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diff --git a/old/55150-0.txt b/old/55150-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index ff8f275..0000000 --- a/old/55150-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4331 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Many-Storied Mountains, by Greg Beaumont - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Many-Storied Mountains - The Life of Glacier National Park - -Author: Greg Beaumont - -Release Date: July 19, 2017 [EBook #55150] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANY-STORIED MOUNTAINS *** - - - - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - ★GPO:1978-261-215/3 - For sale by the - Superintendent of Documents, - U.S. Government Printing Office, - Washington, DC 20402. - Stock Number 024-005-00709-1. - - Library of Congress Cataloging In Publication Data - - Beaumont, Greg, 1943- - Many-storied mountains. - - (Natural history series) - 1. Natural history—Montana—Glacier National Park. - 2. Glacier National Park. I. Title. II. Series: Natural history series - (Washington, D.C.) - OH105 M9B43 500.9′786′52 78-606071 - - - - - Many-storied Mountains - The Life of Glacier National Park - - - Written and - photographed by - Greg Beaumont - - 1978 - Natural History Series - Division of Publications - National Park Service - U.S. Department of the Interior - - [Illustration: The landform of Glacier National Park is a monument - to the power of moving ice. This view from Stoney Indian Pass is - startlingly different from the scene of a million years ago, when - the glaciers of the Pleistocene were sculpturing the land. Only the - higher peaks would then have been visible above the blanket of ice - that flowed like a slow-moving river down into the Mokowanis Valley - and out into the Great Plains beyond.] - - -About This Book - -This natural history of the mountain wilderness called Glacier National -Park is not a guidebook, but provides an overview of the ecology of the -region. At the same time, it is a personal statement, revealing one -individual’s response to this rugged, delicate land. - -For their consistent cooperation and helpfulness, I wish especially to -thank Chief Naturalist Ed Rothfuss and his capable staff. Technical and -field assistance came from many; for special thanks, I would like to -single out Art Sedlack, Francis Singer, Bert Gildart, Walt Martin, Craig -Kuchel, and Danny On. The manuscript profited greatly from the criticism -of Douglas Chadwick, to whom I am deeply grateful. - - —G.B. - - -The National Park Service Division of Publications gratefully -acknowledges the financial support given this book project by the -Glacier Natural History Association, Inc., West Glacier, Mont. - - - - - Contents - - - Song of the High Peaks 1 - Cycles and Seasons 5 - Bedrock: The First Story 6 - The Rising of the Sun and the Running of the Deer: A Glacier - Year 39 - Plant-and-Animal Communities 43 - Over Going-to-the-Sun Road 44 - Groves and Grasslands: The Prairie Sea 46 - The Forest 70 - Scrub Forest 105 - Tundra 109 - Water Communities 114 - Shooting Stars 121 - Appendix 125 - Pictorial Features - The Mountains of Glacier 10 - The Forests of Glacier 48 - The Vital Predator 78 - Protective Coloration 84 - _Ursus arctos horribilus:_ The Vulnerable King 88 - Bald Eagles and Kokanee Salmon: A Recent Gathering 92 - A Triumph of Many Colors 96 - Fire Succession: Key to Continuity 100 - - -Illustrations by Celia Strain/Morgan-Burchette Assoc. - - [Illustration: Soaring eagle] - - - - - Song of the High Peaks - - -April again and the wind turns on the Great Plains. Wedges of geese, -high and determined, began this storm of spring, their voices sharp as -the morning frost. Sicklebills cry to claim the land, sandhill cranes -wheel and talk overhead, and everywhere the killdeer shout. -Pasqueflowers push the bleak soil aside, beginning the westward rush -that I must join, seeking again the sight of mountains. - -In Glacier National Park the land is folded up. On the east, Chief -Mountain, Curly Bear, and Rising Wolf break the prairie’s hold. When the -early French fur trappers saw these peaks glistening in the distance -with summer-long snows and perpetual ice, they named this region “the -land of shining mountains.” But for all the ice and snow that reflect -the summer sun, the park’s present glaciers are but snowflakes compared -to the mighty rivers of ice that carved this land. Glaciation, the -magnificent sculptor, left its bold signature everywhere, and this park -honors with its name the force that shaped it. - -But the essential excitement of this land is more than cliff face, -spire, and sudden storm. It comes to you when you realize that here is -an aggregation of dramatically differing life zones, where a day’s walk -can easily take you from prairie and forest to treelimit and tundra; -where a dense forest of redcedar and hemlock, similar to the rain -forests of the Pacific coast, exists a score of kilometers from the -great prairie sea. - -Or it comes when you discover that these mountains—young and sharp with -shadows, snow-jeweled and newly gowned with forests—are chiseled from -the oldest unaltered sedimentary rocks on earth. - -I come from the prairie and love its broad strokes; I’ve learned to hear -the singing in the grass and to see those long, slow seasons soar the -level horizons like gliding hawks. But here I learned to match my days -against a wild earth, and in me grew the mysterious need to know a -mountain from its every side. Mountains that wear the dawn like yellow -hats, repeated in the named and nameless lakes. Mountains that stretch -the storms between them and balance rainbows ridge to ridge. - -I must see again the secret forest places, where the paleflowered -wood-nymphs hover like a breath, and know once more the endless meadows -painted camas blue. - -I need the perfect freedom of this land, to be able to say, _today I -will climb Siyeh_: to stand, for a time, on the rugged shoulders of this -upright earth. - - [Illustration: The sharp spire of little Matterhorn and the broad - face of Mt. Edwards loom above Going-to-the-Sun Road in the upper - McDonald Valley. During warm days in spring the valleys of the park - resound with the thunder of avalanches.] - - [Illustration: Twilight view.] - - - - - Cycles and Seasons - - -Bedrock: The First Story - -On the trail that connects the Logan Pass visitor center to Hidden Lake -overlook there is a shallow pond. Near Hidden Pass, it collects its -meltwater from the Continental Divide and sends it down the shallow -gorge that drains the Hanging Gardens; as a waterfall it plunges into -the upper St. Mary Valley where it becomes Reynolds Creek; joined by -other tributaries, it continues its long journey to Hudson Bay. - -The surface of this pond is seldom still, for the wind treats it like a -sea. Because the water is shallow, the wave action wrinkles the bottom -mud into ripple patterns, mimicking the churning waves. - -I like to come here early in the morning. Sometimes, arriving before the -wind awakes, I catch reflections of the surrounding mountains. Beyond -the low bench of Logan Pass the Garden Wall begins, running northward -with the Divide. In the eastern valley the pitched peak of -Going-to-the-Sun hunkers in the morning light like a tensed warrior. To -the south, the incisor Bearhat, beautiful cloud cutter of Hidden Lake -Valley, juts above the nearby saddle of the pass. But over this place, -standing as fresh monuments to an age of ice, tower the cliffs of -Clements and the pyramid Reynolds. - -I am sitting on a wedge of red rock. Its surface exhibits a wrinkled -pattern identical to the ripples in the soft mud of the shallow pond. -The distance is not great; with a stick I could reach out and touch the -mud. Yet this represents a gulf no bird can fly, for between the ripples -of this rock and the ripples of this mud lie billions of vanished -mornings, a constellation of years. - -These red, green, tan, white, black and purple bands of rock that layer -Glacier’s mountains comprise the oldest unaltered sedimentary rocks on -Earth. They were laid down in Precambrian time, more than a billion -years ago, when life was just beginning, as the deposits of an inland -sea. - -For millions of years, sand, mud and carbonates washed into the ancient -sea, compressing the lower layers into mudstones and limestones, -building up a sediment thickness that may have been as much as 10,000 -meters (_see_ metric conversion table on page 136). - -When we look at the sharp contours of Glacier’s mountains, we see the -evidence of uplift, overthrust and glaciation. But on the geologic clock -these are recent events, a mere eyeblink of time ago. For the vast -majority of years, the rocks lay undisturbed and level beneath the sea -and land. - -To understand better the tremendous time scale these rocks represent, we -need a way to visualize the vast collection of years. If we were to make -a movie of these geologic events, we would first need to determine how -many years each minute should represent. Since the Pleistocene lasted -about 3,000,000 years (its four ice ages sculpting the present muscle of -this land), let us make each minute portray a million years. To -chronicle these rocks we will then need a film 60 hours long! - -Not until the fifty-seventh hour of our film will the Mesozoic lowlands -begin to bulge with the coming Rocky Mountain chain. During the long -preceding hours we would have seen little else but sea—withdrawing, -advancing, deep and shallow; yellow, green, and brown with great -colonies of algae. Unseen below the water, lava has spilled out -occasionally on the sea bottom; once, it intruded between the rock -layers below, forming the conspicuous, 60-meter-thick band of black -diorite that we see today on many mountain faces in Glacier. - -During this time of initial uplift an amazing process is going on deep -underground. A major fault has developed, fracturing the buckled layers -of rock. A vast mountain plate begins to slide eastward, over-riding and -submerging the rock layers to the east and opening the wide trench that -is today the North Fork Valley. Known as the Lewis Overthrust, this -gigantic earth-force has created an unusual situation: ancient rock -strata lying atop recent rock strata. - -Now less than 3 minutes of film remain. The arrival of the ice is -imminent. We look at the landscape of featureless mountains and wonder -at the dramatic difference that this last 3 million years will make. We -do not see the familiar forests and lakes, the savage peaks, and the -broad, deep valleys of this present land. These mountains are gentle, -arid, and shallow-valleyed. The vague outlines are there; we recognize -the general alignments of the drainage systems, the bloated domes from -which sharp peaks will be cut. The mountains are connected to one -another by blunt ridges and smooth saddles, and the shadows they cast -are dull, dunelike. - -Suddenly the ice is there, filling the landscape, with only the -mountaintops protruding. Four times in these last 3 minutes of film the -ice sheets advance and retreat, each time leaving an altered landscape. -Strange lakes and forests fill the gaps between the glacial invasions. -Then we see the mountains we now know come into being rapidly, as if the -land were being hacked into shape by giant cleavers. - -After this flicker of Pleistocene time, the film ends, the forests -return, and familiar lakes shine beneath the sun again—these lakes and -forests we had thought to be timeless. - - -■ -Up springs the morning wind from Hidden Valley, making the nearby alpine -fir branches whiz with its passing and shattering the perfect reflection -of Bearhat Peak on the pond. From where I sit, it is a short distance to -Hidden Pass; so I leave the pond and walk to the overlook to see again -the fine basin quarried by an ancient glacier. - -Hidden Lake, deep, far below, so blue, fits into its cliffed, crooked -valley like a polished boomerang. Closely ringed by ridge and -peak—distant Sperry Glacier and pointed Gunsight peering up from the -southern jumble, and broad Bearhat impossibly close—this lovely lake is -almost lost amid such sharp proclamations of rock. Its outlet gorge -gives a narrow view across the angled, hidden valleys of Avalanche and -McDonald, past the pyramid of Stanton, to the low, faraway undulations -of the Whitefish Range. - -Glaciation is a cruel master of mountains, biting deeply into their bulk -and leaving sheer, spectacular contours when the glaciers disappear. The -landforms here attest to their power, everywhere exhibiting the effects -of glaciation. - -In eating back the mountain headwall, alpine glaciers formed rounded -depressions, called cirques. Unlike the narrow clefts left by running -water, these broad, deep basins look as though they were made by -ice-cream scoops gouging into the rock. Hidden, Ptarmigan, Iceberg, and -Avalanche Lakes sit in well-developed cirque basins, and many mountains -are dimpled by the beginnings of other cirques—the conspicuous -amphitheater on the south shoulder of Heaven’s Peak, for example. - -Occupying all major drainage systems, glaciers modified the contour of -the valleys, changing them from their narrow, stream-cut V-shapes into -broad U-shapes. Into these wide main valleys, waterfalls plunge from -higher, smaller valleys. Like rivers, flowing glaciers have tributaries. -Lacking the ice mass and cutting power of the main glaciers, these -tributary ice fingers could not bite as deeply into the bedrock. When -the ice melted, hanging valleys were left stranded high above the main -valley floor. Hidden Lake sits in one of these hanging valleys, and from -it Hidden Creek plunges 750 meters into Avalanche Basin toward McDonald -Creek. - -On my many previous visits to this pass I have been too busy enjoying -the wildflowers, the weather, or the scenery to realize what an open -textbook of glaciation is everywhere displayed. - -I stand here on a small saddle of a pass. Wherever glaciers met, passes, -or cols, were created. A high, notched pass like this one (or -Swiftcurrent or Gunsight) reveals recent connections. Broad, lower -passes, such as Logan, resulted where the ice early overran the mountain -ridge and had a chance to work longer. - -Where two glaciers worked on opposing sides of a ridge and failed to -meet, they formed an arête—a thin, steep-walled remnant resembling a saw -blade. Another ice age would probably consume the park’s many thin -arêtes, such as the Garden Wall and Ptarmigan Wall; but it would also -create new ones from existing ridges. - -Further testimony to the sculpting power of ice is presented by Mt. -Reynolds, looming to the east. The most dramatic feature of a glaciated -landscape is the pyramid-shaped mountain called a horn—and Reynolds is a -perfect example. Horns were formed when three or more glaciers cloaked -the mountain, excavating its sides toward its core and gradually -transforming its original domed shape into a sheer-sided peak. Glacier -has many remarkable horns, from the sleek spire of St. Nicholas in the -south to exquisite Kinnerly in the northern Kintla valley. - -Sperry Glacier stares back at me from the flank of Gunsight. Glaciers -found in the park today are not remnants of the last ice phase, which -ended here about 8,000 years ago, but are newly formed, having come into -existence some 4,000 years ago. They reflect a cooling trend in the -present climate. - -Shrinking steadily from their period of greatest extent in the middle of -the last century, these modern glaciers finally stabilized in the late -1940s and since then have shown only a slight increase in area. - -Movement distinguishes glaciers from icefields, and the movement of ice -is a force on as well as a feature of a landscape. A glacier excavates -by abrading and plucking at the rock. Alternately melting and freezing, -ice at the headwalls plucks out blocks of rock. Ultimately the rocks are -deposited along the sides or at the feet of the glacier as moraine -debris. But as they move in the grip of the ice, they constantly abrade -the rock surfaces they encounter. Polished rock beds of past glaciers -show striations—grooves gouged by rock fragments imbedded in the moving -ice. - -Flow rate of a glacier depends upon the thickness of the ice and the -degree of slope. Under tremendous pressure, ice becomes plastic, like -thick taffy. Unlike kilometer-thick continental glaciers, which may move -a hundred meters a day, small alpine glaciers seldom progress more than -two or three centimeters per day. - -Although a glacier moves, it gets nowhere if in a state of -equilibrium—when annual melting equals annual accumulation. Snow mass -gained at the sun-shielded headwall is usually lost as melt at the -exposed snout. Glaciers such as Sexton or Weasel Collar, whose snouts -perch on cliff edges, also lose mass by calving. Thunder you hear on a -late-summer day near such a glacier may actually be the sound of ice -pushed off from the lip of a cliff. - -Walking back to the visitor center, I suddenly stop where the trail -skirts the steep moraine of Mt. Clements. From the opposite side of the -moraine five mountain goats have appeared. Spotting me on the trail -below, they also halt. But before I can get to my camera they are off in -a stiff-legged gallop, running in single file along the crest of the -moraine to the distant safety of the mountain face. - -Moraines are ridges of rock debris piled up along the edges and -terminuses of glaciers. Like a bracelet lying against the wall of this -mountain, the circle of steeply piled debris marks the extent of a -small, recently vanished glacier. Ghost of the power that once resided -here, a stagnant icefield lies beneath the confining walls of the -moraine. The recent accumulation of these rock fragments is a mighty -accomplishment, attesting to the force of moving ice. - - _continued on p. 38_ - - [Illustration: The Mountains of Glacier - - Lying astride the Continental Divide in the Northern Rockies, - Glacier is above all else a mountain park. The special beauty of its - lakes, streams, and forests derives from the microclimates and - varied topography and soil produced by mountain-building and - mountain-eroding forces.] - - [Illustration: Overthrust Mountains - - 1 A hypothetical block of the Earth’s crust in the region of Glacier - National Park as it existed more than 60 million years ago. The two - layers shown actually represent many strata of sedimentary rocks. - - 2 Lateral pressure begins to force the rock layers to buckle. - - 3 A large fold has been created, forcing the rock strata to double - over and overturning some layers. A break, or _fault_, is forming at - the plane of greatest stress. - - 4 The break has been completed and the strata west of the fault have - slid eastward, up and over the rocks east of the fault. - - 5 The Glacier landscape today. Throughout the millions of years - during which the folding, faulting, and overthrusting have been - taking place, the process of erosion has continued; a thousand - meters of stratified rocks have been worn away, so that only a - remnant of the overthrust layers can be seen today. Because - Glacier’s eastern slope represents the eroded face of the overthrust - block, the mountain range rises precipitously from the prairie, with - no foothills breaking the abrupt transition from open prairie to - mountain valley.] - - [Illustration: The peaks in this photograph (a view to the northwest - from Marias Pass) are remnants of the overthrust block, which moved - eastward. The dividing line between the light-colored rocks and the - gray talus slopes beneath them is the Lewis Overthrust Fault.] - - [Illustration: Glaciation - - 1 This is how the landscape in this region might have appeared - before the onset of the Pleistocene, millions of years ago. Note the - stream-eroded, V-shaped valleys. The climate at that time was dry. - - 2 Glaciers began to form high on the peaks, crept downward, and - joined to form larger glaciers. - - 3 After many centuries of glaciation, tributary glaciers have cut - back into the peaks, forming basins called _cirques_. Thick - glaciers, moving rapidly and carrying rock fragments, have abraded - the main valleys’ floors and sides, widening and deepening the - valleys into characteristic U-shapes.] - - V-shaped Valley - Tributary Glacier - Unglaciated Peak - Headwall - Meltwater Stream - Nose of Glacier - Crevasse - - [Illustration: 4 In the present landscape, free of all but remnant - glaciers, small lakes called _tarns_ occupy many of the cirque - basins; and waterfalls plunge into the main valleys from higher, - shallower, tributary valleys, called _hanging valleys_. _Alluvial - cones_—recent accumulations of rock debris—have begun to build along - the valley walls. In the main valley, a _moraine_ (a deposit of rock - materials left by the retreating glacier) has formed a dam that - holds back a large lake. - - During all this time, all parts of the terrain not buried under ice - and snow have been weathered and eroded by nonglacial forces. Thus - the contours of the jagged peaks and sheer cliffs have been - softened.] - - Unglaciated V-shaped Valley - U-shaped Valley - Hanging Valley - Cirque - Tarn - Alluvial Cone - Moraine - Morainal Lake - - [Illustration: Glacial landforms can be identified in this view of - the Mokowanis Valley.] - - [Illustration: A Divided Climate - - Because of an eastward flow of cool, moist Pacific air masses, the - climate of northwestern Montana, including the western portion of - Glacier National Park, differs from that of other portions of - Montana. As a result of increased precipitation, Glacier’s western - valleys support a rich flora, more typical of the Pacific Northwest. - - West - - Moist Pacific air - - As the moisture-laden Pacific winds are pushed up the windward - slopes of Glacier’s mountains, the air cools and water vapor - condenses, forming fog or clouds. Rain or snow begins to fall as the - air continues to rise and cool. By the time the air mass reaches the - crest and flows down the leeward slopes, most of the moisture has - been lost. - - Western slopes average about 70 cm. of precipitation at elevations - between 900 and 1,100 m. Upper elevations average 200 to 250 cm., - mostly in the form of snow; and 300 to 500 cm. is common. - - East - - Dry chinook winds - - Eastern slopes, under the influence of Continental air masses, - receive less annual precipitation. West Glacier’s annual average is - 66.5 cm. Babb, a small town east of the park, averages 49.3 cm. - Frequent high winds east of the Divide further reduce moisture - through evaporation. - - Exposed to Arctic air masses flowing down from Canada, locations - east of the Divide also suffer more severe winter conditions than do - protected western valleys. Average January temperature is -5°C at - West Glacier, -8° at Babb. - - Moreover, 80 percent of the winter days in the western portion of - the park are overcast, a condition almost identical to that of - Seattle, Wash. This serves to moderate winter temperatures and to - minimize evaporation.] - - [Illustration: Moss campion and mountain forget-me-not colonize a - fellfield. Fellfields are rocky alpine sites that are slightly less - than 50% bare rock, interspersed with such plant pioneers as cushion - plants, mosses, and lichens.] - - [Illustration: High lakes generally occupy cirque basins. These - depressions in the valley bedrock, quarried by glaciers, are deepest - near the headwall where ice thickness was greatest. Cold and deep, - and ice-free only weeks each year, tarns cannot support vascular - plants or vertebrates. Iceberg Lake, shut off from the sun most of - the year by the encompassing 1,000-meter walls of Mt. Wilbur and the - Ptarmigan Wall, is never completely free of ice.] - - [Illustration: Lake McDonald, 16 kilometers long, 2 kilometers wide, - and 134 meters deep, is the largest lake in the park. Its basin is - the classic U-shaped glacial valley. Forested lateral moraines on - either shore gently rise 600 meters above lake level. - Going-to-the-Sun Road snakes along the eastern shore, and Logan Pass - lies near the center of the photograph, behind the peaks of the - Lewis Range.] - - [Illustration: Subjected to the drying and shaping effects of wind - both winter and summer, this Douglas-fir, growing in the prairie - community near St. Mary, will attain neither the symmetrical shape - nor the great size of the Douglas-firs growing in moister, more - sheltered sites on the western slopes of the Continental Divide.] - - [Illustration: Freeze-and-thaw cycles continually fracture and - loosen rocks along joints, making them subject to removal by the - actions of water, gravity, and avalanche. The resulting fans of rock - debris (talus cones) indicate the extent of erosion since the - withdrawal of the Pleistocene glaciers.] - - [Illustration: Although moving water is an agent of erosion—the - primary destructive force of mountain masses—it also permits life. - Even small watercourses, such as this freshet, abound with plant and - invertebrate life.] - - [Illustration: Going-to-the-Sun Mountain, towering above the St. - Mary Valley, from the trail to Siyeh Pass. The coniferous forest at - its base and the alpine tundra plants at its summit are closely - juxtaposed in space; but if these two communities grew at the same - elevation they would be separated by thousands of kilometers. Hiking - from St. Mary Lake up to Siyeh Pass is going, in effect, from - Montana to the Arctic Circle; but here the life zones are compressed - and sharply divided rather than extended and overlapping.] - - [Illustration: Setting moon and snow shelf near the summit of - Heavens Peak. Note stratification of Precambrian sediments.] - - [Illustration: Western redcedars line the shores of Lake McDonald. - Because of prevailing air currents from the Pacific coast, winters - in the protected western valleys are moist and comparatively mild, - and this deep body of water freezes over an average of only one - winter in four.] - - [Illustration: Moose often follow the spring snowmelt upwards to the - headwaters of drainages. This bull will remain at Thunderbird Pond, - at the base of Brown Pass, until autumn, when it will return to its - Waterton Valley wintering ground.] - - [Illustration: Because of the high reproductive capacity of insects - and small mammals, if all their offspring survived the earth’s plant - life would be consumed within one year. This is prevented by natural - controls such as predation and parasitism. The American kestrel - (“sparrow hawk”) feeds primarily on large insects and on small - rodents such as the meadow vole here.] - - [Illustration: Gray jays are found in the deep coniferous forests of - the park. In some parks gray jays, or “camp robbers,” loiter about - campgrounds and picnic areas begging or stealing food. In Glacier, - however, they are seldom noticed as they search out seeds, berries, - and insects.] - - [Illustration: A generalized predator, the coyote will eat almost - anything, from berries to carrion. When man eliminated most of the - coyote’s enemies and competitors, including the wolf, grizzly, and - cougar, it enlarged its range to fill the void. Intelligent and - social, the coyote thrives despite man’s persecution. Although most - numerous in the prairie community, it ranges up to timberline.] - - [Illustration: The spruce grouse is a year-round resident of the - spruce/fir and lodgepole communities. It forages on the ground for - seeds and insects, in winter turning to needles. Several other - species of grouse occupy different habitats in Glacier.] - - [Illustration: Chipmunks are found in every community, from prairie - to tundra, in Glacier. Each of the park’s three very similar species - has its preferred habitat. The diurnal counterpart to nocturnally - active mice, which have the same diet of seeds, berries and - occasional insects, chipmunks adapt easily to the presence of people - and become nuisances if encouraged by handouts. Feeding rodents is - dangerous and is harmful to them. By altering their diets and - blunting their cautious instincts, daily exposure to “free lunches” - makes the animals less fit to face the harsh realities of their - natural environment.] - - [Illustration: Unlike whitetail deer, which remain in lowland areas - all year, mule deer range upward into high meadows during the - summer. The bucks, especially, are wanderers and travel together. - Velvet antlers, worn during the time of summer sociability, presage - the autumn contests to come.] - - [Illustration: The checkerspot butterfly belongs to the most diverse - group of animals on the planet—the insects, whose importance can - hardly be overestimated. They not only help recycle nutrients in the - living community and provide an abundant food base for other - lifeforms, but are instrumental in pollinating most of the earth’s - terrestrial plants.] - - [Illustration: Alpine vegetation must be able to survive freezing - temperature during the growing season, since winter conditions are - possible even in summer. Early bloomers, such as the glacier lily, - endure repeated snowfalls during the unstable weather conditions of - June.] - - [Illustration: Unlike mountain goats, these bighorn rams will desert - the alpine zone at the approach of winter; they will join other - bighorns congregating in the lower valleys.] - - [Illustration: In November bighorn sheep rams end their summer-long - isolation from the ewes, move down from the higher slopes, and begin - a bloodless but taxing ritual of strength and endurance to determine - the harem master. The sharp reports of clashing horns may carry for - kilometers, and the contests continue for weeks until the dominant - ram emerges. (Note the Many Glacier hotel complex in the valley - below.)] - - [Illustration: Hummingbirds, like shrews and other small-bodied, - warm-blooded animals, exist at the theoretical thresh-hold of life. - Because of their small size, body volume is not large enough in - relation to surface area to prevent a rapid loss of body heat. To - compensate for this, metabolic rates must be high; food is rapidly - processed and used up. Thus, since fat reserves are not practical on - such small animals, they must eat at frequent intervals. - - Two species of hummingbirds—the rufous and the calliope—are found in - Glacier. Pictured is a female rufous (which weighs about the same as - a dime) landing on its lichen decorated nest to feed its two young - on a protein-rich mixture of nectar and small insects.] - - [Illustration: The insect-eating yellowthroat prefers moist - habitats. Unlike many of its treetop-dwelling relatives, this tiny - (10-11 cm.) warbler is usually seen near or on the ground.] - - [Illustration: Bands of bighorn ewes and lambs do not summer as high - as the rams and are often encountered in the scrub-forest zone. Note - the gnarled limber pine in the foreground of this photograph taken - on the south face of Altyn Peak.] - -Reaching the mountain wall, the goats scramble upward to a ledge, -sending scree streams pouring from several clefts. Encountering a -narrow, steep snowbank, they do not hesitate but continue across the -slope. Above the rock fingers of this peak the gathering clouds grow -black. A sudden crack of thunder hurries me down the trail. - -Although geologically young, the Rocky Mountains in Glacier are composed -of soft sedimentary rocks that are easily assailed by the many agents of -weathering and erosion. If not rejuvenated by continual uplift, these -magnificent peaks will glimmer but briefly in the long memory of the -planet. - -Already the sharp countenance of this land is being softened by the -ongoing forces of erosion. Chief among these is water, which attacks the -mountains everywhere. In addition, frost action continually exploits -rock fractures, breaking down blocks of rock into talus and scree. -Avalanche and rockfall sweep down the slopes. Layers of softer rock -erode quickly, undercutting more resistant rock and creating overhangs -which gravity, in time, will collapse. - -The lashing rain catches me on this sun-and-storm-contested pass. Ice, -gravity, wind, and especially water—all attack a land that dares the -clouds. - - -The Rising of the Sun and the Running of the Deer: A Glacier Year - -As if to make up for the days-long darkness of this last blizzard, the -peaks today wear snow plumes—long, graceful trails of white, curving up -into an ice-blue sky. Yesterday the snow-mad wind raced through the -forest. Today the motionless trees are cloaked in heavy, glistening -robes, the leafless aspen and young larch bent down. - -Moderate snowfall helps many plants and animals survive the winter. For -ground dwellers it provides insulation from the wildly fluctuating -winter temperatures encountered east of the Divide, protecting the -hibernators and providing cover for the many small mammals that remain -active during the winter. Wind-swept ground freezes deep; but under a -mantle of snow life-sustaining heat is trapped, permitting many animals -to survive and allowing the work of decomposers to continue. - -But this has been a winter of too much snow and too many temperature -extremes. The heavy snowpack has forced the sharp-hoofed deer to yard up -in great numbers; unable to range freely in deep snow, they are forced -into smaller and smaller confines where their numbers allow them to -break and maintain trails. But in time they exhaust the food supply. -Younger deer, unable to reach the increasingly higher browse line, -starve first. Then the does, heavy with unborn fawns, grow weak and fall -to predators. So the imprisoned herds dwindle quickly this year, -sometimes less than a kilometer from plentiful browse. - -Deep snow is also death for many seed-eating birds. As they are unable -to scratch for food, their body furnaces quickly fail, and during a -night of cold wind their fluffed corpses drop into the snow. - -Exposed to the noon sun, the snow surface thaws; when refrozen, it is -restructured to crystalline ice. If snow repeatedly thaws and freezes, -an ice barrier is formed, shutting off vital air exchange. Plants are -then subject to rot, and micro-animal life is smothered. Travel beneath -the snow is made more difficult for mice and shrews and they are -deprived of food and cover. Under such conditions their numbers rapidly -decline. - -But while many starve in a winter of deep snow, others benefit. The -exposed traffic of small mammals is to the owl’s advantage. Foxes and -coyotes more easily run down rabbits and hares on crusted snow. Deer -and, to a lesser extent, wapiti and moose—their hoofs punching through -the snowpack—swiftly tire in deep snow and become helpless before cougar -or wolf, whose lighter weight is supported by the crust. - -Grim as this winter’s toll becomes, enough will survive to begin the -process of renewal in spring. Last winter, a season of light snow, was a -time of hardship for predators. The deer remained strong, the wapiti -remote on high, windswept ridges, and the small mammals hidden. - -Only the water ouzel, winter after winter, seems not to notice the -hardships of the season. Lord of his small world of open water, he sings -in February, wading and swimming his diminished stream to find a -never-failing supply of water insects and small fish. It is a voice of -spring—glad, wild, continual as the moving water—an incongruous song in -this winter-shrouded land. - -But with the growing stature of the sun, the grip of winter softens. The -firs and spruce send their loads of snow sliding to the ground. Streams -begin to sing again and soon the lakes increase, the booming of -splitting ice breaking the silence of the valleys. Avalanches thunder -down the steeper slopes, carrying trees to the swollen streams. Rivers -hiss and rage, speeding the debris along. A spring that comes too -suddenly will bring flood to lower elevations. - -Snow geese thread through the valleys, and ground squirrels tunnel up -through snow to find invasions of birds returning from the south. Soon -the three-petaled wakerobins appear, chasing the snowline up the ridges. -Glacier lilies and Calypso orchids are next, and with the shooting stars -spring arrives. - -The melting snow releases a new group of animals to populate the -winter-thinned land. Up come chipmunks. Bears reappear. Young red -squirrels, helpless and blind, squirm in their nest holes. Hidden dens -rustle with pups and kits. Soon warm days will bring them out and the -business of learning to cope with their world will begin. - -All life responds irresistibly to the growing strength of the Sun. -Cottonwood, willow, and maple come into flower and unfold new leaves; -green needle clusters spot the limbs of larches that in winter had -seemed lifeless snags among the other conifers. Beneath the soil of -prairie, meadow, and forest, in the mud of lakes and ponds, other life -stirs; armies of insects, spiders, crustaceans, amphibians, and fish -will strive to complete their life cycles against the formidable odds of -a predatory world. - -Spring reaches higher up the mountains, the lowlands passing into -summer. Wapiti and mountain sheep follow the rising tide of succulent -browse up to the high meadows. In forest, grove, and meadow and along -the stream new fledglings appear—thrush, vireo, hummingbird, waxwing, -harlequin duck, bluebird, osprey, and flicker—as holes, nests, and -cavities brim with begging mouths. - -In the alpine meadows, where snow overlaps the spring and winter follows -hard behind the summer, the growing season is short and the climate -unstable. Sensing the stronger light, flowers push up impatiently -through the snow and hasten into bloom. Pikas and marmots scurry and -sunbathe among the rocks of scree slopes. - -Summer matures in ripening huckleberries, and the bears that grazed the -spring grasses now gorge themselves fat. Dry days of August bring -probing lightning, threatening the forests with fire. - -Sweeps of beargrass reach their climax now in the highest meadows. In -dizzy succession wildflowers set seed. Fat and sluggish, marmots and -ground squirrels disappear beneath the rocks. The golden eagle must -search longer each day to find prey within its vast domain. - -Autumn lingers in the valleys and on the flanks of low ridges. The -morning sun glints on hoarfrost, firing the yellow leaves of larch, -aspen, birch, maple, and cottonwood, and shines on the blood-red berries -of mountain-ash. Soon a night of killing frost will bring down the -corpses of insects and spiders by the millions. The reptiles and -amphibians, being cold-blooded animals, seem out of place in this -long-wintered land. Unable to maintain body temperatures appreciably -above their surroundings, they are the first to seek the protection of -hibernation, collecting in dens or burying themselves beneath the ooze -of pond bottoms. - -Songbirds gather and leave the valleys. The harsh cries of jays sound -ominous now in the forest. Only the chickadees seem to ignore the long -tree shadows; their ceaseless conversations carry through the leafless -underbrush as they busily search for seed. - -Velvet has gone to bone, and in these final noon-warm days the rut runs -through the land. It begins in the valleys in September with the -joustings of deer and moose and the buglings of bull wapiti puncturing -the forest silence. By November the higher meadows ring with the -collisions of bighorn rams who compete for ewes by smashing together -their massive, curled horns. On high slopes mountain goat billies -posture and swagger; head to tail, they circle, threatening each other -with dagger-like horns. - -From Flathead Lake, 100 stream kilometers to the south, kokanee salmon -return to spawn in the clear, cold shallows of McDonald Creek. Gathering -bald eagles surround the stream, again and again lifting vulnerable fish -from pool and riffle. Perched by the hundreds along the stream course, -their white heads and tails glistening against the dark trees, they -stand out like lanterns strung for a banquet. - -Now the stinging wind comes down from the peaks and shuts the lakes. -Life slows or sleeps. Ptarmigan, snowshoe hare, and longtail weasel, all -wearing winter white, seek shelter and food in a silent land where -spring and yellow lilies seem forever lost. - - -■ -All life faces one ultimate challenge: to survive or not, to reproduce -or fail, to bring one’s kind to tomorrow’s sun or vanish forever. This -land is harsh. To survive in nature demands skill in the individual, -excellence in the species, and a chance from the environment. - - [Illustration: The mink, a solitary predator associated with - low-elevation watercourses, preys on anything it can catch and - subdue.] - - - - - Plant-and-Animal Communities - - -Over Going-to-the-Sun Road - -I like to begin with St. Mary, a lake the whitecaps love to run. From -the far passes the several winds gather and collect, arranging long -lines of white waves for the race downlake. Past the purple scree of -Mahtotopa and Little Chief they go, white as the headdress of -Going-to-the-Sun Mountain, colliding, collapsing along the promontory -snares about the Narrows. Onward they press, spreading out and setting -sail for the straight rush to the final shore where a line of -cottonwoods sings with a sound like applause. - -Across the lake the timbered ridge starkly contrasts the finger of -prairie that claims the north shore. This is a flower-glad place, a -meeting-ground for mountain and prairie plants. Along the road the -grassland holds the conifers back, allowing only scattered clumps of -aspens. - -Finally, at Rising Sun, beneath the shadow of Goat Mountain, the prairie -ends and wind-seasoned Douglas-firs announce the coming forest. - -There’s excitement now, with the prairie heat gone, the wind scent raw -with fir and high meadows, honed by waterfall and tall, dank rock. Our -mountain thirst is never extinguished, and a road that tightens down to -cliff face and sudden turn brings back to our blood the ancient need to -go to the highest place. - -There is sword-edged Citadel, and the snow-flanked spike of Fusillade -holding court like a queen in this valley of peaks; then the dome of -Jackson and the Gunsight notch. Our eyes are kept high, transfixed at -last by looming Heavy Runner and the distant promise of Reynolds. - -Looking for mountain goats, we scan the walls around the sweep of Siyeh -Bend, catching a glimpse of the trail that crosses the scree to hidden -Piegan Pass. - -Beargrass heads lean out above the road like old men conferring on the -view. The purple trumpets of penstemon crowd the rocks, and spots of -Indian paintbrush lead like a blood-trail to the higher slopes. - -Intoxicated now, feeling the fresh full force of the wind from Logan -Pass, we race on. We hardly notice the struggle of the forest in -Reynolds Creek far below, how it thins and loses strength in its own -hard climb. We sweep past it on the broad magnificence of this pass. - -Level but a moment, the road dips to a shelf on the headwall above Logan -Creek and swings over the great sculptured cliff of the Garden Wall. For -several kilometers this masterpiece of a road glides down a constant -grade, squeezed between rock face and space, twisting into tight -drainages—a road for storm lovers, wet with spray and snow-seep, its -quick turns concealing sudden winds. - -Mighty, snow-robed Heaven’s Peak appears, taking our attention from the -Pass-group mountains and the hanging valley that spills Birdwoman Falls. -Northward is the great array of peaks encircling distant Flattop, -jumbles of mountains and glaciers. How are we to notice the forest far -below? - -Not until we have passed the Loop and are moving past the blackened -snags of a recent burn do we realize the stature of this forest. The -long road down will take us into a valley much deeper than any on the -eastern side. Near Avalanche Creek are trees we have seen nowhere else -in the park—giant western redcedars, western hemlocks with their nodding -tops, monstrous black cottonwoods with bark so deeply furrowed that it -looks hewn by hatchet. - -We take a long ride down the valley, past the low pyramid of Mt. -Stanton, final peak in the Livingston Range. Near the outlet end of Lake -McDonald, birch and aspen again appear in numbers, and the road enters a -crowded stand of lodgepole pine. - -Our memories cluttered with mountains, waterfalls, and snowfields, we do -not quite realize the significance of this 80-kilometer journey. We have -crossed the boundaries of several different plant-and-animal -communities, spanning a range of climate that would be encountered on a -5,000-kilometer north-south journey at sea level. - -At first glance the various trees, wildflowers, and animals seem -randomly distributed, scattered about like the distant mountains. But -mountainous terrain represents an organized high-rise approach to life. -From the lowest, most protected valley to the highest wind-and-ice-cut -summit, the life-forms align themselves, each according to its own -climatic tolerance. - -Here too can be seen the great cycles of nature: fire and regrowth, the -building of soil and its erosion, the incessant duel of the eaters and -the eaten. - -In the following sections we will spend some time in these various -communities, from prairie to tundra. - - -Groves and Grasslands: The Prairie Sea - -There is something about spring on the prairie that gets me up before -dawn. I like to watch the seasons change their guard over the landscape, -from the wintry cold of pre-dawn dark to the spring-scented morning air -to the hot summer-foretaste of the noon May sun. - -Hoarfrost surrounds these patches of pasqueflowers, blue goblets on -downy stems. On this windless night, frost has formed everywhere, -reclaiming for a time its vast winter range, sparkling over the green -handiworks of spring. - -But the god of the growing grasslands is the sun, and it now proclaims -itself, stretching out to make the mountains shine. With its assault the -frost collapses, becoming bright beads on grass tip and leaf joint by -which a beetle might refresh itself. - -Spring is best perceived ant-level, at its ground beginnings, where the -bright yellow-green tips of new grass shoots reclaim the winter-blighted -land. I look closely at a drag line of spider silk; a necklace of -dewdrops slides down, collects to a moment’s greatness, in which I -briefly see a curved horizon, the morning sunburst, and myself, before -it falls away. - -Getting up from my prone position, my belly damp from the prairie earth, -I startle a whitetail jackrabbit; bounding high, it zigzags off. The -commotion disturbs a distant badger, which faces about from its diggings -to confront danger in whatever form it might take. It swings its snout -to scent the air. Somewhat uncertainly, it returns to the business of -hunting, then hesitates, swings about once more and waits, myopic, -patient. - -Satisfied at last, the spurt of the now distant rabbit lost in its -brain, the creature snorts a defiance at the mystery and resumes its -morning gopher hunt. - -Overhead a marsh hawk skims past, its flight erratic as a butterfly’s. -Far away a magpie rattles at the passing hawk and takes flight, briefly -flashing black and white. - - -■ -It is easy to see only pieces in the natural puzzle—a badger throwing -dirt, horned larks dipping into wind, black ants dragging the rosette of -a dead spider—and be satisfied with the scattered scenes. But at last, -to make it meaningful, we must complete the picture. There is that -special joy in discovering larger schemes: green plants utilizing -sunlight; a rabbit building its days at the plants’ expense; the falcon -tearing the rabbit meat for its young; magpies picking at the fallen -falcon; and then, in the end, all returning to the earth. - -Here on the prairie, as in every plant-and-animal association, the -ancient drama repeats itself over and over; the distant tundra is a -drastically different stage with different actors, but the cycle is the -same. Life depends upon the interaction of all its many forms. Unseen -bacteria are as necessary to the land as green grass; the meadow vole -and the coyote are as much a part of the prairie as the grasses. - -The secret of life rests in the wonder of photosynthesis. Only green -plants can manufacture food from the earth’s raw minerals. This is the -vital first step upon which the great pyramid of animal and plant life -is built. Using energy from the sun, green plants combine water and -carbon dioxide to synthesize sugar, and give off oxygen as a by-product. -The caterpillar takes its energy from the plant tissue, converting to -protein the sugar and minerals in its body. The caterpillar is then food -for a spider or other predator. A yellow warbler may take the spider and -in turn be ambushed by the prairie falcon. Thus the energy produced by -the plant travels through the food chain. When the prairie falcon dies, -scavengers—including insects and other invertebrates, birds, and -mammals—redistribute its wealth among themselves; the rest is decomposed -by bacteria. Thus, eventually, the nutrients on which the plants depend -return to the soil. - -When we look at any living organism, whether it is plant, herbivore, -carnivore, parasite, scavenger, or decomposer, we are soon made aware of -its associations with other living things, each puzzle piece leading us -to another and another. We begin to see a picture whole—the fox, meadow -mouse, grasshopper, bunchgrass, and sparrow hawk—all interlocked. - -Geologically speaking, grasslands are a recent development. As the Rocky -Mountains were being uplifted, the prevailing warm, moist climate began -to change. The rising mountain mass intercepted moisture-laden winds -that blew in from the Pacific, creating a rain shadow that lengthened -eastward as the mountains rose higher. A continental climate, -characterized by severe winters and dry, wildfire summers gradually took -shape, extinguishing the great forests that had grown across the -continent’s interior. Herbaceous plants, which had been evolving amid -the forests, inherited the land. - -Unlike trees, grasses die back to the ground each winter, hoarding their -life-germ beneath the protecting soil. Growing not from the tip but from -the joints, grasses regenerate quickly after fire or grazing. Suspension -of the normal metabolic processes enable the grasses to go dormant and -thus survive periods of severe heat and drought. - -Although the great prairie sea washes up against Glacier’s eastern -boundary, with estuaries probing into the mountain valleys on the drier, -south-facing slopes, the grassland community comprises less than 5 -percent of the land area of Glacier National Park. This includes the -puddles of prairie west of the Divide that interrupt the dense -coniferous forests along the North Fork of the Flathead River. - -From the pasqueflowers that bloom in early May to the asters and -goldenrod of September, these summer-long gardens of grasses and flowers -lean with the wind. Here are timothy, oatgrass and the -bunchgrasses—rough fescue, bluebunch fescue, and bluebunch wheatgrass. -Among the grasses bloom bitterroot, blue camas, lupine, gaillardia, -balsamroot, cinquefoil, sticky geranium, and wild rose. - - _continued on p. 68_ - - [Illustration: The Forests of Glacier - - From the lush redcedar-hemlock forest in the McDonald Valley to the - subalpine fir, whitebark pine, and Engelmann spruce struggling for - existence near treeline, the forests of Glacier reflect the - conditions of temperature, exposure, soil, and drainage prevailing; - and each forest has its characteristic association of understory - trees and shrubs, herbaceous ground cover, and vertebrate and - invertebrate animal life.] - - [Illustration: Life Zones - - Many physical and climatic factors determine the range of Glacier’s - plant-and-animal communities. Boundaries between communities are - seldom sharply defined, but rather merge together in broad zones of - transition. - - With elevation gain, average daily temperature drops at the rate of - 5° per 900 meters. Precipitation, wind velocity, and evaporation - loss increase. Soil thins. These factors, along with others such as - fire frequency, north or south exposure, and availability of - moisture, combine to determine the range of each community. - - In the forest community below 1,800 meters, Douglas-fir, lodgepole - pine, and western larch predominate. In the valleys, Engelmann - spruce and subalpine fir are found. The somewhat lower and much - better watered western valleys of the park support western redcedar - and western hemlock. - - Treeline is the upper limit to which the tolerances of trees to - environmental conditions permit them to grow. Because there are so - many controlling factors (wind, temperature, exposure to sunlight, - snow cover, etc.) treeline in the diagram is only approximate. In - Glacier it averages 2,000 meters. Avalanche chutes or sheer cliff - walls may suppress it to below 1,500 meters; on protected slopes it - may be as high as 2,150 meters. - - At the eastern edge of the park below 1,200 meters, the forest gives - way to the prairie community, composed mostly of soft-stemmed plants - adapted to the conditions of low precipitation that prevail here in - the rainshadow of the mountain range. Clumps of aspen, found in the - prairie in sheltered spots, occur here in the transition zone - between prairie and forest.] - - [Illustration: A Mountain Profile - - This diagram represents the eastward-facing slope of a hypothetical - mountain near the eastern boundary of Glacier National Park. Its - life communities are somewhat different from those of mountain - slopes at the western edge, chiefly because of the differential in - annual precipitation. - - Illustration: Here, above approximately 2,750 meters, in a realm of - ice, snow, and barren rock, there is little life. - - Alpine tundra - - Below 2,750 meters and above 2,000 meters, depending on other - factors such as exposure to sun and wind and steepness of terrain, - exists the alpine tundra community, with vegetation similar to that - of the vast, essentially level, treeless zones of the Arctic. - - Scrub-forest - - Roughly between 1,800 and 2,000 meters, the dominant vegetation is - scrub-forest. Trees here are stunted; except in sheltered spots they - are more or less prone rather than upright. Net growth is slow, not - only because of the short growing season but also because of the - pruning effect of icy mountain winds. Very few tree species can - survive in this harsh habitat. - - Coniferous forest - - In the forest community below 1,800 meters, Douglas fir, lodgepole - pine, and western larch predominate. In the valleys, Engelmann - spruce and subalpine fir are found. The somewhat lower and much - better watered western valleys of the park support western redcedar - and western hemlock. See page 54 - - Prairie - - At the eastern edge of the park below 1,200 meters, the forest gives - way to the prairie community, composed mostly of soft-stemmed plants - adapted to the conditions of low precipitation that prevail here in - the rainshadow of the mountain range. Clumps of aspen, found in the - prairie in sheltered spots, occur here in the transition zone - between prairie and forest.] - - [Illustration: The Forest Community - - A forest is organized vertically like an apartment house or office - building, with layers corresponding to stories. The _canopy_ is the - branches and foliage of tall trees that form a roof over the - community. Below the canopy are the _understory_ trees: young - individuals of the canopy species; and small, shade-tolerant trees - that will never become part of the canopy. Beneath the understory - branches is the _shrub layer_, occupied by knee-high-to-man-high - woody plants; beneath that is the _herb layer_, where most of the - ferns, wildflowers, grasses, and smaller woody plants grow. The - _forest floor_ is the zone of mosses, mushrooms, creeping plants, - and forest litter (leaves, twigs, needles, feathers, bits of bark, - animal droppings, etc.). The forest has a “basement,” too, - interlaced by plant roots, mycelia of fungi, and tunnels of myriad - animals. - - Each layer of the forest has its characteristic animal species, but - most forage over more than one level. Some nest in one story and - feed in another. The red squirrel races back and forth from the - forest floor to the highest branches. - - The forest community also has a socio-economic organization. Every - animal (and plant) takes up space and consumes a portion of the - available nutrients. Each has a place in the community food - chain—as, for example, _herbivore_, _carnivore_, or _scavenger_. - Each directly or indirectly affects all the other organisms. - - The Forest Community - - The role of a species in the community, like the job and social - function of a person, is its _niche_. Similar species of animals - have different niches, thus lessening competition for food and - living space. Thrushes hunt close to the ground; vireos and kinglets - hunt among the branches; flycatchers snap up airborne insects. The - flicker feeds upon insects, excavates nesting holes that are later - occupied by other species such as squirrels and owls, and is preyed - upon by the great horned owl; its niche is _insect exterminator / - food for carnivores / homebuilder_. The great horned owl, hunting - mammals, birds, and reptiles by night, preys on species different - from those hunted by the goshawk, and thus occupies a parallel - niche. When it dies, its remains, like those of other animals, are - decomposed and return to the soil.] - - Canopy - Great Horned Owl - Yellow-bellied Sapsucker - Understory - Flying Squirrel - Shrub Layer - Ruffed Grouse - Herb Layer - Red Squirrel - Western Toad - Forest Floor - Shorttail Weasel - Scavenging Insects - Deer Mouse - Garter Snake - Soil Layer - Ground Squirrel - Earthworm - Masked Shrew - - [Illustration: Sun, Green Plants, and Animals - - The sun is the source of energy for any plant-and-animal community. - Green plants draw nitrogen and minerals from the soil, and in a - process called photosynthesis use sunlight to convert raw materials - (carbon dioxide and water) into carbohydrates (sugar, starch, - cellulose), giving off oxygen as a by-product. Besides burning - oxygen, animals depend on plants for food. - - Green Plants, trees and shrubs, grasses and sedges, wildflowers, - ferns, mosses, algae and lichens—are fed upon by animals, which are - unable to manufacture their own food. - - The Redback Vole, like other rodents, pikas and hares, seed-eating - birds, grazing and browsing hoofed animals, and herbivorous insects, - derives its energy from the seeds and other parts of green plants - that it eats. - - The Garter Snake, feeding upon the vole, is dependent upon plants - even though it does not eat them. - - The Great Horned Owl, preying upon the garter snake, is one more - step removed from the green plants—but still dependent on them. - - Scavengers such as carrion beetles feed upon the carcass of the owl; - the remains are then attacked by Decomposers, primarily bacteria, - that break down the animal tissues into basic organic compounds. - - The Soil, enriched by the minerals and carbon and nitrogen compounds - added to it by the decomposers (and by other processes such as fire) - supports new green plant growth. - - Thus energy derived from the sun flows through the ecosystem in a - food chain. A plant-and-animal community is a complex, interlocking - web of such food chains.] - - Sun - Green Plants - Redback Vole - Garter Snake - Great Horned Owl - Scavengers, Decomposers - Soil - - [Illustration: A Pyramid of Numbers - - Necessarily, the number of plants in an ecosystem far exceeds the - number of plant eaters, and the number of prey species must exceed - the number of predators. During its lifetime, a golden eagle will - consume a vast number of lesser animals. The combined mass of prey - animals necessary to sustain an eagle greatly outweighs the eagle - itself. Ecologists refer to this proportional relationship of mass - between each link in the food chain as the _pyramid of numbers_. - - The diagram represents a numbers pyramid for the alpine zone. - Because of its limiting environment, the alpine zone supports a - lesser plant mass than the forest zone. As a result, the carrying - capacity of the alpine is less than that of the forest. - - 1 Kilo - - _Tertiary_ (third-order) _consumers_ are the predators (Golden - Eagle, Swainson’s Hawk, etc.) that feed upon other predators. - Because of the 90% loss of energy at each level of the food chain, - there will be very few hawks and eagles in comparison to the numbers - of marmots. - - 10 Kilos - - _Secondary consumers_ are the predators (weasels, shrews, - carnivorous insects and birds, etc.) that eat herbivores. The - animals at this level of the pyramid are often—though not - always—larger than the animals they feed upon. But they are much - less numerous, because it takes many prey animals to sustain one - predator. - - 100 Kilos - - _Primary consumers_ (plant eaters, or herbivores) convert plant - tissue into animal flesh. In the process about 90% of the energy - stored as plant food is lost, mostly as heat energy. In the alpine - community the herbivores include pikas, marmots, ground squirrels, - and ptarmigan, as well as herbivorous insects. - - 1,000 Kilos - - _Producers_ are the green plants at the base of the food pyramid, - manufacturing food for the animals of the alpine community. The - _biomass_ (total weight) of each level of the food chain is ten - times (more or less) the weight of the stage above it: 1,000 kilos - of green plants will produce only 100 kilos of primary consumers.] - - [Illustration: Great horned owls are the nocturnal equivalent of - Cooper’s hawks and goshawks in the low-elevation forests of the - park. Large and powerful, they are capable of taking prey as big as - skunks. This young bird, disturbed on its day roost, clacked its - bill and fluffed its feathers in a menacing manner.] - - [Illustration: The only sizable mature stand of ponderosa pine found - within the park is along the North Fork truck trail. A scattering of - old ponderosas growing at the lower end of Lake McDonald suggests - that at one time ponderosa forests were more extensive in this - region than at present.] - - [Illustration: A black bear near treelimit. Bears will eat almost - anything, from ants to carrion, grass to garbage. Color phases - include brown and blonde bears. Unlike the larger, more aggressive - grizzly, which ranges out onto the plains, black bears are strictly - forest creatures.] - - [Illustration: The water ouzel, or dipper, a creature of fast - mountain water, is admirably outfitted to cope with its demanding - environment. Stubby wings, chunky body, short tail, and oily plumage - allow it to walk under water, where it scavenges for aquatic insect - larvae and small fish. In flying up- and down-stream, ouzels never - shortcut but follow the winding streamcourse. - - As long as there is open water, the dipper suffers no hardship from - the mountain winter. Then, when the land is shut down and lakes are - frozen over, this little bird carries on in its mountain-stream - habitat, plunging into the cold water to find food, and pausing - occasionally to sing.] - - [Illustration: Ouzels construct their nests of living moss on cliff - faces or ledges where constant spray keeps the moss moist. At - fledging, the four young of this nest in Avalanche Gorge tumbled one - by one into the torrent below, to be collected by the adults in - quieter water downstream. Within a day they appeared to have - mastered the underwater gymnastics and were feeding on their own.] - - [Illustration: From their lowland wintering grounds, wapiti move up - to higher elevations in spring. Summer range in the park is - abundant, but winter range is limited; as a result, wapiti have a - tendency to increase their populations beyond the carrying capacity - of available winter range. In a severe winter many starve. But in a - balanced ecosystem such loss is not waste, for the carrion helps - sustain scavengers; it is an important initial food source for bears - emerging from hibernation.] - - [Illustration: Cedar waxwings nest in moist areas of low valleys - where fruits and berries are abundant. Although they also subsist on - insects (which they can capture on the wing), their weakness for - fruit is so pronounced that the birds will sometimes gorge - themselves until rendered incapable of flight.] - - [Illustration: The Columbian ground squirrel is found at all park - elevations, from prairie to alpine meadow. Hibernation occupies - almost three-quarters of its five-year lifespan. Unlike other park - ground squirrels, it lives in colonies. Although not as tightly - structured as a prairie dog town, the association is beneficial to - all members in that danger is readily detected.] - - [Illustration: The tundra community is encountered above Preston - Park on the Siyeh Pass trail. Mt. Reynolds, a classic example of a - horn, dominates the distant Logan Pass area.] - - [Illustration: Camas blooms in the prairie community along the Red - Eagle road. An important staple, camas bulbs were gathered as food - by Indians.] - -Conspicuous also are many insects—including grasshoppers; flies; ants, -wasps and bees; butterflies and moths; bugs; and beetles—which fulfill -important roles as herbivores, carnivores, and scavengers while also -acting as pollinators for flowering plants and providing an abundant -food source for other animals. - -Below the ground are the tunnels. Burrowing is an important means of -survival on the open prairie, and life underground is extensive. Some of -the animals are rarely seen—the northern pocket gopher, for example, -with a diet of underground insects, grubs, worms, and roots, spends most -of its life tunneling just below the surface. Others, like the badger, -leave their burrows during the day to dig for rodents. Most conspicuous -of the burrowing animals in the park’s grasslands is the Columbian -ground squirrel. Its alert upright stance has earned it the nickname -“picket pin.” When danger approaches from the air or on land, its shrill -alarm whistle passes the warning to others of its kind. - -Where prairie and forest meet, a never-ending struggle for dominion is -waged. The isolated patches of prairie that dot the North Fork Valley -near Polebridge hold the great forest of the park’s northwest region at -bay. - -This broad valley, floored with coarse glacial outwash and terraced -downward to the deep channel of the North Fork River, presents a graphic -battleground between grass and tree. Lining the upper terraces, from -which they glower down on the dry, well drained grass flats like a line -of warriors, are the Douglas-fir, western larch, and ponderosa pine. -Seedling trees continually invade the prairie. But most perish early, -their shallow roots no match for the extensive root systems of the -fast-growing, moisture-greedy grasses. If encouraged by a series of wet -summers, however, the young lodgepoles quickly gain stature. They had -made significant inroads at Big Prairie when the disastrously dry summer -of 1967 killed most of these 15-year-old pioneer trees. - -These North Fork grasslands and the immediately surrounding lodgepole -pine forests are an important spring range. Deer, wapiti, and -grizzly—and, in the wetter areas, moose—graze or browse here. And here, -low on the western slopes of the Livingston Range, are the park’s only -stands of ponderosa pine, a tree that prefers warm, dry habitats. As a -result, at low elevations it often merges with the prairie community. - -Groves of aspen colonize the eastern prairies in areas where there is -sufficient water and protection from wind. These aspen parklands are -important havens for animals. Wherever two differing communities -interact, a phenomenon known as “edge effect” occurs. Here wildlife -exists in abundance; the animals that favor forest cover mingle freely -with those that prefer open areas. Aspen groves—supporting grasses, -herbs, and shrubs beneath their thin canopies—are favored haunts for -grouse, varying hare, deer, and wapiti, all of which find among the -trees abundant food, shelter and concealment. Populations of insects, -small mammals, and birds, which are high for the same reasons, attract a -wide range of predators. - -Isolated aspen groves are characteristically dome-shaped. Because aspens -are capable of reproducing themselves vegetatively, the grove slowly -expands outward from the parent tree. As a result, most of these groves -are either exclusively male or exclusively female. - -Since quick-growing aspens provide a bountiful food source for beaver, -streams near these trees are often dammed by the rodents flooding -lowlands and creating additional habitat in the form of willow flats. -Another “edge effect” is established, attracting animals found near -water. Waterfowl, marsh birds, moose, mink, muskrat, skunks, amphibians, -and many others find such areas to their liking. - - -■ -Before the appearance of the white man, these eastern prairies were a -paradise for animals. Once, on the summit of Rising Wolf, light-headed -from the climb and the view of endless prairie, I fancied that I saw -that vast, undisturbed animal panorama spread before me. - -Principally there were the bison, darkening the uneven land. Pronghorn -bands flashed white on ridgetops, and moose moved through the long -fingers of willow that extended eastward with the rivers. Caribou and -wolves inhabited the shadows. Among vast cities of prairie dogs, swift -fox and grizzly roamed. There were the clamorings of sandhill crane, and -white clouds of trumpeter swans. - -This land, endowed with a wealth of wild grass, wore its wilderness -well. - - -The Forest - -On Gunsight Pass, the rain lancing down, I found a sharpedged rock that -split the continent in two. On both sides the rain rivulets ran down, a -fraction of an inch determining the stream’s destination: Pacific or -Atlantic. - -The Continental Divide is a mighty barrier, a line of consequence that -does more than determine watersheds. Its effect in Glacier is dramatic, -as a look at the forests will reveal. - -Obstructing the eastward flow of the moisture-laden Pacific winds, the -Divide extracts a heavy annual tribute of precipitation from the air -mass, forcing it to rise up the mountain chain, where it cools and -condenses. Chief benefactors are the low western valleys, which respond -with a lush growth of Pacific coastal-type forests. - -The eastern valleys, however, deprived of abundant annual moisture and -exposed to the wind and temperature ravages of the prairie’s continental -climate, support a dramatically different kind of forest. Here Engelmann -spruce and subalpine fir are the climax trees, contrasted with such -trees as the western redcedar and western hemlock of the mild and moist -McDonald valley. - -Elevation exerts an additional restriction on the distribution of tree -species. Since climatic conditions vary with change in elevation—lower -temperatures resulting in shorter growing seasons, and increased wind -exposure resulting in greater loss of moisture through evaporation—we -would expect to find the forest composition change as we ascend a -mountain slope. In Glacier, eastern valleys average 240 meters higher -than western, and thus even if they had more moisture they would not -sustain the redcedars and hemlocks. All plants have range limits, some -narrow, some broad; and they excel where their particular set of -preferences as to moisture, soil, sunlight, and wind exposure are best -met. On sites that do not meet their optimum requirements, they face -being crowded out by species better adapted to the prevailing -conditions. - -Physical features of the land determine vegetation also. Certain trees -prefer the moist areas along a streambed—the great black cottonwoods, -for example. And on steep hillsides, avalanches prevent the growth of -climax trees, permitting instead only shrubby, pliant -growth—mountain-ash, mountain maple, alder, menziesia. - -Forest communities are named for their dominant tree species. Thus, an -area in which Douglas-fir dominates is called a “Douglas-fir forest.” -Glacier does have forests in which Douglas-fir is the climax species; -these are chiefly dry areas, below 1,800 meters, with south and west -exposures. But we usually associate the park with its Engelmann -spruce-subalpine fir forests, found extensively between 1,200 and 2,100 -meters, and with the western redcedar-western hemlock forests in the -McDonald valley. - -Because forests mature slowly and change is usually imperceptible, we -are tempted to think of them as static and eternal. But since a forest -is a community of living things, it responds to changes in the -environment. Subtle physical or climatic changes, such as a rising or -falling water table or a slight increase or decrease in annual -precipitation, will favor some species of trees and hinder others, -eventually altering the composition of the forest. - -Other changes are more dramatic. Most notable of these is fire. - - - From Fire to Forest - -Heat lightning, glimmering soundless behind the western peaks. Then the -first low rumble. At first the flashing had been from cloud to cloud, -but now, as the storm nears, the first ground-spears appear, lighting up -the night. Here is a big storm, many-celled, engulfing more and more -territory beneath its angry bulk. Lightning dances into the dry August -forest. In their towers the lookouts stay awake. - -Close strike and a flare-up! The ridge snag burns like a Roman candle, -sending bright embers down. Valley, ridge, and peak blink on and off -with blue light as the storm roars like night-firing artillery. - -Passing overhead, the low cloud belly brings a sudden lash of rain. But -it is not enough: tomorrow will mean long hours of fire watch. - -The next day dawns clear, a morning of heavy dew. The ridge strikes did -not ignite the forest. Inspecting the storm path, aircraft and lookouts -find no evidence of fire. - -But two days later, in a morning of high wind, thin smoke plumes rise -upward. Smoldering in the thick duff of the forest floor, a lingering -hot spot explodes with the fanning wind. It quickly spreads from a -hectare to ten while the quadrants are called in and the hot-shot crews -dispatched; then to a hundred, bringing in the smoke jumpers and -mobilizing the vast fire-control network. A thousand hectares, perhaps -ten thousand might burn this week of big fires. - -In the resulting skeleton forest, the scene of devastation is almost -overpowering: life seems forevermore excluded from this blackened ruin. -But fire is nothing new to forest communities. We may think fire demonic -because it takes from our life span this block of mature forest, a sight -we will never again see in this place. But nature does not operate in -terms of human time scales. This forest is simply pushed back closer to -its starting point, to begin again its long progression toward a climax -vegetation cover. - - - Forest Succession - -Through a series of complex vegetation stages, each characterized by -different herbs, trees, and shrubs, the forest slowly returns to the -type of vegetation best suited to the physical and climatic conditions -of the site; this is called a climax community. The fact that most of -Glacier’s forests are in some stage of recovery from fire accounts in -part for the mosaic of forest cover found here. - -The forest of Huckleberry Mountain on the Camas Creek road was consumed -in the 1967 fire. By 1969, among the charred, lifeless trunks of the -former forest, lush grass and sunloving fireweed, thistle, and -paintbrush were growing. And by 1974 lodgepole pine seedlings along the -road were a meter or two high. Lodgepole is a fast-growing tree that -requires full sun to germinate. Forest fire is necessary for the -regeneration of these trees: the intense heat causes the tightly closed -cones to open, releasing the seeds that will establish the forest. So -young pines developed among fireweed, spiraea, willow, and mountain -maple shrubs. - -The lodgepole forest near the western entrance to the park has been -developing since 1929, when fire destroyed the redcedar-hemlock forest -in the area between Apgar and West Glacier. Beneath the scattered spires -of old larch that survived the burn, the lodgepoles have now grown up, -forming a canopy that shades the forest floor. Because lodgepole live -only about 80 years and will not germinate in shade, this forest will -not exist long. Shade-tolerant Douglas-fir, white pine, Engelmann spruce -and western redcedar seedlings are now taking hold. But the physical -characteristics of this area—the climate, terrain, and soil—are -ultimately most favorable for western redcedar and hemlock; and unless -other disruptions intervene, this area will eventually again become a -dense redcedar-hemlock forest. - -But this will not happen quickly. The soil after hundreds of years of -collecting debris will again become rich and moist. Young hemlocks will -germinate on and near decaying logs. When old larches, firs, and pines -fall, the slow-growing redcedars and hemlocks will take their places in -the canopy. - -Forest succession is a more complicated story than this; it is a -fascinating study involving herbs, shrubs, small and large trees, and -animal populations. From location to location it will vary; only in its -broad outlines is it predictable. It is based on the observation that, -given time, a forest—or any other plant community—will progress until it -reaches climax—that is, the stage that will perpetuate itself. - - -■ -How then are we to think about fire? Increasingly, experts are concerned -not so much with fire suppression as with fire management. For -suppression has at least three disadvantages: it allows the accumulation -of unburned fuels that can result in “fire storms” when they are finally -ignited; an undiversified climax forest is more vulnerable to disease -than is a mixed forest; and a dense forest canopy discourages shrub -growth, an important food source for deer, wapiti, moose, and smaller -animals. - -As the well-being of the deer herd depends on the predators that thin -its numbers, so the long-term well-being of the forest depends on fire -to rejuvenate it periodically. We must realize that wilderness is -identified with fire, landslide, avalanche, windfall, and flood. Nature -not only has learned to cope with these agents of change—she depends -upon them for maintaining the delicate balances between landscape and -life. There is in the business of nature, after all, more than the -pleasing of man’s eye. - - - Spruce Morning - -Of all times to get a rock in my boot! I had just started out, the -morning was still cool in this eastern valley, and the heavy pack was -not yet biting into my shoulders. Sitting down beside the trail, I -leaned the pack against the base of an old spruce and began unlacing. - -I could hear the scratching of the red squirrel descending to -investigate, but I didn’t look up until it let go with long indignant -chatter at finding its territory invaded. I plunked out the pebble and -began relacing my boot. Cautiously the squirrel came down, pausing -frequently to scold, its lower jaw quivering with rage and exposing -yellow rodent teeth. Neighboring squirrels joined in and soon the trees -danced with flicking tails. - -Down the squirrel came, almost to the ground, then raced back up the -tree, stopping at each lateral branch to deliver a vocal broadside. -Finding no danger to themselves, the other squirrels soon quit the -uproar and went about their morning business. I was beginning to suspect -that I was committing some graver offense than the mere exercise of -squatters’ rights—perhaps I threatened its cache of fir cones. Then into -the corner of my vision shot another form, streaking soundless as a -shadow; the squirrel also saw it—but too late. With a thin terrified -squeak, the rodent started to go higher; but the pine marten was above -it. The squirrel quickly reversed itself, sending bits of bark showering -down. - -As the squirrel leaped from the tree in desperation, the marten overtook -it in mid-air; they came down together. Clamping the limp creature -firmly in its jaws, the marten strode up the incline of a fallen spruce. -Before it hopped off onto a shelf of higher ground to disappear, it -looked briefly back at me. I fancied I could read, fixed in its eyes, a -certain recognition of my having distracted its prey. - -A breeze made me shiver, snapping me back from that swift vision of -luxuriant fur, that blinding grace which flashed its orange throat-patch -through the trees, and I realized I was sweating. For a moment I had -been that squirrel, eyes wide with terror, seeing fate bear down, and -powerless before the natural order of things. - -The incident got the other squirrels singing again; but the confidence -was gone, and soon it was quiet. What dreams do squirrels dream, I -wondered, looking around. I saw that place more clearly then, having -been caught between a marten and its prey. I saw each spruce: its age, -its condition, the onslaughts it had borne; the beargrass coming up in -an opening; and down the trail a meadow that was yellow, white, and red -with sulphur plant, mariposa, and Indian paintbrush. Bees, flies, -spiders, and butterflies worked that little garden tucked among the -crowding trees. Countless forms of life beneath the soil and bark, in -tunnel, crevice, hole, and pocket, working unseen to sustain their -lives, and somehow, when all were added up, maintaining the forest as -well. - -A flicker called, its loud _Klee-yer_ breaking the forest hush. Birds, -mammals, plants, insects—all hide together here, their lives so -skillfully embroidered that no loose thread exists that my mind might -grasp to unravel and understand the work. - -The forest had once been a place that obstructed my view, a great blank -to stride through, a few hours of necessary blur before the high lake or -pass was reached. Now I was quite content to remain awhile beneath these -great-boled trees. - - -■ -A forest, like the mountains themselves, supports various levels of -life. The floor and substratum are a great processing plant where -bacteria, fungi, and insects work, decomposing the plant and animal -litter, recycling dead and discarded tissue back to simpler organic -compounds, gases, and minerals, thereby providing sustenance for growing -plants. As spiders, shrews, wrens, and thrushes seem to know, there is -good hunting on the forest floor. - -Just above the forest floor is the herb layer, a seasonal layer of -growth including flowers, mushrooms, grasses, and other small plants. - -Above that grows the shrub layer, then the understory of young trees -awaiting their chance to take a place in the forest’s canopy high above. -From the swaying canopy, exposed to the full force of sun and wind, to -the dim, moist floor, the forest provides a wide range of habitat. - -Relatively few animals live in the treetops. The almost incessant motion -makes nesting too hazardous for birds. Red squirrels venture up to cut -cones in the canopy, but store their booty and make their nests farther -down. - -In the mid-range between canopy and understory, goshawks and Cooper’s -hawks nest. Woodpeckers, nuthatches, and sapsuckers forage on the tree -trunks and nest in cavities they excavate or appropriate. Red squirrels -and the nocturnal flying squirrels create a major traffic here, along -with the martens and owls that hunt them. - -The understory and shrub layers house the greatest numbers of nesting -birds. Here the effects of storm and rain are minimized and protective -cover is greatest. Vireos, thrushes, warblers, hummingbirds, bluebirds, -flycatchers, and others can be found among the tangle of this sometimes -impenetrable layer. - -The most populated area, the forest floor, supports an astonishing -abundance of organisms. Below the busy traffic of mice, shrews, and -larger animals is a bewildering array of insects and other -invertebrates. The attrition rate in the litter of the forest floor—a -continual battleground difficult to comprehend—is enormous. The smaller -the organism, the greater its numbers are likely to be. This humus-rich, -moist soil teems with bacteria, and a handful will contain surprising -numbers of small spiders, pseudo-scorpions and almost microscopic mites. - -Each year some two to three thousand kilograms, dry weight, of falling -material litter an average hectare of forest. All this plant and animal -waste—twigs, leaves, limbs, fallen trees, feathers, hair, feces, and -carcasses—is processed by the armies of decomposers that thrive on the -forest floor. With the aid of larger creatures that break up the plant -and animal tissue, most microscopic bacteria are able to decompose from -a hundred to a thousand times their own weight every day. - -Few trees die of old age in the forest. The seedling mortality rate is -necessarily high, since far greater numbers of seeds germinate each year -than can reach maturity. Of those that do, many fall victim to the -ever-present dangers of disease, insect infestation, windfall, stream -erosion, and fire. Insects alone present a formidable threat to trees, -for they have evolved every means of attack—chewing and mining leaves, -boring into twigs, eating cambium and heartwood, sucking sap, triggering -galls. If the insect world did not police itself, aided by spiders, -insectivorous birds and other animals, forests and other plantlife would -quickly fade before the chewing, boring, sucking horde. - - -■ -Through the trees the light on Citadel shows the morning slipping by. As -I start to get up I see a garter snake sliding out into the dusty trail, -seeking the sun-warmed earth. Moving slowly, alert for danger, it probes -the air frequently with its sensitive tongue. But against the -lightcolored duff its dark shape offers a fine target, begging attack. A -chipmunk, watching from a nearby lookout stump, twitches its tail -nervously over its back, curious—perhaps suspicious—at the sight of a -snake. Very slightly the snake’s head goes up, its tongue flickering. -For a few seconds reptile and rodent regard each other. Then the -chipmunk drops back soundlessly into its hollow stump, and the snake -lowers its head onto warm ground. - -Some day soon, a sparrowhawk or weasel will interrupt the snake’s -morning sun-bath. The snake will fuel bird or mammal for a time, as -mice, fledgling birds, and insects now sustain the snake. The chipmunk -too, rummaging nearby, lives in shadows of talon and tooth. - -Until that time of sharp encounter, each has its own niche, a way of -life, a shaft of sun, and food enough. - - - A Walk in the Redcedar Forest - -Climax! The word takes on a true significance here, among these -broad-based trees. When you enter this forest the road noise does not -follow far—as, when you walk into a cave and turn a corner, sound and -light are left behind. There is a surprising spaciousness, a feeling of -openness in a mature western redcedar forest. With scant understory and -the canopy so far above and everywhere complete, it seems like some -vast, high-ceilinged catacomb, pillared by the huge, shaggy-barked -cedars and the deeply scored trunks of the black cottonwoods. The floor -is strewn with fallen giants in magnificent disarray, uplifted roots -still grasping fractured rock. - -A rainy day is a good time to walk a cedar trail, when the dull light -seems to shine from the wet moss, making the underleaves of devil’s-club -and Rocky Mountain maple glow. Wind and rain, like light, penetrate with -difficulty the latticework of this canopy; thin lines of fog develop -over the bogs. The air is fresh with growing plants, snow-cold still -when the first spring flowers appear. - -Fiddleheads of unfolding lady ferns line the trail in May, pushing up -from the hub of last year’s leveled, lifeless fronds. Beds of trillium -shine their white, three-pointed flowers like flashlights in the dark -recesses. Unlike the small, hidden calypso orchid, which bears its -purple spikes and yellow throat low above the moss, the trilliums make -no secret of spring growth. They are bold, handsome plants, broad-leaved -and tall, with waxy white petals that tinge to purple in their -month-long bloom. - -Moss covers everything. Boulders are green and weightless-looking, -resilient and topped with miniature forests of cedar seedlings. Ancient -fallen trees are disguised with blankets of moss, sprouting hemlock here -and there. The rich greens that characterize Glacier’s summers seem to -begin here amid the moisture-glossed leaves of twinflower, bunchberry -and bead-lily. - -Later, the spiders will spin thousands of kilometers of gossamer -filament among the trees. The orb-weavers will hang their webs high and -low, suspended in every opening. Walking through the forest then, you -will see shafts of sunlight whirling in the higher webs until they seem -like tops set spinning among the treetrunks. - -Indianpipes, the “ghost flowers” that need no light to grow, will break -through the forest soil. Like mushrooms, with fruiting bodies that are -nourished by underground mycelia, these saprophytes absorb their -nutrients from a fungus that covers their roots. - -Receiving an average of about 18 centimeters more annual precipitation -than forests east of the Divide, Glacier’s redcedar-hemlock community -hoards its moisture. Its dense growth and the surrounding mountain walls -inhibit the circulation of drying winds. Mosses and ferns transpire -their moisture, which you can feel; place your hand close, and you will -sense a coolness like the air exuding from an ice cave. Draped from the -tree limbs are long filaments of squawhair and goatsbeard, black and -grey lichen strands that flourish in the damp air. - -Except for the black bear, few large animals inhabit the deep forest. -Grizzlies find better forage in meadows or along the forest edge. Since -shade discourages shrubby undergrowth, deer and wapiti will search -elsewhere for browse. In summer, wapiti, grizzlies, and mule deer bucks -tend to wander up into high meadows. - -Contrasted to the noisy, conspicuous birds of the prairie—meadowlarks -and bobolinks—birds of the forest seem elusive and secretive. Although -numerous, the varied thrushes, Townsend’s solitaires, and Swainson’s -thrushes are seldom seen; but when approached, they fly silently off and -are swallowed by the forest shadow. - -There seems to be serenity in a mature forest, as though the struggle -for life is somehow suspended, the needs of the animals here less -urgent, muffled. The towering redcedar forest seems to be no battlefield -at all, but rather a monument to what Earth can do. - - - The Perpendicular Night - -Behind Avalanche campground a trail leads back toward Lake McDonald -Lodge. I decided to follow it one June evening, to experience the -sensation of the deep forest changing into night. With the nearby -mountain wall intercepting the sun, dusk comes early to this valley. On -the prairie, night passes across the landscape in an even line, -forthright as a waxing tide; you can almost feel the globe in its -turning from the sun. There is reassurance in the night’s coming, its -steady purple doming over the sky. - -But here darkness seems to sprout from the earth. It collects beneath -the hemlock clumps, bridges the creekbottoms. It seems to flit from -place to place. You look about, uneasy, trying to catch it here or -there, but always miss its infiltrations. It captures the narrow -clearings when you look away; pockets of tree-darkness join together, -forcing the light upward until the tree-tops seem impossibly bright and -distant. - -Through the trees I could see a dozen fires dance in the growing shadow, -wood-smoke and camp sounds filling the air. Turning uptrail, I felt a -reluctance to leave the presence of those fires—a senseless feeling, but -strong. A growing forest-dread impelled me almost physically backward to -those circles of firelight. I felt the need to be near a fire, to be -reassured by heat and light. Fire was our greatest friend, our greatest -weapon. With it we beat the long ages of ice and held the forest gloom -away. There was no harm here, only silence; yet the longer I walked, -with beard-moss hanging down like daggers all around, the more I craved -the comradeship of fire. - - _Continued on p. 104_ - - The Vital Predator - - The merciless law of predation might at first thought seem cruel; - but the predator plays a vital part in maintaining the balance of - the biotic community. Without the controlling factor of predation, - prey species quickly enlarge their populations. If plant eaters are - not checked, the resulting excess population exceeds the carrying - capacity of the range. Food supply rapidly diminishes. In a damaged - range, competition and stress result, usually culminating in a - massive die-off through starvation and disease. - - Ironically, predators thus provide a service to their prey. First to - fall to the predator are the old, the diseased, the unwary, and the - young. By removing many young and old deer from a typical herd, - cougars lessen competition among the deer for choice range, thus - tending to keep herbivore numbers at parity with the land’s carrying - capacity. Only the strongest and wariest deer survive, ensuring that - the fittest will continue the species. When man upsets this delicate - balance—destroying predators in the hope of increasing numbers of - game animals—the result is ecological disaster. In the 1930s, in a - misguided attempt to “preserve” the whitetail deer herds of the - park’s North Fork area, many coyotes and cougars were exterminated. - In 1935 alone, 50 cougars were killed. Relieved of the pressure of - predation, the deer flourished. In a few years, however, the - normally adequate range was severely overbrowsed. Suffering also - from this imbalance were wapiti (“elk”) and moose, ungulates that - share the winter range with deer. - - Some predators are more specialized than others. The Canada lynx, - for example, has oversize feet, an adaptation that helps it move - across deep snow without breaking the surface. As a result, it is an - efficient predator of the snowshoe hare, another large-footed - animal. Relying on this adaptation, the lynx feeds almost - exclusively on snowshoe hares. Consequently, its numbers inevitably - fluctuate with the 10-year “boom and bust” cycle of the snowshoe. - - The coyote, on the other hand, is a generalized predator, exploiting - whatever prey is currently abundant. Should mice or ground squirrels - be in short supply, it will subsist on anything from grasshoppers to - berries until favored prey again becomes available. (Animals that - normally eat both plant and animal food are referred to as - omnivores.) Generalized predators are thus better equipped to - survive temporary ecological imbalances, maintaining their numbers - at relatively consistent levels from year to year. - - Carnivores all, the animals on these pages illustrate various - adaptations for capturing prey. - - [Illustration: The population of the Canada lynx, which is widely - distributed in Glacier’s coniferous forests, fluctuates in cycles. - The lynx is abundant or scarce depending on the population condition - of its chief prey, the equally cyclic snowshoe hare.] - - [Illustration: The cougar, which feeds primarily on deer, requires a - large territory. Because of its strength, stealth, and speed, - American folklore has given this wary cat a false reputation as a - man-stalker.] - - [Illustration: The red fox depends largely on a well-developed sense - of smell to locate its prey; it also relies on its keen eyesight, - speed, and agility to capture mice, hares, birds, and whatever else - it can run down or surprise.] - - [Illustration: To feed its demanding young, the Swainson’s thrush - hunts for insects along the forest floor and in the dense - underbrush. This thrush relies on its secretive behavior to protect - its nest near the ground from detection by other predators.] - - [Illustration: Armed with enlarged forelegs, the crab spider waits - on or near flowers to ambush visiting bees, flies, or other insects. - Its venom produces a quick kill, allowing it to attack insects many - times its own size.] - - [Illustration: The spotted frog is a large-mouthed predator that not - only eats water striders and other insects but also gulps down - smaller frogs and small fish.] - - Protective Coloration - - To escape extermination, each species must in some manner foil its - enemies. Protective coloration is one of the more common adaptations - helping to do this. Most animals resemble their environment to some - extent. The conspicuous markings of some, like the bitter-tasting - monarch butterfly or the striped skunk, seem to function as a - warning to prospective predators that it is in their best interest - to look elsewhere for a meal. - - Some animals, such as the white-tailed ptarmigan and the snowshoe - hare, have seasonal changes in plumage or pelage, wearing white in - winter and brown in summer. Even predators, such as longtail and - shorttail weasels, benefit from seasonal camouflage. Protective - coloration makes them less noticeable to prey species and to larger - predators. - - Many insects, too, change coloration with the season. Bright green - grasshoppers of early summer become more brown with each molt, - matching the changes in the surrounding vegetation. - - _Obliterative shading_ is especially important to animals that - frequent more than one habitat. Seen from above, turtles match their - dark background; from below, because of their lighter underbody - shading they blend into the bright skylight. - - _Disruptive coloration_ aids in breaking up an animal’s outline. - Butterflies and moths commonly have disruptive wing markings. The - distinctive shapes of eyes can be concealed. Eye coloration may - mimic body color—as in the green katydid—or the eye may continue - disruptive body markings. - - Ground-nesting birds are especially vulnerable to attack. Their eggs - tend to be heavily blotched with earthy colors, making them less - conspicuous. Chicks also carry these disruptive colorations on natal - down. - - Most mammals, with coats of brown or gray, are inconspicuous when - motionless. Deer fawns are endowed with speckled coats, mimicking - the sun-flecked forest floor; this disruptive coloration, coupled - with absence of scent and their instinctive “freezing” behavior, - makes it difficult for predators to detect them. - - The whitetail deer not only uses its white “flag” to warn others in - the herd of danger; it also allows a pursuing predator to use it as - a target. When the tail is suddenly dropped—abruptly obliterating - the bright white patch—the deer seems to disappear into its dim - surroundings. - - Since overly conspicuous animals are prone to predation, natural - selection favors development of appropriate camouflage. - - [Illustration: For such ground-dwelling birds as the white-tailed - ptarmigan, camouflage is an important survival adaptation. The - ptarmigan changes its plumage to match its surroundings: it is white - in winter, speckled in summer. Moving slowly and refraining from - flight, it is less likely than more-active birds to be detected by - sharp-eyed, motion-conscious predators.] - - [Illustration: Birds that when hatched are covered with down and are - able to move about freely are called _precocial_. They are less - dependent upon their parents than are _altricial_ young, which are - naked and helpless when they hatch; but they must rely heavily on a - resemblance to their surroundings for survival during their first - flightless weeks. This spruce grouse chick, which blends into its - sunflecked forest-floor habitat, is an example of a precocial bird.] - - [Illustration: The bold disruptive pattern of the killdeer chick’s - plumage helps this precocial bird avoid detection in its - open-prairie environment. This adaptation, coupled with the chick’s - instinct to freeze at the approach of danger, ensures that enough - young will survive to perpetuate the species.] - - _Ursus arctos horribilus_: The Vulnerable King - - At the apex of the food pyramid, this great beast is unquestionably - the king of Glacier’s biotic community. Yet the long-range future of - the grizzly bear is uncertain. With the grizzly exterminated from - most of its former range—which once extended into the midcontinent - and south into Mexico—its numbers have dwindled in proportion to its - diminished range. Present concentrations in the contiguous United - States remain in and around Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks. - Probably fewer than 200 of these magnificent creatures live in - Glacier National Park. - - Grizzlies are easily distinguished from the more common black bear. - In addition to larger size and heavier build, grizzlies have a - characteristic shoulder hump; long, conspicuous claws; and a broad, - concave face that gives them a “dished-in” appearance. Fur is - usually brown; like the fur of the black bear, however, color may - range from black to yellowish. Light tipped hairs make the fur - appear frosted, giving rise to the nickname, “silvertip.” - - Grizzlies, popularly considered arch predators, are more accurately - described as omnivores. Carrion, grasses, cow parsnip, and several - species of berries, bulbs, and tubers make up a grizzly’s diet, - along with insects, small mammals, and an occasional ungulate that - it can catch. As a result, grizzlies play several roles in the - biotic community, functioning as herbivore, scavenger, and predator. - - Ranging widely in all life zones, grizzlies follow the spring - snowmelt up to the alpine meadows, returning to lower elevations to - hibernate from November until April. One to three cubs are born in - midwinter during hibernation. Since the maternal bond lasts two - years, a sow will accept a mate only every other year. Mortality of - subadults is high, resulting principally from competition among the - bears themselves. As with most animals, range—habitat—appears to be - the limiting factor of grizzly populations. - - The grizzly is normally shy and fearful of man—but highly - unpredictable. Wounded or sick bears, sows defending cubs, young - adults, and bears that have become conditioned to human scent are - the most dangerous. As humans continue to encroach on grizzly - territory, odds of confrontation also increase. Recent fatalities - and personal injuries inflicted by grizzlies pose a vexing problem - to the National Park Service, which is charged with visitor safety - on the one hand and protection of the park’s remaining grizzly - population on the other. Continuing study of grizzly ecology and - increasingly enlightened bear management programs will, it is hoped, - allow man and bear to co-exist in a wilderness both require. - - [Illustration: Grizzlies are fond of succulent spring grasses.] - - [Illustration: Traversing all life zones in the park, the grizzly is - a true opportunist, eating anything from ants and berries to - wapiti.] - - [Illustration: Seldom will a grizzly exceed 225 kilograms in - Glacier. This is a young adult.] - - Bald Eagles and Kokanee Salmon: A Recent Gathering - - In 1916 the kokanee salmon, a small, land-locked form of the Pacific - coast species, was planted in the Flathead drainage. With the first - planting augmented by additional stockings, the fish thrived in - cold, deep Flathead Lake, and, to a lesser extent, in Lake McDonald. - The salmon fed almost exclusively on zooplankton. - - By the mid-1930s, salmon runs were becoming established. The outlet - of Lake McDonald provides an ideal spawning site for the salmon. The - fast-flowing water is clear, cold, and shallow, and the creek bed is - gravelly. - - Averaging 0.3 meters in length and weighing less than a half-kilo, - the 4-year-old adult salmon cease feeding and begin to migrate. Many - thousands swim the 100 kilometers from Flathead Lake to McDonald - Creek. Males appear in the creek first, arriving in late September, - and are soon followed by the females. - - Using her tail to dig a redd (a shallow nest depression), the female - deposits about 650 eggs. After fertilization by the male, the eggs - are covered over. The adults die within three weeks after spawning, - their bodies exhausted from the rigorous migration journey and the - weeks-long lack of sustenance. - - Egg fatalities are high, due to stream erosion and disturbance by - other spawning salmon. Hatching in late March, the fry work their - way out of the gravel and migrate downstream. - - Attracted to the 75,000-150,000 salmon concentrated in a 3-kilometer - stretch of shallow water, bald eagles begin gathering at McDonald - Creek in October. It is not known where the eagles come from or - where they go after the spawning run. Glacier has fewer than 20 - summer-resident bald eagles, and these are distributed among the - remote lakes of the North Fork area. - - In 1939, 37 bald eagles were counted along the creek. By 1969, 373 - were reported, representing approximately 10 percent of that year’s - estimated winter population for the contiguous United States. Since - 1960, the count has averaged 240 birds. (In 1977 there were 444.) - - Eagles feed by swooping down to pluck salmon from the water or by - wading out to grab a fish stranded on a shallow riffle. An eagle may - consume as many as six fish a day. Immature birds are not as adept - at catching fish and may harry adults or other immatures into - releasing their catch. - - [Illustration: From its vantage point, this mature bald eagle - examines the waters of McDonald Creek. Average weight is 5.7 - kilograms; average wingspan is 2.2 meters. Females are slightly - larger than males.] - - [Illustration: This immature bald eagle lacks the familiar white - head and tail of the adult birds. It will not acquire those markings - until it is several years old.] - - [Illustration: Breeding male and female kokanee salmon are easily - distinguishable; as spawning time approaches, they change - appearance. The dark gray backs turn red; heads become green, and - the males develop humped backs and hooked jaws.] - - [Illustration: Swooping upward with a fish, a mature eagle heads for - a convenient perch to consume its catch. A strategically located - tree may contain 30 birds.] - - A Triumph of Many Colors - - Grassland, meadow, tundra, or any other area in Glacier suitable for - plant growth and supplied with abundant sunlight produces an - extravagance of wildflowers. This display of various shapes and - colors is neither an accident nor a mere decoration of nature. Nor - would Earth’s recent explosion of mammal and bird species have been - possible without the evolution of flowering plants. - - Two hundred million years ago, early in the Age of Reptiles, - angiosperms (flowering plants) had not yet evolved. Plant - reproduction still relied on spores and cones. Then, during the - Cretaceous Period, the last sediments were being laid down in the - inland sea that covered most of Montana. (It was these sediments - that the ancient Precambrian rocks of Glacier’s mountains later - overrode, forming the Lewis Overthrust.) During this period the - evolutionary miracle occurred: flowering plants—grasses, vines, - shrubs, broadleaf trees, wildflowers—inherited the Earth. - - The timing was important. As Earth’s tropical climate gradually - changed to temperate extremes during this period, the domination of - cold-blooded dinosaurs ended and the moisture-demanding coniferous - forests that had covered the earth in green monotony began to - shrink. Angiosperms provided a solution to the ecological void: - grasses and forbs grew where trees no longer could. Most important, - relationships evolved between this new class of plants and the - relatively few species of insects then existing. - - Insects began to use the pollen of flowering plants; the - angiosperms, in turn, evolved bright petals and nectar that - exploited visiting insects for the plants’ own reproductive - purposes. This partnership allowed insects to diversify rapidly, - evolving new, specialized forms such as bees, moths, and - butterflies. As a result, predatory forms of insects and arachnids - also rapidly diversified. - - The most dramatic change, however, involved warm-blooded birds and - mammals, whose high rates of metabolism required high-energy fuels. - Unlike gymnosperm seeds, which contain no protective covering, - angiosperm seeds are surrounded by a fruit. The development of these - highly nutritious seeds, and the attendant explosion of insect - species, ensured survival of the newly evolved birds. - - As birds diversified into seed-eaters, insectivores, and carnivores, - mammals, then uncertain little ratlike creatures darting among the - feet of dinosaurs, began a rapid rise to dominance; grasslands - promoted an explosion of herbivorous and carnivorous species. - - The evolution of angiosperms, and the animal revolution it made - possible, came with amazing speed. Most significant, it was a vital - first step upon which the meteoric rise of man depended. - - [Illustration: Indian paintbrush is common at all elevations below - tundra. It may be white, yellow, orange, pink or red. The actual - flowers, inconspicuous and green, are surrounded by brilliantly - colored bracts. Semi-parasitic on other plants, paintbrush is - normally found growing in conjunction with other wildflowers; its - roots steal sustenance from neighboring plants.] - - [Illustration: Yellow stonecrop, widely distributed in forest and - scrub-forest zones, is one of the park’s few plants having succulent - leaves, an adaptation that helps it survive in such situations as - dry, rocky outcrops.] - - [Illustration: The Calypso orchid grows in the cool, shadowed forest - where light is dim. It lives in partnership with certain fungi that - exist about the orchid’s roots and seem to help nourish it.] - - [Illustration: Silky lupine, a legume, has nitrogen-fixing nodules - on its roots, thus allowing it to grow in nitrogen-poor soil. It is - widely distributed in grassland and forest communities.] - - Fire Succession: Key to Continuity - - Most of Glacier’s fires are lightning-caused. Strikes may flare up - immediately; or fires may smolder in the forest duff for days until - fanned into flame by wind. _Ground fires_ may race through the - forest understory, causing minor damage; or they may bridge the - understory and reach the canopy, thus becoming rapidly spreading - _crown fires_. Under certain conditions, uncontrollable infernos may - develop, generating terrific winds and heat. These rare - conflagrations are called _fire storms_. - - Every type of forest habitat has _climax vegetation_—trees and - shrubs that are best suited to the site and thus maintain themselves - indefinitely if not disrupted. - - After a major fire, habitat conditions are usually so altered that - the site must pass through several _seral stages_ before conditions - are such that climax vegetation can return. A _sere_ is a series of - plant communities that follow one another in orderly fashion until - climax conditions are again reached. - - [Illustration: Lightning fires occur most often during the hot, dry - weeks of late summer.] - - [Illustration: When the forest is dry, lightning often causes quick - flare-ups.] - - [Illustration: The forest may continue to burn for days after the - main conflagration has passed.] - - [Illustration: After a major fire, sun-loving grasses, shrubs, and - wildflowers quickly invade the former forest. Deer and wapiti - benefit from these new food sources.] - - [Illustration: Lodgepole pine, a pioneer species quick to take over - burned areas at lower elevations, grows rapidly. These trees are - five years old.] - - [Illustration: This is a Glacier National Park forest 80 years after - a major fire.] - -Sudden hammering made me jump. Above the forest darkness, a pileated -woodpecker leaned out from a high larch snag, braced against the trunk -by its specialized, stiff tail feathers. This was the first time I had -seen this big white-and-black bird, the “cock-of-the-woods.” There was -ample evidence of his work: the deep, oblong excavations in the trunk -and the pile of large wood chips at its base, both characteristic of -this species. Again he hammered, and I could see the chips falling. -After a little edge-work around the hole, he extracted a grub and flew -off, yammering against the advancing dark. - -Near a stream I stopped to sit down, to listen to the water and maybe -catch sight of some small animal. Across the narrow defile, from a slope -dense with young hemlock, came the buzzing note of a varied thrush. -Several notes followed, all on a different pitch, all drawn out, level -and clear; the quality was pure but songless, disjointed, deliberate, -like someone testing the reed of a strange woodwind. There seemed no -gladness in the heart of this thrush. The song was dark, haunting, -lonely. - -On the trail ahead I could make out a bird hopping rapidly along. After -passing the spot I could hear its song. There couldn’t be a hundred -meters between us, yet it seemed to be coming from a great distance. I -listened for as long as it would sing. I tried to hear it for what it -was, a male Swainson’s thrush proclaiming its territory. But the -ethereal, flute-like phrases seemed an evensong made not for man’s ears -but only for the forest itself. - -I hurried on after the bird had ceased. It was getting dark beneath the -trees, but I was beginning to be aware of creatures underfoot, the mad -dartings of shrew and vole, more imagined than seen. When a deer mouse -jumped away I got out my flashlight. Soon the beam caught a woodrat -sitting atop a fallen log. The light didn’t bother him in the least; as -I approached, he picked up his bushy tail in his forepaws. Whiskers -twitching, he looked more caricature than real. Then he bounded off the -log with graceful, arching hops, and disappeared into the night. - -Against a patch of sky that appeared in a clearing, I could make out -bats, circling and dipping like swallows. Locating a hovering moth, I -kept the light beam on it until it vanished into a furry streak of -silence. It was time to head back. - -By now it had become utterly dark within the trees, a moonless, -sightless, alien world, given over to the marble-black eyes of the small -night mammals and the creatures that hunt them. I thought of the -strange, unseen societies of the flying squirrels, the nocturnal -counterparts of red squirrels; of the great-horned owls, inspecting the -same ground the goshawks scanned during the day. Perhaps a foraging red -fox moved through the darkness nearby, or a coyote on night patrol. - -The flashlight beam probed ahead along the trail. The exposed roots were -given unnatural shading and they seemed to thicken and squirm as I -approached. On either side the tree trunks appeared to step backward -from the dim glow of the light. I felt lost in this night, thinking of -the great darkness in all the timbered ridges that ran westward from the -Divide. In this vast cathedral of crowded tree and peak, night was stood -on end, the stars shrunken to a circle overhead, as if seen from the -bottom of a well. Mouselike, shivering, insignificant in this -wilderness, I scurried back to find a fire and fill my empty senses with -its heat and snap and light, holding off the fright of night and -thinking of tomorrow’s sun. - - -Scrub-Forest - -The crowning beauty of Glacier—the high, cirqueheld meadows that scent -the wind with wildflower and waterfall—belongs to the zone of -scrub-forest. - -At Logan Pass you are introduced to the highlands. Here an exquisite -upland basin holds the Hanging Gardens, a wildflower-clothed gradient -laced with stair-step bogs and lines of wind-bent subalpine fir. In the -dawn sun, before the first engine noise, it shines unbroken, dewbright -and sagging like a spider web secured to the circle of surrounding -peaks. - -This is the region the hiker remembers best. The tall mountains wear -this zone close to the cliffs, and the trails encounter it near the -passes or follow it for long, level stretches, as along the Garden Wall. -I remember Preston Park and Fifty Mountain, the fire-touched bench of -Granite Park and the first sight of Sperry chalet, built on a brow of -rock at the upper reach of trees. But most of all I remember the -terrible waterfall that becomes Bowman Creek, the plunge of nearly a -kilometer that drains the magnificent upland bench called -Hole-in-the-Wall. - - - Hole-in-the-Wall - -September. The season is growing late, the meadow-rue dying and the -leaves of the wild strawberry failing at last. Everywhere the red -contagion of autumn surrounds the vital green. The lower valleys have -lost the whistle of ground squirrels. They sun themselves no longer -these late, mild days. Ripe, sluggish, and hawk-vulnerable, they sensed -the need of hibernation. - -It has been eight years since I last visited Hole-in-the-Wall, but I -retain its dimensions and hear its dozen waterfalls at will. Once you -have seen this basin you have a measure by which to judge the high -country and a thirst for the meadows at tree-line. - -In Glacier, treelimit ranges between 1,850 and 2,300 meters, depending -on local conditions. The upper limit of tree growth—rarely an even, -horizontal line—is generally an indistinct band running erratically -across a mountain’s face: a tension zone reflecting variations in wind -and sun exposure, degree of slope, snowpack accumulations, and the -presence of adequate soil and water. - -Subalpine fir, whitebark pine, and Engelmann spruce do not relinquish -easily their upward climb; where conditions become severe, their growth -is retarded and their stature dwarfed. Deformed and pruned by wind, -their leaders winter-killed when they outreach the protection of the -winter snowpack, trees become shrubs, forced to hug the ground. Size -belies age in these elfin forests, or krummholz, where the growing -season is painfully brief and progress is always uncertain. A twisted, -gnarled little bush, more snag than live branch, bearing a single cone -or two, may be senior by a century to the giants of its race in the -valley below, which yearly shower the ground with an abundant crop of -cones. - -This time I will come from Goathaunt, passing Lakes Janet and Francis, -reaching Brown Pass from the east, and camp in the spectacular garden -between Brown and Boulder Passes. - -Meadows and rock slides break the forest as the trail gains elevation -and distance through the valley. The spruce and fir thin out rapidly at -the valley head, the trail climbing the grassy slope to low, broad Brown -Pass. Below the pass is Thunderbird Pond, which receives the meltwater -from a glacier high on a shelf of Thunderbird Mountain and is bordered -by a low jungle of willow. In the water stands a bull moose, its heavy, -fully formed antlers ready for the season’s impending business. - -I was hoping again to see Cassin’s finches and Audubon’s warblers on the -pass; but the fir grove is quiet. Sitting down to rest and listen, I -become aware of a strange silence. No birds sing or flit among the -trees, no alarms pass back and forth among alert ground squirrels. There -is no wind—an odd condition for the Continental Divide. This place seems -to be holding its breath. High overhead, a veil of cirrus cloud arranges -long spears across the sky. - -Moving off the pass, along the dome of Mt. Chapman, I experience anew -the old excitement of this high country. Abruptly the gorge of Bowman -valley opens up, revealing the twisting blue snake of Bowman Lake far -down the narrow, cliff-imprisoned valley. Here again are the northern -titans—Numa, Peabody, Boulder, Thunderbird, and Rainbow; and Carter, -with its high glacier baring blue ice teeth to the sun. - -It is not the climb that makes your heart pound now; the trail is -suddenly narrow and cliff-defiant, cut by the plunging waters of -snowbanks far above. These are splendid peaks, unmatched in a land of -muscled, brutal earth. Even the air seems to retain the scent of glacier -work. - -At last the view of Hole-in-the-Wall, a staircase cirque excavated -between the gigantic spread ribs of Mt. Custer. The slopes of beargrass -are seed-spotted and gaunt now, the white fullness gone. Western -pasqueflowers have accomplished their magic transformation; known in -this season as old man’s beard, they nod their tufts of grizzled -seedhead silk in the wind. Red and yellow monkeyflowers bloom yet, -crowding along the many stream courses, and waterloving sedges and -mosses surround pools of collected water on the broad horseshoe tiers. - -A spur trail drops down into the campground on the last ledge. Through a -cleft in its lip plummets the gathered water of the basin. From the -valley below, the waterfall appears to be springing from a hole in the -headwall, giving this basin its name. Down, down, down, roars the water -where once a mighty glacier ground its teeth. - -I leave until later the making of camp; by now the sharp shadows of -Boulder Peak stab the valley forest and are beginning the upward assault -of Thunderbird. - -Around the basin headwalls, last winter’s snowbanks remain formidable. -Snow caves send out meltwater torrents. Glacier lilies and patches of -spring beauty line their fringes. Pasqueflowers bloom in pockets. Here, -among the asters of August, bloom also the first flowers of spring, -shooting up as the snowbanks shrink, making these spots of snow-free -ground a patchwork of May and July, August and June. The shrubs that -line the furious water are willows, still bud-swollen this tenth day of -September. The coming days will bring a sharp surprise. - -Winter will soon stop the melting of this snow. Could it be that I am -seeing the first year of a reawakening ice age? If so, each year the -snowfields would grow thicker and broader, connecting the shelves into -one ice mass again, lilies and willows entombed, the summer heat failing -to rescue them, until the ice at last began to slide, stripping the soil -and once more plucking at living rock. - -Then these dwarfed fir, which cling precariously to the cliffs and hide -behind the backs of boulders, would be in more danger than they were -from their recent antagonists. Engulfed by ice, they would know the -shearing wind no more. Their skeletons would rain down into the valley -below, signalling another long forest retreat. But they have waited out -the mountain ice before and would send their seeds again to this valley, -changed however it might be, as they have always done. - -Evening brings out two sleek mule deer does. As they graze, their large -ears stand erect, sorting out the lesser sounds from the ceaseless roar -of water. Both raise their heads and point their ears, statue straight, -at the scuttle of a porcupine. A noise among the rocks draws a backward -glance and focus of those ears. I would like the sensitivity of such -fine equipment, to hear what deer have always heard. - -Setting about the business of camp, I wonder about those animals that -watched me for a while, then moved off, having seen a tent go up before. -With the appearance of the moon the wind increases and they test the air -more often now. Do they have visions of cougar or grizzly with every -snap the wind delivers? - -In summer these high meadows see a surprising variety of animal life. -Briefly out of hibernation are marmots and the handsome golden-mantled -ground squirrels. Mice, voles, shrews, and woodrats run among the -shadows, feeding on the season’s feast of seeds and insects. A nightmare -for these are the fierce little weasels that haunt the rocks. - -Tracks of cougar and wolverine are sometimes seen, often teasingly -fresh; to glimpse either of these elusive predators is to taste the -finest wine of wilderness. - -Before the berry season, grizzlies grub the meadows for the tasty bulbs -of glacier lilies and the tubers of spring beauty; often distracted by -the scent of a ground squirrel in its burrow, they sometimes make a huge -excavation for a small reward. - -White-crowned sparrows sing in July from the low tops of the battered -trees, though their nests are on the ground below. Grey-crowned rosy -finches patrol the drier ground for seeds while water pipits hunt -insects in the wet areas. High above, a golden eagle scans the basin -again, circling slowly before following a ridge south to sight another -likely slope in its 10,000-hectare territory. - -The moon shines through the tent top. The wind, blowing more violently -now, shivers the nylon and interrupts the voice of the waterfall. I have -followed the pasqueflower run from the April prairies here to its -highest bloom near treeline. I think about the triangular seed pods of -the glacier lilies, colonies of steep-throated blue gentians, and the -season’s last glory of goldenrod. Indian paintbrush, from white to fire -red, blazes the slopes that light the fringes of sleep. - -I awake to a determined rain, the moon gone and the tent shuddering with -wind-blast. I try not to think of the steel-cold air, and slip into a -fitful sleep that seems an endless treadmill of rocky trail. - -Stiff and unrefreshed, I look out into the dawnless morning. The tip of -Thunderbird is detached from its base by grey clouds swirling at its -throat. A wave of sleet slants down, dancing on the rocks, chanting -triumph over the buried, bent, and broken flowers of yesterday. - -So I must make my escape, short of Boulder Pass. Unattainable now, -invisible above the cirque, that high pass grows in my memory. This -testament to what a glacier can do, to the struggle of trees and the -life-pioneers that invade such harsh places, is at my feet but shrouded -with snow. My hands grow stiff and numb in the blunt work of packing up. - -I had wished to see Kinnerly Peak again, rising from the western Kintla -valley, and walk along black ledges of the lava that floors the pass. -Beyond it grows a grove of subalpine larch, stately, seldom encountered, -the least common tree species in Glacier. Confined to this narrow zone -between forest and alpine, it reaches up tall and proud, impervious to -the gruelling climate that makes cowering shrubs of other trees. - -But all must wait another year, for this season comes down hard. And the -will of winter is to erase whatever summer had devised. - - -Tundra - -Porcelain-cold, the November sun dawns in the southeast sky. The ledges, -ice-encrusted, layered with sleet from a recent squall, whistle the cold -morning wind aside. Rattling down, a slide of rock plunges off the final -ledge, seconds passing before the hollow sounds of impact clatter back. -Like an apparition of winter itself, white beard bent sideways by the -wind, a mountain goat steps to the precipice edge. Looking out across -the vast white void, its long belly hair and pantaloons streaming with -the ceaseless wind, this strange animal, product of some unfathomable -ingenuity, hesitates but a moment; dropping down from step to invisible -step along the sheer rock face, fracturing the ice glaze as it goes, it -turns a wall and disappears. A nimble, eight-months-old kid follows. - -Blinking and twisting in the dull light, the shower of shattered ice -clinks softly downward against rock, fading away like the short summers -of this place. - -But while the wind chants winter, life has made a passage here, and also -waits, hidden in seed and root and den. - - -■ -The nanny and her kid have bedded down now, looking across the deep, -snowy basin below. Their ledge shines with the first spear of sunlight. - -Far below the pass that connects Mount Siyeh to the snow-giants Matahpi -and Going-to-the-sun, three male white-tailed ptarmigan emerge from -their night’s huddle within a snowbank and step out to peck at an -exposed mat of willow. Ptarmigan, the only birds on the winter tundra, -wear white plumage in this season, helping to camouflage them in the -snow, just as their mottled brown summer plumage makes them difficult to -detect among bare rocks. There are few predators here to hunt them now, -but they move with habitual slowness; quick movement can be fatal when -summer brings numerous eyes to scan the slopes. With legs and feet -heavily feathered and sharp claws to scratch for food beneath the snow, -the ptarmigan live at truce with winter. When blizzards rage between the -peaks, they nestle together in snow dens, beyond the reach of the winds. -Ptarmigan hens winter lower in taller willow thickets, but the males -prefer to take their winter as high as possible. - -Now they crouch behind the wind-deflecting rocks, dozing in the meager -warmth of the morning sun. - -Near the snowless summit crags, a flash of brown fur zigzags among the -rocks. That would be a pika. Only for a moment does it show itself, so -quickly does it move. - -Also called the rock rabbit, the diminutive pika belongs to the order of -hares and rabbits. Resembling a small guinea pig, this sturdy creature -spurns hibernation as a way to beat the challenge of winter. Instead, it -spends the summer laying in a store of hay for the lean season, -spreading cut grass to cure upon the rocks and tending its “haystacks,” -on which its survival hangs. - -Winter is a great peril to small mammals. Their small bodies, because of -a large surface area in relation to volume, retain heat poorly, and -their high metabolic fires consume calories quickly. Great amounts of -energy are required to sustain an active animal in rough terrain, -placing further demands on the animal’s capacity to survive the cold. -The pika may need to stack as much as 25 kilos of hay; to keep its -furnace burning during winter it will have to fuel its stomach almost -hourly. - -Small animals of cold climates often show distinctive body adaptations. -On the pika the small, rounded ears lie flat along the head, the tail is -inconspicuous, the legs are short; heat loss from exposed surfaces is -thus reduced. Fur insulates the soles of the pika’s feet while at the -same time providing good traction on steep rock faces. - -Hidden below these rocks are the hibernating marmots and the sleeping -ground squirrels. Beneath the snow the mice, shrews, and pocket gophers -struggle on with their lives. But above ground, directly confronting -this arctic climate, are the pika, the ptarmigan, and the mountain goat. - -A triumph of adaptation, the mountain goat faces the winter day without -benefit of either the pika’s den or the ptarmigan’s snow roost. - -The nanny and kid descend from their ledge to search out browse at -treeline with other members of a loose band—yearlings, young males, -other nannies with kids. At the fringes of the band a solitary adult -billy only grudgingly associates with other members of his kind; for -this is the season of rut. - -Not really goats at all, these relatives of the European mountaineering -chamois are insulated from the wind by coats of long, hollow-haired fur -overlying woolly underfur. They are stocky, stiff-legged, and -deliberate, able to negotiate the walls and pinnacles with their -superbly adapted hoofs. The unique design of these hoofs gives the -animal great traction and stability on precarious crags. Opening towards -the front, the cleft between the two hoofs spreads each outward as the -animal descends a slope, helping to grip the rocky surface. In addition, -the large, rough, and pliant sole of each foot conforms to the bare -rock, increasing traction. - -There is little need for the goat to leave its steep sanctuaries; it can -subsist on lichens and mosses if browse is not available. It depends on -the inaccessibility of the cliffs for its security. Accidents, -avalanches, and rockfall are greater enemies than predators. Golden -eagles sometimes attempt to knock newborn kids from ledges and a young -goat quickly retreats under its nanny when an eagle soars by. With the -protection of sharp spike horns and a terrifying terrain, adult goats -seldom fall victim to cougar or grizzly. - -It will be a long time before the snow releases this land and wapiti, -bighorn, grizzly, and cougar wander back into these high basins. In this -winter minimum of life, the spring songs of rosy finches, water pipits -and white-crowned sparrows seem an impossible extravagance. - - -■ -I am drawn to the spring tundra—to the vigor and tenacity of its sparse -life—where survival itself seems ceremony enough. But it is a strange -world, where a man is out of perspective. Here the plant cover is -carpet-high, and distance, for the lack of trees, tricks the eye. Here -the wind, snow, and sun quickly burn skin, and the intense light, -reflected from snowbanks, stabs at the eyes. Almost instantly, a -sandwich is sucked dry of its moisture. The desiccating wind probes the -ears until it seems at last to pierce your brain. Except for fearful -mountain walls the only shadow is your own. Animals seem somehow remote -and unknowable, as if seen through glass. A day on the tundra and you -feel the want of a company of trees. - -Yet once exposed, you acquire a craving for the look of tundra. Nowhere -else is there such an impatience for spring—the flowers rush into bloom; -the male water pipit soars, its skylark song crystal sharp in the thin -air. The nesting birds are restless, for sun-days and warm days are few, -precious, and quickly spent. Insects and spiders abound—flying about the -peaks or crawling among the rocks. - -Summer brings bands of bighorn rams up from the valley to explore the -highest meadows. Though not so sure-footed as the goats, they too have -hoofs adapted to climbing steep faces, and they walk the slopes not far -below the goats. - -Marmots, which whistle sharply when threatened, spend their days -sunbathing and grazing; they must fill out their now loose-hanging fur -coats with life-sustaining fat for the coming winter. - -Alpine animals are blessed with mobility and can choose their weathers, -retreating to burrow, den, or rock-harbor to escape the worst fury of -storms. But what about the plants, rooted forever in one spot, assaulted -by an untempered sun and a drying wind, and facing the almost daily -threat of freeze and storm? - -Alpine plants, through their design and growing habits, have adapted -themselves to the rigorous demands of this climate in many ways. Most -plants are perennial: there just aren’t enough days or nutrients -available for the growing of entire plants each year from seed. And they -have the ability to grow and carry on photosynthesis at temperatures -just above freezing, thus extending their season. In this zone, -temperatures are rarely above 15° C; the mean summer temperature is -about 10° C. But a flower such as the alpine buttercup, which is found -at treeline or above, can grow through several centimeters of snow; heat -given off during the plant’s respiration will create an opening through -which it can emerge. - -Plants have various adaptations to meet the demands of the alpine -environment. Yellow stonecrop, not restricted to this zone, is -nevertheless able to survive here because of its fleshy succulence and a -waxy covering that prevents water loss. On some plants, protective hairs -covering leaves and stems help retard the burning effects of wind and -sun. Often this pubescent foliage looks more grey than green, for the -soft hairs mute the color. - -Cushion growth is another alpine adaptation. The moss campion cushion, -covered with delicate pink flowers, grows to about one-third of a meter -across and only 3 to 5 centimeters high. Spreading out close to the -ground, the plant avoids the major violence of the wind and hoards -moisture like a sponge. - -The dryad, growing abundantly on the windy sweep of Siyeh Pass, shows -alpine adaptations in several ways. The energy of the mature plant is -channeled primarily into reproduction: its large flower, supported by a -short stem, matures quickly; and it produces many seeds, ensuring -germination of a few. An evergreen, it begins to synthesize water and -carbon dioxide into food as soon as the snow is gone; and its rolled -leaves prevent rapid evaporation. It grows as a low and woody mat that -year by year extends itself through the production of new shoots that -carpet the rock. Mat growth has the advantage of retaining dead plant -material and capturing wind-blown grains of soil, allowing the plant -slowly to enlarge its soil base. - -Compared to the forest, the heartbeat of the tundra is painfully slow. -Here a plant may grow for a quarter of a century before it has acquired -the reserves necessary for flowering. Contrasted with the progress on -the tundra, forest succession races by with dizzying speed. Yet -imperceptible as the change may be the alpine plant community also -passes from pioneer to climax. - -Beyond the limit of other plants, lichens thrive, encrusting rocks with -their rainbow colors. A lichen is actually a primitive and highly -successful association between a fungus and an alga, working together -for mutual benefit. The fungus protects the delicate alga, trapping and -holding moisture; the green alga, in turn, produces enough food to -sustain the needs of the fungus. - -Generating rock-disintegrating acids that help secure this partnership -to the rock, lichens, along with physical weathering, help break down -the rocks into soil particles. Collected in pockets by run-off or wind, -rudimentary soil is slowly invaded by cushion plants. After centuries of -colonization by these, while the meager soil is deepened and enriched -and moisture retention is increased, other plants move in, climaxing at -last in hardy grasses and sedges. As in the forest, pioneer species -change the environment to their detriment, creating a habitat better -suited to other species. - -Although it will progress with geologic slowness, the rocky ground of -Siyeh Pass—its plant cover presently scant and wind-rowed by frost-heave -and relentless wind—will in time develop grasses and sedges, the climax -vegetation of the alpine meadows. - - -■ -Simplicity rules the alpine zone. Here life is reduced to bare -essentials. Chief controlling force is climate; but the plants and -animals that live here are well adapted. Compared to the lower realms, -where both competition and predation are fierce, life here looks secure. - -There is a penalty to simplicity. In the lowland, the long food chains -and diversity of species, the long growing season, and the abundant food -supply give the forest an adjustment mechanism and healing power not -found on the critically balanced tundra. The greater the variety in a -plant and animal community, the greater the stability. So in the alpine -world there exists a paradox: the most durable life forms constitute the -most fragile community. - - -The Water Communities - -Snowfields begin again their summer-long melt. The alpine stream, vocal -again, collects its water from a thousand places. Miniature gorges drain -the meadow, gurgling with the sparkle and rush of meltwater in the -lengthening spring days. - -Gathering volume, the stream seems to hurry faster; at the first rock -staircase, it begins to sing. I follow the gully downward, drawn like -the water. There is excitement in the growing dash and roar, a wind-gust -sweeping spray into the air. A rainbow appears, holding steady to the -swirling cloud of spray, then doubles and abruptly disappears. - -At the first great plunge the water lunges outward over the lip. Like -glass at shattering, long shards lance out. But the wind feathers the -sharp edges as they fall. - -The close thunder of a waterfall beats at your head, and your mind must -shout to think. Here is water, a most amazing and most important -substance. Perhaps some of this same water was once part of the ancient -sea in which was laid down the mudstone of this ledge; was once drunk by -dinosaurs; has coursed the globe countless times; and has flowed in this -very stream before. In solid, liquid, or gaseous form, it goes through -its own cycle. Together with sunlight, water makes possible and -maintains all life on Earth. - - - Ouzel Music - -A glacier might cling to a winter snow a hundred years and turn it to -ice, a blue tool to rasp and pluck at rocks, before letting it go. -Lingering summer snowfields might delay its passage for a time. But the -water always wins at last, becoming, in one decisive instant, liquid -again, and beginning its long journey to the sea. Plants and dry air -will intercept some of its molecules, sending them back into the -atmosphere to bloom as fog and cloud; but as rain, snow, or dew, these -are soon commissioned to the land again. - -Water is so familiar to us that we seldom think about it. We know that -fish swim in the lower lakes, and we are vaguely aware of the -bewildering assortment of life-forms abounding in a pond. But life -begins in the streams. - -Even cups of cold meltwaters, scooped out of a rivulet only a few meters -away from its snowbank source, contain some life. Snow algae, which grow -on the snowbank surface, often sufficiently dense to give the snow a -distinctive red complexion, are released into the meltwater. In summer, -small invertebrate life can be discovered in the standing pools of even -the highest cirque. - -But conditions are not good for the development of complete aquatic food -chains in the streams and lakes of higher elevations. Alpine lakes, or -tarns, support little visible life. Often flanked by high ridges and -peaks, many tarns receive scant direct sunlight during the day. Since -these lakes occupy basins that capture tremendous amounts of snowfall, -the snowbanks persist in the mountain shadows, and summer makes little -progress in warming the water. Iceberg Lake, for example, is seldom free -of floating ice, and its temperature never rises above 4° C in summer, -even at the surface. - -Moving out of the cirque lakes, water is soon churning again, dashing -downward many hundreds of meters to the valleys below, in rapids, -cascades, and breathless waterfalls. Not surprisingly, few plants and -animals are adapted to life in fast-moving water. - -Algae can be found covering streambed rocks and stranded, water-polished -tree trunks. Securely attached by holdfasts, these small plant forms -survive the rigorous stream flow that would destroy the larger vascular -plants. Several species exist, from microscopic forms to branched -filamentous algae whose long hairlike strands wave in the current. - -A surprising number of insects live on the stream bottom, finding a -measure of protection from the current in the jumble of rocks. -Underwater beetles live under the gravel or among the debris at the -stream-edge, or cling to stones and sticks. Scurrying and creeping among -the rock-crannies are the larvae of stoneflies, mayflies, and -caddisflies. These and the small fish that venture up from lower lakes -are the food of the water ouzel, a creature that loves the places where -the waters thunder. - - -■ -The noise of the water is overpowering. A slip into this boiling rage -would mean quick death. Looking 10 meters across the dim, mist-slippery, -water-scoured canyon, I see a young water ouzel peering out of its -unique nest, on the lookout for its parents. Clouds of spray keep the -nest of living moss continually wet; but this bird is waterproofed with -an oily plumage and keeps its vigil at the nest opening. Peering into -the torrent below, then upstream and downstream, it awaits patiently the -delivery of the next meal. - -With the approach of one of the adults, three other heads crowd the -opening, begging yellow mouths agape. Flying low, the ouzel parent zeros -through the heavy spray, alighting on a slippery boulder below the nest -ledge. Preparing to fly up to the nest with its load of insect larvae, -the ouzel spots me across the water. At its sharp _jigic, jigic_ alarm, -the bills of the young snap instantly shut. Nervously the bird regards -my close presence, dipping its entire body rapidly up and down, as if -keeping time with the surging torrent. - -Discovering no danger, the dusky blue-grey bird bobs more slowly. The -other adult, returning from an upstream forage, alights on the same -rock, occasioning a new outcry from the fledglings. Each in turn, the -parent birds fly up to feed their young, beating their wings to maintain -their position at the perchless nest. Not pausing to regard me further, -they split the stream between them again, one flying upstream and one -down, to continue the hunt. Blinking and shaking the collected mist from -its bill, the single young sentry renews its watch. - - - In Shallow Waters - -Life abounds in the shallow lakes and ponds. Calm, protected John’s Lake -offers a fine example of how a complex aquatic plant-and-animal -community can exist in balance in a confined space. The water teems with -the microscopic algae, protozoans, and rotifers that sustain the barely -visible zooplankton. Dancing, flitting, hopping, and swaying through the -water, these zooplankton in turn support the larger plankton-eating -animals. - -Dragonflies and damselflies shoot past, crackling their wings, and perch -in the bog grass. Looking into the shallow water, you will see a wealth -of small animal life. A spotted frog swims into view, floating to the -surface beside a lily pad so that its eyes protrude above the water. - -The ribbonlike form of a leech swims across the bottom toward deeper -water. Looking closer, you see that the water swarms with bizarre -shapes—water boatmen propelling themselves with oarlike appendages, a -gliding mayfly nymph, then a predacious diving beetle surfacing, -grasping a bubble of air beneath its shiny brown wing plates and -disappearing downward again—the bubble’s edge shining silver—into the -brown bottom debris. Suddenly a whirligig beetle sets the surface to -spinning, wrinkling the view below. - -Everywhere in the water there is animal life, forms that are attached, -free-swimming, crawling on the bottom, and clinging to or swimming on -the surface film. The gray, slimy encrustation on a sunken log looks -like a covering of lichen but is really a freshwater sponge, a colonial -animal that feeds by filtering minute plankton from the water. Another -attached creature is the barely visible hydra; this twig-shaped -predator, related to marine jellyfish, captures water fleas and other -small animals in its several poisonous tentacles. - -Water beetles, backswimmers, water boatmen, and many other creatures -move about more or less freely in the water, propelling themselves along -with jerky movements. Suspended between surface and bottom are the -zooplankton, the tiny water fleas, cyclops, daphnia, and others, which -feed by filtering minute algae. On the bottom and below live scavenging -worms. Water striders skate on the surface film. - -Along the shore, frogs, salamanders, garter snakes, and water shrews are -hunting. Dabbling and diving ducks patrol about, tipping or submerging -for the bottom plants. Moose tracks circle the muddy shore. Because it -produces vegetation abundantly, John’s Lake sustains a great diversity -of animal life. - - - Beaver Ponds - -Fully 10 percent of all the present meadow area in the Rocky Mountains -is estimated to have been created by beaver, the only animal besides man -that engineers extensive changes in the environment to suit its own -needs. - -When beavers dam a stream, they set in motion another form of -succession. If the resulting backwater floods a forest area, the trees -are soon killed, creating a broad opening in the forest canopy. -Water-associated plants and shrubs quickly invade the pond and -shoreline, creating favorable habitat for waterfowl, moose, blackbirds, -amphibians, wading birds, warblers, marsh hawks, and a score of other -animals. - -After many years the water becomes shallow, filling in with silt and -plant debris. When the beavers abandon the site, the dam may rupture for -lack of maintenance and the pond will rapidly drain. Or it may continue -to hold, delaying for several more years its slow conversion to meadow. -Stimulated by the nutrient-rich mud, the water grasses, sedges, and -shrubs finally choke the water with their accumulating debris, -transforming the area into a bog. - -Gradually the ground firms as more humus is created and more silt is -trapped. The area becomes meadow, supporting grasses, sedges, and other -flowering plants. Trees begin to reinvade the drier ground, and -eventually the meadow reverts to forest. Centuries may be required to -see this cycle through, from forest to pond, to bog, to meadow, to -forest again. At each stage many of the animal inhabitants change: the -song of the western robin and the chatter of a red squirrel in the -original, pre-beaver forest give way to the croak of a heron; the heron -is replaced by the insect-and-berry-eating cedar waxwing; the waxwing is -followed by the tree-dwelling western robin and red squirrel. - - - Lakes Cold and Deep - -Seeming to skate on its own reflection, a spotted sandpiper comes in low -over the quiet water, wingtips almost touching the surface of the lake. -It alights at the shore and folds its wings. Amid the rounded rocks, -this plain but elegant little shorebird is all but swallowed up. -Teetering constantly on long legs, it sets off along the water’s edge, -pecking here and there, coming closer and closer, never forgetting to -stop and curtsy, as if acknowledging, while hurrying offstage, the -applause of an audience. - -As it draws near, several water striders skate away from the shore. A -stonefly, scuttling between two rocks, is deftly speared. So large a -morsel makes the bird pause and rough its feathers, then scamper into -the water to take a drink. Teetering again, it passes in front of me and -continues down the shore, where I soon lose sight of it rounding a rocky -point. - -I am sitting at the foot of Lake McDonald, watching the darkness gather -over the valley, seeing the last light slide upward to the tips of the -distant mountains. As daylight dissolves, this long fleet of familiar -peaks seems almost to glide toward darkness, slow and silent as sailing -ships. - -The sheet of motionless water stretches many kilometers away between -tree-covered moraines. The water is deep and cold. No emergent plants -line the barren shore. It would seem that no life, except for the single -gull that rests on the water far away, exists in this nearly -thousand-meter-high lake. - - -■ -Considering the great volume of Glacier’s large, deep lakes, the life -they support is indeed meager. A large part of the reason lies with the -nature of their shores, where almost no plants grow. A combination of -factors prevents the development of a lush shoreline growth. - -Contoured like bathtubs, these steep-sided lakes exhibit narrow or -non-existent shoreline shallows, which are vital for the production of -rooted plants. Strong wave action and extensive seasonal fluctuations in -the level of these natural reservoirs prevent the development of -emergent water plants in locations where they might otherwise be -expected. - -Since sunlight cannot penetrate to the bottom of these deep lakes, they -are deprived of bottom-anchored plants in midlake as well. As a result, -herbivorous animal life must depend almost wholly on algal growth. Wave -action inhibits the spread of free-floating algae by washing much of it -onto the shore. Deep lakes are also low in available oxygen, preventing -the development of bottom decomposers, which would rapidly release -nutrients as they break down the accumulating debris washed into the -lake. Without a steady supply of nutrients, plant growth is retarded. - -Since the food chain depends upon green plants, the ability of a lake to -support higher animals such as fish depends upon its ability first to -produce adequate plant growth. The production of one kilo of trout -requires that a lake produce about 1,000 kilos of plants to support 100 -kilos of herbivorous invertebrates, which are eaten by 10 kilos of -carnivorous insects, on which the trout feed. - -Compared to smaller shallow lakes, which teem with visible life, cold, -deep, nutrient-poor lakes such as McDonald appear to be watery deserts. -Yet because of their great volume—Lake McDonald contains 5 or 6 cubic -kilometers of water—these large lakes do sustain significant numbers of -fish. Of the 22 kinds of fishes found within the park, most are -coldwater species. Trout, whitefish, grayling, suckers, minnows, and -carp fill the roles of herbivore, carnivore, and scavenger. Agile, -highly mobile, and acutely sensitive, fish represent the most successful -total adaptation to the aquatic environment. - -Through the stocking of nonnative species, including plantings in -formerly fish-free lakes, the natural aquatic communities of many of -Glacier’s lakes and streams have been permanently modified. - -Aquatic food chains are not confined to the water. Ospreys, ducks, -mergansers, otter, mink, and many other semi-aquatic or terrestrial -birds and mammals utilize the plants and animals of the water. In fall, -a remarkable spectacle occurs along the outlet of Lake McDonald. -Attracted to the kokanee salmon concentrations, which run from Flathead -Lake to spawn and die in these clear, shallow waters, bald eagles -collect to exploit the vulnerable fish. In 1977, 444 eagles were counted -in one census. This food resource is also exploited by grizzlies, -coyotes, skunks, gulls, loons, and other animals. On occasion, even -white-tail deer have been observed swallowing salmon! - - [Illustration: Sunset] - - - - - Shooting Stars - - -This park is very special. The people who know it well feel proprietary -toward its mountains, scattered lakes, and glaciers. Perhaps it is the -arrangement of the land, an unsurpassed concentration of American -wilderness. Time and again I have thought, as I regarded some aspect of -this country, _yes, this is exactly right_—almost, it would seem, as if -some magic existed that could translate thought and emotion into rock -and bark. - -Glacier remains largely unexploited, bearing still the aspect of the -Earth the Indians knew for 500 generations—a land where it is yet -possible to feel a sense of discovery, sense that a single man matters. -On too many mountains, man has tarnished whatever he has touched; but -here the land has shed, as a fir sloughs snow, a long succession of -traders, trappers, explorers, hunters, surveyors, prospectors, loggers, -settlers, and tourists. - -You may walk the same trail a dozen times and not tire of the view. I -have given up wondering why. I know only that these are mountains a man -might grow old with, and that mountain-fever never diminishes but only -changes its look, as a forest does over many years. - -Repeatedly I have noticed that this park creates an instant bond between -strangers. A certain pause intrudes at the first mention of Glacier -National Park, and a look of distance comes, as Red Eagle becomes real -again, or the wind at Firebrand is remembered, or the flowers of -Fifty-Mountain converge once more upon the senses. - -Never are we quenched. If a goshawk rushes past, straining upward with -its squirming load of ground squirrel, forever afterward our blood -demands more. The sight of a wolverine running is not enough. Nor the -magnificent assemblage of bald eagles feasting on November salmon. More -days of this: mountain goats leaping impossible ledges, wave tracks from -a beaver reaching out on dawn water. There are messages here, loud as -kingfishers. The land has languages, stories to tell. - -But in wilderness there is no moral, save that it must continue. For all -our probings and plottings we discover no adequate interpretation of the -forces we find swirling about us. A larch you must touch to know; your -neck must feel the ache of too much looking up. Watch its treepoint -pirouette. Then, looking back at the world level, you will find that you -have lost all answers. We have learned the art of building bridges, -cataloging plants, predicting what a shrew might do. Of the essential -mystery, we know nothing. - -For nature assigns no “roles” to its creatures; there is no “reason” for -a forest fire, which burns mightily but with no intent. Life’s only -“purpose” is the feeding of life, and the beauty we see therein is but -its lack of guarantee: for the chipmunk and the weasel, and the man who -measures his life to theirs, no assurance of long days and tempered -seasons, abundant seeds, ample meat. In wilderness there is mystery yet, -unsimplified, not reduced, resplendent and immense. - -Whatever the conclusion of this planet, however many the acts to follow -in this consuming drama—mountains coming up, mountains going down, -forests, lakes, and seas skimming past like wind-driven scud clouds -before a storm—at least in the scant shadow of this present age there is -an achievement of sorts. For now, with this creature man, such things as -mountains can be loved. And men have memories to fill. - -Tomorrow I will look for shooting stars—purple spring flowers that point -their fire down, always down toward the center of the Earth, as if to -give in their brief term beneath the sun a tribute to this most -excellent mystery. - -Today I can say nothing more, neck-sore now from looking at larchtops -swaying with the wind of this splendid morning. - - [Illustration: Shooting star.] - - [Illustration: Mountain goats.] - - - - - Appendix - - -Mammals of Glacier National Park - -Distribution information was obtained from _Meet the Mammals of -Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park_, by Robert C. Gildart (see -Reading List). Nomenclature follows, for the most part, _a Field Guide -to Mammals_, by William H. Burt and Richard P. Grossenheider. - - Key to symbols: - E—occurs east of Continental Divide (spruce-fir forest; aspen; - bunchgrass meadows) - W—occurs west of Continental Divide - (redcedar-hemlock-lodgepole-fir-larch forest; some meadows) - A—occurs in alpine areas (above upper edge of continuous forest) - R—rare in Glacier National Park - - Shrews - Masked shrew, _Sorex cinereus_ - E, W, coniferous forests, meadows, pond and stream edges - Vagrant shrew, _Sorex vagrans_ - E, W, A, moist forests and grasslands, marsh and stream edges - Northern water shrew, _Sorex palustris_ - E, W, stream edges - - Bats - Little brown myotis, _Myotis lucifugus_ - E, W, coniferous forests, often around buildings, caves; nocturnal - Long-eared myotis, _Myotis evotis_ - E, W, A, R, coniferous forests, meadows; nocturnal - Long-legged myotis, _Myotis volans_ - E, W, A, coniferous forests, meadows; nocturnal - Big brown bat, _Eptesicus fuscus_ - E, W, coniferous forests; often around buildings, caves; nocturnal - Silver-haired bat, _Lasionycteris noctivagans_ - E, W, coniferous forests; meadows; nocturnal - Hoary bat, _Lasiurus cinereus_ - E, W, coniferous forests; mostly nocturnal - - [Illustration: Cougar] - - Cats - Bobcat, _Lynx rufus_ - E, open forests, brushy areas - Lynx, _Lynx canadensis_ - E, W, coniferous forests - Cougar, _Felis concolor_ - E, W, coniferous forests - - Raccoon, bears - Raccoon, _Procyon lotor_ - E, W, R, open forests, stream bottoms - Black bear, _Ursus americanus_ - E, W, A, forests, slide areas, alpine meadows - Grizzly, _Ursus arctos_ - E, W, A, forests, slide areas, alpine meadows - - [Illustration: Coyote] - - Canines - Red Fox, _Vulpes vulpes_ - E, grasslands, open forest - Coyote, _Canis latrans_ - E, W, A, forests, grasslands - Gray wolf, _Canis lupus_ - E, W, R, coniferous forests - - [Illustration: Wolverine] - - [Illustration: Longtail weasel] - - Mustelids - Striped skunk, _Mephitis mephitis_ - E, W, open forests, grasslands - Badger, _Taxidea taxus_ - E, W, grasslands - River otter, _Lutra canadensis_ - E, W, R, rivers, lakes - Wolverine, _Gulo gulo_ - E, W, A, coniferous forests, alpine meadows - Least weasel, _Mustela rixosa_ - E, R, open forests, grasslands - Shorttail weasel, _Mustela erminea_ - E, W, A, coniferous forests, meadows - Longtail weasel, _Mustela frenata_ - E, W, A, open forests, meadows - Mink, _Mustela vison_ - E, W, creek and lake edges - Marten, _Martes americana_ - E, W, A, coniferous forests - Fisher, _Martes pennanti_ - E, W, R, coniferous forests - - Lagomorphs - Pika, _Ochotona princeps_ - E, W, A, rockslides - Snowshoe hare, _Lepus americanus_ - E, W, coniferous forests - Whitetail jackrabbit, _Lepus townsendii_ - E, W, R, grasslands - - Squirrels - Hoary marmot, _Marmota caligata_ - E, W, A, rocky areas, alpine meadows - Richardson ground squirrel, _Spermophilus richardsonii_ - E, R, grasslands - Columbian ground squirrel, _Citellus columbianus_ - E, W, A, open woodlands, grasslands, alpine meadows - Thirteen-lined ground squirrel, _Spermophilus tridecemlineatus_ - E, R, grasslands - Golden-mantled squirrel, _Spermophilus lateralis_ - E, W, A, high, open forests; rocky areas - Least chipmunk, _Eutamias minimus_ - E, W, A, high, open forests; brushy, rocky areas; alpine meadows - Yellow pine chipmunk, _Eutamias amoenus_ - E, W, open forests; brushy, rocky areas - Redtail chipmunk, _Eutamias ruficaudus_ - E, W, open forests; brushy, rocky areas - Red squirrel, _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_ - E, W, coniferous forests - Northern flying squirrel, _Glaucomys sabrinus_ - E, W, coniferous forests; nocturnal - - Pocket gophers - Northern pocket gopher, _Thomomys talpoides_ - E, W, A, meadows - - [Illustration: Beaver] - - Beaver - Beaver, _Castor canadensis_ - E, W, streams, lakes - - Voles and kin - Deer mouse, _Peromyscus maniculatus_ - E, W, A, forests, grasslands, alpine meadows - Bushytail woodrat, _Neotoma cinerea_ - E, W, A, rocky areas, old buildings - Northern bog lemming, _Synaptomys borealis_ - W, R, coniferous forests - Mountain phenacomys, _Phenacomys intermedius_ - E, W, A, coniferous forests, alpine meadows - Boreal redback vole, _Clethrionomys gapperi_ - E, W, coniferous forests - Meadow vole, _Microtus pennsylvanicus_ - E, W, open forests, meadows; along streams; marshy areas - Longtail vole, _Microtus longicaudus_ - E, W, coniferous forests, grasslands - Water vole, _Arvicola richardsoni_ - E, W, A, high-elevation stream and lake edges - Muskrat, _Ondatra zibethica_ - W, streams, lakes, marshy areas - Western jumping mouse, _Zapus princeps_ - E, W, A, grasslands, alpine meadows - - Deer - Wapiti (American elk), _Cervus canadensis_ - E, W, A, open forests, meadows - Mule deer, _Odocoileus hemionus_ - E, W, A, open forests, meadows, often at high elevations - Whitetail deer, _Odocoileus virginianus_ - E, W, coniferous forests, meadows, creek and river bottoms - Moose, _Alces alces_ - E, W, coniferous forests, lakes, slow streams, marshy areas - - [Illustration: Mountain goat] - - Bovids - Mountain goat, _Oreamnos americanus_ - E, W, A, high peaks and meadows - Bighorn, _Ovis canadensis_ - E, A, open mountainous areas - - -Reptiles and Amphibians of Glacier National Park - -Note: This check list is based upon actual specimens in the Park and -other collections, according to Dr. Royal Brunson, Montana State -University. - - Reptiles - Great Basin Garter Snake, _Thamnophis elegans vagrans_ - A large garter snake of mountainous areas, usually with large spots. - - Great Plains Red-sided Garter Snake, _Thamnophis ordinoides - parietalis_ - Dorsal stripes varying from yellow to blue or black. Usually found - near water. - - Hypothetical List: - Rubber Boa, _Charina bottae utahensis_ - May occur in rock slides or, possibly, in forested areas, on either - side of the Divide. - - Gopher Snake, _Pituophis catenifer sayi_ - May occur along eastern boundary (Great Plains). - - Yellow-bellied Blue Racer, _Coluber constrictor mormon_ - May occur on eastern boundary of Park along border of Great Plains. - - Painted Turtle, _Chrysemys picta_ - May occur in ponds and sluggish waters from Upper Sonoran Zone to - Canadian Zone. - - Western Skink, _Eumeces skiltonianus_ - May occur in Transition Zone along western border of Park. - - [Illustration: Northern Alligator Lizard] - - Northern Alligator Lizard, _Gerrhonotus coeruleus principis_ - May occur in Transition Zone along western border of Park. - - Amphibians - Tiger Salamander, _Ambystoma tigrinum melanostrictum_ - Ground color either black or bluish-black, with large spots or - blotches of yellow. - - Long-toed Salamander, _Ambystoma macrodactylum_ - Ground color black or dark brown; wide band of yellow extends from - back of head to tip of tail. - - Northwestern Toad, _Bufo boreas boreas_ - Widely distributed over entire Park. (Also known as Columbian, - Northern, or Western Toad.) - - [Illustration: Western Spotted Frog] - - Western Spotted Frog, _Rana pretiosa pretiosa_ - Widely distributed over entire Park. (Also known as Western or Pacific - Frog.) - - Green Frog, _Rana clamitans_ - One specimen, from Bowman Lake. (Chicago Natural History Museum) - - Tailed Frog, _Ascaphus truei_ - Should be fairly common, although it is not often taken. - - Pacific Tree-toad, _Hyla regilla_ - Small size and disks on fingers and toes identify this species. Common - throughout Park. - - -Fishes of Glacier National Park - -Classification and common scientific names are from: “A List of Common -and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United States and Canada,” -American Fisheries Society Publication No. 2, 1960. - - Key to symbols: - N Species native to at least one major drainage of the Park. - I Non-native species, having been introduced into Park waters by man. - S A species of sporting qualities and valued for recreational angling. - 1 Waterton Drainage - 2 Belly River Drainage - 3 Swiftcurrent Drainage - 4 St. Mary Drainage - 5 Two Medicine Drainage - 6 Middle Fork Flathead River Drainage (exclusive of McDonald Valley) - 7 McDonald Valley Drainage - 8 North Fork Flathead River Drainage - - [Illustration: Lake Trout] - - Family _Salmonidae_ (trouts, whitefishes, and grayling) - Lake Whitefish, _Coregonus clupeaformis_ (I) (1, 2, 3, 4, 7) - Pygmy Whitefish, _Prosopium coulteri_ (N) (7) - Mountain Whitefish, _Prosopium williamsoni_ (N) (S) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, - 7, 8) - Kokanee (Sockeye) Salmon, _Oncorhyncus nerka_ (I) (S) (3, 7, 8) - Cutthroat Trout, _Salmo clarki_ (N) (S) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) - Rainbow Trout, _Salmo gairdneri_ (I) (S) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7) - Brook Trout, _Salvelinus fontinalis_ (I) (S) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) - Dolly Varden, _Salvelinus malma_ (N) (S) (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8) - Lake Trout, _Salvelinus namaycush_ (N) (S) (1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8) - Arctic Grayling, _Thymallus arcticus_ (I) (S) (2, 8) - - Family _Esocidae_ (pikes) - Northern pike, _Esox lucius_ (N) (S) (1, 2, 3) - - [Illustration: Redside Shiner] - - Family _Cyprinidae_ (minnows and carps) - Longnose Dace, _Rhinichthys cataractae_ (N) (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) - Northern Pearl Dace, _Margariscus margarita_ (N) (3, 5) - Redside Shiner, _Richardsonius balteatus_ (N) (7, 8) - Streamline Chub, _Hybopsis dissimilis_ (N) (1, 3) - Northern Squawfish, _Ptychocheilus oregonensis_ (N) (7, 8) - - [Illustration: White Sucker] - - Family _Catostomidae_ (suckers) - White Sucker, _Catostomus commersoni_ (N) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) - Largescale Sucker, _Catostomus macrocheilus_ (N) (6, 7, 8) - Longnose Sucker, _Catostomus catostomus_ (N) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) - - Family _Gadidaie_ (codfishes and hakes) - Burbot, _Lota lota_ (N) (S) (1, 4) - - Family _Cottidae_ (sculpins) - Mottled sculpin, _Cottus bairdi_ (N) (5, 6, 7, 8) - Spoonhead sculpin, _Cottus ricei_ (N) (1, 2, 3, 4) - - -Birds of Glacier National Park - - Key to symbols: - E—occurs on east side of the park (east of the Divide) - W—occurs on west side of the park (west of the Divide) - A—occurs in alpine areas - ab—abundant - c—common - u—uncommon - r—rare - i—introduced - a—accidental - - [Illustration: Common Loon] - - Loons - Common Loon E, W, ab - Arctic Loon? - Red-throated Loon? - - [Illustration: Western Grebe] - - Grebes - Red-necked Grebe E, W, c - Horned Grebe E, W, ab - Eared Grebe E, W, c - Western Grebe E, W, u - Pied-billed Grebe E, W, r - - Pelicans, Cormorants - White Pelican E, W, u - Double-crested Cormorant E, r - - [Illustration: Great Blue Heron] - - [Illustration: American Bittern] - - Herons, Bitterns - Great Blue Heron E, W, c - Black-crowned Night Heron a - American Bittern, W, r - - [Illustration: Mallard] - - [Illustration: Wood Duck] - - [Illustration: Ruddy Duck] - - Swan, Geese, Ducks - Whistling Swan E, W, ab - Trumpeter Swan E, W, r - Canada Goose E, W, c - Snow Goose E, W, c - Ross’ Goose E, W, r - Mallard E, W, ab - Gadwall E, W, r - Pintail E, W, c - Green-winged Teal E, W, c - Blue-winged Teal E, W, u - Cinnamon Teal E, W, u - European Widgeon E, W, c - American Widgeon E, W, ab - Northern Shoveler E, W, c - Wood Duck E, W, r - Redhead E, W, c - Ring-necked Duck E, W, u - Canvasback E, W, u - Lesser Scaup E, W, c - Greater Scaup? - Common Goldeneye E, W, c - Barrow’s Goldeneye E, W, ab - Bufflehead E, W, u - Harlequin Duck E, W, c - White-winged Scoter E, W, r - Ruddy Duck E, W, c - Hooded Merganser E, W, u - Common Merganser E, W, ab - Red-breasted Merganser, E, W, u - - [Illustration: Cooper’s Hawk] - - [Illustration: Marsh Hawk] - - Vultures, Hawks, Eagles - Turkey Vulture E, W, r - Goshawk E, W, c - Sharp-shinned Hawk E, W, u - Cooper’s Hawk E, W, u - Red-tailed Hawk E, W, c - Red-shouldered Hawk a - Swainson’s Hawk E, W, c - Rough-legged Hawk E, W, r - Ferruginous Hawk E, W, u - Golden Eagle, E, W, A, c - Bald Eagle, E, W, ab - Marsh Hawk E, W, ab - Osprey E, W, ab - Prairie Falcon E, W, A, r - Peregrine Falcon E, W, r - American Kestrel E, W, c - - [Illustration: Sharp-tailed Grouse] - - Grouse, Ptarmigans - Blue Grouse, E, W, ab - Spruce Grouse E, W, ab - Ruffed Grouse E, W, ab - Sharp-tailed Grouse E, r - White-tailed Ptarmigan A, c - Willow Ptarmigan ? - Ring-necked Pheasant E, W, r, i - Gray Partridge E, W, r, i - - Cranes - Sandhill Crane E, r - - [Illustration: American Coot] - - Rails, Coots - Sora E, W, r - American Coot E, W, ab - - [Illustration: Greater Yellowlegs] - - Shorebirds - Killdeer E, W, c - Black-bellied Plover E, r - Common Snipe E, W, c - Long-billed Curlew E, r - Upland Sandpiper E, r - Spotted Sandpiper E, W, A, ab - Solitary Sandpiper E, r - Willet, E, r - Pectoral Sandpiper E, r - Baird’s Sandpiper E, W, r - Lesser Yellowlegs, E, W r - Greater Yellowlegs E, W, r - American Avocet E, W, u - Northern Phalarope E, W, r - Wilson’s Phalarope E, W, u - Black Turnstone ? - Long-billed Dowitcher E, W, r - - [Illustration: Herring Gull] - - Gulls, Terns - Herring Gull E, W, r - California Gull E, W, ab - Ring-billed Gull E, W, c - Franklin’s Gull E, W, c - Bonaparte’s Gull E, u - Forster’s Tern E, W, u - Common Tern E, r - Caspian Tern a - Black Tern E, W, u - - [Illustration: Mourning Dove] - - Doves, Pigeons - Band-tailed Pigeon E, W, r - Mourning Dove E, W, c - Rock Dove E, W, r, i - - [Illustration: Great Horned Owl] - - Owls - Screech Owl E, W, r - Great Horned Owl E, W, ab - Snowy Owl E, W, u - Hawk Owl E, W, u - Pygmy Owl E, W, ab - Barred Owl E, W, c - Great Gray Owl E, W, u - Long-eared Owl E, W, r - Short-eared Owl, E, W, c - Boreal Owl E, W, r - Saw-whet Owl E, W, u - - [Illustration: Common Nighthawk] - - Nighthawks, Swifts - Common Nighthawk E, W, ab - Black Swift E, W, u - Vaux’s Swift E, W, ab - White-throated Swift W, A, r - - Hummingbirds - Broad-tailed Hummingbird E, W, r - Rufous Hummingbird E, W, A, ab - Calliope Hummingbird E, W, A, ab - Black-chinned Hummingbird E, W, r - - [Illustration: Belted Kingfisher] - - Kingfishers - Belted Kingfisher E, W, ab - - Woodpeckers - Common Flicker E, W, ab - Pileated Woodpecker E, W, ab - Red-headed Woodpecker E, W, r - Lewis’ Woodpecker E, W, c - Yellow-bellied Sapsucker E, W, ab - Williamson’s Sapsucker E, W, u - Hairy Woodpecker E, W, ab - Downy Woodpecker E, W, ab - Black-backed Three-toed Woodpecker E, W, ab - Northern Three-toed Woodpecker E, W, ab - - [Illustration: Ash-throated Flycatcher] - - Flycatchers - Eastern Kingbird E, W, ab - Western Kingbird E, W, u - Ash-throated Flycatcher a - Say’s Phoebe E, W, r - Willow Flycatcher E, W, c - Hammond’s Flycatcher E, W, ab - Olive-sided Flycatcher E, W, ab - Western Flycatcher E, r - Western Wood Peewee E, W, c - - Larks - Horned Lark E, W, A, ab - - [Illustration: Barn Swallow] - - Swallows - Violet-green Swallow E, W, A, ab - Tree Swallow E, W, ab - Bank Swallow E, W, ab - Rough-winged Swallow E, W, u - Barn Swallow E, W, u - Cliff Swallow E, W, A, ab - - [Illustration: Common Crow] - - Jays, Magpies, Crows - Gray Jay E, W, ab - Blue Jay E, W, r - Steller’s Jay E, W, ab - Black-billed Magpie E, W, ab - Common Raven E, W, A, ab - Common Crow E, W, ab - Clark’s Nutcracker E, W, A, ab - - Chickadees - Black-capped Chickadee E, W, ab - Mountain Chickadee E, W, ab - Boreal Chickadee E, W, r - Chestnut-backed Chickadee E, W, u - - Nuthatches, Creepers - White-breasted Nuthatch E, W, u - Red-breasted Nuthatch E, W, ab - Brown Creeper E, W, ab - - [Illustration: Winter Wren] - - Dippers, Wrens - Dipper E, W, A, ab - House Wren E, W, u - Winter Wren E, W, ab - Long-billed Marsh Wren a - Rock Wren E, W, u - - Catbirds, Thrashers - Gray Catbird E, W, u - - [Illustration: Mountain Bluebird] - - Thrushes, Bluebirds, Solitaires - American Robin E, W, A, ab - Varied Thrush E, W, ab - Hermit Thrush E, W, ab - Swainson’s Thrush E, W, ab - Veery E, W, c - Western Bluebird E, W, r - Mountain Bluebird E, W, A, ab - Townsend’s Solitaire E, W, A, ab - - Kinglets - Golden-crowned Kinglet E, W, ab - Ruby-crowned Kinglet E, W, ab - - Pipits - Water Pipit E, W, A, ab - - [Illustration: Cedar Waxwing] - - Waxwings - Bohemian Waxwing E, W, ab - Cedar Waxwing E, W, ab - - Shrikes - Loggerhead Shrike E, W, r - Northern Shrike E, W, r - - [Illustration: Starling] - - Starlings - Starling E, W, c, i - - [Illustration: Red-eyed Vireo] - - Vireos - Solitary Vireo E, W, ab - Red-eyed Vireo E, W, ab - Warbling Vireo E, W, ab - - Warblers - Black and White Warbler W, r - Tennessee Warbler E, W, r - Orange-crowned Warbler E, W, r - Nashville Warbler E, W, r - Yellow Warbler E, W, ab - Yellow-rumped Warbler E, W, ab - Townsend’s Warbler E, W, ab - Northern Waterthrush E, W, ab - MacGillivray’s Warbler E, W, ab - Common Yellowthroat E, W, ab - Wilson’s Warbler E, W, ab - American Redstart E, W, ab - Yellow-breasted Chat ? - - [Illustration: House Sparrow] - - Weaver Finches - House Sparrow E, W, r, i - - Blackbirds, Orioles - Bobolink E, r - Western Meadowlark E, W, u - Red-winged Blackbird E, W, ab - Northern Oriole E, W, r - Brewer’s Blackbird E, W, u - Rusty Blackbird E, W, r - Yellow-headed Blackbird E, r - Common Grackle E, r - Brown-headed Cowbird E, W, c - - [Illustration: Evening Grosbeak] - - Tanagers, Grosbeaks - Western Tanager E, W, ab - Evening Grosbeak E, W, ab - Pine Grosbeak E, W, ab - Black-headed Grosbeak E, W, r - - [Illustration: American Goldfinch] - - Finches, Sparrows, Buntings - Lazuli Bunting E, W, c - Lark Bunting E, W, r - Snow Bunting E, W, c - Cassin’s Finch E, W, A, ab - Gray-crowned Rosy Finch E, W, A, ab - American Goldfinch E, W, u - Common Redpoll E, W, c - Pine Siskin E, W, A, ab - Red Crossbill E, W, ab - White-winged Crossbill E, W, u - Rufous-sided Towhee E, W, u - Green-tailed Towhee E, W, r - Savannah Sparrow E, W, c - LeConte’s Sparrow E, W, u - Vesper Sparrow E, W, ab - Tree Sparrow E, W, r - Chipping Sparrow E, W, A, ab - Brewer’s Sparrow E, W, r - Harris’ Sparrow E, W, r - White-crowned Sparrow E, W, A, ab - Fox Sparrow E, W, A, ab - Lincoln’s Sparrow E, W, A, c - Song Sparrow E, W, ab - Dark-eyed Junco E, W, c - McCown’s Longspur E, c - Lapland Longspur E, W, c - Chestnut-collared Longspur E, c - - - - - Suggested Reading - - -Alexander, Taylor R. and George S. Fichter, _Ecology_ (a Golden guide). - Western Publishing Co., Inc., Racine, Wis. 1973. - -Alt, David D. and Donald W. Hyndman, _Rocks, Ice and Water, the Geology - of Waterton-Glacier Park_. Mountain Press Publishing Co., - Missoula, Mont. 1973. - -Baker, William, et. al., _Wildlife of the Northern Rocky Mountains_. - Naturegraph Co., Healdsburg, Calif. 1961. - -Borland, Hal, _The History of Wildlife in America_. National Wildlife - Federation, Washington, D.C. 1975. - -Brooks, Maurice, _The Life of The Mountains_. McGraw-Hill, New York. - 1967. - -Costello, David F., _The Mountain World_. Thomas Y. Crowell Co., New - York. 1975. - -Craighead, John J., et. al., _A Field Guide to Rocky Mountain - Wildflowers_. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. 1963. - -Dobie, J. Frank, _The Voice of the Coyote_. Little, Brown and Co., - Boston. 1950. - -Farb, Peter, _Face of North America_. Harper and Row, New York. 1963. - -Gildart, Robert C., _Meet the Mammals of Waterton-Glacier_. Glacier - Natural History Association, Inc. Thomas Printing, Inc., - Kalispell, Mont. 1975. - -McCormick, Jack, _The Life of the Forest_. McGraw-Hill, New York. 1966. - -Milne, Lorus and Margery Milne, _The Balance of Nature_. Alfred A. - Knopf, Inc., New York. 1960. - -Nelson, Alan G., _Wildflowers of Glacier National Park_. Nelson, Great - Falls, Mont. 1970. - -Peattie, Donald Culross, _A Natural History of Western Trees_. Bonanza - Books, New York. 1953. - -Ruhle, George C., _Roads and Trails of Waterton-Glacier Parks_. John W. - Forney, Minneapolis, Minn. 1972. - -Shea, David S., _Animal Tracks of Glacier National Park_. Special - Bulletin No. 11, Glacier Natural History Association, Inc., West - Glacier, Mont., 1969. - -Storer, John H., _The Web of Life_. Devin-Adair Co., Old Greenwich, - Conn. 1953. - -Zwinger, Ann H. and Beatrice E. Willard, _Land Above the Trees_. Harper - and Row, New York. 1972. - - [Illustration: WATERTON LAKES NATIONAL PARK—GLACIER NATIONAL PARK] - - Using Metrics - - As we go to press with this book, the United States is in the early - stages of conversion to the metric system of measurement, and though - we urge you to think metric—for most of the world does—we provide - this table to help you understand the measurements given in the - book. - - To convert from to multiply by - - Millimeters Sixteenth-inches 0.6301 - Centimeters Inches 0.3937 - Meters Feet 3.2808 - Kilometers Miles 0.6214 - Hectares Acres 2.4711 - Hectares Square miles 0.00386 - Grams Troy Ounces 0.0322 - Kilograms Pounds 2.2046 - Degrees—Celsius Degrees—Fahrenheit 1.8, and add 32 - - [Illustration: Temperature Conversion Chart] - - [Illustration: Length Conversion Chart] - - Drawings from David S. Shea, _Animal Tracks of Glacier National - Park_ - - [Illustration: red fox, - hind foot, in mud - 53 mm.] - - [Illustration: mule deer, - adult buck, in snow - 72 mm.] - - [Illustration: badger, - left front foot, in mud - 43 mm.] - - [Illustration: coyote, - hind foot, in snow - 63 mm.] - - About the Author - - Greg Beaumont’s interest in Glacier National Park dates from 1963, - when he was a summer employee at Lake McDonald Lodge. In 1966 he and - his wife were fire-control lookouts on Numa Ridge in the Bowman - Valley. Now a free-lance writer-photographer, he lives with his - family in Lincoln, Nebraska. - - National Park Service - U.S. Department of the Interior - - As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the - Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public - lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use - of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, - preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national - parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life - through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and - mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in - the best interests of all our people. The Department also has a - major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and - for people who live in Island Territories under U.S. administration. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - -—Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook - is public-domain in the country of publication. - -—Corrected a few palpable typos. - -—Included a transcription of the text within some images. - -—In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by - _underscores_. - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Many-Storied Mountains, by Greg Beaumont - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MANY-STORIED MOUNTAINS *** - -***** This file should be named 55150-0.txt or 55150-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/1/5/55150/ - -Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, MFR and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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