from 8000 to -9000 feet above the sea. - -The site, in the Dodabetta ravine, slopes down from 7700 to 7600 feet -above the sea, yet, from local causes, it is several degrees warmer -than the station at Ootacamund; and the temperature agrees with that of -the species of chinchona-plants described above. The annual temperature -of the peak of Dodabetta, of Ootacamund, and of the warmer station of -Kotergherry, are given on the following page. - -The Dodabetta site, being four or five degrees warmer than Ootacamund, -throughout the year, has a temperature, on the whole, somewhat warmer -than the lofty regions where the species of chinchona grow, for -the cultivation of which this position was selected. The elevation -above the sea exactly corresponds, and the amount of humidity is -about the same. The ravine is full of fine trees, with a variety of -exposures, the general aspect being north-west; a clear little stream -flows through it; and, in most parts, the soil consists of a rich -loam four or five feet deep. Outside the wooded ravine there are -tree Rhododendrons, Berberis, Gaultherias, lilies, Lycopodia, and -brake-ferns, scattered about on the grassy slopes; and the character of -the scenery and vegetation very closely resembles that of the _pajonal_ -country between the valleys of Sandia and Tambopata in Caravaya, where -the shrub _Calisaya_ flourishes. The site is protected by rising -grounds from the cold northerly winds, and the colder breezes blowing -over it from ridge to ridge prevent the warm air in the ravine from -rising, so that the temperature became warmer as we ascended through -the wood, and in the highest part there were orchids and pepper-vines -hanging on the trees. - -[Illustration: Observations by T. G. TAYLOR, and by Capt. OUCHTERLONY.] - -The analogy between the flora of the Dodabetta ravine and of the -loftier parts of the chinchona region was another point which -influenced my decision. Within the ravine there are nine species of -chinchonaceous plants, namely-- - - _Hedyotis Lawsoniæ._ - _Hedyotis stylosa._ - _Lasianthus venulosus._ - _Coffea alpestris._ - _Coffea grumelioides._ - _Canthium umbellatum._ - _Grumilea elongata._ - _Grumilea congesta._ - _Psychotria bisulcata._ - -These are mostly ornamental pretty shrubs, from six to eight feet -high, with clusters of white or cream-coloured flowers. The other -genera of which the wood is composed are as follows:--_Vaccinium_, -_Myrsine_, _Symplocos_, _Ilex_, _Michelia_, _Sapota_, _Isonandra_, -and _Cinnamon_ among the trees; _Eugenia_, _Myrtus_, _Jasminum_, -_Osbeckia_, _Sonerila_, _Solanum_, _Viburnum_, and _Acanthus_ among -shrubs; _Lonicera_, _Passiflora_, _Rubia_, and _pepper-vines_ among the -climbers; with an undergrowth of _Lobelia_, _Begonia_, _Convolvulus_, -orchids, and ferns. The _Osbeckias_ and _Sonerilas_ represent the -melastomaceous plants, the constant companions of chinchonæ in South -America. - -It was no small advantage that this excellent site for a chinchona -plantation was close to the Government gardens, and that it would thus -be under the constant supervision of Mr. McIvor. It receives a supply -of moisture during both monsoons, and is, therefore, as good a position -as could have been selected on the higher plateau of the Neilgherries, -though there are many _sholas_ which will be found equally well adapted -for the growth of the hardier chinchonas. These precious plants will, -it is to be hoped, before very long, form large plantations on all -parts of the hills, and become one of the most important products -of the Neilgherries. In the mean while Mr. McIvor, the Government -Superintendent, using the Dodabetta site as an experimental plantation, -will be enabled to demonstrate the successful results of chinchona -culture, and to raise thousands of plants for the supply of private -enterprise. - -The most extensive operations must, however, necessarily be carried -on at much lower elevations, where the _C. succirubra_, the species -richest in febrifugal alkaloids, will flourish best, and where vast -unoccupied forests afford space for plantations on a large scale. A -northern aspect is the one best adapted for the vigorous growth of -trees on the Neilgherry hills, and we, therefore, proceeded to examine -the forest-covered slopes overlooking the table-lands of Wynaad and -Mysore, for a site for the lower chinchona plantation. We started from -Ootacamund early one November morning, and rode across the central -plateau of the hills, consisting of rounded grassy undulations, -intersected by wooded _sholas_. In some of the hollows the streams -had formed large swamps, where there were extensive deposits of peat. -The traveller's bungalow of Pycarrah, the first on the road towards -Wynaad, is ten miles from Ootacamund, on the banks of a river of the -same name. Several huge boulders of syenite obstruct the stream and -cause it to foam noisily round them, and the wet stones were covered -with _Podostemads_, herbaceous branched floating plants, with the habit -of liverworts. We saw several otters playing in the water, and peering -at us from behind the rocks. Six miles beyond Pycarrah is the bungalow -of Neddiwuttum, on the edge of the rapid descent into Wynaad, and the -road descends from the upland slopes through a jungle where the ferns -first appear, and maiden-hair, ceterach, and other ferns grow by the -roadside. Some garden marigolds from England had been planted near the -Neddiwuttum bungalow, and they had spread themselves in masses over the -adjacent slopes. - -The tract of forest land which we came to examine is close to the -bungalow, and from the grassy hill above it there is a glorious view of -Wynaad, and of the plains of Mysore, stretching away to the horizon. -Here the mountains sink abruptly down to the Wynaad table-land, and -the Moyaar river thunders down in a long waterfall, divides Wynaad -from Mysore, and, flowing through a deep gorge to join the Bowany in -Coimbatore, eventually swells the waters of the great river Cauvery. -The land available for immediate occupation comprises about 400 acres -of uncleared forest on the mountain slopes, at an elevation from -a little over 6000 to a little under 5000 feet above the level of -the sea, and with a mean temperature about 8° warmer than that of -Ootacamund. - -I selected this site for a plantation of _C. succirubra_, _C. -Calisaya_, _C. micrantha_, and the very delicate _C. Peruviana_, -because, with a good supply of water, and a deep rich soil on a base of -decomposing laterite and syenite, it had a suitable elevation above the -sea, temperature, and amount of humidity. The information we possess -on these points, with regard to the above species, is by no means -complete; but it is sufficiently exact to enable us to form a correct -opinion. Mr. Spruce gives the following details respecting the climate -of the region of _C. succirubra_, in latitude 1° 40´ S. The zone of the -"red bark" is from 2450 to 5000 feet above the sea. - - Range in - Mean Min. Mean Max. Mean of Lowest Highest 24 hours. - for for Minima & ---- - 7 months, 7 months, Maxima, Temperature. Temperature. Entire range - 1860. in 7 months, - MONTH. ° ° ° ° ° ° - 61-1/2 72-1/5 66-3/4 57 80-1/2 23-1/2 - -----+-------+--------+---------+-----------+--------------+-------- - - ° ° ° ° ° ° - June 61-1/5 74 67-1/2 { 60-1/4 } { 77 } 12-4/5 - {on the 27th.} {on the 29th.} - - July 60 72-1/2 66-1/4 { 57 } { 80-1/2 } 12-1/2 - {on the 11th.} {on the 27th.} - - Aug. 61-1/3 74-2/3 68 { 59-3/4 } { 80-1/4 } 13-1/3 - {on the 12th.} {on the 28th.} - - Sept. 62-1/4 72-1/2 67-1/2 { 60 } { 80 } 10-1/4 - {on the 16th.} {on the 19th.} - - Oct. 62 70 66 { 60 } { 74 } 8 - {on the 21st.} {on the 24th.} - - Nov. 62-1/5 71 66-1/2 { 58 } { 75 } 8-4/5 - {on the 29th.} {on the 30th.} - - Dec. 62 71-1/2 66-3/4 .. .. 9-1/2 - - -------+-------+---------+-------+------------+--------------+------- - -From the 1st of June to the 31st of December is the dry season in -the "red-bark" region, when the days are usually sunny in the early -morning, and mists generally begin to form as the sun declines; while -after the autumnal equinox there are heavy rains and thunder-storms. In -the wet season the early part of the day is foggy, and there is heavy -continuous rain during the afternoons and nights. In the region of _C. -Calisaya_, from 13° to 16° S. lat., and from 4000 to 6000 feet above -the sea, the dry season lasts from April to the end of August. April -and August are showery months. May is also showery, but clear in the -forenoons, and the mean temperature during the first half is 69°, mean -maximum 71-1/2°, and mean minimum 62-1/2°. June and July are hot dry -months, with little rain, a bright hot sun in the day, but cold clear -nights. In September the rains begin, increase in October, and pour -down incessantly from the beginning of November to the middle of March, -with very hot, damp days and nights. We have no detailed information -respecting the region of _C. micrantha_ and _C. Peruviana_, species -which flourish in 10° S. lat., from 4000 to 5500 feet above the sea. -From May to November the sun shines powerfully, yet heavy rains fell -from day to day in June and July 1860, and it was not until August -that the days were clear and bright. At Casapi, in this region, where -a register was kept, it rained during half the days in the year.[419] -From November to May is the rainy season, and sometimes the rain pours -down for six or seven days without intermission.[420] - -The Neddiwuttum site, being about 8° or 10° warmer than Ootacamund, -has a temperature exactly similar to that of the forests where the -above species of chinchonæ flourish. Its elevation above the sea is -also the same as that of the chinchona forests. It is true that Mr. -Spruce gives the extreme upper limit of the "red-bark" region at 5000 -feet; but Mr. Cross saw that species growing at an elevation of 8000 -feet; and the great importance of cultivating this species at the -highest possible elevation is demonstrated by Mr. Spruce's observation -that the bark of trees growing low down and near the plains is by no -means so thick as that of trees which flourish in a loftier and more -temperate climate.[421] The Neddiwuttum site is within the limit of the -region which receives both monsoons. Though protected to some extent -from the south-west, it receives a full share of the rains during the -summer, and is also supplied with moisture by the north-east monsoon, -coming across Mysore between October and December. During the remaining -months it is visited by mists and heavy dews in the nights until -the south-west monsoon again commences in May. It will probably be -found that these species of chinchonæ will bear a much drier climate -than we at present suppose; and I have no misgivings that the amount -of humidity at Neddiwuttum will not be amply sufficient for their -successful cultivation. The only person who has visited this site since -its selection, who is capable, through personal knowledge of the South -American chinchona forests, of forming an opinion, is Mr. Cross. It is -exceedingly satisfactory to find that he not only approves of it for -the cultivation of plants of the "red-bark" species, but that, from the -superior depth and richness of the soil, he considers that they are -likely to thrive even better than in their native forests near Limon, -on the eastern slopes of Chimborazo. - -In the Neddiwuttum forest, among other plants, I found the -_Hymenodictyon excelsum_,[422] wild yams, coffee-plants, cinnamon, -pepper-vines, _Andromedas_, _Osbeckias_, wild ginger, a _Balanophra_ -with a scarlet flower, and abundance of orchids and ferns. On the -edge of the forest there was a little hut, merely a few branches -covered with grass, and leaning against the trunk of a tree, with -some empty honeycombs lying about. It was the habitation of a family -of Mooloo Kurumbers, a wild race who live in the forests, and run -away in great terror when any one approaches them. The establishment -of the plantation will soon make them alter their haunts from the -neighbourhood of Neddiwuttum. - -The magnificent view from this point embraces a great part of Wynaad. -Far below there was a small coffee-estate, its bright green contrasting -with the more sombre hues of the surrounding forest; and more to the -left, though out of sight, is the extensive plantation which, together -with a tract of forest on the slopes of the Neilgherries, is owned by -Messrs. Ouchterlony and Campbell. - -After passing the night at Pycarrah, we started next morning to examine -another site further to the eastward, and overlooking the plateau of -Mysore. We crossed several ranges of grassy hills, with streams in the -intervening valleys flowing through thickets of tree rhododendrons, -with the gorgeous crimson flowers just beginning to bloom, _Osbeckias_, -and a _Lasianthus_ with a beautiful glossy leaf. The hills were -dotted with a St. John's-wort with a bright orange flower (_Hypericum -Hookerianum_). We soon reached the edge of the plateau, overlooking -the low country, and looked down on the wide plains of Mysore, with -some Neilgherry peaks in advance of us, and a valley between, where -there was bright green cultivation, and crimson patches of amaranth, -surrounding the Badaga village of Choloor. Between the place where we -stood and the Choloor valley there were some fine patches of forest on -the steep hill-slopes; but they did not offer the same advantages as -Neddiwuttum for a first experimental chinchona plantation. This side -of the hills is drier, the soil poorer, and water is less abundant, -though it is nearer Ootacamund, and both labour and supplies are more -easily procurable. Returning to Ootacamund we rode up to a Todar-mund, -where something unusual had evidently occurred. About thirty Todars -were walking in a line through the forest glades below, and several -jackals were prowling about in the broad daylight. We afterwards heard -that a huge tiger had killed one of the Todar buffaloes that morning, -and retreated into the _shola_ on the edge of which we had just had -luncheon. They expected him to come out at sunset for his supper. - -We continued our excursion to the summit of the Kalhutty peak, -overlooking the Seegoor ghaut, whence several fine tracts of -forest-land slope down; but Neddiwuttum was decidedly preferable in -every respect to all the localities which we examined on the northern -side of the Neilgherries, and to the eastward of that site. The part of -the hills on the south, towards Coonoor and Kotergherry, was out of the -question on account of the summer drought, as it is completely screened -from the south-west monsoon by the spurs from the Dodabetta peak; and -the forests towards the Sispara ghaut, being too far west to receive -moisture from the north-east monsoon, were not so good as Neddiwuttum, -at least for a first experiment. - -When the success of the chinchona culture on the 400 acres of the -Neddiwuttum plantation is fully established, the experiment may then -be extended to the east and west, both by Government and through -private enterprise; and these precious barks may be expected to yield -remunerative profits to European speculators, while they will at the -same time confer an inestimable blessing on the native population. - -Everything, however, depends upon the method which is adopted for the -cultivation of the chinchona-plants in the experimental plantations; -and, in a future chapter, I propose to give a detailed account of the -course of events, as regards the chinchona-plants on the Neilgherry -hills, up to the latest date. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -JOURNEY TO THE PULNEY HILLS. - - Coonoor ghaut--Coimbatore--Pulladom--Cotton - cultivation--Dharapurum--A marriage procession--Dindigul--Ryotwarry - tenure--Pulney hills--Kodakarnal--Extent of the - Pulneys--Formation--Soil--Climate--Inhabitants--Flora--Suitability for - chinchona cultivation--Forest conservancy--Anamallay hills. - - -IN the end of November I set out from Ootacamund, by way of the Coonoor -ghaut and Coimbatore, with the intention of examining the suitability -of the Pulney hills in Madura for chinchona cultivation. The Coonoor -ghaut, on the southern side of the Neilgherry hills, leads down into -the plain of Coimbatore. The road is good, though much too steep ever -to make a convenient means of carriage traffic, and the scenery is -exceedingly fine. The deep gorge has forest-covered mountains on the -left, and a grand range of cliffs on the right, crowned by the bold -peak of the Hoolicul Droog. There are few districts in India without -some local tradition respecting the five Pandus,[423] the great -mythical heroes of ancient Hindoo history, and the Hoolicul Droog is -not without one. It is said that the fort on the summit of the Droog -was inhabited by a _rakshi_ or giant named Pukasooren, who levied a -tribute on the people of the plains, in the shape of a cart-load of -provisions daily. When he had eaten the provisions he swallowed the -driver, and kicked the cart down again. Bhima, the impersonation of -strength, when passing through this part of the country, volunteered -to act as driver, had a desperate encounter with the giant, and killed -him. The dying Pukasooren cursed the whole country over which the -shadow of the mountain fell during the day, and it has ever since -been the abode of a deadly fever. It is certain that the jungles at -the roots of the hills are the most fever-haunted districts in India, -and I rode rapidly through this belt of forests, and along a road -bordered with _cana-fistula_ and _sappan_-trees,[424] to the village of -Matepoliem, on the banks of the river Bowany, and five miles from the -foot of the ghaut. - -Matepoliem is twenty-three miles from the town of Coimbatore, and I -rode this distance on a Neilgherry pony in the early morning. The road -is perfectly straight, with an avenue of shady trees along the whole -length, and good bridges over the dry sandy water-courses. The soil -appeared to be poor, partly waste, and partly cultivated with _cholum_ -(_Sorghum Vulgare_[425]), _lablab_,[426] and sesame. _Cholum_, or great -millet, is much cultivated in the peninsula, and used as food in the -shape of cakes and porridge, where rice is scarce or too expensive. -It grows to a height of five or six feet, and cattle are very fond of -the straw, which contains sugar, but it soon exhausts the soil, and -two crops are never taken off the same land in succession. There are -two villages on the road between Matepoliem and Coimbatore, called -Karamuddy and Goodaloor, in both of which there is a _choultry_ or -native bungalow, and in the latter an English post-house. At Karamuddy -there is a very picturesque temple, and on the roadside I passed -several horses of earthenware, votive offerings by the potters to their -god. Under many of the trees there are images of the elephant-headed, -pot-bellied god of wisdom, Ganesa, anointed with ghee, and adorned with -garlands of flowers. - -The streets of Coimbatore consist of long rows of red-tiled, mud-walled -buildings, with no windows, and overhanging eaves supported by wooden -pillars, under which there are raised platforms where the people sit -and talk. In peeping in at the doors, I could never discern any article -of furniture in the dark obscurity of the interiors, but they generally -looked clean and well swept. The houses of the English officials -are about a mile from the town, generally surrounded by park-like -compounds, but the trees and grass thrive badly in the shallow sandy -soil. Outside the town there are two very large tanks, one nearly a -mile long, which irrigate some rice-fields. The view is very pretty, -with these extensive sheets of water in the foreground, the cupolas of -temples rising above the trees beyond, and Lambton's Peak with the blue -line of the Neilgherries in the distance. - -Some exertions are being made at Coimbatore, both by Protestant and -Roman Catholic missionaries, and about sixty natives attend the little -chapel of the London Mission Society. The Bible is very properly -not admitted into any of the Government schools, and, strange to -say, educated natives often inquire why this is not done, and why -Christians are ashamed of their Shaster. But in schools unconnected -with the Government the study of the Bible is enforced like any other -class-book, and there are upwards of forty Brahmin youths in Coimbatore -who habitually take it home to learn, with their other lessons, and -never make the slightest objection. Mr. Thomas, the Collector, felt -very strongly the great importance of educating the women, and a -girl-school has been set on foot, after much difficulty. At present -the influence of the women, and all women have influence, is for -evil. The men, to maintain their superiority, dislike the women to -know anything, and the head official of the cutcherry at Coimbatore, -who is a Brahmin, dare not let his friends know that his wife can read -and write, though this accomplishment makes her a more useful and -agreeable companion. The women, generally, are treated like slaves -by their husbands. They are never allowed to eat at the same time, -except on the wedding-day, and must walk behind their husbands on a -journey, generally carrying a child on their hips; yet I have seen the -man carrying the child, and at least taking turn about, and in other -respects they always appeared to be on good terms with each other. - -At Coimbatore I bought a _bandy_ or country cart of the simplest -construction, with two wheels, no springs, and a hood of matting spread -over curved canes; and started, with relays of bullocks posted at -intervals of fifteen miles. This mode of travelling is inconceivably -slow, the rate being about three miles an hour, and it was near sunset -before I reached Pulladom, a village twenty-two miles from Coimbatore. -The road is nearly straight, and planted on both sides with trees of -stunted growth, owing to the shallowness of the soil. It was market-day -at Pulladom, and people were sitting in rows, before piles of cotton -cloths, rice, and dry grains; while an old Tahsildar, in spectacles and -snow-white garments, was holding a court under a verandah. In strolling -about I came upon the huge idol-car belonging to the village, on heavy -wooden trucks. The carvings on its sides were very elaborate, with -elephant-headed gods at the angles; but it is only dragged out on very -great occasions, and will require new trucks before it is moved again. - -All this country round Coimbatore produces much cotton, and cloths -are manufactured in great quantities, which supply garments, such -as they are, for the people of the plains, as well as for the hill -tribes of the Neilgherries. The native cotton is of two kinds, called -_oopum-parati_ and _nadum parati_.[427] The seed of the latter is sown -broadcast, in the same field with _cholum_ and _cumboo_.[428] After the -grain is cut, the ground is ploughed between the plants four times, and -in the next year the cotton yields a small crop in July, and a larger -one in the following January. After the third year the field is manured -and cultivated with grain for two years, cotton being again sown when -the third crop of grain has been reaped. This _nadum_ cotton is very -little cultivated in the Coimbatore district. The chief product is the -_oopum_, the best indigenous cotton, raised, in rotations of two years, -with _cumboo_ and _cholum_. - -The _oopum_ cotton is raised on the black soil,[429] an adhesive black -clay, while the little Bourbon cotton that is cultivated is grown on -red soil. It is picked very carelessly, and the bales are so badly -pressed that those which I passed in carts on the road looked as if -they would sink in like a feather-bed, if any one sat upon them. - -Much pains have been taken by the Government for a series of years to -improve the method of cultivating cotton in India, and to introduce -American and other species; and very large sums of money have been -spent on experiments. Bourbon cotton was cultivated in Coimbatore as -early as 1824; and in 1842 Government cotton-farms were established -for the growth of New Orleans and Indian plants, both in the black and -red soils, under the able superintendence of Dr. Wight, the eminent -botanist. In 1849 these experiments were abandoned. - -The great importance of the question of cotton supply from India has -been long felt, and never more so than at the present time. To meet the -requirements of the English markets numerous and costly attempts have -been made during a course of years to introduce the American species, -which produces a much longer staple than the indigenous Indian kind. -Yet American cotton has not hitherto been raised so as to yield a -profitable return, excepting in the province of Dharwar, in the Bombay -Presidency. The success in this instance is chiefly to be attributed -to a suitable soil and climate; but also, in no small degree, to the -energy of Mr. Shaw, a former Collector. - -Great attention has been paid to the nature of the soils, while less -importance than it really deserves has been attached to climate, -though climate, and mainly one element of climate--the moisture of the -atmosphere--is an essential condition in the successful culture of -American cotton. In travelling southward from the latitude of Bombay -the climate becomes gradually moister, and at 300 miles there is a -very decided change. The American cotton-plant has a very different -constitution from the Indian; it cannot stand so much drought, and the -conditions required for its culture are an equable and moderate supply -of moisture through all the stages of its growth. These conditions are -fulfilled in the Dharwar country, which retains a considerable quantity -of moisture in the air during the cold season, when other parts of the -Bombay Presidency are intensely dry. Wherever this is the case, as in -Sind, Guzerat, Broach, and Ahmednuggur, the American plant will not -yield a remunerative crop. The indigenous plant is able to endure this -dry season well, because it is a native, not of the peninsula, but of -the arid country of Sind and part of the Punjab, where it grows wild. - -If careful hygrometrical observations were taken throughout the year -in the various cotton districts, the results might be compared with -similar observations taken in Dharwar; and thus the localities may be -ascertained where the American cotton can be advantageously cultivated, -so far at least as this depends on the amount of moisture in the -atmosphere. The supply of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere, at any -period of the year, diminishes as we recede from the coast; but, having -once found a centre where the American plant can be profitably raised, -in Dharwar, it is advisable to work from that centre, especially in a -south-eastern and southerly direction. This spread of the growth of -American cotton has already taken place to the eastward of Dharwar, -to a considerable extent. The people in the Bellary district, and in -neighbouring parts of the Nizam's territory, have for some years grown -cotton from American seeds, and value it more highly than their native -species. - -In Coimbatore, where scorching hot dry winds parch up the plains during -part of the year, and where the rainfall varies so much in different -seasons,[430] sometimes being thirty inches, and at others only seven -inches, it is perhaps doubtful whether it will ever answer to cultivate -American cotton on a large scale, yet excellent samples were obtained -from cotton raised on the farms, under the superintendence of Dr. -Wight. The attention of Sir William Denison, the present Governor of -Madras, has been chiefly directed to the improvement of native cotton, -by increasing the length of the staple, and lessening the coarseness -of the fibre. It is a well-established fact that "the best seeds make -the best breeds,"[431] and Sir William Denison proposes to select -those seeds to which the largest fibres are attached, to be used for -the next crop, and so on in each successive season, the minimum length -being increased every year. He believes that, in this way, a permanent -addition may be made to the length, and possibly to the fineness of -the fibre of the native cotton, which might thus ultimately be able to -compete in the English markets with its American rival. Mr. Haywood, -the Secretary of the Manchester Cotton Company, on the other hand, -strongly urges that attention should be given to the improvement -of American cotton. Well-directed efforts in both directions will -doubtless be rewarded. - -I left Pulladom in the night, and arrived at the large village of -Dharapurum in the following morning, a distance of twenty-eight -miles. Dharapurum is on the banks of a small river, where there are -rice-fields and cocoanut-trees; for wherever there is the means of -irrigation, rice is always cultivated. Great quantities of cows and -calves swarm along the roads, and in the open spaces of the village, -where there are some fine spreading peepul-trees (_Ficus religiosa_), -one of the sacred trees of the Hindus. It has a peculiarly shaped -cordate leaf, with a long narrow acumen one-third the length of the -leaf, and yellow flowers; and it is venerated from a belief that the -god Vishnu was born amongst its branches. Potters' horses, and images -of the elephant-headed Ganesa, were placed under the trees, the objects -of worship by the villagers, who make offerings of ghee and flowers to -them. Literally "an idol under every green tree." - -After leaving Dharapurum the road becomes very sandy, and passes over -a bleak open country covered with low bushes, on the frontier between -the Coimbatore and Madura collectorates. A range of mountains bounded -the view to the south. A slow jolting journey of thirty miles brought -me to the village of Pulkanooth in Madura. _Cholum_ and _lablab_ -were cultivated in the surrounding fields, and from the top of a -ridge of rocks overhanging the village there is an extensive view of -open country covered with waving _cholum_, and bounded by the broken -outline of the Pulney hills. Near the village there is the ruin of a -square brick fort, with bastions at the angles, entirely overgrown -with bushes. One of the happiest signs of English rule is to be found -in the number of ruined forts scattered over the country, once the -lurking-places of brutal robbers who extorted half the crops from a -wretched peasantry, whose descendants now reap the fruits of their -labour in peace. - -In taking a walk near Pulkanooth I encountered a marriage procession. -First came a man with a drum, then two more with a gong of skin -stretched on wooden hoops, then a man with a large game-cock under -his arm, then a bullock led by a woman, then four women covered with -bracelets and anklets, then a pony ridden by a boy about twelve, with -nothing on but a red turban and gold necklace and bracelets, with a -little girl about five in front, whom he clasped round the waist; then -more men and women, another drum, and lastly a small boy mounted on a -large cow. They appeared to have come from a distance, as they stopped -to rest under a peepul-tree, by the road-side. - -Another night journey took me to the town of Dindigul, a pretty -little place at the foot of an isolated mass of primitive rock, whose -perpendicular sides are crowned by a dismantled fort, said to have -been erected in the days of Dupleix and French ambition, and to have -been occupied and long held by Hyder Ali of Mysore. Here the plains -are chiefly covered with _cholum_ and _cumboo_; and between the town -and the rock there is a grassy esplanade, a grove of cocoanut and -betel-palms, and a neat little temple to Ganesa. Troops of young -girls were drawing water from a tank near the esplanade. Their slight -graceful figures, supporting chatties on their heads, were perfect -models of beauty; but they had black ugly faces, flabby ear-lobes, and -large studs stuck in their noses. To be admired their backs must be -turned. - -The Tamil people, who inhabit this part of India, are an exceedingly -black and ugly race, and the Brahmins are the only people who have -any pretensions whatever to fair skins. On the whole the peasantry in -the country between the Neilgherry and Pulney hills appeared to be -tolerably well off, and the country was well cultivated, considering -the unpropitious climate and poor soil. As is well known, the -people in this part of India hold their land by what is called the -_ryotwarry_ tenure, which is a settlement for the land assessment with -each individual ryot or cultivator, without the intervention of any -zemindar or renter. The land is made over to the actual cultivator, -who is regarded by the Government as the proprietor of the soil, and -the arrangement for the payment of land-tax is made directly with -him, while he receives assistance by remissions of assessment in -unfavourable seasons, and cannot be ejected so long as he pays his dues. - -The land is classified as irrigated and un-irrigated, and then -according to its different degrees of fertility; and this settlement -is permanent so long as the land remains in the same condition. The -Collector of each district makes an annual tour of inspection, called -_jummabundy_, to ascertain the extent to which the Government demand -ought to be reduced, owing to particular circumstances of season; but -in ordinary times the duty of collection is intrusted to the Tahsildars -or native officials, and their subordinates the Sheristadars. These -officials, who visited me in the villages through which I passed, -appeared intelligent respectable men, and all the younger ones talked -English fluently. - -Sir Thomas Munro, who was Governor of Madras from 1818 to 1827, -established the _ryotwarry_ system, and since his time the conditions -on which the ryots hold their land have been made lighter and more -advantageous. In 1837 it was enacted that there should be no increase -of land-tax on account of the growth of more valuable crops; in 1852 -it was ordered that no ryot should pay an additional tax on account of -improvements made by himself, causing an increased value;[432] and, -during Lord Harris's administration, considerable reductions were made -in the land-assessment in nearly all the Madras collectorates. These -reductions, independent of the boon conferred on the people, have been -attended by the most successful results, in an increasing revenue, -and in the extension of the area of cultivation over lands which were -formerly waste. - -Dindigul is about forty miles from the foot of the ghaut leading up to -the Pulney hills, and relays of bullocks were posted for me every seven -miles, with a man running in front of the cart with a blazing torch. -Passing through the village of Periacolum, round which there are many -large tanks and extensive rice cultivation, we reached the jungle at -the foot of the Pulney hills at early dawn. The path, which is only -practicable for ponies and pack-bullocks, leads up a ravine for half -the distance, and then corkscrews up the steep sides of the mountain. -The range looks very imposing from the plain, but not equal to the -Neilgherries at the foot of the Coonoor ghaut. After resting under a -clump of trees I commenced the ascent on foot, driving an unhappy sheep -before me, which was to be sacrificed on the summit, where, at this -time of the year, there are no residents, no market, and no means of -procuring any supplies. - -The ascent is exceedingly beautiful, but the undergrowth is thick -grass, and the vegetation is not nearly so luxuriant as at similar -elevations on the Neilgherries. The trees are chiefly _Leguminosæ_, and -at an elevation of 3000 feet chinchonaceous plants commence, amongst -which I observed the _Hymenodictyon excelsum_. At 6000 feet the steep -ascent is covered with long grass, and trees are confined to sheltered -hollows and ravines. After reaching the plateau it is necessary to -scale a second steep grassy slope before arriving at the settlement of -Kodakarnal, which is 7230 feet above the level of the sea. Kodakarnal -consists of eight houses, built along the crests of undulating hills, -and one of the inner slopes is clothed with a wood of fine trees and -tree-ferns, from which the Tamil people have named the settlement.[433] -Round the houses there are gum-trees. _Acacia heterophylla_, _Cassia -glauca_, fruit-trees, and hedges of roses and geraniums as at -Ootacamund. The houses belong to the officials of the Madura district, -the American missionaries, a Mr. Clerk of Madras, and the French priest -of Pondicherry, who come here to recruit their healths, and for short -intervals of holiday and relaxation. - -Mr. Ames, the Sub-Collector at Dindigul, had kindly given me the use of -a house which he shared with Mr. Levinge, the Collector of Madura. It -has a pleasant garden, whence there is a glorious view of the Madura -plains, with their numerous tanks glittering in the sun; and close -to the house a torrent of deliciously cold water babbles over huge -boulders of rock, and finally leaps in long falls down the face of the -cliffs, making a noise at night like the roar of the sea. The house -was in charge of a very original old native of low caste, with a large -family, named Chenatumby, who is a tolerable gardener, and cultivates -his own patch of potatoes. Chenatumby is a devoted Protestant, feels -a conscientious horror for the idolatry of the Roman Catholics, and -intends to bring up his eldest son as a half-caste, this honour being -conferred on him by the simple process of attiring him in a hat and -trousers. Old Chenatumby acted as a guide in my walks over the hills, -and was very useful. - -The Pulney[434] or Varragherry hills, like the Neilgherries further -north, branch out in an easterly direction from the main line of the -western ghauts. United to a portion of the Anamallay range at their -western end, they stretch out into the Madura plains for a distance of -fifty-four miles, with a medium breadth of fifteen, and an area of 798 -square miles. On the south they rise very abruptly from the plains, -presenting, near their summits, a perfect wall of gneiss; but on the -north and east they slope down in a succession of broken ridges. The -Pulneys are divided into two parts: a lower series of hill and dale to -the eastward, called Mailmullay or Kunnundaven, averaging a height of -4000 feet, and covering 231-1/2 square miles, where there are extensive -tracts of forest, some cultivation, and several villages; and a loftier -region to the westward 6000 to 7500 feet above the sea, with undulating -grassy hills and mountain-peaks, the highest of which, Permanallie, -attains an elevation of 8000 feet. - -The formation is gneiss, interstratified with quartz, and traversed by -veins of felspar; and the rock is generally decayed to a considerable -depth on the plateau, and disintegrated so as to form a gritty clay. In -the eastern part the soil is a light reddish loam; but on the western -and loftier half it is very poor, being a heavy black peat several feet -thick, with a stiff and plastic yellowish clay as a sub-soil. The rains -on the Neilgherry hills have the effect of mixing the decaying grass -with the decomposed rock, and a rich soil is thus formed; but on the -plateau of the Pulneys this operation does not appear to take place, -the one becoming a black peat, and the other a stiff clayey subsoil. -These remarks, however, only apply to the interior valleys, for on -the outer slopes, overlooking the plains of Madura, there is plenty of -good soil, and magnificent forests clothe the mountains at the foot of -the perpendicular walls of gneiss which form the southern ridge of the -Pulneys. - -The climate of the Pulneys, as regards temperature, very closely -resembles that of the Neilgherries. At the time of my visit, in the end -of November and beginning of December, the season was very late, though -there were thick mists and showers of rain every afternoon. This is -the time of the north-east monsoon, and the streams swell to torrents -after every shower. During the first two months in the year it is very -cold, and the ground is often covered with frost on the upper plateau. -In March there are light showers of rain, which increase during April -and May, and continue, with strong westerly winds, until October. Thus -the Pulneys are within the influence of the south-west monsoon.[435] In -June and July, the warmest months, the thermometer never falls below -50°, nor rises above 75°; and the westerly winds, with occasional rain, -continue during August and September. - -The eastern part of the Pulneys, called Kunnundaven, and Poombary, -the principal village to the westward, are inhabited by people of the -Kunnuver and Karakat Vellaler castes, numbering about two thousand of -both sexes. The villages are chiefly on the lower Pulneys, and one -which I visited, called Vilputty, was surrounded by terrace cultivation -of mustard, garlic, _raggee_, and _keeree_ or amaranth. The people also -cultivate _lablab_, limes, oranges, and plantains; and I heard that in -one or two villages there were small coffee-gardens. Many low-country -natives are also settled on the Pulneys, chiefly men outlawed from -their castes; and in the more inaccessible forests are the Poliars, a -race of timid wild men of the woods. Chenatumby told me that they have -no habitations of any kind, but run through the jungle from place to -place, sleep under rocks, and live on wild honey and roots. The women -run with them, like wild goats, their children slung in rows on their -hips. The Poliars occasionally trade with the country people, who place -cotton and grain on some stone, and the wild creatures, as soon as the -strangers are out of sight, take them and put honey in their place, but -they will allow no one to come near them. - -The undulating hills and valleys of the interior plateau are -covered with an aromatic grass (_Andropogon_), which grows in large -coarse tufts, like the _Stipa ychu_ in Peru; and it is not until -the young tender shoots come out that it affords good pasture for -cattle, of which there is a small herd on the hills, belonging to -American missionaries and others. The grassy slopes are dotted with -tree-Rhododendrons, Gaultherias, Osbeckias, Lobelias, the _Hypericum -Hookerianum_, and brake ferns. This upper plateau is admirably adapted -for the growth of English fruits and vegetables. In Mr. Levinge's -garden there were bushes of Fuchsias, Daturas, roses, and geraniums; -and behind the house grew peach, apple, plum, and loquot-trees, -strawberries, potatoes, green peas, and artichokes. - -Where there are springs or watercourses on the higher range, there are -generally fine wooded "_sholas_" facing inwards, and very extensive -tracts of forest on the outer slopes; but the timber, especially teak -and black-wood, has been very extensively cut by the people of the -hills. I examined a _shola_ called Minmurdi-karnal near Pattoor, on the -south side, another between that and Kodakarnal, and two others, and -observed trees of the following genera:-- _Michelia_, _Cinnamomum_, -_Dodonæa_, _Millingtonia_, _Myrsine_, _Monocera_, _Symplocos_, -_Bignonia_, _Crotalaria_, _Passiflora_, _Osbeckia_, _Jasminum_, -_Hedyotis_, _Lasianthus_, _Canthium_, and _Hymenodictyon_. Tree-ferns -abound near the streams, and in some of the jungles there were trees -of enormous size. Early one morning I went with Chenatumby to see the -"pillar-rocks," three miles to the westward of Kodakarnal. They consist -of grand perpendicular cliffs descending from the grassy heights, with -their bases clothed with forest. Two of them are separated by fissures -from the main cliff, and have the appearance of gigantic columns. It -was altogether a most magnificent sight, with volumes of fleecy clouds -rolling up from the low country, and occasional peeps of the far-away -plains and glittering tanks through their folds. - -The natives have long been in the habit of recklessly felling the -most valuable timber, and acres of fine _shola_ used to be annually -destroyed to make clearings for plantain and cardamom groves. For -the latter, however, only the small trees and underwood are burnt on -the Pulneys, the larger trees being left standing. But this wasteful -destruction of timber has recently been checked by the authorities, -and in 1860 Mr. Spershneider was appointed as overseer of the Pulney -forests, with a small staff, to prevent the reckless cutting of timber, -and to mark, from year to year, the trees which arrive at sufficient -maturity, and are fit to be felled. - -I came to the conclusion that in several of the wooded _sholas_ -the chinchona-plant might be cultivated with advantage, the _C. -Condaminea_, and other species which thrive at great elevations, on the -upper plateau, and the _C. succirubra_ in Kunnundaven. Mr. Levinge, -the Collector of Madura, takes an interest in the experiment, and Mr. -Spershneider would be willing to superintend the chinchona plantations; -so that, when the undertaking is in a sufficiently advanced stage on -the Neilgherry hills to enable Mr. McIvor to distribute plants for -cultivation in other parts of India, a number might advantageously be -sent to the Pulneys. I understand, too, that it is in contemplation -to form a Company for the cultivation of coffee on these hills, -in which case it is to be hoped that the extension of the growth -of chinchona-plants will be advanced by private enterprise, from -motives of humanity as well as with a view to successful commercial -speculation.[436] - -I did not visit the Anamallay hills, to the south of Coimbatore and -westward of the Pulneys, as no planter was as yet established on -them, and a considerable time must elapse before they are prepared -for the introduction of the chinchona-plant. At the time of my visit -no bold clearer of jungles had ventured to invade the domains of the -conservators of forests on the Anamallays. - -Dr. Cleghorn reports that these hills are under the influence of the -south-west monsoon, though not so much so as the Koondahs at Sispara: -but I do not find that he gives any detailed account of the amount of -moisture in the atmosphere during the winter. The soil is described -as deep and covered with rich pasture, streams of water are numerous, -there are table-lands 6000 to 7000 feet above the sea, and very -fine timber in the ravines. The three hill-tribes, called Kaders, -Poliars, and Malsars, trade in cardamoms, turmeric, ginger, honey, -wax, resins, soapnuts, and millet. Dr. Cleghorn considers that, from -the extent of forest, the resemblance of the flora to that of Ceylon, -and the altitude, the Anamallays are suitable for the cultivation of -coffee on a large scale, and for colonization of small communities of -Englishmen.[437] In this case they are also adapted for the growth -of chinchona-plants, and their introduction, which will of course -be simultaneous with the settlement of Europeans, will be the more -beneficial because the lower slopes of the Anamallays are the haunts -of fevers. The quinine-yielding trees will confer blessings on those -whose duties or interests oblige them to frequent the forests of the -Anamallays, while their cultivation will be a remunerative speculation -to the settlers on the upper plateau. - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -MADURA AND TRICHINOPOLY. - - Arrive at Madura--Peopling of India--The Dravidian race--Brahmin - colonists in Southern India--Foundation of Madura--Pandyan - dynasty--Tamil literature--Aghastya--Naik dynasty--The Madura - Pagoda--The Sangattar--The Choultry--Tirumalla Naik's palace--Caste - prejudices--Trichinopoly--Coleroon anicut--Rice cultivation--The - palmyra palm--Caroor--Return to the Neilgherries--Shervaroy - hills--Courtallum. - - -THE road from the foot of the Pulney hills to Madura, a distance of -upwards of forty miles, is very bad, but it passes through avenues of -shady banyan and peepul trees most of the way, and is, therefore, not -so wearisome for the natives on foot, as for a European jolting at the -rate of three miles an hour in a bullock-cart without springs. - -Near Madura there are tracts of rice cultivation, plantain groves, and -topes of palm-trees; and at sunrise I came in sight of the _gopurams_ -or towers of the great pagoda, rising above thick groves of palmyra -palms, with a foreground of bright green paddy-fields. The city is -very interesting from its remarkable palaces and temples, as the -capital of a once powerful kingdom, and as the ancient centre of Tamil -civilization: and a few words respecting the former history of this -part of India appear necessary before describing the pagoda, and other -architectural remains of the former greatness of Madura. - -Tradition relates that in the most ancient times the country from the -mouths of the Godavery to Cape Comorin was one vast forest. Here the -great Aryan hero Rama is said to have resided during his exile, with -his wife Sita, and here he commenced his wars against the Rakshasas -or fiends, who divided with hermits and sages the possession of the -wilderness. The simple truth probably is that these "fiends" were the -original inhabitants of Southern India, which was called Dravida Desa, -and that Rama was the first Hindu invader. Dravida denotes the country -of the Dravidas, who are described in Sanscrit writings as men of an -outcast tribe, descended from degraded Kshatriyas. - -The history of the early peopling of India, by its various races, -is involved in much obscurity; and the little light which has been -thrown upon it is chiefly derived from a comparison of languages. The -prevailing opinion is that India was originally inhabited by a people -whose remains are to be found in the Koles, Sontals, Bheels, and other -wild hill tribes; that the Dravidians, a Scythic people, came from the -north, settled in Hindustan, and drove the aborigines into the hills -and fastnesses; that in their turn the Dravidians were driven across -the Vindhya mountains by another Scythic race, and became the ancestors -of the present population of Southern India; and that finally the Aryan -race, with its Vedic civilization, brought this pre-Aryan Scythic race -under subjection, and formed it into the servile Sudra caste. - -Thus the Dravidian people of Southern India were of Scythic origin, -and they spoke a language from which the four modern ones of the -Madras Presidency, Tamil, Telugu, Canarese, and Malayalam,[438] are -derived. These are all grouped as Dravidian languages, and their source -is no longer a matter of doubt. It was formerly supposed that they -were Aryan, from the great number of apparently Indo-Germanic roots; -but it is now known, from the structure of their grammar, that they -belong to the great Turanian or Scythic group of tongues. Mr. Caldwell -considers that the Scythian family to which they are most closely -allied is the Finnish or Ugrian;[439] and in this view Professor Max -Müller concurs with him.[440] The ancient Dravidian religion, before -the people were converted to the belief taught in the Puranas, also -favours Mr. Caldwell's view. If we may judge from the creed which still -lingers in Tinnevelly and other districts, it consisted in the worship -of evil spirits by means of bloody sacrifices and frantic dances, -while a Supreme Being was acknowledged but not venerated, and there -was no trace of worship of the elements. In these respects it closely -resembled the Shamanism of the Scythic races of High Asia. - -It is tolerably certain that the Dravidian races had attained to some -degree of civilization before the Aryans appeared in their country, -and, with a system of castes, introduced the worship of Vishnu and -Siva. One evidence of the ancient civilization of the Dravidians is -that they possessed a system of numerals up to 1000, essentially the -same in all the four languages; though in counting above 1000 they make -use of Sanscrit numerals. From the existence of these native numerals -among the Dravidian nations, Mr. Crawford draws the inference that -these people must have attained a considerable measure of civilization -before they adopted the Hinduism of the north, and hence stood in no -need of foreign numerals.[441] - -From the time of Rama, who appears to have been assisted in his -invasion of Lanka (Ceylon) by a Dravidian chief, now deified as the -monkey God Hanuman, the influence of Hinduism rapidly increased, and -caste prejudices spread over Southern India. But the annals are far too -obscure, and too deeply buried under extravagant fable, to enable us to -form any idea of the time and manner of the complete inoculation of the -Dravidian races with Brahminical legends, caste observances, and Hindu -religious ideas. It is clear, however, that "to the early Brahminical -colonists the Dravidians are indebted for the higher arts of life, and -the first elements of literary culture."[442] - -The Brahmins came to Southern India not as conquerors, but as peaceful -settlers and instructors; and their influence was obtained through -their superior civilization and learning. They gave the name of Sudra -to all the upper and middle classes of native Dravidians, while the -servile classes were not, as in Hindustan, called Sudras, but Pariars. -Thus, while in the north a Sudra is a low-caste man, in the south he -ranks next to a Brahmin. - -It is said that, after the avatur of Rama, pilgrims came in great -numbers to visit the scenes of his triumphs, and, settling in the -country, cleared land for cultivation, and laid the foundations of -future principalities. One of these settlers was a man named Pandya, -of the Vellaler or agricultural caste, who established himself in -the south; and his descendant Kula Sekhara, son of Sampanna Pandya, -was the first king of Madura. Some centuries elapsed, probably five, -before the foundation of the city of Madura, during which the settlers -were occupied in clearing the ground, and forming themselves into an -organized state; and it has been conjectured that the building of the -capital was commenced between 500 and 600 B.C. Previously the kings of -the Pandyan dynasty resided at a place called Kurkhi.[443] - -Another tradition states that a merchant lost his way in the forests, -and discovered an ancient temple dedicated to Siva and his wife Durga, -which had been erected by the God Indra. The merchant was directed by -the God to announce to the Pandyan king, named Kula Sekhara, that it -was the will of Siva that a city should be erected on the spot. Kula -Sekhara, therefore, cleared the forest, rebuilt the temple, and founded -a city. On the completion of the work a shower of nectareal dew fell -from heaven, spreading a sweet film on the ground, and hence the name -of _Madura_ (sweet).[444] - -The wife of Siva became incarnate as the daughter and successor of this -prince, under the name of Minakshi; and Siva himself as Sundara, or the -handsome, was her mortal husband. Thus the Pandyan kings, like many -of the dynasties of ancient Greece, placed their gods at the head of -their genealogical tree. The immigration of a colony of Aryan Brahmins -from Magadha into the Madura country, and the commencement of Tamil -civilization and literature, have been placed, by Mr. Caldwell and -others, in about the seventh century B.C. - -At the Christian æra the kings of Madura were very powerful, and had -extended their dominions over the whole of the peninsula. They sent two -embassies to Rome--the first in the eighteenth year after the death of -Julius Cæsar, which found the Emperor Augustus at Tarragona; and the -second six years later, when he was at Samos.[445] Subsequently the -kingdom was reduced in size by the independence of Malabar, the rise -of Chira in the west, of the state of Chola in the east, and of Ramnad -in the south.[446] A long list of kings is mentioned in the native -annals, with numerous wars, first against the Buddhists, and afterwards -with the Rajahs of Chola and Ramnad. - -The most flourishing period of Madura history appears to have been -during the reigns of Vamsa Sekhara and his son Vamsa Churamani, in -about 200 A.D. They erected grand temples and palaces, and the more -ancient and massive parts of edifices still in existence probably -date from their reigns. A college, called _Sangattar_, was founded -at Madura, at this time, for the cultivation of the Tamil language -and literature.[447] The first stimulus was given to this movement -by the famous _Rishi_ or sage, Aghastya, the leader of a colony of -Brahmins, whose migration to the south is mentioned in the Ramayana. -He was a chief agent in diffusing the worship of Siva in the Deccan; -and it is supposed that there was a second man of learning of the -same name in the eighth or ninth century. Aghastya is said to have -been the offspring of two gods, Mithra and Varuna, and he received -the Brahminical string from seven holy prophets. He became a most -wonderful and enlightened personage, and composed works on medicine, -moral and natural philosophy, and botany, in high Tamil verse, called -_Yellacanum_, greatly improving and refining his adopted language. -Aghastya's memory is deeply venerated by the Tamil people, and his -healing spirit is still believed to hover amongst the mountains -of Courtallum, in Tinnevelly;[448] where he is worshipped as -_Agast-isvara_, or the star Canopus. - -From the ninth to the tenth centuries the Jain religion predominated -in Madura. The Jains were animated by a national and anti-Brahminical -feeling, and it is chiefly to them that Tamil is indebted for its high -culture and independence of Sanscrit. They were expelled in the reign -of Sundara Pandya, at about the time when Marco Polo visited India. -The Mohammedans first made an inroad into the Deccan in the reign of -Alla-ud-deen of Delhi in 1293, they crossed the Kistna in 1310, and -advanced as far as Rameswara in 1374. - -After reigning for many centuries the Pandyan dynasty became tributary -to the powerful Brahminical kingdom of Bijayanuggur in Mysore, -in about 1380 A.D. A list of more than seventy kings is given in -the annals.[449] But in the fifteenth century an officer of the -Bijayanuggur Rajah, named Nagama Naik, was installed as feudatory -King of Madura, and founded the Naik dynasty. He procured the cession -of Trichinopoly from the Chola Rajah, and his son Viswanath Naik -distributed the district of Tinnevelly amongst his adherents of -the Totia caste, the ancestors of the Poligars of Tinnevelly. His -descendant Tirumalla Naik, who succeeded in 1623 A.D., had a long -and flourishing reign, and public edifices still furnish splendid -proofs of his wealth and magnificence. He died in 1657 A.D.; and the -Naik dynasty, which came to an end in 1730 A.D.,[450] was followed by -obscure feudatories of the Nawabs of the Carnatic, who eventually made -way for British rule. - -I went early one morning, with Mr. Levinge the Collector, to visit the -great pagoda of Madura, some of the oldest parts of which date from -the reigns of Pandyan kings in the eighth century. It covers twenty -acres of ground, and is surrounded by a high stone wall painted in red -and white stripes, the Hindoo holy colours. The walls form a perfect -square, and in the centre of each side there is a lofty _gopuram_ or -tower. These towers are broad, solid, and very lofty masses of brick, -in the form of a truncated pyramid. From the base to the summit they -are one mass of sculptured figures, representing all the gods in Hindu -mythology, rising tier above tier to the summit, and decreasing in size -with the height. Each end of the top of the _gopuram_ is ornamented -by a fan-shaped structure of brick-work, representing the hood of a -cobra. We entered the pagoda by a gateway in the left corner of the -wall facing the great _choultry_ built by Tirumalla Naik. Here the -warden of the pagoda was waiting for us, who had arrived just before in -his palkee. He is of Sudra caste, a man advanced in years, and of much -reputed holiness; and he received us in a state of nudity, with the -exception of a yellow gauze scarf, his belly, chest, and forehead being -smeared with holy ashes. A crowd of Brahmins accompanied us. - -A long corridor leads from the entrance to the cloister, with a roof -supported by stone pillars, between which elephants were stationed, -gaudily painted and caparisoned. The cloister is the finest part of -the interior of the pagoda. The walls are covered with paintings -representing the marvellous adventures of Krishna, and the pillars -supporting the roof of the galleries are roughly carved. The central -space is occupied by "the tank of the golden lotus," with very dirty -green water, and stone steps leading down from the cloister. The view -from one corner of this tank is very striking; with green stagnant -water as a foreground, rows of fantastically-carved pillars supporting -the gallery on the opposite side, with the lofty _gopurams_ in the -rear, rising as it were from the graceful fronds of cocoanut-trees -which waved over the roof of the cloisters. Sacred monkeys were running -about in all directions over the roofs. - -The _Sangattar_ or literary college of Madura held its sittings in -this cloister; and Siva is said to have presented it with a diamond -bench which extended itself readily for such persons as were worthy to -be on a level with the sages of the _Sangattar_, and excluded all who -tried to sit on it without possessing the necessary qualifications. -In other words, the learned corporation of Madura maintained a strict -and exclusive monopoly. One day a man of the Pariar or lowest caste, -named Tiruvallavar, appeared as a candidate for a seat on the bench of -_Sangattar_ professors. The sages were indignant at his presumption, -but, as he was patronized by the Rajah, they were obliged to give his -book a trial. It was to find a place on the bench, which the professors -took care to occupy fully. But the miraculous bench extended itself -to receive the book, which expanded and thrust all the sages off into -"the tank of the golden lotus," and the _Sangattar_ was abolished. This -took place in about the ninth century, and the work of Tiruvallavar, -called _kural_, and consisting of 1330 aphorisms, still exists, and -is the oldest extant work in Tamil literature. Though rejected by the -_Sangattar_, on account of the low caste of its author, it was received -by the Rajah and people; and the college was abolished, or perhaps -dissolved itself from mortification at this defeat. - -In a corner of the cloister is the entrance to one of the _gopurams_, -and we went up to the top. Holding on by the cobra's hood which crowns -the tower, there was an extensive view of the town of Madura and -surrounding country, with its bright green rice cultivation, groves of -palmyra-palms, broad expanses of water, isolated masses of rock, and -the Pulney hills in the far distance. - -We passed from the cloister, and walked round the corridors which -surround the holy of holies containing the _Sokalinga_, the sacred -emblem of the God Siva, which no one but a Brahmin can enter; and the -temple of Minakshi, his fish-eyed wife. The pillars in these corridors -are curiously carved in the form of dancing-girls, elephant-headed -Gods, Sivas, and bulls. Here I was decorated with garlands of flowers -by the warden of the temple, and I saw that there was a flower-garden -in a small enclosure near the cloister, to supply offerings of flowers -for the ceremonial worship in the temple. In the Hindu religion -bright-coloured or fragrant flowers take a prominent place as offerings -to the gods. The arrows of Kama, the God of Love, were tipped with -five flowers:[451] the _asoka_ (_Jonesia pinnata_), a beautiful -flower diversified with orange, scarlet, and bright-yellow tints, is -consecrated to Siva; the lotus-flower, called _kamata_ or _padma_, -to Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi; a sweet-scented jasmine (_Jasminum -undulatum_) to Vishnu, and Mariama the Goddess of Pariars; the superb -crimson _Ixora Bandhuca_ is offered at the shrines of Vishnu and Siva; -and the _Nauclea Cadumba_, a stately tree, yields the holiest flower in -India.[452] In an angle of one of the corridors all the jewels of the -temple were spread out on a table for our inspection, and we sat down -before them, by the side of the old warden. It was a truly magnificent -display of wealth; and it was impossible not to feel that there must -be deep faith and conviction in a religion which induces men to go -about naked and in ashes, and to devote tens of thousands of rupees -to ornament the mystic emblems of their Gods. I particularly noticed -some sapphires of extraordinary size and brilliancy; the cover of the -_lingam_, a cylinder of pure gold, four feet high, encrusted with -pearls and rubies; the golden sceptre of Siva, three feet long, and one -mass of rubies; the golden shoes and gauntlets of Siva and Minakshi, -inlaid with rubies, emeralds, and pearls; the head-dress of Minakshi of -gold Trichinopoly-work, adorned with pearls and rubies, with enormous -emeralds hanging from it; her playthings, consisting of golden birds -overlaid with rubies and emeralds; and necklaces and bracelets covered -with jewels of priceless value. There was also a costly gold chain -presented by Mr. Peters, a former Collector, and another which had -lately arrived from Agra, in an anonymous letter addressed to the -pagoda. - -From this corridor I was able to peep down a dark passage at the end of -which there were some dim lights surrounding the sacred _Soka-linga_, -but I could not distinguish anything. The warden told us that it was -a piece of solid rock cropping out of the ground, and cut into the -shape of a cylinder, with a rounded top, as the mysterious emblem of -Siva, the God of reproduction. Its roots are said to be in the centre -of the earth, and to have been there since the creation. The Pandyan -kings, when they were dying, were taken into the innermost sanctuary -of Siva's temple, to expire and be united with their God. Parallel with -this holy of holies dedicated to the worship of Siva, in the form of -his mystic emblem, is the temple of his wife Parvati, here better known -as Minakshi, or the fish-eyed. - -We then went into the hall of the thousand pillars, which are carved -into the shape of gods or dancing-girls, and support a flat stone -roof. Here some nautch-girls came dancing before us in silk trousers, -long tunics, golden headdresses, and rings on their ears, noses, and -toes; as we walked down the long vistas of pillars. Their motions are -stiff and without grace, like the contortions of galvanized corpses, -and they are generally very ugly, with black teeth. I was glad when -they relieved us of their disgusting presence, as we were shown into -a chamber near the outer door, where the horses and bulls used in the -great processions are kept. These are made of solid silver, ornamented -with precious stones, and on festivals the God and Goddess are mounted -on them, and carried round the town. - -This great pagoda is very richly endowed, and is one of the most famous -in Southern India. It was originally, and for several centuries, -the centre of Tamil civilization, and it is a very characteristic -specimen of Hindu architecture. All originality and intellectual -vigour has disappeared from amongst the Tamil people, under the -blighting influence of foreign domination, but their devotional feeling -appears to have survived; together with respect and veneration for -the doctrines and aphorisms of their classic sages, among the more -educated. Aghastya stands at the head of the Tamil authors, and the -following confession of faith, in the _Njana-nuru_ is attributed to -him:-- - - "Worship thou the light of the Universe, who is One: - Who made the world in a moment, and placed good men in it; - Who afterwards himself dawned upon the earth as a Guru; - Who, without wife or family, as a hermit performed austerities; - Who, appointing loving sages to succeed him, - Departed again into Heaven:--worship Him."[453] - -We left the pagoda by a corridor leading through one of the _gopurams_ -into the street, immediately in front of the great choultry erected -by Tirumalla Naik. It consists of an immense hall of granite, 300 -feet long by 80, supported by upwards of a hundred pillars of the -same stone, elaborately carved, and about thirty feet high. One of -them is formed of a single block of granite. Figures of the Madura -kings of the Naik dynasty are carved on these pillars, amongst whom is -Tirumalla Naik, the founder of the edifice. One curious group of carved -figures represents a tradition of the old Pandyan times. It is related -that a rich farmer, living near Madura, had twelve sons, who passed -their time in the chace. A wild hog once attacked them, killed some, -and chased the rest to the vicinity of a sage engaged in meditation. -The angry ascetic cursed them, declaring that, in their future life, -they should be hogs themselves. They were born again as porkers, but -Minakshi took pity on them, officiated as their nurse, and they became -men with pig's heads, in which capacity they are sculptured on one of -the pillars of the choultry. The pig-headed brethren were taught the -arts and sciences, and were eventually advanced to the ministerial -administration of the affairs of the Pandyan kingdom. The choultry -was originally built as a magnificent approach to the temple, and to -receive the image of the God Siva for ten days every year. It was -crowded with people, and the spaces between the pillars were occupied -by traders selling silks and cotton-cloths, turbans, bags for betel, -and trinkets. - -Next to the great pagoda and the choultry, the most interesting -architectural remains of the former grandeur of Madura are the ruins -of the palace of Tirumalla Naik. They consist of a large quadrangular -court, now roofless,[454] but apparently once covered over, with side -aisles supported by massive stone pillars, rendered almost double their -original size by a thick coating of _chunam_, or lime made with pounded -sea-shells, which takes a very fine polish, like marble. These columns -are exceedingly handsome, and their capitals bear evidence of Italian -design.[455] They are in double rows, and the roof of the aisles is -most elaborately carved with mythological figures, originally painted -in bright colours. Numerous green paroquets were screaming and flying -about near the roof. At the end of this splendid court, opposite the -street entrance, there is a broad flight of steps leading up to an -inner hall, where columns of the same massive character support a -richly carved roof. The whole building has an exceedingly imposing -effect, and in the sombre melancholy of its decay it gives a grand idea -of the former civilization of the Tamil people; but as the English -Judge now holds his court in a portion of the ruins, we must not say, -with the Persian poet,-- - - "The spider now weaves its web in the palace of Cæsar, - The owl stands sentinel on the watch-tower of Afrasiab." - -Tirumalla Naik also constructed a great tank, about a mile outside the -town, said to be the finest in Southern India. It is an exact square, -with sides 300 yards long faced with granite, and flights of steps down -to the water, at intervals. In the centre there is a square island, -rising in broad flights of steps from the water, and covered with a -grove of trees, above which rises the tall tower of a pagoda. - -The town of Madura, situated on the banks of the river Vaigay, contains -about 50,000 inhabitants. It is by far the cleanest and best built city -that I saw in India, with fine broad streets, and houses with tiled -roofs extending far beyond the walls, so as to form verandahs supported -by poles. Here and there a house with an upper story, belonging to some -wealthy citizen, rose above the rest; and in the bazars there was a -strong sickly smell of spices. Madura is indebted, for its superiority -over other Indian towns, to Mr. Blackburn, a former Collector, and the -inhabitants have erected a lamp on a tall pedestal to his memory. - -On the day of my visit to the pagoda, the streets were densely crowded, -the women were decked out in all their finery, and those of the -Brahmin caste had their faces hideously stained with saffron. It was -a festival in honour of some cow or other, who had been turned into a -rock, through the excess of her love for _Nandi_, the bull on which -the God Siva rides. The religious feelings of the people are displayed -in these festivals, and whether they worship and venerate the stone -or wooden image, or the attributes of God-like virtue and wisdom -which the emblems connected with the image are intended to represent, -my observations led me to believe that, in all classes, there was a -display of most undoubted sincerity. In connection with their religious -observances, the people of Southern India feel very strongly on the -subject of caste distinctions. The Brahmins are fair skinned, of Aryan -descent, and comparatively strangers, having been barely a thousand -years in the country.[456] Next come the _Sudras_, who represent the -upper classes of the Tamil race. The _Vellaler_ or agricultural caste -comes next, and then the _Maravar_ and _Kallar_, or robber castes. The -Prince of Ramnad, who is hereditary guardian of Rama's bridge, belongs -to the Maravars, and the Rajah of Tondiman to the Kallars. Below the -robber castes are the _Shanars_ or toddy-drawers, who are free and -proprietors of land; then the _Pariars_[457] and chucklers or slaves; -then the _Korawars_ or vagrant basket-makers, and last of all the -shoemakers and low-caste washermen. - -The higher castes had recently been outraged by the Shanars having -been allowed to go in procession along the road, on the occasion of -a marriage at Arpucaté, a populous mercantile town in the Madura -district. This was done in defiance of all ancient customs and usages -connected with caste, which are clearly defined and acknowledged by -all classes of Hindus. The high-caste people defend their feeling of -exclusiveness by urging that the Shanars and Pariars are guilty of -one or other of the five great sins, namely, killing the sacred cow, -theft, drunkenness, adultery, and lying: for that the Shanars draw -toddy, and the Pariars eat meat. They claim for immemorial custom the -same authority that is given in England to common law, and declare -that the Shanars never had the right of parading the streets in -procession, with music and flags. In considering this question it -should not be forgotten that the Shanars and other low castes will no -more allow a man of still lower caste to overstep his privileges by one -hair's breadth than will a Sudra or a Brahmin. Even the Pariars are a -well-defined, distinct, and ancient caste, jealous of the encroachments -of the castes both above and below them: they have strong caste -feelings, and treat the caste of shoemakers with contempt.[458] Thus, -if the Shanars and Pariars insist upon their own caste privileges, it -is difficult to see why they should be permitted to infringe upon those -of the castes above them; and it would seem that a feeling of content -and satisfaction with our rule would be best promoted by ensuring to -all classes of the community the exclusive enjoyment of their own -peculiar usages and privileges. - -Caste is one among many instances of the peculiar exaggerations -in which the Hindu mind loves to indulge. The social distinctions -which prevail in other countries are represented in India by this -institution, in which those distinctions are, not altogether -illogically, carried to an extreme point. Caste may be modified -and rendered less harsh in its general outline; but it will never -cease to exist. The Protestant missionaries, of course, declare war -to the knife against it, as a system of falsehood and deceit, and -an absurdity contrary both to reason and revelation. This may be -true, as well as that Brahmins get drunk, and eat asafœtida-cakes in -which buffalo flesh forms an ingredient, without losing their caste; -but missionary denunciations of caste absurdity, and exposures of -Brahminical irregularities, are not likely to make the slightest -impression on the minds of a people with whom caste distinctions are -hallowed by immemorial usage, and bound up in every act of their lives. -The favourite missionary receipt is, therefore, to deprive Brahmins -of their _Enam_ or rent-free lands, to induce Government entirely to -disavow caste, to put an end to all caste distinctions in jails, and -to raise the Pariars and Chucklers from their degradation.[459] A very -summary plan no doubt, but as impracticable as it would be impolitic -and unjust. - -After a most delightful visit at Madura, I started for Trichinopoly -late one night, and found the road so execrable in some places, that it -was necessary to go off into the fields, and make a long circuit. The -country between Madura and Trichinopoly is chiefly cultivated with dry -grain, but there are occasional patches of rice. Ranges of rocky hills -intersect the plain, covered with underwood and low trees, which the -natives are allowed to use for firewood, but, when they carry it off -for sale, in cart-loads, there is a small duty. I walked most of the -distance under the shade of the peepul and banyan-trees which line the -road, and reached Trichinopoly after a journey of a day and two nights. - -Trichinopoly is a large military station, and the European houses, -therefore, are very numerous, and occupy a considerable space, as they -are generally surrounded by large parks or compounds. A bridge over a -small tributary of the Cauvery leads to the bazar and native town; and -the view from the bridge is very pretty, with cocoanut-trees and bushes -coming down to the water's edge, and houses embosomed in trees, whence -flights of steps lead down into the water. Beyond the bridge there is a -picturesque mosque of white stone, and the bazar, a long street leading -to the principal part of the town, in the centre of which the famous -rock of Trichinopoly rises up abruptly. Brahmins and other traders -were sitting in their shops, before piles of earthenware and copper -chatties, cotton cloths, and numerous kinds of grains and pulses in -baskets. The rock is a mass of granite, 400 feet high, crowned by a -small Hindu temple; the ascent is cut in steps out of the solid rock, -and from the summit there is a most extensive view, including the city, -the fine bridges over the Coleroon and Cauvery, the _gopurams_ of the -great pagoda of Seringam on an island in the river, and a vast expanse -of rice cultivation and palm-groves, with Tanjore on the distant -horizon. The native town contains several large handsome houses -belonging to Mohammedans, and the ruins of the palace of the Nawabs of -the Carnatic. - -Through the kindness of Mr. McDonnell, the Collector, I was enabled to -pass a very interesting day at the Upper Coleroon _anicut_. Passing -the base of the rock of Trichinopoly, and following the main street -of the native town, the banks of the river Cauvery are reached, where -there are rows of stone temples and houses with open corridors, whence -flights of steps lead down into the water. Near the river there is a -tank filled with red and white lotus-flowers. A handsome stone bridge -spans the Cauvery, and another of equal length crosses the Coleroon, -about a mile further on. The two rivers form an island, and unite a few -miles lower down; and the upper _anicut_ is about fourteen miles up the -river, where Mr. McDonnell had a comfortable bungalow on the banks, -shaded by lofty trees. - -The Upper Coleroon _anicut_ or weir is constructed at the west end -of the island of Seringam, which is formed by the separation of the -Cauvery into two branches, namely the Coleroon on the north, and the -Cauvery on the south. Formerly the bed of the Coleroon was continually -deepening, while that of the Cauvery was rising, so that there was much -difficulty in obtaining a sufficient supply of water for the irrigation -of the rice-fields of Tanjore. The upper _anicut_, commenced by Colonel -Cotton in 1836, and finished in 1850, completely answered the purpose -of deepening the bed of the Cauvery, so much so that another weir was -made across that river, sixty miles lower down; and by means of the -second weir, made in 1845, and the under sluices in the upper one, the -water is now effectually kept under command.[460] The upper _anicut_, -which I visited, is broken into three parts by two small islands. The -south part is 282 yards long, the centre 350, and the north 122, the -whole length, including the islands, being 874, and without them 754 -yards. The weir is a plain brick wall, plastered with _chunam_, six -feet thick, and seven feet high, the top being lined with masonry. It -is defended from the overfall by masses of rough stone; and there are -twenty-four sluices, which prevent accumulations of sand from forming -above the _anicut_. The sluices are connected by a narrow bridge of -sixty-two arches, to secure access to them during floods, and it -also serves as a means of communication between the banks for foot -passengers. The cost of the work, and of repairs between 1836 and 1850, -was two lacs of rupees, and it assists the irrigation of 600,000 acres, -yielding a revenue of 400,000_l._, or equal to two-thirds of that of -the whole island of Ceylon. - -By means of these _anicuts_ the fertile province of Tanjore is -converted into one vast rice-field,[461] and the portion of -Trichinopoly below the upper weir is equally rich. The country to the -north of the road between the _anicut_ and the town of Trichinopoly -was a wide expanse of bright green rice cultivation, stretching to the -horizon. In Southern India there are two annual crops of rice, called -the _caar_ and the _soombah_ or _peshanum_ crops. The former is reaped -in October and is reckoned inferior, and the latter in February and -March. Two crops in the year from the same land do not yield much more -than a single crop, but, owing to the liability of the seasons to fail, -the cultivators rear as much as possible for the first crop. This is -reaped in the rainy season, when the straw cannot be preserved, so that -the second crop must necessarily be sown, for fodder for cattle. Rice -requires rain to ensure the full development of the grain, as well -as irrigation. The seed is sown thick, and then transplanted to the -fields about forty days afterwards; and the fields must be constantly -supplied with water. The stalks when cut are stacked for a few days, -and the grain is then thrashed out by manual labour or cattle, the husk -being separated from the grain with a rice-stamper, generally beaten by -women. In the interval of sowing, the natives often sow the land with -pulse or sesame, the stubble of which is used as manure for the next -rice-crop. - -At intervals scattered over the plain, there are groves of cocoanut -and palmyra-palms, like islands in the vast sea of rice-fields, with -small villages built under their shade. As the betel-nut palm is the -most graceful in India, so the palmyra (_Borassus flabelliformis_) is -undoubtedly the ugliest, with its black stem the same size all the way -up, and coarse fan-shaped leaves. It is chiefly from this tree that the -Shanars draw the toddy. The spadix or young flowering branch is cut off -near the top, and an earthenware _chatty_ is tied on the stump, into -which the juice flows. Every morning it is emptied and replaced, the -stump being cut afresh, and so on until the whole is exhausted. Sugar -is also extracted by the same process, the inside of the _chatty_ being -powdered with lime to prevent fermentation, and the juice being boiled -down and dried. The sugar thus obtained is called _jaggery_. The timber -of the palmyra-palm is extensively used for building. - -As we drove towards Trichinopoly, with these rice-fields studded with -palm-groves on our right, the tall towers of Seringam[462] appeared -rising above the trees which border the waters of the Cauvery; and near -the town there are large plantain-groves. In leaving Trichinopoly on -the road to the Neilgherries it is necessary to cross a small affluent -of the Cauvery in ferry-boats. Those for foot-passengers are of wicker -covered with hides, and perfectly round, like those which are described -by Herodotus, and are still used on the Tigris and Euphrates. After -jolting all night through endless groves of banyan and peepul trees, -I reached Caroor,[463] the ancient capital of the Chira Rajahs, the -following morning. The Chira state, in the days of its prosperity, -extended over Coimbatore, and part of Mysore and Malabar. Caroor is -a town of some size, in the middle of a plain, through which flows -the river Amaravati, a tributary of the Cauvery. Mr. Roberts, the -Sub-Collector, was living in a curious upper story, on the top of a -pagoda, the entrance to which leads under a tall brick _gopuram_, 86 -feet high, 64 feet long at the base, and 52 feet broad, sculptured with -images exactly on the pattern of those at Madura. The country between -Caroor and the foot of the Neilgherries is flat and uninteresting, -chiefly cultivated with _cholum_, _cumboo_, cotton, and a few pulses, -with rice in some places. The road is execrable, and generally lined -with banyan-trees, which, though affording pleasant shade, are ungainly -and ugly, owing to the numerous bunches of dusty-looking roots, which -hang in all directions from the branches. On arriving at Matepoliem -I found a pony waiting, and, riding up the Coonoor ghaut, returned -to Ootacamund. Half-way up the ghaut, at a place called Burlear, Mr. -Thomas, the Collector of Coimbatore, has a small but interesting -garden, containing all kinds of spices, cacao, coffee and tea plants, -besides oranges, lemons, and citrons. - -During my tour through the principal Tamil districts I was chiefly -struck with the evidences, furnished by the pagodas of Madura and -Seringam, and the works of Tirumalla Naik, of the great surplus revenue -which was once derived from the land. By the execution of additional -public works, the improvement of means of communication, and judicious -reductions of the land-tax, which will induce the ryots to bring more -waste land under cultivation, much has been effected, but much still -remains to be done, before the country attains the same degree of -prosperity which it appears to have enjoyed in the best days of the -Pandyan and Naik dynasties. Tanjore has probably already reached the -highest state of profitable rice cultivation, through the irrigation -supplied by the Coleroon _anicuts_. But much may yet be done with -regard to the encouragement of the growth of cotton in Coimbatore, -Madura, and Tinnevelly; and hereafter the coffee and chinchona -plantations of the Neilgherry hills, the Pulneys, and the Anamallays -will supply another important source of wealth and prosperity. - -To the north of the Cauvery, in the district of Salem, there is a -range of isolated hills, called the Shervaroys, which rise, a few -miles north-east of the town of Salem, into a mass of densely wooded -flat-topped hills. The mean height of the table-land of the Shervaroys, -on their summits, is 4600 feet, and the highest peak rises to 5260 -feet. In the Salem district the south-west monsoon sets in early in -June, and showers continue till September; and in the end of October -the north-east monsoon brings a return of rain from the opposite -quarter, which continues until December, when the rains cease, owing -to the change of wind from north-east to due north. There are several -coffee estates on the Shervaroy hills, but they are considered to -be too dry, and, although the coffee produced is said to be of -excellent quality, yet the yield is small, and I was told that the -Shervaroy plantations were generally losing concerns. The land-tax on -these estates is one rupee an acre. Between December and June it is -exceedingly dry, and I, therefore, did not consider it advisable to try -the experiment of chinchona cultivation on the Shervaroys during the -first or second years. If the plants are hereafter found to be capable -of enduring longer droughts than we at present expect, they may then be -tried on the Shervaroys. - -For the same reason I gave up all idea of the hills near Courtallum, -in Tinnevelly. At Courtallum, notwithstanding the perennial humidity, -the rainfall is only 40 inches, though on the surrounding hills it -is probably greater.[464] The elevation of those hills, however, is -not sufficient for the profitable cultivation of most species of -chinchona-plants. Tinnevelly is sheltered from the south-west monsoon -by the Travancore mountains, and from the north-east monsoon by the -Serumullay hills, 3500 feet high, which rise from the Madura plains -near Dindigul, and by the island of Ceylon to the east. This extreme -south part of the peninsula, between latitude 8° and 10° north, -therefore receives little moisture, and has a hot arid climate, -resembling Egypt, and producing senna and Indian cotton of the best -quality.[465] It is possible, however, that localities may hereafter -be found, where the chinchona species suited to comparatively low -elevations might flourish, such as _C. succirubra_ and _C. micrantha_, -on the mountains dividing Tinnevelly from Travancore. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -MYSORE AND COORG. - - Seegoor ghaut--Sandal-wood--Mysore--Seringapatam--Hoonsoor--The - tannery--Fraserpett--Mercara--The fort--The Rajahs of Coorg--The - Coorgs--Origin of the river Cauvery--Coorg--Climate--Coffee - cultivation--Sites for chinchona-plantations--Caryota - Urens--Virarajendrapett--Cardamom cultivation--Kumari--Poon, - blackwood, and teak--Pepper cultivation in - Malabar--Cannanore--Nuggur and Baba Bodeen hills--The Beebee of - Cannanore--Compta--Sedashighur--Arrive at Bombay. - - -THE descent from the plateau of the Neilgherries to the plains of -Mysore on the north, is by the Seegoor ghaut, the only one which is -practicable for carriages. It is much tamer, and not to be compared -with those of Sispara or Coonoor; and at the foot there is a wide belt -of thin, stunted, pestiferous jungle, twenty-five miles in breadth, -through which the river Moyaar flows to join the Bowany. There are a -great many young teak-trees, and sandal-wood is also found, in the -forests on the inner or eastern slopes of the ghauts; but all the -timber looked poor and stunted.[466] The sandal-wood tree (_Santalum -album_) is about twenty feet high, with numerous spreading branches, -and small purplish flowers. Dr. Cleghorn reports that with vigilant -supervision, and slight assistance to nature in clearing the heads of -young plants, which are often matted down by creepers, an addition -might accrue to the revenue of several districts in the Madras -Presidency by the sale of sandal-wood. The export trade in sandal-wood -and oil is even now very considerable. The road from the foot of the -Seegoor ghaut to Mysore, a distance of sixty-four miles, is excellent, -and there is a very good bridge over the river Moyaar. We passed the -night at the half-way bungalow of Goondulpett, whence there is a grand -view, with scattered date-palms in the foreground, a vast expanse of -undulating plain beyond, bounded by the belt of forest, with the blue -line of the Neilgherries in the distance. There is nothing of interest -between Goondulpett and Mysore. - -Mysore is on a table-land 2450 feet above the sea. On the western -side of the town flows the Purneah canal, which comes from a distance -of seventy miles to supply Mysore with water, and was made by the -Brahmin minister Purneah, who came into power during the present -Rajah's minority, after the death of Tippoo. In approaching the town, -the isolated rocky hill of Chamandi is seen on the right. Mysore is -fortified, and, after passing under the ramparts, we entered a square, -one side of which is occupied by the Rajah's palace. Here, and in the -adjoining streets, there was an unusual amount of life and bustle owing -to the presence of a native court; and we met crowds of nautch-girls, -men in various costumes, elephants, camels, and bullock-carts. Some of -the houses have upper stories, but the majority are dark places, with -red-tiled roofs extending far over, and forming verandahs. - -Mysore is so called from its having been the abode of the -buffalo-headed demon _Mahesh-asur_, who was slain by Parvati, the -wife of Siva, in her most hideous and repulsive form, as Cali, the -impersonation of vengeance. The country, from 1336 to 1565, formed a -part of the Brahminical kingdom of Bijayanuggur; and in 1576 one Raj -Wadeyar established his independence as ruler of Mysore, from whom the -present Rajah is descended. After the death of Tippoo Sultan, and the -capture of Seringapatam by the English in 1799, the present Rajah, then -only five years old, was placed on the throne, and the country was -ruled by his very clever minister Purneah, until he came of age. He -afterwards proved so utterly incompetent to govern, that the country -fell into a state of anarchy, and the English therefore undertook -the administration in 1832. The Mysore Commission was then formed, -with Sir Mark Cubbon at its head, and Mysore was divided into four -divisions--Bangalore, Astagram, Nuggur, and Chitteldroog. - -The table-land of Mysore covers an area of 30,886 square miles, -and contains a population of 3,300,000 souls. Sir Mark Cubbon's -administration was vigorous and progressive. In 1832 the revenue -was 440,000_l._, in 1860-61 it was 950,000_l._, and in the latter -year there was an excess of income over expenditure, amounting to -120,000_l._ The Chief Commissioner has made upwards of 1600 miles of -excellent carriage-road, bridged throughout, and has introduced many -important measures, while the officers who have worked under him have -generally been distinguished for ability and zeal. The good old general -was sixty years in India, and governed Mysore from 1832 to 1861. He was -adored by all ranks of the people, and his resignation caused universal -regret, when, early in 1861, he sailed for England. But he was not -destined to see his native land again, he died at Suez, and thus passed -away a brave soldier and an enlightened statesman, one who had done as -good and valuable service to his country as any English public servant -during the present century. - -During our stay at Mysore we drove over to Seringapatam, a distance of -twelve miles. The immediate neighbourhood of the capital is chiefly -planted with dry grains, such as raggee and pulses. The common people -live chiefly on raggee, which they store in underground pits. They -also use the seeds of gram (_Cicer arietinum_) in curries and cakes, -and the oxalic acid which exudes from every part of the plant serves -instead of vinegar for their curries. The roads round Mysore are -lined with hedges of American aloe. After the first few miles, we -began to pass through groves of cocoanut and betel-palms,[467] much -rice cultivation, and fields of sugar-cane. Close to Seringapatam -a sugar manufactory has been established by Mr. Grove, who buys up -the _jaggery_ from the ryots and refines it. We crossed the Cauvery -by a fine bridge, and saw the great canal constructed by Tippoo for -irrigating the rice-fields. There are large ruinous houses and temples, -embowered in palm-trees, with flights of steps down to the river, -outside the old town itself, which is surrounded by a wall and ditch. - -We first drove to the tomb under which Hyder Ali and Tippoo are buried. -It is in the middle of a garden called the _Lal-bagh_, with a pretty -avenue of cocoanut and betel-palms leading up to it. The tomb is a -square building, surmounted by a dome, with minarets at the angles, -richly decorated with arabesque-work in _chunam_. It is surrounded by -an open corridor, supported by pillars of black hornblende, and in -the centre of each side there is a doorway. That facing the avenue is -filled in with an open-work screen of the same stone, and the others -have double doors richly inlaid with ivory, the gift of Lord Dalhousie. -The tombs are placed under the dome, three in number, namely, of Hyder, -Tippoo, and Tippoo's mother, each covered over with a pall of crimson -silk. The building is surrounded by cloisters, a part being used as a -choultry for Moslem travellers, another as a mosque, and another as a -school for small boys who learn to read the Koran. Government grants an -allowance for keeping the place in repair, and paying Moulvies to serve -in the mosque. The effect of the snow-white tomb, richly adorned with -arabesque-work, the lance-like minarets, the cloudless sky, and the -feathery palm-trees rearing their graceful heads round the building, -was exceedingly like a scene in the Arabian Nights. The tomb of Colonel -Baillie, who was taken prisoner by Hyder Ali in 1780, is close by, but -in a very neglected state. - -We then went to the _Derya Dowlet-bagh_ close to the town, which was -the favourite summer-palace of Tippoo. It is a very richly ornamented -arabesque building, every part being covered with gilding and bright -colours, and pictures on the walls representing the repulse of Lally, -and the defeat of Colonel Baillie. From this place we went to the town -of Seringapatam itself, which is built on an island in the Cauvery, -and surrounded by a strong wall and two very deep ditches. Close to -the gate is the _jumma musjid_, or principal mosque, with two tall -minarets; and, in one corner, the spot was pointed out where Tippoo -was accustomed to pray, entering the mosque by a small side-door. The -double ditch is a very formidable defence to the town, but it does -not extend along the side facing the river, and it was here that the -assault was delivered by the English general. A feint was made in the -direction of the _Lal-bagh_, where the English suffered severely, while -the real storming party was formed on the opposite side of the Cauvery, -at a spot which is now marked by two upright posts. A bastion facing -the river had previously been breached, the four guns on it dismounted, -and scarcely any other guns could be brought to bear on the soldiers -of the assaulting column at this particular point, who dashed across -the Cauvery and up the breach. Tippoo was jammed by the flying crowd in -a small doorway, which we saw, where he was killed, and from that day -the pestiferous Seringapatam ceased to be the capital of Mysore. The -palace, now in ruins, is very like that of the Nawab of the Carnatic -at Trichinopoly, a plain rambling building with rows of large windows, -and there are extensive gardens round it, full of tamarind-trees, -cocoanuts, plantains, and vines. - -The old town of Seringapatam is exceedingly interesting, but it now -wears an appearance of silent decay and desolation. It is notoriously -unhealthy, and the inevitable penalty of a night passed in the town is -a severe attack of fever. - -From Mysore we took our way, by Hoonsoor, to the hill district of -Coorg. The road to Hoonsoor passes over twenty-eight miles of a country -very little cultivated, with extensive tracts of waste land, and a few -fields of dry grain near the villages. Hoonsoor has for many years -been a Government grazing-farm and manufactory. In 1860 the bullocks -were all sold off, but there are still thirty-eight fine elephants, -and upwards of a hundred camels. We saw the elephants having their -breakfasts in a solemn motionless row, large heaps of rice wrapped in -bundles of reed being put into their mouths by the mahouts. Besides an -establishment of blacksmiths, carpenters, brass-workers, and of women -employed in making blankets, there is an extensive Government tannery -at Hoonsoor. There are many trees in India well adapted for tanning -purposes, but the American sumach (_Cæsalpinia coriaria_) introduced -by Dr. Wallich in 1842, and called by the natives _divi-divi_, appears -to be considered the best at Hoonsoor. The _kino_-tree (_Pterocarpus -marsupium_) is another, and there are two kinds of _catechu_ used for -tanning, one from the betel-nut-palm, and the other from an acacia. -To obtain the _catechu_ from the betel-palm the nuts are boiled, -and the remaining water is inspissated, and yields the best kind, -which is used for the golden coffee-brown colour in dyeing calico, -as well as for tanning. From the acacia the _catechu_ is obtained by -boiling the unripe pods and old wood. It is not considered so good as -_kino_ or _divi-divi_ for tanning purposes, on account of its extreme -astringency. The tannery at Hoonsoor is a very extensive establishment, -where shoes, sandals, crossbelts, and scabbards are made for the army. - -This place suffers frequently and most severely from cholera; and, -during these terrible visitations a _Swami_ or God, in the shape of -a small stone image of Ganesa seated under a black-wood tree, is -specially invoked. - -Hoonsoor is 25 miles from Fraserpett, at the foot of the Coorg -mountains, and we passed through extensive groves of palm-trees with -chatties fastened round the spadices to catch the toddy. Fraserpett is -within the Coorg district, and it is in the pleasant little bungalows -which have been built here, that the English take refuge during the -heavy down-pour of the south-west monsoon. Through the kindness of -Captain Martin, a former Superintendent of Coorg, and now engaged -in the cultivation of coffee, we found horses waiting for us at -Fraserpett, and continued our journey to Mercara, the capital of the -district. - -After the first two miles the road enters a dense bamboo jungle, -extending along the base of the mountains. It was the month of January -and the forest was completely dried up and burnt by the sun and want -of rain, looking brown and sombre. A splendid white _Ipomæa_, with a -rich lilac centre, was creeping in festoons to the very top of the -feathery bamboos which bent gracefully over the road. At a place called -Soonticoopah, ten miles from Fraserpett, the ascent of the mountains -begins. The road leads up and down a succession of wooded heights, -which gradually increase in elevation, with intermediate valleys -cultivated with rice and generally fringed with plantain-groves, -through which the huts of the Coorgs are visible. At the heads of -these valleys the streams are divided into two channels, and led down -each side, the space between being sown with rice in terraced fields, -gradually descending with the slope of the valley. These bright -patches of cultivation are very pretty, with their light vivid green -contrasting with the sombre hues of the forest. Near Mercara the jungle -is a good deal cleared, and the slopes are covered with coffee-plants. -The road is excellent. - -Towards evening we came in sight of Mercara, by far the prettiest place -I have seen in India. On the opposite side of a deep narrow valley was -the fort and palace, built on an eminence overlooking a vast extent -of mountainous, forest-covered country. The palace is surrounded by -a fortified wall of dark-coloured stone, with semicircular bastions -at intervals. On the wall facing us were two square buildings, with -a row of long windows, and an overhanging roof, the residence of -Captain Eliott, the Superintendent of Coorg; and behind rose up the -long edifice forming the old palace, and the white steeple of a modern -church. A range of wooded hills, with heavy clouds hanging over them, -formed the background. To the right, at a lower elevation were the -native town, and two mosque-like buildings, snowy white, with domes, -and minarets at the angles, rising up amongst a grove of trees. These -are the tombs of the former Rajahs. The narrow gorge below the fort -is planted with coffee and plantains, which almost hide the huts that -nestle amongst them. In the bottom of the ravine is the principal -pagoda of Mercara, built like a mosque, with the tops of the minarets -richly gilded. The entrance to the fort is by a steep ascent, leading -under a deep gateway in the outer line of fortification, into a -courtyard. A second archway leads into a second small court, where -there is an elaborately carved pagoda to Ganesa. A third archway opens -upon the principal courtyard of the fort, one side of which is occupied -by the Rajah's palace, a long barrack-looking building, with an upper -story and projecting tiled roof. The officers of a native regiment are -quartered in the palace. To the left is the English church, and to the -right there is a dark dungeon under the rampart, where the late Rajah -kept his prisoners. He used to allow one at a time to run out, and try -to escape by the archway, while he picked them off with a rifle from a -window of the palace as they ran. There are two full-sized models of -favourite elephants, built of brick and _chunam_, in the courtyard. -The huts of the native regiment are clustered in a little valley close -under the south wall of the fort. - -The palace is entered by an archway, over which there is a balconied -window supported by two white horses. The inner court is surrounded by -a corridor of stone pillars, with a roof entirely of copper; and in the -centre of the court there is a tank paved with stone flags, now dry, -with five steps down to it, on two sides, and a carved stone tortoise -in the centre. - -On the other side of the small valley filled with soldiers' huts, there -is a parade-ground, and a small amphitheatre dug out of the solid rock, -where elephants and tigers fought for the diversion of the Rajah. -Beyond the parade-ground the ridge on which Mercara is built abruptly -terminates, and the land sinks down into a wooded valley. Here the -late Rajah had built a little brick and _chunam_ summer-house, whence -the land descends precipitously to the road leading down the Mangalore -ghaut. From this point there is one of the most glorious views to be -found in India, and we could sit on the grassy edge of the cliffs for -hours, without ceasing to enjoy it. Right and left there is a wide -expanse of forest-covered ranges of mountains extending into the -blue distance, and in front rises up the mountain of Tadiandamol, the -loftiest peak in Coorg. We watched the crimson sunset over the hills, -and after dark a spontaneous ignition of the dry grass wound like a -serpent along the loftier ridges of the opposite mountains, producing -an indescribably beautiful effect in the clear starry night. - -Coorg has been a portion of the British dominions since 1834, when -the last Rajah was deposed. The old Rajahs were not Coorgs, but Hindu -Lingayets, a peculiar sect whose members wear a small god round their -necks, in a little silver coffer.[468] The family had certainly reigned -in Coorg since 1633; and Dodda Virappa, who died in 1734, fixed the -seat of government at Mercara, and was the greatest prince of his -family. He repulsed a simultaneous invasion of the Mysore Rajah and the -Nairs of Malabar, and afterwards reigned in peace for eighteen years. -Hyder Ali invaded and overran the country several times, but in 1788 -the young Rajah Viraraja rallied the people round him, disputed every -inch of ground against Tippoo's invading army, and made an alliance -with the English in Malabar. On the fall of Tippoo a treaty was signed -between the East India Company and Viraraja of Coorg, who died in -1807, leaving the country to his favourite daughter Devammaji. His -brother Lingaraja, however, usurped the throne. He was a monster of -cruelty, and, dying in 1820, was succeeded by his still more brutal -son Viraraja, who massacred all his father's friends, together with -the poor young princess Devammaji. Her sister, who had married a -Coorg, escaped into British territory. It would be too revolting to -recount all the atrocities of the last Rajah of Coorg; but at length -the patience of Lord William Bentinck was exhausted, and in April -1834 General Fraser entered Mercara, and deposed him. Coorg has since -been governed by an English Superintendent, under the orders of the -Commissioners of Mysore. - -The Kodagas or Coorgs are a tall, muscular, broad-chested, -well-favoured race of mountaineers, numbering about 25,000, with a -population rapidly increasing since the deposition of the Rajah.[469] -They are of Dravidian origin, and speak a dialect of Canarese; but a -colony of Brahmins early settled in the country, and endeavoured to -mould the traditions of the Coorgs into harmony with their own legends. -These are embodied in the Cauvery Purana, where there is a romantic -account of the origin of that important river, which rises in the -mountains of Coorg. - -In the Mahabharata it is related that the _amrit_ or drink of -immortality, which had been lost in the waters of the Deluge, was -recovered by the Suras and Asuras, gods and demons, by churning the -ocean. The Asuras are then said to have stolen it, and it was finally -restored to the gods by the maiden Lopamudre, who charmed the Asuras by -her beauty. The fair damsel then resolved to become a river, and thus -pour herself out in blessings over the earth. But the sage Aghastya, -so famous in the history of Madura, was enamoured of her, and she at -length so far yielded as to consent to be his wife, on condition that -she should be at liberty to forsake him the first time he left her -alone. One day he went to a short distance to bathe, when Lopamudre -immediately gratified her early longings, by jumping into Aghastya's -holy tank, and flowing forth as the river Cauvery. The sage, on his -return, ran after her, but the only consolation that was left to him -was to explain to his beloved the course she ought to take in flowing -towards the eastern sea. - -The Cauvery Brahmins, as persons of that caste are called in Coorg, -wear the sacred thread, and perform _poojah_ to Amma, the goddess -of the river. They number about forty families, but are fast dying -out. They are often very rich, and are employed in the pagoda, or as -clerks in the Superintendent's office. The Coorgs themselves, the -inhabitants of this mountainous district, are divided into thirteen -castes.[470] They generally retain the old devil-worship of the Scythic -or Dravidian race from which they are descended, and are addicted to -the use of charms and sorceries. They marry at a ripe age, but the -wives of brothers are considered as common property. All the men wear a -silver-mounted dagger, secured round the waist by a silver chain; and -the women, who are often very pretty, wear a white cotton cloth round -the head, with the ends hanging half-way down the back. The men are an -independent, hard-working race, tall, with comparatively fair skins. -They are very keen sportsmen, and most of them possess a gun, the boys -practising with pellet-bows. - -Coorg consists of a succession of lofty wooded ridges and long deep -valleys, forty miles broad by sixty long, between lat. 12° and 13° -N. It is bounded on the north by the river Hemavati, on the south by -the Tambacheri pass, on the west by Malabar and South Canara, and on -the east by Mysore. South of Mercara the country appears covered with -forest, wave upon wave of wooded mountain ranges rising one behind -the other, the highest peak of all having its summit partially bare of -trees, and covered with rich herbage. The elevations above the sea are -as follows:-- - - Tadiandamol (the highest peak) 5781 feet - Pushpagiri (another peak) 5682 - Mercara 4506 - Virarajendrapett 3399 - Fraserpett 3200 - -The river Cauvery drains about four-fifths of the surface of Coorg, -while about a dozen streams, issuing from the same hill region, -traverse Malabar and South Canara. From the end of December to the end -of March rain is very scarce, but the valleys are seldom without fogs -more or less dense in the evenings and mornings, and heavy dews are -frequent. During these months a dry east wind prevails, which has long -ceased to carry rain with it from the Bay of Bengal. Towards the end -of March clouds begin to collect, and the air grows moister. In April -and May there are thunderstorms and frequent showers, with a warm and -moist climate. In the end of May the clouds in the western sky grow in -strength; and in June rain prevails, descending at times softly, but -generally with great violence, accompanied by heavy gusts of westerly -wind. In July and August the rain pours down in floods day and night, -to such a degree that a flat country would be deluged, but Coorg, after -being thoroughly bathed, sends off the water to the east and west by -her numerous valleys. The yearly fall of rain often exceeds 160 inches. -In September the sun breaks through, in October a north-east wind -clears the sky, in November showers fall over Coorg, being the tail of -the north-east monsoon, and December is often foggy.[471] The following -table will give an idea of the annual temperature of Mercara,[472] the -extremes ranging from 52° to 82°, and the average being 60°:-- - - ---+-------------------------------------------------------+--- - | | - | MERCARA, THE CAPITAL OF COORG, | - | | - | 1836-37. | - | | - +-----------+-------------------+-- -------+------------+ - | | Mean | | | - | | Temperature. | Rainfall | Prevailing | - | MONTH. |-------------------| in | Wind. | - | | 6 A.M. | 10 A.M. | Inches. | | - +-----------+---------+---------+----------+------------+ - | January | 56 | 69 | None. | N.E. | - | | | | | | - | February | 60 | 74 | None. | E.N.E. | - | | | | | | - | March | 64 | 76 | 1.3 | Variable. | - | | | | | | - | April | 65 | 78 | 0.2 | Variable. | - | | | | | | - | May | 63 | 72 | 7.6 | N.W. | - | | | | | | - | June | 62 | 68 | 20.8 | W.N.W. | - | | | | | | - | July | 62 | 64 | 23.7 | W.N.W. | - | | | | | | - | August | 60 | 63 | 24.7 | W.N.W. | - | | | | | | - | September | 62 | 67 | 7 | W.N.W. | - | | | | | | - | October | 63 | 68 | 0.5 | W.N.W. | - | | | | | | - | November | 60 | 70 | 1.5 | E.N.E. | - | | | | | | - | December | 58 | 70 | 0.07 | N.E. | - ---+-----------+---------+---------+----------+------------+--- - -An immense quantity of rice is cultivated in the Coorg valleys, and -largely exported, but scarcely any dry grain is raised. In 1853 the -rice harvest was said to have been worth seven lacs of rupees. The -Coorgs pay so much on the seed sown, as a land-tax, besides a small -house-tax, and the cardamom sales yield about 35,000 Rs.[473] - -Coffee cultivation was only commenced in Coorg about six years ago, -but its extension both amongst natives and Europeans has since been -very remarkable. There are now more than a dozen plantations owned by -Europeans, chiefly near the road leading down the ghaut from Mercara -to the port of Mangalore, and several thousand acres are already under -cultivation. Mr. Mann, the largest proprietor, has upwards of 800 acres -planted with coffee-trees. The natives too have shown great enterprise -in undertaking a cultivation previously unknown to them, and there is -now scarcely a hut to be seen without its little coffee-garden. All -the plantations on the eastern side of Mercara, excepting one, belong -to natives; and close to the town I observed a small clearing where a -Coorg was hard at work building himself a hut, cutting away the jungle, -leading a small stream into new channels for purposes of irrigation, -and planting the slopes of two hills with coffee. - -An export duty of four annas the maund is levied on coffee in Coorg, -which, in 1861, brought in a revenue of 23,000 Rs. In that year -1,29,869 maunds were exported, 1,17,223 by native growers, and 12,645 -by Europeans. This disproportion will not exist this year, as the -plants on several new estates will now be in bearing for the first -time. The main roads in Coorg are excellent, and one at least of the -planters, if not more, has displayed great energy in connecting his -estates by good roads with the main Government highways. Most of the -available land, within reasonable distance of a highway, is already -taken up for coffee cultivation. Labour, as is also the case in Wynaad -and the Neilgherries, is chiefly procured from Mysore, the coolies -coming up after their own work is done. - -It will be seen by the account I have been able to give of the -elevation, temperature, and of the periods of drought and moisture -in this hill district, that it is not nearly so well adapted for -the cultivation of chinchona-plants as Neddiwuttum, and many other -localities on the Neilgherry hills. It may be compared, more -appropriately, with the forests near Sispara on the Koondahs, as it is -exposed to the full force of the south-west monsoon, and suffers from a -long drought during the winter. - -The country to the north and east of Mercara is a plateau, about 4500 -feet above the sea, intersected by ravines full of trees and underwood, -amongst which I observed wild orange and lime-trees, _Michelias_, and -tree-ferns, with an undergrowth of ferns, _Lobelia_, _Ipomæa_, and -_Solanum_. The scenery is charming, with grassy slopes, wooded glades, -and here and there a secluded hut in a grove of plantains, on the -edge of a small patch of rice cultivation. I also examined some of -the forests down the Mangalore ghaut. The road is excellent, winding -with a gentle gradient through the beautiful forest scenery past -numerous coffee-plantations to their port of shipment at Mangalore. -At the fourth milestone from Mercara there is a forest extending for -nearly a mile, on the left of the road, at an elevation of 3800 feet -above the sea. It descends from the road to the bottom of the ravine, -and on the opposite side there are forest-covered heights of greater -elevation. The forest contains many tall trees, not growing very -close, with tree-ferns, _Cinnamomum_, _Hymenodictyon_, _Melastomaceæ_, -a _Papilionacea_ with a bright yellow flower, and ferns, of which I -collected five kinds. The general character of the flora appeared -suitable for the growth of chinchona-plants; and, though this was the -driest time of the year, I found at least one small stream trickling -down through the underwood. The valley runs north-west and south-east. - -In this locality plants of _C. succirubra_ would no doubt flourish, -and the experiment ought certainly to be tried; though, from the low -elevation, the bark would probably be thin, and would yield perhaps -a small per-centage of alkaloids. These points, however, can only be -ascertained by experience gained from experimental culture. I was told -by Captain Eliott, the Superintendent of Coorg, that the forest in -question has been applied for and refused to several coffee-planters. -The land belongs to Government, but there is a devil living on it, -to which the Coorgs do _poojah_, and the Commissioner of Mysore has, -therefore, been hitherto unwilling to allow it to be occupied. - -There are many other localities equally suited for the cultivation -of _C. succirubra_ and _C. micrantha_ in Coorg; the Government will -shortly establish a chinchona nursery there; and, with so many -energetic and intelligent planters in the district, it will be strange -if the growth of this important product is not extended and rendered -profitable by private enterprise. A few rows of chinchona-plants ought -to be established in the loftiest part of each coffee-clearing; and -every settler should plant them, and encourage the cultivation among -the natives, from motives of humanity, as well as with a view to -successful commercial speculation. - -We finally left Mercara before dawn, and rode for three miles down -the steep ghaut leading to the lower and more extensive valleys of -south-eastern Coorg, which we reached as the sun rose. It was a very -pleasant ride through the beautiful hill country, with uplands covered -with fine forest, and long strips of fertile valley. In the jungles we -saw immense clumps of bamboo, which overshadowed the road; a leafless -and thorny _Erythrina_ with crimson flowers; and a _Solanum_ with a -small white flower by the road-side. Here and there we came to open -grassy glades, whence little footpaths led through the neighbouring -jungle to some secluded hut. The cultivated valleys are covered with -rice, and fringed with plantain groves and _Caryota urens_. - -The _Caryota urens_ is a lofty palm-tree, with large leaves, and the -Coorgs draw an immense quantity of toddy from it during the hot season. -The pith of the trunk of old trees is a kind of sago, and is made -into bread and gruel by the natives of many parts of India. Humboldt -says that the form of the leaves is very singular, the singularity -consisting in their being bipinnatisect, with the ultimate division -having the shape of the fin and tail of a fish.[474] - -We passed several hundred pack-bullocks conveying Bombay salt from -the Malabar ports to the interior, and, having forded the Cauvery at -a point where the bed is full of large boulders of rock, reached the -village of Virarajendrapett. It consists of two clean streets, at -right angles, with a missionary church and school. The mountains are -here dotted with plantain-groves, and nearly every house has a small -coffee-garden attached. The surrounding country is exceedingly pretty, -the view being bounded by forest-covered mountains. The bungalow at -Virarajendrapett is on the site of an old palace of the Rajahs, and -the compound is surrounded by a high wall, with an ornamental gateway, -flanked by stone sentry-boxes. - -From this point the descent into Malabar commences, through dense -forest, with bright moonlight glancing through the branches of gigantic -trees, and after a journey of fifteen miles we reached the bungalow of -Ooticully in the middle of the jungle. It is in these forests, on the -western slopes of the Coorg mountains, that cardamom cultivation is -carried on to a great extent. In February parties of Coorgs start for -these western mountains, and, selecting a slope facing west or north, -mark one of the largest trees on the steepest declivity. A space about -300 feet long and 40 feet broad is then cleared of brushwood, at the -foot of the tree; a platform is rigged about twelve feet up the tree, -on which a pair of woodmen stand and hew away right and left until it -falls head foremost down the side of the mountain, carrying with it a -number of smaller trees in a great crash. - -Within three months after the felling, the cardamom-plants in the soil -begin to show their heads all over the cleared ground during the first -rains of the monsoon, and before the end of the rainy season they grow -two or three feet. The ground is then carefully cleared of weeds, and -left to itself for a year. In October, twenty months after the felling -of the great tree, the cardamom-plants are the height of a man, and -the ground is again carefully and thoroughly cleared. In the following -April the low fruit-bearing branches shoot forth, and are soon covered -with clusters of flowers, and afterwards with capsules. Five months -afterwards, in October, the first crop is gathered, and a full harvest -is collected in the following year. The harvests continue for six or -seven years, when they begin to fail, and another large tree must be -cut down in some other locality, so as to let the light in upon a new -crop. - -The harvest takes place in October, when the grass is very high and -sharp, sorely cutting the hands, feet, and faces of the people. It is -also covered with innumerable large greedy leeches. The cultivators -pick the cardamom capsules from the branches, and convey them to a -temporary hut, where the women fill the bags with cardamoms, and carry -them home, sometimes to distances of ten or twelve miles. Some families -will gather 20 to 30 maunds annually, worth from 600 to 1000 Rs.[475] - -This method of cardamom cultivation must be considered injurious to -the conservancy of fine timber in the forests, but, on the other hand, -the crops themselves are very valuable, and bring in a considerable -revenue. But there is another kind of cultivation carried on in these -vast forests on the western slopes of the ghauts, which is far more -prejudicial to the production of valuable timber-trees. This is called -_kumari_, and _punam_ in Malabar. It has been altogether prohibited -in Coorg and Mysore, while in Canara it is not now allowed within nine -miles of the sea, or three of any navigable river, or in any of the -Government forests without previous permission. But in Malabar, where -all the forests are private property, the Government is unable to -interfere in the matter, and _kumari_ is quite unrestricted. - -_Kumari_ is cultivation carried on in forest-clearings. A space is -cleared on a hill-slope at the end of the year; the wood is left to -dry until March or April, and then burnt. The seed, generally _raggee_ -(_Eleusine coracana_), is sown in the ashes on the fall of the first -rain, the ground not being touched with any implement, but merely -weeded and fenced. The produce is reaped at the end of the year, and -is said to be worth double that which could be procured under ordinary -modes of cultivation. A small crop is taken in the second, and perhaps -in the third year, and the spot is then deserted and allowed to grow -up with jungle. The same spot is cultivated again after 10 or 12 years -in Malabar, but in North Canara the wild hill tribes generally clear -patches in the virgin forest. Dr. Cleghorn reports that _kumari_ -renders the land unfit for coffee-cultivation, destroys valuable -timber, and makes the locality unhealthy, dense underwood being -substituted in the abandoned clearings for tall trees under which the -air circulated freely.[476] The Kurumbers and Irulas, wild tribes of -the Neilgherries, also raise small crops by burning patches of jungle -and scattering seeds over the ashes. This system, which sounds so -wasteful and is so injurious to the yield of timber in the forests, is -exceedingly profitable to the cultivator, who has no expenses beyond -the payment of land-tax, which in these wild unfrequented spots is -often evaded. A common profit is 18 to 28 Rs. an acre. - -After leaving Ooticully we still had to pass through fifteen miles -of jungle, before reaching the open cultivated country in northern -Malabar. In driving down the ghaut the views, through occasional -openings, of the wide expanses of forest were very grand. Tall trunks -of trees towered up to a great height in search of light and air, -palms and bamboos waved gracefully over the road, and the range of -Coorg mountains filled up the background. Most of the valuable timber -has been long since felled in these forests, excepting in the very -inaccessible parts. The poon-trees (_Calophyllum angustifolium_),[477] -which are chiefly found in Coorg, and yield most valuable spars -for masts, have become exceedingly scarce. The young trees are now -vigilantly preserved. Black-wood (_Dalbergia latifolia_) is also -getting scarce, though I saw a good deal of it in some of the Coorg -jungles; and teak-trees of any size have almost entirely disappeared, -excepting in the forests of North Canara. - -At a distance of twenty miles from the sea the cultivated country -commences in this part of Malabar, and the road on each side is lined -with pepper-fields, with occasional groves of plantains and clumps of -cocoa and betel-nut palms. The land undulates in a succession of hills -and dales, with rice cultivation in some of the hollows. Here the -pepper is regularly grown in large fields, and not in gardens as at -Calicut. In the first place trees are planted in rows, usually such as -have rough or prickly bark--the jack, the mango, or the cashew-nut. In -the country we were passing through the tree used was an _Erythrina_, -with the bark of trunk and branches thickly covered with thorns. Until -the trees have grown to the proper size the land is often used for -raising plantains. When the trees have attained a height of 15 or 20 -feet, the pepper is planted at their bases, and soon thickly covers the -stem and festoons over the branches. The pepper-cuttings or suckers are -put down by the commencement of the rains in June, and in five years -the vine begins to bear. Each vine bears 500 to 700 bunches, which -yield about 8 or 10 seers when dried. During its growth it is necessary -to remove all suckers, and the vine is pruned, thinned, and kept clear -of weeds. The vine bears for thirty years, but every ten years the old -stem is cut down and layers are trained. It is an exceedingly pretty -cultivation, and, if it was not for the crests of straggling branches -which crown the vine-covered trunks, it would not be unlike the -hop-fields of Kent. - -The houses on the road were built of laterite, large and comfortable -like those at Calicut. We saw the people sitting before their doors, -busy with their heaps of pepper. When the berries have been gathered -they are dried in the sun on mats, and turn from red to black. The -white pepper is from the same plant, the fruit being freed from the -outer skin by macerating the ripe berries in water. Before reaching -Cannanore we passed over three or four miles of elevated rocky land, -without cultivation, and arrived in the cantonment late at night. - -In enumerating the localities where it is likely that chinchona-plants -will thrive, the mountainous country in Mysore, north of Coorg, -including Nuggur and the Baba-Bodeen hills, must not be forgotten. -Nuggur consists of rounded hills, from 4000 to 5000 feet above the -sea, with peaks rising as high as 6000; and the adjoining Baba-Bodeen -hills attain a height of 5700 feet. The climate is exceedingly moist, -and at the town of Nuggur, on the western side of the hills, the rains -last for nine months, during six of which they are so heavy that the -inhabitants cannot leave their houses. The eastern side is drier and -more level. North of Nuggur the chain of western ghauts sinks down far -below the chinchona zone, and north of 14° they scarcely rise above the -plain of Dharwar.[478] - -There are several profitable coffee plantations in Nuggur, and I -understand that it is in contemplation to establish a teak plantation -in that district. Though, as a locality for chinchona cultivation, -it is not to be compared with the Neilgherries or Pulneys, or even -with Coorg, still it is probable that some of the hardier species -might thrive there, and thus the area of the chinchona-plants would -be eventually extended from Nuggur, in 14° N., to the hills near -Courtallum, in the extreme end of the peninsula. - -We embarked at Cannanore on board a little steamer for Bombay. The view -from the sea is pretty. On the left is an old fort built long ago by -the Dutch; in the centre, looking from the anchorage, is a sandy beach, -where elephants were being loaded with the luggage of a detachment of -troops just arrived from Calicut; and a little to the right is the -native town surrounded by extensive groves of cocoanut-trees, with the -blue line of the Coorg and Wynaad mountains visible in the distance. -There are three very large buildings on the sea-shore, one of which is -the palace of the Beebee, a long house, with the ground-floor let out -as a pepper warehouse. - -The Portuguese built a fort at Cannanore in 1505. They were driven out -by the Dutch, who sold the place to a Moplah, from whom the present -Beebee of Cannanore is descended, the succession going in the female -line. She is much in debt, but owns the Laccadive islands, as well -as Cannanore, and the land round the town. We were told that the -Beebee considered that she had been shamefully treated by the English -Government, and that she spoke her mind very freely on the subject. -It appears that, in about 1545, the Laccadive islands were conferred -in jagheer on the head of the Moplah caste at Cannanore, the ancestor -of the Beebee, by the Rajah of Cherikul, on the payment of a certain -tribute, which was duly rendered to the Cherikul family until its -destruction by Hyder Ali in the last century. After the storming of -Cannanore by the English in 1791, the islands came into possession of -the East India Company, and in 1799 they were restored to the Beebee's -family, subject to the payment of an annual _peshcush_ of 10,000 Rs. - -In April, 1847, a hurricane of unequalled violence swept over the -islands, which are only nine feet above the sea in the highest part. -The wind tore up the trees by the roots, the waves flooded the land, -and almost everything on the two most valuable islands was destroyed. -The Beebee borrowed a steamer from the Government to send supplies -for the relief of the islanders, and she also obtained a remission -of one-third of the _peshcush_ for ten years, on certain conditions -connected with reforms in her administration. Her difficulties have -chiefly arisen from being unable to pay the sum demanded for arrears -of _peshcush_, and for the use of the steamer, and in 1854 the English -Government assumed the administration of the islands until the debt was -paid. It was desired that the Beebee should give them up altogether -for a pecuniary equivalent, but to this she has resolutely refused to -consent. The islands have since been restored to her.[479] - -On the day after sailing from Cannanore we put into Mangalore, where -the town, like that of Calicut, is completely hidden from the sea, -the lighthouse and a few bungalows being visible on a hill in the -rear. This was the dry season, and the coast of Canara was not nearly -so pretty as that of Malabar, looking parched and dried up. North of -Mangalore is the port of Compta, with a lighthouse on a steep conical -hill, but no town visible. Compta is now the port of shipment for the -cotton of Dharwar, and there were several _pattamars_ in the anchorage, -with their decks piled up with bales of cotton. They take it up to -Bombay, where it is pressed and shipped for England; and we heard that -the crews of the pattamars work their way into the bales, and pull out -large handfuls of cotton, filling the space up with filth. In this way -there is a petty trade in stolen cotton along the coast, and the people -work it up into gloves, stockings, &c., for sale. - -Though, at the time of my visit, Compta was used as the cotton-port -for Dharwar, yet the port of Sedashighur, further north, has a great -advantage over it, and is the only place along the coast where there -is safe anchorage during the S.W. monsoon. A point of land, called -Carwar head, forms and protects the bay of Carwar and Beitcool cove, -and, with the assistance of a breakwater, there would be safe anchorage -throughout the year. A line of islands and rocks, called the Oyster -rocks, a little to the northward, also offers a place of shelter. There -is an anchorage under their lee during the S.W. monsoon, where vessels -might ride in perfect safety, and, when a lighthouse is established -on the highest Oyster rock, vessels will be able to approach this -dangerous coast, and run into the anchorage, during the summer months. -Sedashighur is nearer Dharwar than any other port; a river, the -Kala-nuddee, navigable for boats for twenty miles, falls into the sea -close to the anchorage, and a good road is all that is required to make -this place an important port for the shipment of cotton. Energetic -measures have already been adopted for this purpose, and it will -not be long before Dharwar, the only cotton district in India where -the American species has as yet been profitably cultivated, will be -supplied with a port where the cotton may be pressed and shipped direct -for England.[480] - -After passing Sedashighur we put into Goa harbour, and went thence -to Vingorla, the port of the Belgaum district, and a great place for -the manufacture of earthenware chatties, which are taken up the coast -in pattamars. The following day we were at Rutnagherry, and passing -Sevendroog, the famous stronghold of the pirate Angria, we concluded -our coasting voyage by anchoring in Bombay harbour. - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -THE MAHABALESHWUR HILLS AND THE DECCAN. - - Journey from Bombay to Malcolm-penth--The Mahabaleshwur - Hills--The village and its temples--Elevation of the - hills--Formation--Soil--Climate--Vegetation--Sites for - chinchona-plantations--Paunchgunny--Waee--Its temples--The - babool-tree--Shirwul--The village system--Village officials--Barra - balloota--Cultivators--Festivals--Crops and harvests--Poona--The Bhore - ghaut--Return to Bombay. - - -THE districts best adapted for the cultivation of chinchona-plants are -those in the southern part of the peninsula, at suitable elevations, -which receive moisture from both monsoons. The Neilgherry hills are -the centre of these hill districts, and as we advance further from -that nucleus in a northerly direction the rainfall from the south-west -monsoon becomes heavier, while the climate of the winter, when easterly -winds are blowing, increases in dryness. In 14° N. lat. the hills of -Nuggur sink down into the plains of Dharwar, and from that point to -the Mahabaleshwur hills in 18° N. there are few parts of the western -ghauts which attain a sufficient elevation for the successful growth of -chinchona-plants.[481] - -The Mahabaleshwurs, however, are upwards of 4000 feet above the sea, -and it was therefore possible that they might present localities -suitable for chinchona cultivation. In February 1861 I started from -the Mazagon bunder, at Bombay, in a bunder-boat, for the purpose of -examining these hills, and, crossing the harbour, coasted for a short -distance along the shores of the Concan, and then sailed up the -Nagotna river, with low jungle on either side. At Nagotna two sets -of _hamals_ were waiting for us, and we started for Mhar, a distance -of forty miles across the low country of the Concan. The _hamals_ or -palkee-bearers belong to the _Mhar_ or _Parwari_ caste, who are also -watchmen, porters, and guides, and are believed to be the aborigines -of the country. They are athletic men, with slender and remarkably -symmetrical figures when young, always working in gangs of twelve -to each palkee, three at each end, and the others relieving them at -intervals. They carry the weight with a skill which only a life-long -practice could give, and go over the ground at the rate of four miles -an hour, at a sort of trot. - -The country is generally well covered with rice-fields, now in stubble; -and the numerous stacks of rice-straw, raised five or six feet from the -ground on stakes, formed the principal feature of the landscape. A few -miles beyond Mhar the western ghauts rise abruptly from the plain of -the Concan, in two gigantic steps. The first step is ascended by the -steep corkscrew road of the Parr ghaut, and between its summit and the -foot of the Rartunda ghaut, which winds up the second step, there is -a level cultivated plateau. To the left of the road, overlooking the -Concan, there is a steep conical hill, crowned by the famous robber -fort of Pertaubghur. Here, in 1659, Sevajee, the famous founder of -Mahratta power, assassinated Afzul Khan, the general of the Mohammedan -King of Beejapore's army, at an interview. We could see the dark walls -of the fort, with ruined buildings, and a tall tree rising behind them. -The ascent of the second ghaut brought us, almost immediately, into -the hill station of Mahabaleshwur. The view from our lodging embraced -a foreground of rounded hills covered with green wood, with ranges of -pointed, rounded, and flattened peaks in the distance, shimmering in -the rays of a hot sun. - -The Mahabaleshwur hills are the loftiest part of the western ghauts -in the Bombay presidency. They form an undulating table-land of small -extent, terminated to the westward by a very abrupt descent, often -forming scarped precipices overhanging the Concan; and sloping down -more gradually on the side of the Deccan. The highest point, close -to the English station, in lat. 17° 59´ N., is only 4700 feet above -the sea. The English station, with a native bazar and village, was -formed by Sir John Malcolm in 1828, and has received the name of -Malcolm-penth. Several of the surrounding peaks are named after his -daughters. The roads are excellent, and are bordered by such trees and -shrubs as jasmine, figs, _Randias_, _Gnidias_, and _Crotalariæ_, with -a pretty white _Clematis_ climbing over them. The station is near the -edge of a range of precipitous mountain crags and cliffs overlooking -the Parr valley. The cliffs are broken by several profound ravines, -thus forming promontories commanding grand views of the hill fort of -Pertaubghur, the Concan, and even the sea on very clear days. Good -carriage-roads have been made to those points which command the best -views, such as Babington, Bombay, Sidney, and Elphinstone points, all -looking west. From Babington point there is a magnificent view. The -station, with numerous bungalows peeping out amongst the trees to the -north, is seen along the crest of a ridge which is separated from -Babington point by a profound ravine. The precipitous cliffs, now dried -up and barren, are scarped and furrowed by the water which deluges them -during the prevalence of the south-west monsoon; but there was one -bright green spot where some potatoes were cultivated in terraces, on -the edge of a precipice. - -The most conspicuous object in the station is an obelisk of laterite, -erected to the memory of Sir Sidney Beckwith. From this point, -immediately above the little thatched church, there is a good view -of the station, the numerous bungalows, peeping out amongst their -shrubberies, dotted about in all directions; the billiard bungalow, -sanatarium, and public library, all built of laterite, standing in an -open space; the native bazar at our feet; and a curiously shaped mass -of mountain peaks to the south and west. - -One day we rode over to the native village of Mahabaleshwur, which -is three miles from Malcolm-penth. The little village consists of -a few dozen thatched huts, on the side of a wooded hill, and some -very interesting temples. By the roadside, in the hedges surrounding -the huts, there were roses, daturas, and jambul-trees (_Eugenia -jambolanum_) with heads of graceful flowers. - -The chief temple, built at the foot of a steep hill, has an open space -in front. The exterior wall is faced with pilasters painted yellow, -the intermediate space being red. In the centre there is an arched -doorway leading into an interior cloister, built round a tank. No -European is allowed to enter, but, from the outside, a cow carved in -stone is visible on the opposite side of the tank, with a stream of -water pouring from its mouth. This fountain is said to be the source of -the Krishna, and the temple is considered very sacred in consequence. -To the right, and a little in front of the temple, there is a square -chapel sacred to Siva or Mahadeo. A flight of steps leads up to three -narrow arched doorways, the centre one being occupied by an image of -the bull _Nandi_ in stone, in a sitting posture, with its back to -the people, and facing the image of the God inside. The chapel is -surmounted by a very picturesque dome, with stone tigers at each angle. -Tall trees and thick bushes cover the hill in the rear immediately -above the larger temple, and on the left there is a long native -_choultry_, with a thatched roof. - -These temples were built about a century ago by a rich banker of -Sattara, but they stand on the sites of more ancient structures, the -work of Gowlee Rajahs. The Gowlees are a race of aboriginal herdsmen, -scattered over the western ghauts from Mahabaleshwur to Kolapore. -Though they now speak the Mahratta language, yet a great number of -their words, their features, and many of their customs are Canarese; -and they are evidently a branch of the great Dravidian group of nations. - -The temples of Mahabaleshwur possess extensive landed property, some -of it on the slopes overhanging the Parr valley. It is in charge of an -hereditary Enamdar, who lives in the Deccan, and visits the temples -once a year. He keeps them in tolerable repair, and pockets the surplus -of their revenues. From the village there is an extensive view of the -deep valley of the Krishna and Yena, to the eastward, which slopes down -abruptly from the hill on which Mahabaleshwur is built. - -As in Coorg there is a curious legend respecting the origin of the -Cauvery, so in the Mahabaleshwur hills an equally wild story is -attached to the source of the Krishna. It is said that two giants, -called Mahaballee and Anteeballee, made war upon the Brahmins, until -they were destroyed by Siva. Before they died they asked a favour, -which was granted, namely, that they and their followers might be -turned into rivers. This is the fabulous origin of five rivers:--the -Krishna, named in honour of one of Vishnu's avaturs; the Koina and -the Yena, flowing to the Deccan; and the rivers Sawitri and Gawitri, -finding their way through gorges to the westward, and becoming -tributaries of the Bancoot river in the Concan. The Krishna is looked -upon as a personation of the God Krishna in a female form, and is often -called _baee_ or lady Krishna. This important stream, issuing from -the cow's mouth at Mahabaleshwur, flows down a gorge bounded by steep -barren hills, terminating in rocky cliffs. We could see the river, like -a silver thread, meandering through some cultivated land far below; but -the general aspect of the country was barren and cheerless. During the -monsoon it is doubtless quite green. - -The Mahabaleshwur hills average an elevation of 4500 feet above the -sea. They are composed almost entirely of laterite,[482] overlying -eruptive rocks, such as basalt, greenstone, and amygdaloid; and the -soil is a clay resulting from the disintegration of the laterite. - -On these hills October is the commencement of the dry season, but -during that month the amount of aqueous vapour in the atmosphere is -still considerable, while the temperature is cool and equable. From -November the air becomes gradually drier until the end of February; -the weather is dry and cold, and a sharp dry easterly wind usually -prevails. The mean temperature of this season is 64°, with a daily -variation of about 12°. Fogs and mists commence in March, and gradually -increase until the rain begins in the end of May. The hottest month is -April. From the end of May to September there is almost incessant rain, -and the hills are constantly enveloped in clouds and fog. The mean -temperature of the rainy season is 64.5°, but the daily variation is -only 3°. The average rainfall is 227 inches, of which nearly one-third -comes down in August.[483] (See Table, next page.) - -The vegetation of these hills, as might be expected from the essential -difference in the climate, is quite distinct from that of the -Neilgherries. There is a great want of forest-trees in the jungles, -and the trees and bushes are, as a rule, poor and stunted. The hills -are covered with grass and ferns, and are dotted over with a shrub -called by the natives _rumeta_. It is the _Lasiosiphon speciosus_,[484] -with flowers something like small Guelder roses, clustered in terminal -umbels. The _Randia dumetorum_, a thorny bush, is also common. In the -thickets I observed a _Memecylon_, called by the natives _anjun_, a -melastomaceous tree, with beautiful purple flowers;[485] a small -_Crotalaria_, with a bright yellow flower; a _Jasminum_; an -_Indigofera_; the _Eugenia Jambolanum_; the pretty creeping _Clematis -Wightiana_; some willows near streams; a _Solanum_; and the _Curcuma -caulina_, a kind of arrowroot, with enormous leaves, sometimes tinged -with red,[486] in flower during the rains.[487] - - MAHABALESHWUR HILLS. - Mean Mean Mean Extreme Extreme Mean Rainfall - MONTH. Tempe- Maximum. Minimum. Maximum. Minimum. daily in WIND. - rature. Variation. inches. - - Jan. 63 70 56 75 45 14 None. N.E. - - Feb. 64 72 57 78 46 14 0.3 N.N.W. - - March 71 79 65 87 57 13 0.07 Do. - - April 74 81 67 90 56 13 1.3 N.W. - - May 71 78 66 88 57 12 1.45 Westerly. - - June 67 70 63 82 62 6 47.9 W.S.W. - - July 63 64 62 73 62 1 67.4 Do. - - Aug. 63 65 63 70 61 2 81.8 Do. - - Sept. 64 66 62 73 56 3 30.6 Do. - - Oct. 65 70 61 73 54 8 5.5 Easterly. - - Nov. 64 70 58 72 51 11 2.9 Do. - - Dec. 63 68 58 73 49 10 0.2 Do. - -I reluctantly came to the conclusion that the Mahabaleshwur hills -were not well suited for the growth of chinchona-plants. The intense -dryness of the atmosphere during the greater part of the year, the poor -character of the vegetation, and even the enormous rainfall during -the summer months, which more resembles the climatic conditions of -the forests of Canelos to the eastward, than the region of "red-bark" -trees to the westward of Chimborazo, all pointed to this conclusion. -Nevertheless some seeds of chinchona-plants were forwarded to Mr. -Dalzell, the Conservator of forests in the Bombay Presidency, which -are said to have come up well at Mahabaleshwur. If these plants -should really thrive it will prove that they are capable of adapting -themselves to differences of climate to an extent of which we -previously had no idea. I sincerely trust that this may be the case, -and that some at least of the species of Chinchonæ now in India may -be successfully introduced into the Mahabaleshwur hills. Mr. Dalzell -informs me that there are high hills to the eastward of the Portuguese -settlement of Goa, but not so elevated as Mahabaleshwur, where he -thinks that some of the Chinchonæ, which flourish at low elevations, -might be acclimatized. He had observed that, in the Bombay Presidency, -a difference of 150 to 200 miles southing is equivalent to a certain -elevation, that is, that plants confined to the highest ground in lat. -18° are found at a much lower level in lat. 15°; and that members of -the family of Chinchonaceæ increase in the number of genera and species -as we travel south from Mahabaleshwur, along the summit of the range, -to lat. 15°. - -The road down into the Deccan, from Malcolm-penth, leads to the -eastward over hills bare of jungle, and sprinkled over with a scanty -growth of _Lasiosiphons_ and ferns. After six miles it begins to pass -along a ridge or saddle, with the deep valley of the Krishna on one -side, and that of the Yena on the other. The hills which bound these -valleys are very precipitous, and, at this season, look grey and -barren, with ridges of rock cropping out, entirely destitute of all -vegetation. The valleys and lower slopes of the hills are covered with -fields of grain, now in stubble, but which must look bright and green -during the rainy season. - -At a distance of ten miles from Malcolm-penth, on a slope overlooking -the Krishna valley, there are some small experimental farms, belonging -to apothecaries in Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy's hospital at Bombay, -at a place called Paunchgunny. An application was made for some -chinchona-plants, to be raised at Paunchgunny; no doubt all possible -care and attention would have been bestowed upon them; and I, -therefore, regret that it should be a locality where they are not at -all likely to flourish. Here the road descends the Tai ghaut into the -Deccan, and in a couple of hours we reached the bungalow on the banks -of the river Krishna, opposite the town of Waee. - -The town on the other side of the river, with its numerous temples, -was by far the most interesting place, in an architectural point of -view, that we had yet seen. Long flights of stone steps lead up from -the waters of the sacred Krishna to the paved platform on which the -temples are built. Crowds of women and children in blue dresses, and -men in white cotton cloths and red turbans, were washing their clothes -in the river, or sitting on the steps and gazing into the water, while -naked Brahmins employed themselves in scrubbing the copper utensils of -the temples. The largest and most imposing temple is that dedicated -to Ganesa, or Gunputty as he is called in the Deccan. It is a mass of -solid masonry, whence a wide flight of stone steps leads down to the -Krishna. The shrine itself is a plain stone building, with a large -vestibule in front, consisting of four arched entrances on each side, -and three at the end. The ceiling of this porch is very curious. It -is formed of square flagstones fitted into each other, and clamped -together above, so as to make a flat surface exactly resembling the -pavement below. From the porch a square doorway leads into the shrine, -which is a small chamber without ornament or decoration, with the -colossal figure of Gunputty facing the entrance. The idol, with a huge -elephant's head, the trunk of which it holds in one of its four hands, -an enormous belly, and cross legs, is hewn out of a solid block of -black stone. - -The temple of Gunputty is surmounted by a very remarkable spire, -consisting of broad concave flutings rising out of a circlet of -lotus-leaves, and approaching each other slightly as they ascend, until -they finally terminate in another circle of lotus-leaves, out of which -a fluted dome rises and crowns the spire. The whole effect is very -good, and forms the principal feature in the view of Waee from the -right bank of the Krishna. - -A little further back there is a small temple dedicated to Siva or -Mahadeo, surrounded by a high wall. Within the enclosure, and in -front of the shrine, there is a canopy supported on sixteen stone -columns, the inner four being under a small dome, and the rest of -the roof consisting of a very curious pavement-like ceiling, exactly -similar to that in front of Gunputty's temple. Advancing through this -vestibule, which is a plain but perfect piece of masonry in very good -taste, we came to a large image of Siva's bull, called _Nandi_, under -a _mandap_ or canopy, supported by four pillars. The image, which is -in a sitting posture, with its head turned towards the door of the -shrine, has numerous ornaments carved about its head and neck, amongst -them a necklace of bells. It is hewn out of an immense block of stone. -Immediately in front of _Nandi_ is the shrine itself, but the interior -was too dark to enable us to discern the god. The lower part of the -building is of plain masonry, with two small square windows in fretted -stone-work; but the upper part is surmounted by a richly-carved spire -and dome, while on the cornice of the roof there are niches containing -stone figures. The spire has three tiers of gods round it in niches, -and is crowned by a fluted dome, resting on a circlet of lotus-leaves. -There is another temple on the platform facing the river, dedicated to -Parvati, Siva's wife. - -By the time we had completed the examination of these temples, we were -surrounded by a great crowd of Brahmins, _hamals_, girls and boys, who -continued to follow us about. - -We then went up one of the streets of this most devout little town, -and came to a temple dedicated to Vishnu, the enclosure of which is -also surrounded by a high wall, with lean-to grain-shops outside. The -interior of the enclosure is lined with betel-nut palms, and paved with -large flags, on one of which the figure of a tortoise is carved. The -temple stands in the centre, with a richly ornamented spire above it. -The interior consists of a nave, with aisles on each side, and at the -end, opposite the doorway, there is an open grating, within which is -the deity. The temple was crowded with nautch-girls, and numbers of -people were passing in and out, doing _poojah_. They first prostrated -themselves at the entrance, then before the grating, and finally -touched a bell overhead before giving place to other devotees. Nearly -opposite Vishnu's temple is another to his wife Lakshmi. - -We afterwards walked through the bazar, a busy interesting scene, -crowded with people. We saw exposed for sale grains of all kinds in -baskets, heaps of red ochre for painting Gods and the sect-marks on -the forehead,[488] sweetmeats, cotton cloths, muslins, and chatties of -clay and copper. Near the river there are five smaller temples to Siva, -each with its _Nandi_ outside the door, and many sacred peepul-trees, -surrounded by walls of solid masonry. - -At sunset the view of Waee from the opposite side of the river, with -the temples reflected in the water, the thickets of trees behind, and -the crowds of people in snow-white cotton dresses and red turbans, was -enchanting. Waee derives its great sanctity partly from being on the -banks of the sacred Krishna, and partly from the tradition that it was -the residence of the five Pandus, the favourite mythical heroes of -the Hindus, during part of the time of their exile. The people still -have many tales respecting their deeds, especially those of Bhima, who -was the biggest and strongest of the five. A peak rising above the -dried-up barren line of mountains behind the town is called after them -_Pandughur_. The temples of Waee were chiefly built, about a century -ago, by the head of a wealthy Mahratta family named Rastia. - -From Waee we travelled over dried-up plains, with arid desolate hills -in the distance, and reached the village of Shirwul at early dawn. -There were a few banyans near the road, and some babool-trees (_Acacia -Arabica_) dotted about over the plain. The babool-tree in the Deccan -has the same uses as the carob in Peru. The hard tough wood is -extensively used for ploughshares, naves of wheels, and tent-pegs; its -necklace-shaped pods are favourite food for sheep and goats, and the -bark is used for tanning.[489] It flourishes on dry arid plains, and -especially in black cotton-soil, where other trees are rarely met with. -The hedges round Shirwul are of prickly pear or milk-bush (_Euphorbia -tirucalli_[490]). - -Shirwul is one amongst many of those village communities of the Deccan -which have retained their peculiar customs and organization from time -immemorial. The Hindu Rajahs have been succeeded by Mohammedan Kings, -who in their turn have been followed by Mogul Subadars, Mahratta -Peishwas, and English Collectors, but the village communities have -continued unchanged through all these revolutions, and thus the -great mass of the people still live under institutions which excite -veneration from their immense age. The cultivator of the Deccan obeys -precisely the same rules and has the same customs as were followed -by his ancestor before the period of history commenced; and, as -the land-assessment has now been established for thirty years, on -remarkably easy terms, his condition may not disadvantageously be -compared with that of any other peasantry in the world. - -The village-system of the Deccan is so curious in itself, and so -interesting from its unknown antiquity, that some account of one of -the villages a few miles from Poona, similar in all respects to that -of Shirwul, will not be out of place. I have taken it from an article -written thirty years ago.[491] - -The land belonging to the village comprises 3669 acres, 1955 arable -and the rest common pasture, with hedges of milk-bush (_Euphorbia -tirucalli_) enclosing the garden-grounds. The village, which is -surrounded by a mud wall with two gates, includes 107 dwelling-houses -of sun-dried bricks with terraced roofs, a _chowree_ or town-hall, and -three temples. The houses have _wosurees_ or open porticos in front, -and the interiors consist of three or four small dark rooms with no -windows. The temples are of hewn stone and _chunam_. - -The boundaries and institutions of the village have undergone no -alteration from time immemorial, and its offices are hereditary. -They consist of that of the _Pattel_ or chief magistrate, his deputy -the _Chowgulla_, the _Koolcurny_ or accountant, and of the _Barra -Balloota_, or twelve subordinate servants. - -The _Pattel_ holds his office, which is hereditary and saleable, from -Government, under a written obligation specifying his duties, rank, -and the ceremonies he is entitled to. He has to collect the Government -dues from the cultivators, punish offences, redress wrongs, and settle -disputes. In important cases he summons a _Punchayet_ or sort of jury, -and when they are of a serious nature he refers them to the _Amildar_ -or Collector of revenue. - -The _Koolcurny_ or accountant keeps the records and accounts, -comprising a general measurement of village-lands, a list of fields, of -the inhabitants, and a detailed account of the revenue. He is generally -a Brahmin, and has lands or fees allotted to him by Government. - -The _Barra Balloota_ offices are hereditary, and the holders, called -_Ballootadars_, are bound to their services to the community for a -fixed proportion of the produce of the soil, from each cultivator. They -are twelve in number, namely, the _Sutar_ or carpenter, who repairs all -wooden instruments; the _Lohar_ or blacksmith, who keeps all iron-work -in repair; the _Parit_ or washerman, who washes all the men's clothes; -the _Nahawi_ or barber, who shaves and cuts the nails of the villagers, -and kneads the muscles and cracks the joints of the Pattel and -Koolcurny; the _Kumbhar_ or potter; the _Potedar_ or silversmith; the -_Goorow_ or dresser of idols; the _Koli_ or water-carrier; the _Mang_ -or ropemaker, who makes ropes of _Hibiscus cannabis_, and is of very -low caste; and the _Mhar_ or _Parwarree_, an outcast whose dwelling is -outside the village--he acts as watchman, carries letters, and gives -evidence as to village rights, before Punchayets; the _Tsamhar_ or -cobbler, and _Gramjosi_ or astrologer. - -Besides the above duties, the Ballootadars have certain perquisites. -The carpenter furnishes the stool on which the brides and bridegrooms -are bathed in the marriage ceremony; the blacksmith sticks the hook -through the flesh of devotees who swing; the barber plays on the pipe -and tabor at weddings; and the potter prepares the stewed mutton -at harvest-homes. In addition to the Ballootadars there are some -other lower officials called _Alutadars_, consisting of a watchman, -gatekeeper, betel-man, gardener, bard, musician, and host of the -Ganjams of the Lingayet sect. - -The cultivators of the Deccan are lean short men, with black straight -hair, kept shorn except on the upper lip, bronze complexions, high -cheek-bones, low foreheads, and teeth stained with betel. They are -temperate and hard-working, warmly attached to their children, frugal, -and not improvident, but deceitful, cunning, and false. Their food -consists of grains, pulses, greens, roots, fruits, hot spices, and oil; -together with milk and ghee. No liquor is sold in the villages. Their -every-day fare is first a cake of _bajree_,[492] or _jowaree_,[493] -baked on a plate of iron; secondly green pods or fruits cut in pieces, -and boiled with pepper, garlic, or turmeric; and thirdly a porridge -of coarse-ground _jowaree_ and salt. They have three meals daily. For -breakfast they eat a cake with spiced vegetables, and a raw onion; -their wives bring them their dinners in the fields at noon, consisting -of two cakes and green pods boiled; and porridge and milk form their -suppers. The holiday fare is cakes of pulse and sugar, and balls of -split gram and spices.[494] - -These hard-working people generally wear nothing but a dirty rag -between their legs, and another round their heads. On holidays, -however, they come out in a white turban, a frock of white cloth coming -down to the knees, a cloth round the waist, and a pair of drawers. The -furniture of their dwellings generally comprises two wooden pestles -and a stone mortar, earthenware and copper utensils, a wooden dish for -kneading dough, a flat stone and rolling pin for powdering spices, two -iron cups for lamps suspended by a chain, and two couches laced with -rope; the total value being about 40 shillings. - -The men, as well as the women, are very fond of attending annual -pilgrimages at the temples, and several festivals break the monotony of -their working days, the chief of which are the _Hooli_, the _Dussera_, -the _Dewallee_, and another in honour of the cattle. The _Hooli_ is -held at the full moon in April, and lasts five days. The _Dussera_, -to celebrate the destruction of the Demon Mysore by the Goddess Kali, -is in October, and the _Dewallee_ twenty days afterwards. The cattle -festival is in August, when the oxen are painted and dressed up, fed -with sugar, and worshipped by their owners. In the hot dry months the -cultivators hunt deer, hares, and wild hogs. - -The agricultural implements used in the Deccan are the same as were in -use upwards of 3000 years ago. They consist of a plough, which makes -a mere scratch, made of babool-wood; a rude cart on two solid wheels; -a harrow with wooden teeth; and a drill-plough.[495] The oxen do most -of the work; and the sheep are black and white, with long hanging -ears. There are two crops, called the _Khereef_ and _Rubbee_. In the -_Khereef_ crop the sowing takes place in June and July, and the harvest -in October. _Bajree_ is sown with a drill-plough in rows, mixed with -_toor_ and other pulses. It is the chief food of the people. Next comes -the other common grain _jowaree_. Italian millet, _raggee_, _badlee_, -and the _amaranthus_ are sown in smaller quantities. All land, whether -ploughed or not, is subjected to the drag-hoe, first lengthways and -then across, loosening the surface and destroying weeds: and crops of -millets are alternated with those of pulses. When the harvest begins, -a level spot is chosen for a threshing-floor, and made dry and hard. -A pole, five feet high, is fixed in the centre, the grains are heaped -round the floor, and the women break off the ears and throw them in. -Oxen are then tied to each other and to the post, and driven round, -to beat out the corn. Winnowing is done by a man standing on a high -stool, and pouring out the grain and chaff to the winds. Ceremonies are -then performed in honour of the five Pandus, and the grain is stored -in large baskets. The pulses which are sown in the _Khereef_ crop are -_toor_ raised in _jowaree_ and _bajree_ fields, the pods of which are -detached by beating the plant with a log of wood; _moong_, sown by -itself, and when ripe pulled up by the roots; _ooreed_; _mutkee_; and -_lablab_. - -Plants from which cordage is made, namely the _sun_ (_Crotalaria -juncea_) and _ambadee_ (_Hibiscus cannabinus_) are also raised. They -grow to a height of five or six feet, and are then pulled up, steeped -for some days in water, and the bark stripped off. - -In the _Rubbee_, or cold season crop, the sowing takes place in October -and November, and the harvests in February. At this time wheat is sown -in rich black or loamy soil, well manured; _gram_ (_Cicer arietinum_) -in the best black soil; and flax, generally raised on the edge of -wheat-fields, in strips of four rows. The land is only ploughed once in -two years, to the depth of a span. - -As the Indians of Peru live chiefly on roots, so the natives of the -parts of India which I visited find their chief sustenance in numerous -kinds of millets and pulses. Rice is certainly their favourite food; -but, from the expenses attending the necessary irrigation, it is -dearer and not so easily attainable as the other cereals, and the -great mass of the people live on dry grains and pulses. All these -cereals contain less nourishing matter than wheat, being comparatively -poor in nitrogen, but this deficiency is made up by the pulses which -are generally eaten with them. It is a most remarkable fact that the -natives habitually combine these two different kinds of food, in their -dishes, in about the same proportions as science has found to be -necessary in order that the mixture may contain the same proportion of -carbonous to nitrogenous matter as is found in wheat.[496] - -Every one who has travelled much, in different parts of the world, or -who has reflected at all on the subject, well knows that there is -far more happiness than misery on this earth, that the good outweighs -the evil, and that the wars and revolutions of history are but specks -on the long periods of tranquillity which remain for ever unrecorded. -The village system of the Deccan is a venerable monument, reminding us -how little the turmoils and civil wars, invasions, and revolutions, -of which history is composed, affect the mass of the people. The -endless conspiracies, treasons, massacres, and battles which fill the -narrative of Briggs's Ferishta might not have happened in the Deccan -at all, for all the change they have effected in the institutions and -customs of the bulk of the population. The Ballootadar still holds the -same office which was filled by his ancestor centuries ago, performs -the same service, and receives the same perquisites. The cultivator -uses the same implements, raises the same crops in the same way, and -practises the same customs. As it was centuries ago, so it is now; -nothing is changed, and these time-honoured institutions continue to be -admirably adapted to the simple wants and habits of the people who live -under them. These Deccanees now enjoy their land for a very trifling -assessment unalterable for thirty years, their means are sufficient to -supply themselves and their families with all they require in the way -of clothing and furniture, they have a considerable variety in their -food, days of relaxation and festivity are not of rare occurrence, -their immediate superiors are of their own race and religion, and there -is little to remind them of the presence of foreign rulers. On the -whole, in their own simple way, they probably enjoy as much happiness -as the peasantry of most other countries in the world, while their -wants are fewer and their desires more easily attainable. - -In the country between Shirwul and Poona the harvest had already been -reaped when we crossed it. In one or two places there were avenues of -mango-trees by the road-side, but generally the country was bare and -treeless. The great city of Poona, once the seat of Mahratta power, -still retains the signs of its former splendour. In the narrow crowded -streets there are many large houses of two stories, with much richly -carved wood about the balconies and doorways, and frescos painted -on the walls of Gods and Goddesses, and scenes in the lives of the -Pandus or of Krishna. The bazar is generally thronged with Brahmins, -Moslems, Lingayets, Bohrahs, Parsees, men, women, and children, while -the shops are occupied by silversmiths, workers in copper, brass, and -wood; sellers of grains, drugs, oils, and ingredients for curries; of -sweetmeats, of cloths, of blue and green bangles for women, and of -endless other wares. The temples are numerous, but none of them are -remarkable either for size or beauty. The old palace of the Peishwas -forms one side of an open space, and is surrounded by a high wall with -semicircular bastions. The entrance is by an archway, flanked on either -side by solid Norman-looking towers, with a balcony over it, extending -from one tower to the other, from which the young Peishwa Mahadeo Rao -threw himself in 1795. - -In 1773 the Peishwa Narrain Rao was murdered in this gloomy-looking -castle by his uncle Ragonath Rao, and many another deed of darkness has -been done within its walls. - -Leaving the town, we drove past the _Hira Bagh_ or "diamond garden," -where there is a large tank with a wooded island in the centre, to the -foot of the rocky hill of Parbutty, on the summit of which there is a -temple to Siva. The ascent is by a well-cut flight of steps, and the -temple,[497] which crowns the hill, is surrounded by a wall of very -solid masonry, with a covered gallery having quaintly carved wooden -balconies, and an open rampart above. From one of these balconies Bajee -Rao, the last of the Peishwas, watched the defeat of his army at Kirkee -in 1817; when Poona, and all its territory, became an integral part of -British India. - -The view from the Parbutty hill is very extensive. At our feet was -the _Hira Bagh_, with its broad sheet of water, and numerous groves -of trees; beyond was the great city almost hidden by trees, the roofs -of houses showing here and there, but no conspicuous towers or lofty -building. Further still we could see the windings of the rivers Mula -and Muta, tributaries of the Krishna. To the left was the village of -Kirkee, and to the right the churches, numerous bungalows, and other -buildings of the English cantonment. At this time of year the whole -mass of buildings and gardens forming and mingling with the city -and cantonment, is surrounded by brown dried-up plains, and rocky -arid-looking mountains, which furnish a sombre frame to the picture. - -This magnificent view was exceedingly interesting, because it seemed -more than probable that, in a not far distant future, the city of Poona -might become the capital of British India--the seat of Government of a -vast Empire, united for the first time in history under one firm and -beneficent rule, enjoying a universal peace unknown for centuries, and -rapidly advancing in material prosperity. Calcutta must be given up -as the most distant from England, the least conveniently situated as -regards other parts of India, and the most unhealthy place that could -be selected for a capital. This point once granted, the old Mahratta -capital recommends itself as combining all the advantages in which -the pestiferous banks of the Hooghly are deficient. Poona is within -a few hours' journey of the port of Bombay by railroad; situated on -an elevated table-land, its climate is healthy and suitable both for -Europeans and natives; and it is in a central position as regards all -the Presidencies of India. - -The railroad from Poona to Bombay stopped at Khandalla, on the summit -of the Bhore ghaut, where a portion of it is still unfinished. The -village of Khandalla is perched on the edge of a deep chasm, mountains -rise up into sharp peaks to the right and left, and there is a very -extensive view over the Concan plains. Here the passengers had to get -out of the train, and go down the ghaut by the excellent road made by -Sir John Malcolm, in bullock-_gharries_ or in _palkees_, on ponies or -on foot. The works of the railway were, however, progressing fast; and -when finished, the railroad up the Bhore ghaut will be one of the most -remarkable works of the kind in the world. The station at Khandalla is -1800 feet, and Kampuli, at the foot of the ghaut, barely 200 feet above -the sea. For a distance of 220 miles there are no passes for wheeled -vehicles from Bombay to the interior, except the Bhore and Tal ghauts, -so precipitous is the volcanic scarp which forms this portion of the -western mountains. - -The railroad incline down the Bhore ghaut is upwards of fifteen miles -long, the rise being 1831 feet, and the average gradient 1 in 48. -In this distance there will be 2535 yards of tunnelling, besides an -immense amount of cutting and embanking, eight viaducts, and eighteen -bridges. The best known work of this kind in Europe is at Semmering, -across the Noric Alps; but that of the Bhore ghaut exceeds it in -length, in height, and in the steepness of the gradient. - -At the foot of the Bhore ghaut is the village of Kampuli, whence the -railroad runs across the plains of the Concan, over an arm of the sea, -past Tannah, and through the island of Salsette, into the town of -Bombay. - -I had now personally examined the Neilgherry hills, the Koondahs, the -Pulneys, Coorg, and the Mahabaleshwurs; and collected information -respecting the hills near Courtallum, the Anamallays, the Shervaroys, -Wynaad, the Baba-Bodeens, and Nuggur. After a careful consideration of -the conditions which each of these districts offer, and a comparison of -their elevations, climate, soil, and the character of their vegetation, -with those of the South American chinchona forests; I was fully -confirmed in the opinion that the mountains of the Indian peninsula -offered a splendid field for the cultivation of this new and most -valuable product. - -The different species thrive in different localities, and require -various modes of treatment, but I am inclined to the belief that one -species or another will thrive in all the hills from Cape Comorin to -the parallel of 14° N. This view may prove to be too sanguine, and it -may be that the droughts at one season, and the excessive rainfall -in another, in several of the hill districts, will prove prejudicial -to successful cultivation. Under any circumstances, however, there -can be no doubt that the climates of the Neilgherries, Anamallays, -Pulneys, and probably Coorg, are admirably adapted to the production -of quinine in these precious trees. On the other hand, it is possible -that, under cultivation, the chinchonæ may be able to adapt themselves -to conditions of climate differing as much from those of their native -habitat even as the Mahabaleshwur hills, and that their cultivation -is capable of far wider extension than I am now able to expect. It -would be a source of gratification if chinchona plantations could -be established in any part of the Bombay Presidency; and while Mr. -Dalzell, the able Conservator of forests, superintends any experiments -which may be made, it will certainly not be from a want of botanical -knowledge or intelligent care, if his anticipations of success are not -realised.[498] - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII. - - CULTIVATION OF THE CHINCHONA-PLANTS IN THE NEILGHERRY HILLS, UNDER THE - SUPERINTENDENCE OF MR. McIVOR. - - -IN previous chapters detailed accounts have been given of the -proceedings connected with the collection of chinchona plants and seeds -in South America, their conveyance to India, and the selection of -suitable sites for their cultivation. It now only remains to record the -progress of this important experiment in the Neilgherry hills during -the last year, and to offer some remarks on the contemplated measures -connected with its future management. A very valuable Report by Mr. -McIvor, on the same subject, will be found in an Appendix. - -It is a subject of congratulation that the Government should have at -their disposal the services of one so admirably fitted for the post -of Director of chinchona cultivation as Mr. McIvor. This gentleman -has superintended the Government gardens at Ootacamund for fourteen -years, and their beauty as well as their usefulness are due to -him;[499] while his periodical visits to the Conolly teak plantations -have been productive of the most valuable results,[500] and he has -successfully introduced a great number of English and other plants into -the Neilgherry hills.[501] Mr. McIvor combines with his attainments -as a scientific gardener great practical experience, and a thorough -acquaintance with the climates, soils, and flora of the hills. He has -long taken a deep interest in the question of the introduction of -chinchona-plants into India, and he brought the subject to the notice -of Lord Harris, then Governor of Madras, as long ago as 1855. Since -that time he has made himself master of the subject by a study of every -work of any importance which has appeared in Europe within the last -thirty years;[502] while the practical knowledge which he has acquired -of the requirements of chinchona-plants during the fifteen months that -he has now superintended their cultivation, in addition to his previous -qualifications, makes him fitter than any other person that could be -found for the direction of this most important experiment. - -In July 1861 Mr. McIvor was appointed Superintendent of chinchona -cultivation by the Madras Government, with full and entire control -over the operations, in direct communication with the Government, -and subject to no interference from any intermediate authority.[503] -Orders to the same effect were sent out to Madras by the Secretary of -State for India in Council on July 2nd, 1861, and the same orders were -repeated both to the Governor-General and to the Governor of Madras, -in despatches dated February 1862. It was above all things important -that Mr. McIvor's position, in connexion with the chinchona experiment, -should be authoritatively defined, in order to protect him from -attempts at interference, which have been as vexatious as they have -been unnecessary, and which have more than once threatened to render -success impossible. These dangers are now, fortunately, at an end; and -the interest taken by Sir William Denison, the present Governor of -Madras, in a measure calculated to confer so great a benefit on the -people of India, ensures to it a fair trial, and is one of the best -guarantees of ultimate success. - -Mr. McIvor's zeal and ability, his intimate knowledge of his -profession, of the Neilgherry hills, and of all questions bearing on -the subject of chinchona-plants, and his acquirements as a scientific -as well as a practical gardener, justify the confidence which has -thus been placed in him by the Secretary of State in Council, and -by the Madras Government. He has also had the advantage of personal -intercourse, for weeks together, with Mr. Cross, Mr. Weir, and myself, -after we had explored and carefully examined the chinchona forests in -South America; but his subsequent experience in the cultivation of the -plants under his charge has furnished him with means of observation -which now gives his opinion greater weight than those of persons whose -knowledge is derived from books, from short visits to the plantations -in Java, or even from personal examination of the South American -forests. - -In offering my opinion on the best method of cultivating the -chinchona-plants, I have the satisfaction of knowing that my -conclusions substantially agree with those of Mr. McIvor--mine being -founded on experience gained in the chinchona forests, and his on -careful observation of the plants which he has reared in India. That -these views should be concurred in by Dr. Weddell, Mr. Howard, and Mr. -Spruce, is most satisfactory, as it supplies an additional presumption -of their correctness. - -I will now proceed to give an account of the progress of the chinchona -cultivation in the Neilgherry hills. The first batch of seeds, being -those of the "grey-bark" species from Huanuco, arrived at Ootacamund -on the 13th of January, 1861, and those of the "red-bark" followed in -the end of February. On the 7th of April 463 plants of _C. succirubra_ -and six of _C. Calisaya_ reached their destination on the Neilgherry -hills in very good condition, considering the length of time they had -been in Wardian cases, and thus the experiment was fairly commenced. - -The first sowing, which took place in January, was not very successful, -because Mr. McIvor was induced to use too retentive a soil, having been -misled by the treatment of seeds adopted in Java; and only 3 to 4 per -cent. germinated. The second sowing took place early in March, the soil -used being of a much freer nature, half composed of burned earth; and -15 to 25 per cent. germinated. Encouraged by this result, Mr. McIvor -used a soil composed entirely of burned earth for the third sowing, -which took place in the beginning of April, and included the seeds of -the "red-bark" species. Of this sowing 60 per cent. germinated, and -of the seeds of _C. micrantha_ 90 per cent. It is to be remembered -that all these seeds were collected in the South American forests some -months before, and that they had passed through the perils of several -climates, and a voyage of many thousands of miles. - -In May all the plants of _C. succirubra_ had taken fairly to the -soil, and were in a healthy and flourishing condition, those of _C. -Calisaya_ were doing well, but recovering more slowly from the effects -of the voyage, and the seedlings were growing fast. The temperature -given to the plants was 60° in the morning, rising to 75° in the day, -with plenty of light and air; this treatment having proved to be best -adapted for their rapid growth. Of course they would grow higher if -shaded, and consequently drawn up, according to the erroneous plan -adopted in Java; but this is not what is wanted, and, by giving them -plenty of light and air, they grew into fine strong plants, as broad as -they were long. - -It was found that the chinchonæ are remarkably impatient of any damp at -their roots, all the species thrive better in rough and open than in -fine soil, and there is reason to believe that they will bear a much -drier climate than we originally supposed. - -During the autumn of 1861 the work of propagation, by means of cuttings -and layers, progressed rapidly; and, whereas in June 1861 we only had -2114 chinchona-plants of valuable species at Ootacamund, in January -the number was increased to 9732 plants. The layers of _C. succirubra_ -root sufficiently to be removed in five weeks, and cuttings in two -months; layers of the "grey-bark" taking a little longer time to root, -or about six weeks. Mr. McIvor has also made the important discovery -that chinchonæ strike freely from _eyes_, and make beautiful plants -exactly like strong seedlings. These _eyes_ will give about eight fine -strong plants for one that is obtained from cuttings, which is a great -advantage while there is not much wood in the young plants. In October -Mr. McIvor reduced the temperature of one of the propagating houses -to 55° at night, and 65° during the day; and, under this treatment, -which is also probably advantageous to the bark, the plants appeared -to grow faster, and the leaves became a very beautiful bright green. -The thickness of the bark, in the plants of _C. succirubra_, is very -remarkable, having been in some instances nearly one-seventh of an -inch last January, and in the smaller stems the average thickness of -the bark considerably exceeds that of the wood. Mr. McIvor attributes -the unusual thickness of the bark to the presence of a large number of -healthy leaves, exposed to bright light. These leaves throw back into -the bark a large quantity of highly elaborated matter. The experience -of a year's cultivation convinced Mr. McIvor that, although the most -suitable elevation and climate differs with the various species, yet -that they all require a rich, rough, and very open soil. In September -the erection of a new propagating house for chinchona-plants, in the -Government gardens at Ootacamund, was sanctioned, which was completed -early in December. It is 63 feet long by 21 broad, and will hold about -8000 plants. - -The Dutch Government in Java, at the request of the Government of -India, arranged to forward some chinchona-plants of the species -cultivated in that island to Calcutta; and accordingly 100 of _C. -Calisaya_, 300 of _C. Pahudiana_, and 7 of _C. lancifolia_ were -transmitted. Of these 48 of _C. Calisaya_, 4 of _C. lancifolia_, and -250 of _C. Pahudiana_ arrived at Ootacamund on the 20th of December, -1861. In exchange for these plants a supply of _C. succirubræ_, and a -proportionate number of the other species, will be sent to Java, "not -more in return for the valuable accession actually received to our -stock of plants of _C. Calisaya_, than in acknowledgment of the very -courteous and liberal spirit evinced by the Dutch authorities."[504] At -about the same time Mr. McIvor also sent 100 plants of _C. succirubra_ -and 50 of each of the "grey-bark" species to Calcutta, with a view to -the establishment of a chinchona plantation in the Sikkim or Bhotan -hills. - -The plants which arrived from Java were drawn and weak, and had -evidently been grown without sufficient light. They were all more or -less affected by rot at their roots, and many of the roots were covered -with fungi. A few of the plants of _C. Calisaya_ died, but the others -recovered under Mr. McIvor's watchful care. - -A large parcel of seeds of _C. Condaminea_, probably of two varieties -(_Chahuarguera_ and _Uritusinga_), and a smaller packet of seeds of -_C. crispa_, were despatched from England in January, and arrived at -Ootacamund in March, 1862. By this time Mr. McIvor had discovered the -best method of treatment for chinchona-seeds. He sows in very sandy -soil; and while so much water is never given as to make the particles -of soil adhere to each other, yet the soil is kept in a uniform -medium state of moisture. In this way the seeds not only germinate -soon, but come up very strong. There is every reason to expect that a -good per-centage of these seeds will germinate,[505] and that a large -number of these, the earliest known of all the valuable chinchona -species, will soon be growing luxuriantly in the upper _sholas_ of the -Neilgherry hills. Mr. Howard has also presented the Government with a -plant of _C. Uritusinga_ of Pavon (_C. Condaminea_, H. and B.), six -feet high, which he had raised from seed sent to him from Loxa. This -precious plant was embarked on board the steamer on the 4th of March, -1862, and arrived at Ootacamund early in April. - -Thus, after two anxious years, we now have all the valuable species -of chinchonæ mentioned in the second chapter, safely established in -Southern India. In the following tabular statement will be seen at a -glance the number of species, the number of each species, the number of -plants last February, their monthly increase since June, their monthly -growth, and their present dimensions. The number is now increasing at -the rate of several thousands every month. The imported plants of _C. -succirubra_ have already produced some thousands by propagation; and in -December the seedlings had attained a size sufficient to give wood for -propagation, the first of them having even then produced a few hundred -plants. - -From the total number of 10,157 chinchona-plants must be deducted 425 -of the worthless _C. Pahudiana_ sent from Java, leaving a total of 9732 -of valuable species on the 1st of February, with the number rapidly -increasing. The increase was not so large as it otherwise would have -been during the first two months of 1862, owing to the supply of a -number of plants to Java, and the transmission of others to Calcutta, -with a view to the formation of a plantation in the Bengal hills, and -of sixteen to Mr. Maltby for the Rajah of Travancore. - -[Illustration: MONTHLY REPORTS of the Number and Growth of the -CHINCHONA PLANTS on the Neilgherry Hills.[506]] - -It is exceedingly satisfactory to compare these results with those -of the Dutch cultivators in Java. After _six_ years they only had -(exclusive of the _C. Pahudiana_, which is quite worthless) 8454 -chinchona-plants of valuable species;[507] whereas in rather less -than _one_ year Mr. McIvor has reared 9732, without counting several -hundreds which he has transmitted to Java, Calcutta, and Travancore. -The Dutch have only introduced _two_ good species, while we have -obtained _nine_, exclusive of the four plants of _C. lancifolia_ -presented by the Dutch authorities. Thus, the average increase of -valuable species of _chinchona_-plants in Java between 1854 and 1860 -being at the rate of 1409 a year, the results attained in India have -been nearly seven times as great as those of the Dutch cultivators. -These facts are not mentioned in any spirit of undue exultation, but in -order to show that it is not advisable slavishly to follow the methods -of cultivation adopted by the Dutch, as two gentlemen, in official -positions, who have recently visited the plantations in Java, appear to -imagine. On the contrary, a system of cultivation diametrically opposed -to that of the Dutch has enabled Mr. McIvor to achieve his present -success; and the sites for plantations have been selected and prepared, -not with any reference to the erroneous and comparatively unsuccessful -systems pursued in Java, but on the principle of carefully comparing -the elevations, temperature, amount of humidity, and of exposure of the -mountains where the different valuable species of chinchona thrive in -South America, with analogous situations in the hills of Southern India. - -The important process of planting out has now commenced in the -Neilgherry hills, and it has been a subject of careful consideration -whether the chinchona-plants should be grown under dense shade, under -the partial shade of forest-trees, or quite in the open: in other -words--what are the elevations and amounts of exposure best suited to -the growth of the plants, and the development of their alkaloids? - -In Java the chinchona-plants were at first established at far too low -an elevation, in a wretched soil, and exposed to the full glare of -the sun. Dr. Junghuhn, the present Superintendent, went to the other -extreme, and, though the proper elevation has been ascertained, yet -the error has been committed of forming the plantations in the dense -shade of the forest, with the intention of allowing some trees to be -drawn up in search of light, without a branch for thirty or forty feet, -and of cutting them down for their bark in about forty years, and of -grubbing up others in search of imaginary quinine in their roots.[508] -I understand that this plan has at last been found to be erroneous, -and that Dr. Junghuhn now directs all the trees in the vicinity of the -chinchona-plants to be cut down, though faith is still maintained in -the quinine-yielding roots of the worthless _C. Pahudiana_.[509] - -If the thing was not sufficiently evident in itself, the appearance of -the barks sent from Java to the Exhibition of 1862 is quite enough to -prove that chinchona-plants ought not to be cultivated under the shade -of forest-trees. The question of the proper amount of exposure to which -each species should be subjected is, however, one which requires very -careful consideration; as upon its correct solution depends the most -important point of all, namely the method of cultivation which will -be most profitable, and most suitable to the operations of private -enterprise. - -Mr. McIvor commenced experiments in planting out in the spring of 1861. -In April he planted out three plants of _C. succirubra_, two under -shade, and one in an open spot surrounded by brushwood and undergrowth. -On the 29th of the same month the S.W. monsoon set in, and the plants -under dense shade assumed a weak climber-like habit, and were injured -from the leaves being cut to pieces by the constant drip from the -forest-trees;[510] while the plant shaded by the brushwood continued -in the most luxuriant state of health, with its leaves uninjured. In -September 1861, six plants of different species were planted out in -cleared spots on the highest and most exposed points of the Neddiwuttum -site, and all of these have not only borne the cold and drought without -injury, but their growth has never even been checked, and at present -they are in the finest possible state of health. Their leaves are of -the deepest green, some of them measuring 12 inches by 9. - -Between May and August fifteen "red-bark" plants were planted out at -Ootacamund. The unusual cold of December checked the growth of these -plants, but did not injure them in the least, and the leaves still keep -their deep-green colour, and measure from 7 to 9 inches.[511] - -Early in January 1862, the formation of a nursery was commenced at -Neddiwuttum, large enough for 300,000 or 400,000 Chinchonæ; and 2400 -were planted out. 150 acres are to be planted, at the Neddiwuttum -site, during the year; of which 75 acres will be planted under -various degrees of shade from forest-trees, in order to ascertain -the results of this method by actual experiment; and 75 quite in the -open, the young plants being protected from the direct rays of the sun -by artificial shade during the first year or two. The original stock -will be retained in the gardens at Ootacamund, for the purpose of -propagation, and the propagated plants will be used for stocking the -nurseries and plantations. - -With regard to the question of whether the chinchonæ should be planted -out in dense shade of forest-trees or in the open, it will be well to -recapitulate some of the information which has been collected in their -native habitat in South America. - -In the forests of Caravaya I observed that the plants of _C. Calisaya_, -when in dense shade, were tall and weak, with few branches, and without -any sign of ever having flowered or fruited. When very slightly shaded, -as on the ridge of rocks above the Yanamayu, or scarcely at all, as -on the precipice of Ccasa-sani, they spread more, have a more healthy -appearance, and are covered with capsule-bearing panicles; while the -most thriving and healthy-looking young plant that I met with, was -growing in the open, without any shade whatever. It is quite certain -that an abundance of light and air is an absolute necessity for the -full development of the alkaloids in the bark of _C. Calisaya_, and -that the trees must either grow at the edge of the forests, or else -find their way to the light, by overtopping all other trees: otherwise, -as is too often the case, they assume a weakly, straggling habit under -the baneful influence of dense shade. - -Dr. Weddell is of opinion that, during the first year or two, the soil -and trunks of young trees of _C. Calisaya_ should be protected from the -direct influence of the scorching sun, as he had observed that plants -so exposed generally appeared to have a stunted growth. He refers of -course to the _Josephiana_ or shrub variety of _C. Calisaya_, but their -dwarfed habit must be attributed to the less fertile soil of the open -grass-land in which they grow, and partly also to the great altitude, -and consequently cold climate, rather than to effects of exposure to -light and air. - -With respect to the "red-bark" species, there cannot be a doubt -that they should be planted in the open. On this point Mr. Spruce's -observations are quite conclusive. He says--"The trees standing in -open ground, pasture, cane-field, &c., are far healthier and more -luxuriant than those growing in the forest, where they are hemmed in -and partially shaded by other trees; and while many of the former had -flowered freely, the latter were, without exception, sterile. This -plainly shows that, although the red-bark may need shade whilst young -and tender, it really requires (like most trees) plenty of air, light, -and room, wherein to develop its proportions."[512] - -The "grey-bark" species all bear the marks of exposure to free air, -cold, and sunshine; and the overspreading thallus of various _Grapideæ_ -on their barks indicates that the trees have grown in open situations, -exposed to rain and sunshine.[513] - -The _C. Condaminea_ trees, in the neighbourhood of Loxa, grow -sometimes in little clumps, and sometimes solitary, but always in dry -situations.[514] Dr. Seemann, who visited Loxa when serving on board -H.M.S. Herald, informs me that those which he saw, bearing ripe fruit, -were on the edge of thickets, entirely exposed to the influence of air -and sunshine. - -Dr. Weddell assures me that he would never recommend that any of the -chinchona-trees should be planted in the dense shade of the forest, -as in such a situation the greater number would evidently soon be -smothered. He is of opinion that the Chinchonæ, in India, should be -planted in open ground; but he considers it important that the trunks -and soil should be shaded during the first year or two. He proposes -to effect this object either by planting the chinchonas at convenient -distances in a quincunx, alternately with some more fast-growing trees, -which might be cut away when no longer required;[515] or by planting -the chinchonas themselves close enough to oblige each other to run up, -sufficient space and air being gradually provided by judicious pruning -and thinning out. The former method might be a good one if it were -not for the faster-growing trees taking up a great proportion of the -nourishment from the soil, which would be more profitably reserved for -the chinchonas; and probably the efficient shading of the trees, while -young and tender, will be more easily and effectually provided for by -simple artificial means. - -Mr. Howard, the author of '_Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_,' whose -knowledge on all questions connected with chinchona-plants is not -surpassed by that of any botanist in Europe, is clearly of opinion that -they should be planted in the open, without shade from other trees, -and that they should be cultivated as shrubs; when their branches will -yield an ample and remunerative supply of bark. - -On the other hand, Dr. Junghuhn, in Java, has planted his chinchonæ -under the dense shade of forest-trees, where they must necessarily -be watery and unhealthy, where they will not flower or bear fruit, -and where he does not expect that they will yield quinine for fifty -years, when he contemplates the entire demolition of the plantations -by felling all the trees. Now, if such a system as this is to be -adopted in India, the chinchona-plants might as well never have been -introduced. The plantations would be a wasteful expense to Government, -with a remote chance of some profit, forming but a small fraction -of the outlay, about twice in a century; and the idea of chinchona -cultivation ever being undertaken by private enterprise, on this -system, is quite out of the question; for what planter in his senses -would commence the cultivation of a product which would yield him no -return for forty or fifty years? - -When planted in the open chinchonæ grow luxuriantly, yield abundant -supplies of seed, and form fine thick bark, which, owing to the free -exposure of the leaves to the influence of light and fresh air, -contains a large per-centage of alkaloids; while, in the shade of -forest-trees, they run up into tall, weak, straggling plants, with -little chance of either bearing fruit, or elaborating much quinine in -their bark, until, after nearly half a century, some of them at length -overtop the other trees, and reach that essential sunshine of which -they had been so long deprived. - -I not only think, with Mr. Spruce, Dr. Weddell, Mr. Howard, Mr. McIvor, -and Mr. Cross, that the chinchona-plants must be planted in the open, -and freely exposed to the influence of fresh air and sunshine; but I am -most strongly of opinion that, if the opposite system was unfortunately -adopted, it would have been far better if the expense and trouble of -introducing these precious trees into India had never been incurred. - -It is true that, when planted in the forest, the chinchonæ will -look well to the casual observer, and that their cultivation can be -conducted without skill or care, as all will be left to nature; while, -in open ground, it will require great skill and constant attention to -get the young trees over the first year or two. The cleared ground -will be exposed to the full effects of evaporation and radiation, and -much judicious management will be necessary in applying artificial -shade, and in adopting other precautions. The open spaces should not, I -think, be of very great extent, without being broken up by clumps or -irregular lines of trees; and care must be taken that the supplies of -moisture and of water are not prejudiced by too much felling. But these -details may safely be left to Mr. McIvor, who now has the assistance of -two well-instructed English gardeners, named Batcock and Lyall; and he -will be able to obtain uniform and constant yearly supplies of bark, -without any damage to the trees, which, when once full-grown, will -thrive luxuriantly, and yield abundance of seeds. - -The most suitable positions for chinchona-plants, as regards elevation -and climate, having been pointed out, and the best method of treatment -with respect to exposure being decided in favour of planting out in -open ground, two other questions remain to be discussed which are -intimately connected with the above,--namely, the conditions under -which the largest per-centage of febrifugal alkaloids will be formed in -the bark,[516] and the method of cultivation which is likely to yield -the largest and most remunerative supplies of bark in the shortest time. - -One well-established fact, which is proved by universal experience, -is that all the species of chinchona-trees produce the thickest bark -and the largest per-centage of alkaloids when growing at the highest -elevation at which they respectively flourish. Thus, all other -circumstances being favourable, the _C. Calisaya_ and _C. succirubra_ -species will yield more profitable crops when growing at an elevation -of 6000 feet, than at one of 5000 feet. The shrubby varieties of -chinchonæ are specially good when their stunted growth is owing to the -altitude of the locality.[517] Mr. Spruce ascertained, with regard to -the "red bark," that the greater the height at which the tree grows, -the larger is the proportion of alkaloids contained in the bark;[518] -and that, although the trees growing nearest the plain were generally -much larger, yet their bark was by no means so thick in proportion to -their diameter as in trees higher up. He adds that, in cutting down -trees in the hot plains, he has often been struck with the thinness of -the bark compared to that of trees growing in temperate climates.[519] - -There are several other conditions under which the largest amount -of alkaloids is formed in chinchona-barks, which are as yet little -understood. Dr. Karsten suggests that the content of alkaloids in -the same species of chinchona-trees, growing in different ravines, -is affected by unceasing mists in one, and constant sunshine resting -on the vegetation in the other; the former impeding, and the latter -promoting, the formation of quinine.[520] In the Loxa region a great -difference has been noticed in the bark of _C. Condaminea_, according -as the tree has grown on the sides of the mountains most exposed to -the rays of the morning or of the evening sun: and Mr. Spruce remarks -of the "red-bark" trees that the ridges on which they grow all deviate -from an easterly and westerly direction, and that the trees are far -more abundant on their northern than on their southern slopes. The -northern and eastern sides of the trees had also borne most flowers, -and scarcely a capsule ripened on their southern and western sides, -except on one tree of more open growth than the rest. This phenomenon -is due to the fact that the trees receive more sunshine from the north -and east, during the summer mornings,[521] the afternoons being usually -foggy. - -All these points will receive careful attention from Mr. McIvor, in -conducting the cultivation; and his observations will soon enable him -to decide many points connected with the formation of quinine in the -bark, and to ascertain the most advantageous conditions under which the -plants should be cultivated. - -The sites have been selected at Neddiwuttum and Dodabetta with -reference to the similarity of elevation and climate in those -localities to the native mountains of the species which it is intended -to cultivate in them, and because they have plenty of deep loamy soil. -It has also been determined that the best method of cultivation will be -found in planting out the chinchonæ in the open, for reasons already -given; and not only will the luxuriant and healthy growth of the -plants be provided for by this treatment, but it is also essential for -the formation of an abundant supply of alkaloids in their bark. This -process depends on the vigorous action of the leaves, and the healthful -condition of the leaves is due to a sufficient supply of sunshine. Dr. -Lindley says,--"It is to the action of leaves,--to the decomposition -of their carbonic acid, and of their water; to the separation of the -aqueous particles of the sap from the solid parts that were dissolved -in it; to the deposition thus effected of various earthy and other -substances, either introduced into plants as silex or metallic salts, -or formed there, as the vegetable alkaloids; to the extrication of -nitrogen; and, probably, to other causes as yet unknown--that the -formation of the peculiar secretions of plants, of whatever kind, is -owing. And this is brought about principally, if not exclusively, by -the agency of light. Their green colour becomes intense, in proportion -to their exposure to light within certain limits."[522] - -Under cultivation the chinchona-plants must either be raised in their -shrubby form in the open, or as tall trees under the shade of the -forest. The latter system, which has been adopted by Dr. Junghuhn in -Java, is defended on the ground that, in their natural localities in -the Andes, the chinchonæ "grow in damp forests overshadowed by trees." -There are two things to be said against this. Firstly, that it is not -the case; for though it is true that some species of chinchonæ do grow -in damp shady forests, yet they never flourish in such positions, but -only when supplied with plenty of light and air; and secondly, even if -it was the case, such an argument would be worth nothing. In their wild -state, and in localities where they are indigenous, all plants find -certain conditions which are favourable to their perfect development; -but they have to struggle for existence with a multitude of neighbours. -Every condition is not supplied by Providence for the special behoof -of one particular genus, and, in virgin forests, all trees suffer more -or less from being overcrowded and overshadowed. But under cultivation -the case is different. The cultivator endeavours to combine all the -conditions best calculated to ensure the perfect development of a -particular plant, and does not subject it to the baneful influences of -too much shade, merely because it suffered from overshading in its wild -state. Mr. McIvor has very aptly illustrated this point, by mentioning -that Bruce found wheat growing wild in Upper Egypt, struggling for -existence with rushes and other weeds. An English farmer would be -surprised if he was told to sow his wheat in the hedges, instead of in -the fields, because in its wild state it is found amongst weeds and -briars! - -The facts that it will be necessary to wait for thirty years before any -return can be expected; and that it will have a most injurious effect -on the formation of alkaloids in the bark, are sufficient arguments -against planting the chinchonæ in the shade of the forest, and waiting -for them to run up until the survivors overtop the surrounding trees. -It has been necessary to bring these points prominently forward, -because attempts have been made to introduce the erroneous system, -adopted by the Dutch cultivators, into India. - -We now come to the other alternative, that of raising the chinchonæ in -their shrubby form, on plantations in open clearings, with plenty of -fresh air and sunshine. It is the system of cultivation which I, in -common with Mr. Howard and Mr. McIvor, consider to be the most likely -to lead to successful results, because it is the only one by which -remunerative harvests of bark can be obtained year by year, without -injuring the plants. - -Two questions require consideration before adopting this method: first, -whether the chinchonæ in their shrubby form will yield a sufficient -annual supply of febrifugal alkaloids to make the cultivation -remunerative; and secondly, whether it will be possible to take the -required quantity of bark every year, without checking the growth of -the trees. - -The trunk or _tabla_ bark naturally yields a much larger per-centage of -alkaloids than the _canuto_ or small bark of branches; but as a supply -of the former could only be obtained once in forty years, and then at -the cost of destroying the plantations, while the latter will yield an -annual harvest without any injury to the trees, this point is not of -much consequence.[523] - -The fact is that very little _tabla_ or trunk-bark comes from -South America, and that nearly the entire bark trade is supplied -by quill-bark from the branches of shrubs. Some Calisaya bark from -Bolivia, some "red bark," and "West-coast Carthagena," from the trunks -of _C. Palton_, arrive in the form of large slabs of _tabla_-bark; but -a great deal of the Calisaya and succirubra bark, the whole of the -"crown-bark" from Loxa, and all bark from other quarters, is found only -in the form of quills from small branches. I have measured several -of the quills which come into the London market, and find that none -of them have bark equal in thickness to that already attained by some -of the young plants reared by Mr. McIvor at Ootacamund.[524] These -quills are evidently taken from small shrubs, and they yield a very -good per-centage of quinine. Several samples of quill Calisaya bark, -sold in London in March 1862, contained four per cent. of quinine. -Their bark was one-eighth of an inch thick, and the quills were just -under an inch in circumference. In a cultivated state the yield will of -course be much greater, and Mr. Howard, judging from the usual yield of -quill-bark, is of opinion that a large produce may be annually realised -by growing the chinchonæ as shrubs.[525] - -In cultivating the chinchonæ in rows on cleared plantations it will -probably be found advisable to grow them to a height of ten or twelve -feet, and about twelve feet from each other, so that they may be -able to spread out until they are nearly as broad as they are long; -and they should be induced to branch as near the ground as possible. -A certain number of the branches should be lopped annually for the -quinine harvest; shoots would immediately be thrown out below the cuts, -from which one or two should be selected to take the place of the -lopped branch; and in about six years the new branches, thus formed, -would be sufficiently grown to be again removed. In the mean while -the same operation would have been going on with other branches, and -thus an annual harvest of quill-bark may be obtained for any number of -years. Mr. McIvor considers that this treatment will ensure a quick, -uniform, and constant supply of bark; and if the lopping and pruning is -judiciously conducted, the trees will be benefited rather than injured -by the annual removal of a few branches.[526] Chinchona-plants, like -oaks and willows, might also be cultivated as pollards. - -By cultivating the chinchona-plants on these principles, forming -plantations in cleared open ground, giving the plants plenty of -light and air, and obtaining annual harvests of quill-bark from -the shrubs, quinine-yielding chinchona-bark will become an article -of commerce within eight years from the first introduction of the -plants into India. After the first harvest the supply will rapidly -increase. Extensive Government plantations of the different species at -Neddiwuttum and Dodabetta on the Neilgherries, will be in a position to -supply any number of chinchonæ for private enterprise, and it is to be -hoped that the Government will establish other chinchona nurseries on -the Pulney hills, in Coorg, and eventually on the Anamallays. - -As quinine-yielding bark is a more valuable product than coffee, -there is every reason to believe that, as soon as the Government -plantations are proved to be successful, many planters will undertake -the cultivation; and I understand from Mr. McIvor that several persons -have already expressed a desire to give the chinchonæ a trial, and that -he expects to be able to distribute plants by June 1862.[527] Thus -another important product will be added to the resources of India, -while the Government will have an abundant and cheap annual supply -of the most indispensable of all medicines to Europeans in tropical -climates, which is now only obtained at immense expense, and in -quantities quite insufficient to meet the demand. - -In a commercial point of view the introduction of chinchona-plants -into India is likely to prove very beneficial, by adding another -valuable article of export to the numerous products of that favoured -land; but an equal if not a greater result will be derived from this -important measure, in the naturalisation of these healing plants in a -country the inhabitants of which suffer so severely and constantly from -intermittent and other fevers. From motives of humanity, as well as -from personal interest, every coffee-planter, as I have before said, -ought to cultivate a few rows of chinchona-plants in the upper part of -his clearing. Even if it is not intended to rear them on account of -their commercial value, yet such a measure recommends itself as a duty, -in order to have a supply of this inestimable febrifuge constantly at -hand for the use of those who are employed on the plantations. - -Many of the natives are already fully aware of the febrifugal virtues -of Peruvian bark, and it is to be hoped that, in all the hill-districts -where there is a suitable elevation and climate, they will grow -chinchona-trees in their gardens, just as is now generally done with -coffee in all the villages in Coorg. For the use of the natives there -will be no necessity to go to the expense and trouble of extracting the -alkaloids, as the green fresh bark is itself very efficacious. After -the natives have once used this unfailing remedy, and experienced the -power it has over the fevers from which they suffer, they will, like -Dr. Poeppig in the wilds of Peru, approach the beautiful healing trees -with warm feelings of gratitude,[528] their fame will spread far and -wide, and the cultivation of chinchonæ will, I trust, be extended to -its utmost limit throughout the peninsula of India. - -So far as my observations extended, the impression which I had -previously received, that the natives can with difficulty be induced -to undertake the cultivation of any new plants to which they have not -been accustomed, was not confirmed. Not to mention the potato, maize, -tobacco, and capsicums, which originally came from America, and are now -generally cultivated in India, it is a fact that in Wynaad upwards of -2000 acres are taken up for coffee cultivation by the natives; and in -Coorg, where coffee was only introduced about six years ago, I scarcely -saw a single hut to which a small coffee-garden was not attached. -The extent to which the cassava (_Jatophra Manihot_), only lately -introduced, is now cultivated in Travancore, is quite remarkable; and -there is every reason to suppose that the natives will be equally ready -to cultivate a plant possessing such extraordinary febrifugal powers as -the chinchona, the value of which they will soon appreciate. - -Thus will the successful cultivation of the quinine-yielding -chinchona-plants confer a great and lasting benefit upon the people -of India, as well as upon the commerce of the whole world; and the -concluding words of Dr. Weddell's Introduction[529] may, therefore, -with strict propriety, be applied to Mr. McIvor and his assistants: -"Reste la ressource de la culture, et il faut l'employer. S'il est -un arbre digne d'être acclimaté, c'est certes le Quinquina; et la -postérité bénirait ceux qui auraient mis à exécution une semblable -idée." - -While speaking of the incalculable value of _quinine_-yielding -chinchona-plants, it must be understood that I include those of the -"grey-bark" species, which yield _chinchonine_; and it is the more -important to dwell upon this, because a sentence in the Introduction to -Mr. Howard's valuable work is perhaps calculated to give a different -impression.[530] It is true that chinchonine will not command so -remunerative a price in the London market; yet it produces effects -on the system precisely analogous to quinine. To stop intermittent -fever, doses of chinchonine require to be one-third larger than doses -of quinine; but it is absolutely certain that the former is as good -a febrifuge as the latter, and it costs infinitely less. Planters -will of course, in the first instance, undertake the cultivation -of those species which yield quinine, such as _C. succirubra_, _C. -Condaminea_, _C. lancifolia_, and _C. Calisaya_; but the grey-bark -species will yield barks which will afford valuable supplies to the -Government hospitals; and their naturalisation all over the plateau -of the Neilgherries and other hill districts will be a great boon -to the natives. Hereafter the latter species will well repay the -outlay and labour of cultivation. Even now there is a great demand -for chinchonine; the chinchonidine of _C. Condaminea_ is considered -by Mr. Howard to be scarcely if at all inferior to quinine, and Dr. -J. Macpherson thinks so highly of the value of chinchonine that he -considers it to be of little importance whether the species introduced -into India are rich in quinine or chinchonine. This gentleman speaks -from experience acquired by long practice in the East Indies.[531] - -The following is a table of the largest amount of alkaloids extracted -from, and the price in the London markets of the barks of species of -chinchonæ now introduced into India:-- - - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - Largest amount of alkaloids Price in London per lb. - SPECIES. extracted from the bark. of dried bark, - in March, 1862. - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - C. Uritusinga |{ 3.8 per cent. of quinine }|} _s._ _d._ - |{ and chinchonidine }|} - | |} - C. Chahuarguera | 3.5 per cent. |} 2 6 - | |} - C. crispa | 3.5 per cent. |} - | | - { tabla |{ 8.5 per cent., of which }| 8 0 - { |{ 5 per cent. was quinine }| - C. succirubra { | | - { quill |{ 5 per cent. of quinine }| - |{ and chinchonine }| - | | - { tabla | 5 per cent. of quinine | 4 6 - C. Calisaya { | | - { quill | 3.5 per cent. of quinine | - | | - C. nitida | 2.2 per cent. of chinchonine }| - | }| - C. micrantha | 2.7 per cent. of chinchonine }| 1 6 - | }| - C. Peruviana | 3 per cent. of chinchonine }| - | | - C. lancifolia |{ 5 per cent. of quinine and }| - |{ chinchonine }| 1 6 - ----------------------+--------------------------------+-------------- - Price of quinine 8_s._ per oz. } in London in March 1862. - " chinchonine 1_s._ " } - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - -Under cultivation the barks may be expected to yield a much larger -per-centage of alkaloids than they ever do in their wild state. - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX. - -CHINCHONA-CULTIVATION. - -Ceylon--Sikkim--Bhotan--Khassya Hills--Pegu--Jamaica--Conclusion. - - -The complete success which has attended the cultivation of -chinchona-plants in the Neilgherry hills, encourages the hope that -similar happy results will follow their introduction into other hill -districts of Southern India, which have been described in more or -less detail in previous chapters. I have no doubt of the suitability -of the Pulney hills, the Koondahs, the Anamallays, and Coorg for such -experimental cultivation; and trials should hereafter be made on the -Mahabaleshwurs, the high hills east of Goa, the Baba-bodeens, Nuggur, -Wynaad, the Shervaroys, and the mountains between Tinnevelly and -Travancore. - -The hill districts of the island of Ceylon, which have the -necessary elevation, and are within the region of both monsoons, -also offer peculiarly favourable conditions for the cultivation -of chinchona-plants, probably equal to the best localities on the -peninsula of India. Mr. Thwaites, the Director of the Royal Botanical -Gardens at Peradenia, takes a deep interest in this important -measure, and under his auspices there can be no doubt of its ultimate -success. It was from the first determined to send a portion of -the chinchona-seeds to Ceylon, although the whole expense of the -undertaking has been borne by the revenues of India, and no assistance -whatever has been given by those colonies which will thus profit by its -success. - -The gardens at Peradenia are 1594 feet above the level of the sea, and -the following table will give a correct idea of the climate:-- - - ---------------------------------------------------------------------- - OBSERVATIONS taken at PERADENIA, in Ceylon, in 1857. - ----------+--------------------+----------+--------------------------- - | Thermometer. | Rainfall | - +------+------+------+ in | - MONTH. | Max. |Mean. | Min. | inches. | REMARKS. - ----------+------+------+------+----------+--------------------------- - 1857. | | | | | - | | | | | - January | 82 | 79.3 | 74.7 | 1.8 |{ Fine and sunny. Cold dewy - | | | | |{ nights and foggy - | | | | | mornings. - February | 82.5 | 79.8 | 76.5 | 1.3 | Do. do. do. - | | | | | - March | 84.2 | 82 | 77.5 | 5.8 |{ A few showers of rain in - | | | | |{ the evenings. - | | | | | - April | 86.5 | 81.9 | 77.5 | 8.4 |{ Rain in the latter part - | | | | |{ of the month. - | | | | | - May | 82.5 | 81.5 | 75 | 4.7 |{ Showery, with occasional - | | | | |{ gales of wind. - | | | | | - June | 82.5 | 81.1 | 75.5 | 6 | Showery. - | | | | | - July | 80.5 | 77.1 | 75.5 | 9.8 | Continued rain. - | | | | | - August | 81.5 | 79.2 | 77.5 | 6.4 | Showery, with high winds. - | | | | | - September | 82.5 | 78.8 | 75.5 | 7.2 | Rainy. - | | | | | - October | 81.5 | 78 | 74.5 | 14.9 |{ Rainy, with occasional - | | | | |{ sunshiny days. - | | | | | - November | 82 | 77.9 | 73.5 | 22.3 | Heavy rain. - | | | | | - December | 81.5 | 78.6 | 75.5 | 2.8 |{ Fine. Cold nights and hot - | | | | |{ days. - | | | +----------+ - | | | | 96 | - ----------+------+------+------+----------+--------------------------- - -It is evident that Peradenia is far too low and hot for chinchona -cultivation. The _C. succirubra_, and some other species, would -probably grow to fine large trees there, but the bark would be very -thin, and would yield little or no febrifugal alkaloids. But there are -many other localities in Ceylon admirably suited, from their elevation -and climate, for this cultivation, and sites may be selected, well -adapted to the different species, from 5000 feet to Pedrotallagalle, -which is 8280 feet above the sea. Among these is the Government garden -of Hakgalle, at Nuwera-ellia, which is 6210 feet above the sea, in a -climate with an annual temperature of about 59° Fahr., and abundantly -supplied with moisture. Here most of the chinchona-plants have been -established under the superintendence of Mr. Thwaites, who is assisted -in their cultivation by Mr. McNicoll, a zealous and intelligent -gardener from Kew. Mr. Thwaites reported, last September, that the -progress of the important experiment in the cultivation of chinchonæ -was satisfactory. - -In February 1861 the first instalment of chinchona-seeds arrived -in Ceylon, being a parcel of the "grey-bark" species sent from the -Neilgherry hills by Mr. McIvor; and soon afterwards a portion of the -"red-bark" seeds was received. In April six plants of _C. Calisaya_ -were transmitted from Kew, but two only survived, and are now growing -vigorously at Hakgalle. Last September eight cuttings had been taken -from them, two of which had rooted. From the seeds received early in -1861, 800 plants had been raised last September, namely, 530 of _C. -succirubra_, 180 of _C. micrantha_, 25 of _C. Peruviana_, 45 of _C. -nitida_, and 60 of the "grey-bark" species without name. - -In January 1862 I forwarded parcels of seeds of _C. Condaminea_ and _C. -crispa_ to Mr. Thwaites; and early in March six Wardian cases filled -with chinchona-plants, from the depôt at Kew, were shipped for Ceylon. - -Chinchona cultivation in Ceylon has thus been fairly started. It is -exceedingly gratifying to hear that many coffee-planters will be glad -to try the experiment upon their estates;[532] and that Mr. Thwaites -will shortly be in a position to distribute plants from the Hakgalle -garden.[533] - -Chinchona-trees, in their wild state, have never been found at a -greater distance than one thousand miles from the equator, and they -are essentially inter-tropical plants; though they only flourish -at considerable elevations above the sea. The reason appears to be -that one of their chief requirements is a tolerably equable climate -throughout the year, which the temperate zones, with their great -differences of temperature between winter and summer, do not afford. -For this reason sites were selected, in the first instance, both -in India and Ceylon, within the tropics; and indeed this point was -essential for the first experiments, because all the other conditions -of the growth of chinchonæ could not have been found beyond the -equatorial zone. Under cultivation, however, it is probable that, -with other favouring circumstances, these plants might thrive within -the temperate zone, at short distances from the tropic, and attention -was naturally drawn to the hill districts of the Eastern Himalayas, -in Bengal. The usefulness and importance of the introduction of the -chinchonæ into India will be much enhanced if their cultivation can be -extended to these regions, and attempts will, therefore, be made to -form chinchona plantations in Sikkim, Bhotan, and subsequently in the -Khassya hills. - -The province of Sikkim,[534] at the base of the mighty Himalayan peak -of Kunchinginga, consists entirely of the basin of the river Tista, -which, with its tributaries, drains the whole country. Its position, -opposite to the opening of the Gangetic valley, between the mountains -of Behar on the one hand and the Khassya hills on the other, exposes -it to the full force of the monsoon. Its rains are, therefore, heavy -and almost uninterrupted, accompanied by dense fogs and a saturated -atmosphere throughout the year. There are frequent winter rains -accompanied by cold fogs, alternating with frost, hail, and snow. -March and April are the driest months, but rains commence in May, and -continue with little intermission until October. The bounding mountains -are very lofty, and snow-clad throughout a great part of their extent; -but the central range in Sikkim, which separates the Tista from its -great tributary the Rangit, is depressed till very far into the -interior. The rainy winds have thus free access to the heart of the -province. - -The snow-level is at 16,000 feet; and the mean monthly temperature of -the English hill station at Darjeeling, which is 7430 feet above the -sea, and in lat. 27° 3´ N., is as follows:-- - - ----------------------------- - DARJEELING. - +------------+--------------+ - | MONTH. | Mean | - | | temperature. | - +------------+--------------+ - | January | 40 | - | February | 42 | - | March | 50.7 | - | April | 55.9 | - | May | 57.6 | - | June | 61.2 | - | July | 61.4 | - | August | 61.7 | - | September | 59.9 | - | October | 58 | - | November | 50 | - | December | 42 | - +------------+--------------+ - -The annual rainfall is 122.2 inches. - -Of course no chinchona-plant would flourish in such a climate; and in -the latitude of 27° it will be necessary to seek for suitable sites in -much lower situations than in the hill districts of Southern India, -which are in corresponding latitudes to those of the chinchona forests. -In the Neilgherries the sites have been selected at the same altitudes -as those at which the plants are found in South America, but in the -Eastern Himalayas the localities must probably be chosen upwards of -a thousand feet lower for each species--the _C. Condaminea_ and its -companions perhaps at 5000, and the _C. succirubra_ between 3000 and -4000 feet. - -From the sea-level to an elevation of 12,000 feet Sikkim is covered -with a dense forest, consisting of tall umbrageous trees, often with -dense grass jungle, and in other places accompanied by a luxuriant -undergrowth of shrubs. In the tropical zone _Myrtaceæ_, _Leguminosæ_, -and tree-ferns are common, and the air is near saturation during a -great part of the year. _Vaccinia_ are found at from 5000 to 8000, -and snow occasionally falls at 6000 feet. A sub-tropical vegetation -penetrates far into the interior along the banks of the great rivers, -and tree-ferns, rattans, plantains, and other tropical plants are found -at 5000 feet, in the Ratong valley.[535] - -I should conjecture that the extreme limit for the growth of the -hardier species of chinchonæ, in Sikkim, will be found where their -constant companions the tree-ferns and _Vaccinia_ end, namely at 5000 -feet; and that the best sites for such species as _C. Calisaya_ and _C. -succirubra_ are about 1000 to 2000 feet lower, amidst the sub-tropical -vegetation of the valleys. - -Bhotan, which adjoins Sikkim on the east, is a mountainous district of -much the same character. In its western part the mountain ranges are -lofty and rugged, and the river-courses very deep and generally narrow. -The climate is equable, and the humidity of the winter appears to -increase in the part adjoining Sikkim. The steepness of the mountains, -and the influence of the elevated mass of the Khassya hills to the -south, make the lower slopes, which skirt the plains of Assam, drier -than those more to the eastward. Deep narrow valleys carry a tropical -vegetation very far into the interior of Bhotan, among lofty mountains -capped with almost perpetual snow. These attract to themselves so much -of the moisture of the atmosphere, that the bottoms of the valleys -are comparatively dry and bare of forest. The flora resembles that of -Sikkim.[536] - -The Khassya hills in 25° N. lat. form an isolated mass, rising up from -the plains of Assam and Silhet to a height of 6000 feet. They rise -abruptly from the plains of Silhet to the south, and at 3000 feet tree -vegetation ceases, and is succeeded by a bleak stony region, with a -temperate flora, up to 4000 feet, where the English station of Churra -Poorji is built. The table-land is here three miles long by two, to -the eastward flat and stony, and to the west undulating and hilly. -On the south there are rocky ridges of limestone. The southern side -of the hills is exposed to the full force of the monsoon, and the -rainfall is excessive, as much as 500 or 600 inches annually. Further -in the interior the fall is less, and it gradually decreases until -the valley of Assam is entered. This great rainfall is attributable -to the abruptness of the mountains to the south, which face the Bay -of Bengal, and are separated from it by 200 miles of Jheels and -Sunderbunds. The heavy rains on the Khassya hills are quite local, as -in Silhet the fall is only 100 inches. The plateau presents a bleak -and inhospitable aspect, and there is not a tree, and scarcely a shrub -to be seen, except occasional clumps of _Pandanus_. This desolation is -caused by the furious gales of wind, and the extraordinary amount of -rain which washes off the soil. The valleys are open, though with deep -flanks, and the hill-tops are broad. The grassy slopes to the north -are covered with clumps of shrubby vegetation, and the forests are -confined to sheltered localities. Though the rainfall on the southern -side is 600 inches, twenty miles inland it is reduced to 200 inches. -The mean annual temperature of Churra Poorji is 66°, and in summer the -thermometer rises to 88° and 90°. To the westward of the Khassyas lie -the Garrows, which do not attain a greater height than 3000 to 4000 -feet.[537] - -The flora of the Khassya hills bears a greater resemblance to -that of the hills in Southern India than to the Sikkim and Bhotan -types. Genera and species forming masses of shrubby vegetation are -identical with those of the Neilgherry _sholas_. It is probable that -chinchona-plantations, especially of _C. succirubra_, might hereafter -be formed advantageously on the northern slopes of the Khassyas, but -it is evident that the best chances of success for the species growing -at great altitudes, in South America, are offered in the Himalayan -districts of Sikkim and Bhotan. - -With a view to the establishment of chinchona-plantations in the -Eastern Himalayas, plants have been forwarded by Mr. McIvor to the -Botanical Gardens at Calcutta. On January 19th, 1862, there were at -Calcutta 91 plants of _C. succirubra_, all except four supplied by Mr. -McIvor; six of _C. Calisaya_ from Java, and 133 of "grey-bark" species, -of which 106 were supplied by Mr. McIvor, and twenty-seven were raised -from the original South American seeds. Altogether there were 230 of -the valuable species of Chinchonæ, besides fifty-nine of the worthless -_C. Pahudiana_. It is intended to commence a chinchona plantation -on the lower and outer range of Darjeeling in Sikkim at once, with -a propagating-house on the model of Mr. McIvor's at Ootacamund; and -afterwards to form a nursery for species growing at lower elevations on -the Khassya hills. - -There is another region in our Eastern dominions where suitable -localities may be found for the cultivation of chinchona-plants, but -it is as yet too little explored, and the difficulties of obtaining -supplies, labour, and transport would be too great at present to allow -of the possibility of forming plantations for some years to come. -I allude to the recently formed province of Pegu. Dr. Brandis, the -Conservator of Forests in Pegu, reports that it will be preferable to -delay the introduction of chinchona-plants into that province, until -their cultivation shall have proved successful in other parts. - -In Pegu there are four great mountain ranges, running parallel with -the sea-coast, which separate the valleys of the principal rivers. -Commencing from the eastward, the first range is the Arracan-Yomah, -dividing Arracan from Pegu, which is not higher than 4000 feet. The -Pegu-Yomah, the principal seat of the Pegu teak, which separates the -valleys of the Irrawaddy and the Sitang, only has a mean elevation of -2000 feet. The third range consists of the Martaban and Tenasserim -coast-ranges, and barely attains a height of 5000 feet. The fourth -and most eastern range, forming the watershed between the Sitang and -Salween rivers, extends into the large and compact mountain mass of -Yoonzaleen, to the south-east of Toungoo. The area of this lofty region -is a hundred square miles, and several peaks rise to a height of 7000 -and 8000 feet above the sea. The rains are heavier on these hills than -on the adjacent plains, and the temperature is much cooler and more -uniform. The formation consists of granite, gneiss, and quartzite. -Up to 3000 feet the vegetation is of a tropical character, at which -elevation teak disappears, and pines (_Pinus Khasyana_) begin, and -go up to 5000 feet on dry gravelly soil. There are plenty of small -mountain streams on these hills, with running water throughout the -year; and the valleys and slopes are covered with evergreen forest.[538] - -The Yoonzaleen hills are doubtless the best localities for -chinchona-plantations in Pegu, but as yet there are no facilities for -taking any steps with a view to the introduction of these inestimable -trees, which will hereafter be as great a blessing to the fever-haunted -jungles of Pegu as to those of India. The Yoonzaleens are forty -miles from the town of Toungoo, which is at a distance of fifteen -days of river navigation from Rangoon; and until a Sanatarium is -formed on those hills, or some European settlers have established -themselves there, it will be useless to attempt the introduction of the -chinchona-plants. Before many years, however, it is to be hoped that -plantations on the Yoonzaleen hills will supply quinine-yielding bark -to the inhabitants of the plains of Pegu. - -In a former chapter I stated that I gave directions for the -transmission of a supply of seeds both of the "grey" and the "red-bark" -species to two of our West Indian islands--Trinidad and Jamaica. In -Trinidad they did not germinate, but in Jamaica, under the watchful -care of Mr. N. Wilson, the Superintendent of the Botanical Gardens -in that colony, they came up plentifully. By the spring of 1861 Mr. -Wilson had a good stock of all the species in the gardens on the -sweltering plains, where the "grey-bark" species naturally began to -die off, but the _C. succirubra_ plants were doing well, and sixty of -them were quite strong enough to be planted out early in June. On the -4th of June, 1861, Mr. Wilson removed 120 plants, 60 of _C. micrantha_ -and 60 of _C. nitida_, to the foot of Catherine's Peak, which is -4000 feet above the sea. Here he was obliged to leave them, as the -Jamaica Government had furnished him with no efficient assistant. In -November he reported that the plants of _C. succirubra_ were doing -well, and by the latest accounts, dated March 24th, 1862, all the -plants were thriving; but the chinchona experiment is not likely to -succeed in Jamaica, owing to the listless apathy of the legislators -of this colony. They have taken no steps to supply Mr. Wilson with -assistant-gardeners, have allotted no land in suitable localities as -sites for chinchona-plantations, and have thus neglected to secure the -successful introduction of a product which would have enriched the -island, when the means of doing so were placed gratuitously at their -disposal by the Secretary of State for India. - -In our Eastern possessions the successful cultivation of -quinine-yielding plants in the hills of Southern India, in Ceylon, and -in the Eastern Himalayas, will undoubtedly be productive of the most -beneficial results. Commercially this measure will add a very important -article to the list of Indian exports; the European community will -be provided with a cheap and constant supply of an article which, in -tropical climates, is to them a necessary of life; and the natives of -fever-haunted districts may everywhere have the inestimable healing -bark growing at their doors. - -It is impossible to exaggerate the blessings which the introduction of -chinchona-cultivation will confer upon India. Since quinine has been -extensively used among the troops in India, there has been a steady -diminution of mortality; and whereas in 1830 the average per-centage -of deaths to cases of fever treated was 3.66, in 1856 it was only one -per cent. in a body of 18,000 men scattered from Peshawur to Pegu.[539] -The present measure will not only ensure a constant and cheap supply -of quinine to those who already enjoy its benefits, but it will also -bring its use within the means of millions who have hitherto been -unable to procure it. Many lives will thus annually be saved by its -agency. In former ages its use would perhaps have changed the history -of the world. Alexander the Great died of the common remittent fever -of Babylon, merely from the want of a few doses of quinine.[540] -Oliver Cromwell was carried off by ague, and, had Peruvian bark been -administered to him, which was even then known in London, the greatest -and most patriotic of England's rulers would have been preserved to -his country. In time to come the lives of men of equal importance to -their generation may be saved by its use, while the blessings which -it will confer on the great mass of mankind, and especially on the -inhabitants of tropical countries, are incalculable. The introduction -of chinchona-plants into our Eastern possessions will be the most -effective measure which could have been adopted to ensure a permanent -and abundant supply of febrifugal bark; and a debt of gratitude is, -therefore, due from India to Lord Stanley, who originated it, and to -Sir Charles Wood, who has sanctioned all the necessary arrangements, -until this great enterprise has finally been crowned with complete -success. To Mr. Spruce, as the most successful collector in South -America, and to Mr. McIvor, who has so ably and zealously conducted the -cultivation in India, the chief credit of having achieved so important -a result is due; but the author may be allowed to express his deep -satisfaction at having been one of the labourers in this good work, -where all have worked so zealously. - -[Illustration: CANOE ON THE BEYPOOR RIVER. See page 351.] - - - - -APPENDIX A. - - - GENERAL MILLER, AND THE FOREIGN OFFICERS WHO SERVED IN THE PATRIOT - ARMIES OF CHILE AND PERU, BETWEEN 1817 AND 1830. - - -WHEN the war of independence broke out in South America, many gallant -spirits were attracted from different countries of Europe to fight for -liberty and justice against Spanish oppression. Fired with enthusiasm -for the cause of liberty, these knights errant, many of whom had been -distinguished in the wars of Napoleon and Wellington, went forth to -risk their lives for an idea. That they were in earnest is proved by -the fact that, out of the whole number of sixty-seven, as many as -twenty-five were killed or drowned, and eighteen were wounded. - -In this band of brave adventurers, next perhaps to Lord Dundonald, -the late General Miller takes the most prominent place, as one of the -ablest, the truest, and the best. There is a halo of romance round all -who joined in this crusade for liberty; all passed through many strange -adventures, and did honour to the land from which they hailed; but the -lamented old warrior who went to his rest last year was pre-eminent -amongst his gallant companions, for his many acts of chivalrous daring -and bravery. - -William Miller, a native of Kent, served in the British Field Train -Department of the Royal Artillery, during the Peninsular war, under -Lord Wellington. He was present at the sieges and storming of Ciudad -Rodrigo, Badajoz, and San Sebastian, at the battle of Vittoria, and -investment of Bayonne. He had charge of a company of Sappers and Miners -in the American war, was within a few yards of General Ross when he -received his death-wound near Baltimore, and was also present at the -attack upon New Orleans in 1814. - -In 1817, having been placed on half-pay, and tired of an inactive -life, he proceeded to South America, and offered his services in the -war against the Spaniards. He was appointed Captain of artillery by -the Government of the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, crossed the -Andes into Chile, and saved two pieces of artillery, under a heavy -fire, at the battle of Talca, in March 1818. In April he became a -Major, and assisted with his regiment at the declaration of Chilian -independence on September 18th, 1818. In 1819 he commanded the Marines -in Lord Cochrane's squadron, and in March an explosion of gunpowder, on -the island of San Lorenzo, in Callao Bay, shattered one of his hands -to pieces, injured his face, and caused blindness for many days. In -October he was again at the head of his men, leading them to victory -at Pisco, when he was pierced by two balls, one passing through his -liver, and another through his breast. In February 1820, though still -weak and suffering from his former desperate wounds, he headed the -storming party in the boats, in the gallant attack and capture of the -forts of Valdivia in Chile, where he was again wounded in the head; -and in the subsequent attempt on Chiloe he received a ball through his -left groin, and a cannon-shot broke one of his feet. In May 1821 he -landed in Peru, and defeated the Spaniards in the hard-fought battle of -Mirabe; in 1823 he conducted a most adventurous and romantic campaign -through the whole range of the deserts of Peru, from Arequipa to Pisco, -defeating the Spaniards, with greatly inferior numbers, on several -occasions; and in the same year he became General of Brigade. - -In May 1824 General Miller received the command of the Peruvian cavalry -of Bolivar's liberating army, and took a principal part in the victory -of Junin in the following August. Soon afterwards he assumed the -command of the whole of the cavalry of the liberating army, at the head -of which he charged, and routed the division of General Valdez in the -glorious battle of Ayacucho, at a most critical moment. This brilliant -action was fought on the 9th of December 1824, and decided the fate of -the war, the entire Spanish army of 10,000 men under General La Serna, -Viceroy of Peru, being utterly routed. In February 1825 he was Prefect -of Puno, and in April of Potosi; but in 1826 he returned to England on -leave of absence, to cure himself of his wounds, which still caused him -great suffering. - -After a stay of some years in England he returned to Peru in June -1830 but, owing to the factious outbreaks in which he did not choose -to take part, he again obtained leave of absence in 1831, and visited -many of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, especially the Sandwich and -Society groups, of which he wrote a most interesting account; and only -returned to Peru after the constitutional election of General Orbegoso -as President of the Republic. In the early part of 1834 he served in a -campaign against the revolutionary chief Gamarra; and, though defeated -at Huaylacucho, his operations were on the whole successful, and he was -promoted to the rank of Grand Marshal of Peru on June 11th, 1834. - -In October 1834 he was appointed Military Governor of Arequipa, Puno, -and Cuzco; and it was at this time that he conceived the idea of -forming a military colony in the valleys to the eastward of Cuzco, on -the banks of some of the tributaries of the great river Purus. In March -1835, while on the point of setting out on an exploring expedition, -a revolution broke out in Cuzco, and he was arrested by Colonel -Lopera. He was, however, allowed to set out on his expedition, with -two companions and seven Indians. He penetrated on foot to a greater -distance to the eastward of Cuzco, on this occasion, than has ever been -done before or since. - -In September 1835 he again placed himself under the orders of the -Constitutional President Orbegoso, and in February 1836 he captured -Salaverry and eighty officers of his revolutionary army by a very -clever stratagem, near Islay. Shortly afterwards Santa Cruz -established the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, and General Miller was -sent as Minister Plenipotentiary to Ecuador, where he signed a treaty -of peace and amity between that Republic and the Confederation. In -August 1837 he became Governor of Callao, when all customs duties -were reduced one half, smuggling ceased, and the receipts were soon -quadrupled. He organized an efficient police; made a subterraneous -aqueduct 3 feet wide, 3-1/2 deep, and 280 yards long, for supplying -Callao with water; commenced the erection of a college; and formed a -tramway for the conveyance of goods from the mole to the custom-house. -The people of Callao still look back with satisfaction and gratitude to -the period when General Miller was their Governor. - -In February 1839, on the overthrow of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, -General Miller was banished with many other able and distinguished -men, whose names were taken off the army list by a decree dated in the -following March. This unjust and illegal act was cancelled by a law of -Congress dated October 1847. - -After leaving Peru in 1839, General Miller was appointed in 1843 H. -M. Commissioner and Consul-General for the Islands in the Pacific. In -1859 he revisited Chile and Peru, partly for his health, and partly to -obtain the payment of his large arrears from the Government. When he -arrived in Peru the Vice-President Mar, while the President, General -Castilla, was absent at Guayaquil in 1859, reinstated him on the army -list of Peru, by a decree dated December 9th, the anniversary of -the battle of Ayacucho, and granted him his current pay as a Grand -Marshal of Peru, and he continued to reside at Lima until his death -on the 31st of October 1861. It is satisfactory to be able to record, -for the honour of the Peruvian nation, that the whole of his claims -were acknowledged in Congress in a most handsome way, and without a -dissentient voice. But unfortunately the executive in Peru is still -able to set the laws passed by the representatives of the people at -defiance; delays and evasions were resorted to by Castilla, and the -last days of one from whom Peru had perhaps received as valuable -services as from any of her own sons, were embittered by the treatment -which he experienced from the President of the Republic. - -General Miller was a man of whom England may well be proud. He was -one of those characters who combine great ability and extraordinary -daring, almost amounting to rashness, with modesty and diffidence. If -there was any fault to be found in any part of General Miller's former -career, in the camp or in the cabinet, it would be from himself that -it would first be heard. To his bravery and prowess, his body riddled -with bullets, and the history of South American independence, bear -testimony; to his administrative ability the gratitude of the people -of Callao and Cuzco is the witness; his pure standard of honour, his -scrupulous integrity, his warmth of heart, and single-mindedness are -known to a wide circle of sorrowing friends; but of his numerous acts -of self-denial and charity few can tell, for he was one who let not his -left hand know what his right hand did. - -In person he was more than six feet high, and when young he was -remarkably handsome; his features and shape of the head being of a -thoroughly English type. In society he was exceedingly agreeable to -the last; his conversation was always interesting, and often very -instructive; and there was a peculiarly gentle and winning expression -in his eyes. He took a deep interest in the attempt to introduce -chinchona cultivation into India, and I was indebted to him for much -valuable advice, and for many letters of introduction which were of -great service to me. He also supplied me with most of the material -which has enabled me to write the narrative of the insurrection of -Tupac Amaru, the last of the Incas, forming the ninth chapter of the -present work. - -His memoirs, published by his brother many years ago, give by far the -fullest and most interesting account of the war of independence in -Chile and Peru, though the work of Garcia Camba, a Spanish general, is -the best military history. - -General Miller breathed his last on board H.M.S. 'Naiad' in Callao Bay, -on the 31st of October 1861; and the remains of the gallant old warrior -were interred in the cemetery at Bella Vista, with all the honours -which the Peruvian Government could bestow. While the body was being -embalmed, two bullets were found in it, and twenty-two wounds were -counted on different parts of his frame. The most gratifying incident -on the occasion was that the people of Callao, who had never forgotten -the good he had done them as their Governor, insisted on carrying the -coffin. - -One of the last things on which General Miller was employed was the -compilation of the list of his brave companions in arms. Such a list, -I believe, has never appeared before; and as the employment interested -and amused him during a time of much harassing annoyance, it gives me -great pleasure to be able to insert it here, in order that his labour -may not have been entirely in vain. - - - A LIST of Foreign Officers, Europeans (not Spaniards) and North - Americans, who served in the patriot armies in Chile and Peru, between - the years 1817 and 1830, showing the killed, wounded, and not wounded. - - [The rank specified is that which each officer held when killed, or in - 1830.] - - -KILLED. - -MAJOR-GEN. FREDERIC BRANDSEN (French).--Served on the staff of the -French army under Prince Eugène. Killed at the battle of Ituzaingo, -Feb. 20, 1827. - -MAJOR-GEN. JAMES WHITTLE (Irish).--Was present at the battles of Junin -and Ayacucho. Killed in suppressing the mutiny of a battalion near -Quito in 1830. - -COLONEL CHARLES O'CARROL (Irish).--Served in the British and Spanish -armies in the Peninsula. Killed in an encounter with the Araucanians at -Pangal in 1831. - -COLONEL WILLIAM FERGUSON (Irish).--Present at the battles of Junin and -Ayacucho. Killed in defending General Bolivar from assassins at Bogota -on September 25th, 1828. - -COLONEL PETER RAULET (French).--Was a cornet in the French cavalry -at Badajoz, when that place was taken by storm on April 6th, 1812, -and remained a prisoner of war in Scotland until the peace of 1814. -Married and left children in South America. Killed at the battle of the -Portete, Feb. 27th, 1829. - -COLONEL WILLIAM DE VIC TUPPER (Guernsey).--Married and left children in -the country. Killed at the battle of Sircay, April 17th, 1830. - -LIEUT.-COL. JAMES A. CHARLES (English.)--Served in the Brigade -Royal Artillery, and joined the Lusitanian Legion under the late -General Sir Robert Wilson in Portugal in 1808. Upon Sir Robert being -appointed Military Commissioner with the Russian army, he served as -his aide-de-camp in the campaigns of Russia and Germany, and received -the crosses of St. George of Russia, of Merit of Prussia, and of Maria -Theresa of Austria. Killed in the action of Pisco on November 7th, 1819. - -LIEUT.-COL. CHARLES SOWERSBY (German).--Killed in the action of Junin, -August 6th, 1824. - -MAJOR WILLIAM GUMER (German).--Killed at the battle of Ica, April 7th, -1822. - -MAJOR THOMAS DUXBURY (English).--Present at the battle of Junin. Killed -in the affair at Matara, Dec. 3rd, 1824. - -CAPTAIN QUITOSPI (Russian).--Killed in an encounter with the -Araucanians on the Bio-Bio, 1818. - -CAPTAIN JOSEPH BORNE (Irish).--Married, and left children in the -country. Killed in an encounter at Arauco, May 1820. - -CAPTAIN JOHN B. GOLA (French).--Killed in an encounter at San Carlos, -1821. - -CAPTAIN ROBERT BELL (English).--Killed at the battle of Sircay, April -17th, 1830. - -LIEUT. CHARLES ELDREDGE (U.S.).--Killed at the assault of Talcahuano, -December 6th, 1817. - -LIEUT. ERNEST BRUIX (French), son of Admiral Bruix.--Killed in an -encounter with the Araucanians on the Bio-Bio, January 1819. - -LIEUT. ---- GERARD (Scotch).--Killed at the battle of Cancha-rayada, -March 19th, 1818. - -LIEUT. LE BAS (French).--Killed in the affair of Biobamba, April 22nd, -1822. - -LIEUT. CHRIS. MARTIN (English).--Killed near Ayacucho in 1824. - -CORNET DANVIETTE (French).--Killed in an encounter at Caucato near -Pisco, in 1822. - -SURGEON WILLIAM WELSH (Scotch).--Killed in the action of Mirabe, on May -21st, 1821. - - TOTAL KILLED 21. - - -WOUNDED. - -LIEUT.-GEN. WM. MILLER (English).--(See ante.) - -MAJOR-GEN. FRANCIS B. O'CONNOR (Irish).--Brother to the late Fergus -O'Connor. Was for some time Chief of the Staff of the Liberating Army, -and was present at the battles of Junin and Ayacucho; was wounded at -Rio de la Hacha in 1820. He is now residing on his estate at Tarija, in -Bolivia. Married and has children in the country. - -MAJOR-GEN. ARTHUR SANDS (Irish).--Wounded at the battle of Pantano -de Bargas, July 25, 1819. Was present at the battles of Junin and -Ayacucho. Died at Cuenca in 1832. - -MAJOR-GEN. DANIEL F. O'LEARY (Irish).--Wounded at Pantano de Bargas. -He was Aide-de-Camp to General Bolivar in Columbia and Peru, and -subsequently H.B.M. Chargé d'Affaires and Consul General at Bogota, -where he died in 1854, having married and left children in the country. - -MAJOR-GEN. PHILIP BRAUN (German).--Present at the battle of Ayacucho. -He was wounded at Junin, August 6th, 1824. He married in the country, -and now resides in Bolivia. - -COLONEL GEORGE BEAUCHEF (French).--Was at the battles of Austerlitz, -Jena, Marengo, and Friedland. Wounded at the assault upon Talcahuano, -December 6th, 1817. Died in Chile 1840, having married and left -children in the country. - -LIEUT.-COL. EDWARD GUITEKUE (German).--Wounded in the action of Pisco, -November 7, 1819. Died in Chile 1857. Married and left children in the -country. - -LIEUT.-COL. EUGÈNE GIROUST (French).--Wounded at the cutting-out of the -'Esmeralda' under the fortresses of Callao, Nov. 5th, 1820. Was page to -King Jerome; served in the French Horse Artillery; was made prisoner at -the crossing of the Beresina, and sent to Siberia. Married in Peru, and -is now residing at Lima. - -CAPTAIN PHILIP MARGUTI (Italian).--Wounded at the battle of Maypo, -April 5th, 1818. Died in Chile 1848. - -CAPTAIN HENRY ROSS (U.S.).--Wounded at the battle of Yerbas-buenas, -March 31st, 1813. Died in Chile. - -CAPTAIN GEORGE BROWN (English).--Present at the battle of Junin. -Wounded at Ayacucho, Dec. 9th, 1824. - -CAPTAIN JAMES LISTER (English).--Wounded in the affair of Rio Hacha in -1820. Died at St. John's, New Brunswick. - -CAPTAIN HENRY HIND (English).--Wounded in an attack on Callao, Oct. -2nd, 1819. Since dead. - -CAPTAIN W. KENNEDY (Jamaica).--Wounded in an encounter at Rio Cuarto, -where both his eyes were shot out in 1821. Died some years afterwards -in the United States. - -CAPTAIN DANL. L. V. CARSON (U. S.).--Wounded at the assault upon -Talcahuano, Dec. 6th, 1817. Married and left children in the country. -Died in Chile. - -CAPTAIN HENRY WYMAN (English).--Present at the battle of Junin; wounded -at Ayacucho in 1824. Is now residing in England. Married in South -America. - -LIEUT. JOHN HELDES (German).--Wounded at the battle of Cancha-rayada, -March 19th, 1818. Since dead. - -LIEUT. JAMES LINDSAY (English).--Belonged to the expedition under -General Beresford. Wounded at the battle of Maypo, April 5th, 1818. -Married and left children in the country. - - TOTAL WOUNDED 18. - - -NOT WOUNDED. - -LIEUT.-GEN. MICHAEL BRAYER (French).--Was present at the assault of -Talcahuano, Dec. 6th, 1817, and in the battle of Cancha-rayada, March -19th, 1818. He then returned to France, was reinstated in his former -rank of General of Division, and was created a Peer of France. - -MAJOR-GEN. JAMES PAROISSIEN (English).--Was Surgeon-General to the -Buenos-Ayrean army under General Belgrano in 1814, and to the army of -the Andes, under General San Martin, at the battles of Chacabuco, Feb. -12th, 1817, and Maypo, April 5th, 1818. Was appointed Aide-de-Camp to -General San Martin, and became Major-General in 1821. Associated with -M. Garcia del Rio, proceeded from Lima to Europe on a political mission -in 1822, returned to Peru in 1825, and died on his passage from Callao -to Valparaiso in 1826. - -COLONEL JOHN O'BRIEN (Irish).--Served at the siege and taking of -Montevideo and campaign in the Banda Oriental in 1814; was Aide-de-Camp -to General San Martin in the battles of Chacabuco and Maypo; withdrew -from active service while with the army in Peru in 1822. Joined General -Santa Cruz a short time previous to the battle of Yanacocha, at which -he was present, August 12th, 1835. He became a Major-General, and died -in 1861. - -COLONEL BELFORD H. WILSON (English).--Son of the late General Sir -Robert Wilson; was Aide-de-Camp to General Bolivar from 1823 to 1830; -subsequently H.B.M. Chargé d'Affaires and Consul General at Lima and at -Caraccas. Was appointed a K.C.B. Died in London in 1858. - -COLONEL ALBERT B. D'ALVE (French).--Son of the French General of the -same name. Served in the campaigns in Spain and Russia, 1809 and 1813, -and was at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. Died at Valparaiso 1821. -Married and left children in the country. - -COLONEL BENJAMIN VIEL (French).--Served in the French army encamped at -Boulogne in 1804, and commanded a squadron of cavalry at the battle of -Waterloo 1815. Is now a Major-General in Chile. - -COLONEL JOSEPH RONDISONI (Italian).--Is now a Major-General in Chile. - -COLONEL CLEMENT ALTHAUS (German).--Was present at the battle of Junin. -Became a Major-General and died at La Concepcion in Peru, having -married and left children in the country. - -COLONEL SALVADOR SOYER (French).--Was Commissary to the navy, -afterwards Aide-de-Camp to General Gamarra, and for some time charged -with the Ministry of War. Married and left children in the country. -Died at Lima. - -LIEUT.-COL. LEWIS CRAMMER (French).--Retired from the army 1818; was -afterwards murdered with his wife and family by the Patagonian Indians. - -LIEUT.-COL. ALEXIS BRUIX (French).--Son of Admiral Bruix; was page to -Napoleon I. Was present at the battle of Junin. Was killed by accident -at Lima in 1825. - -LIEUT.-COL. CHARLES WOOD (English).--Married and left children in -Chile. Died in England while on leave of absence in 1856. - -MAJOR MICHAEL O'CARROL (Irish).--Died in Chile in 1839, having married -and left children in the country. - -CAPTAIN WILLIAM SMITH (English). - -CAPTAIN MILLER HALLOWES (English).--Was present at the battles of Junin -and Ayacucho. Married and resides in the United States. - -CAPTAIN WILLIAM HARRIS (Irish).--Is now living at Cuenca, in Ecuador. - -CAPTAIN JOHN RODRIGUEZ (English).--Married and left children in the -country. Died at Callao. - -CAPTAIN ROBERT YOUNG.--Belonged to the 71st under General Beresford. -Died in Chile. - -LIEUT. MAGUAN (French).--Retired in 1818, and was subsequently killed -in a duel in France. - -LIEUT. COUNT LUCIEN BRAYER (French).--Served as Aide-de-Camp to his -father, General Brayer, in Chile. - -STAFF-SURGEON THOMAS FOLEY (Irish).--Dead. - -STAFF-SURGEON CHARLES MOORE (English).--Present at Junin. Dead. - -STAFF-SURGEON HUGH BLAIR (Irish).--Dead. - -STAFF-SURGEON MICHAEL CRAWLEY (Scotch).--Dead, Sub-prefect of Lampa, -under General Santa Cruz, in 1837. - - Total 24. - -Drowned at sea off Chiloe, in 1823, while prisoners of war on board a -Spanish privateer.--Major Soulange (French); Captain W. Hill (English); -Captain Robert Hannah (English); and Lieut. Saint Amarand (French). - - -ABSTRACT. - - Total of killed 21 - " wounded 18 - " drowned 4 - " not wounded 24 - --- - 67 - --- - -_Note._--Admiral George Martin Guise, Captain George O'Brien, Lieut. -Bayley, and others killed; Admiral Thomas Lord Cochrane, Commodore (now -General) Thomas Charles Wright, and others wounded; are not included in -the foregoing list, because they belonged to the Patriot Navy. - - - - -APPENDIX B. - - BOTANICAL DESCRIPTIONS OF THE GENUS CHINCHONA, AND OF THE SPECIES OF - CHINCHONÆ NOW GROWING IN INDIA AND CEYLON. - -_From Weddell, Howard's Pavon, Spruce, and Karsten._ - - -CHINCHONA. - -(_From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,'_ p. 17.) - -_Calyx_ tubo turbinato, cum ovario connato, pubescente; limbo supero, -5-dentato, persistente; dentibus in præfloratione valvatis. - -_Corolla_ hypocrateriformis, tubo tereti vel subpentagono, in angulis -baseos nonnunquam fisso, intus glabro vel rarissime pilosiusculo; limbo -5-fido: laciniis lanceolatis, intus glabris, margine piloso-barbatis -(pilis claviformibus lanatis) extus tuboque pubescentibus, æstivatione -valvatis, explicatis patulo-recurvis. - -_Stamina_ 5, corollæ laciniis alterna, glabra; filamentis inferno tubo -insertis, adnatis; antheris linearibus, inclusis vel apice subexsertis, -bilocularibus, introrsis, imo dorso affixis. - -_Ovarium_ disco carnoso, pulviniformi, obsolete 5-vel 10-tuberculato -coronatum. - -_Ovula_ numerosa, in placentis linearibus dissepimento utrinque affixis -peltata, imbricata, anatropa. - -_Stylus_ simplex, glaber, stigma bifidum, in tubo corollino latens vel -subexsertum. - -_Capsula_ ovata oblonga vel lineari-lanceolata, utrinque sulcata, -limbo calycis coronata, lævis vel obscure costata, glabra pubescensve, -bilocularis, polysperma, septicide a basi ad apicem dehiscens, valvulis -sejunctis, pedicello simul longitrorsum fisso. - -_Semina_ plurima in placentis angulato-alatis denique liberis peltatim -affixa, sursum imbricata, compressa, nucleo oblongo ala membranacea -margine denticulata ex toto ambitu cincto. - -_Embryo_ in axi albuminis carnosi rectus; cotyledonibus ovatis -integris; radicula tereti, infera. - -_Arbores_ vel _frutices_ sempervirentes, vallium Andinarum -intertropicalium inter 10° lat. Sept. et 19° lat. Austr. altitudineque -1200-3270 metr. supra Oceani ripas incolæ; trunco ramisque teretibus; -ramulis sæpius subtetragonis, cicatrices foliorum stipularumque -delapsorum monstrantibus, harumce vestigiis in ramis adultis etiam -conspicuis. - -_Cortex_ amarus, Quinina et Chinchonina fœtus. _Peridermis_ varia: modo -tenuissima valde adhærens, e solo _subere_ confecta; modo incrassata -et stratis squamiformibus, e parenchymate cellulari librove externo -constantibus formata, natura frustulatim aliquando secedens, cæterum -arte haud ægre solubilis. - -_Lignum_ albidum, demum flavescens, e stratis concentricis pro -arboris ætate numero variis, radiisque medullaribus secundum caulis -longitudinem singulariter protractis constans; cellulæ enim quibus isti -conflantur hic horizontaliter extenduntur sicutique in radiis vulgo -notis lateriformes seriem plerumque triplicem agunt, illic vero præter -normam longitrorsum summopere protractæ seriem simplicem exhibent; -quapropter radii in trunco nudato (adempto cortice) inspecti lineas -exiles hinc et illinc brevi spatio ellipticeque dilatatas effingunt. -Vasa porosa approximata, seriebus continuis simplicibus ordinata. - -_Medulla_ ramorum vulgo tetragona. - -_Folia_ opposita, integerrima, decrescenti-venosa, petiolata, glabra -varie pubescentia vel tomentosa, planiuscula aut margine leviter -revoluta; axillis venarum venularumque paginæ inferioris in nonnullis -speciebus scrobiculatis; scrobiculis simplicissimis, vacuis aut succum -adstringentem sudantibus. Epidermidis cellulæ, paginæ superioris -præsertim, ambitu vulgo sinuosæ, in quibusdam speciebus humore -translucido tumidæ, particulas foventes innumeras innatantes, oculo -armato mirantique motu rapido quasi vitali trepidantes. - -_Petiolus_ limbo brevior, semicylindricus, subtus convexus, supra -planus vel subcanaliculatus, rarissime in foliis arboris junioris teres. - -_Stipulæ_ interpetiolares plerumque liberæ citoque deciduæ vel basi -leviter connatæ, intus ad basim glandulis minutis lanceolatis crebre -consitæ. - -_Flores_ interdum fortuitu 4 vel 6-meri, cymoso-paniculati, albi -vel sæpius carnei aut purpurascentes, mire fragrantes; paniculis -terminalibus, ramulis pedicellisque basi bracteatis. - - -CHINCHONA CONDAMINEA. - -(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,'_ No. i.) - -[Illustration: CAPSULES AND PARTS OF THE FLOWER OF CHINCHONA -CHAHUARGUERA. - -(_Magnified and natural size._)] - - -CHINCHONA CHAHUARGUERA. - -CHINCHONA CHAHUARGUERA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, lanceolatis, -oblongis ovato-lanceolatisque, undulatis, acuminatis acutisque, -pedunculis paniculatis. - -_Arbor_ 3-4 orgyalis, comâ, frondosâ ramosissimâ. - -_Truncus_ solitarius, erectus, cortice fusco aspero maculis cinereis -indutus, rimis longitudinalibus transversalibusque. - -_Lignum_ compactum, durum. - -_Rami_ erecti, teretes, cortice extus nigrescente, intus pallido -cinnamomeo. - -_Ramuli_ subteretes, asperi, rimacei, colore ferrugineo-roseo. - -_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, lanceolata, oblonga ovato-lanceolataque, -acuminata acutaque, utrinque glabra, subtus nervosa, venosa, -integerrima, undulata, marginibus revolutis, glandulis subtus -concavis rotundis villosis, ad sinus nervorum ortum insertis, supra -prominentibus. - -_Foliola_ floralia opposita, petiolata, parva, ovata ovaliaque, glabra, -marginibus revolutis, nervis centralibus purpureis. - -_Petioli_ teretes, purpurei. - -_Stipulæ_ duæ oppositæ, supra-axillares, sessiles, ovatæ, integerrimæ, -acuminatæ, basi cohærentes, nervo centrali prominente, marginibus -revolutis, deciduæ. - -_Pedunculi_ communes, terminales, axillaresque, subtetragoni, partiales -pubescentes, bracteolis oppositis subulatis ad pedicellorum basim, -pedicellis pubescentibus. - -_Pedicelli_ bracteolis subulatis, solitariis ad basim. - -_Calyx_ rosaceus. - -_Corolla_ dilute purpurea, extus pubescens, laciniis reflexis supra -villoso-tomentosis, villis albicantibus. - -_Antheræ_ fauce parum exsertæ. - -_Capsula_ ovalis oblongaque, purpurea (nonnullæ capsulæ ventricosæ), -bilocularis, bivalvis, valvulis basi dehiscentibus. - -_Habitat_ in collibus Santa Rosa nominatis, situ Huancocolla appellata, -ditione Vilcobamba, Loxa provinciâ. - -_Floret_ Maio, Junio, Julio, et Augusto. - -Varietas Prima, _Cascarilla amarilla fina del Rey_. Varietas Secunda? -_Cascarilla colorada fina del Rey._ Varietas Tertia? _Cascarilla -crespilla negra._ - - -(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,'_ No. vii.) - -CHINCHONA URITUSINGA. - -CHINCHONA URITUSINGA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, lanceolatis; -pedunculis axillaribus terminalibusque, paniculato-corymbosis, trifidis. - -_Arbor_ 20-ulnaris et ultra. - -_Lignum_ compactum, luteo colore. - -_Truncus_ solitarius, erectus, teres, crassus, fuscus, nonnullis -maculis nigris obsitus, _comâ_ frondosâ, valde ramosâ. - -_Cortex_ scaber, fuscus, maculis nigris fuscis et albicantibus, rimis -transversalibus. _Color_ intus luteus, amarissimus, acidulus, non -ingratus. - -_Rami_ erecto-patentes, teretes; superiores brachiati, complanati, -leviter pubescentes, dilute fusci. - -_Ramuli_ utrinque sulcati. - -_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, lanceolata, integerrima, acuta, supra -glaberrima, nervosa, venosa, subtus per nervos et venas villosiuscula; -nervis alternis, rarius oppositis; marginibus revolutis; _tenerrima_ -subtus hirsuta; _glandulis_ minimis, rotundatis, subtus concavis, -circum villis albicantibus ad nervorum ortum insertis, supra -prominentibus. - -_Petioli_ teretes, supra canaliculati, glabri, subtus hirsuti, basi -incrassati. - -_Stipulæ_ duæ, oppositæ, interfoliaceæ, supra-axillares, ovatæ, acutæ, -erectæ, integerrimæ, cauli appressæ, pubescentes, deciduæ. - -_Pedunculi communes_ axillares terminalesque, trifidi, obtusi -tetragoni, paniculato-subcorymbosi, hirsuti, solitarii, erecti, -complanati, foliis breviores; _partiales_ hirsuti, tri-septemflori -trifidique; bracteolis duabus, oppositis, minimis, ovatis, acutis, -concavis, rubris, ad basim insertis, persistentibus. - -_Pedicelli_ teretes, breves, pubescentes; bracteolis solitariis, -minimis, ovatis, acutis, persistentibus, ad basim et in medio insertis. - -_Flores_ nonnulli sessiles. - -_Calyx_ campanulatus, ruber, glaber, in fructu ampliatus, denticulis -retroflexis persistens. - -_Corolla_ albo-rosacea, extus pubescens. _Tubus_ intus glaber. -_Limbus_ quinque-partitus, patens; laciniis villoso-tomentosis; villis -albicantibus, densis, longiusculis. - -_Capsula_ oblonga, angusta, striata, striis longitudinalibus -prominentibus utrinque sulcata, lævis, calyce crescente ampliato -coronata, denticulis retroflexis, bilocularis, bivalvis, basi dehiscens. - -_Semina_ minima, fulva, alâ obovatâ leviter lacerâ albo-pallescente -circumdata. _Receptaculum_ lineare. - -_Habitat_ prope Loxa in collibus Cajanuma, Uritusinga, Boqueron, -Villonaco, Huancabamba, et Ayavaca. - -_Floret_ Maio, Junio, Julio, et Augusto. - -_Vulgo_ "Cascarilla Fina." - - -CHINCHONA CRISPA (_Tafalla_). - -(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia de Pavon.'_) - -CHINCHONA CRISPA. _Quina fina de Loja_, _Cascarilla crespilla buena_, -_Quina Carrasqueña_, Tafalla M.S. sec. Ruiz in M.S. Compendio, Mus. -Brit. - -_C. Condaminea._ H. et B. specimen florif. in pl. x. Pl. Equin. exclus. -specim. fructif. et descriptione. - -_C. Chahuarguera_, varietas (tertia). Pavon, Nueva Quinologia. - -[Illustration: CAPSULE AND PARTS OF THE FLOWER OF CHINCHONA SUCCIRUBRA.] - - -CHINCHONA SUCCIRUBRA. - -(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,'_ _No._ iii.) - -CHINCHONA SUCCIRUBRA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, ovatis -ovalibusque; petiolis nervisque rubicundis, glabris, nitidis; -pedunculis racemoso-paniculatis. - -_Arbor_ 6-7 orgyalis. - -_Truncus_ solitarius, erectus; aliquoties duo tresve ex eadem radice -repullulant. _Coma_ frondosa ramosaque. _Lignum_ compactum. - -_Cortex_ fuscus, nonnullis maculis albicantibus; rimis transversalibus -horizontalibusque. - -_Rami_ erecti, nonnulli horizontales, teretes, _teneri_ pubescentes. - -_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, ovata ovaliaque, integerrima, acumine -brevissimo, nonnulla subrotunda, glabra, superne parum nitida, nervosa, -venosa, venis reticulatis, nervis venisque villosis, tenuia marginibus -retroflexis. _Folia superiora_, floralia petiolata, lanceolata, -nonnulla sublinearia. - -_Petioli_ subteretes, basi crassiores, pubescentes, rubicundi sicuti -nervi. - -_Stipulæ_ duæ, interfoliaceæ, supra-axillares, oppositæ, -subamplexicaules, oblongæ, sessiles, integerrimæ, parum concavæ, cauli -appressæ, deciduæ. - -_Pedunculi_ communes, axillares terminalesque, racemoso-paniculati, -pubescentes. _Partiales_ oppositi alternique, pubescentes. - -_Pedicelli_ bracteolis lanceolato-subulatis, parvis, concavis, -deciduis, ad basim et in medio rubicundo. - -_Flores_ pedicellati, nonnulli sessiles. - -_Corolla_ rubicunda, marginibus laciniarum ciliatis, villis -albicantibus. - -_Capsula_ oblonga, parum incurva, immatura rubicunda, bivalvis, basi -hians. _Receptaculum_ lanceolatum. - -_Semina_ alis dilaceratis. - -_Habitat_ ad radices collium, ad declivia Sancti Antonii, in via ad -Huaranda Provinciæ Quitensis, locis frigidis. - -_Floret_ Julio et Augusto. - -_Vulgo._ _Cascarilla Colorada._ - -In arborum corticumque amputatione, succum lacteum primum profluit; -postea, in colorem intense rubicundum transmutatur, unde _Cascarilla -Colorada_ nomen oritur. - -_Chinchona Succirubra_ (Pavon MSS.) arborea; ramis teretibus; ramulis -obtuso-angulatis flavido-pubescentibus; foliis membranaceis magnis -latissime ovatis petiolatis, utrinque brevissime attenuatis, supra -saturate viridibus glabris subnitidis, subtus pallide viridibus -puberulis, ad costam nervosque primarios pubescentibus; petiolis -semiteretibus puberulis, supra canaliculatis; stipulis oblongis obtusis -carinatis subpuberulis caducis; floribus congestis in paniculam -terminalem interruptam dispositis; ramis floriferis pedunculatis -pubescentibus erectis compressis trichotomo-ramosis, inferioribus -foliosis superioribus bracteatis; bracteis subpersistentibus -oblongo-linearibus, extus subpubescentibus carinatis basi attenuatis; -calycibus turbinatis, basi bracteola minuta suffultis, tubo dense -albido pubescente, limbo cupulari quinque-dentato rubescente sparsim -pubescente, dentibus brevibus latis acutis, dorso carinatis; corollis -hypocraterimorphis brevissime pubescentibus, tubo inferne attenuato, -limbo quinquefido, laciniis ovatis acutis, intus longe (ad siccam) -luteo-barbatis; staminibus subinclusis glabris; stylo versus basim -attenuato; stigmate bipartito incluso. - - -(_From Spruce's Report, p. 104, described from fresh specimens._) - -CHINCHONA SUCCIRUBRA, Pavon. - -_Hab._--In sylvis primævis cordilleræ occidentalis Andium Quitensium -præcipue ad radices montis nivosi _Chimborazo_, alt. 2000-5000 ped. -Angl. (610-1520 metr.) supra mare. - -_Descr._--_Arbor_ pulcherrima, 50-80 pedalis; caudice recto -circumferentiâ 4-usque ad 10-pedali; comâ symmetricâ elongatâ, -ramis infimis longioribus deinde superioribus sensim decrescentibus -paraboloideâ, vel ramis infimis iis proxime sequentibus sub-brevioribus -ovoideâ. - -_Cortex_, caudicis ubi lichenibus non obvelatus est fusco-badius, haud -profunde longitudinaliter rimosus, demum etiam rimulis transversalibus -fissus; ramulorum annotinorum rufescens, novellorum e viridi -cinerascens secus apicem rubescens. - -_Succus_ ecoloratus, cortice autem inciso, in lucem aeremque susceptus -exinde sæpius albescit, postea sensim albescit. - -_Rami_ decussati, angulo 50°-80° adscendentes, teretes, e foliorum -stipularumque cicatricibus annulati; novelli tamen tetragoni foliosi -fragiles succosi, pube brevi deciduâ densiuscule vestiti. - -_Folia_ opposita decussata, cujusque ramuli 4-6 paribus -contemporalibus, cujusque paris inter se subæqualia raro valde -inæqualia, sæpe perfecte ovalia, secus paniculas ovato-ovalia, raro -rotundato-ovalia, basi in petiolum sensim abrupteve attenuata, apice -abrupte acuta vel levissime acuminata rarius rotundata, nitida -subcoriacea (fragilissima tamen) læte viridia ad luteum potius quam -ad cæruleum vergentia, ætate tota sanguinea, suprà sparse decidue -puberula et inter venas plus minus bullato-elevata, subtus pubescentia, -raro in utraque facie glabrata; venis 11-12 cujusque lateris, angulo -56°-59° cum costâ tereti (siccando complanatâ) efformantibus, subtus -prominulis, a costâ ultrà, medium rectis dein sensim incurvantibus -et prope marginem anastomosantibus; petiolo tereti, e folii -laminâ decurrente suprà lineis duabus parum elevatis percurso, -tomentello. Folia ramulorum tenuiorum nonnunquam ovali- vel etiam -obovato-lanceolata. - -_Stipulæ_ interpetiolares deciduæ erecto-patulæ ligulato-oblongæ -obtusæ ad costam carinatæ, basi subventricosæ superne explanatæ, -reticulato-venosæ, sub-puberulæ, juniores pallide virides, adultiores -basi roseæ vel etiam totæ sanguineæ. - -_Pedunculi_ ex axillis foliorum superiorum minorum lanceolatorum -(v. etiam ad bracteas lineari-lanceolatas subulatasve redactorum) -orti, subinde paniculam elongatam pedalem vel etiam sesquipedalem -efformantes, tomentosi, bis terve decussatum pinnati dein trichotomi; -divisionibus basi bracteatis sæpe indistincte oppositis v. plane -alternis. _Pedicelli_ calycesque basi bracteolis minutis rigidis -sanguineis ovato-lanceolatis basi utrinque unidentatis suffulti. - -_Calyx_ parvus dense appresso-puberulus; _tubus_ -subturbinato-hemisphæricus; _limbus_ cupulatus fere ad medium usque -in lobos 5 lato-triangulares carinatos, apicibus sinubusque acutis, -fissus, pubescens raro subglabratus, persistens. - -_Corolla_ calycem fere 5-ies excedens, extus dense puberula, -ante anthesin clavata postea hypocraterimorpha; _tubus_ -elongato-truncato-obconicus, intus glaber; _limbus_ e lobis 5 patulis -valvatis elongato-ovato-lanceolatis, margine apiceque villis densis -albis (siccando flavidis) barbatis. - -_Stamina_, corollæ tubum paululum superantia; _filamenta_ glabra -compressa à basi fere ad medium usque cum corollâ concreta; _antheræ_ -elongatæ lineares. - -_Stylus_ teres; _stigma_ subemersum e lobis duobus ovato-lanceolatis -crassis faciebus unisulcis erecto-patulis constans. - -_Capsula_ stricta curvulave tenui-ovoideo-fusiformis à basi dehiscens, -valvulis dorso costis 5 parum elevatis percursis. - -_Semina_ anguste subovali-lanceolata sæpius asymmetrica, alâ margine -lacero-fimbriatâ ciliatâ, basi angustata et ibidem integra bilobave. - - -CHINCHONA CALISAYA. - -(_From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,' p. 30._) - -C. foliis oblongis vel lanceolato obovatis, obtusis, basi attenuatis, -rarius utrinque acutis, glabratis, nitidis vel subtus pubescentibus, -in axillis venarum scrobiculatis; filamentis quam dimidia anthera -plerumque brevioribus; capsula ovata, flores longitudine vix æquante; -seminibus margine crebre fimbriato-denticulatis. - -α _Calisaya vera_, arbor foliis oblongo- vel lanceolato-obovatis, -obtusis. - -β _Calisaya Josephiana_, frutex, foliis oblongo- vel ovato-lanceolatis, -acutiusculis. - - -α. _Calisaya Vera._ - -_Arbor_ excelsa, trunco recto vel e basi arcuatim ascendente, nudo, -crassitudinem corporis humani duplam non infrequenter excedente. Coma -frondosa incolas omnes sylvæ ferme superans. - -_Cortex_ trunci crassus. Peridermis ejusdem quam in omnibus fere -generis speciebus crassior, e libro facile solubilis et avulsa ad hujus -superficiem sulcos impressionesve sculpturas referentes detegens, -rimis parallelis verticalibus et scissuris transversalibus plus minus -annularibus ornata, albida vel etiam nigricans. Ramorum peridermis -dealbata aut lichenum thallis diverse marmorata, rimis magis sinuatis -et scissuris angustioribus exculpta; aliis annularibus distantibus, -aliis brevioribus subapproximatis. In ramulis denique cortex tenuis -est, lævigatus et fusco-olivaceus vel nigricans. - -_Folia_ oblongo vel lanceolato-obovata (3 to 6 inches) 8-15 cm. long; -(1 to 2 inches) 3-6 cm. lat. obtusa, basi acuta aut leviter attenuata, -molliuscula, patula, supra glaberrima, nitore scilicet velutino a -cellulis epidermidis prominentibus orto condecorata, obscure virentia, -venis pallidioribus, parum conspicuis, subtus dilute smaragdina, -glabrata, in axillis venarum scrobiculata, scrobiculis ab antica pagina -vix manifestis. Petiolus 1 cm. long., virescens, rarius cum costa -rubescens. In arbore juniori folia sæpius utrinque acutiuscula sunt, -flaccida, læte viridia, eximie velutina, costa et petiolo roseis, -nervis supra lacteo-albidis et limbo persæpe maculis roseosanguineis -insignito paginaque inferiori plus minus purpurascenti. - -_Stipulæ_ oblongæ, obtusissimæ, petiolis longiores vel subæquales, -glaberrimæ, basi interna glandulis parce obsitæ. - -_Panicula Florifera_ ovata vel subcorymbosa, vix multiflora, pedunculis -pedicellisque (2-4 mm. long.) pubescentibus. Bracteæ lanceolatæ. - -_Calyx_ pubescens, limbo-crateriformi, dentibus brevibus, -triangularibus. - -_Corolla_ 9-10 cm. long., tubo cylindrico vel basi subpentagono, et -leviter angustato, in angulis interdum fisso, carneo-albescente, -laciniis lanceolatis, superne roseis, villis marginalibus candidis. - -_Stamina_ in medio tubo latentia; filamenta glabra, dimidiis antheris -breviora. - -_Stylus_ tubum fere æquans, stigmatis lobis linearibus, subexsertis, -viridescentibus. - -_Panicula Fructifera_ laxiuscula, haud raro valde depauperata, -pedunculis puberulis. - -_Capsula_ ovata (.4 to .6 of an inch) 10-15 mm. long., latitudine sua -vix duplo longior, basi rotundata, ecostata, glabrata, sub maturitatem -rubiginosa, dentibus coronæ brevibus, erectiusculis. - -_Semina_ elliptico-lanceolata, margine fimbriato-denticulata, -denticulis approximatis, obtusiusculis; nucleo tertiam seminis partem -circiter æquante. - -_Habitat_ in declivibus et præruptis montium, ad altitud. 1500-1800 m. -fervidissimas inter valles Bolivæ et Peruviæ meridionalis, sylvas -incolit, inter 13°-16° 30' S. lat., nempe in provinciis Bolivianis -Enquisivi, Yungas, Larecaja, et Caupolican dictis, et in provincia -Caravaya Peruvianorum. - -_Floret_ Aprili et Maio. - - -β. _C. Josephiana._ - -_Frutex_ (6-1/2 to 12 feet) 2-3 m. alt., trunco gracili (1 to 2 inches) -3-5 cm. crass.; ramoso, ramis erectis. - -_Cortex_ ligno valde hærens, trunci ramorumque schistaceo-nigricans, -læviusculus aut lichenibus diversis ornatus scissurisque nonnullis -angustissimis, distantibus, annulatim notatus; ramulorum -brunneo-rufescens. - -_Folia_ oblongo- vel ovato-lanceolata, utrinque subacuta aut -obtusiuscula, rigidula, superiora præsertim plus minus concava s. -cymbiformia, utrinque glaberrima vel subtus pubescenti-tomentosa, læte -viridia, denique sanguinea nervique et petiolus. - -_Panicula_ tum florifera cum fructifera sæpissime interrupta. - -_Corolla_ quam in varietate præcedente paulo longior. Stamina imo -tubo inserta, filamentis nunc brevibus ut Calisayæ Veræ, stylo simul -longiore, nunc elongatis antherisque subexsertis, stylo contra iis -breviore antherisque superato. - -_Capsula_ ut in typo vel flore aliquanto longior et non raro superne -plus minus attenuata, versus maturitatem pulchre rubescens simulque -ramuli paniculæ. Dentes coronæ paululum elongatæ eleganterque patentes. - - -[Illustration: PARTS OF THE FLOWER AND FRUIT OF CHINCHONA MICRANTHA.] - -CHINCHONA MICRANTHA. - -(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,' No._ ii.) - -CHINCHONA MICRANTHA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, ovalibus -obovatisque glabris; floribus minimis, paniculatis. - -_Arbor_ 10-15 orgyalis, comâ frondosâ. - -_Truncus_ solitarius, erectus, teres; cortice scabro-fusco-cinereo, -sapore valde amaro, acidulo non ingrato; in febribus tertianis usurpari -potest; in commercio ignoto. - -_Rami_ patuli, teretes, cortice fusco-nigrescente; teneri foliosi, -obtuse tetragoni, glabri. - -_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, ovalia obovataque, integerrima, obtusa, -acumine brevi, ampla, marginibus revolutis, patentia, ut plurimum -quadripalmaria, supra nitida, glaberrima, subtus nervosa, venosa, -nervis purpureis; glandulis obovatis, subtus concavis, supra -prominentibus, in foliis adolescentibus circum villosis, in senioribus -deciduis, ad nervorum axillas insertis. - -_Petioli_ breves, vix pollicares, supra plano-canaliculati, subtus -semiteretes. - -_Stipulæ_ supra axillares, interfoliaceæ, oppositæ, ovatæ, integerrimæ, -connatæ, caducæ. - -_Panicula_ maxima diffusa, subracemosa, foliosa, floridissima, -tomentosa, helvolo colore. - -_Pedunculi_ vix striati, tetragoni, compressiusculi, axillares -terminalesque, _communes_ brachiati, _partiales_ oppositi alternique, -omnes bracteis ovato-subulatis, oppositis, persistentibus, ad basim -pedunculorum pedicellorumque insertis. - -_Flores_ numerosi, in corymbos parvos multifloros congesti, -subsessiles; bracteis minimis, ovatis, acutis, persistentibus ad basim -et in medio pedicellorum. - -_Calyx_ minimus, quinquedentatus; denticulis acutis, dilute -purpurascentibus. - -_Corolla_ parva, ut plurimum trilinearis, extus tomentosa, albicans. - -_Limbus_ patens, laciniis quinque intus villoso-tomentosis, villis -albicantibus extus rubescens. - -_Antheræ_ lineares, intra faucem inclusæ, luteæ. - -_Capsula_ oblonga, acuta, leviter decemstriata, fusca, calyce coronata, -a basi ad apicem dehiscens. - -_Semina_ fulva, alâ lineari utrinque acutâ inæqualiter lacerâ cincta. - -_Habitat_ in Andium montibus altis, frigidis, et nemorosis, versus -vicum San Antonio de Playa Grande, ubi Johannes Tafalla, anno 1797, -eam observavit, et iconem, cum nonnullis exemplaribus siccis, et -descriptionem, nobiscum communicavit. - -_Floret_ Maio, Junio, et Julio. - -_Vulgo: Cascarilla fina. Cascarilla Provinciana._ - -_Chinchona Micrantha_, β. _Oblongifolia_ (Weddell). - -_Chinchona Micrantha_, var. α. flor. extus roseis; var. β. flor. extus -albidis (Poeppig). - -(_From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,' p. 52._) - -CHINCHONA MICRANTHA.--_Arbor_ 6-10 m. alt. sat frondosa, trunco recto, -tereti, 2-4 dm. crassitudine raro excedente; ramis patulis. - -_Cortex_ trunci crassiusculus. _Peridermis_ ejusdem tenuis, libro -extus subcarioso vix hærens, plus minus lævigata, sordide grisea -fuscescensve; ramorum lævis, cinerascens; ramulorum viridescens. - -_Folia_ plerumque ovato-rotundata, 12-20 cm, long. 10-15 cm. lat. -basi (præcipue in junioribus) plus minus cuneata vel attenuata, -obtusiuscula, membranacea, supra glabra nitidiuscula, læte viridia, -subtus læevissime puberula pallide virescentia, venis venulisque parce -pubescentibus, axillis pilosiusculis, pilis subfasciculatis. Petiolus -2-3 cm. long. glaber, ejusdem coloris ac costa. - -_Stipulæ_ ovatæ, obtusæ, extus pubescentes, intus puberulæ, deciduæ. - -_Panicula Florifera_ maxima, thyrsoidea; ramulis subpatentibus -pedicellisque (2 mm. long.) pubescentibus, cinereo-virescentibus. - -_Calyx_ pubescens, limbo crateriformi, dentibus acuminatis. - -_Corolla_ alba, tubo tereti 5-7 mm. long. basi et fauce leviter -coarctato, laciniis lanceolatis. - -_Stamina_ imo tubo inserta, antheris inclusis filamenta subæquantibus. - -_Stylus_ brevissimus; stigmatis laciniis linearibus. - -_Panicula Fructifera_ ovata vel subpyramidalis, subconferta, ramulis -glabratis. - -_Capsula_ lanceolata vel oblongo-lanceolata, 25-30 mm. long. 5-7 mm. -lat. utrinque attenuata, glabrata, lævis. - -_Semina_ lanceolata, basi integra vel fissa, margine denticulata. - -Crescit in nemoribus humidis subobscuris montium, nec non infrequentius -juxta ipsas rivulorum ripas, vallium provinciarum Larecaja et -Caupolican Bolivianorum, vallisque Tambopata provinciæ Caravaya incola; -provenit etiam in editioribus versus Chicoplaya et Playa Grande -Peruvianorum. - - -CHINCHONA NITIDA. - -(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon,' No._ vii.) - -CHINCHONA NITIDA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, obovatis, -ovali-oblongis ovato-oblongisque, nitidis, paniculâ -terminali--_Cascarilla Officinal_. (Ruiz Quinologia, Art. 2, p. 56.) - -_Arbor_ procera, a decem usque ad quadraginta ulnas, glabra. - -_Truncus_ solitarius, erectus, teres, aliquando tres aut quinque -repullantes. - -_Cortex_ extus scaber, fusco-nigricans, sæpe ex fusco et cinereo -colore variegatus; intus obscure fulvus, amarissimus, acidulus non -ingratus, in commercio et in febribus tertianis magno usu fit. - -_Rami_ seniores teretes, scabri, fusco atri-cinereo colore variegati, -_teneri_ leviter tetragoni, fusci. - -_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, obovata, ovali-oblonga ovato-oblongaque, -integerrima, nitidissima, decurrentia, marginibus ad basim revolutis, -subtus venosa, venis purpurascentibus, glandulis rotundis oblongisque, -supra prominentibus, subtus concavis, ad sinus nervorum ortum insertis, -villis longis albicantibus vestitis. - -_Petioli_ subtus semiteretes, supra planiusculi, purpurei. - -_Stipulæ_ interfoliaceæ, oppositæ, supra-axillares, basi coadunatæ, -oblongæ, sessiles, obtusæ, intus rubescentes, marginibus reflexis. - -_Panicula_ terminalis, composita, subracemosa, rubescens. - -_Pedunculi_ multiflori, tetragoni. - -_Flores_ breviter pedicellati. - -_Pedicelli_ bracteolis ovatis acumine subulato concavis ad basim -stipati, persistentes. - -_Calyx_ parvus, purpureus. - -_Corolla_ alba, extus dilute rubicunda, vix semipollicaris, laciniis -intus villosis, villis albicantibus. - -_Capsula_ oblonga, decem-striata, rubescens, bivalvis, valvulis basi -hiantibus. - -_Semina_ ovalia, fulva, alis membranaceis oblongis inæqualiter -denticulato cincta. - -_Habitat_ in Andium montibus altis, nemorosis, frigidis, ad Pampamarca, -Chacahuasi, Casapi, Casapillo, Cayumba, Sapan, Cuchero, aliisque -tractibus, et in montibus Provinciarum Huamalies, Tarma, et Jauja. - -_Floret_ Maio, Junio, et Julio. - -_Vulgo: Cascarilla fina aut Quina fina. Cascarilla lustrosa_ -(Pritchett). - - -(_From Weddell's 'Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas,' p. 47._) - -CHINCHONA NITIDA.--C. foliis lanceolato-obovatis, acutis, basi -attenuatis, utrinque glabris, nitidis vel inferne leviter pilosis, -escrobiculatis; filamentis antheras æquantibus; capsula anguste -lanceolata, latitudine sua duplo longiori; seminibus lanceolatis, -margine denticulatis. - -_Arbor_ 8-12 m. alt., trunco recto, tereti, crassitudine corporis -humani; coma parum frondosa. - -_Cortex_ trunci crassus, peridermide rimosa, obscure brunnea; ramorum -peridermis inæqualis, plus minus sulcato-rimosa, brunneo-cinerascens. - -_Folia_ lanceolato- vel oblongo-obovata, 9-10 cm. long., 25 mm. lat., -utrinque acuta, basi cuneata aut attenuata, sub-membranacea; supra -glabra nitida, subtus nonnunquam (ad venas præsertim) pilosa; petiolo 1 -cm. longo. - -_Stipulæ_ oblongæ vel obovatæ, obtusæ, deciduæ, raro basi connatæ. - -_Panicula_ ovata, subcoarctata, ramulis pedicellisque puberulis; -bracteis triangulari-lanceolatis. - -_Calyx_ limbo subcampanulato, dentibus triangularibus. - -_Corolla_ rosea, tubo subcylindrico, laciniis lanceolatis, villis -albidis. - -_Antheræ_ apice exsertæ, filamenta æquantes vel paulo breviores. - -_Stylus_ antheras haud attingens; stigmatis lobis linearibus, brevibus. - -_Capsula_ lanceolata, denique glabra, læviuscula vel striata, sub -maturitatem obscure rubiginosa, dentibus coronæ erectiusculis. - -_Semina_ lanceolata, utrinque acuta, margine denticulata. - -_Habitat_ in montibus altis, noctu frigidiusculis, diu apricis -ventilatisque. - - (Ruiz et Pavon. Poeppig.) - - -CHINCHONA PERUVIANA. (_Howard._) - -(_The "Pata de Gallinazo" of Pritchett's Collection._) - -(_From Howard's 'Nueva Quinologia of Pavon.'_) - -CHINCHONA PERUVIANA.--Foliis oppositis, petiolatis, lanceolato-ovatis, -basi attenuatis, junioribus lanceolatis, scrobiculatis, paniculâ -terminali compositâ. - -_Arbor_ procera ... _Lignum_ compactum, luteum. - -_Cortex_ extus scaber, rimosus, corticem _Calisayæ_ maxime æmulans, -sæpe ex albo et cinereo colore variegatis; intus obscure fulvus, -amarus, fragrans. - -_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, lanceolato-ovata, nonnulla -lanceolato-obovata, alia elliptica, basi attenuata, obtuse -acuminata, juniora lanceolata, scrobiculata, scrobiculis supra valde -prominentibus, nitida, subtus venosa. - -_Petioli_ subtus semi-teretes, supra planiusculi. - -_Panicula_ terminalis, composita, pyramidalis. - -_Capsula_ oblonga, leviter decemstriata, calyce coronata, bivalvis, -valvulis basi hiantibus. - -_Semina_ ovalia, alis membranaceis, valde laceratis. - -_Habitat_ in Andium montibus frigidis Cocheros aliisque tractibus. - -_Vulgo_: "_Cascarilla Pata de Gallinazo_." - -_Obs._:--In commercio magno usu fit. - - _Speciminibus nobis à Pritchett datis descript._ - - -CHINCHONA LANCIFOLIA. - -(_From Karsten's 'Floræ Columbiæ Specimina Selecta,'_ I. p. 21.) - -_Arbor_ vasta, usque ad 24 metr. adscendens, trunco recto, 1-1½ metra -in diametro; coma subovata, ramosa, ramis teretibus adscendentibus vel -inferioribus, horizontalibus, cortice rugoso, fuscescenti, ut plurimum -hic illic profunde transversim annulato, tectis; ramulis brachiatis, -compressiusculis, uti pedicelli leviter striguloso-pilosiusculis. - -_Folia_ opposita, petiolata, petiolo semitereti 16-20 m. m. longo, -supra plano, glabro, subtus pilosiusculo insidentia, lanceolata, -acuminata, basi attenuata, integerrima, glaberrima, in axilla venarum -leviter scrobiculata, et hic facie inferiore glomerulo pilorum obsita, -patentia, læte viridia, nitida, lamina 10 centim. longa, 3-1/2 centim. -lata, petiolo nervisque, demum folio integro, rubescentibus; juniora -subtus in costa minutissime pilosiuscula; vernatione applicativa. - -_Stipulæ_ interpetiolares, liberæ, lanceolatæ, acutæ, pedicellorum -longitudine, glaberrimæ; intus basi pluriseriatim glandulosæ, demum -rubræ, deciduæ. - -_Inflorescentia_ terminalis foliosa, paniculata, e cymis dichotomis -axillaribus composita, foliis floralibus lineari-lanceolatis; -pedunculi pedicellique bracteis minutis, glabris, lanceolato-acutis, -subpersistentibus, suffulti. - -_Calycis_ tubus turbinatus, ovario adnatus, pilis minutis, adpressis -strigosus; limbus persistens campanulatus, quinquefidus, glaber, -rubescens, laciniis triangularibus, acutis. - -_Corolla_ tubo cylindrico 10 m. m. longo, extus sericeo, carneo-rubro, -intus glabro; limbo quinquepartito, lobis ovatis, acutis, æstivatione -valvatis, rubris, extus sericeis, intus margine albide-villosis sub -anthesin patentibus. - -_Stamina_ quinque, tubo medio inserta, paullo exserta. - -_Filamenta_ subulata, glabra, 1 m. m. longa; _antheræ_ lineares, -introrse longitudinaliter birimosæ, basi sagittata affixæ, filamentis -paullo breviores, plus minus exsertæ; _pollen_ sphæricum granulosum, -triocellatum. - -_Discus_ epigynus, annularis, carnosus, subpentagonus, quinquesulcatus. - -_Ovarium_ inferum biloculare, loculis multiovulatis, placentis -linearibus, medio dissepimenti longitudinaliter adnatis, ovula -anatropa, pluriseriata, imbricatim adscendentia, mox peltata -gerentibus; stylus teres glaber, staminibus longior, exsertus aut -inclusus; stigmata duo linearia. - -_Capsula_ oblonga, striato-costata, calva, post dehiscentiam -septicidam, a basi ad apicem progredientem, calycis limbo diutius -coronata, epicarpio cum endocarpio connato, 17-20 m. m. longa, 6-8 m. -m. lata. - -_Semina_ lanceolata, applanata, 7-8 m. m. longa, 2-3 m. m. lata, -spermophoro, a valvis apertis soluto, adhærentia, caduca, ala -membranacea, hyalina, imperforata, margine crenulato-denticulata, -cincta; nucleo ovali sextam partem fere seminis longitudinis -attingente. - -_Embryo_ in axi albuminis carnosi rectus, cotyledonibus ovalibus, -planis, applicativis, radicula tereti infera. - -In declivitate Andium Granatensium inter 5° et 1° lat. Sept. altitudine -2500-3000 metr. supra oceani littora ad temperaturam glacialem in horis -nocturnis fere refrigerata hic illic frequenter in locis nebulosis et -illuviosis nascitur. - -_Tunita_ ab incolis dicta. - - - - -APPENDIX C. - - NOTES ON THE PRINCIPAL PLANTS EMPLOYED IN INDIA, ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR - REAL OR SUPPOSED FEBRIFUGE VIRTUES. BY ALEXANDER SMITH, ESQ. - - -THE following enumeration of Indian febrifuge plants, though, from -the limited time at my disposal, not so complete as could be wished, -will serve to give an idea of the great variety of indigenous plants -used by the natives of India in the treatment of the different kinds -of fevers so prevalent in that country. European physicians of the -present day rely to a great extent upon the invaluable products of the -_Chinchonas_, as the most certain remedies for these disorders; but a -couple of centuries ago, when _quinine_ and the kindred alkaloids were -undreamt of, and when even Peruvian Bark, or, as it was then called, -"Countess' Bark" or "Jesuits' Bark," was scarcely known, and its source -a jealously guarded secret, their ancestors made use of a much greater -number of substances, and highly extolled the febrifuge properties -of many of our native wild plants. Most of these, however, are now -known to be of little use and are discarded from the modern practice -of physic, though amongst rustic practitioners, or herb-doctors, they -still to a certain degree enjoy their ancient reputation. We must not -therefore be surprised that the native doctors of the East, whose -knowledge of chemistry and the allied sciences is as limited as was -that of our old herbalists, should in like manner ascribe powerful -properties to the barks, roots, stems, and other parts of plants which -in reality possess as little value in a medical point of view, as the -indigenous plants at one time used in our own country. - -It must not, however, be imagined from these remarks that all the -plants mentioned below are known to be completely devoid of medicinal -properties. Some of them possibly possess qualities of the greatest -value, and, were they properly tested by the enlightened science of -the present day, might yield products useful either as tonics or -febrifuges, or prove otherwise valuable. But the great majority are -comparatively valueless, and their supposed virtues merely the result -of fancy. - - ALEX. SMITH. - -_Kew, Surrey, April 5th, 1862._ - - -RANUNCULACEÆ. - - -THALICTRUM FOLIOLOSUM, _D. C._ - -The bitter roots of this Himalayan species of Meadow Rue are used -by the natives in intermittent fevers, and have, according to -O'Shaughnessy, been experimented upon by European practitioners, -and found serviceable not only as a febrifuge, but as a tonic in -convalescence from acute diseases. The plant is an erect, branching -perennial, three or more feet high, with large quadripinnate leaves -composed of numerous small leaflets. It is common throughout the -Himalayas, and is called "Pelijuree" or "Shuprak" by the natives. - - -COPTIS TEETA, _Wall._ - -Several bitter roots are called "Teeta" in the Bengal bazaars. Those of -the present plant are brought down from the Mishmee Mountains on the -northern borders of Assam, and are consequently called "Mishmee Teeta." -They are usually packed in little baskets about two inches wide, -made of strips of rattan-cane. In the Scinde bazaars they are called -"Mahmira," and they are likewise said to be imported from China under -the name of "Sou-line" or "Chyn-len," but the plant is not known to -be a native of that country. They have an intensely bitter taste, and -the native doctors esteem them very highly as a tonic and stomachic. -M. Virey says that a decoction of them is a powerful febrifuge, but -O'Shaughnessy states that in experiments made in the Indian hospitals -they did not seem to exercise any febrifuge virtues, though their tonic -properties were very manifest. The roots of an allied American species -(_Coptis trifolia_, Salisb.) are used throughout the United States and -Canada as a tonic, under the name of "Gold Thread." - - -ACONITUM, _sp. pl._ - -The roots of several species of Aconite, common in the Himalayas, are -reputed to possess febrifuge properties, but the identification of the -particular species is very uncertain. Amongst others the most virulent -kind of "Bikh" or "Bish," that yielded by the _Aconitum ferox_, -Wall., is said to be thus employed and also in chronic rheumatism; -and likewise the "Bikhma" of Hamilton, supposed to be the _Aconitum -palmatum_, Don. The little tuber-like roots called "Atees" or "Butees," -much esteemed for their bitter tonic properties, are afforded by the -_Aconitum heterophyllum_, Wall. - - -MAGNOLIACEÆ. - - -MICHELIA CHAMPACA, _Linn._ - -Several of the _Magnoliaceæ_ are known to possess powerful febrifuge -virtues, particularly the _Magnolia glauca_, Linn., and other -American species, the bark and fruits of which are greatly used in -intermittent fever. Among the Indian species, the only one reputed -to possess similar virtues is the "Champa" (_Michelia Champaca_, -Linn.), O'Shaughnessy remarking that, after several trials, its bark -appeared to him to possess the properties attributed to the _Magnolia -glauca_. It, however, contains tannin and gallic acid, both of which -are absent in the American bark. The Champa grows to a large size, -has ovate-lanceolate leaves from eight to ten inches long and two to -four broad, and bears exceedingly fragrant yellow or orange-coloured -flowers, which the Hindus offer to their deities. - - -BERBERIDACEÆ. - - -BERBERIS LYCIUM, _Royle_. - -According to the learned investigations of the late Dr. Royle, it would -appear that this species of Barberry afforded the λύκιον ινδικον of -Dioscorides. At the present day an extract of the sliced root, stem, -and branches is prepared in Nipal and the Dhoon, and employed by the -native doctors in diseases of the eyes, for which purpose the drug was -also valued by the physicians of old. It is known in Bengal by the name -of "Rusoot" or "Rasot," and in Scinde by that of "Ruswul." Employed as -a substitute for Chinchona bark this extract has been found to be a -most valuable remedial agent in common and tertian agues, checking the -fever in three days. The skin is invariably moist during its action. -The plant is a small stiff shrub with twiggy, pale-barked branches -armed with conical tripartite spines, and bearing clusters of small -obovate-lanceolate leaves, either entire or with spiny teeth along the -edges. - - -MENISPERMACEÆ. - - -TINOSPORA CORDIFOLIA, _Miers_ (= _Cocculus cordifolius_, D. C., and -_Menispermum cordifolium_, Willd.). - -A tall, climbing shrub with rough corky bark, and broad, heart-shaped, -pointed leaves from two to four inches long, upon stalks of about the -same length; common in woods throughout the peninsula of India and in -Ceylon, and known in the former country by the name of "Guluncha" or -"Gurcha," and amongst the Cinghalese by that of "Rassakinda." All parts -of the plant have a bitter taste, and an infusion of the young stems -and leaves is highly esteemed by the native physicians as a febrifuge -medicine, and also as a tonic, while in some districts it is looked -upon as a certain cure for poisonous snake-bites. Ainslie says that the -bruised plant is put into the water drunk by the Brahmins at some of -their religious ceremonies. - - -TINOSPORA CRISPA, _Miers_ (= _Cocculus crispus_, D. C., and -_Menispermum crispum_, Linn.). - -This is closely allied to the above, and is known by the same name, -"Guluncha." It has smooth bark, more oval and less heart-shaped leaves -on shorter stalks. Like the last it is greatly valued in the treatment -of intermittent fever; but the natives in Silhet consider that it is -more efficacious when found climbing upon mango-trees. It is found in -Silhet and Pegu, and in several of the Indian islands. - - -CISSAMPELOS PAREIRA, _Linn._ - -The woody stems of this widely spread tropical plant are used in -a variety of diseases, and amongst others in fevers, but it is -principally valued for its antilithic properties, on account of which -it is admitted into our Pharmacopœias under the name of Pareira-brava. -It is a tall, hard-wooded climber, indigenous to the tropics of both -hemispheres, and is found in all parts of India. In Ceylon, where it is -also used as a fever medicine, it is called "Deyamitta." - - -CAPPARIDACEÆ. - - -GYNANDROPSIS PENTAPHYLLA, _D. C._ (= _Cleome pentaphylla_, Linn.). - -A decoction of the little black seeds of this plant is considered -useful in typhus fever, and in convulsive affections. The plant is -called "Vaylee" in the Tamul language; "Hurhuriya" in Bengalese; -"Caraila" by the Hindus; and "Waila" by the Cinghalese. It is an annual -plant, a foot or more in height, with hairy stems, and palmately -divided leaves usually with five, but sometimes with seven or only -three segments. - - -CRATÆVA NURVALA, _Ham._ (= _Cratæva Tapia_, Burm.). - -A small tree, fifteen to twenty feet high, common on the banks of -rivers on the Malabar coast and in Mysore, producing an astringent -bark, a decoction of which is prescribed as a tonic in both -intermittent and typhus fevers. The Sanscrit name of the plant is -"Varuna," and it is the "Nurvala" of Rheede's Hortus Malabaricus, -according to Hamilton, who says that the real name of the plant in the -Malabar dialect is "Vala," the prefix "Nur" (water) merely denoting the -localities in which the tree is found. - - -MORINGACEÆ. - - -MORINGA PTERYGOSPERMA, _Gaertn._ (= _Hyperanthera Moringa_, Vahl.). - -Well known in India as the Horse-radish tree, on account of its roots -possessing a pungent odour and biting aromatic taste similar to -those of our common horse-radish, for which they are substituted by -European residents in both the East and West Indies. They are also -used medicinally by the native doctors as a stimulant in paralysis and -intermittent fevers, and are also considered valuable as a rubefacient. -"Morunghy," from which the generic name adopted by modern botanists has -been derived, is the Tamul name; and "Sujna" or "Salijuna," the Hindu. -It is a small tree, seldom more than twenty feet high, and has large -compound three-times pinnated leaves, and axillary bunches of whitish -flowers, producing long pendulous three-sided fruits, containing -numerous winged seeds, which some authors regard as the source of the -celebrated Ben-oil. - - -CARYOPHYLLACEÆ. - - -MOLLUGO CERVIANA, _Ser._ (= _Pharnaceum Cervianum_, Linn.). - -This little herb is used as a medicine in fevers in Ceylon, where it -is called "Pat-paadagan;" and as the plant is also found in the Indian -peninsula, it is most probably employed in a similar manner by the -Hindu doctors. The order to which it belongs is remarkable for little -besides the presence of _saponine_ in several species. - - -MALVACEÆ. - - -SIDA ACUTA, _Burm._ (= _Sida lanceolata_, Retz.). - -The roots of this have an intensely bitter taste, and their infusion, -in conjunction with ginger, is prescribed in cases of intermittent -fever, for which they have also been tried in the Indian hospitals, but -without satisfactory results, though they were found to possess some -medicinal virtues as a tonic. The plant is called "Pata" in Sanscrit; -and "Malaytanghie" in Tamul. It is a shrub with narrow lance-shaped, -pointed leaves, coarsely toothed along the edges, and either smooth or -sprinkled with bristly hairs, especially on the veins underneath. - - -PAVONIA ZEYLANICA, _Cav._ (= _Hibiscus Zeylanicus_, Linn.). - -A tall annual plant, with variable leaves, the lower ones being -roundish heart-shaped, and the upper deeply three to five lobed, and -whitish or pale-red flowers. It is called "Sittamootie" in Tamul, and -an infusion of the root is administered in fevers, but Ainslie states -that it does not appear to possess any virtues. - - -OLACACEÆ. - - -OLAX ZEYLANICA, _Linn._ - -A small tree, native of Ceylon and of some parts of India, yielding -a fœtid, salt-tasted wood, which is employed in putrid fevers. The -Cinghalese, who call the tree "Malla," eat the leaves in their curries. - - -AURANTIACEÆ. - - -ÆGLE MARMELOS, _Corr._ (= _Cratæva Marmelos_, Linn.). - -The Bengal Quince-tree. Almost every part of this tree is used -medicinally by the native Indian doctors. In fever cases a decoction of -the bark of the root, and also of the stem, is employed, but when the -latter is used it is generally combined with a great variety of other -substances. The expressed juice of the leaves, diluted with water, -is also administered in incipient fevers and colds. The fruit is a -valuable remedy in diarrhœa and dysentery, and has been successfully -employed in those complaints by medical men in this country. It is a -tree of moderate size, with its young branches furnished with sharp -spines, and has ternate or rarely pinnate leaves, and axillary panicles -of few large fragrant flowers. It has a great number of vernacular -names. In Hindustanee and Bengalee it is called "Bael, Bêl, or Bêla;" -in Telinga, "Maredoo;" in Tamul, "Willamarvum;" in Malayan, "Tanghula," -&c. - - -MELIACEÆ. - - -AZADIRACHTA INDICA, _A. de Juss._ (= _Melia Azadirachta_, Linn.). - -The bitter astringent bark of this tree, the Neem or Margosa tree of -India, is considered by the native doctors to be a most valuable tonic -and febrifuge, and it has been successfully employed as a substitute -for Chinchona-bark by English physicians in India. A bitter principle -called _Azadirine_ has been obtained from it. Other parts of the tree -are likewise reputed to possess medicinal properties: the bitter oil -obtained from the pericarp being employed as an anthelmintic, and the -olive-like fruit itself in leprosy, while the leaves are universally -used in India for poultices. The Neem forms a large ornamental tree, -and has pinnate leaves with unequal-sided smooth leaflets sharply -toothed at the edges, and loose axillary panicles of bluish flowers. -"Neem" or "Nim" is its Hindustanee and Bengalee name; "Nimba," in -Sanscrit; "Vaypun" or "Vapan," in Tamul; and "Kohomba," in Cinghalese. - - -CEDRELACEÆ. - - -CEDRELA TOONA, _Roxb._ - -The Toon-tree grows to a large size, and yields a valuable reddish -timber, resembling some kinds of mahogany. It has abruptly pinnate -leaves composed of from six to twelve pairs of opposite, usually -entire, smooth leaflets of an ovate-lanceolate shape; and its flowers -are small, yellowish, and sweet-scented, and are disposed in terminal -drooping panicles. Toon bark is powerfully astringent, but is said -to be devoid of bitterness. It is much esteemed in the treatment of -intermittent fever, though seldom administered alone, but generally -prescribed in combination with the excessively bitter seed of the -_Guilandina Bonducella_. The flowers yield a yellow dye, but the colour -is not permanent. - - -SOYMIDA FEBRIFUGA, _A. de Juss._ (= _Swietenia febrifuga_, Roxb.). - -The specific name of this tree indicates its use as a medicine in -fevers. The part employed is the bark, which is of a reddish colour and -has a very bitter, slightly astringent, but not unpleasant taste. It -was long ago highly recommended as a substitute for Peruvian bark by -several English doctors in India, and appears to possess considerable -medicinal virtues, though Ainslie found that when given in large doses -it deranged the nervous system, occasioned vertigo and subsequent -stupor. The tree is called "Shemmarum" by the Tamuls; "Soimido" by the -Telingas (whence the generic name adopted by botanists); and "Rohuna" -by the Bengalese. It is a very large, hard-wooded tree, with abruptly -pinnate leaves composed of from three to six pairs of opposite, -oval-oblong blunt leaflets; and produces large panicles of small -yellowish flowers towards the points of the young branches. - -The bark of another large Indian tree belonging to this order, the -"Chikrassee" of the Bengalese (_Chickrassia tabularis_, A. de Juss.), -is a powerful astringent, but, like the Toon bark, devoid of bitterness. - - -OXALIDACEÆ. - - -AVERRHOA BILIMBI, _Linn._ - -A syrup prepared with the juice of the excessively acid gherkin-like -fruits of the Bilimbi is used by the native doctors in the treatment -of fevers, as also is a conserve of the flowers. The Bilimbi is a -small tree, with unequally pinnate leaves, which, like those of the -well-known sensitive plant, are irritable and close their leaflets -together when touched. Its fruits are commonly used for pickling by -Europeans, both in the East and in the West Indies. - - -XANTHOXYLACEÆ. - - -TODDALIA ACULEATA, _Pers._ (= _Scopolia aculeata_, Smith). - -Powerful stimulating properties are ascribed to all parts of this -plant. The fresh bark of its root is administered by the Telinga -physicians, who call the plant "Conda cashinda," for the cure of the -kind of remittent fever known by the name of "hill fever," from its -being caught in the jungles of the Indian hills. It is a moderately -tall shrub with prickly stems and branches, alternate, trifoliate, -smooth leaves marked with numberless pellucid dots, and usually having -prickles on their stalks and on the midribs of the leaflets; and its -flowers, which are whitish and strong scented, are borne in simple or -compound racemes. Its Cinghalese name is "Koodoomirris-wel." - - -SIMARUBACEÆ. - - -SAMADERA INDICA, _Gaertn._ - -All parts of this tree partake of the excessively bitter qualities -common to the order. The decoction of the rasped wood has recently been -extensively and successfully employed in Ceylon, in the treatment of -intermittent fever, and is recommended to be given in combination with -Myrobalan galls. The wood is of a pale colour, resembling quassia-wood, -and is very light. The tree is indigenous to Ceylon, and also to the -Indian peninsula, and is the "Karin-njotti" of Rheede. It attains a -considerable size, and has oblong-elliptical, alternate leaves, and -long, pendulous, compressed flower-stalks, divided at the top into a -many-flowered umbel. The bark, called "Niepa bark," also possesses -febrifugal properties. - - -RHAMNACEÆ. - - -ZIZYPHUS JUJUBA, _Lam._ (= _Rhamnus Jujuba_, Linn.) - -The root of this common Indian tree is a reputed febrifuge, and an -infusion of it, combined with some warm seed, is said to be employed -as such in the Moluccas, while the bark is used in diarrhœa. It is a -small tree, with prickly branches, usually having the spines in pairs, -and elliptical or oblong obtuse leaves, covered on the under side, as -also are the branches, with dense short tawny tomentum, and it bears -small greenish-yellow flowers, which produce roundish, yellow, edible -fruits about the size of cherries. Its Sanscrit name is "Vadari," and -its Bengalese "Kool." - - -LEGUMINOSÆ. - - -CASSIA FISTULA, _Linn._ (= _Cathartocarpus Fistula_, Pers.). - -The black, sweet-tasted pulp contained in the long cylindrical -pipe-like pods of this common tropical plant is well known as a gentle -laxative medicine; and its roots are reputed to be an excellent -febrifuge. It is the "Sonali" of the Bengalese, the "Amultas" of the -Hindus, and the "Ahalla" of the Cinghalese, and is a moderately large -tree, with very long pinnate leaves, and loose drooping racemes of -bright-yellow fragrant flowers. - - -GUILANDINA BONDUCELLA, _Linn._ (= _Cæsalpinia Bonducella_, Fleming). - -The seeds and bark, but particularly the former, have an intensely -bitter taste, and are supposed to possess powerful tonic virtues. -The seeds, called Bonduc nuts, are lead or ash coloured and most -excessively hard. Their cotyledons, powdered and combined with spices -or other medicinal substances, are prescribed with beneficial results -in intermittent fever. The root is also said to be a good tonic in -dyspeptic complaints; in fact, all parts of the plant are reputed to -possess medicinal properties. The plant is a prickly, trailing shrub, -with abruptly twice-pinnate leaves, each pinna consisting of from five -to eight pairs of oval leaflets, and bears racemes of rusty-yellow -flowers. The Tamuls call it "Kalichikai;" the Telingas "Getsakaia;" -the Hindus "Cat-caleyi" and "Natacaranja;" and the Cinghalese -"Koombooroo-wel." It is a common plant throughout the tropics of both -hemispheres. - - -PHASEOLUS TRILOBUS, _Roth._ (= _Dolichos trilobus_, Linn.). - -Ainslie says that "this plant was brought to Dr. F. Hamilton in Bahar, -where he was informed by the Vytians of that district that the fresh -herb was given in decoction in cases of irregular fever." It is a -procumbent, spreading, herbaceous plant, with leaves composed of three -roundish, entire, or three-lobed leaflets on long stalks, and bears a -few pea-like flowers at the ends of long ascending stalks. - - -ORMOCARPUM SENNOIDES, _D. C._ (= _Hedysarum sennoides_, Willd.). - -A shrub with glutinous hairy shoots, unequally pinnate leaves, and -short axillary racemes bearing a few pea-like flowers, producing -jointed pods. The decoction of the roots of this shrub, which is called -"Caat Morungie" in the Tamul language, and "Adivie moonaga" in Telinga, -is prescribed by the native physicians as a tonic and stimulant in -fevers, and a liniment made of the powdered bark and sesamum oil is -applied externally in paralysis and lumbago. - - -COMBRETACEÆ. - - -TERMINALIA TOMENTOSA, _W. et A._ (= _Terminalia alata_, Roth.). - -This is a large tree with deeply-cracked bark, and nearly opposite, -linear, oblong, obtuse leaves, somewhat cordate at the base, crenulate, -and clothed with pubescence underneath. It is the "Peea-sal" or "Usan" -of the Bengalese; the "Nella madoo" of the Telingas; and the "Aans" -of the Hindus. The reddish-brown, cracked bark has a strong but not -unpleasant astringent taste, and is classed amongst the febrifuge -medicines by the native doctors: powdered and mixed with oil it is -employed in apthæ. - - -MYRTACEÆ. - - -SYZYGIUM CARYOPHYLLIFOLIUM, _D. C._ (= _Calyptranthes -caryophyllifolia_, Willd.). - -"Nawel" of the Tamuls; "Nereddie" of the Telingas; and "Madang" of -the Cinghalese. The thick, brownish-coloured bark of this tree has an -astringent, slightly aromatic taste, and a decoction of it is sometimes -prescribed by native doctors in fevers and bowel complaints, and is -also employed as a wash for foul ulcers. It has been recommended as a -tanning substance, but it does not possess sufficient astringency to -render it suitable for that purpose. The tree has smooth, entire leaves -of an oblong-lanceolate shape and attenuated at the base, and bears -cymose panicles of flowers upon the old branches, producing little -edible fruits about the size of peas. - - -BARRINGTONIACEÆ. - - -BARRINGTONIA RACEMOSA, _Roxb._ (= _Eugenia racemosa_, Linn.). - -"Cadapum" (Tam.); "Kamtee" (Tel.); and "Deya-midella" (Cing.). Ainslie -says that the reddish-coloured bark of the Cadapum is supposed -to possess virtues similar to those of Chinchona bark. Medicinal -properties are also ascribed to the root and seed, both of which -have a bitter though not unpleasant taste. It is a large tree, with -cuneate-oblong, acuminate, serrulate leaves, crowded together towards -the ends of the branches, and long pendulous racemes of large flowers, -producing ovate, bluntly quadrangular fruits. - - -CUCURBITACEÆ. - -ZANONIA INDICA, _Linn._ - -Mr. Thwaites says that the Cinghalese value this plant as a febrifuge, -and call it "Wal-rasakinda." It is also found in India, and is the -"Penar-valli" of Rheede's Hortus Malabaricus. The plant is a climber, -supporting itself by means of tendrils, and has alternate, elliptical, -pointed leaves, slightly cordate at the base, and axillary racemes of -flowers. - - -TRICHOSANTHES CUCUMERINA, _Linn._ - -This is another cucurbitaceous plant much used by the Cinghalese as a -febrifuge, and from the experiments made with it in the hospitals at -Badulla it appears to possess considerable efficacy. It is astringent -and contains a bitter principle, which it yields to boiling water, and -is therefore recommended to be used in the form of an infusion, made -with the dried stem and leaves. The plant is called "Doommaala" by -the Cinghalese, and is very common both in Ceylon and India. It is an -annual climbing plant, with three-cleft tendrils, and broadly-cordate, -angular or lobed leaves toothed along the edges. Its seeds are used in -bowel complaints. - - -UMBELLIFERÆ. - - -HYDROCOTYLE ASIATICA, _Linn._ - -The Asiatic Pennywort has recently been discovered to be a valuable -remedy in leprosy, scrofula, venereal, and other complaints. The native -doctors, however, have hitherto considered it serviceable only in bowel -complaints and fevers, administering it in the form of an infusion of -the toasted leaves in combination with fenugreek. It has a bitter, -pungent, disagreeable taste, and when bruised gives off a peculiar -offensive odour. The active principle of the plant is said to be due to -a thick pale-yellow oil or extract, which has been called _Vellarine_, -from the Tamul name of the plant, "Vullarei." Its Telinga name is -"Babassa;" its Hindu, "Thulkura;" and its Cinghalese, "Heen-gotookola." -By the latter people it is used as an anthelmintic. Though named -_Asiatica_ by botanists, it is by no means confined to that continent, -but is spread very generally throughout the tropics. It has creeping -stems, and tufts of roundish kidney-shaped leaves. - - -CHINCHONACEÆ. - - -HYMENODYCTION EXCELSUM, _Wall._ (= _Cinchona excelsa_, Roxb.) - -Roxburgh supposed this tree to belong to the same genus as the Peruvian -barks, but no species of true _Chinchona_ has ever been found wild in -the Eastern hemisphere. The present tree grows to a large size and -yields a thick bark, the inner coatings of which possess the bitterness -and astringency of the real Peruvian bark, especially when fresh; but -the bitterness, though more durable, is not so quickly communicated to -the taste. It is called "Bundaroo" by the Telingas. - - -COMPOSITÆ. - - -VERBESINA CINEREA, _Less._ (= _Conyza cinerea_, Linn.). - -A low-growing annual plant, widely spread throughout the tropics of the -old world, and considered by the Hindus to possess medicinal virtues, a -decoction of the entire herb being administered in febrile affections -in order to promote perspiration. It is the "Seera shengalaneer" of the -Tamuls, and the "Gherutti Kamma" of the Telingas. - - -AUCKLANDIA COSTUS, _Falc._ - -In an elaborate memoir upon this plant, Dr. Falconer has shown it -to be the source of the celebrated "Costus" of the ancients, which -was previously referred to the _Costus Arabicus_, Linn. (= _Costus -speciosus_, Sm.), a plant belonging to the order _Zingiberaceæ_. It -is a gregarious herbaceous plant with a perennial root sending up -annual erect stems six or seven feet high, bearing large, somewhat -lyrate pinnatifid leaves. Costus-root is collected in large quantities -in Cashmere, but the only use made of it there is for perfuming bales -of shawls, and thus protecting them from insects, the great bulk of -it being exported to China and Persia, in both of which countries it -is highly esteemed as a medicine, the Persian doctors regarding it -as an efficacious remedy in nearly all the ills human nature is heir -to. Ainslie says that the native practitioners in India prescribe an -infusion of it as a stomachic and tonic, and also in the advanced -stages of typhus fever. In Cashmere it is called "Koot," which agrees -with the Arabic "Koost:" in Bengal it is known by the name of "Putchuk." - - -EMILIA SONCHIFOLIA, _D. C._ (= _Cacalia sonchifolia_, Linn.). - -"Shudimudi" of the Bengalese, or "Kadoo-para" of the Cinghalese. An -annual, with erect or spreading, branching stems, and variously shaped -leaves, the lower ones being usually lyrate, and the upper more or less -amplexicaul, with blunt or sharp auricles. On the Malabar coast the -native practitioners, according to Rheede, consider a decoction of this -plant to possess antifebrile qualities. - - -EBENACEÆ. - - -DIOSPYROS EMBRYOPTERIS, _Pers._ (= _Embryopteris glutinifera_, Roxb.). - -An American species of _Diospyros_ (_D. Virginiana_, Linn.) is -employed as a febrifuge by rustic practitioners in the United States, -and O'Shaughnessy states that the bark of the present tree has been -given in India, but with doubtful results, in the treatment of -intermittent fevers. It is well known as the Gaub-tree, and the viscid, -excessively astringent juice of its fruit is used for tanning, and -for paying the seams of boats. It is a middle-sized tree, with long -elliptic-lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, and whitish flowers. - - -APOCYNACEÆ. - - -OPHIOXYLON SERPENTINUM, _Willd._ - -"Chivan amelpodi" in Tamul; "Chota Chand" in Hindostanee; "Chandra" in -Bengalee; "Patalganni" in Telinga; and "Aikawaireya" in Cinghalese. -The root of the Chandra is very bitter, and is administered by the -Telinga and also by the Javanese doctors in the form of a decoction, -as a remedy in fever cases. It is one of the numberless supposed -remedies for the bites of venomous snakes, but, as in many other -similar instances, its virtues are fanciful, and its great reputation -is probably ascribable to the old doctrine of _signatures_, the plant -being a climber and having a twining stem. - - -WRIGHTIA ANTIDYSENTERICA, _R. Br._ (= _Nerium antidysentericum_, Linn.). - -The bark of this species of _Wrightia_ is included in some European -works on Materia Medica under the name of Tellicherry or Conessi -bark. It has long enjoyed a high reputation in India as a tonic and -febrifuge; but other parts of the plant likewise appear to possess -similar properties, a decoction of the long oat-like seeds being -employed in ardent fever. The bark is also given in dysentery. Among -the Tamuls it goes by the name of "Veppalei," while the Hindus call it -"Curayia," and the Telingas "Pala codija." It is a small tree producing -a white ivory-like wood, which has been tried for engraving purposes, -but found unsuitable on account of it not being of even quality -throughout. It has obovate-oblong, shortly acuminate, smooth leaves, -and nearly terminal corymbs of jasmine-like flowers. - - -ASCLEPIADACEÆ. - - -CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA, _R. Br._ (= _Asclepias gigantea_, Linn.). - -Various parts of the Yercum-plant have long been employed for medicinal -purposes by the native doctors, and experiments made by Anglo-Indian -practitioners have proved that the inner bark of the root, called Mudar -bark, is a valuable remedy in leprosy, and that it may also be given -with advantage in several other complaints, including intermittent and -other fevers. An elastic gum and a valuable fibre are also obtained -from the plant. There are two varieties of Yercum, one with white and -the other with purple flowers, the former forming a tree fifteen or -twenty feet high, and the latter a shrub. - - -LOGANIACEÆ. - - -STRYCHNOS NUX-VOMICA, _Linn._ - -According to Roxburgh the exceedingly bitter wood of the Nux Vomica -is employed as a remedy in fevers of the intermittent kind, and also -for the cure of snake-bites, when that of the next species cannot be -obtained. The poisonous bark is commonly sold in the Indian bazaars in -place of the febrifuge "Rohuna bark," which is in reality the produce -of _Soymida febrifuga_. It is the false Angostura bark of our Materia -Medica. Nux Vomica seeds have also been administered with some benefit -in intermittent fever. The _Strychnos Nux-Vomica_ forms a small tree, -has oval, entire, shining leaves, strongly marked with from three to -five longitudinal nerves, and bears small corymbs of greenish-white -flowers. - - -STRYCHNOS COLUBRINA, _Linn._ - -The "Naga musadi" of the Telingas, or "Koochilaluta" of the Bengalese. -The wood of this species is greatly esteemed by the natives as a remedy -for snake-bites, and is also given in cases of intermittent fever. -It is a climbing shrub with thick woody tendrils, elliptic-oblong, -blunt-pointed, three-nerved leaves, and small corymbs of yellowish -flowers. - - -GENTIANACEÆ. - - -OPHELIA CHIRATA, _Griseb._ (= _Gentiana Chirayta_, Roxb., and -_Agathotes Chirayta_, Don.). - -The name "Chirata" or "Chirayta," by which this plant is commonly known -in India, is derived from the Sanscrit "Kirataticta." The dried stems -of the Chirata have long been famed amongst the natives of India as a -tonic and febrifuge; and they have also gained considerable reputation -amongst European practitioners in India, who, however, have found them -to be more efficacious in the cure of intermittent fever when employed -in combination with the seeds of the _Guilandina Bonducella_, mentioned -above. It is an annual plant, two or three feet high, with smooth round -stems and opposite, ovate or somewhat cordate, acuminate leaves, marked -with from five to seven nerves, and bears yellow flowers. Chirata is -included in the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia. - - -OPHELIA ANGUSTIFOLIA, _Don._ (= _Swertia angustifolia_, Ham.). - -The stems of this species are called "Pukaree Chirata" in the -Himalayas, and are substituted for the true Chirata. The species is -distinguished by its stems being somewhat four-sided, by its much -narrower, sharper-pointed, obscurely three-nerved, short-stalked -leaves, and by its white, violet-spotted flowers. Both this and the -true Chirata are natives of the Himalayas. - - -OPHELIA ELEGANS, _Wight._ - -It has recently been discovered that the stems of this South Indian -species are made up into bundles in the same manner as the Himalayan -Chiratas, with which they have hitherto been confounded in the -bazaars. The plant, however, has a different native name, being called -"Salaras" or "Salajit" by the inhabitants of the Pulney hills; but it -is considered equally efficacious as a febrifuge. It has obsoletely -four-sided stems, narrow, ovate-lanceolate, sessile, three-nerved -leaves, tapering to a slender point, and beautiful pale-blue flowers. - - -SALVADORACEÆ. - - -SALVADORA, _sp._ - -A decoction of the bark of a species of _Salvadora_ is recommended by -Hindu doctors in cases of low fever, and as a tonic. Great confusion, -however, exists among the species of this genus, and it is therefore -uncertain which one is thus employed. Ainslie mentions _Salvadora -Persica_, but it is very doubtful whether that species is found in any -part of India. - - -CORDIACEÆ. - - -CORDIA MYXA, _Linn._ - -Tonic and febrifuge properties are ascribed to the bark of this tree, -it being, according to Horsfield, one of the chief remedies used in -fevers by the Javanese, who call it "Kendal." It is a small tree -with rounded branches, ovate leaves, smooth on the upper surface -but roughish underneath, and usually terminal panicles of flowers, -producing yellow, sweet-tasted pulpy fruits about the size of cherries. -In the Tamul language it is called "Vidi marum;" "Nekra" in Telinga; -"Lesura" in Hindostanee; and "Loloo" in Cinghalese. - - -SOLANACEÆ. - - -SOLANUM XANTHOCARPUM, _Schrad. et Wendl._ (= _Solanum Jacquini_, -Willd.). - -There are two varieties of this plant, one of which was formerly -considered a distinct species, and named _Solanum Jacquini_. All parts -of the latter variety are used medicinally, and it is one of the fever -remedies employed by the Cinghalese, who call it "Kattoo-wel-battoo." -It is a decumbent, spreading annual plant, armed with numerous long -white prickles, and has sinuately-pinnatifid prickly leaves. The Tamuls -call it "Kandung Kattiri." - - -SCROPHULARIACEÆ. - - -PICRORHIZA KURROOA, _Royle._ - -A small perennial herbaceous plant found in Kemaon, at Gossain-than, -and other parts of the Himalayan mountains, where its roots, which -are called "Hooling" in Tibet, and have a powerful bitter taste, are -used as a febrifuge by the natives, and also sent down to the bazaars -of Bengal, where they form one of the many bitter roots sold under -the name of "Teeta." The plant grows about six inches high, and has -scarcely any stem, its leaves all rising from the summit of the thick -root, and also its flower-stalks, which are five or six inches high, -and bear a dense spike of small bluish flowers at the top. - - -HERPESTIS MONNIERIA, _Humb._ (= _Gratiola Monnieria_, Linn.) - -The Cinghalese consider this plant to possess febrifuge virtues: they -call it "Loonoo Weela." In India its expressed juice is mixed with -petroleum, and used as a topical application in rheumatism. It is a -little creeping plant, common in moist places throughout the tropics -of both hemispheres, and has obovate-cuneate leaves, bearing solitary -long-stalked pale-blue flowers in their axils. The Bengalese call it -"Adha birni," and the Telingas "Sambrani-chittoo." - - -ACANTHACEÆ. - - -ANDROGRAPHIS PANICULATA, _Nees ab Essen._ (= _Justicia paniculata_, -Burm.). - -This is the celebrated Creyat, the principal ingredient in the famous -bitter tincture called _drogue amère_, so highly esteemed in India for -its tonic and stomachic properties, and also as a febrifuge. The entire -plant is employed, the intensely bitter principle being found in all -parts of it. It is an annual, with stiff quadrangular stems from one -to two feet high, bearing smooth lanceolate leaves, attenuated at the -base. In the Telinga language it is called "Nella vemoo;" in Bengalese, -"Kala-megh;" in Hindustanee, "Calapnath;" and in Tamul, "Kiriat," hence -the common Indian name of the plant, Creat or Creyat. - - -JUSTICIA ADHATODA, _Linn._ (= _Adhatoda Vasica_, Nees ab Essen.) - -The flowers, leaves, and roots have a bitterish and somewhat aromatic -taste, and are supposed to possess antispasmodic properties. An -infusion of them, especially of the flowers, is given to prevent -the return of rigour in intermittent fever. In Ceylon it is used as -an expectorant for children. The Bengalese call the plant "Bakus;" -the Tamuls, "Adhatodey;" the Cinghalese, "Paawetta;" the Telingas, -"Adasara;" and in Sanscrit it is called "Vasica" or "Uroos." It forms -a tree fifteen or twenty feet high, with elliptic oblong leaves, -attenuated to both ends, and pale-coloured flowers with purple stripes -and rusty spots. - - -LABIATÆ. - - -OCIMUM SANCTUM, _Linn._ - -The Tamul physicians prescribe a decoction of the root of this common -Indian species of Basil in fever cases, and the juice of the leaves in -catarrhal affections. The Brahmins consider the plant sacred to Vishnu, -and cultivate it in the vicinity of temples, while the Malays strew it -upon the graves of their departed friends. The whole plant generally -has a purplish tinge, and grows about a foot high: it has long-stalked, -downy, oval leaves, toothed along the edges, and small pale-purple -flowers. Its Tamul name is "Toolasee;" its Bengalese, "Kala-toolsee;" -and its Cinghalese "Madooroo-tallu." - - -ANISOMELES MALABARICA, _R. Br._ (= _Nepeta Malabarica_, Linn.). - -"Pemayrutie" of the Tamuls; "Moga beerakoo" of the Telingas; and -"Bootan Kooshum" in Sanscrit. A shrub, 2 to 5 feet high, clothed with -short tomentum, and having oblong-lanceolate leaves, narrowed at the -base, and purplish flowers disposed in distant whorls. The leaves are -bitter, astringent, and somewhat aromatic, and are given in infusion -in the later stages of dysentery and in intermittent fevers. Patients -suffering under the last-mentioned disease are also made to inhale the -vapour rising from an infusion of the whole plant, in order to induce a -copious perspiration. - - -GENIOSPORUM PROSTRATUM, _Benth._ (= _Ocimum prostratum_, Linn.). - -A small herb used as a febrifuge by the natives of the Madras -presidency. It has a prostrate stem and numerous hispid branches, -bearing small oblong-lanceolate, serrated leaves, and long spike-like -racemes of very small flowers. - - -ROYLEA ELEGANS, _Wall._ (= _Phlomis calycina_, Roxb., and _Ballota -cinerea_, Don.). - -According to the late Dr. Royle, after whom the genus is named, this -plant is employed as a febrifuge in the Himalayas, where it is called -"Putkuroo." It is a much-branched, erect shrub from three to five feet -high, having the branches clothed with ash-coloured tomentum, and -bearing ovate, sharp-pointed, coarsely toothed leaves, slightly cordate -at the base. Its flowers vary from white to pale-rose colour. - - -VERBENACEÆ. - - -PREMNA SERRATIFOLIA, _Linn._ (= _Premna integrifolia_, Linn.). - -The warm, bitterish-tasted root of this plant is prescribed in -decoction by the native practitioners as a gentle stomachic and cordial -in fevers. It has an agreeable odour. The tree is called "Moonnee" by -the Tamuls; "Ghebboonellie" by the Telingas; and "Middee-gass" by the -Cinghalese. Its trunk and large branches are armed with spines, and -its leaves are ovate or oval, entire or toothed towards the top, of a -shining green above and paler underneath. - - -VITEX TRIFOLIA, _Linn._ - -Different parts of this plant are employed medicinally, in various ways -and for various diseases, by native doctors in India and also in Java. -The part used as a remedy for intermittent fever is the leaves, which -are powdered and taken in water. Pillows stuffed with them are used -to cure cold in the head, and headache. It is a decumbent shrub, with -the branches, under side of the leaves, and inflorescence mealy-white. -There are two varieties: one with trifoliate and the other with simple -leaves. Its Tamul name is "Neer-noochie;" its Telinga, "Neela vavilie;" -and its Hindustanee, "Nisindha," or "Seduari." - - -VITEX NEGUNDO, _Linn._ - -This species is considered to have medicinal properties similar to -but weaker than the last. The decoction of the root has a pleasant -bitter taste, and is administered in cases of intermittent and typhus -fever. In Tamul it is called "Noochie;" in Telinga, "Wayalakoo;" in -Hindustanee, "Nisunda;" and in Cinghalese, "Sooddoo-nikka." It is -a more erect shrub than the last, and its leaves are all compound, -consisting of from three to five entire or toothed or deeply pinnatifid -leaflets, covered with white meal underneath, as also are the branches -and flowers. - - -NYCTAGINACEÆ. - - -BOERHAAVIA DIFFUSA, _Linn._ (= _Boerhaavia procumbens_, Roxb.). - -The roots of several species of _Boerhaavia_ are employed medicinally -by the natives of various parts of the world. In India those of the -present have the reputation of being antifebrile, and Ainslie also -says that the native practitioners include them amongst their laxative -medicines. This plant is a herbaceous perennial with decumbent, smooth, -or rarely pubescent stems and leaves, the latter varying very much in -shape. Among the Bengalese it is known by the name of "Gadha-poorna;" -and it is the "Pittasooddopala" of the Cinghalese. Its leaves are eaten -as a potherb. - - -EUPHORBIACEÆ. - - -TRAGIA CANNABINA, _Willd._ - -"Sirroo canchorie" in the Tamul; and "Doolya-gunda" in the Telinga -language. The root of this plant has a pleasant odour when fresh: -the native doctors consider it to possess diaphoretic and alterative -qualities, and they prescribe an infusion of it in ardent fever. It is -an erect shrub, about four feet high, with hispid stems and leaves, the -latter being divided into three sinuated lobes. Roxburgh says that the -hairs on this plant sting as bad as those of the common nettle. - - -PIPERACEÆ. - - -CHAVICA BETLE, _Miq._ (= _Piper Betle_, Linn.). - -This affords the celebrated Betle leaves, so extensively employed as a -masticatory in the East. Ainslie says that the warm juice of the leaves -is prescribed by the native doctors as a febrifuge, in the quantity of -a small spoonful twice daily. - - -PIPER NIGRUM, _Linn._ - -Black pepper has long been known to possess febrifuge powers: an -infusion of it in some kind of spirit is a popular remedy for -preventing the return of the paroxysms in intermittent fevers. The -root, however, is the part used by the native doctors in India, and -is administered in the form of a decoction. _Piperin_, one of the -constituents of pepper, has been said to be a more certain and speedy -febrifuge than the chinchona alkaloids, but O'Shaughnessy says that -after repeated and careful trials he found it was not of the least -utility. The Tamul name of the plant is "Shuvium." - - -ZINGIBERACEÆ. - - -CURCUMA LONGA, _Linn._ - -The uses of the various kinds of Turmeric for dyeing purposes and as -a condiment, particularly for the preparation of curry-powder, are -well known, both in this country and to the natives of India; but the -latter consider that it also possesses medicinal virtues, and give it -as a stimulant and tonic in intermittent fever and some other diseases. -European practitioners at one time regarded it as useful in jaundice. - - -LILIACEÆ. - - -ALLIUM SATIVUM, _Linn._ - -Ainslie says that the Hindus express a stimulating oil from common -garlic, which they prescribe internally in ague to prevent the -recurrence of the paroxysms, and use externally in paralytic and -rheumatic affections. Garlic is called "Vullay poondoo" in Tamul; -"Lassun" in Hindostanee; and "Lasuna" in Sanscrit. - - -ORONTIACEÆ. - - -ACORUS CALAMUS, _Linn._ - -The rhizomes of the common Sweet-Flag are well known in some parts of -England as a cure for ague, and the natives of the East are well aware -of their virtues in this respect. Indian practitioners also reckon it -valuable in the "indigestions, stomach-aches, and bowel affections of -children," so much so, indeed, that, according to Ainslie, "there is -a penalty incurred by any druggist who will not open his door in the -middle of the night and sell it if demanded." The Bengalese call it -"Shwet buch;" the Cinghalese, "Wadakaha;" and the Hindus, "Bach." - - -POTHOS SCANDENS, _Linn._ - -The native practitioners use this plant in putrid fevers. It is an -epiphyte with slender rooting stems adhering to the branches of trees -like ivy, and has entire, lanceolate, smooth, coriaceous leaves, -tapering upwards to a point and blunt and rounded at the base, where -they are articulated with the winged stalk. - - -GRAMINACEÆ. - - -ANDROPOGON MURICATUS, _Retz._ - -The fragrant aromatic roots of this grass, called Cuscus or Vetivert, -are only employed for perfumery purposes in this country, but in India -they are well known as the material of which window and door screens -are made, and the native doctors, moreover, consider them to possess -medicinal virtues, prescribing an infusion of them as a diaphoretic -and gentle stimulant in some kinds of fever. "Vittie" is the Tamul -name of the plant, and "Vayr" in the same language signifies _root_, -and, by combining and corrupting these, Europeans have formed the word -_Vetivert_; while its other European name, Cuscus, is derived from -the Persian "Khus-Khus." In Hindustanee it is called "Useer;" and in -Sanscrit "Viratara." - - -ANDROPOGON IWARANCUSA, _Roxb._ - -The natives administer an infusion of the roots of this grass, combined -with pepper, in fevers, of both the continued and intermittent kind. -It has a bitter, warm, pungent taste, and fragrant odour. The specific -name is derived from the Bengalee and Hindustanee, which is variously -spelt "Ibharankusha," "Iwarankusha," "Kurankusha," or "Iwarancussa." - - -ANDROPOGON CALAMUS-AROMATICUS, _Royle_. - -According to Royle, this is the κάλαμος ἀραματικός of the ancient -Greeks, and the Sweet-cane or Calamus of the Bible. When chewed it has -a strong taste of ginger, whence it is commonly called Ginger-grass. -The native doctors give an infusion of it as a stomachic and febrifuge; -and they also prepare from it a very fragrant aromatic oil, which they -esteem very highly as a liniment in chronic rheumatism. This is sent -to this country as grass-oil, or ginger-grass oil, and is sold by our -perfumers as oil of geranium or spikenard. - - - - -APPENDIX D. - - REPORT ON THE CULTIVATION OF CHINCHONAS IN SOUTHERN INDIA. BY WILLIAM - G. McIVOR, ESQ., SUPERINTENDENT OF CHINCHONA-CULTIVATION IN THE - NEILGHERRY HILLS. - - -_Rearing Seeds._--THE first sowing of imported seeds took place in -the beginning of February 1860. No certain data being given for the -treatment of Chinchona-seeds, our first operations were necessarily -experimental, and a good number of seeds were lost by being sown in too -retentive a soil, and supplied with what, to Chinchona-seeds, proved -to be an excess of moisture; the greatest success we obtained in our -first attempts was with the use of a soil composed almost entirely of -burned earth, and of this sowing nearly sixty per cent. germinated, the -temperature of the earth being about 70°. The number of days required -before germination took place in the several sowings varied from -sixty-two to sixty-eight. The seedlings made but little progress for -the first six weeks, but after that time they sprung into rapid growth, -averaging from 1-1/4 to 2 inches per mensem. - -Seeds of the valuable Chinchona Condaminea, received on the 16th -February 1862, were sown on the same day in a very light open soil -composed of a beautifully open sort of sand, with a very small -admixture of leaf-mould. Our experience with the first seeds having -established beyond all doubt that the Chinchonas are very impatient of -any excess of moisture, particular care was taken in the preparation -of the soil used in this sowing. The earth was in the first instance -exposed to the sun for two or three days and thoroughly dried, it -was then heated to about 212° in order to destroy all grubs or larva -of insects; after being allowed to cool, it was brought into the -potting-shed and watered sufficiently to make it moist, but only to -that degree of moisture that the particles of soil would not adhere -together on being pressed firmly with the hand, that is, the earth on -being laid down was sufficiently dry to break and fall into its usual -form. With the soil in this state the pots were filled, the surface -lightly pressed down, and the seeds sown thereon, being lightly covered -with a sprinkling of sand. The pots were then placed on a slight bottom -heat of about 72°. These were never watered in the strict sense of the -word; when the surface got dry they were slightly sprinkled with a fine -syringe just sufficient to damp the surface, but never to penetrate -the soil. Under this treatment the seeds began to germinate very -vigorously on the sixteenth day after sowing, and now, 17th March 1862, -or twenty-nine days after sowing, upwards of sixty per cent. of the -whole of the perfect seeds sown have germinated, and we may fairly hope -to rear over ninety per cent. of this sowing. I may, however, observe -that these seeds possessed the great advantage of being forwarded to -India in a letter, and thus they were never subjected to the damaging -effects produced on seeds sent out in air-tight parcels. The reason of -this is the want of a circulation of air through the packets, and a -consequent deposit of moisture on the interior of the outer covering -by every increase and decrease of temperature on the voyage. As soon -as the seeds germinate they are carefully pricked out into fresh pots -(the soil being prepared as before described for the seeds). This must -of course be done with very great care, the radicle being carefully -covered with soil, while the seed and cotyledons are kept above the -surface. In this way about twenty-five seedlings are transplanted into -a four-inch pot, and treated in every respect the same as the seeds; -that is, they are never watered, the soil being merely sprinkled as -before stated to keep it in that medium state of moisture in which -it was first put into the pots. This prevents the damping off of the -seedlings, to which they are very liable when treated otherwise; it -also greatly facilitates their growth and the formation of roots, -the soil being so perfectly open that it is readily affected by -the atmosphere, and thus kept in the most favourable condition for -promoting vegetation. When treated in this way our seedlings have made -an average growth in ten months of over eighteen inches, the growth -being much more rapid towards the end of the ten months than in the -earlier stages. - -_Propagation._--As soon as the seedlings and imported plants attained -sufficient size, they were propagated by being layered; in this way it -was found that they rooted readily in about six weeks or two months, -and threw out shoots from every bud; and not only this, but many -latent buds were developed, and a fine growth of young wood produced -for succeeding layers and cuttings. The principle of layering, being -so well known to English gardeners, requires no detail; but in the -Chinchona-plants it was found that the layers were very liable to -_bleed_, and this not only weakened the plants but retarded the -formation of roots; this we found to be remedied in a great degree by -inserting in the cut a triangular piece of perfectly dry broken porous -brick. An abundance of young wood being produced, we proceeded to -propagate by cuttings, the earth being prepared with great care, the -same as for the seeds, with the exception of not being heated. The ends -of the cuttings are placed upon pieces of perfectly dry porous brick, -around the sides of the pots. They are then placed on a bottom heat of -75° or 80°; and, with this treatment, young and tender wood roots in -about three weeks or one month, older wood in about six weeks to two -months. With cuttings of the young wood our loss has not exceeded two -per cent., and with older wood about ten per cent. - -Our object being to produce the largest number of plants in the -shortest possible space of time, it was found that cuttings and layers -required more wood than could be conveniently spared, and it was -resolved to try the propagation by buds; in this respect the success -has been most satisfactory. The secret of success entirely lies in the -amount of moisture given; if in excess, they rot immediately, but, if -sufficient care is exercised in reference to moisture, the losses will -not exceed three or four per cent. Six C. Calisaya buds put in on the -30th January all rooted in forty-one days. It may be observed that it -is not necessary that a leaf should be attached to the bud: this is no -doubt an advantage, although we have struck many buds of the red bark -without leaves, and also a few of the Calisayas. - -It ought to be explained that the reason why the earth is brought to a -medium state of moisture before being put into the pots is because it -is never afterwards watered to such an extent as to render it really -wet, being in fact just kept in that state of moisture in which it was -originally placed in the pots, and this uniform and medium state of -moisture is more easily retained by the pots being plunged in beds of -earth. The reason why we found this system necessary was, that, when -the soil was watered in the usual way after the seedlings or cuttings -were placed in it, it was found, from its expansion and adhesion by -the action of the water, that its particles were forced far too close -together to be beneficial to the growth of the plants, and in many -instances this proved to be injurious, vastly retarding their growth. - -In the nurseries in the open air the same principle of cultivation -and propagation as that described above has been adopted, and, with -reference to the condition of the plants and layers, with nearly equal -success, the period of rooting of the layers being from two months to -ten weeks, while cuttings take from two to three months, the average -loss being about fifteen per cent.: this occurs from the impossibility, -in the open air, of keeping a uniform state of the atmosphere around -the cuttings. With layers this is not so important, as they root quite -as surely (though slower) as in the propagating-houses, and flourish -equally well. - -_Formation of Plantations._--The mode of cultivation of these plants -likely to prove the most advantageous being uncertain, it was resolved -in May and June of 1861 to place out a number of plants under different -conditions of shade, exposure, &c., and the result has been that the -plants placed without the protection of living shade have made the -most satisfactory progress, and borne the dry season without the least -injury. The plants placed under living shade were found to be damaged -in some degree during the rains by the incessant drip, but on the -weather clearing up they threw out new leaves and quickly recovered. -Nine months after planting, or at the end of our dry season, these -plants were found to be suffering considerably from the drought; and -on taking a few of them up, it was found that the holes in which these -Chinchonas were planted had become entirely filled by the fibres of -the roots of the living trees in their neighbourhood, which had drawn -up the whole of the moisture and nourishment from the soil in which -the Chinchona-plants were placed. In putting the plants out, which -were placed in the open, we of course saw from the first that with the -young plants we had to combat the bad effects of excessive evaporation -during our dry season, under a bright and scorching sun; we also saw -the injury likely to be done to the plants by radiation during bright -and cloudless nights. To obviate these disadvantages the plants were -sheltered on the approach of the dry season by a rough enclosure of -bamboo-branches, with the leaves adhering to them, so as to give them -sufficient shade both from the effects of evaporation and radiation. -The enclosure is left open on the north side, and enclosed on the -south, east, and west; the sun's declination being south during the -dry weather. The ground will not be impoverished by the roots of -other trees, and the whole of its nourishment is preserved for the -Chinchona-plants. At the same time they will, by this treatment, be far -more efficiently protected from evaporation and radiation than they -would be by the use of living shade, whether caused by forest-trees or -by the admixture of faster-growing plants. In addition to this shade -of the branches of cut bamboos, the soil around the roots of some of -the young Chinchona-plants was covered one or two inches in thickness -with half-decayed leaves, and the plants thus treated show a very -great luxuriance, which is not exceeded by any of the plants in our -propagating-houses. To ascertain the cause of this luxuriance a few -of the plants were recently examined, and although at the end of the -dry season the soil about the roots was found to be perfectly moist; -thousands of young rootlets of great strength were found to have been -thrown into the covering of decayed leaves, so that it had become one -matted mass of beautiful white roots, many of them nearly the thickness -of a crow-quill. On the strength of these observations we have resolved -to place out this season seventy-five acres of Chinchona-plants in -cleared land, and exactly under the conditions and treatment last -described; we also propose planting seventy-five acres under various -degrees of living shade, in which every attempt will be made to -mitigate as much as possible the injurious effects of this system -already described. The cultivation of these plants being experimental, -it is necessary that we should give every method of cultivation which -appears reasonable a fair trial, and that only developed facts should -influence us in giving preference to one method of cultivation over -that of another. The distances at which we have prepared to place -the plants are for the larger growing species from nine to ten feet -apart, for the sorts of medium size eight feet, and for the shrubby -sorts seven feet: these distances are of course too close to admit -of the plants attaining a full size, but we believe that it will be -advantageous to plant them close in the first instance, and thin them -out afterwards. In order to illustrate the extreme growth of our -plants, it is worthy of note that one or two of them, although not yet -twelve months old, have attained a height of about five feet by three -and a half feet in diameter through the branches; we may therefore -conclude that the plants will in about two years fairly cover the -ground if placed at the distances given above. When they begin to crowd -and impede the growth of each other they will of course be thinned -out and pruned; and it is anticipated that a good supply of bark may -be obtained by these means in from eight to twelve years, or perhaps -earlier. - -_Ootacamund, 19th March, 1862._ - - * * * * * - -P.S. On the 5th of April the seeds of _C. Condaminea_ were coming up -plentifully, and 4193 seedlings had already been transplanted. 100 -seedlings of _C. crispa_ had also come up. The seeds of _C. Condaminea_ -were coming up at the rate of 500 a-day. At this date there were 25,000 -Chinchona-plants on the Neilgherry hills, and all the species, except -_C. lancifolia_, were increasing rapidly. It will be some time before -Mr. McIvor will be able to propagate from the latter species, owing -to the very unhealthy state in which the plants arrived from Java. In -April 50 acres of ground were prepared for planting at the Dodabetta -site, and 70 acres at Neddiwuttum. - - - - -APPENDIX E. - - NOTE ON THE EXPORT TRADE IN PERUVIAN BARK FROM THE PORTS OF SOUTH - AMERICA, AND ON THE IMPORT TRADE INTO ENGLAND. - - -ARICA, the port for the "_Calisaya_" bark from Bolivia. In 1859 -the export of bark amounted to 192,600 lbs., valued at 17,334_l._; -and between January and November, 1860, to 388,800 lbs., valued at -35,000_l._ - -ISLAY, another port for the "_Calisaya_" bark from Bolivia. In 1859 the -export of bark amounted to 146,000 lbs., valued at 13,460_l._ (of which -136,500 lbs. went to England, and 9500 lbs. to France); and between -January and November, 1860, to 107,700 lbs., valued at 9770_l._ - -PAYTA, the port for the "_Crown_" barks from Loxa. The price of bark -at this port for the last nine years has been twenty-four dollars the -cwt.; but during the last year the price has risen to thirty dollars, -where it is likely to remain for some time. The usual annual export -amounts to 140,000 lbs., the actual quantity shipped in 1861, and it is -valued at 8400_l._ - -GUAYAQUIL, the port for the "_Red_" bark and the "_West Coast -Carthagena_" bark. The quantity exported varies very much in different -years, the price being at present about twenty dollars the cwt. In 1857 -the export of bark amounted to 516,600 lbs.; in 1858 to 533,300 lbs.; -in 1859 to 201,700 lbs.; in 1860 to 91,500 lbs.; and in 1861 to 443,700 -lbs.; valued in the last of these years at 17,748_l._ - -The "_Grey_" barks were exported, in former years, from CALLAO, and in -small quantities from HUANCHACO and LAMBAYEQUE, but of late years none -has been exported. - -The "_Carthagena_" barks from New Granada are exported from the ports -of CARTHAGENA and SANTA MARTHA, and also from the little port of TUMACO -on the Pacific coast. From 1849 to 1855 great quantities were exported, -but in the latter year the supply began to fail. The existing civil -war in New Granada has still further injured this trade. No reliable -account of the export of bark from the above ports of New Granada has -been received. - -From the four ports of ARICA, ISLAY, PAYTA, and GUAYAQUIL the average -amount of bark annually exported may be taken at 912,900 lbs., valued -at 59,076_l._ Small quantities may come from other ports, of which no -authentic account has been obtained; so that the total amount annually -exported from South America may be estimated at considerably over -2,000,000 lbs. - -There being no duty on the importation of Peruvian bark into England, -the returns of the amount imported are much less carefully kept than -was formerly the case. The returns, too, are in packages, and not in -lbs. or cwts., and these packages vary in weight from 120 lbs. to 60 -lbs. The number of packages of Peruvian bark imported into England in -1858 was 19,831; in 1859 the number was 10,651; in 1860 it was 10,456; -and in 1861 it was 20,748. Taking the average of the weight of the -packages at 80 lbs. each, the quantity imported into England during the -last four years would be 4,934,880 lbs., and in the year 1861 about -1,659,840 lbs. - -The quantity of Peruvian bark imported into England during the three -months ending on March 31st, 1861, was reported to be 306,300 lbs., -and during the same period, in the present year, 310,700 lbs. At this -rate the annual import would be a little over 1,200,000 lbs., which is -probably more correct than the above estimate from the packages. - - -THE END. - - -LONDON: PRINTED BY W. CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING -CROSS. - -[Illustration: MAP - of - PART OF PERU - to illustrate - M^R. C. MARKHAM'S JOURNEY - TO - THE CHINCHONA FORESTS OF - CARAVAYA.] - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] The only valid argument against this change is that it may cause -confusion, but the alteration is too slight for this to be possible; -and it is not uncommon, among botanists, to correct the usual spelling -of genera or species of plants, when it is found to be erroneous. Among -other examples of such changes may be enumerated those of _Plumeria_, -now altered to _Plumieria_; _Bufonia_ to _Buffonia_; and _Gesneria_ to -_Gesnera_. - -[2] _See page 490._ - -[3] In Quichua, when the name of a plant is reduplicated, it almost -invariably implies that it possesses some medicinal quality. - -[4] La Condamine, Jussieu, and Ruiz all believed that the Indians -were aware of the medicinal qualities of Peruvian bark, and that they -imparted their knowledge to the Spaniards. Humboldt and Ulloa were of -an opposite opinion. The stories of its virtues having been discovered -by watching the pumas or South-American lions chewing the bark to cure -their fevers, mentioned by Condamine; and of an Indian having found it -out by drinking of the waters of a lake into which a chinchona-tree had -fallen--told by Geoffroy--are of modern and European origin. - -[5] Jussieu says that it is certain that the first knowledge of the -efficacy of this bark was derived from the Indians of Malacotas, some -leagues south of Loxa.--Weddell, _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, -p. 15. - -[6] Poëppig, _Reise_. - -[7] Mr. Spruce's _Report_, p. 25. - -[8] The first Marquis of Astorga married Leonora, daughter of Don -Fadrique Henriquez, Admiral of Spain, and sister of the Queen of -Aragon, who was mother of King Ferdinand the Catholic: so that Ana was -sixth cousin to her contemporary King Philip IV - -[9] _Nobiliario genealogico de los Titulos de España, por Alonzo Lopez -de Haro, Madrid, 1626._ - -[10] Alcedo. - -[11] _Creacion y Privilegios de los Titulos de Castilla, por Don José -Berni._ The Counts of Chinchon were hereditary Alcaides of the Alcazar -of Segovia. In 1623 the Count of Chinchon here received Charles I. of -England, and gave him a supper of "certaine trouts of extraordinary -greatnesse." In 1764 the then Count of Chinchon ceded the Alcazar to -the crown. - -[12] A large supply of seeds of this kind has been sent to India and -Ceylon. - -[13] Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_, No. 1. - -[14] Sebastian Badus asserts that bark was brought to Alcala de Henares -as early as 1632.--Humboldt's _Aspects_, ii. p. 268. - -[15] I translated and edited Acuña's Voyage for the Hakluyt Society in -1859. - -[16] _Disertacion por Dr. Don Hipolito Unanue._ - -[17] Torti's work, _De Febribus_, was published at Venice in 1732. - -[18] _Traité Thérapeutique du Quinquina_, par P. Briquet. Paris, 1856. - -[19] _Voyage de Condamine_, p. 31. - -[20] 1738, p. 226. - -[21] _Noticias Secretas_, p. 572. - -[22] _Semanario de la Nueva Granada_, p. 283. - -[23] Endlicher separated the species whose capsules begin to -open from the top, and formed them into a sub-genus, which he -called _Cascarilla_. Klotzsch, combining these with other species -characterised by a six-parted corolla, raised them to an independent -genus called _Ladenbergia_. - -[24] _Histoire naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 72. - -[25] Dr. Weddell's list is as follows:-- - - 1. C. CALISAYA (_Weddell_) Bolivia and Caravaya. - 2. C. CONDAMINEA (_Humboldt_) Loxa. - 3. C. SCROBICULATA (_Humboldt_) Peru. - 4. C. AMYGDALIFOLIA (_Weddell_) Peru and Bolivia. - 5. C. NITIDA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) N. Peru. - 6. C. AUSTRALIS (_Weddell_) Southern Bolivia. - 7. C. BOLIVIANA (_Weddell_) Caravaya and Bolivia - 8. C. MICRANTHA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) Peru and Bolivia. - 9. C. PUBESCENS (_Vahl_) Peru and Bolivia. - 10. C. CORDIFOLIA (_Mutis_) New Granada. - 11. C. PURPURASCENS (_Weddell_) Bolivia. - 12. C. OVATA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) Peru and Bolivia. - 13. C. CHOMELIANA (_Weddell_) Bolivia. - 14. C. GLANDULIFERA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) N. Peru. - 15. C. ASPERIFOLIA (_Weddell_) Bolivia. - 16. C. HUMBOLDTIANA (_Lambert_) Jaen. - 17. C. CARABAYENSIS (_Weddell_) Caravaya. - 18. C. MUTISII (_Lambert_) Loxa. - 19. C. HIRSUTA (_Ruiz and Pavon_) N. Peru. - - - _Doubtful._ - - C. DISCOLOR (_Klotzsch_) N. Peru. - C. PALALBA (_Pavon_) Peru. - -[26] M. Delondre decided that the fruit and flowers, though having -a bitter principle, did not contain the alkaloids, while the roots -contained them, though in smaller proportion than the bark of the trunk -and branches. - -[27] Weddell. - -[28] Briquet, p. 22. - -[29] _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_, No. 10. - -[30] _Aricine_, as a sulphate, does not crystallize, but forms a -peculiar trembling jelly. It was so named from the port of Arica, -whence the bark of _C. pubescens_ is exported. - -[31] Pereira says that, if a substance suspected to contain _quina_ be -powdered, then shaken with ether, and afterwards successively treated -with chlorine and ammonia, the liquid will assume a green colour if the -slightest trace of quina be present.--_Mat. Med._ ii. part ii. p. 119. -One or two pounds of bark suffice well for an analysis. - -[32] _Traité Thérapeutique du Quinquina et de ses préparations_, par P. -Briquet, Paris, 1855. Also Pereira's _Materia Medica_. - -[33] The word _quinquina_ is generally adopted for the medical -preparations which are taken from Peruvian bark. _Quina_ signifies -_bark_ in Quichua, and _quinquina_ is a bark possessing some medicinal -property. _Quinine_ is, of course, derived from _quina_, _chinchonine_ -from _chinchona_. The Spaniards corrupted the word _quina_ into -_china_; and in homœopathy the word _china_ is still retained. In 1735, -when M. de la Condamine visited Peru, the native name of _quina-quina_ -was almost entirely replaced by the Spanish term _cascarilla_, which -also means bark. - -[34] _Autobiography of Sir James MacGrigor_, chap. xii. p. 241. - -[35] _Dictionnaire des Sciences Médicales_, quoted by Delondre, p. 7. - -[36] _Aspects_, ii. p. 267. - -[37] _Semanario de la Nueva Granada._ - -[38] From Martius: a note in No. 1 of Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de -Pavon_. - -[39] Some of these MSS. are, I believe, in possession of Don Pedro -Carbo, of Guayaquil. - -[40] Spanish edition of General Miller's _Memoirs_, i. p. 42. - -[41] It is the form of _C. Condaminea_, represented in the unshaded -branch with capsules, Plate x. of the _Plantes Equinoctiales_. - -[42] It comes in very small quills, as if taken from a mere shrub. - -[43] Besides _quinine_ several other febrifugal alkaloids are found -in the chinchona barks, one of the most important of which is -_chinchonidine_, discovered by Pasteur in 1852. - -[44] I found some very beautiful dried specimens of this species in -the botanical gardens at Madrid last year. The lanceolate leaves and -panicles of flowers still retained their colour. They were marked -"_Cascarilla fina de Uritusinga de Loxa, Quin. de Pavon_." - -[45] Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_. - -[46] _Howard_, from MS. of Ruiz. - -[47] Mr. Cross's _Report_, Nov. 1861. - -[48] Pereira, _Materia Medica_, ii. p. 106. - -[49] Afterwards published in a pamphlet of 57 pages, with plates. - -[50] In 1856 Mr. Howard shared Dr. Weddell's belief that the "red bark" -belonged to a variety of _C. ovata_.--_Pharmaceutical Journal_, Oct. -1856. - -[51] Howard. - -[52] With "red bark" another kind, known as "West coast Carthagena," is -exported from Guayaquil. The name is absurd. Mr. Howard believes it to -be derived from the _C. Palton_ of Pavon, which is found in the woods -of Cuenca, and in the province of Loxa. Samples of this bark yield 2.05 -of alkaloids, 1.34 of chinchonidine, and 0.7 of quinine. - -[53] Alcedo. - -[54] Mutis was born at Cadiz in 1732. He resided in South America for -forty years, and corresponded with Linnæus. Dying in 1808, the greater -portion of his papers was destroyed in the revolution at Bogota; but a -part of his collection of dried plants is now in the botanical gardens -at Madrid, in a disgraceful state of disorder. - -[55] In 1776 Don Sebastian José Lopez Ruiz, a physician at Bogota, -persuaded the Spanish government that he was the first discoverer -of chinchona-trees in New Granada, and obtained a yearly pension of -2000 dollars as a reward; but he was afterwards considered to be an -impostor, and the viceroy deprived him of it. - -[56] The pupil and fellow-workman of Mutis, from whose notes he wrote. - -[57] _Anales de la Historia Natural de Madrid_, 1800. - -[58] _Floræ Columbiæ specimina selecta_, i. p. 21: Berlin, 1858. A -superbly illustrated work by Dr. Karsten. - -[59] _Die medicinischen Chinarinden Neu-Granadas_, von H. Karsten: -Berlin, 1858. I have had this pamphlet translated for the use of those -intrusted with, or interested in, the chinchona cultivation in India -and Ceylon. It contains a great deal of valuable information respecting -the most favourable situations for the production of alkaloids in -chinchona barks, and other particulars respecting the growth of the -bark, and the methods of collecting it. Dr. Karsten is a careful -observer and a scientific botanist and chemist, and his observations -form a very important addition to our knowledge of this subject. - -[60] _Report of the Administrador Don Ignacio Cavero, Semanario_, p. -183. - -[61] 300 dried specimens, and 242 coloured drawings, sent in the ship -'Buen Consejo.' - -[62] Namely:-- - - 1. _C. lanceolata_ (_Cascarilla bobo amarillo_). - 2. _C. purpurea_ ( " _de hoja morada_). - 3. _C. ovata_ ( " _pata de gallareta_). - 4. _C. nitida_ ( " _fino_). - 5. _C. hirsuta_ ( " _fino delgado_). - 6. _C. magnifolia_ {( " _flor de Azahar_). - {( " _magnifolia--Wedd_). - 7. _C. glandulifera_ ( " _negrilla_). - -[63] I have examined Pavon's dried specimens from Huanuco, now in the -botanical gardens at Madrid. - -There are leaves of _C. lanceolata_, from the forests of Muña; leaves -and capsules of _C. ovata_, some of the former very slightly cordate, -from Panao and Pillao; leaves, flowers, and capsules of _C. purpurea_; -and leaves and capsules of _C. nitida_, from Cuchero. - -[64] Ruiz published his _Quinologia_ in 1792. - -[65] At first, in the best years, as many as 25,000 arrobas of bark -were exported from the province of Huanuco, and some large fortunes -were made.--_Poeppig._ An arroba = 25 lbs. - -[66] _Mercurio Peruano._ - -[67] A Peruvian who was for many years Director of the Cabinet of -Natural History in Madrid, during the reign of Charles III. - -[68] _Reise in Peru, während der Jahre 1827-32_, von Eduard Poeppig, -Professor an der Universität zu Leipzig, ii. pp. 217-23, 257-64. - -[69] Stevenson, however, says that large quantities of bark were -brought from the woods east of Huamalies in 1825.--_Travels_, ii. p. 66. - -[70] Poeppig. Van Tschudi, p. 399. - -[71] Poeppig. - -[72] Howard. - -[73] I have caused the part of Poeppig's work which relates to -chinchona-trees and their barks to be translated for circulation in -India and Ceylon. - -[74] As early as 1790 the calisaya bark was highly prized in Madrid. - -[75] The valuable species found in Bolivia and Southern Peru. Dr. -Weddell derives the name from the Quichua words _colli_ (red) and -_saya_ (form); Poeppig from _colla_ (a remedy) and _salla_ (rocky -ground); Van Tschudi from _collisara_ (reddish maize). Dr. Laefdael, -the Judge of Caravaya, told me it came from _ccali_ (strong) and -_sayay_ (become, or be thou). Calisaya is the name of a family of -Indian Caciques in Caravaya, one of whom acted an important part in the -revolt of 1780-1. The plant may have been called after him. - -[76] The bark of _C. Calisaya_, known as "yellow bark" in commerce, was -at first erroneously believed to come from _C. cordifolia_, because -Mutis had called the bark from that species _cascarilla amarilla_, or -"yellow bark." See p. 28. - -[77] This account of the Bolivian bark trade is from Dr. Weddell's -_Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie, et dans les partes voisines de Pérou_. -Paris, 1853. Chap. xiii. p. 235. - -[78] Gibbon's _Valley of the Amazon_, p. 147. - -[79] _Mercurio del Vapor_, Dec. 15, 1859. - -[80] _Yuncu_ is a tropical valley in Quichua, hence _yungus_, a Spanish -corruption of the same word. - -[81] _Quinologie_, par M. A. Delondre. Paris, 1854. - -[82] _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie, et dans les partes voisines de -Pérou_, par H. A. Weddell. Paris, 1853. Dr. Weddell is now engaged in -the publication of a work on the plants of the more elevated parts of -the Andes, entitled _Chloris Andina_. - -[83] An account of it was published in the Journal of the Horticultural -Society, vol. vii. p. 272. - -[84] Pereira, _Mat. Med._ ii. part ii. p. 118. - -[85] Weddell, _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_. - -[86] Weddell, _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_. - -[87] _Mém. de l' Acad. Roy. des Sciences_, 1738, p. 226. - -[88] _Noticias Secretas_, p. 572. - -[89] MS. quoted by Howard. - -[90] Poeppig. - -[91] Karsten. - -[92] I. p. 245. Probably the idea was first conceived much earlier by -Dr. Ainslie, who, half a century ago, remarked that it was matter of -regret that "it had never been attempted to rear those articles of the -Materia Medica in India, for which the world is now solely indebted to -America."--Ainslie's _Materia Medica_, p. 66 (_note_). - -[93] _Cours d'Hist. Nat. Pharm._ ii. p. 252. - -[94] _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 13. - -[95] _Quinologie_, par M. A. Delondre, p. 15. - -[96] So convinced is Dr. Weddell that there is imminent danger of the -supplies of bark eventually being exhausted, that he says, "Avant -que la malheur que je prévois n'arrive (et ce ne sera pas de notre -temps) la science aura peut-être fait la conquête de quelque nouveau -médicament qui rendra moins regrettable la perte de l'écorce de -Pérou."--_Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_, p. 245. - -[97] Howard. - -[98] Howard. - -[99] _Ychu_ is grass in Quichua, and _corpa_ a lodging. - -[100] Information from Gironda, then Governor of Sina. - -[101] _Kew Miscellany_, Oct. and Nov. 1856. - -[102] Dr. Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, 1860, No. 50, para. 8. - -[103] _Bonplandia_, March, 1859, p. 72. The pay of an -Assistant-Resident in Java is 500_l._ a-year.--Money's _Java_. - -[104] A lofty tree, 150 to 200 feet high, with a very close-grained -wood. It yields a fragrant resin called _storax_. - -[105] Report of Mr. Fraser, H. M. Consul at Batavia. - -[106] Dr. Junghuhn called some of the plants _C. lanceolata_, and -others _C. succirubra_; but he has himself allowed that the former -are a mere variety of the worthless species, seeds of which were sent -by M. Hasskarl from Uchubamba; and the latter certainly cannot be -_C. succirubra_, as that valuable kind is not found in the Peruvian -districts visited by M. Hasskarl. - -[107] Dr. Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, 1860. No. 50. - -[108] Dr. Anderson's Report, Dec. 14, 1861, No. 326; and Dr. -Macpherson's Report, Dec. 19, 1860, No. 50, para. 12. - -[109] Report of Mr. Fraser, late H. M. Consul at Batavia. - -[110] Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_. No. 7. - -[111] He left Java in September, 1861, after a residence of six years. - -[112] Howard. No. 7 (_note_). - -[113] Report of Mr. Fraser. - -[114] Dr. Junghuhn has published two very interesting reports on the -cultivation of the chinchona-plants in Java, in the _Bonplandia_, a -German botanical journal: the first in Nos. 4 and 5 of 1858, and the -second in the numbers for July and August, 1860. I have caused these -reports to be translated and circulated for the information of those -who are intrusted with, or interested in, the chinchona cultivation in -India or Ceylon. - -[115] Mr. Spruce's remark on the eventual necessity of cultivating the -chinchona tree is important. He says, "I have seen enough of collecting -the products of the forests to convince me that _whatever vegetable -substance is needful to man, he must ultimately cultivate the plant -producing it_."--_Report_, p. 83. - -[116] It appears, by a government return, that 2051 lbs. of quinine -were sent to India in 1856, and 1180 lbs. in 1857. - -The _Friend of India_ of December 10th, 1860, however, quoting from -the _Lancet_, states that the consumption of quinine and bark in the -government hospitals in India in 1857-8 was 6815 lbs., and that in -1858-9 it amounted to 5087 lbs. The writer of the article adds that -the government druggists in India sell quinine at 1_l._ an ounce; but, -taking the cost of an ounce of quinine at 10_s._, the expenditure -on this medicine, according to the above figures, would amount to -54,520_l._ in 1857-8, and to 40,696_l._ in 1858-9! - -[117] Nevertheless we now have plants of _C. lancifolia_, the species -which should have been procured from New Granada, thriving in India. -They have been received from Java, in exchange for other species, and -were originally raised from seeds sent by Dr. Karsten. - -[118] When it was founded by General La Fuente, then Prefect of -Arequipa.--_Castelnau_, iii. p. 443. - -[119] There is anchorage for 20 or 25 vessels in 10 or 12 fathoms; but -there is always a rather heavy swell, so that a hawser is necessary to -keep a vessels bow to it, even in fine weather. - -[120] In the following proportions:-- - - To England Alpaca wool 22,500 cwts worth £192,729 - " Sheep's wool 18,669 " " 67,306 - " Vicuña wool 72 " " 1,537 - " Copper " 333 - " Bark 1,365 " " 12,383 - " Specie 34,706 - To France Wool 877 " " 1,886 - " Bark 95 " " 1,077 - To the United States Wool 8,054 " " 24,884 - -------- - £336,842 - -------- - -[121] The analysis of this soil, by Dr. Forbes Watson, gave the -following result:-- - - Water, and a little organic matter 7.100 - Silica, as silicate and as silex 59.800 - Peroxide of iron 12.100 - Alumina 12.300 - Lime 4.100 - Magnesia 2.100 - Soda 0.724 - Chloride of sodium 0.408 - Phosphoric acid 0.117 - Carbonic acid - Sulphuric acid 0.082 - ------- - 99.681 - Loss .319 - ------- - 100.000 - ------- - -[122] "Tambo" is a Spanish corruption of the Quichua word _Tampu_, an -inn or post-house. - -[123] Almost all the woollen clothing of the Peruvian Indians is now -imported from Yorkshire, and their shirtings from Lowell. Formerly it -was all of home manufacture. - -[124] Probably from the Quichua word _Chiri_--cold. - -[125] _El Peru en_ 1860, por Alfredo Leubel. - -[126] The republic of Peru has had 37 years and 7 months of existence, -of which _28 years and 8 months_ have been passed in peace, 2 years in -foreign war, and 6 years and 11 months in civil dissensions. - - 1824 to 1828 inclusive At peace. - Jan. to July, 1829 At war with Colombia. - July, 1829, to the end of 1833 At peace, under President Gamarra. - Jan. 1834, to Feb. 1836 In civil dissensions. - Feb. 1836, to Aug. 1838 At peace, under General Santa Cruz. - Aug. 1838, to Jan. 1839 At war with Chile. - Jan. 1839, to Jan. 1841 At peace, under President Gamarra. - Jan. 1841, to July, 1841 In civil dissensions. - July, 1841, to June, 1842 At war with Bolivia. - Aug. 1842, to July, 1844 In civil dissensions. - July, 1844, to June, 1854 At peace under Presidents Castilla - and Echenique. - June, 1854, to Jan. 1855 In civil war. - Jan. 1855, to Oct. 1856 At peace, under President Castilla. - Oct. 1856, to March, 1858 An insurrection at Arequipa. - March, 1858, to March, 1862 At peace, under President Castilla. - -These are the plain facts of the case, which are preferable to vague -and ignorant statements that Peru has been in a constant state of civil -war ever since the War of Independence. - -[127] The elevations were taken with one of Negretti and Zambra's -boiling-point thermometers. - -[128] So called from being covered with small round pebbles, like -comfits. - -[129] At this elevation grows an asclepiad (_Pentagonium flavum_), a -little lowly plant with yellow flowers.--_Chloris Andina_, ii. p. 49. - -[130] _Baccharis Incarum_ of Weddell.--_Chloris Andina_, i. p. 170. - -[131] Dr. Weddell mentions a composita (_Merope piptolepis_) as being -common near the shores of these lakes.--_Chloris Andina_, i. p. 162. -And an oxalis in the crevices of the rocks near La Compuerta.--_Oxalis -Nubigena_, ii. p. 291. - -In the neighbourhood of La Compuerta there are several other lowly -alpine plants--a St. John's wort (_Hypericum brevistylum_), another -oxalis, and two mallows, &c. &c. - -[132] M. de Castelnau says that vessels exactly resembling those of -lake Titicaca are represented on the tomb of Rameses III. at Thebes. - -[133] Gonzalez Montoya was the best Governor that Puno has ever known. -He was a benevolent as well as a determined man, and abolished the -_mitas_, or drafting of Indians for forced labour in the mines of -Potosi. When ordered by the Government to restore the _mitas_, he -replied, "Obedesco pero no cumplo." - -[134] Garcilasso de la Vega says that the Indians boil the leaves of -the _sunchu_, and then dry them in the sun, and keep them to eat in the -winter.--I. lib. 8, cap. xv. p. 284. - -[135] In 1663 the mines of Laycaycota, Cancharani, and San Antonio de -Esquilache, near Puno, produced 1,500,000 dollars' worth of silver in -one year!--Miller's _Memoirs_, ii. p. 238. - -[136] _Compendio del hecho y apuntamiento de derechos de Fisco, en -la causa contra José de Salcedo, sobre las sediciones y tumultos del -asiento de minas de Laycocota._ _Papeles Varios_ 2, in the National -Library at Lima. - -[137] This was the Count of Medellin who married Catalina Ponce de -Leon, sister of the Duchess of Gandia, whose husband was brother of the -Countess of Lemos. - -[138] _Declaracion de todo lo que contiene la demonstracion hecha por -los Vehedores Don Juan Eusebio Ximenes, y Don Valentin Calderon de la -Barca, de Orden Real, a Cancharani, Laycocota la alta, y Laycocota la -baja, sus situaciones y vetas, desde la villa de Puno en distancia a -una legua a cuya falda esta la gran laguna de Chucuito_, 1718. MS. -Report at Puno, with a map, which has unfortunately been lost. - -[139] The men who broke out the ores with picks got 5 rials a day; and -6 men worked out 6 to 8 cwts. of mineral daily, working 12 hours. The -rest of the workmen got 4 rials a-day - -[140] A small shrub (_Baccharis Incarum_) often covering the hills. - -[141] It yields about 30 per cent. of silver. - -[142] In 1845 Bustamante placed the value of the exports at 2,500,000 -dol.! - -[143] From the _Geografia del Peru_. Lima, 1859. - -[144] An Englishman had a schooner on the lake, but I believe she is -now abandoned or broken up; and there is no craft at present but the -reed balsas. - -[145] The Peruvian Government answered this decree in a noble spirit, -by declaring that they would not retaliate, but, on the contrary, would -assist commercial traffic between the two countries by every means in -their power. Linares rescinded his barbarous edict on October 17th. - -[146] All the bark shipped at Islay is smuggled across the Bolivian -frontier; Arica is the recognised port of Bolivia; and the bark -exported from Payta comes from the neighbouring republic of Ecuador. - -[147] Evaporation, however, goes on at all seasons, owing to the -excessive elevation of the waters. - -[148] So say the people of Puno, but the island is all limestone. - -[149] The name is more modern; given, as tradition relates, by one -of the Incas, who happened to be encamped here when a _chasqui_ or -messenger arrived with extraordinary rapidity from Cuzco. The Inca -exclaimed, "_Tia-huanaco!_" "Be seated, O Huanaco!"--the huanaco being -the swiftest animal in Peru. - -[150] The Hindoo god Siva is also represented with a necklace of human -heads. - -[151] For descriptions of the ruins at Cuzco, see my former work, -_Cuzco and Lima_, chap. iv. and v. - -[152] It is now introduced into our greenhouses. - -[153] The lizard appears to have been a favourite device amongst the -ancient Aymaras. There is also one carved on a block of stone amongst -the ruins of Tiahuanaco. - -[154] The idol of Copacabana was made of a beautiful blue stone, hence -the name. It had an ugly human head, and a fish's body, and it was -adored as the God of the Lake. - -[155] Calancha. - -[156] Facing the road on the mainland, between Juli and Pomata. - -[157] He nominated Apu Inca Sucso, a grandson of the Inca Viracocha, -as Governor; who was father of Apuchalco Yupanqui, the grandfather of -Don Alonzo Viracocha Inca, and his brother Don Pablo, who governed the -island of Titicaca, under the Spaniards, in A.D. 1621. - -[158] Fray Alonzo Ramas says that in 1611 an old woman, aged 120 years, -died at Viacha, a day's journey from La Paz, who confessed that she had -been a Virgin of the Sun. - -[159] _Cronica Moralizada de la Provincia del Peru, del Orden de San -Agustin, por el Padre Fray Antonio de la Calancha._ Lima, 1653. - -[160] Mr. Merivale, in his _Colonization and Colonies_, says, "It must -be admitted that, had the legislation of Spain in other respects been -as well conceived as that respecting the Indians, the loss of her -Western empire would have been an unmerited visitation." - -[161] Others say that the word _Cacique_ was brought from the Old World -by the Spaniards, and that it is a corruption of the Arabic _Sheikh_. - -[162] Prince of Esquilache's despatch, A.D. 1618, No. 6, p. 344, H. 53. -MS. despatches in the national library at Madrid. - -[163] See the sentence of death passed on the Inca Tupac Amaru in 1782, -by the Visitador Areche, in which the use of these dresses, and the -celebration of festivals and plays, are prohibited for the future. - -[164] See _Money's Java_, i. p. 215, where there is an account of the -position and functions of the native "Regents." - -[165] The pay of an Indian was usually 1 rial (6_d._) a week in the -farms, and 20 rials (about 10_s._) in the mines. But the miners kept -back a third of the Indian's wages, nominally to form a fund to pay for -his return to his home at the end of his period of service. - -[166] The Marquis of Montes Claros derives the word _mita_ from the -Quichua _mitta_, "time," and says that the _mita_ was established to -prevent idleness, and for the good of the Indians!--_Memorias_, i. p. -21. - -[167] _Report of the Viceroy Prince of Esquilache_, 1620. This, -however, is not quite clear: it is more probable that Indians were -lawlessly torn from their homes to work in the mines when the _mita_ of -a seventh did not yield a sufficient number of labourers. In North Peru -the proportion was a sixth, and in Quito a fifth. - -[168] Montes Claros describes them as Indians domiciled on the estates -or in the houses of Spaniards, like servants; their masters giving them -food, clothes, and a bit of land, and paying their tribute for them. -Lest the system should degenerate into slavery, the king, in a _cedula_ -of 1601, declared that they were free, and desired that this should be -made known to them.--_Memorias_, i. p. 27. - -[169] _Ordenanzas_, No. 34, 12, 140. - -[170] Especially in those of the Count of Alba de Liste in 1660. In -September of that year this viceroy assembled a Junta, in obedience to -an order from Spain, to consult respecting the instruction and good -treatment of the Indians. The proceedings, still in MS., may be seen in -the national library at Lima. - -[171] _Cuzco and Lima_, chap. vii., from the _Noticias Secretas_ of the -Ulloas. - -[172] II. p. 304 of the _Memorias de los Vireyes_. But no safe -calculation can be made respecting the actual population from these -numbers. - -[173] _Papeles Varios._ No. 4. MS. in the library at Lima. - -[174] The amalgamation with quicksilver was introduced at Potosi by -Velasco in 1571. The quicksilver was sent down from Huancavelica to -the port of Chincha, thence to Arica by sea, and from Arica over the -cordillera to Potosi.--_Report of the Prince of Esquilache._ - -[175] _Carta sobre trabajos, agravios, y injusticias que padecen los -Indios del Peru_; por Don Juan de Padilla, 1657.--MS. in the National -Library at Lima. - -[176] _Papeles Varios._ No. 4. MS. - -[177] MS. in Lima library. - -[178] _Manifesto de los agravios que padecen los Indios._--MS. at Lima. - -[179] _Funes_, iii. p. 242-333. - -[180] _Calancha._ - -[181] In 1591 a duty of 2 per cent. was placed on all merchandise, and -5 per cent. on coca.--_Report of the Prince of Esquilache_, 1620. - -[182] This system of _repartimientos_ or _repartos_ was also introduced -in the first instance with a benevolent intent, that of supplying -the people with European goods at a reasonable price. I use the word -_reparto_ in future, to distinguish this system from that of the -_repartimiento_ during the earlier period of Spanish domination in -Peru, which, with the same word, had a very different meaning. - -[183] _Informe por Diego Tupac Amaru.--Azangaro._ Oct. 18, 1781. -(Angelis). - -[184] Letter from Gen. del Valle to two friends at Lima, Oct. 3, 1781. - -[185] _Colonization and Colonies_, p. 6 and p. 283 (_note_). - -[186] _Papeles Varios_, No. 4.--MS. at Lima. - -[187] _Manifesto de Don Juan de Padilla_.--MS. at Lima. - -[188] _Sumario del Concilio II., Provincial en Lima_, 1567. Also, -letter from Dr. Juan Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco, July 20, 1782, MS.; and -in the collection of Angelis. - -[189] _Practica de visitas y Residencias_, Naples, 1696; and _Papeles -Varios_, No. 4. - -[190] See Temple's _Travels in Peru_ for an authentic account of the -rebellion of the Cataris in Upper Peru, and the siege of La Paz. - -[191] Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco, January, 1784, MS.; also in Nos. -9 to 20 of the _Museo Erudito_ of Cuzco, July, 1837. - -[192] Letter from Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco, MS. - -[193] _Ensayo de la Historia civil del Paraguay, Buenos Ayres, y -Tucuman, por el Dr. Don Gregorio Funes, Dean de la Santa Iglesia -Catedral de Cordova._--Buenos Ayres, 1817, 4 vols, tom. iii. pp. -242-333. This work contains a detailed and very interesting account of -the insurrections of Tupac Amaru, and of the Cataris in Upper Peru. - -[194] An account of the copious materials from which my information -respecting Tupac Amaru is derived will be found in a note at the -beginning of the following chapter. - -[195] "Native races must in every instance either perish, or be -amalgamated with the general population of their country."--Merivale's -_Colonies and Colonization_, p. 510. - -[196] _Spanish Conquest in America_, iv. p. 368. - -[197] _Colonies and Colonization_, p. 522. - -[198] _Amaru_ means serpent in Quichua, and _Tupac_ royal or excellent. -_Tupac_ also may be the participle of _Tupani_, I rend. - -Serpents are frequently carved in relief on the masonry of Inca -edifices. - -[199] These particulars are given by the monk Gonzalez, in his -_Historia de lo acaecido en Paucartambo_, a narrative still in MS.; -besides which, the materials for the history of the rebellion of Tupac -Amaru consist of a large collection of original documents, including -narratives, letters, despatches, and edicts, printed in the _Coleccion -de obras y documentos relativos a la historia antiqua y moderna de las -provincias de Rio de la Plata_, por Pedro de Angelis (Buenos Ayres, -1836), tom. v. pp. 109-286; the Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco, printed -in the _Museo Erudito del Cuzco_; a large collection of original MSS. -which were given to the late Gen. Miller in 1833, by Padre José Xavier -de Guzman, of the Franciscan convent in Santiago de Chile; the letter -from Tupac Amaru to Areche, and the sentence of death pronounced by -Areche, which are printed in the Appendix to the Spanish edition of -Gen. Miller's _Memoirs_; the work of Don Gregorio Funes, Dean of -Cordova, published at Buenos Ayres in 1817 (4 vols.); and the diary of -Don Sebastian de Segurola, Governor of La Paz, during its siege by the -Indians, published in Temple's _Travels in Peru_, ii. p. 103-78. I also -obtained a copy of Areche's reply to Tupac Amaru, from a MS. in the -public library at Lima. - -Weddell has given an account of the insurrection of Tupac Amaru in his -_Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_, chap. xv. p. 263-88. This chapter is -a résumé of the collection of original documents in the work of Angelis. - -[200] Information from Don Pablo Astete, aged 80, given to Gen. Miller -at Cuzco in 1835. Astete's father had been an intimate friend of Tupac -Amaru, but afterwards served against him. - -[201] Information from Dominga Bastidas, a cousin of Tupac Amaru's -wife, given to Gen. Miller at Cuzco in 1835. She said that Micaela was -always considered to have been very beautiful; and added, that the sons -of Tupac Amaru, when at college at Cuzco, spent the feast-days at her -house. In 1835 she was a very old woman. - -[202] This description of Tupac Amaru is almost word for word as it was -given to Gen. Miller by Don Pablo Astete, who well remembered him. - -[203] The inhabitants of Tungasuca, about 500 in number, were as -remarkable for their agricultural industry in 1853, when I saw them, as -they formerly were as muleteers. - -[204] From a MS. at Lima, headed "_En el Cuzco, Dec. 3, 1780_." - -[205] Inca Manco had two sons, Sayri Tupac and Tupac Amaru. Clara -Beatriz Coya, daughter of Sayri Tupac, married Don Martin Garcia de -Loyola, and had a daughter, Lorenza, created Marchioness of Oropesa -and Countess of Alcanises, with remainder to the descendants of her -great-uncle, Tupac Amaru. She married Don Juan Henriquez de Borja, but, -in 1770, there were no descendants of this marriage, and the descendant -of Tupac Amaru was the lawful heir to the marquisate. - -The decision of the Royal Audience of Lima disposes of the statement -of Baron Humboldt (_Political Essay_, i. p. 208), that "the pretended -Inca was a Mestizo, and his true father a monk." Humboldt was certainly -misinformed, as there is not a shadow of grounds for the assertion. -Tupac Amaru's birth is never questioned in any of the documents in my -possession, consisting of his sentence of death, proclamations, and -letters from his enemies, in which no opportunity is lost of blackening -his memory. - -[206] _Despachos que el Exmo. Señor Principe de Esquilache, Virey de -los reynos del Peru, envio a su Magestad._ No. 6, p. 344. Lima, April -16, 1618.--MS. in the National Library at Madrid, H. 53. - -[207] From the collection of Angelis. - -[208] Funes. - -[209] In my review of the language and literature of the Incas in -a former work (_Cuzco and Lima_, chap. vi.) I gave some translated -extracts from the drama of _Ollantay_, and an abstract of the plot. I -then stated that it was an ancient play, which had been handed down -from the time of the Incas; but I have since discovered that Dr. -Valdez was its author, although it contains several ancient songs and -speeches, and though the plot is undoubtedly ancient. I was led into -the error by the opinion expressed by the Peruvian antiquary, Mariano -Rivero,[210] a very high authority, that the drama had been handed down -from the time of the Incas. - -The original MS. is now in the possession of Don Narciso Cuentas, of -Tinta, the nephew and heir of Dr. Valdez; but there are numerous MS. -copies in Peru, and it has been printed at the end of Dr. Von Tschudi's -_Kechua Sprache_. - -There is a review of this Quichua drama of Dr. Valdez, in the _Museo -Erudito_ (Nos. 5 to 9), a periodical published at Cuzco in 1837, by the -editor, Don José Palacios. He says that the story respecting Ollantay -was handed down by immemorial tradition, but that the drama was written -by Dr. Valdez. The writer criticizes the plot, objecting that the -treason of Ollantay is rewarded, while the heroic conduct of Rumi-ñaui -remains unnoticed. Palacios had inquired of Don Juan Hualpa, a noble -Cacique of Belem in Cuzco, and of the Caciques of San Sebastian and San -Blas, who agreed in their account of the tradition, which was that the -rebellion of Ollantay arose from the abduction of an _Aclla_ or Virgin -of the Sun from her convent, but they had not heard her name, nor who -she was. - -These particulars respecting the origin of the drama of _Ollantay_ may -be interesting to readers who have paid any attention to the history -of the civilization of the Incas. Though not so ancient as I once -supposed, the drama is still very curious, because it contains songs -and long passages of undoubted antiquity. - -[210] Antiquedades Peruanas, p. 116. - -[211] Two and a half leagues from Tinta, and two miles from Yanaoca. - -[212] Near the port of Islay, and westward of Cornejo point, the coast -forms a shallow bay, in which is the small cove of Aranta, 13 miles -from the valley of Quilca. Its capabilities as a port were personally -examined by the President Castilla three years ago. - -[213] One mile from Tungasuca. - -[214] A coat of arms was granted to the family of the Incas by Charles -V., at Valladolid, in 1544. Tierce in fess. On a chief azure, a Sun -with glory proper; on a fess vert an eagle displayed sable, between a -rainbow and two serpents proper; on a base gules, a castle proper. - -These partitions, by tiercing the shield, are not used in English -heraldry. - -[215] _Quispi_, flint; and _cancha_, a place. - -[216] The Spaniards declared that the Indians set the church on fire, -and that all perished.--(_Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco_, MS.) But the -above account of the affair was given by the Inca himself to Don Miguel -Andrade of Azangaro, and he denied positively that the church was set -on fire.--_Sublevacion de Tupac Amaru._ Angelis. - -[217] Landa, the Governor of Paucartambo, had formerly led an exploring -expedition into the montaña, in search of the great river of Madre de -Dios or Purus.--_Cuzco and Lima_, p. 263. - -[218] This Cacique Sahuaraura was the father of the late Dr. Justo -Sahuaraura, of Cuzco, who published a little genealogical work in -Paris, in 1850, in which he claimed descent from the Incas. I hear, -however, that his genealogy is apocryphal. In 1835 he wrote to -the editor of the _Museo Erudito_ of Cuzco, offering to write the -traditions of his family in that periodical, as an Inca. A Dr. Gallego, -of Cuzco, replied that no Inca was ever called Sahuaraura, but that the -Inca Rocca once had a servant of that name, and that he might possibly -be descended from him. This silenced Don Justo for a long time. -(_Sahuay_, a flame; _raurac_, make. He had to light the Inca's fire). - -[219] Letter from Dr. Moscoso, Bishop of Cuzco, July 20, -1782.--_Angelis._ - -[220] In the collection of Angelis. - -[221] _Angelis_ and _Guzman_, MSS. - -[222] _Historia de lo acaecido en el Real Asunto de Paucartambo, en la -rebelion sucitada por José Gabriel Tupac Amaru._ A manuscript account -of the siege of Paucartambo, by Fray Raymundo Gonzalez, Religioso -Mercedario, written in 1782. The original is still at Paucartambo, -where I saw it, and there are two or three copies at Cuzco. - -[223] Namely:-- - - Pumacagua of Chinchero. - Rosas of Anta. - Sucacahua of Umachiri. - Huaranca of Santa Rosa. - Chuquihuanca of Azangaro. - Game of Paruro. - Espinosa of Catoca. - Carlos Visa of Achalla. - Chuquicallata of Saman. - Huambo Tupa of Yauri. - Callu of Sicuani. - Aronis of Checacupe. - Cotacellapa of Caravaya. - Sahuaraura of Oropesa. - Choquechua of Belem, in Cuzco. - Bustinza Uffucana of S^{ta.} Anna, in - Cuzco.--_Letter from Dr. Moscoso, - Bishop of Cuzco._ - -[224] The way in which this valuable despatch of the Inca Tupac Amaru -became public is very curious. In 1806 Dr. Tadeo Garate, of La Paz, -Secretary to Bishop Las Heras (afterwards Archbishop of Lima), was -ordered by the Viceroy Marquis of Aviles to publish a history of -the Rebellion of Tupac Amaru in 1780-1; and, to guard against the -possibility of authentic counter-statements, this despatch was taken -from the archives of Cuzco, and sent to La Paz in charge of an Indian -student named Pasoscanki, who perused it on the road, and was so struck -with the magnanimity and heroism of his native prince, that he did not -deliver the papers. He afterwards emigrated to Buenos Ayres, and, in -1812, went to England, and commissioned Mr. Wood, of Poppin's-court, -Fleet-street, to print Tupac Amaru's despatch; but, for want of funds, -this was not done, and, Pasoscanki returning to Buenos Ayres, the -publication was abandoned. In 1828 the same printer was employed to -print the Spanish edition of Gen. Miller's _Memoirs_, and at that time -the despatch was found amongst some old papers in Mr. Wood's office. -It was finally published in an appendix to the Spanish edition of Gen. -Miller's _Memoirs_. - -[225] Report of Gen. del Valle, Sept. 30, 1781, MS. Letter of Areche. -MS., in the library at Lima. - -[226] This draft of an edict is amongst the papers in Angelis. It is -possible, however, that it may have been forged by the Spaniards, in -order to produce written evidence of the intentions of Tupac Amaru. - -[227] Tomas Parvina de Colquemarca, "Justicia Mayor," and Felipe -Bermudez, a Spaniard, belonged to the "Junta Privada," or Privy -Council, of the Inca. Bermudez had acted as the Inca's secretary. - -[228] There is said to be a picture in the church at Tinta representing -this massacre. - -[229] He is said to have been dressed in Incarial robes, with the arms -of the Incas embroidered in gold at the corners. - -[230] A list of the prisoners is given amongst the Angelis papers. - -[231] It is printed in the appendix to the Spanish edition of Gen. -Miller's _Memoirs_, vol. i. - -[232] One account says that he was tortured until one arm was -dislocated, by the _garruche_, by order of Matta Linares. _Guzman_ MSS. - -[233] Letter from Gen. del Valle, Sept. 30, 1781. - -[234] One of these was Dr. Don Toribio Carrasco, afterwards Cura of -Belem in Cuzco, who, in 1835, mentioned the circumstance, and the -impression it had made, to Gen. Miller. - -[235] These executions, in all their revolting details, were certified -by Juan Bautista Gamarra, public notary to the Cabildo of Cuzco, in a -document dated May 20, 1781. - -[236] _Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco._ - -[237] The edict, fixing the destinations of the different parts of each -victim, is printed amongst the papers in Angelis. - -[238] The Pizarros and their companions were angels of mercy when -compared with such vile wretches as Areche and Matta Linares; yet -we are told by one of his flatterers that "the tender heart of the -visitador was filled with piety and humanity, and that early on the day -after the execution he went to the cathedral, and, having confessed and -partaken of the sacrament, he paid for several masses for the souls of -the culprits, and heard them all on his knees, thus edifying the whole -city." Hypocritical hyæna!--_Guzman_ MSS. - -[239] When Señor Zea, of Bogota, was in Paris, Kotzebue undertook a -journey on purpose to obtain information from him respecting Tupac -Amaru, having conceived the idea of writing a tragedy founded on his -rebellion. But Zea, being a Colombian, knew little or nothing about it. - -Kotzebue, however, continued his inquiries respecting Peru, which -resulted in his play _The Virgins of the Sun_, and hence Sheridan's -_Pizarro_. - -[240] Orellana was a native of Cuenca, and descended from the great -navigator of the Amazons. - -[241] _Relacion del Gobernador de Puno, de sus expediciones, sitios, -defensa, y varios acaecimientos, hasta que despoblo la villa de orden -del Inspector y Commandante General Don José Antonio del Valle: corre -desde 16 Noviembre 1780, hasta 17 de Julio 1781._ - -[242] During my stay at Puno I lived in the house which was occupied by -Orellana during the siege. It is now the property of Don Manuel Costas. - -[243] Information from Gen. San Roman. - -[244] One thousand nine hundred and fifty men deserted in six -days.--_Letter from del Valle._ - -[245] _Manifesto del Gen. del Valle. Se queja amargamente contra el -visitador Areche._ Cuzco, Septre. 1781.--_Guzman_ MSS. - -[246] Information from Don Luis Quiñones of Azangaro. - -[247] Angelis. - -[248] Custom-house officers. - -[249] _Informe por Don Diego Tupac Amaru._ Azangaro, Oct. 18, 1781. - -[250] Angelis. - -[251] By far the best account of the rebellion of the Cataris in Upper -Peru, and of the two sieges of La Paz, is to be found in the work of -Dean Funes. - -[252] The Bishop of Cuzco, Dr. Don Juan Manuel Moscoso y Peralta, -afterwards had twenty-two accusations or charges brought against -him connected with this rebellion, which he answered in detail in a -work published at Madrid. One is that he excommunicated a priest for -betraying the secrets of the Indians told under the seal of confession; -another that he tried to save the lives of several Indian rebels; -another that he asked for a general pardon after the death of the Inca; -another that he permitted Mariano Tupac Amaru to celebrate the funeral -of his father, &c. If these accusations were true, they all redound to -the bishop's honour; and it is to be regretted that he was so anxious -to defend himself against them. At the end of his book there are some -letters to him from Diego Tupac Amaru. "_Inocencia justificada contra -los artificios de la calumnia. Papel que escribio en defensa de su -honor y distinguidos servicios hechos con motivo de la rebelion del -Reyno del Peru, por José Gabriel Tupac Amaru: el Illustrissimo Señor -Don Juan Manuel Moscoso y Peralta, Obispo del Cuzco._" (Fol. Madrid). - -[253] _Oficio del Inspector Don José del Valle, al Virey de Buenos -Ayres._ Ayaviri, July 14, 1782. - -[254] Report of the Cabildo of Cuzco. - -[255] Report of Don Augustin de Jauregui, Viceroy of Peru. Lima, March -29, 1783. - -[256] _Oficio de Don Gabriel de Aviles, a Don Sebastian de Segurola._ -Cuzco. - -[257] _Sentencia contra el reo Tupac Amaru, y demas acomplices, -pronunciada por Don Gabriel de Aviles, y Don Benito de la Matta -Linares._ July, 1783. - -[258] Information from Don Luis Quiñones of Azangaro. Dr. Valdez died -in 1816. Don Pablo Pimentel, the worthy Subprefect of Caravaya, told -me that he remembered the old cura well, as a tall man with a stately -walk, who always gave him a dollar when he met him in Sicuani. - -[259] A fabulous region supposed to exist far to the eastward of the -Andes, in the unknown parts of the Amazonian valley. - -[260] _Oficio de Don Felipe Carrera, Corregidor de Parinacochas_, Julio -12, 1783. Also _Sentencia dado por el Virey de Lima, contra los reos_, -Julio, 1783. Angelis. - -[261] A person calling himself Juan Bautista Tupac Amaru, and -professing to have been one of the sufferers, printed a pamphlet, -which was deposited in the archives of Buenos Ayres. In it he relates -the tale of his miseries in uncouth Spanish. He says that he beheld -his fettered mother perish of thirst on the road to Lima, in presence -of guards who turned a deaf ear to her cries for water. He saw his -faithful wife die on board the ship, without being allowed length of -chain enough to approach her. During an imprisonment of forty years at -Ceuta the sentries never relaxed their cruelties until the ministry -which came into power in Spain, after the military movement of 1820, -set the few survivors at liberty. - -It is now confidently asserted that the author of this pamphlet was -an impostor. He came to Buenos Ayres in 1822, and the republican -government granted him a house, and a pension for life of 30 dollars a -month. - -[262] The words of the Cura of Belem, who heard it. - -[263] Don Luis Ocampo related this anecdote to Gen. Miller in 1835, -when he was still living at Cuzco, but upwards of eighty years of age. -After Peru had become independent, in about 1828, a person, calling -himself Fernando Tupac Amaru, appeared in Buenos Ayres, and went on to -Lima, becoming a monk in the convent of San Pedro; but he is believed -to have been an impostor. - -[264] Goyeneche was created Count of Huaqui. His brother, the late -Bishop of Arequipa, and present Archbishop of Lima, is probably the -senior Bishop of Christendom, dating his appointment from 1809; and he -is certainly the richest man in all South America. - -[265] _Confesion de Pumacagua._ - -[266] Information from Gen. San Roman, who called them _Fresaderos_. - -[267] _Diario de la expedicion del Mariscal de Campo Don Juan Ramirez, -sobre las provincias interiores de la Paz, Puno, Arequipa, y Cuzco, por -Don José Alcon, Teniente Coronel agregado a la misma expedicion._ Lima, -1815. (1 tom. 4°, 112 paginas). - -[268] Information from Gen. San Roman, whose father, a native of Puno, -joined Pumacagua at Cavanilla. - -[269] Colonel Alcon. - -[270] Gen. San Roman. - -[271] _Documento_, i. _Oficio de Vicente Angulo a Ramirez._ Feb. 28, -1815. - -[272] _Documento_ ii. _Oficio de Pumacagua a Ramirez._ Marzo 6, 1815. - -[273] _Documento_ iii. _Contestacion de Ramirez a Pumacagua._ Marzo 7, -1815. - -[274] Information from Gen. San Roman. - -[275] Gen. San Roman, who gave me the account of this battle, was -himself present at it, with his father, when a very little boy. His -father was afterwards shot in the plaza of Puno, by the Spaniards, and -when the liberating army arrived on the coast of Peru, in 1822, the -young San Roman hurried down from his mountain home to join their ranks. - -[276] In October, 1823, Gen. Miller saw the fair object of the -poet Melgar's adoration, at Camana, on the coast of Peru. She was -a native of Arequipa, with light hair, blue eyes, and a fair clear -complexion. She refused Melgar, married another, and, being obliged -to flee with her husband to escape the persecution of the Royalists, -found an asylum on the banks of the river Camana. Her maiden name was -Paredes.--Miller's _Memoirs_, ii. p. 90. - -Melgar's brother is now Minister of Foreign Affairs at Lima. - -[277] Information from Don Luis Quiñones of Azangaro. - -[278] So strong is the feeling of the Peruvian people generally against -this oppressive system, that, in the reformed constitution promulgated -on Nov. 25, 1860, forced recruiting was declared to be a crime. - -"El reclutamiento es un crimen."--_Titulo_ xvi., _art._ 123. - -[279] In 1859 there was a very formidable rising of the Indians in -Chayanta, which was not put down until after much bloodshed. - -[280] Humboldt. - -[281] Hatun-colla was once the capital of the great Inca province of -the Collao. - -[282] The three latter are also mentioned by Haenke. - -[283] _Antiquedades Peruanas._ - -[284] One of the manufacturers, Don Manuel Zenon Ramos, has been very -active in seeking for instruction, designs, and models from Europe. - -[285] _Lupinus Paniculatus._--Chloris Andina, ii. p. 252. - -[286] Landa sent in a report of his expedition to the Corregidor of -Cuzco. My friend Dr. Don Julian Ochoa, the rector of the university of -Cuzco, has recently searched the archives of the ancient municipality -of that city, as well as private collections, for this interesting -document, at my request, but without success. - -[287] See _Cuzco and Lima_, chap. viii.; also _Roy. Geo. Soc. Journal_ -for 1855. - -[288] This is not the great river which flows near Cuzco, and falls -into the Ucayali. The Indians call all rivers which serve as the trunk -or centre of a system of streams _Huilca_ or _Vilca-mayu_. - -[289] Brother of the present rector of the university of Cuzco. - -[290] Account of the Valleys of Marcapata, by Don José Maria Pacheco. -_Museo Erudito del Cuzco_, 1839, No. 21. See also an account of a -journey down the course of the river Marcapata as far as its junction -with the Ollachea, signed Paul Marcoy, in the _Revue Contemporaine_, -tom. 4^{me}, 1860. _Scènes et Paysages dans les Andes._ - -[291] _Comm. Real_, ii. lib. iii. cap. xix. p. 174. - -[292] Lib. iv. cap. iv. - -[293] Don Pablo Pimentel says that the ancient name of the province was -_Inahuaya_. - -[294] _Bosquejo del estado actual de la provincia de Carabaya, y -majorias que proponen al Supremo Gobierno el Suprefecto de ella, Don -Pablo Pimentel._ Arequipa, 1846. - -[295] _Memorias de los Vireyeo_, i. p. 36. - -[296] _Memorial de cosas tocantes las minas de Caravaya._ J. 58, p. -441. A very illegible manuscript in the national library at Madrid. - -[297] _Relacion del Conde de Castellar_, p. 222. - -[298] _Relacion del Obispo Melchor Liñan y Cisneros_, p. 299. - -[299] This appears from the _Informe_ of Diego Tupac Amaru, dated -Azangaro, Oct. 18, 1781; in which he stipulates that the coca estate -near San Gavan, in Caravaya, shall be granted to Mariano Tupac Amaru as -his rightful possession, because it belonged to his father the Inca. - -[300] _Bosquejo_, &c. - -[301] There is one other town, or rather wretched village, on this -Arctic plain, within Caravaya, called Macusani, about 30 miles -north-west of Crucero. - -[302] A Quichua poem was written on the Cura Cabrera, and his breed of -paco-vicuñas, by Don M. M. Basagoitia. _Rivero's Antiq. Per._ 112-13. - -[303] According to Don Pablo Pimentel. The people of Sandia told me -45,000 cestos, or 900,000 lbs.; and Lieut. Gibbon, U.S.N., in his work, -says 500,000 lbs. - -[304] These Chunchos of Caravaya belong to the same tribe as the fierce -Indians of the Paucartambo valleys, for some account of whom see my -former work, _Cuzco and Lima_, p. 272. - -Don Pablo Pimentel calls the wild tribes of Caravaya _Caranques_ and -_Sumahuanes_, but I think this is a mistake. Garcilasso de la Vega -mentions the _Coranques_ as a fierce tribe to the north of Quito, who -were conquered by the Inca Huayna Capac.--_Comm. Real_, i. lib. viii. -cap. vii. p. 274. - -[305] _Challhua_, fish, in Quichua; and _uma_, water, in Aymara. - -[306] _Lijera descripcion que hace Juan Bustamante, de su viaje a -Carabaya, y del estado actual de sus lavaderos y minerales._ Arequipa, -1850. Bustamante says that, at the time of his visit, there were a -hundred people at the _lavaderos_ of the Challuma, and that the Indians -received 4 rials a day. - -[307] _On the Geology of Bolivia and Southern Peru_, by David Forbes, -Esq., in the Journal of the Geological Society for Feb. 1861, p. 53. - -Mr. Forbes had, of course, personally examined only a portion of this -great Silurian region. At Tipuani, in Bolivia, there is a very rich -auriferous country, composed of blue-clay slates, with no fossils; -while the beds near Sorata contain fossils, and consist of blue-clay -shales, micaceous slates, grauwacke, and clay slates, with gold-bearing -quartz, metallic bismuths, iron-ore, and argentiferous galena. "The -whole of this Silurian formation is eminently auriferous, and contains -everywhere frequent veins of auriferous quartz, usually associated with -iron pyrites." - -[308] The thermometer was at 25° Fahr. inside the hut. - -[309] Observations by Negretti and Zambra's boiling-point thermometer. - -[310] Titulo 14, s. 104. - -[311] The _Juntas Departmentales_ have since been abolished by the -Reformed Constitution, promulgated in Nov. 1860. Up to May, 1860, Gen. -Castilla, the President, had never permitted them to meet. - -[312] Titulo 15, s. 114. - -[313] _La Revista de Lima_, tom. i. p. 159-60. Nov. 15, 1859. An -article by G. A. Flores. - -[314] The same was once the case all over Peru, in the good old days of -the Incas, as we know from the curious dying confession of the last of -the conquerors, Marcio Serra de Lejesama, addressed to Philip II., A.D. -1589. - -"Your Majesty must understand that my reason for making this statement -is to relieve my conscience, for we have destroyed the government -of this people by our bad example. Crimes were once so little known -among them, that an Indian with 100,000 pieces of gold and silver in -his house left it open, only placing a little stick across the door, -as a sign that the master was out; and nobody went in. But when they -saw that we placed locks in our doors, they understood that it was -from fear of theft; and when they saw that we had thieves amongst -us, they thought little of us; but now these natives, through our -bad example, have come to such a pass that no crime is unknown to -them."--_Calancha_, lib. i. cap. 15, p. 98. - -[315] G. de la Vega, _Com. Real._ i. lib. viii. cap. 15. - -[316] _Acosta_, lib. iv. cap. 22, who cannot agree with those who -believe its reputed virtues to be the effects of imagination. - -[317] _Cedula_, 18 Oct. 1569. - -[318] _Solorzano_, _Polit. Ind._, lib. ii. cap. 10, quoted by Unanue. - -[319] J. de Jussieu was the first botanist who sent specimens of coca -to Europe, in 1750. - -Dr. Weddell suggests that the word comes from the Aymara _khoka_, a -tree, i. e. _the_ tree _par excellence_, like _yerba_, _the_ plant -of Paraguay. The Inca historian Garcilasso, however, spells the word -_cuca_. - -[320] The cesto of coca sells at 8 dollars in Sandia. In Huanuco it is -5 dollars the arroba of 25 lbs. - -[321] Report of the Prince of Esquilache. - -[322] Poeppig calculates the yield of Huanuco at 500,000 lbs. - -[323] Poeppig, _Reise_, ii. p. 252; also Van Tschudi, p. 455. - -[324] In Caravaya the _llipta_ is made into a pointed lump, and kept -in a horn, or sometimes in a silver receptacle, in the _chuspa_. With -it there is also a pointed instrument, with which the _llipta_ is -scratched, and the powder is applied to the pellet of coca-leaves. -In some provinces they keep a small calabash full of lime in their -_chuspas_, called _iscupurus_. - -[325] _Bonplandia_, viii. p. 355-78. - -[326] The information in this chapter is derived from personal -observation; from the essay on coca by Dr. Don Hipolito Unanue, in Nos. -3 to 8 of the _Museo Erudito_; and from the works treating of coca, by -Van Tschudi, _Travels in Peru_, p. 455; Dr. Poeppig, _Reise in Peru_, -ii. p. 248; Dr. Weddell, _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_, p. 516; the -_Bonplandia_; and a memorandum by Dr. Booth, of La Paz. These are the -best authorities on the subject. - -[327] Dr. Weddell, the discoverer of this species, had never seen -it in flower. I brought home leaves, flowers, and fruit of the _C. -Caravayensis_, which are now in the herbarium at Kew. - -[328] An Umbellifer. The roots taste something like a parsnip, and -there are four kinds--white, yellow, brown, and reddish. - -[329] _Lenco_ appears to mean "sticky mud," and _huayccu_ is a ravine, -in Quichua. - -[330] _Com. Real._ i. lib. viii. cap. 15. - -[331] Lib. iv. cap. 29. - -[332] Not, of course, the famous gold-bearing river of the same name. - -[333] _Carhua-carhua-blanca (Lasionema ?) Tree._--30 or 40 feet high, -growing in moist parts of the valley of Tambopata. - -_Leaves._--Opposite, entire, petiolate, oblong, acute, smooth on both -sides, dark green above, lighter beneath, with veins and midrib nearly -white. 2-1/2 feet long by 9 or 10 inches broad. Coarse, bulging, and -wrinkled between the veins. - -_Calyx._--Deep purple and green, leathery, 5-toothed, teeth rounded. - -_Corolla._--Tube white, tinged with light purple, leathery, 5 laciniæ, -smooth and reflexed. - -_Stamens._--5, attached to the middle of the tube of the corolla, -exserted. Filaments pillose at the base, tinged with purple. Anthers a -little shorter than the filaments, all lying on the lower sides of the -tube of the corolla, light brown. - -_Style._--Exserted, but a little shorter than the stamens, light green -colour. _Stigma_, bi-cleft. - -_Panicles._--Corymbose and multiflor, in threes, 6 to 15 buds on each. -_Pedicels_ a brownish purple. - -I have attempted to describe this tree, because I have been unable to -identify it with any of the chinchonaceous plants in Dr. Weddell's work. - -[334] _Yana_, in Quichua, is black; and _mayu_ a river. - -[335] _Rupicola Peruviana_ (family of _Ampelidæ_). Van Tschudi says -that they feed on the seeds of chinchona-trees.--_Travels in Peru_, p. -427. - -[336] The bark, leaves, and capsules from this tree are deposited in -the herbarium and museum at Kew. - -[337] I brought home a bunch of the capsules, now in the herbarium at -Kew. - -[338] There we also found the _Trichomanes muscoides_, a pretty little -fern which, I am informed by Mr. J. Smith, of Kew, though common in the -West Indies, was not previously known to be a native of Peru. - -[339] Specimens from this locality were examined and reported upon at -28, Jermyn-street. - -[340] Described by Dr. Weddell, in his _Histoire Naturelle des -Quinquinas_, in a note under the genus _Pimentelia_. - -[341] In Peru the father of a child is _compadre_ to its godfather. It -is considered a very close and sacred relationship. - -[342] Hence the name _Lenco-huayccu_. _Lenqui_ is anything sticky in -Quichua, and _huayccu_ a ravine. - -[343] _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, Feb. 1, 1860, p. -59. - -[344] Dr. Weddell believes it to be a distinct species from the _C. -Micrantha_ of Huanuco, and has named it _C. Affinis_. - -[345] "_Alcalde Municipal del Distrito de Quiaca, al Señor Juez de Paz -Don Juan de la Cruz Gironda._ - - _"6 de Mayo de 1860._ - -"Teniendo positivas noticias de que sea internado a los puntos de -Tambopata un estranjero Ingles, con objeto de estraer plantas de -cascarilla, me es de absoluta necesidad pasarle a vm esta nota, para -que sin permitir que en grave perjuicio de los hijos del pais, lo tome -ni una planta, por lo que como autoridad debe vm de aberiguar bien -para capturar a el y al persona quien se propone a facilitarle dichas -plantas, y conducirlos a este. - - "Dios guarde a vm., - - "JOSÉ MARIANO BOBADILLA." - -[346] Hence the name of the Peruvian province of _Parinacochas_. -_Parihuana-cocha_, the Flamingo lake.--G. de la Vega, _Comm. Real._ i. -lib. iii. cap. ix. p. 83. - -[347] "We give here the notices which we have collected respecting the -existence and position of a lake which is not to be found in any map, -and which bears the name of Arapa. It is said to be 6 leagues to the -north of lake Titicaca, and is 30 leagues in circumference. It extends -from the foot of a very abrupt chain of mountains, and its figure is -that of a half-moon. It contains some islands. Its waters, having -traversed two other smaller lakes to the west, fall into the Ramiz, -which is thus rendered navigable at all seasons. The principal villages -around the lake of Arapa are Chacamana, Chupan, Arapa, and Vetansas. -Round the latter place it is said that there are many veins of silver -and mines of precious stones."--_Castelnau_, tom. iii. chap. xxxix. p. -420. - -[348] _Taya_ is an Aymara word, meaning "cold." - -[349] _La Balsa de Arequipa_, Junio 15. - -"Las cuestiones municipales han hecho gran daño al puerto de Islay, -pues todo va mal con el desacuerdo que reina entre el cuerpo y las -demas autoridades que lo combaten escandalosamente. - -"Quiero que se sepa en esa ciudad que los estranjeros han dado en -esportar per esta plantas de cascarilla, que es sabido esta prohibido -hacerlo: acaba de embarcar un Ingles una multitud de ellas para la -India, por comision official de su Gobierno. Yo no sé como es que esto -se tolera, defraudando asi uno de los mejores y mas esclusivos ramos de -nuestra riqueza." - -[350] - - "_Ministerio de Hacienda y Comercio._ - - _Lima, Junio 20 de 1860._ - -En el expediente relativa a la medida tomada por el Administrador de la -Aduana de Islay, impediendo la extraccion de cierto numero de plantas -de cascarilla, ha recaido con fecha de hoy, el siguiente decreto. - -Visto este expediente, y atendiendo a que no esta prohibida por -reglamento de Comercio, la extraccion de plantas de cascarilla, y -a que de impedirse su exportacion, con detrimento de la libertad -comercial que las leyes de la Republica, y ese reglamento protejan, no -se conseguiria en manera alguna el objeto que el Administrador de la -Aduana se ha propuesto al impedir el embarque de varias plantas de esa -especie, se desaprueba dicha prohibicion, sin que por este se entiende -que el Gobierno deja de apreciar el celo y patriotismo que revela en el -preindicado Administrador la enunciada medida. - - Dios guarda a V. S., - - JUAN JOSÉ SALCEDO." - -[351] In an Appendix will be found a list of these knights errant in -the cause of liberty. It was one of the last things upon which that -gallant old warrior, General Miller, the most distinguished of their -number, was engaged before his death in November 1861. - -[352] "Pos las narraciones tan calumniosas como absurdas de algunos -aventureros maldicientes, se nos considera punto menos que salvages," -says a Peruvian writer. - -[353] In Spanish times there were 83 "titulos de Castilla" in Peru, -consisting of 1 duke, 46 marquises, 35 counts, and 1 viscount. The -descendants of several of these noblemen still reside on their estates -in Peru. - -[354] The boundary between Ecuador and Peru is now founded on the _uti -possidetis_ of 1810, and the treaty of 1829. - -[355] _Pruvonena_, i. p. 688. - -[356] Pedro Castilla discovered the class of ore called _lecheador_ -(chloro-bromide of silver). See Bollaert's _Antiquarian and other -Researches in Peru_, &c. In this work there is a full and interesting -account of the province of Tarapaca, and of the nitrate of soda works, -and other mineral products of that part of Peru. - -[357] This province also yields great quantities of tobacco, sugar, -rice, and maize; and the adjoining province of Truxillo produces -cochineal, which was introduced by Mr. Blackwood. - -[358] 1 _fanegada_ = 41,472 square _varas_ (yards), and 1 acre = 4840 -varas. In Arequipa the square measure is called a _topu_. 1 _topu_ = -5000 square _varas_. - -[359] Mr. Gerard Garland is about to commence a cotton plantation -in the littoral province of Payta; and, if his project succeeds, it -will doubtless induce others to follow his example.--_Cotton Supply -Reporter_, March 15th, 1862. - -[360] The use of guano as a manure was well known to the ancient -Peruvians long before the Spanish conquest. Garcilasso de la Vega, the -historian of the Incas, thus describes the use made by them of the -deposits of guano on the coast of Peru:-- - -"On the shores of the sea, from below Arequipa to Tarapaca, which is -more than 200 leagues of coast, they use no other manure than that of -sea-birds, which abound in all the coasts of Peru, and go in such great -flocks that it would be incredible to one who had not seen them. They -breed on certain uninhabited islands which are on that coast; and the -manure which they deposit is in such quantities that it would also seem -incredible. From afar the heaps of manure appear like the peaks of some -snowy mountain range. In the time of the kings, who were Incas, such -care was taken to guard these birds in the breeding season, that it was -not lawful for any one to land on the isles, on pain of death, that the -birds might not be frightened, nor driven from their nests. Neither was -it lawful to kill them at any time, either on the islands or elsewhere, -also on pain of death. Each island was, by order of the Incas, set -apart for the use of a particular province, and the guano was fairly -divided, each village receiving a due portion. Now in these times it -is wasted after a different fashion. There is much fertility in this -bird-manure."--II. lib. v. cap. iii. p. 134-5. (Madrid, 1723.) - -Frezier mentions that, when he was on the coast in 1713, guano was -brought from Iquique and other ports along the coast, and landed at -Arica and Ylo, for the aji-pepper and other crops.--Frezier's _South -Sea_, p. 152. (London, 1717.) - -[361] _Informes sobre la existencia de Huano, en las Islas de Chincha, -por la comision nombrada por el Gobierno Peruano_, 1854. A small -pamphlet, with plans. - -[362] Bollaert's _Account of Tarapaca_. - -[363] In 1858 there were 52 ships loading at the Kooria Mooria islands, -off the coast of Arabia. In Jibleea the guano is found coating nearly -the whole of the island (about 500,000 tons), white and polished, so as -to be very slippery, which is very different from the guano of Peru. In -May, 1857, this guano from Jibleea island was analyzed at Bombay by Dr. -Giraud, with the following result:-- - - Water 6·88 - Azotized matter, with ammoniacal salts 38·75 - Fixed alkaline salts 6· - Sand 26·25 - Sulphate of lime 3·77 - Phosphate of lime 18·35 - ------ - 100·00 - ------ - -Thus the quantity of phosphate of lime is very small, and it appears -that the rains have washed it down, and that it has formed a -stalactitic deposit on the surface of the rock beneath the guano. A -cargo of this deposit was shipped and sold at Liverpool for 8_l._ a ton. - -The composition of Peruvian guano is as follows:-- - - Water 13·73 - Organic matter and ammoniacal salts 53·16 - Phosphates 23·48 - Alkaline salts 7·97 - Sand 1·66 - ------ - 100.00 - ------ - -Of Ichaboe guano:-- - - Water 24·21 - Organic matter, and ammoniacal salts 39·30 - Phosphates 30·00 - Alkaline salts 4·19 - Sand 2·30 - ------ - 100·00 - ------ - -[364] The Peruvian Government contracted three loans in London between -1822 and 1825, amounting to 1,816,000_l._, bearing interest at 6 per -cent. - -No interest was paid from 1825 to 1849, when the sales of guano had -greatly increased the resources of Peru. In 1849 Señor Osma made an -agreement with the bondholders to issue New Bonds at 4 per cent. per -annum, the rate to increase 1/2 per cent. annually up to 6 per cent. -Arrears of interest, about 2,615,000_l._, were to be capitalized, and -Deferred Bonds to be issued to represent 75 per cent. of these arrears, -and to bear interest at 1 per cent. per annum, increasing 1/2 per cent. -annually up to 3 per cent. - -In 1852 the Congress authorised General Mendiburu to effect a loan in -London for 2,600,000_l._ to redeem the remainder of the 6 per cent. -loan, and to refund other home and Chile debts. - -The annual interest and sinking fund amount, respectively, to -267,000_l._ and 82,000_l._; the payment of which is secured on the -profits of guano sold in Great Britain. - -There is also a French loan of 800,000_l._ secured on the profits of -guano sold in France. - -The whole foreign debt of Peru amounted to 4,491,042_l._ in 1857; and -the domestic debt to 4,835,708_l._ The foreign debt is annually reduced -by means of a sinking fund. - -[365] _Memorias de los Vireyes que han gobernado el Peru._ (Lima, 1859.) - -[366] After his death 22 wounds were found on his body, and 2 bullets -lodged. - -[367] Mr. Howard has recently obtained 8·5 per cent. of alkaloids from -a specimen of red bark. - -[368] There is no ascertained law by which many of the species of the -chinchona genus are thus limited to narrow zones as regards latitude. -Mr. Spruce mentions that on the lower regions of the Andes of Pasto -and Popayan, in New Granada, there are the conditions of climate and -altitude requisite for the growth of _C. succirubra_, but it has not -been found there. - -[369] This is not the same as the _pata de gallinazo_ of Huanuco, which -has been named by Mr. Howard _C. Peruviana_. - -[370] Mr. Cross sowed eight of the seeds; one began to germinate on -the fourth day, and at the end of a fortnight four seeds had pushed -their radicles. In three weeks one had the seed-leaves completely -developed; and on the twenty-eighth day after sowing, the last of -the eight pushed its radicle. Eight chinchona-seeds, gathered by Mr. -Spruce in 1859, were sown at Guayaquil, which had remained nine months -in his herbarium. Of these four germinated, which clearly shows that -well-ripened and properly-dried seeds do not lose their vitality for -a much longer period than their excessive delicacy would lead one to -suspect. - -[371] 1. _Notes of a visit to the Chinchona Forests_, by R. Spruce, -Esq., printed by the Linnæan Society, vol. iv. of their _Proceedings_. - -2. Mr. Spruce's _Report to the Under Secretary of State for India_, -Oct. 12, 1860. - -3. _Report of the Expedition to procure Plants and Seeds of the -Chinchona succirubra_, by R. Spruce, Esq., Sept. 22, 1861. - -[372] Letter from Mr. Pritchett to the Under Secretary of State for -India, dated July 9, 1861. - -[373] Letter from Mr. Pritchett to the Under Secretary of State for -India, dated Dec. 13, 1860. - -[374] Smyth's _Journey from Lima to Para_, p. 63. - -[375] Herndon's _Valley of the Amazon_, p. 126. - -[376] Herndon's _Valley of the Amazon_, p. 136. - -[377] Smyth, p. 115; who says that, according to a register which had -been kept there, it rains at Casapi on more than half the days of the -year. - -"From May to November the sun shines very powerfully in the valley -of Chinchao, and consequently the soil, when it is cleared of wood, -becomes so parched that its surface opens in chinks, but underneath -it always preserves humidity, and therefore needs no irrigation. From -November to May it rains much, sometimes six or seven days without -intermission."--Dr. A. Smith's _Peru as It Is_, ii. p. 57. - -[378] Of the identity of the species collected by Mr. Pritchett there -is no doubt. He brought home specimens from the trees whence the seeds -were obtained, which have been examined by Mr. Howard, and proved to -belong to _C. nitida_, _C. micrantha_, and _C. Peruviana_. The barks -also have been found to contain a satisfactory percentage of alkaloids. -Some further particulars respecting these species have already been -given in chap. ii. p. 30-35. - -[379] Pavon gives its height at from 18 to 24 feet, and 8 to 9 inches -in diameter. - -[380] They yield the _crown bark_ of commerce. - -[381] Seemann's _Voyage of H. M. S. Herald_, i. p. 177. For some -further particulars respecting the chinchona region of Loxa, see chap. -ii. p. 21-25. - -[382] _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon._ _C. Chahuarguera_ and _C. crispa_. - -[383] Mr. Cross transmitted the following dried specimens of the parts -of chinchona-trees from Loxa:-- - -1. Very characteristic specimens of the bark, leaves, flowers, and -capsules of _C. Condaminea_ (_C. Chahuarguera_, Pavon). This kind -yields the rusty crown bark of commerce. - -2. Bark, leaves, and flowers of _C. crispa_, Tafalla, a kind which is -included in the _C. Condaminea_, H. and B. It yields the _quina fina de -Loxa_, or _cascarilla crespilla_. - -3. Bark and leaves of _C. Lucumæfolia_ of Pavon, from Zamora. This -is the _cascarilla de hoja de lucma_ of the natives. Mr. Cross made -no attempt to collect the seeds, as this species is comparatively -worthless. - -[384] My collection of dried specimens is deposited in the museum and -herbarium at Kew. It consists of leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of -_C. Calisaya_; leaves and flowers of _C. micrantha_; leaves and fruit -of _C. Caravayensis_; fruit of _Pimentelia glomerata_; and bark from -the branches of almost every species of chinchona and allied genera in -the Caravayan forests. - -Mr. Spruce's collection of all the parts of _C. succirubra_ is in the -herbarium at Kew. - -Mr. Pritchett's collection of leaves, fruit, and bark of _C. nitida_, -_C. micrantha_, _C. Peruviana_, and _C. obovata_, is in the possession -of Mr. Howard. - -Mr. Cross's dried specimens of leaves, flowers, fruit, and bark of _C. -Condaminea_ (_C. Chahuarguera_ of Pavon), bark, leaves, and flowers of -_C. crispa_ of Tafalla, and bark and leaves of _C. Lucumæfolia_, are -partly in my possession, partly in that of Mr. Howard, and partly in -that of Mr. Veitch. - -[385] Six cases of chinchona-plants from this depôt were despatched to -Ceylon by the mail of March 4, 1862. - -[386] See Fortune's _Tea Districts_, chap. xxi. p. 358-9. - -[387] Mr. Cross says that Wardian cases, as they are at present -constructed, are notoriously unfit for the growth of plants of any -description. He adds that the plants must be healthy root and top -before they are deposited in the cases. They ought to be exposed for at -least a month to the full action of the sun and atmosphere, so that the -juices, stems, and leaves may be fully developed and matured. Plants -taken out of hothouses, or from dense forests, are not in a fit state -to be sent away immediately in Wardian cases. They are then "blanched," -and are easily affected by adverse influences, such as excess of -moisture or drought. - -[388] In October, 1861, the _Schinus molle_ plants were 3 feet high; -and the chirimoyas 15 inches. Plants of both have been sent to the -gardens at Bangalore. - -[389] Seemann's _Voyage of the Herald_, i. p. 171. - -[390] These 11 classes are:--1. The _Kirüm Nairs_, who are -agriculturists, clerks, and accountants, and do the cooking on all -public occasions, a sure sign of transcendent rank. 2. The _Sudra -Nairs_. 3. The _Charnadus_. 4. The _Villiums_, who are palkee-bearers -to Namburis and Rajahs. 5. The _Wattacotas_, or oil-makers. 6. The -_Atticourchis_, or cultivators. 7. The _Wallacutras_, or barbers. 8. -The _Wallateratas_, or washermen. 9. The _Tunars_, or tailors. 10. The -_Andoras_, or pot-makers. 11. The _Taragons_, or weavers, who are very -low in the scale, for even a potter must purify himself if he chances -to touch a weaver.--Buchanan, ii. p. 408. - -[391] Buchanan. - -[392] Temulporum and Palghaut. - -[393] They range from 12 to 60 reas, or 6 pies to 2 annas 5 pies per -tree. - -[394] The value of the exported nuts, kernels, oil, and coir of the -cocoanuts in 1859, was 157,995_l._ - -[395] Drury's _Useful Plants of India_. - -[396] The best soil for ginger-cultivation is red earth free from -gravel. At the commencement of the monsoon beds of 10 or 12 feet by 3 -or 4 are formed, in which holes are dug a foot apart, which are filled -with manure. The roots, hitherto carefully buried under sheds, are dug -out, chipped into suitable sizes for planting (1-1/2 to 2 inches long), -and buried in the holes. The bed is then covered with a thick layer -of green leaves, which serve as manure, while they keep the beds from -too much dampness. Rain is requisite, but the beds must be kept from -inundation, and drains are therefore cut between them. The roots or -rhizomes, when old, are scalded, scraped, and dried, and thus form the -white ginger of commerce.--Drury's _Useful Plants of India_. - -[397] The tallipot or fan-palm (_Corypha umbraculifera_) has a stem 60 -or 70 feet high, crowned with enormous fan-shaped leaves, with 40 or 50 -pairs of segments. These fronds, when dried, are very strong, and are -used for hats and umbrellas. The petiole is seven feet long, and the -blade six feet long and thirteen feet broad. - -[398] The sumach-tree (_Cæsalpinia coriaria_) was introduced into India -from America, by Dr. Wallich, in 1842. The pods are much used for -tanning purposes. - -[399] _Nil_, blue, and _giri_, a mountain; from the blue _Justitias_ -which cover many of the hill-slopes. - -[400] _Report of Captain J. Ouchterlony, Superintendent of the -Neilgherry Survey in 1848._ - -[401] Ferdosi. - -[402] Dr. Wight says that this plant might be collected in vast -quantities with little trouble or expense, and yields an excellent red -dye. - -[403] This nettle is frequent all over the higher ranges of the -Neilgherries. The bark yields a fine strong fibre, which the -natives obtain by first boiling the whole plant, to deprive it -of its virulently-stinging properties, and then peeling the -stalks. The textile material thus obtained is of great delicacy -and strength.--Wight's _Spicelegium Neilgherense_. The fibre of -the Neilgherry nettle is worth 200_l._ a ton in England, and its -cultivation is likely to be a remunerative speculation. - -[404] _Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills, from the rough Notes of -a German Missionary._ (Madras, 1856.) - -[405] _Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Todars of the Nilagiri -Mountains_, by the Rev. F. Metz, of the German Evangelical Mission. -(Madras, 1857.) - -[406] _Antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills_, by Captain H. Congreve, -1847. Also, Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_. The German -missionaries believe that these cairns were the work of the Kurumbers, -another wild hill tribe. - -[407] Todars pay two taxes to Government in return, on female buffaloes -and on grazing land, both small in amount. - -[408] _Raggee_, however, is the least nourishing of all the cereals, -although it forms the chief part of the diet of the poorer classes in -Mysore and on the Neilgherries. In good seasons it yields 120-fold, but -it is very poor fare. - -[409] In 1807 Buchanan mentioned the Badagas of the Neilgherries, as -gatherers of honey and wax in the hills south of Wynaad.--ii. p. 246 -and p. 273. - -[410] Literally "one stone village." - -[411] The great Tamil scholar. - -[412] _Hooli_, a tiger in the Badaga language; and _cul_, a rock or -stone in Tamil and Canarese. _Pili_ is a tiger in Tamil. - -[413] Mr. Fowler, in his evidence before a Committee of the House of -Commons, gave 2500 to 4000 feet as the most favourable elevation for -the growth of coffee. - -[414] There are 11,386 acres of land under coffee cultivation in -Wynaad, 7358 owned by Europeans, and 4028 by natives: of these 7224 are -liable to assessment, that is, the coffee-trees are in bearing. - -[415] Besides a _jemmi_ fee on Government land, of eight annas an acre. - -[416] Cleghorn's _Forests and Gardens of Southern India_, p. 16. - -[417] Several species of _Chinchonæ_ flourish at altitudes from 8000 -to over 10,000 feet above the sea, and within the region of frequent -frosts. - -[418] Karsten. - -[419] Smyth's _Journey from Lima to Para_, p. 115. - -[420] Dr. A. Smith's _Peru as It Is_, ii. p. 57. - -[421] Mr. Spruce's _Report_, p. 27. - -[422] Called _Cinchona excelsa_ by Dr. Roxburgh, but excluded from the -list of Chinchonæ by Dr. Wallich, who gave the plant its present name. - -[423] In the _Mahabharata_ the five Pandus, who contended with the -100 Kurus or vices, were--Yudisthira, the personification of modesty; -and his brothers Arjuna, or courage; Bhima, or strength; Nakal, or -beauty; and Sahadeva, or harmony. The conversation between Arjuna and -the incarnate deity Krishna, in the _Bhagavat Gita_, an episode in the -_Mahabharata_, is perhaps the finest passage in the whole range of -Sanscrit literature. - -[424] _Cæsalpinia sappan_, a handsome tree, with curiously-shaped pods. -It yields a valuable dye. - -[425] Called _jowaree_, in Bengalee; _jonna_, in Telugu; _yawanul_, in -Sanscrit; and _doora_, in Egypt. - -[426] _Dolichos lablab_, a kind of pulse much eaten by the poor people. - -[427] Cotton (_Gossypium Indicum_) is called _parati_, in Tamil; -_putti_, in Telugu; and _kurpas_, in Sanscrit. - -[428] The former of these grains has already been mentioned. The -latter is _Panicum spicatum_, or spiked millet. It is called _bajree_, -in Guzeratee; and _kunghoo_, in Sanscrit; and is made into cakes and -porridge. - -[429] "The black cotton soil seems to have arisen from the -decomposition of basalt and trap. When dry it is dark-coloured, -and glistens from the presence of nearly pure grains of silica. It -possesses extraordinary attraction for water, and forms with it a most -tenacious mud."--_Dr. Forbes Watson._ - -[430] "The district of Coimbatore lies opposite the great gap in the -Peninsular chain between the southern slopes of the Nilgiri mountains, -and the northern face of those of Travancor. Across this depression -the S.W. monsoon has almost a free passage to the eastward; but the -great elevation of the mountains on both sides, and the absence of any -considerable hills in the district, cause the monsoon wind to pass over -without depositing much of its moisture; and, though the climate is -humid, the rainfall is very trifling. During the N.E. monsoon the hills -of Salem intercept the moisture."--Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 132. - -[431] Lindley's _Theory and Practice of Horticulture_, p. 487. - -[432] "This is an assurance which no private tenant in any country, not -even in England, has obtained."--_East India Company's Memorandum_, -1858, p. 17. - -[433] _Koda_, a shade or umbrella; and _karnal_, a jungle. - -[434] Literally "Fruit-hills." - -[435] Yet I missed the _Berberis Mahonia_, which in the Neilgherries is -not found beyond the limits of the S.W. monsoon. - -[436] For short accounts of the Pulney hills, see-- - -1. _Memoir of the Varagherry Hills_, by Capt. B. S. Ward, _Madras -Journal of Literature and Science_, Oct. 1837, vol. vi. p. 280. - -2. _Observations on the Pulney Mountains_, by Dr. Wight, _Madras -Journal_, v. p. 280. - -3. _Report on the Pulneys_, by Lieut. R. H. Beddome, _Madras Journal_, -1857. - -4. Sir Charles Trevelyan's _Official Tour in the South of India_. -He says, "It is an important fact that, as regards much the largest -portion of this tract, there is no claim to the soil which can -interfere with the establishment of the most absolute freehold." - -[437] For a very interesting account of the Anamallay hills, see -_Forests and Gardens of South India_, p. 289-302, by Dr. Cleghorn, -Conservator of Forests in the Madras Presidency. - -[438] Tamil is spoken throughout the Carnatic, in the southern part -of Travancore, and north part of Ceylon, by about 10,000,000 souls. -Telugu, the first of the Dravidian languages in euphonious sweetness, -is spoken in the Ceded districts, Kurnool, part of the Nizam's -territory, and part of Nagpore; Canarese in Canara and Mysore; and -Malayalam in Malabar. The whole Dravidian race numbers 30,000,000 -souls. The Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam languages have each a system -of written characters peculiar to itself: the Canarese letters are -borrowed from the Telugu. - -[439] Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_. Preface, p. v. - -[440] _Lectures on the Science of Language_, p. 341. - -[441] Adam Smith says that numerals are among the most abstract ideas -which the human mind is capable of forming. See a paper read before the -Ethnological Society in Feb. 1862, _On the numerals as evidence of the -progress of civilization_, by Mr. Crawford. - -[442] Caldwell, p. 2. - -[443] _Kolki_ of the Periplus; perhaps _Kilkhar_, on the Coromandel -coast, opposite Rameswaram. - -[444] In Sanscrit. - -[445] In 1802 a pot of Roman coins was dug up near Dharaparum, in -Coimbatore, of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius, with _Cæsarea_ -marked on them, the place where they were struck. Buchanan's _Travels_, -ii. p. 318. - -One coin, a Roman _aureus_, has been found in a cairn on the Neilgherry -hills.--Captain H. Congreve's _Antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills_. - -[446] The author of the Periplus of the Erythræan Sea mentions Nelcynda -(Neliceram), Paralia (Malabar), and Comari (Cape Comorin), as under -King Pandion (Regio Pandionis); and Dr. Vincent thinks that the Pandyan -Kings of Madura lost Malabar between the time of the author of the -Periplus and that of Ptolemy; because the latter does not allude to -Pandion until Cape Comorin is passed. Chira is the modern Coimbatore, -and the capital of the Chira state was at Caroor. The state of Chola is -the modern Tanjore. The word _Pandya_ is probably of Sanscrit origin, -but the masculine termination of _on_ is Tamil. - -[447] "In Tamil few Brahmins have written anything worthy of -preservation: but the language has been cultivated and developed with -immense zeal and success by native Sudras."--_Caldwell_, p. 33. Tamil -literature, now extant, dates from the eighth or ninth century: p. 68. - -[448] Dr. Ainslie, in his _Materia Medica_, gives a list of twenty -works by Aghastya, chiefly on medical subjects, some of them translated -from Sanscrit. - -[449] For a list of kings of Madura, of the Pandyan and Naik dynasties, -see a paper in the Asiatic Society's Journals, by H. H. Wilson; from -MS. collections of the late Colonel Mackenzie. - -[450] Tanjore was seized by the Mahrattas in 1675. The last Naik -sovereign of Madura was installed as a tributary of the Nawab of the -Carnatic. - -[451] Namely the _Michelia Champacca_, a golden-coloured flower -with a strong aromatic smell, also dedicated to Krishna; the -mango-flower-called _amra_; the _Pavonia odorata_ with a sweet flower, -called _bulla_; the _Strychnos potatorum_; and the _Mesua ferea_, a -guttiferous plant, with a flower white outside, and yellow inside the -tube, with a smell like sweet-briar. - -[452] While on the subject of sacred Hindu plants, I may also -mention the _soma_ juice, so often alluded to in the Vedas, which -comes from a leafless asclepiad (_Sarcostemma viminale_) with white -flowers in terminal umbels, which appear during the rains, in the -Deccan: the holy _kusa_-grass (_Poa cynosuroides_), made into ropes -in the N.W. provinces: the peepul-tree, the banyan, the neem (_Melia -Azadyraclita_): the _Cratæva religiosa_, specially sacred to Siva: -the _Nerium odorum_, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Cæsalpinia -pulcherrima_, sacred to Siva: the _Guettarda speciosa_, sacred to -Siva and Vishnu: the _Origanum marjoranum_, a labiate plant sacred -to Vishnu and Siva: the _Caryophyllum inophyllum_, sacred to Vishnu -and Siva: the _Pandanus odoratissimus_, sacred to Vishnu and Mariama, -but offensive to Siva: the _Artemisia astriaka_, sacred to Vishnu and -Siva: the _Ocimum sanctum_ or _toolsu_, a labiate plant with a white -flower, specially sacred to Vishnu and Krishna: and the _Chrisanthemum -Indicum_, a yellow flower, sacred to Vishnu and Siva. - -[453] Mr. Caldwell considers that these lines do not allude to any of -the avaturs of the Hindu Deities, but that they are borrowed, in some -unexplained way, from Christianity. - -[454] In Fergusson's _Architecture_, i. p. 105, the hall is represented -with an arched roof, in a sketch from Daniell's _Views of Hindostan_. - -[455] There was a Portuguese Jesuit mission, with two Christian -churches, established at Madura during the reign of Tirumalla Naik. It -was founded by Robert de Nobilibus, a nephew of Cardinal Bellarmin, and -the missionaries wore the sacred thread, declaring themselves to be -Brahmins from the West. - -[456] The Brahmins of course are of mixed blood, through intercourse -with Tamil women. Children are therefore Sudras, and are not Brahmins -until they are invested with the sacred thread. - -[457] From _Parei_, a drum, as they act as drummers at funerals. - -[458] Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_, Appendix, p. 491. - -[459] _Proceedings of the South India Missionary Conference_, 1858, p. -283. - -[460] _Reports connected with the duties of the Corps of Engineers of -the Madras Presidency_, 1846, vol. ii., p. 108. _Report of Captain -Bell_, p. 117. - -[461] There was formerly a peculiar system of collecting land revenue -prevalent in Tanjore and part of Tinnevelly, called _Oolungoo_, by -which the Government demand was dependent on the current price of -grain. A standard grain assessment was fixed on each village, and -also a standard rate according to which the grain demand was to -be commuted into money; but if prices rose more than 10 per cent. -above the standard commutation rate, or fell more than 5 per cent. -below it, the Government, and not the cultivator, was to receive the -profit and to bear the loss. The advantage of the system was that -the Government participated in the benefit of high prices with the -cultivator, while the latter was relieved from loss when prices were -much depressed.--Mill's _India in 1858_, p. 119. - -This Oolungoo system was introduced into Tanjore in 1825. It was -found that the system was fertile in fraud and corruption, especially -in connection with the determination of the annual price, and -with claims for alleged deficiency of produce. In July, 1859, the -Government resolved to abolish the Oolungoo system, and to substitute -a fixed money demand, similar to that which prevails in all other -districts. By 1860 this change had been completed, both in Tanjore -and Tinnevelly.--_Principal Measures of Sir Charles Trevelyan's -Administration at Madras_ (_Madras_, 1860), p. 55. - -[462] The largest temple in Southern India, next to that of Madura. - -[463] From _Kar_, black, and _ur_ a town, in Tamil. - -[464] Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 124. - -[465] Ibid., i. p. 133. - -[466] Dr. Cleghorn states that the Seegoor forest has been much -exhausted by unscrupulous contractors. "It is important," he adds, -"that it should be allowed to recover, as it is the main source of -supply to Ootacamund for housebuilding purposes." Captain Morgan has -been placed in charge of it, and it is hoped that the sale of sandal -and jungle-wood will cover the expenses, while the young teak is coming -on for future supply, P. 36. - -[467] The areca-palm requires a low moist situation, with rather -a sandy soil, either under the _bund_ of a tank, or in a position -otherwise favourable for irrigation. The seeds are put into holes six -feet apart, and the tree comes into bearing in about eight years. It -yields fruit for fifty years, and, when in full bearing, produces 1-1/2 -lbs. of nuts. - -[468] The Lingayets are members of the _Vira Saiva_ sect, or -worshippers of Siva as the _Linga_, a representation of which they -carry round their necks. The sect is numerous in the central and -southern parts of the peninsula. It is of modern origin, having been -founded by a Brahmin of Kalyan in the middle of the 12th century. -Its members deny the sanctity of the Brahmins and the authority of -the Vedas, recognize various divinities, and virtually abolish the -distinction of castes and the inferiority of women. They are divided -into _Aradhyas_, by birth Brahmins, and often well versed in Sanscrit -literature; _Jangamas_, who have a literature of their own, written in -Karnata and Telugu; and Bhaktas.--Wilson's _Indian Glossary_, p. 311. - -[469] The whole population of Coorg is about 119,160. - -[470] Namely, the _Amma Kodagas_ or Cauvery Brahmins; the _Kodagas_ or -chief tribe; the _Himbokulu_ or herdsmen; the _Heggade_ or cultivators; -the _Ari_ or carpenters; the _Badige_ or smiths; the _Kuruba_ or honey -gatherers; the _Kavati_ or jungle cultivators; the _Budiya_ or drawers -of toddy from the _Caryota urens_ palm; the _Meda_ or basket-makers; -the _Kaleya_ or farm-labourers; the _Holeya_ or slaves; and the -_Yerawa_ or slaves from Malabar, cheaper than cattle. - -[471] _Coorg_, by Rev. H. Moegling. (Mangalore, 1855.) - -[472] Observations by Dr. R. Baikie. _Madras Journal_, 1837, vi. p. 342. - -[473] - - 1860-61. - - _Revenue of Coorg._ | _Expenditure._ - | - Land revenue £14,727 | General expenditure £10,211 - Excise and stamps 3,611 | Public works 1,153 - Income tax 98 | - Miscellaneous 8,300 | - ------ | ------ - £26,736 | £11,364 - ------ | ------ - -[474] Seemann's _Popular History of the Palms_, p. 134. - -[475] Moegling's _Coorg_, pp. 74-77; also Buchanan's _Travels_, ii. p. -511, and Drury's _Useful Plants of India_. - -[476] Cleghorn's _Forests and Gardens of South India_, pp. 126-44, -where the official correspondence respecting _kumari_ will be found. - -[477] _Cleghorn_, p. 11. Poon spars are also obtained from _Stercula -fœtida_, a tree with brownish flowers, emitting a most horrible smell. - -[478] Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 126. - -[479] The inhabitants of the Laccadive islands are Sooni Mussulmans. -They have some songs commemorating the introduction of Islam 500 years -ago, but do not know when the Beebee of Cannanore got possession. -Menakoy, the largest island, is a mass of coral 5-1/2 miles in -diameter. The land is less than a mile wide, the rest being a reef -encircling a large lagoon. Within a hundred yards of the reef there -is no bottom. The lagoon, which abounds in turtle and fish, has three -entrances from the sea, one of which has a depth of two fathoms. The -soil of the island is a coarse powdered coral, with a little vegetable -matter. It is quite flat, no part being destitute of vegetation; the -south thickly covered with cocoanut-trees and underwood, and the north -more sparingly. Rats abound, there are some cats, a few cows and goats, -large grey cranes, ducks occasionally, and the mosquitos are fearful. - -The population is 2500; of these 116 are _Malikans_, the aristocracy -of the islands, who own vessels trading to Bengal. The _Koornakar_, or -agent of the Beebee, is generally a _Malikan_; he collects rents, and -superintends her traffic. The _Malikans_ have the exclusive privilege -of wearing shoes, live in large houses built round courtyards, and -possess English quadrants, charts, compasses, and telescopes. Below -them are 180 _Malummies_, or pilots, a rank obtained by merit. -Then 1107 _Klasies_, forming the bulk of the population, who are -small landed proprietors, go to sea for regular wages, but are very -independent. Then 583 _Maylacherries_, or tree-climbers for hire. The -head-men are elected by the people. The islanders have six or seven -vessels fit for the Bengal trade, and three or four for coasting. They -go with money to Goa and Mangalore for salt and rice, with coir to -Bengal, with cocoanuts to Galle, and bring Calcutta cloths home.--Mr. -Thomas's _Report_. - -[480] The gross exports of cotton from the ports in the various -districts of the Madras Presidency in 1859-60 were as follows:-- - - Vizagapatam 40,758 lbs. Valued at £783 - Gosavery 3,000 " 36 - Krishna 198,670 " 1,591 - Nellore 21,075 " 230 - Fort St. George 7,960,368 " 128,648 - Tinnevelly 18,562,546 " 274,380 - Malabar 2,509,132 " 49,900 - N. and S. Canara 33,264,498 " 504,905 - ----------- -------- - Total 62,560,047 " 960,473 - ----------- -------- - -In 1860-61 the total export of cotton from Bombay amounted to -355,393,894 lbs.; of which 278,868,126 lbs. went to Great Britain. - -In the same year the ports of Malabar and Canara sent 55,182,181 lbs. -to Bombay. - -[481] In lat. 15° N. the western ghauts are not more than 1100 feet -above the sea. - -[482] The trap formation of the northern part of the ghauts terminates -in 18° N., and is succeeded by laterite. - -[483] _Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Bombay for -1838_, i. p. 92. - -[484] Or _Gnidia eriocephala_ of Graham.--Dalzell's _Bombay Flora_, p. -221. - -[485] Dalzell's _Bombay Flora_, p. 93. - -[486] Ibid., p. 275. - -[487] The following list of shrubs, trees, and ferns growing at -Mahabaleshwur has been kindly furnished by Mr. Dalzell. - -LIST OF SHRUBS AND TREES GROWING ON THE HIGHEST GROUND AT MAHABALESHWUR. - - Eugenia Jambolanum. - Memecylon tinctorium. - Mæsa Indica. - Pygeum Zeylanicum. - Indigofera pulchella. - Actinodaphne (2 sp.). - Bradleia lanceolaria. - Elæagnus Kologa. - Osyris Wightiana. - Lasiosiphon speciosus. - Salix tetrasperma. - Callicarpa cana. - Strobilanthus asperrimus and callosus. - Ligustrum Neilgherrense. - Olea dioica and Roxburgiana. - Ilex Wightiana. - Maba nigrescens. - Diospyros (3 sp.) - Hopea spicata and racemosa. - Embelia ribes and glandulifera. - Notonia grandiflora. - Artemisia parviflora and Indica. - -CHINCHONACEÆ. - - Grumilea vaginans. - Pavetta Indica. - Ixora nigricans and parviflora. - Canthium umbellatum. - Vangueria edulis. - Santia venulosa. - Wendlandia Notoniana. - Hymenodictyon obovatum and excelsum. - Griffithia fragrans. - Randia dumetorum. - -FERNS AT MAHABALESHWUR. - - Lastrea densa and cochleata. - Nephrodium molle. - Sagenia hippocrepis. - Athyrium filix fœmina. - Asplenium planicaule and erectum. - Diplazium esculentum. - Pteris quadrialata, lucida, and aquilina. - Campteria Rottleriana. - Adiantum lunulatum. - Cheilanthes farinosa. - Polypodium quercifolium. - Pleopeltis nuda. - Pœcilopteris virens. - Leptochilus lanceolatus. - Acrostichum aureum. - Lygodium scandens. - Osmunda regalis. - -[488] Every Hindu wears a sect-mark on his forehead. These marks are -thick daubs of white earth, red ochre, or sandal-wood, and there are -several forms according to the different sects. The grand distinctions -are between worshippers of Vishnu and Siva, the latter wearing his mark -horizontal, and the former perpendicular. Any conical or triangular -mark is a symbol of the _linga_. Two perpendicular lines and a dot -between, denotes a worshipper of Vishnu as Rama or Krishna, &c. &c. - -[489] Cleghorn, p. 222. Dalzell, p. 86. - -[490] Or _Euphorbia neriifolia_. Dalzell, p. 226. - -[491] _Account of the village of Lony_, by T. Coats. _Transactions of -the Bombay Literary Society_, 1823, vol. iii. p. 172. - -[492] The _cumboo_ of the Madras Presidency (_Holcus spicatus_). - -[493] The _cholum_ of Madras (_Sorghum vulgare_). - -[494] The natives of India are supplied, by Nature, with an endless -variety of condiments to season their food, many of them growing wild. -In the different parts of India I noticed as many as twenty-five -ingredients used in curries and porridges. The tender leaves and -legumes of the _agati_ (_Agati grandiflora_); oil from the _elloopa_ -fruit (_Bassia longifolia_); young unripe gourds of the _Benincasa -cerifera_; the _papaw_ fruit; cocoanut-oil; the leaves of _Canthium -parviflorum_; capsicums; cinnamon; leaves of _Cocculus villosus_; -turmeric; cardamoms; _jhingo_ (_Luffa acutangula_); the fruit of -_Momordica charantia_; green fruit of _Morinda citrifolia_; the legumes -of the horse-radish-tree (_Hyperanthera Moringa_); the plantain; the -tender shoots of the lotus; the pickled seeds of a _Nymphæa_; the -leaves of _Premna latifolia_; berries of _Solanum verbascifolium_; -legumes of _Trigonella tetrapetala_; the white centre of the leaf culms -of lemon-grass; the _Lablab cultratus_; onions; the fruit of _Sapota -elingoides_ in the Neilgherries; the _moong_ (_Phaseolus mungo_); and -many other pulses. - -[495] The ploughs, and the carts on wheels bringing home the food from -the fields, are mentioned in the 1st Ashtaka of the Rig Veda. - -[496] Dr. Forbes Watson has made some very interesting calculations on -the amount of pulses rich in nitrogen, which must be added to rice and -other cereals comparatively poor in that constituent, in order that the -mixture may contain the same proportion of carbonous to nitrogenous -matter as is found in wheat, namely six to one. (See Table, next page.) - -The cereals which I saw growing in the peninsula of India, besides -rice, maize, wheat, and barley, were:-- - -1. _Setaria Italica_, called _tennay_ in Tamil, and _samee_ by the -tribes on the Neilgherry hills, which is the Italian millet. The seeds -are used for cakes and porridge. In the Deccan it is only cultivated -in small quantities for the ryot's own use, and seldom for market. The -grain is very small. - -2. _Panicum Miliaceum_, called _varagoo_ on the Pulney hills, and -_warree_ in the Deccan: a small millet, generally sown broadcast on the -sides of hills. In the Neilgherries it is used as an offering to the -gods, mixed with honey, and wrapped in plantain-leaves. - -3. _Panicum pilosum_, or _badlee_, will grow in the worst soil, but is -not much cultivated, unless the rains happen to be too scanty for other -crops. The seed is very small, forming a long hairy spike. - -4. _Cynosurus corocanus_, or _ragee_, is a very prolific grain, and -forms the staple food of the poorer classes in Mysore, and on the -slopes of the ghauts. It requires a light good soil, from which the -water readily flows. In the Deccan they raise it in seed-beds, and -transplant when a few inches high. It is made into dark brown cakes. - -5. _Holcus spicatus_, or spiked millet, called _cumboo_ in Madras, and -_bajree_ in the Deccan, where it is the chief food of the inhabitants, -and is considered very nutritious. - -6. _Sorghum vulgare_, or great millet, called _cholum_ in Madras, and -_jowaree_ in the Deccan. It is made into cakes and porridge, and the -stalks, which contain sugar, are excellent fodder for cattle. It grows -six or eight feet high, and soon exhausts the soil, so that two crops -are never taken in succession. - -7. _Sesamum Indicum_, or gingelee oil-plant, called _till_ in the -Deccan. Oil is expressed from the seeds, which are also toasted and -ground into meal for food. In the Deccan it is sown on gravelly or red -soil, and the plants grow three or four feet high. Presents of the -seed, made up in little boxes, are exchanged by friends on the day that -the sun takes its northerly declination; and they are also acceptable -as offerings to the god Mahadeo or Siva. - -With these seven grains, the following pulses are usually raised:-- - -1. _Cicer arietinum_, or Bengal gram, the seeds of which are eaten, and -the oxalic acid, which exudes from all parts of the plant, is used as -vinegar for curries. - -2. _Dolichos unifloris_, or horse gram, with grey seeds, used for -feeding horses and cattle. - -3. _Dolichos sinensis_, or _lobia_, a twining annual, with large pale -violet flowers. The seeds are much used for food. - -4. _Cajanus Indicus_, pigeon-pea, or _toor_. A shrub three to six feet -high, with yellow papilionaceous flowers. This is an excellent pulse, -and makes a good peas-pudding. - -5. _Phaseolus mungo_, black gram, or _moong_. A nearly erect, hairy -annual, with greenish-yellow flowers. It is much cultivated, and is a -very important article of food. - -6. _Phaseolus rostratus_, or _hullounda_, a twining plant, with large, -deep rose-purple, papilionaceous flowers, grown in Malabar, and other -parts of the peninsula. - -7. Another kind of _moong_, called _ooreed_, with black and white seeds. - -8. _Lablab cultratus_, a twining plant, with white, red, or purple -papilionaceous flowers; much cultivated in gardens, and used for food. - -9. _Dolichos lablab_, or _bulla_, a twining plant of which there are -several varieties. The seeds are much eaten by the poorer classes when -rice is dear, and are reckoned a wholesome substantial food. Cattle are -very fond of the stalks. One variety, with white flowers, is cultivated -in gardens, supported on poles, forming arbours about the doors of -houses. The pods are eaten, but not the seeds. - -[Illustration: Cereals.] - -[497] Built in 1749 by the Peishwa Balajee Bajee Rao. - -[498] "The cultivation of the chinchona-trees may succeed in localities -not appearing to offer exactly the same conditions regarding climate -and the general character of the country as are peculiar to their -native forests."--_Report by Dr. Brandis_ (Supplement to the _Calcutta -Gazette_, August 31, 1861), p. 467. - -[499] "Mr. McIvor deserves great credit for the manner in which he -has laid out the garden. It is both a beautiful pleasure-ground, and -a valuable public institution for the improvement of indigenous, and -the naturalisation of foreign plants; and it has been formed from the -commencement by Mr. McIvor, with great industry and artistic skill, out -of a rude ravine."--_Minute by Sir Charles Trevelyan_, Feb. 24th, 1860. - -[500] _Cleghorn_, p. 318. - -[501] _Cleghorn_, p. 180 and 359. - -[502] I have supplied Mr. McIvor with the following works on the -chinchona-plants:-- - -1. Weddell's _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_. - -2. Howard's _Nueva Quinologia de Pavon_. - -3. Poeppig's _Notes on the Chinchona Trees and Barks of Huanuco_. - -4. Karsten's _Medicinal Chinchona Barks of New Granada_. - -5. Markham's _Report of a Visit to the Chinchona Forests of Caravaya_. - -6. Spruce's _Expedition to procure Seeds and Plants of C. succirubra_. - -7. Pritchett's _Report on the Chinchona Plants of Huanuco_. - -8. Cross's _Report on the C. Condaminea_. - -9. Junghuhn's _Cultivation of the Quina-tree in Java_, 1859. - -10. _Botanical Descriptions of Species of Chinchonæ now growing in -India._ - -[503] _Order of the Madras Government_, July 3rd, 1861, No. 1328. - -[504] _Secretary to the Government of India, to the Secretary to the -Government of Fort St. George_, Dec. 9th, 1861. - -[505] I sent a smaller parcel of C. Condaminea seeds in a letter, which -arrived first at Ootacamund, in the middle of February. Sixteen days -after sowing, twelve seeds were found to have germinated; and early in -March 138 seedlings were up, or 30 per cent. of the total number of -seeds sown. The large parcel of seeds arrived at Ootacamund on March -4th, and were sown at once. See p. 570. - -[506] This is a variety of _C. nitida_. - -[507] The chinchona-plantations were commenced in Java in December -1854. On the 31st of December, 1860, they had of - - _C. Calisaya_ plants: 5510 in the germinating sheds. - 1806 planted out. - 1030 living cuttings. - _C. lancifolia_ plants: 38 in the nursery sheds. - 42 planted out. - 28 living cuttings. - ---- - Total 8454 - -Their other species is worthless.--Mr. Fraser's _Report_, p. 2. - -[508] "It is the height of improvidence for the collectors to strip -off the bark from the roots, thus securing a worthless product at the -expense of any possible future renovation of the tree."--_Howard_. - -[509] See chap. iii. p. 58. - -[510] This is provided for in Java by placing a shed over the young -plants. - -[511] Mr. McIvor informs me that the winter of 1861-62 was the coldest -he has experienced since he came to the Neilgherry hills, a period of -fourteen years. - -[512] Spruce's _Report_, p. 23. - -[513] Howard, _Nueva Quinologia_, Nos. 2 and 7. - -[514] Cross's _Report_, p. 5. - -[515] See also Weddell's _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 32. - -[516] Mr. Howard thinks that the alkaloids are formed in the barks, -by a reaction between ammonia and chincho-tannic acid. The alkaloids -are pure in the bark of the branches, somewhat less so in that of -the trunk, and most impure in that of the roots.--_Microscopic -Observations_, p. 2. - -[517] Howard. - -[518] Spruce's _Report_, p. 83. - -[519] Ibid., p. 27. See also _Karsten_, p. 20. - -[520] _Karsten_, p. 20. - -[521] Spruce's _Report_, p. 23. - -[522] Lindley's _Theory and Practice of Horticulture_, p. 70. - -[523] In quills from large branches there is more alkaloid than in the -smaller branches: in the bark of the trunk the proportion is still -further increased, but this diminishes in quantity and deteriorates in -quality in the bark of the roots.--_Howard._ - -[524] Mr. McIvor reports the thickness of the bark of some of the young -plants at Ootacamund to be nearly a quarter of an inch. The bark of -quills of _C. Calisaya_ given me by Mr. Howard, as samples from a lot -on sale, is only one-eighth of an inch in thickness. - -[525] The only reason why the value of quill-bark is much less than -that of _tabla_-bark is that the former is usually mixed with spurious -barks. Otherwise the value of quill-bark would only be about threepence -per lb. less than _tabla_-bark. - -[526] Cinnamon is one of the plants which, like the chinchonæ, are -cultivated solely for their bark. Mr. Thwaites, the Director of the -Botanical Gardens in Ceylon, has supplied me with a few particulars -respecting the cultivation of cinnamon. The young shoots are peeled -twice during the year, at a particular period of growth, when the bark -comes off readily. This time is known at once by the peelers, from the -appearance of the young shoots, and the process of peeling is then a -very expeditious one, with practised hands. Young plants are raised -from seeds in nurseries, and planted six feet apart, when they are a -foot or eighteen inches long. They will commonly bear peeling in three -or four years after being transplanted, if in a favourable locality -and properly attended to. The roots are earthed up frequently, to keep -the soil loose and free from weeds. In 1858, 750,744 lbs. of cinnamon -were exported from Ceylon, worth 37,537_l._ There are forty-nine -cinnamon-gardens in the island. - -[527] Mr. McIvor observes that the leaves of all the chinchona-plants -at Ootacamund are exceedingly bitter to the taste, and he suggests that -these leaves, which naturally fall off the trees in succession, may -be turned to account by being imported to England as a substitute for -hops in the manufacture of beer. They would no doubt prove a healthy -ingredient in beer, but it remains to be proved whether their bitter -would preserve it as well as hops. - -[528] "Attacked with violent tertian ague, and without any medicine, -in Pampa-yacu, I made use of the green bark direct from the -chinchona-tree, which I peeled from one growing a few hundred steps -distant; and although, in consequence of unavoidable exposure in the -rainy season, and the very great exhaustion after eight months' wild -forest life, the disease returned on three occasions, it was each time -conquered within a week. The very unpleasant additional effect, in this -case, of the green bark, of producing obstinate obstructions, demands -consideration. It might be well obviated by a plentiful addition of -Epsom salts to the infusion. After the first dose of this fresh and -unadulterated remedy, a sensation of general well-being is felt, and -after recovery, on the first excursion, one approaches the healing -trees with warm feelings of gratitude, whose beautiful reddish blossoms -appear in such quantities in January, and their round crowns can be -distinguished at a distance."--Poeppig, _Reise_, ii. p. 223. - -[529] _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, p. 13. - -[530] "From the unfitness of the 'Grey Bark' species for the production -of quinine, comparatively small good will be likely to result from -their naturalisation."--Howard, _Introduction_, p. xiii. - -[531] _Quinine and Antiperiodics in their Therapeutic Relations_, by -Dr. J. Macpherson (Calcutta, 1856), p. 27. - -[532] There are 477 coffee estates in Ceylon; and in 1858-59 the -quantity of coffee exported was 601,595 cwts., valued at 1,488,019_l._ -In the same year the revenue was 654,961_l._, expenditure 594,382_l._, -value of imports 3,444,889_l._, and of exports 2,328,790_l._ - -[533] See Mr. Thwaites's _Report_, dated Peradenia, Sept. 28th, 1861. - -[534] I have taken the following brief notices of Sikkim, Bhotan, and -the Khassya hills, from Dr. Hooker's _Flora Indica_, and _Himalayan -Journals_. - -[535] _Flora Indica_, i., p. 178. - -[536] _Ibid._, i., p. 175. - -[537] _Flora Indica_, i., p. 233. _Himalayan Journals_, ii., p. 277. - -[538] _Report_ by Dr. Brandis, _Supplement to the Calcutta Gazette_, -August 31st, 1861, No. 55, p. 467. - -[539] _Quinine and Antiperiodics in their Therapeutic Relations_, by -Dr. J. Macpherson (Calcutta, 1856). - -[540] _Macpherson_, p. 2. - - * * * * * - -TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - - Compound nouns, names, and hyphenated words - are not consistent in the original text. - - Silently corrected simple spelling, grammar, and typographical - errors. - - Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - - Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. - - The caret symbol (^) has been used as in M^r. - - All footnotes have been moved to the end of the text - and renumbered. - - Where possible tables have been included though at some - aesthetic cost. 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