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diff --git a/old/54757-8.txt b/old/54757-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d5519d1..0000000 --- a/old/54757-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10410 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Sultan and his People, by C. Oscanyan - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Sultan and his People - -Author: C. Oscanyan - -Release Date: May 21, 2017 [EBook #54757] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE *** - - - - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE. - - BY - C. OSCANYAN, - OF CONSTANTINOPLE. - - - - Illustrated by a Native of Turkey. - - - - NEW YORK: - DERBY & JACKSON, 119 NASSAU STREET. - CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY & CO. - LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, SON & CO. - - 1857. - - - - - - - - - Entered according to Act of Congress, to the year 1857, by - DERBY & JACKSON, - - In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, - for the Southern District of New York. - - W. H. TINSON, STEREOTYPER. - - GEO. RUSSELL & CO., PRINTERS. - - - - - - - - - TO MY - ALMA MATER, - The University of the City of New York, - THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED - BY - ONE OF ITS OFFSPRING. - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. PRELIMINARY CHAPTER, 9 - II. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ORIGIN OF THE TURKS, 20 - III. THEIR RELIGIOUS CREEDS, 27 - IV. SECTARIANISM, 37 - V. PRACTICE OF RELIGION, 51 - VI. PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA, 67 - VII. PRINCIPLES OF THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT, 105 - VIII. THE ADMINISTRATIVE GOVERNMENT, 109 - IX. POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT, 114 - X. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE JANISSARIES, 117 - XI. THE ULEMA OR SPIRITUAL BRANCH OF THE TURKISH - GOVERNMENT, 127 - XII. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, 134 - XIII. ARMY AND NAVY, 138 - XIV. COMMERCE, 144 - XV. JURISPRUDENCE, 149 - XVI. EDUCATION, 159 - XVII. MEDICINE, 167 - XVIII. WESTERN PREJUDICES AND EASTERN TOLERATION, 171 - XIX. THE SULTAN AND HIS PERSONNEL, 180 - XX. PUBLIC DUTIES OF THE SULTAN, 200 - XXI. THE ROMANCE OF THE EAST, 206 - XXII. THE HAREM, 212 - XXIII. CONDITION OF WOMEN, 224 - XXIV. PERSONAL APPEARANCE, COSTUME, ETC., 232 - XXV. DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS, 238 - XXVI. SOCIAL INTERCOURSE, 246 - XXVII. POLYGAMY, 253 - XXVIII. MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE, 259 - XXIX. SULTAN'S HAREM AND HOUSEHOLD, 264 - XXX. CIRCASSIAN AND NUBIAN SLAVES, 274 - XXXI. THE WATERING PLACES, 280 - XXXII. THE BAZAARS, 293 - XXXIII. THE KAHVÉS, 299 - XXXIV. THE HAMAMS, OR BATHS, 320 - XXXV. THE RAYAS, OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS--ARMENIANS, 340 - XXXVI. THE RAYAS, OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS--GREEKS, 364 - XXXVII. THE RAYAS, OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS--JEWS, 376 - XXXVIII. PERA AND THE PEROTES, OR FRANKS, 381 - XXXIX. THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE PEOPLE, 393 - XL. THE FUTURE OF TURKEY, 419 - - - - - - - - -THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE. - -PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. - - -Mutability is the appropriate motto of humanity; for what are men -but creatures of a day; monarchs, but transient shadows of earthly -greatness; empires, but passing events? Time, with more than eagle -swiftness, hurls all things into the great bosom of Eternity. Futurity -is dark and impenetrable, but the present is with us, and still more -the past, teeming with vast records of human life, of rising and -falling empires, bloody tales of extinguished armies and extirpated -races of mankind, detailing the effects of the wild ambition of kings, -emperors, sultans, themselves but atoms, yet involving the whole mass -in their career. - -Contrast is often the greatest source of pleasure to the mind; -therefore do the citizens of this New World delight to revel in the -scenes of the olden hemisphere, which was in full glory when this -vast continent lay in undiscovered obscurity. - -Orientalism! Talisman to conjure up the shades of the very parents of -our race, and of the old patriarchs of Israel, to array in picturesque -and savage beauty the vision of Arabian horsemen, flying steeds, vast -encampments on arid plains, tribes of wandering Tartars, and almost -to awaken the echoes of the clashing and blood-stained scimitars -of the desperate champions of the Crescent, the followers of the -Prophet. And while there is a wall of iron between us and our future, -the eventful record of by-gone times displays to us the development -of all that was hidden to our ancestors. - -There is a great difference between the primitive condition of the -human race and the effects which Time has produced upon that wonderful -structure, MAN! - -Simplicity, almost childlike, seems to characterize the living mind -of man in its embryo state, while years of successive re-conceptions -have continued to develop this noble emanation from the great spirit -of the universe. - -But how deeply interesting to us, who are the embodiment of the more -mature and experienced human wisdom, to look into the vast womb of -the Past, and trace the growth of the great human foetus. - -The impress of the original condition of our race is yet upon the -nations of the East, and wonderfully do they still retain the habits -and ideas of the earliest ages. - -How vividly are the scenes of Biblical record exemplified in the -every-day habits of the people, who, at the present time, dwell -in those venerated countries. The patriarchal family government, -the flowing robes, even the very style of garment of which it is -recorded--"They parted my raiment, and upon my vesture they cast lots," -are one and all in daily use in the East. - -Our attention is peculiarly directed to the history of former ages, -and the progress of different empires, by the events which mark the -present course of time--for the great theme of the day is the Past and -Future of Turkey, the very garden of the East, and the desired of all -nations, upon whose shores has lately been poured the life-blood of -thousands of valiant heroes, each and all members of the vast human -family, whether known to us as Turks, Russians, English, or French. - -There is an indefinable charm about all that relates to this land -of the Orient. The position by nature, the variety of scenery, hill, -valley, and undulating plain; the great streams which water its shores, -and the rich productions of the soil, the ancient capital proudly -towering from its verdant hills, the key to two continents, with the -"Ocean stream" for a highway. The lovers of classic lore delight -to realize the existence of ancient heroes, and the very homes of -the demigods, as they tread its honored shores. Romance seems to be -merged in reality, as the robed and turbaned Moslem, with stately step -and meditative countenance, passes beneath your latticed casement; or -the veiled lady and sable eunuch, with mysterious silence, stealthily -glide along. Sultans, vezirs, pashas, grand muftis, sultanas, harems, -and slaves, intriguing ulema and judges, so long enveloped in the -mist of fancy, are, in modern days, to emerge into the sunlight of -truth and civilization, and exhibit to the study of philanthropy, -only the type of ancient usages and the actual scenes of everyday -life. Amid the votaries to superstition and fanaticism, side by side -with the banner of the Cross, the followers of the Prophet, with the -Crescent of the faithful, will, henceforth, march through time into -eternity, but known and read of all men. The door to the East stands -open, and we may pass within the portal to study men and manners, -with their institutions, both social and political. - -Many attempts have been made to portray the actual and past condition -of this Oriental empire, and as various have been the lights and -shadows in which it has been pictured; some making the Osmanli a -paragon of humanity, and others again reducing him to a mere polypus -on legs. - -"If those who are resident among us," observes the editor of the -"New York Herald," "cannot, after the lapse of years, always succeed -in identifying themselves with our ideas, it is not to be expected -that writers at a distance, should be able to form a fair estimate -of American society from such imperfect evidences as they have before -them. We have seen how few foreign tourists have penetrated below the -surface of things in their analysis of our social and political life." - -If these strictures of the "Herald" are just and true with reference -to American and European countries in general, where there is such -similarity, how much more applicable to our Oriental clime; for, -considering the peculiar form of government, and construction of -society in Turkey, based, as they are, upon the Koran, traditional -customs, and Oriental conventionalities, hitherto so inaccessible as -well as incomprehensible to strangers, it is, indeed, no matter of -wonder that such heterogeneous portraits of Eastern men and manners -have been promulgated to the world by travellers and bibliomanists. - -Language is the great vehicle of ideas, the bond of man with man, the -"open sesame" to the spirit of every community--the record of the past, -the exponent of the present, and the foreteller of the future. But -how few, even of modern savans, have acquired a knowledge of the -Oriental dialects, which are never used in Europe, and only called -into exercise by researches into ancient chronicles. Even many who -have long resided in the East, and whose daily and hourly contact -with the inhabitants would seem to demand a mutual understanding, -have lived and died in a stoical adherence to their own mother tongues. - -A French merchant, Mons. B., who had enjoyed the advantages of commerce -in the East for twenty-five years, may be quoted as an example. Either -considering his own superior civilization compromised by such a -condescension to barbarism, or unable to train his exclusively -French organs to any other guise of speech, Mons. B.'s ideas and -expressions were always in his mother tongue. When, therefore, -on a certain occasion, his Turkish porter excited his displeasure, -he poured out his indignation in pure Gallic, which lost much of its -intended effect upon his employé, who could not imagine the cause -of his master's agitation and vehemence, and ventured to ask an -explanation of a bystander. "What?" said the irritated Frenchman, -"does the stupid fellow mean to say that having been with me -for the past five-and-twenty years, he does not yet understand -French?" "Mashallah!" responded the astonished Turk, "My master, -who has been here so long a time, why can he not scold me in Turkish?" - -Emergencies are constantly occurring, and as interpreters cannot be -omnipresent, ridiculous misunderstandings are often the results. - -The complacent French and English seem to think their respective -languages universal, and upon their arrival in the East, address the -people accordingly, who can only look and listen, and strain their -senses for one familiar word or phrase; sometimes the simplest -expression, through some euphonious resemblance, may convey an -opposite meaning, or even a flattering compliment be mistaken for a -victimizing oath. - -A party of French naval officers, one day visited the shoe bazaar, -and were attracted by the beauty of the collection of a certain -merchant. The author happening to be present, officiated as interpreter -for them, and advised the merchant to display all his best specimens -of embroidered slippers, so that the gentlemen soon had an innumerable -variety before them. But one of them yet unsatisfied, with a spirit -of independence, took a slipper in his hand, and showing it to the -merchant, said, "Beaucoup mieux, beaucoup mieux, Efendi." The grave -merchant instead of replying, turned all of a sudden pale with rage, -and gathering up his embroidered wares, mercilessly consigned them to -the recesses of his shop, and bestowing upon these insolent giavours -a most genuine Turkish benediction, ordered them to quit his premises -instanter. Bewildered at the singular conduct of the merchant, I -inquired as to the cause of his sudden irritation. "What! did you -not hear the impudent rascal say, bokoumu-yé?" said the enraged Turk; -an expression too unfit for ears polite to be translated into English, -though sometimes heard in the purlieus of the Five Points. I attempted -to explain, but in vain; the Turkish was unmistakable, so thought the -shoe-merchant, who insisted that they had at least learned that much -of the language of the country. - -Thus, with entire ignorance of the language, thoroughly impregnated -with the prejudices of a European education, the foreigner looks -only upon the surface of things, and comprehends nothing, where the -simplest habits of life and etiquette are diametrically opposed to -his preconceived ideas. - -The Osmanli would stare with astonishment at the presumption with which -a Frank uncovered his head in his august presence; while the exquisite -of the beau-monde would be lost in wonder to see his Oriental rival -enter his presence without shoes, and seat himself on the sofa with -his feet carefully concealed beneath him; thus only conforming to the -ancient etiquettes of the Bible, for Moses was not commanded to uncover -his head, but to put off his shoes. At least, some of the Oriental -forms of politeness have antiquity as their origin, and the sanction -of many generations; but for the varying code of western manners, -where can we look, save to the capricious tastes of the passing times. - -Thus are the simplest habits of life reversed, and what is excessive -rudeness to the one, may be the essence of politeness to the -other. Very frequently these contrary customs are the source of -ludicrous mistakes. - -As we were walking one day with a friend, a sailor from the English -fleet accidentally dropped his pocket-handkerchief. The gentleman -regretting that the worthy tar should meet with such a loss, hailed -him, at the same time beckoning with his hand ŕ la Turque, which -is done by extending the arm and moving the fingers with the palm -downwards, or just in the same manner as would here be done to imply -a more distant removal. - -A police officer happening to be at no great distance, the sailor, -on looking back, understood quite naturally my friend's movement as a -signal for him to make his escape, and accordingly took to his heels -with the greatest rapidity, leaving my companion in utter amazement. I -endeavored to explain to him the reason of the sailor's conduct, by -showing him the genuine European style of beckoning, by reversing -the hand and moving the up-turned forefinger back and forth. This -astonished him the more, since that motion is equivalent, in Turkey, -to that comical American gesture of placing the thumb on the tip end -of the nose, and extending the fingers. - -Thus things which are in themselves trifles, may lead or mislead to -mighty results, and can only be appreciated when circumstances call -them into action. Therefore nothing but actual nativity and education -among the people, with the enlarged views which are acquired by a -residence in European countries, can enable an individual to judge -and appreciate the peculiar institutions of Turkey. - -The author presents himself to the American public a native of -Constantinople, and of Armenian parentage, with the hope that he -may be able to unfold some new phases of Turkey and Orientalism, -which may tend to remove any unfounded prejudices, and enlighten -their minds with regard to the real and existing state of his country. - -In order to attain a just and correct idea of the present state of -Turkey and its probable future, it is most essential to take a cursory -glance at the origin of the nation, its religion, government, civil -laws, social condition, and domestic relations, which are the elements -of nationality. In so doing, the writer has carefully avoided all -partiality, and endeavored to display the truth, simply, and nothing -but the truth, invested with the garb of a peculiar nationality, -and only adorned with the poetry of Oriental tastes and habits as -they actually exist. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ORIGIN AND HISTORY. - - -Turkish and Eastern proverbs have often a deep and significative -meaning under a simple simile. They say, "a neighbor's chicken has -always so unreal a magnitude in covetous eyes, that it swells in its -proportions even to the size of a goose!" - -Human nature has in reality undergone but few changes since it -descended upon this planet. The simplest shepherds and the richest -sovereigns have been alike swayed by the demon of envy. The earth -no sooner became the inheritance of man, than its treasures excited -the desire of appropriation in his breast. Mine and thine were the -earliest appellatives between man and his brother. - -All-bountiful Nature provided a perpetual feast to their physical -wants, in her luxuriant offerings, ready for use, without toil or -labor. The flocks of the early pastoral days wandered from field to -field, along with their shepherd kings. Ample was the territory as -they forsook the soil when winter chilled, and roamed to summer climes -exempt from care. Simple in their tastes, they grew and multiplied -until they became mighty nations. But the monarchs of the animal -world, the kings of the forests, could not brook any inroads upon -their dominions, and self-defence awoke man's ingenuity, and armed him -with the war-club, the unerring stone and sling, the quivering arrow, -and pointed javelin. The practised hand, thus trained in vanquishing -the roaring lion, easily turned against his neighbor man, and the -stronger prevailed in the usurpation of coveted territories. - -Thus war, in the absence of the arts of modern civilization became -the sole aim of these wandering tribes. Alliances were sometimes -formed for mutual protection, and territories were ever changing -masters. The primitive belief that the soil was common property, -and that occupancy gave the only title to possession, induced them to -trespass upon the neighboring territories. This same principle exists -even at this present day among some of the people of the East, of whom -the tribe of Yürücks is well known in Turkey, traversing the whole -dominion of Asia Minor, according to the climate they desire to find. - -Passing by the days of Biblical History and the ancient pedigree of -the Arabians, we will observe the first appearance of the Turks on -the pages of history. - -As early as the ninth century, a small but adventurous band of -Scythians, known as the Turkomans, impelled either by famine or -hostility, crossed the Caspian Mountains, and invaded the Armenian -territories. - -Although they were bravely repulsed, still the prosperous condition -of the country was too alluring for them to give up all hope of its -ultimate conquest, they therefore continued to harass the inhabitants -by their incessant incursions. - -In the middle of the eleventh century, a vigorous attempt was made, -under the command of Toghrul Bey, a grandson of Seljuk, one of the -principal families of Tartary, with an army of one hundred thousand -men, who ravaged twenty-four of its provinces. - -Toghrul, already so distinguished by his valor, now embraced Islamism, -and thus added to the thirst of conquest, the ardor of the religion -of the Prophet. Another more desperate sally was made with redoubled -force, which met with similar discomfiture. - -Fourteen years after, the infuriated Tartars collecting an army of -no less than three hundred thousand men, renewed their assaults. - -Armenia was at this time not only harassed on all sides by Greeks, -Saracens, and Persians, but rent by the internal dissensions of its own -princes; so that it now fell a prey to Toghrul, who massacred, in cold -blood, 140,000 of the inhabitants, carrying many also into captivity. - -The most flourishing provinces in due time were added to the -conquests of the Turkomans, by Alf-arslan the nephew and successor of -Toghrul. Their empire was greatly extended by the son of Alf-arslan, -Melik-Shah, and was subsequently divided among three branches of -the house of Seljuk. Suleyman, the third in descent from Melik-Shah, -was the first Turkoman prince who governed Asia Minor. - -Er-Toghrul, or Orthogrul, the son of Suleyman, having by his assistance -on a certain occasion, secured a victory to Ali-ed-din, the sultan of -Babylon, Kara-Hissar in Bithynia, was bestowed upon him, and there -he settled with his family, which consisted of three sons. Osman, -the eldest son and successor of his father, Orthogrul, was left by -the death of Ali-ed-din, the ally of his father, without a rival in -the government of Syria; he was accordingly proclaimed sultan. - -In the year 1,300 he made Neapolis the capital of his dominions, -and from thence is dated the foundation of the present Ottoman empire. - -Osman was so distinguished by his conquests, and became so endeared to -his subjects, that ever since his time, the appellation of Osmanlis has -been adopted by them; and the word Türk, or Turk, so indiscriminately -applied to them by the Europeans, is not only inappropriate, but of -a disagreeable signification, for it is only used among themselves -as an epithet of opprobrium. - -In the twenty-sixth year of his reign, Osman took the city of Broossa, -in Asia Minor, which his son Orkhan, who succeeded him, made the -capital of his dominions. The desire, however, to possess the city of -Stamboul, was transferred with increasing ardor from sultan to sultan; -but the glory of its conquest was reserved for Mohammed II. - -The effeminate condition of the Greeks favored his design; for out -of a population of 200,000 men, there were scarcely 8,000 ready to -defend their capital; and on the 29th of May, 1453, Constantinople -fell into the hands of the Osmanlis, or descendants of Osman, who -have held it in possession until the present day. - -It is evident that the Osmanlis are the descendants of the Scythians, -or one of the Tartar tribes; but who those Scythians originally were, -may be questioned. - -A very curious, but plausible theory is advanced by some persons, -that the Tartars are of the Jewish race. Tarat-har or Tartar, in the -Syrian language, signifies the remnant of a people. - -Now, in the second book of Kings, it is recorded that the King of -Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria, and placed -them in Halah and Habor, by the river of Gozan in the cities of the -Medes. This was about 720 years before Christ. - -Medea is situated near the Caspian Sea; possessed entirely by these -Tartars. - -The names which are given to their principal cities, are the same as -were common among the Jews. For instance, the capital of Tartary is -called Semerkand; which is a corruption of Samaryan, very similar to -Samaria. There are, moreover, many relics of antiquity in this city, -which bear undeniable evidences of having been Jewish monuments. They -have also another town called Jericho, a Mount Sion and a Mount Tabor, -with a river Yordon or Jordan. - -They are divided into ten tribes, bearing names similar to the ancient -patriarchs of Israel. - -They are under one government, but avoid all intermarriages; which -was also a peculiar observance of the Jews. There is also a great -similarity between the Tartar and the Hebrew languages. The degeneracy -of their language, may be attributed to the fact, that they were -long captives in a strange land, and removed from all intercourse -with more enlightened nations. - -The Tartars have even been known to observe the Jewish rites of -worship and circumcision, and they traditionally boast themselves to -be descended from those Israelites, who, conquering their conquerors, -became possessed of all the territories by the Caspian Sea. Indeed, -Timour-link or Tamerlane the Great, is said to have proudly asserted, -that he was descended in a direct line from the tribe of Dan. - -From these facts, it seems very probable that the people known as the -Tartars, are the ten lost tribes of the Jews; and it is historically -certain, that the founders of the present Turkish Empire, are -descendants of these Tartars. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -RELIGION. - - -Five hundred and sixty-nine years after Christ, Mohammed the prophet -was born at Mecca, where his immediate ancestors had for many years -enjoyed a sort of regal and priestly authority over the Caaba or Temple -of the Arabians, which, for at least seven hundred years, had been the -shrine of adoration for the worshippers of the sun, moon, and stars. - -His family was considered the most illustrious, among the tribes of -the Arabs, so that he was born to distinction. - -The early loss of his parents left him an orphan, under the care of -his uncle Abu-Taleb, who paid little attention to his nephew. - -At the early age of twelve years, he was initiated into the mysteries -of Eastern commerce, as he journeyed with his uncle through Syria, -to Bassora and Damascus. But the contemplative mind of this youth, -destined to become the Prophet of his country, gathered into its -fructifying soil the tenets of the religious faith of the Christians, -which were more congenial to his spirit than the idolatries of his -own people. - -The Arabs too, were anticipating the birth of a Messiah of their own, -who was to descend from the sacred guardians of the Caaba; so that -circumstances seemed to point out to the precocious youth, this road -to greatness. - -Well born, of insinuating manners and graceful address, noble and -majestic in appearance, Mohammed became the object of affection to -the wealthy widow Khatijeh, who married him, and thus riches were -added to his facilities. - -The great crowd of pilgrims who assembled in Mecca, afforded the -Prophet constant occasions for the discussion of various systems of -religious faith, until Mohammed resolved to announce himself as the -completion of the revelation of God to the Jews and Christians--the -predicted by Moses and Christ, who coming after them, should be the -greatest of all the prophets. - -To the idolatrous Arabs he proclaimed one God, omnipotent and -imperishable; to the Christians he revived the unity of their Maker, -and recalled to the Jews the Jehovah, whose worship they had so -corrupted. - -The confusion of the Asiatic states, rent with wars, tumults and -heresies, wonderfully favored the spread of Mohammedanism, even beyond -the warmest anticipations of the Prophet. - -Arming himself with the sword, and promising the joys of paradise to -every soldier of the Crescent who should die on the battle-field, -he led on this wonderful prodigy of a religious faith, conquering -and to conquer. - -At this day there are no less than 200,550,000 Mahommedans! The Koran, -or the written, is the compendium of the faith, practice and civil laws -of Mussulmans, ingeniously compiled by their great Arabian Prophet, and -is styled by the Faithful, The Light of God, Sole Guide to Paradise, -Divine Director to Heavenly Glories, and in common parlance, The -Eternal Word--Kelamu-Kadim. They acknowledge the divine origin of -the Pentateuch, the Psalms of David, and the four Gospels, and upon -these books, with the Koran, their oaths are taken. - -The Koran declares, "Verily the true religion in the sight of God -is Islam," which is the proper name of the Mohammedan faith, and it -signifies resignation or submission to the service and commands of -God. It consists of two principles, Iman, or Faith, and Din, Religion -or Practice. - - - - -IMAN OR FAITH. - -The great article of Faith is called Salavat, and is expressed in -these words: - -"La-Illah, Ill-Allah, Mohammed Ressoul-Ullah." There is no God, -but God, and Mohammed is the Apostle of God. - -They deny the doctrine of the Trinity, although they acknowledge the -attributes of God, his greatness, goodness, justice, omnipresence, -omniscience, and incomprehensibility. Christ is acknowledged to have -been a prophet greater than Moses, but inferior to Mohammed. He is -styled the Word of God, Kelam-Ullah, in their writings, supposed -to have been miraculously conceived by the Virgin Mary, but not of -divine origin. The crucifixion they regard as inconsistent with the -justice of God; to yield up so mighty a prophet, endowed with power to -work miracles, and raise the dead, a victim to the unbelieving Jews, -they deem incompatible with divine supremacy, and even say, that when -Christ was led out to die, he was, invisibly to his persecutors, -transported into heaven, Judas the betrayer being substituted -in his stead. No terrors of eternal punishment in a future state -distract the unfaithful Moslems, all of whom will, in due time, -expiate their offences and be admitted to happiness. Two angels -are supposed to attend them through life and in death. One white, -glorious and commiserate; the other black, severe, and cruel. - -There will also be a last judgment, when a tremendous trumpet will -shake the earth to atoms. God will judge all men. Moses, Christ, -and Mohammed, will appear at the head of their respective followers, -as intercessors. And Cain will lead the immense multitude of the -damned, who are doomed to suffer till their sins are cancelled, -when they will take their seats in Paradise; while Hell, the Devil, -and his wicked angels, will be suddenly annihilated. - -A narrow bridge, fine as a hair, called Surat, lies over the region -of the damned. The righteous, upheld by their guardian angels, pass -over safely; while the guilty fall down into awful flames and torture, -doomed to quaff nothing but "boiling water, until their bowels burst." - -Paradise is above the seventh heaven, near the throne of God. A vast -and beautiful region, with palaces of gold and gardens of perpetual -delight, in the midst of which is the tree of happiness, Tuba, -whose roots are in the palace of the Prophet, but whose branches, -loaded with luscious fruits and all kinds of meats prepared for food, -silken robes and caparisoned steeds, will extend to the dwelling of -every true believer. Softly murmuring fountains, cooling shades and -grottoes, mountains of sparkling diamonds, and golden trees, will -adorn the gardens of delight, while the ravishing houris of these -enchanting regions, will be blessed with perpetual youth and virginity. - -The most insignificant of the Faithful will have a retinue of -80,000 servants and 72 wives, of the sweetly odoriferous damsels, -created of pure musk, in addition to the companions of his earthly -sojourn. Delicious streams of wine, milk, and honey, will flow on -perpetually; balmy zephyrs will pervade the atmosphere; the very -physical excretions of the true believers will be but odoriferous -exhalations. - -While the senses are thus ravished with delights, the most excelling -of all their beatific visions will be the presence of Allah, which -is beyond the power of language to describe. - -Fatalism is a characteristic item in the Mohammedan creed. - -They believe that whatever happens is pre-ordained by the Omniscient, -which article of faith is designated Kader or predestination. But the -doctrine of "free-agency" the Iradeyi-Jüseeyé or the "lesser will," -is also in their creed. Hence every one is bound to exert himself to -his utmost; and it is only when he fails, that he resigns himself -calmly and philosophically to his disappointment, saying kader, -or it is my fate. - -The following legend may perhaps serve to illustrate the spirit of -Oriental Fatalism: - -Half-way across the Bosphorus, and between Seraglio Point and Scutari, -in Asia, is the renowned Kiz-Koulessi, or the Maiden's Tower. It -was predicted that the beautiful daughter of a certain sultan would -meet with an early death, from the bite of a serpent. Contrary to -prediction, her father hoped to avert her fate, by placing her in a -situation inaccessible to those reptiles. As he revolved the subject -in his mind, from the windows of the Seraglio, his eye rested on -the rock in the stream, where he immediately ordered a tower to be -erected, and thither the unhappy princess was conveyed and immured -in her island home. - -But who can resist the decrees of Fate? - - - Bin djahd etsen na-muradé - Olmaz moukadderden ziyadé. - - You may do your utmost, - But you cannot conquer Fate. - - -Scutari, fruitful in vineyards, and far-famed for its delicious grapes, -was destined to furnish the venom, which poisoned the crimson tide in -the veins of the beautiful sultana; for a basket of Scutari grapes -concealed the viper, which was the instrument in the hand of Fate, -and the fulfillment of the prophecy. - -It is, doubtless, in the recollection of many of the citizens of New -York, that a short time ago an individual passing by Wallack's Theatre -was suddenly killed by the falling of the flag-staff from the top of -the building. This sad occurrence was not the result of carelessness -or temerity, but purely accidental; and would also be termed in Turkey -kaza or accident. Yet why the accident should have happened to this -individual more than to any other of the hundreds of persons who -passed the same spot--Mohammedan doctrine would simply answer, "it -was his kader or predestination." To mourn, therefore, for the dead, -or complain against misfortune, would by them be esteemed a grievous -sin, as though censuring the Almighty, without whose knowledge "not -a sparrow falleth to the ground." - -It is not Fatalism that makes the Mohammedan indifferent -to casualties, but his exaggerated and misconceived ideas of his -religious obligations; for human imperfectibility is as prominent an -article of their creed as Fatalism, and even induces a disposition to -avoid self-improvement either intellectually or externally. Perfection -being the attribute of the Deity, it is unbecoming in his creatures to -assert, in any form whatever, their capabilities of approximation to -such a condition. While, then, their minds repose in the simplicity of -innate ideas, they even seek imperfection in the investiture of their -bodies. They will rend their garments so as to mar their completeness, -assume an air of general slovenliness, or studiously clip the corner -of a sheet of paper to destroy its regular uniformity. - -It is, then, most erroneous to suppose that the doctrine of Fatalism -is so antagonistic to civilization in the East, as it implies -resignation to the Divine will, and by no means impedes active -personal exertion. But in reality it is the seeming propriety of -human imperfection, in contradistinction to the Divine excellence, -which has hitherto maintained a spirit of indifference to progressive -improvement. While an entire submission to the course of events, as -preordained and predestined by the Omniscient, prevents all restless -anxiety, and calms the repinings of the heart-broken and weary, -this more truly fatal and false notion of inferiority, only leaves -the immortal mind in a sort of embryo state, lest, perchance, there -should be any assimilation to the great Supreme Essence, from which -it is but an emanation, or the spark should glow with the brightness -of the fire from which it has been wafted. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -SECTARIANISM. - - -Besides the Koran, there are other sacred and traditional books -called the Sonnah, the productions of Abubekir, Omer, and Osman, the -successors of the Prophet. The ancient caliphs of Egypt and Babylon -have also added their own. These books have numerous commentaries upon -them, which constitute the principal part of the Mohammedan literature, -and have been the source of much dissension. Sectarianism, therefore, -prevails among the Mussulmans as in every part of the world. We will -only mention those sects with whom the traveller in the East is apt -to come in contact. - -The principal schism which divides the Mohammedan nation is that of -the Sünnees and the Sheyees. - -The Sünnees are the orthodox party, and believe in the traditions -attributed to the Prophet and his successors, and are strict in all -their observances. Whereas the Sheyees reject all traditions and -are strict legitimists, adhering to Aali, who married the Prophet's -daughter, as the rightful successor, and rendering their homage to -his descendants. - -The Turks are all Sünnees, and the Persians Sheyees, the one is more -fanatical, the other more superstitious, and as the difference between -them is small, so is their mutual hatred proportionably intense. - -The Sünnees repudiate Aali, the infallible director of the Sheyees, -who, in their turn, decapitate the representatives of the Prophet, -Abubekir, Omer, and Osman in effigy. For they erect these persons in -sugar at their festivals, and when merry over their wine, cut the -respected friends of Mohammed into pieces and actually drink them -in solution. - -The Turks elevate the sacred color, green, to their heads and -turbans with the greatest respect, but in contradistinction, the -Persians choose this hue for their shoes, trowsers, and every other -disrespectful use their ingenuity can devise. When the one shaves, the -other does not, and scorns the thorough ablutions of his rival. Indeed -no matter how or what, so it be vice versâ. - -Most ingenious and vituperative are their mutual curses. "May your -fatigued and hated soul, when damned to Berzak (purgatory), find -no more rest than a Giavour's hat enjoys upon earth." Doubtless -alluding to the peculiar custom of the Franks in uncovering their -head in saluting, and the wear and tear that head-gear has to -undergo. "May your transmuted soul become in hell a hackney ass, -for the Jews themselves to ride about on," and many such emphatic -compliments are the height of fashion among the zealous adherents of -each adverse party. - -Not only in the West, but in the East, - - - "'Tis strange there should such difference be, - 'Twixt tweedledum and tweedledee." - - -Apart from the foregoing, the very meaning of the word Islam, or -resignation to the service and commands of God, has been a source of -much dissertation and dissension, and has produced a variety of sects, -of which the Hanefees, Mevlevees, Rifayees, and Abdals, are the most -noted in Turkey. The Hanefees are the contemplative philosophers, -Oriental spiritualists or transcendentalists; and to this class the -sultan and the principal part of the people belong. The Mevlevees are -the dancing or whirling dervishes, and they may therefore be considered -as the Oriental Shakers. Their object is practical resignation to -God, which state of mind they think they attain, by whirling round -and round until their senses are lost in the dizzy motion. - -They conform to the general tenets and observances, but their form -of worship is peculiar. - -Their religious edifices are called Tekkés, which are open every -Tuesday and Friday, and are frequently visited by the sultan and -Europeans in general. - -A large square space, which is surrounded by a circular railing, -constitutes the scene of their ritual, or ceremonies. A gallery -occupies three sides of the building, in which is the latticed -apartment of the sultan, and the place for the Turkish ladies. - -In every mosque, and here also, there is a niche opposite the entrance, -called the Mihrab, which indicates the direction of Mecca. The walls -are adorned with entablatures, ornamented with verses from the Koran, -and with ciphers of sultans, and mottos in memory of other benevolent -individuals, who have endowed the Tekké. - -The Sheikh, or leader of the community, sits in front of the Mihrab, -on an Angora goat-skin, or a carpet, attended by two of his disciples. - -An attenuated old man, with a visage furrowed and withered by -time, bronzed by many successive suns, his long and grizzly beard -witnessing to the ravages of age, while his prominent eyes sparkling -like lightnings amid the surrounding darkness, are the only symbols -of animation or life, in his worn-out frame. - -The dervishes, as they enter, make a low obeisance with folded hands -to this patron saint, with an air of mystic veneration, and take -their stand with their faces towards Mecca. The old sheikh arises, -and presiding over the assembly commences the services. - -Their peculiar head-gear, called sikké, of thick brown felt, in the -shape of a sugar loaf, and long and flowing robes of varied hues, -make them seem like fantastic representations of some other sphere, -particularly, when they commence the slow and measured prostrations -of Mussulman worship. - -Prayers being over, each dervish doffs his mantle, and appears in a -long white fustanella, trailing the polished floor, and of innumerable -folds, with a tightly fitting vest of the same pure color. - -They now defile two by two before the sheikh, who extending his hand -towards them, seems to diffuse a sort of magnetism, which irradiates -every countenance. - -As they stand immovable, the wild and thrilling music slowly pervades -every sense, until suddenly one of the number extends his arms, -and begins to revolve noiselessly, with slow and measured step. The -folds of his ample skirt now gradually open like the wings of a bird, -and with the swiftness of his motion, expand, until the dervish -only appears like the centre of a whirlwind. The rest are all alike -in motion, arms extended, eyes half closed as in a dream, the head -inclined on one side, they move round and round to the measured time -of the music, as if floating in ecstasy. - -The calm and unimpassioned chief, with slow and stealthy step, -wanders among their evolutions. Suddenly they cease, and march around -the circle. The music increases its measure, and the dervishes again -commence their giddy motions; old and young seem to be in a visionary -rhapsody. Perhaps transported in the bewildering whirl to the regions -of the blest, they languish with rapture in the arms of the houris -of Paradise; or lose their earthly senses amid the glories which -surround the throne of Allah; till suddenly they stand transfixed, -their outspread and snowy drapery folding around them like the marble -investment of an antique statue. - -They are all prostrated, exhausted by their ecstasies, and immovable, -until the sheikh recalls them to the realities of time by his holy -benediction, when they slowly rise again, compass the building, and -enveloping themselves with their cast-off mantles, silently disappear. - - - - -HOWLING DERVISHES. - -There is an intoxication in the very motions of the whirling dervishes, -but the horrible ceremonies of the Rifayees are really distressing -to the beholder. - -A long, empty hall, much like that of the Inquisition, as its walls are -adorned by an infinite variety of instruments of torture, constitutes -their temple of worship. - -The fanatical disciples of this sect assemble every Thursday at -their Tekké, which is in Scutari, and after the performance of the -usual ritual of the Mussulmans, commence their ceremonies by ranging -themselves along the three sides of the apartment and within the -balustrade, which serves to separate them from the spectators. - -Their sheikh takes his stand before the Mihrab facing the assembly, -and three or four of the members furnishing themselves with instruments -of music place themselves in the centre of the hall. - -The performance then begins, by a monotonous chant, accompanied -with music, and the waving of their heads to and fro, which seems to -create a sympathetic vertigo in the Mussulman bystanders--for they -often are irresistibly drawn into the ranks. - -By degrees, the motion increases, the chant grows louder, and their -countenances become livid, and their lungs seem to expand with the -noise and excitement. - -The line becomes a solid phalanx as they place their arms on each -other's shoulders, and withdrawing a step, suddenly advance with a -tremendous and savage yell, Allah--Allah--Allah--hoo! which divine -appellative is to be repeated a thousand times uninterruptedly. - -This strenuous effort renders them perfectly hideous, their very eyes -seem ready to start from their sockets, and their lips foam as the -inspiration possesses them. Thus retreating and springing forward, -they, each time, with increasing energy, renew their invocations of -Allah, Allah, Allah, hoo! until the distinctness of their articulation -is lost, and their exclamation becomes, in reality a complete howl, -as if proceeding from a pack of enraged dogs--thus meriting the -sobriquet of the "Howling Dervishes." - -The movements and cries increase in swiftness until a mist of dust -pervades the dim apartment, and the wild and pale enthusiasts, -drenched with perspiration, seem like fantastic demons in the realms -of discord. Suddenly some of them, stripped to their waists, rush -forward and seizing the poignards and stilettoes, commence a wild, -infuriated dance, jumping, leaping, and lacerating themselves--fixing -the weapons into the hollow of their cheeks, and twisting them round -and round, as if on pivots, until, exhausted from exertion, they fall -to the ground in a spasmodic fit. - - - "Only to show with how small pain, - The sores of faith are cured again," - - -Now the enthusiastic mothers approach, and cast their children -before the presiding sheikh, who, as they lie extended before him, -deliberately plants his heavy feet upon their frail bodies, and -so stands for some seconds. Old men and maidens, lay themselves low -before this saint, who is supposed to be by this time so inspired as to -have a miraculous power of expressing all ailments and maladies from -the human frame, and to have become so etherealized by the ecstatic -ceremonies as to lose all his specific gravity. - -The Abdals include the various classes of the stoics, who generally -pretend to a total renunciation of all worldly comforts. Sometimes -clothed in the coarsest garments, and again half naked, and even -with lacerated bodies, they wander through the Mohammedan dominions, -a miserable set of frantic, idle, and conceited beggars. They may, -in fact, be considered the "communists" of the East, who despising -honest pursuits, live upon the community at large. - -They commit the worst extravagances under the pretence of heavenly -raptures, and are even supposed to be divinely inspired. Idiots and -fools are esteemed by the Mohammedans as the favorites of Heaven; -their spirits are supposed to have deserted their earthly tenements, -and to be holding converse with angels, while their bodies still -wander about the earth. - -It would be wearisome to go into further details; for infinite is the -diversity of the orthodox theologies of the Mohammedans, with the 235 -articles of the creed, on which all the doctors of divinity differ; -hopeless must be the task of the student to surmount the commentaries -of the 280 canonical authors, not to mention the innumerable heretical -tenets of other sects, which must be studied to be controverted. - -Verily we would suggest the recipe of a certain Molla, who must have -given up in dire despair, "Whenever you meet with an infidel, abuse him -with all your might, and no one will doubt you are a staunch believer." - -As long as war and its exciting scenes occupied the restless minds -of the Arabs, there was no time for religious or party intrigue. The -simple "La Illah-Illallah," satisfied the momentary breathings of -their souls heavenward. - -The turmoil of their life, the glitter of their arms and dreadful -carnage of all infidels, sufficed to ease their fancy, and satisfy -the thirst for excitement. - -It was as they wiped their blood-stained scimitars, and during the -reaction which comparative peace and luxury created, that their minds, -free from more substantial food and activity, sought greater refinement -of spirituality. - -In the absence of the real, the speculative began to grow, until Imams -and Ulema found that they could turn the tide of human affairs to their -own advantage, by exciting polemical and theological controversies. - -A comparative study of the niceties of Mussulman doctrine, and -hair-breadth distinctions with those of more refined and enlightened -creeds, while it displays many and striking similarities, only -illustrates, with startling vividness, the time worn maxim, that -"there is nothing new under the sun." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -DIN OR PRACTICE OF RELIGION. - - -The Din, or Practice of Religion, comprises ablution, prayer, alms, -fasting, and a pilgrimage to Mecca. - -Ablution.--Bathing, and various forms of ablutions, were practised long -before the time of Mohammed; but he has incorporated cleanliness with -his religion, until his followers seem to regard water as not only -possessed of virtue to cleanse the pollutions of their bodies, but -as purifying their souls from the contamination of sin. Therefore, -fountains are always to be found in the neighborhood of all the -mosques, in every part of the city and its suburbs, and on the -highways--for they never omit this preliminary to their devotions, -which includes washing the face, hands, and feet; and when they -happen to be in the desert, where no water can be obtained, sand -is substituted. Indeed, the same ablutions are so essential, that -their observance is invariably required of the faithful, before the -administration of an oath. - -Prayers. Five times a day the Mussulmans are summoned to prayer by -the muezzin. - -Early in the morning, just before the sun is above the horizon, the -ezan resounds through the still atmosphere, from the airy balcony of -the tapering Minaré. - -The Muezzin, covering his ears with his hands, as if to exclude all -terrestrial sound, turns his face towards Mecca, and chants with -musical cadence, the beautiful Arabic formula. "Allah, ikber! Allah -ikber! &c, great God! great God! there is no God, but God! I attest -that Mohammed is the apostle of God! Oh, Great Redeemer! Oh! Ruler -of the universe! great God! great God! there is no God but God!" and -he slowly moves round the balcony, as if addressing the inhabitants -of all parts of the world. - -Those who catch the echoes of the holy call, exclaim with solemn -earnestness, "There is no power, no strength but in God Almighty." - -Again, when the hour of noon seems to indicate a moment of repose -to the work-day world, the ezan summons all thoughts and aspirations -to the great God. At three o'clock in the afternoon, at sunset, and -finally at nine o'clock, the call resounds ere they prepare for sleep. - -How beautiful thus to note the passage of time, to look thus from earth -to heaven, to forget for a moment all worldly cares, and breathe out -a soul aspiration towards a better land. - -Those who happen to be near a mosque, enter it for the purpose -of performing their devotions; others are in their own houses; -and many prostrate themselves by the wayside; or even on board the -daily steamers. The mosques are always open, and there is an Imam -who presides over the devotions. - -The interior of a mosque, is as simple as that of any Protestant -church. The only ornaments seen are the suspended lamps, interspersed -here and there with ostrich eggs. There are no accommodations for -sitting down, and the altar is the niche or mihrab. There is a small -pulpit on one side, from which a sermon is preached every Friday noon; -but the form of prayer is always the same. - -As they assemble, they leave their shoes at the door, "for the ground -is holy," and seat themselves upon the floor, which is either covered -with carpet or matting. - -At the appointed time, the Imam commences the service, by taking his -position before the mihrab; and placing his thumbs behind his ears, -as if with his open palms to shut out all objects of sense, proclaims -to the assembly, "Allah-ikber! Allah-ikber!" The congregation rise and -imitate the officiating priest. All remain standing with their hands -folded on their bosoms, while the Imam repeats the first chapter of the -Koran--which is the Lord's Prayer of the Mohammedans, termed Fatiha. - -"In the name of the most merciful God; praise be to God, the Lord of -all creatures; the most merciful; the King of the day of judgment; -thee do we worship, and of thee do we beg assistance; direct us in -the right way, in the way of those to whom thou hast been gracious; -not of those against whom them art incensed, nor of those who go -astray. Amen." - -They then make a semi-genuflexion, by placing the hands on the knees, -and bending the person forward. A complete genuflexion succeeds, -which is made by bending the knees to the ground, and extending the -arms forward as a support to the body, while the forehead touches -the ground. - -These same genuflexions are again repeated; then partially rising they -sit on their bended knees. Here endeth the first lesson, for two other -similar ceremonies are repeated successively, during which any portion -of the Koran may be selected by the officiating Imam for recitation. - -The termination of the service is known when the Imam, after a few -moments of silent meditation, slowly turns his head, first towards -the right and then to the left, in token of salutation to the two -recording angels who are supposed to be hovering over each shoulder. He -then strokes his beard, and rises from his devotions. His example is -followed by the congregation, who immediately disperse. - -There is a wonderful air of sacred stillness during the services in -a mosque. The simplest and plainest attire is worn, and everything -excluded which could divert the attention from God and his worship. - -No man utters prayers as matters of form, while he stares about to -see how his neighbors' clothes are fashioned. No sound of footsteps or -creaking boots is heard, nor opening or shutting of pews. No cushioned -seats invite to listlessness, or even to slumbers; no ennui steals -over their devotional spirits; the world is literally and practically -excluded. No earthly houris tempt their thoughts from God, with -alluring smiles and recognitions; there is no peeping from behind -the prayer books, or fluttering fans, or any other of the insinuating -wiles of coquetry. - -Ladies with their sweet eyes turned to heaven, while their rosy lips -are modeled to scorn of their neighbor's want of taste and fashion, -are invisible in the Mohammedan temple. - -Here the faithful come to worship God, and they wisely divest the -shrine of their devotions of all the trappings of earthly grandeur, -and leave beyond the portal the alluring and sensual pleasures -of earth. The presence of Infidels during the hours of worship -is expressly forbidden, not only as being a source of mental -distraction to the faithful, but in reality an act of perjury on -their own part. "It is not fitting that the idolaters should visit -the temples of God, being witnesses against their own souls of their -infidelity. The works of these men are vain, and they shall remain -in hell-fire forever. But he only shall visit the temples of God, -who believeth in God and the last day, and is constant at prayer, -and payeth legal alms, and feareth God alone." - -Alms.--The essence of Islamism, resignation to the will of God, has -its legitimate effect upon the benevolence of the Mohammedans. If Allah -bestows wealth and luxury, they receive and enjoy the good gifts, but -without any self-gratulation. If misfortune arrive, they submit without -any feeling of degradation, practically illustrating the words of Job, -"Shall we receive good at the hand of the Lord and not evil?" - -The faithful are enjoined to be constant in prayer and give -alms. "Contribute out of your substance towards the religion of God, -and throw not yourselves into perdition. Do good, for God loveth those -who do good; unto such of you as believe and bestow alms, shall be -given a great reward," and whoever pays not his legal contribution of -alms duly, it is declared by Mohammed, that he shall have a serpent -twisted about his neck at the resurrection; so that the Mussulmans -have every incentive to charity, both as regards this life and that -which is to come. - -It is very common for them to found charitable institutions, such -as poorhouses, hospitals, etc., and the same principles of charity -induce them to an unlimited hospitality. - -During the feast of Ramazan, a special table is set for the poor, -in the houses of the wealthy, who come and partake without summons or -invitation. The innumerable beggars and mendicant dervishes in Turkey, -are doubtless tolerated from the same spirit of liberality. - -As the Koran is but a compilation from Jewish and Christian writers, -adapted to the spirit of the age in which it was promulgated, no -doubt the difficult but sublime doctrine of Christ, "Let not thy right -hand know what thy left hand doeth," was appreciated by the Prophet -in his directions regarding the exercise of the grace of charity: -"God loveth not the proud or vainglorious, nor those who bestow -their wealth in charity, to be observed of men." "Verily God will not -wrong any one, even the weight of an ant, and if it be a good action, -He will double it, and will recompense it in his sight with a great -reward." Their charities are, therefore, bestowed with the greatest -modesty and willingness, their supplications for aid from others made -without any air of servility. - -It devolves, then, upon modern civilization to establish corporate -and organized charitable bodies in Turkey, and to initiate the simple -Mussulmans into the self satisfaction which is awakened by public -meetings, and the parade of printed records. - -Fasting.--We live to eat, or we eat to live--therefore when we -are denied the great business and aim of life, we undergo a very -palpable kind of mortification. The dainty epicurean seldom conforms -to any regulations for extra abstemiousness, while others, more -superstitious, merely vary the hours of their repast--merging the -substantial meal into those which have not the nomenclature, but yet -become the reality of a good dinner. Again, the pleasant variety of -fish for fowl, or of oil for butter, does not leave any sensation of -emptiness, or mortification of the appetite. But there is a sort of -genuineness in the Mohammedan style of observing a fast--when, for -fourteen consecutive hours, absolutely nothing passes the lips--not -a drop of water, not even the homemade saliva is swallowed--no -hunger-easing pipe is smoked, nor anything indulged in to palliate -the gnawings of hunger and thirst. The laborer toils under a summer -sun--the weary hammal climbs the towering hills under an incredible -load--the athletic boatman for many hours pulls the oars; work, toil, -labor cease not, but the wonted sustenance is utterly withheld. - -It is wonderful to see this part of the Mussulman population during -the fasting season--bodily strength and vigor exuding in profuse -perspiration from every pore, while steady persistence in utter -abstinence from all refreshment is persevered in. - -This great monthly fast occurs once in every year-- - -"The month of Ramazan shall ye fast, in which the Koran was sent down." - -As they observe the lunar year, it falls in all seasons--and when it -occurs during the dog-days, the sufferings of the faithful are truly -great and distressing. Not only are they forbidden all lusts of the -belly and the flesh, such as may be committed by the eye, ear, tongue, -hand, feet and other members, but the heart must be abstracted as much -as possible from the world, and turned only to God and paradise--thus, -a season of holy rest is instituted. - -Among the many idlers who can afford to loiter away the day, some -assume an appearance of unusual sanctimoniousness, whose peculiarly -long faces and abstracted airs, most effectually ward off any attempts -to recall them to the realities of life. - -They listlessly toy with their chaplets, gazing into vacancy as -polished bead after bead slips through their fingers, and seemingly are -as divested of thought, as the unmeaning, but apparently, absorbing -playthings they ever dangle. These beads have no such significance -as the Catholic rosaries, but are always in the hand of the Oriental -gentlemen and ladies, and are often of great value, being composed -of large pearls and other precious gems, though the ordinary style -is to make them of cocoa shells, whale teeth, ivory or amber. - -During this fast the faithful are at the gate of religion, and the -very odor of their breath is considered to be sweeter than musk to -the olfactories of Allah! - -Some of them observe the fast in its true spirit and letter, and -all externally conform to its regulations. No doubt to those who are -incapable of religious ecstasies, who cannot transport themselves out -of the world, while clogged with their human tenements, who relish -not the unsubstantial viands of a superstitious faith, the hours drag -very heavily on from sunrise to sunset. - -Physical necessities sometimes force the less spiritualized to taste -some of the forbidden fruits, or to avail themselves of this occasion -to test the truth of the proverb, that "Stolen waters are sweet, -and bread eaten in secret is pleasant." - -The more faithful, in the midst of their sufferings remember that -as Mohammed was, fortunately, of human mould like themselves, -he informed them "God would make this an ease unto you and not a -difficulty--therefore * * * * * God knoweth that ye defraud yourselves -therein and forgiveth you, and now therefore * * * * * and earnestly -desire that which God ordaineth you, and eat and drink until ye can -plainly distinguish a white thread by the day-break, then keep the -fast until night," &c. - -Thus the faithful acquire new zest for all their sensual appetites as -they anxiously listen for the sunset Ezan, which releases them from -their sufferings. The breaking of the fast is called Iftar. Each person -is furnished with a small table, upon which are a bowl of light soup, -a few olives, some preserves and cakes. A chibouk, already filled and -ready to be lighted, is placed by their side. When the cannon booming -over the Bosphorus, announces the setting sun, each one partakes -sparingly of these refreshments, and having regaled himself with the -fumes of tobacco, attends to his regular sunset prayers, after which -a sumptuous dinner is served and enjoyed. The grand Namaz (prayer) -is performed, after which night is turned into day. The streets, -usually dark and sombre, are brightly illuminated and filled with -people, Mussulmans, Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and other Giavours, -who all seem anxious to enjoy the carnival, if not to share the -penance. The slender and tapering minarés are now girdled in light, -while between the consecrated spires, depend fantastic and luminous -bodies, the brilliant but mimic forms of familiar objects. The kahvés -are crowded with wearied Mussulmans, puffing out clouds of smoke, -in pure spite for their long abstinence from their favorite weed, -while their imaginations are regaled with the exciting tales of the -Meddahs, or the drolleries of the far famed Kara-gueöz. - -Stalls are erected with all the various preparations of food peculiarly -agreeable to Turkish palates; tempting shops stand invitingly open, and -tinkling music vibrates through the air. If Allah only is remembered in -the day, night seems to exclude that divinity from every thought; while -Eblis is apparently enthroned with all the orgies of his dominions. - -Exhausted nature at length compels the laboring classes to seek -their couches, while the more fortunate pashas and efendis, beguile -the remaining hours till morn, with continued festivities and the -exchange of social visits. - -Just before daybreak, the drum resounds through the streets of the -metropolis, when the faithful, without any reluctance, arise from -their slumbers to avail themselves of their last chance of regaling -their appetites and fortifying their corporeal frames against the -sufferings of the next fourteen consecutive hours. - -The morning gun, now booming upon the still air, re-echoed from hill -to hill, proclaims the dawn of another day, of self mortification at -the "gate of Heaven." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA. - - -How true the observation that the most helpless of all creatures -is man, born of a woman, who cometh forth like the tender bud of a -delicate and fading flower. - -The ever-living soul embarks on the vast ocean of life, in so frail and -delicate a tenement, that there is no semblance of strength to resist -the angry waves that continually dash against the tempest-tossed and -quivering fabric. - -But it outrides the storm of three score years and ten, until it -is engulfed in the maelstrom and eddying circles of the river of -Death. How vast, how exquisite are the sensibilities of man, whose -first emotions of pleasure and pain, are the alphabet of humanity. - -The pleasure felt by a sentient being, creates the first ideas of -good, while on the other hand the sensation of pain is synonymous -with evil. As we awake into existence, each passing moment seems to -develop new desires; our grasping souls and bodily wants are constantly -re-echoing each other's cravings; unsatisfied human nature is ever -on the alert, crying, give, give. This restless search for good, -pleasure, or happiness, leads its victims astray, and thus is created -the preponderance of evil; for such hot and eager haste stays not to -discriminate. The fatal apple seemed so good and so much to be desired -to the mother of all living, that she took, and ate; but when she had -eaten her eyes were opened. Thus by such efforts to secure the good, -the limit is overstepped, and suffering and sorrow entailed. Still, -none enjoy, and none suffer in the same degree; innumerable have -been the specimens of nature's handiwork, yet never were any two -individuals alike in their natural or intellectual structure. - -There is a wonderful connection between the physical and the moral -in our curious composition; and the latter is so much modified by -the former, that the variety of temperaments and dispositions may be -attributed to the reciprocal influences of these two constituents -of our being. The origin of good and evil is then embodied in our -own hearts, in the structure of the human frame, in our natural -susceptibilities to pleasure and pain. - -The individuality of pleasure and pain creates an approving and -disapproving principle in every human frame, and each man is pleased -with himself, when he enjoys a personal benefit from good or pleasure, -and displeased when he suffers from the consequences of pain or -evil. The lesson is soon learned that the evil might have been avoided, -and conscience raises her silent testimony in the bosom. Apart from our -own sensations, there seems to be a superstitious principle innate in -the human breast, a deference to a supreme good, which as the Ruler -and Creator of the universe, holds all created things in awe, and to -whom the conscience or self-approving and self-condemning principle -pays all deference. - -This principle has existed under every form of humanity, in every -variety of nation and blood, and has been educated, and developed by -different circumstances. - -Thus are derived all religions, and the fear of retribution for -transgressing the bounds which conscience claims for the real good, -and its essence the supreme Creator, has led men to various acts of -atonement or self-recommendation. - -The mind of man instinctively looked from "Nature up to Nature's God," -and sought an embodiment for the Divine essence, as there was for -the human. - -The earliest semblance of Divinity was displayed in the sun, moon, -and stars. The glorious orb of day, the great source of light and -heat, the vivifier of all creation, whose genial rays warming the -bosom of the mother earth, caused the tender grass to spring forth, -and every herb yielding fruit, to give its increase for the sustenance -of animal life, the great luminary of the vast universe, so beautiful -to gaze upon, and so powerful in its sway over the world alotted to -man for a dwelling-place, seemed as if placed in the heavens for the -especial adoration of all created things. - -The gentle moon with silver sheen, and softer radiance was fitting -bride for the all glorious and omnipotent god of day. And the -sparkling stars, like so many distant portals to the dominions of -divine effulgence, emitting each a ray of the internal brightness, -seemed one and all shrines of holy devotion. - -Such was the revelation of nature; and no wonder that the innate -impulse to revere and worship the Author of the universe, was kindled -into a fire of enthusiasm by the scintillations of the starry world. - -Not content with the semblance of the Creator in his works, the -ever-working mind of man sought an object more tangible--and thus, -doubtless originated the idol worship of the ancients. Then followed -a succession of creeds and dogmas, rites and ceremonies, to which -the superstitious principle was ever ready to yield obeisance. - -Ambitious and designing men sought to embody in themselves the germs of -sanctity and holiness--even did they add the sanction of intercourse -with the gods; even did they awaken the silent marble into mysterious -life, and utter oracles and decrees from the lifeless stone. - -Thus was nurtured the superstitious feeling in the multitude, until -the most absurd and revolting rites became the sole end, and aim of -existence--until the simple Hindoo, would, with a holy zeal, cast -himself under the wheels of the ponderous car of Juggernaut, and -while his tortured body was crushed to atoms, rejoice with ecstatic -faith in future felicity. - -The same principle of superstitious self-torment has existed in as -great force under the Christian dispensation. - -Even kings and emperors have tried to stifle the voice of conscience -by the most severe acts of penance and humiliation; and the humbler -members of the human family have willingly suffered every variety -of bodily anguish, which the most cunning devices of a wily and -calculating priesthood could contrive, while from many and hidden -motives, they have striven to produce an entire abnegation of self, -and a renunciation of all worldly hopes in the sin-tormented hearts -of their victims. - -Wars were undertaken, territories were coveted, and a holy crusade -was the pretext for taking possession of the city of Jerusalem, the -shrine of the holy sepulchre, and where crowds of pilgrims brought -their offerings and laid them in the coffers of the sanctuary. - -The dangers which beset the pilgrims amid the scimitars of the -barbarous Tartars, was the pretext for all Europe to rise in arms -with the determination to conquer or die in their defence. - -A wild enthusiast, with haggard features--a body worn and wasted with -fasting and holy vigils, and enveloped in coarse and dusty sackcloth, -elevating the symbolic cross in his attenuated fingers, wanders from -palace to palace, from house to house, from hut to hamlet, calling -aloud for vengeance upon the followers of the Crescent, who dared -to molest the children of God in the performance of their sacred -duties. As his naked feet, pierced by every flinty rock, leave their -crimson stains in his track, so does the thirst for Moslem blood burn -and consume the vitals of the restless human throngs, who listen to -his wild harangues. - -Pope Urban was ready to fan this flame, and the panting multitude -were by his holy and supreme power absolved from the weight of all -past offences as well as all those they should ever commit, if they -would prosecute with zeal this holy war. - -The worst of sinners, robbers and assassins, over whose hardened -hearts there still lingered the dying glow of the internal fire of -conscience, or before whose sin-distempered vision ever flittered -the phantoms of past transgressions, rejoiced to say avaunt for ever, -to the ghosts of their departed crimes, and feel an assurance of no -future retribution for their dark deeds of horror. A new field for -rapine and adventure opened before them, and they rushed impetuously -on to the combat. Many, who had led a life of more retired wickedness -and grown grey in sin were glad to seize a hope of salvation even on -the borders of eternity, and tottered along with the vast concourse. - -Rich and poor, young and old, with fervid zeal embraced the means -of future happiness beyond the grave. And the vast territory through -which these soldiers of the Cross wended their way was whitened with -the bones of the self sacrificed. - -Even after the great champion Godfrey de Bouillon, had gained the -prize, and enjoyed a regal rank of one short year's duration, he -had to surrender his earthly throne to his holiness at Rome, and -content himself like his followers with the hopes of a kingdom in -the unseen world. - -Vain would be the effort to count the victims of religious enthusiasm; -of the attempts to appease the great unseen essence of human life; -to propitiate the favor of that Power, which, as it has called into -being, can also summon his creatures from their earthly tenements, -and dispose of their spirits, as seemeth best to his sovereign will. - -But holy wars, and sin-atoning pilgrimages, are not confined to the -followers of the Cross. - -Wherever the Cresent glitters on the dome, or the muezzin proclaims the -ezan from the pointed minaré; wherever throughout the vast dominions -of the Mussulmans, resounds the cry Allah Ikber! Allah Ikber! are -the countless votaries of the religion of Mohammed, ready to arise -from their peaceful homes, and perform the sacred journey to the -shrine of their faith, the holy temple at Mecca. And year after -year, do the pilgrims trace a wearisome way through desert plains -and scorching heats, to the spot where they may roll off the burden -of self-condemnation, and kiss the all-atoning stone, which has been -the heirloom to mortality, since the foundation of the world. - -Although throngs of Mussulman pilgrims yearly visit the holy city -of Mecca, but few Europeans have left the impress of their footsteps -upon its soil. - -What millions of human beings, nothing intimidated by deserts, -mountains, and all sorts of hardships, have paid their devotions -to this shrine! The great have visited it with pomp, and all its -train of luxury and display; the grasping spirit of trade, has -summoned merchants from all parts of the East. The learned and wise, -of times that were, and times that are, have on the same occasion, -collecting the productions of genius, sought a mart for literature -and renown. Sultanas, and ladies of high and noble rank, have changed -their silken couches for wandering homes through the desert. - -Old age has tottered thither staff in hand, and poverty has never -failed to swell the concourse with its numberless train. The vast -multitude, hundreds of thousands of every rank and profession, crying -"La Illah! Il-Allah! Mohammed Ressoul Ullah!" every year people the -silent wastes of sand with the buzz of human voices, as they toil -along their weary way to the holy city of Mecca. - -Every Mohammedan is enjoined to perform this pilgrimage, or if unable -to go, to send a proxy, or an offering. - -"Verily, the first house appointed unto men to worship in, was that -which is in Mecca, blessed, and a direction to all creatures." - -For there was the Kubla, or point to which they were to turn their -faces in prayer. - -"And proclaim unto the people a solemn pilgrimage; let them come unto -thee on foot, and on every lean camel, arriving from every distant -road; that they may be witnesses of the advantages which accrue to -them from the visiting this holy place, and may commemorate the name -of God, on the appointed days, in gratitude for the brute cattle -which he hath bestowed on them." - -According to the traditions of the Arabs, the city of Mecca has been -the place of religious veneration, from the earliest times. Near -this city, on a mountain, Adam is said to have met his wife Eve, -two hundred years after the expulsion from Paradise. - -Here when Abraham was ready to sacrifice his son Ishmael (not Isaac), -the identical ram, which had been offered by Abel many years before, -was substituted in his place, sent expressly from Paradise. - -Here also, in the days of idolatry, was a temple dedicated to Saturn, -now the holy temple of Mecca. So that Mohammed found this place -already consecrated by sacred and ancient associations. - -Mecca, the birth-place, and Medina, the tomb of the Prophet, are -situated near each other; and not far from the coast of the Red -Sea. Mecca is in a valley surrounded by barren hills, which produce -nothing but the stones of which the houses are constructed. Water, -so essential to life, and most especially to all Mussulmans, is only -supplied by rain which is collected in cisterns; no streams flowing -from the adjacent mountains. Doubtless, the exceeding value all -Mohammedans attach to the pure element, is owing to its scarcity in -these regions, where their religion was promulgated, and the Koran -revealed from heaven. Their Paradise is represented as abounding -in fountains. - -There is "the water of Keafeeree, or camphor," a fountain at which the -people of God shall drink, so likened from the aromatic freshness of -this gum, and its snowy whiteness. The waters of zengefeel or ginger, -and the fountain of zelzebil, whose streams glide softly down the -throat; and the fountain of Taz-nim, which flows from the highest -regions of Paradise, and whereof those shall drink who approach the -Divine presence. - -Notwithstanding the barrenness of the soil and the unfavorable -situation of the city of Mecca, the wealth of its inhabitants is -very great. - -Arabia Felix, truly happy in comparison to the barren and desert tracts -by which she is surrounded, where the gentle zephyrs are perfumed -and laden with aromatic odors, whose villages and towns are crowned -with plenty, and adorned with gardens of delight, and trees bearing -all kinds of fruit, "Araby the blest" pours her treasures into this -holy city. Her gums and spices, olibanum, or frankincense, myrrh of -many kinds, balsams, sugar canes, cocoa nuts, and the fragrant berry -from Mocha. Nature rejoices in a perpetual spring, in this genial -clime which neither chills nor scorches her spicy products. - -In Mecca, congregate a vast crowd of Mussulmans with their merchandise -from all quarters of the East, so that the inducement, held out by -the Prophet, that "they may be witnesses of the advantages which -accrue from visiting this holy place," has no little power on the -calculations of the enterprising, while a misguided religious zeal -sways the multitude. - -The holy temple of Mecca has been under the successive patronage -of the caliphs, the sultans of Egypt and of Turkey, until by the -constant acquisition of wealth, it has attained its present splendid -magnificence. - -No unbeliever can profane the sacred precincts with the dust of his -feet, nor approach within gun shot of the consecrated portico, during -the season of the visitation of the pilgrims. Nor must the Faithful -defile their sinless bodies by any contact with the unsanctified -flesh and blood of the infidel Jews and Christians. - -"O true believers, verily the idolaters are unclean; let them not -therefore come near unto the holy temple after this year. - -"And if ye fear want, by the cutting off trade, and communication -with them, God will enrich you of his abundance, if he pleaseth; -for God is knowing and wise." - -"It is not fitting that the idolaters should visit the temples of God, -being witnesses against their own souls of their infidelity." - -Considering the resources which have contributed to construct and -adorn this shrine of the Mohammedan faith, the great wealth of many -nations, and the centuries which have successively rolled on, each -adding the superstitious offerings of religious votaries, it is no -wonder that it is magnificent to behold. The model from Paradise, -the rebuilding by Abram, and its preservation for so many years. - -The whole city of Mecca is considered holy ground but the objects of -special adoration are inclosed within a magnificent colonnade, the -foundation of which was laid by the second caliph Omer, to prevent -intrusion upon the sanctum sanctorum. The space inclosed by this -portico is about seven statium. The foundations are broad and lofty, -and approached by an extended flight of marble steps, on both sides, -without and within. No less than four hundred and eighty-four columns -support an arched entablature, which is crowned by a succession -of domes, surmounted by glittering crescents. The colonnade is -quadrangular, and in the four corners are minarés, raising their -tapering spires to heaven, in emblem of the ascending orisons of the -faithful, and from whose gilded galleries the sacred imams have, since -unnumbered suns have risen and set, proclaimed the hours of adoration. - -No gloomy darkness ever enshrouds this structure; for when day -withdraws its more glaring brightness, innumerable lamps cast their -fitful light around the pillars. - -What tales could these marble columns whisper of human hopes, and -even holier aspirations; of the wicked schemes of intriguing imams, -as with sacerdotal robes and turbans of emerald hue, they traced -their cautious way from pillar to pillar, and received and blessed -the vast concourse of souls, borne down with the ills and sins of -humanity. How honeyed their benedictions as they lay their gilded -palms on the humble suppliant, who would gladly bestow all his earthly -treasures for a sure hope of heaven where his joys would be enduring. - -Poor weak mortals! tools of each other, and victims of the calculating; -the deceiver and deceived, on the same journey, on the same race -course, where the goal is Eternity! - -Beneath these domes, and overshadowed by these tall minarés, the poet -and the scholar have met to repeat the traditions and romances so -peculiar to the glowing imaginations of the Oriental world, and to vie -with each other for literary fame; the astrologer and diviner, no doubt -the very genii and fairies of Arabian myth, have mingled in the throng. - -With what emotion have the deluded victims of superstition and remorse -prostrated themselves upon the hallowed ground, and with what ecstatic -faith in the rewards of their holy pilgrimage, have the only true -believers kissed the dust of the consecrated earth. - -Within this beautiful portico, there is a vast space, in the middle -of which stands the Caaba itself. - -After Adam was driven from Paradise, he begged the Almighty to allow -him to erect a Beit-el-maamur, or house of God, similar to the one he -had seen there. Therefore the Caaba was let down to Mecca, directly -under the Heavenly Temple. This was rebuilt after the deluge by Abram, -or as some say, again descended from the celestial realms, where it -had been preserved, and has been in the possession of the Ishmaelites, -or Arabs, ever since. - -The Caaba, or house of God, is a square building of stone, 24 cubits -long, 23 broad and 27 high. It is nearly surrounded by a semicircular -colonnade, at the base of which is a low balustrade. - -Bars of silver, from which lamps are suspended, connect the pillars -at the top. - -How mystic and beautiful are the glimmerings of these lights, as they -glisten on the dark night, in their silver lamps, casting uncertain -shadows around the marble columns--their dubious shining conjuring -up the shades of the Prophet and his honored descendants, all arrayed -in jealous and sacred green to watch the devotions of the multitude, -as they surround the shrine. - -The outside of the Caaba is covered with rich black damask, which is -renewed every year. - -The holy imams, pitying the true and faithful, and wishing to ward -off from them the dangers of sudden death, and the thousand other -casualties of life, bestow a small portion of the covering of this -house of God, which has imbibed the sanctity of three hundred and -sixty-five days' duration, and, therewith, the power to avert all -such evils. A small amount of worldly wealth is sufficient to touch -the heart of the holy Emir, who grants this precious charm, which, -resting in the bosom of its happy possessor, yields to him a sweet -repose from the anticipation of sudden trials which befall the less -fortunate inheritors of human life. - -Outside of this black damask is a band of gold which surrounds the -Caaba, and whose lustre is undimmed by time, for it is renewed every -year by the sultan of Turkey. The very rain which flows from the -roof of this edifice, partakes of its sanctity, and is conducted -therefrom by a spout of solid gold, whence it trickles down on the -tomb of Ishmael, the head and founder of the Arab race. - -Near the Caaba is the stone on which the patriarch Abraham stood, -when he was rebuilding the holy temple; and even his very foot-prints -are to be seen on the solid piece of rock, leaving no shadow of doubt -as to its identity. - -This ancient architect, unwilling to deface the walls by a scaffolding, -when they were beyond his reach, stood upon this stone, which chance -threw in his way; and, wonderful interposition of Allah! the stone -raised him when necessary, let him down again, and transported him -around his precious work, until the whole was finished! - -What a treasure to architecture, more worthy of fame than the -undiscovered stone of the philosopher; how carefully to be watched -and guarded from the profanations of unbelieving house-builders for -all time to come. - -Upon the southeast corner of the Caaba is the black stone set in -silver, which was dropped down from Paradise. - -Like other gems of the heavenly sphere, it was originally white and -shining--but alas! its brightness is dimmed, and even changed to -perfect blackness, by its contact with human sin. For ever since its -removal to this world, it has been polluted by the touch of mortals, -and the contact of their sinful lips. - -The interior of the Caaba is approached by a silver door, about the -height of a man from the ground, to which they ascend by movable -steps. There is a single room hung with red and green embroidered -damask, and the roof is supported by four pillars eight feet square, -made of aloes wood. - -A sweet perfume pervades this apartment, which has been emitted from -these pillars ever since Mohammed was born in the holy city of Medina, -and silver lamps are suspended, which burn night and day. Near the -Caaba are small chapels for the imams of the different Mohammedan -sects, who severally bestow their blessings upon the pilgrims. - -The agonized mother of Ishmael, wandering in the wilderness, her -scanty bottle of water quite empty, having cast her helpless infant -under the shrubs, and retreated that she might not see him die, -sat at a distance and lifted up her voice and wept. - -The dying moans of the infant reached the ears of the angel of God, -who, to save the father of a great nation, caused the well-spring of -water to gush forth from its recesses in the bowels of the earth. - -As the ministering angel wiped the tears from the eyes of the -disconsolate mother, she spied the crystal water, and hastened to -administer to the fainting child. This same well, called the well of -zem-zem, is near the holy house of prayer, and the thirsty pilgrims -every year quaff its venerated waters and carry some of it to all -parts of the Mohammedan dominions. - -Such being the holy places, no wonder that every Mussulman, whether -commanded or not, should desire to visit these sacred relics of -antiquity. - -And were it not forbidden, doubtless the unbelievers also would gladly -undertake the same pilgrimage to witness the miraculous preservation -of objects which are, some of them, incorporated with their own faith. - -Four caravans meet in the city of Mecca, in the month Zil-hidjay, -or the month of pilgrimage, every year--one from Cairo, one from -Constantinople, a third from the Barbary states, and a fourth from -India. The Egyptian caravan waits for the arrival of the one from -Constantinople at Redowa near the holy cities. As the Sultan of Turkey -holds the possession of the holy cities in his own territories, he -is bound to send certain offerings to the shrine, which are the gold -band and black damask covering for the Caaba, with a large sum of -money to be distributed among the priests at Mecca. A certain kind -of money is expressly coined at the royal mint for the pilgrimage, -called the Caaba money. It is in gold pieces, and every one who goes -to Mecca must provide himself with this circulating medium. - -The wants of the numerous poor pilgrims are provided for in part, -by an appeal to the superstitions of the populace. A model of the -temple at Mecca is paraded through the streets followed by a crowd -of the zealous chanting hosannas in Arabic, accompanied by the music -of a drum of antique contrivance. - -But few can withhold a tribute. The miser opens his hoards, and the -widow adds her slender mite; the grandee and the slave, one and all, -gladly answer the appeal of their fellows, when under a banner of -such sacred veneration, and for a cause so laudable as a pilgrimage -to the holy shrine of their faith. Rich and poor are busily employed -in preparations. - -The dervish in his humble robes, needs no costly array. His garb of -sanctity, and the renunciation of all the trappings of wealth, open the -purses of the more gaily apparelled; and often the rags of a mendicant -conceal a full purse, much better filled perhaps, than his, who has -spent his all on costly embroideries and richly caparisoned steeds. - -The pasha and the efendi arrange their financial affairs, taking -care to carry costly offerings, and largesse, wherewith to impress -the multitude with their own greatness. - -The ladies of the harems, in like manner, collect their jewels, their -perfumes, in a word gifts of all things esteemed rare and precious, -that they may not go empty-handed to the holy temple. - -The merchants pack up their silks and rich stuffs of all sorts, -and prepare for edification both temporal and spiritual. - -Considering the immense throng of pilgrims, what must be the din of -preparation throughout the Ottoman dominion? - -Constantinople, its sultan, its treasury, its inhabitants high and -low, its ladies, its saints and beggars--even the lisping children -are whispering, God is great, Mohammed is his Apostle, and the Caaba -is the house of God. The Egyptian viceroy is assembling his horseman -and his camels at Berket el Hadge; the Maghrubees, or Barbaresques, -are sharpening their scimitars, and preparing as if for war. India's -wealth, her pearls, shawls, and rubies, and stately elephants, are -slowly wending their way to the shores of the Persian Gulf, where at -al Katif, on the Arabian side, the old sheikh is tarrying with his -herds of camels, to sell or hire them for the passage of the desert. - -The holy Mecca is thus, for several months at least, the theme of -all classes of Mohammedans. - -At length the day arrives to begin the journey so fraught with -blessings temporal and spiritual. - -The conductor of the Constantinople caravan, called the Surré Emminee, -or the trustee of the pilgrimage, proceeds to the palace, to receive -his commission from the sultan; and to him are consigned all the -treasures destined for Mecca. - -All hopes of worldly aggrandizement are henceforth renounced by this -dignitary; for having once imbibed the holy atmosphere of Mecca, his -future aspirations are supposed to be only heavenward. He therefore, -upon his return, generally retires to Damascus, where, nearer to -the shrine, and in a clime more genial for holiness, he awaits his -translation into that Paradise, of which his earthly honors are the -type and foretaste. - -Quitting the august presence of the "Thrice happy lord of the refulgent -Mecca," the Surré Emminee goes to the Porte, where he takes leave of -his former colleagues in temporal greatness, and thence to the gate -of the Sheikh-ul-Islam, who grants his blessing on the enterprise. - -The pilgrims and others collect about him, and they proceed to Bahchai -Capusoo, where a steamer is waiting to transport them over to Scutari, -in Asia. - -There, all along the route, are multitudes of people waiting to see -the procession. - -The insignia of the Surré Emminee are borne before him; two long poles, -to which the expressive horse-tails are attached, and the Pasha of -two tails follows on a beautiful Arabian charger. - -The treasures destined for Mecca succeed on a train of camels, all -bedecked with ribbons and spangles. But this world's grandeurs are -bestowed unequally even to these patient animals; for there is one -of their number who outshines all his fellows. A venerable camel -is covered with trappings enriched with precious stones of rare -and sparkling lustre, for on his back he carries the sacred Koran -extravagantly bound, and enclosed in a golden box set in brilliants; -the gift of the sultan to the temple. - -Happy is this distinguished animal, and his companions also, if they -survive the pilgrimage and return; for, like the Surré Emminee, they -are exempt from all future toil in this work-day world; and when Death -at last claims them for his prey, they enjoy the honors of a burial, -where no rude dogs or vultures can disturb their remains. - -The Validé Sultan, or the mother of the sultan, reclines in her -Tahtravan, a sort of elongated sedan chair, which is suspended on -long poles between two camels and magnificent in proportion to the -high rank of its occupant. - -Mussulman women and children follow, in huge panniers, suspended on -the sides of camels, horses, and donkeys. - -Indeed, the good fathers and husbands of the Osmanlis are ever anxious -to ensure to the female portion of their families high places in the -celestial regions; and they are generally accompanied by their harems. - -"It is incumbent on him whose family shall not be present at the holy -temple, to fast three days in the pilgrimage, and seven when he is -returned; they shall be ten days complete." - -And the same period of fasting is enjoined upon him "who findeth not -anything to offer" at the shrine. - -Mohammed himself set an example in this respect; for when he -encompassed the Caaba, he was accompanied by his family, and his wife -Kadijah, who, with his daughter Fatima, were two of the four women -whom he pronounced to have attained a state of perfection on this -side of the grave. - -Trains of servants, led horses and camels, swell the concourse; -and the whole is protected by a body of cavalry. - -About six miles from Scutari, there is a fountain which bears the -name of Iraluk Cheshmaysee, or the fountain of separation. - -Thus far a number of friends and relations have accompanied the -pilgrims; but, as in the journey of life, none can carry their loved -ones with them into the celestial regions, so these travellers who -are on an emblematic pilgrimage must now sunder strong ties, and -loosen their hearts from earthly affections. - -Fountain of parting! how are thy streams now accumulating, as the -pearly drops of human woe trickle in among thy waters; how many -days must pass ere those waters regain their crystal brightness, now -all turbid with the crimson gushings of the heart blood of fathers, -mothers, wives, husbands, and children! - -Sadly they part: some turn their faces homeward with bitter sighs, -while the pilgrims pursue their course, every advancing step widening -the distance, till their clouded eyes can discern no further traces -of the severed. - -Even as faith reveals to the dying the glory of a celestial world, -and reconciles the most trembling to a passage from the dim scenes -of Earth; so does superstition foreshadowing the hour of mortal -dissolution, display an earthly temple as the vestibule to the -heavenly. - -With eager steps, the pilgrims now press onwards, till they reach the -most ancient and beautiful city of Damascus; where they halt for the -caravans from Bagdad, Aleppo, and the neighboring towns. Time-worn -associations flit about this monument of the wealth of the earliest -founders of cities, after the universal deluge. - -As the descendants of the great survivor of the wreck of the -antediluvian world sought out a portion of the wide expanse of -uninhabited, and as yet uncultivated earth, this lovely valley -of nature's own handiwork seemed to invite their tarrying, as it -lay in calm repose, all fresh and verdant from the great waste of -waters. Perhaps they discovered the ruins of a great city, the remnants -of ancestral wealth; or the relics of the luxury and degeneracy which -brought about the awful destruction of the victims of the flood. - -Rapidly rose the proud city, and was famed even at the time of the -first battle of which there is any record, of the five kings against -four, the great Chedorlaomar and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, -when the patriarch Abram went to rescue his nephew Lot, who had been -taken captive. - -It was the birth-place, too, of Eliezer, the steward of Abram, who -must have been a man of superior attainments, as he had the care -of all his master's possessions, and even of the betrothal of his -beloved son Isaac. - -This ancient capital of Syria did not escape the enthusiasm of Moslem -conquest, and the great Saracen generals, Abu-Obeidah and Khaled, -took possession of the famous city, after a slaughter of 50,000 -infidels, during the reign of Abubekir, the successor of Mohammed, -A. D. 633. Damascus now became the capital of the Ottoman dominions, -and their pride and glory; for they boast Evvely sham, Akhery sham, -or, that as they had their beginning in Sham or Damascus, so there -also, they will have their end. - -So precious do they esteem this city, that it is styled the pearl -surrounded by diamonds, and the gate of the most holy Mecca. - -Here, then, at the most beautiful gate, do the pilgrims to the -sacred shrine delight to repose awhile, their senses ravished with -the loveliest enchantments of nature. Their eager vision extends over -vast plains of richly waving foliage, mingling with its emerald hues, -the brilliant tints of the citron, pomegranate, and fig. Sweet odors -of aromatic freshness pervade the balmy air, while luscious and juicy -fruits revive their thirsty senses. Over this vast and exquisite -prospect, tower tall minarés, and graceful domes with glittering -crescents, proclaiming as far as the eye can reach, the sway of -Mohammed Ressoul Ullah. - -But there is yet a weary way to the shrine, and the zealous throng, -now swelled to a vast multitude, renew their journey. If the weather -is very oppressive, they encamp in the day-time, and proceed by the -light of innumerable torches at night. - -How mysterious the pageant, stretching its long train over the -barren and trackless sands. The camels, with stealthy step, waving -their long necks slowly and majestically; now and then the Arabian -coursers neighing in wearied restlessness, break the silence. Then a -voice chanting a hymn of praise, and anon, a shout or chorus from the -multitude. Now all is still, and fitful shadows glide along side by -side with the wanderers, as the bright jewels on the camels glisten -in the torch-light. - -The caravan has passed, leaving in its track many palpitating forms, -panting on the sands for that breath of life, which is rapidly exhaling -from their bodies. - -So weary a way--sometimes no water to quench the thirst, which rages -in proportion to the scarcity of its antidote; fatigue adding its -prostrating effects day by day, no wonder that many of the way-worn -pilgrims are transferred to the Heavenly Temple, without a sight of -the earthly. - -The caravan from Cairo is also moving onwards, made up of a motley -multitude, headed by the Emir Hadgee, who is appointed by the pasha of -Cairo, and receives great emoluments from his office. Every pilgrim -pays him a certain sum for the enregistering of his name and property, -and the possessions of all those who die on the road, are also his -perquisites. He is the governor of the pilgrimage, and is judge -and jury in all matters of dispute. The Egyptians always carry with -them the tomb of Hassan, and accompanied by cavalry and artillery, -they proceed as far as Redowa, near Medina, where they are to meet -the Constantinople caravan. About two days' journey from Cairo, -they arrive at a place called Miz-Haara, the ancient Marah of the -Israelites, where, when the people murmured at the bitterness of -the waters, Moses cast a tree into them, and they became sweet, of -surpassing sweetness to all thirsty pilgrims. Thus they travel over -the same wilderness as their ancient predecessors, encamping in the -very spots selected by Moses for the tents of the chosen people of God. - -After these caravans meet, they proceed, a vast multitude, to a -village about sixty miles from Mecca, where is Abram's mountain, -on which he erected the altar to sacrifice his son. - -On the top of this hill is a mosque, where an old sheikh resides, who, -as the pilgrims halt, stands on the brow of the hill, and delivers an -address to them on the importance of the duty they are performing, -reminding them also of the blessings in store for all zealous -Mussulmans. To what an immense audience does this lonely old man once -a year proclaim the tenets of the Koran, and how eagerly do their -thirsty souls quaff the water of everlasting life as he dispenses it. - -Now the Emir Hadgee conducts the pilgrims one by one to the feet of the -sheikh, as he stands in the mosque on the top of the hill, Rabiie. As -they enter one door and pass out at the other in rapid succession, -each one is touched by the divining rod in the hands of the old sheikh, -and the burden of all their past transgressions rolls from their backs, -as he pronounces the words, "May sin here leave thee." - -Lightened from the pressure of sin in every form, they run swiftly down -the hill, and bathing their hands and faces in a stream which flows -below, they become renewed, men, women, and children; and prepared -to gaze upon the holy city of Mecca, which is not far distant. Now -turning their faces to the shrine, the true believers hasten on their -way; sometimes halting at the tomb of Eve, which is at Giddeh, the -port of Mecca. - -This illustrious and ancient mother of the human race must have been a -dame of fair proportions; for her grave measures, from the head to the -foot stone, no less than twenty-five yards, or seventy-five English -feet. If she was of such exceeding stature, what must have been the -dimensions of our great parent Adam, or what lofty personages must -have been the giants of those days. - -After travelling about three days longer, the domes of the Holy Temple -are descried in the distance; when the multitude with mad delight -prostrate themselves on the ground, and kissing the earth three times, -proclaim with tremendous clamor, La Illah! Ill Lallah! Mohammed -Ressoul Ullah! - -There is no other God but God! Mohammed the Apostle of God! - -The artillery is now fired to announce the arrival of the caravans to -the inhabitants of Mecca, who, headed by the Shereef of the city and -all the Imams, immediately proceed to meet the pilgrims, and conduct -them within the sacred precincts. - -Those who possess but scanty means, encamp without the city, and -others are accommodated at khans, which are very numerous. - -The next thing is to visit the bath, and thus purify themselves for -the ceremonies at the temple--"I will wash my hands in innocency, -so will I compass thine altar, O Lord." Having invested themselves -in the ehram, or covering of crimson woollen shag, which is always -wrapped around the person on this occasion, they proceed to the Caaba. - -Mohammed having performed these same ceremonies, his followers have -ever since imitated his example. - -Immediately after the Prophet took possession of the city of Mecca, -he proceeded to the Caaba. There he stood upon the roof of the house of -prayer, and proclaimed the first ezan, or call to prayer, at noon-day. - -He then commenced his adorations at the shrine, by first kissing -the black stone in the corner, near the door of the Caaba, then he -proceeded to compass the building seven times, and then again kissed -the sin-atoning stone. When the Caaba was let down from heaven to Adam, -he requested that it might be so placed that he could compass it as -he had seen the angels do. Ever since the creation, the number seven -has had a mystic signification, and its sacred meaning is demonstrated -in these devotions of the faithful. Mohammed then proclaimed to the -people from Mount Arafat, the manner in which they were to perform -the ceremonies at the Temple, and went to the valley of Mina, where -he threw seven stones at the devil, every time pronouncing the words, -Allah Ikbér! Allah Ikbér! God Almighty! God Omnipotent, as did Adam -and Abraham, when the great Adversary interrupted their devotions. - -The enemies of the Prophet account for the accumulation of stones in -this valley by the following story. - -It is well known that Mohammed was assisted in the preparation of -the Koran, by an Armenian monk, by name Serkiss. When their work was -completed, the Prophet wished to attest it by a miracle. - -He accordingly persuaded Serkiss to descend into a deep well, while -he called all the multitude to assemble. Holding a blank book in his -hand, he declared that if the Koran was indeed revealed from Heaven, -he would drop this blank-book into the well, and Allah would send it -up all written and inscribed. - -The book descended, and Serkiss sent up the one he had already -prepared. "Now," said Mohammed, "let each man cast a stone into the -well, which will be a monument to the world." Whereupon every one -of the great concourse cast a stone, and thus effectually prevented -Serkiss from appearing to contradict the miracle. Ever since that -time, the pilgrims have helped to accumulate these stones, until a -vast monument, indeed, has been erected. - -The Prophet now offered the sacrifice of sixty-three camels, according -to the years of his own life, shaved his head, and having run seven -times between the two hills Safa and Merwa, in imitation of Hagar -searching for water, he completed the holy ceremonies. - -According to this model have the pilgrims continued, ever since his -time, the performance of these superstitious devotions. - -The holy duties of the shrine being over, after a few worldly cares are -disposed of, the now self-satisfied travellers turn their footsteps -homewards. Purified, and set apart, henceforth the chosen of Allah, -fearless of all danger, as if within the shadow of the eternal world, -nothing intimidates the followers of the Prophet, as with the greatest -self-complacency they anticipate the rest of their sojourn in this -lower world. Many have sacrificed all their earthly possessions, -but are they not sure of the imperishable riches of paradise. With -eager fondness, they embrace once again friends and relations, while -the odor of sanctity exhales from their sacred persons. With what -panting bosoms and restless vision do the friends search among the -remnant returned from the wanderings, for dear and familiar faces; -and human wailings rend the air, as they are told that brother, sister, -and husband, lie whitening on the sand, long ere this the prey of the -vulture. The happy father clasps to his breast his precious offspring, -and with sweet complacency, ties around its neck a morsel the holy -covering of the Caaba, so sure the charm, and obtained at such infinite -perils. The pilgrims are surrounded, and with jealous caution they -bestow a few drops of the water of the holy well Zem-Zem, which glides -down the throats of the faithful like the oily fountains of Paradise. - -The weary camels even linger out their lives in luxurious idleness, -retired from oppressive service, with an air of unconscious sanctity -and repose. - -Henceforward, the glorious title of Hadgee, belongs to the returned -pilgrim; no razor profanes the beard, and the very door of the house, -by its hue of the Prophet's robe, the sacred green, proclaims the -rank and holiness of its master. - -The Hadgee, with long and solemn face, never wearies of recounting -his wonderful adventures, portraying with ecstasy, the splendors of -the shrine, detailing with holy rapture the ceremonies and devotions, -until the flame of superstitious zeal is enkindled in every bosom, and -their spirits yearn for the sweet sanctity and all-atoning atmosphere -of the most refulgent Mecca--and many vows are made that in the coming -year, their footsteps shall surely be thitherward. - -Such, then, are the illusions which beguile life's wearisome journey -to the followers of Mohammed; such the stepping-stones to their -future Elysium. - -Thus the tortures of conscience are eased, and thus does superstition -stand fully armed at the portals of the soul. - -Few, indeed, are the members of the great human family, who dare -to combat this enemy to moral greatness; and how small the number -of those, who renounce her sway. Chained down to creeds and dogmas, -the mind of man seldom soars above the atmosphere of human inventions, -but relyingly lingers in the leading strings of bigotry, in one form -or another. - - - -Thus is constituted the Practice of the Mohammedan Religion, viz., -Ablutions, Prayers, Alms, Fasting, and the Pilgrimage to Mecca, -which are denominated Farz, or obligatory. There are, however, many -other traditional observances termed Sünnet, which as the Turks are -Sünnees or traditionists, they have incorporated with their religious -duties, such as circumcision, and many other rites. These rites, whose -observance is only optional, are, however, performed with as much zeal -and ceremony as those required by the Koran. Although the ceremony -of circumcision is not alluded to in the Koran, and therefore not -indispensable, yet it is a custom generally observed, and is performed -when the child is able to pronounce the formula of faith "La Illah, -Ill Allah, Mohammed Ressoul Ullah," or is about the age of seven years. - -This is a great festival, and when the sultan's children, or those -of any of the grandees, are the neophytes, a general invitation is -extended to other candidates. Music, dancing, and feasting occupy -the minds and distract the thoughts of the numerous company, young -and old, during the week devoted to this ceremony. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -PRINCIPLES OF THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT. - - -A people descended from nomadic tribes, and, until very recently, -severed from foreign intercourse, would naturally retain its simple -and national type. Besides, the peculiar bond of an exclusive faith, -would still more tend to the preservation of ancient and characteristic -usages. - -Thus the Osmanlis have, with hitherto but few deviations, preserved -their identity as an eminently patriarchal nation. As the son -recognized the parent to be the governor and controller of his career, -the fountain of experience and wisdom, and rendered to him a willing -and natural obedience; so the people, needing such a fatherly care and -control, were ready to invest one of their number with this authority. - -Every system has its centre. The sun rules in the heavens--and the -great mass of humanity seek a centre, around which to rally. The -wonderful magnetism of mortal emotion tends to a common point, as -surely as the needle to the pole. Thus some species of monarchy, -whether elective or hereditary, seems inevitable to a multitude of -beings, cast in human mould. - -Tribes were instituted in early times, each with its patriarch or -petty monarch; and when, for mutual strength or by conquest, these -various tribes were combined, the monarch, with increasing subjects, -became more powerful and distinguished. - -When the wandering Tartars embraced Islamism, their chief becoming -the successor to the Caliphate, was not only their temporal, but -spiritual head. These two elements of power, church and state, -endowed the monarch with unlimited sway, beyond whom there could be -no appeal. The simple patriarch now becomes not only the father of -his people, but the representative of Allah; the sole controller of -life and death, property and religion. Years, even centuries, roll -on, the scimitar gains nation after nation, fertile territories and -treasures to the followers of the Crescent, and innumerable multitudes -swarm around the standard. - -The Padi-Shah, or ruler of this vast concourse of men, the absolute -owner of the domain far and wide, now rejoices in the adulations of -his superstitious subjects who acknowledge him as the - -"King of Kings, and Lord of Lords; Ruler of the East and West, -and of all parts of the world; Prince of the Holy and chaste city of -Jerusalem; shining with the brightness of God. Thrice happy Lord of the -refulgent Mecca. Tamer of infidels, and the scourger of the unbelieving -race of Christian vassals. Lord of the White (Mediterranean), and the -Black Seas. The most mighty and invincible Sultan, who has power from -God to rule all people with a bridle." - -Many other similar titles are bestowed upon him, which, though they -may seem somewhat bombastic, or even ridiculous, in these days of -equality and freedom, yet are not unparalleled in some of the more -civilized realms of modern Europe; nor without their legitimate -influences upon the subjects of this potentate. - -In order to illustrate the wonderful effect which the assumption -of such high-sounding appellatives has upon the general mass of the -people, I will relate an incident which happened to myself:-- - -During a recent sail on the Bosphorus in a cayik, and immediately -after the arrival of the allied fleets, I thought to amuse myself with -some political chit-chat with my boatman. As I was remarking about the -assistance of the Allies, the simple-minded, but thorough Mussulman, -was very prompt in solving the mystery of this unheard-of political -combination; why should two sets of giavours combine with the true -believers, against a third? - -The reason seemed plain enough to him. The French giavours had a new -king, and since the Padi-shah is the "Prince of Princes, and Lord of -Lords," in order to merit at his hands the consummation of royalty, -they had come to fight for him, bringing along England to intercede -for them. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE ADMINISTRATIVE GOVERNMENT. - - -Although the power and authority of the sultan is unlimited, and his -sway entirely arbitrary, the disposal of affairs is naturally consigned -to various officers. The two principal of these are the Grand Vezir, -and the Sheikh-ul-Islam. - -The Grand Vezir was formerly called Lala, or Tutor, because he -was the sole adviser to his majesty, and as he exercised the civil -functions of the executive, he was styled "Vekili-Mutlah," or vicar -absolute. He therefore enjoyed all the rights and immunities of his -imperial master--to the entire control of property and life itself. - -He used to head the army in time of war; make all appointments -to office; give audiences to the foreign ambassadors, receive and -answer their memorials; and he only, of all the ministers of the -realm, had free access to the royal presence. As he was amenable to -no tribunal, his only forfeit being his own head, and his worldly -possessions, it was his policy to render the person of the sultan -inapproachable--between whom and his people, a mystic veil seemed -ever to depend. By degrees, the monarch, who should have been the -father of his people, removed from all intercourse with his subjects, -became only the shrine of their superstitious devotions, the deity of -their worship, the proxy of Allah; while the real administrator of the -realm, was the selfish, ambitious, scheming, and blood-thirsty Grand -Vezir. Even on Fridays, as his majesty appeared in public on his way -to the mosque, he was so surrounded by pomp and royal pageantry, as -to be almost invisible. But since the promulgation of the Tanzimat or -reformation, an entire change has been effected in the administrative -department, and a substantial check imposed upon the Grand Vezir, -whose former prerogatives and immunities have been much curtailed. - -There is now a council attached to each department, which deliberates -upon the various measures proposed. A grand national council, -established on a somewhat European system, called the Medjlissi-Wala, -or senate, composed of the dignitaries and notables of the nation, and -presided over by a Reiss or chief of its own, controls the affairs of -the nation in general. Its duties are to prepare the laws; establish or -revise the basis of the taxation; regulate the revenues and expenditure -of the government; to draft the instructions for the governors of the -provinces; to try all treasonable acts and crimes committed against -the state; to correct the abuses of the functionaries; to attend to -the complaints of citizens brought against the different agents or -authorities; to draw up sentences for criminals, which are either -maintained or modified by his majesty, etc. etc., - -There is another council called the Medjlissi-Khass, or special -council, which, being composed of the ministers of the different -departments, may be termed a cabinet, or privy council. - -The Grand Vezir, as prime minister, presides over this. These two -councils together, constitute what is termed and generally known as -the Baabu-Aali, or the Sublime Porte. - -Baab is the Arabic word for gate, or porte in French. Ever since -Mordecai sat in the king's gate, and perhaps long before his time, all -the places of public administration in the East, have been designated -by this term. For instance, Baabu-Sheik-ul-Islam, is the Superior -Court; Baabu-Serasker, the war department, and in contradistinction -to all the other courts or departments, the government of the Ottoman -empire is denominated the Baabu-Aali, or the supreme gate or court; -a term of similar significance, with the Court of St. James, the -Tuileries, or the Government at Washington. - -Thus it will be perceived, that the original autocratic government -has now been reduced into a form of bureaucracy. - -The vast empire of Turkey, partaking of the territories of no less than -three continents, is divided into thirty-seven Ayalets or provinces; -each Ayalet being sub-divided into Livas or counties; and each Liva -into Kazas or townships. These provinces, counties, and townships, -are respectively governed by Valis, Kaimakams, and Müdirs. - -The governors, etc., of these provinces, formerly enjoyed in their -respective domains the same absolute authority as the Grand Vezir, -and answered with the same forfeiture of their heads and property -for their misdemeanors. But of late years, the same check has also -been put upon their powers, as in the central government, by the -establishment of councils, &c. - -All the ministers and governors of Provinces are now appointed by -the sultan, and the secondary places are filled by the appointment -of the Grand Vezir. - -When his majesty designs to elevate a person to the office of minister -of the realm, one of the chamberlains of the palace proceeds to -summon the individual to the royal presence, where he is invested in -his new office by the bestowal of the Nishani-Müshir or the badge of -rank in brilliants, which is suspended around the neck; and an Iradé -or Edict is granted him by the Sultan. He then proceeds with much -pomp and ceremony to the Porte, where he is immediately recognized, -according to the royal commands. He is met at the foot of the stairway -by the Grand Vezir in person, who bows to the edict presented to him -by the chamberlain with as much reverence as if it were his royal -master himself. Holding the document over his head, the viceroy -enters the grand council chamber, where he reads it in a loud voice, -and the ceremony is concluded by an extempore prayer, offered by the -mufty of the council--and the new minister is conducted to his gate, -or his own department. - -When they are deposed from office, the royal chamberlain appears, -demanding the Nishan which is immediately relinquished. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT. - - -The policy of the government has hitherto been centralization, that -is, to draw the mass of the people from the frontiers to a common -centre, in order the more readily to suppress any rebellion; and by -depopulating the borders, to prevent the approach of foreign invasion. - -Besides, even while consigning the inhabitants of the provinces to -the arbitrary control of the governors, a certain degree of awe and -ready submission might be inspired towards the central government, -which could, at pleasure and option punish, with one fell blow, -the very ruler who was regarded as omnipotent in his own territories. - -Also, it was with ulterior designs, that such a degree of laxity was -tolerated. The distant and provincial authorities, in grasping all -within their reach, and oppressing the people under their control, -were able to amass great possessions for themselves; but they were -amenable to the supreme power, which availed itself of its prerogatives -to judge and condemn, upon the slightest accusation, and to confiscate -and appropriate the spoils, with the semblance of justice itself--as -if avenging the wrongs of an injured population. - -Notwithstanding, there was often an assumption of independence in -many of the provincial authorities, who succeeded in maintaining -the dignity of Déré-Beys or Feudal Barons, such as Tchapan-Oghlou, -Tepelene, and Mehmed Aali. - -The consequence has been, that as you receded from the seat of -government over the vast tracts of territory, the very limited internal -communications, combined with the independence and rapacity of the -governors of the distant provinces, produced anarchy, misrule and -misery, in frightful ratio. Some amelioration has been attempted of -late by the Tanzimat or reformation, and the establishing of roads -and post-offices, councils, &c.; but the spirit of centralization -still pervades with all its legitimate evils. - -Another equally pernicious error in their policy, was the idea -that it was better to employ the heads and hands of the people in -foreign wars, with the view to keep them constantly occupied, and to -maintain a military ardor. Although this system contributed vastly -to the extension of the empire, yet sad experience has developed -its injurious effects. For constant acquisitions so enlarged their -dominions and inflated the soldiery, that the very sultan began to -tremble on his throne, until the destruction of the janissaries became -indispensable for the preservation of the empire. - -This famous military body was created in the reign of Sultan Mourad, -the son and successor of Orkhan; and it was notorious for many -centuries, till they were at last destroyed by Mahmoud, the father -of the present sultan. - -The janissaries are so interwoven with the past and present history -of Turkey, that it does not seem amiss to give here a slight sketch -of their origin and downfall. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -HISTORY OF THE JANISSARIES. - - -The Janissaries were first instituted for the protection of the -throne and person of the sultan; the army being then composed of the -victorious Turkomans, who had become turbulent, and were ready to -take the reins of government into their own hands. A new militia was -consequently instituted by Mourad, composed of young prisoners of war, -who were brought up in the Moslem faith: and, in contradistinction -to the existing army, were denominated Yeni-tcheri, or new soldiers. - -With the design of giving more solemnity to the new order, the founder -resorted to the aid of religion, and they were blessed by a famous -sheikh, Hadji-Bektash, [1] who extending his arms over the troops, -invoked the blessing of Allah, and predicted their future victories, -pronouncing these words: - -"Let them be called Yeni-tcheries. May their countenance ever be -bright! their hand victorious! their sword keen! May their spear -always hang over the head of their enemies, and wheresoever they go, -may they return with a white face!" - -Their uniform consisted of loose trousers, and long, flowing robes, -tucked up. Their head-gear, when in full dress, was very peculiar. A -round cap of grey felt, with a long piece of the same hanging behind, -in commemoration of the loose sleeve of the saint, which was suspended -over their heads when he extended his arms to bless their institution. - -They were armed with sabres, scimitars, pistols, yataghans, muskets, -constituting, as it were, a peripatetic model arsenal. - -Their mode of warfare was quite primitive; each fighting on his own -responsibility. - -From their earliest years, these Christian slaves snatched from -the bosom of their families, were inured to all sorts of hardships, -and to perfect resignation to the will of their superiors. They were -diligently trained in the art of war, and every trace of their parents -and native country being obliterated from their minds, their only -aim was to promote the interest and glory of their lord and sultan, -and they were, for many centuries, justly distinguished for the -excellence of their discipline, and for their indomitable courage. - -But, owing to their constant successes, they at last began to consider -themselves invincible, and by degrees becoming insolent, respected -neither the laws nor even the sultan himself. They thus turned that -power, which was originally the defence and glory of the country, to -its ruin and destruction; and many were the sultans who fell victims -to their audacity and rebellion. - -Sultan Selim III., in his attempt to reform them, was sacrificed to -their fury. - -They were, in reality, the ruling power in the country: dethroning -sultans, and taking off the heads of ministers at their will. They -were upheld in all their excesses by the people, from a dread of -their vengeance, many of whom, from motives of personal safety, even -enlisted as honorary members of their corps. For, even the assassin -could find a secure asylum in their barracks, from which no power or -authority could claim him. - -Nothing was sacred in their estimation; families dared not to -venture abroad without a janissary escort; and, on this account, -the different foreign embassies were always accommodated with two or -three of their number, which custom is still in vogue; though Kavasses, -or Turkish police officers, have been substituted for the janissaries -of former times. - -Even the royal harem was not safe from them, and neither life nor -property were secure from their depredations. - -Besides their regular rations, their pay was at the rate of from one -asper to twenty, according to their rank, per day. An asper was, at -that time, equal to one cent of Federal money. But they had various -ways of increasing their personal revenues. - -They assumed a peculiar style of taxing the peaceable citizens, by -carelessly tossing their handkerchiefs at them, with an intimation -that their pockets needed replenishing, and none dared to return the -handkerchief without a tribute tied in one of its corners. - -Those who were stationed in the city as metropolitan guards, generally -contrived to amass a quantity of mud before the guardhouse, which -they would ask all the rayahs who passed by, either to sweep away, -or contribute something for its removal. - -The day of their revolt was most memorable, and our own janissary -boatman coolly put the number and mark of his regiment upon the -street-door of our residence, as an intimation to his comrades that -the house was already appropriated by one of the brotherhood. - -Assassination was a matter of frequent occurrence in those days. The -father of the writer once narrowly escaped with his life. - -He happened to be passing by a shop, where a janissary was examining -a yataghan with a view of purchasing it. - -"Stop," cried the janissary, to him, "come here, I want to test this -blade on you." - -He knew the character of those villains too well to suppose that the -rascal was joking--as a forlorn hope, he indifferently remarked, -"that it would be hardly worth the while to try such an exquisite -blade on my old tottering body," at the same time suggesting, that -it would be better for his excellency to accept the sword as a gift, -with the view of trying it on some worthier subject, and throwing -the money to the merchant, the old gentleman very suddenly disappeared. - -Imbued with the wildest fanaticism, and with all the prejudices of -ancient times, and habituated to command rather than to obey, these -janissaries constituted the most effectual barrier to all progress -or national reform. - -Indeed, their outrageous conduct was often the principal cause of -war with foreign nations--and a stigma upon their country. - -Any monarch, then, who appreciated the real interest of his subjects, -and could anticipate the future downfall of his country, would be -impelled to annihilate this scourge. - -Eternal gratitude is due to the illustrious Mahmoud, who at last, -accomplished this task. A man of remarkable energy and discernment, -more inspired with the spirit of civilization and modern reform -than any of his predecessors; with a determination and perseverance -unparalleled in the history of his country, Mahmoud effected this -coup d'état, and has justly been designated of "Glorious memory." - -He first gained over to himself the renowned Hüssein Pasha, who -was then the Agha or chief of the janissaries; then Kara-Jehennem -or Black-Hell, the chief of the artillery, and Bostangy-Bashi, the -head of the life-guards; with the co-operation of these personages a -system of military reform was ordered, requiring all the soldiery to -be regularly drilled, and to adopt a certain uniform better suited -to military life, than the flowing robes and cumbersome head gears -they had hitherto worn. - -The artillery corps and the life-guards cheerfully submitted to this -order, but the janissaries considered this change of costume as an -innovation upon long established customs, and averse to any military -discipline, there arose great dissatisfaction among them; and, as -usual, they commissioned the Kool-Keahiassi, their representative, -to remonstrate with his majesty, upon whose refusal to listen to -their murmurs, they determined on rebellion. - -Having no suspicions of their chief, Hüssein-Pasha, according to his -counsel and public proclamation, the janissaries all assembled in -their own barracks, at the great square of Et-Meydan, nearly in the -centre of the city, to be in readiness to resist any attempt on the -part of the sultan, to enforce his edict. - -The sultan being informed of this circumstance, he, on his part, -issued a proclamation that all good Mussulmans should repair to the -holy standard of the Prophet in the court of the seraglio. - -This standard is never brought out except in cases of great -emergency, and no Mussulman would refuse to repair to it when -summoned. Accordingly all the Mussulman citizens, the artillery and -the life-guards, who hated the janissaries, assembled at the seraglio -and proceeded in a body to the great rallying point of the rebels, -where they met with a warm reception from the barrack windows of -the janissaries, who, confident in their own sheltered position, -were sure of a glorious victory. - -But they were soon undeceived; for, by the order of Kara-Jehennem, -two field pieces had been slily transported to the very doors of the -barracks, whose first discharge shattered the gates and prostrated -hundreds of the rebels. - -The janissaries now desperate, rushed to seize the cannon, which -were just reloading: and had it not been for the heroic action of -Kara-Jehennem at this critical emergency, all would have been lost. The -brave general perceiving the nature of the affair, and although wounded -as he was in the thigh, promptly jumped from his horse, and seizing -the torch, instantly applied it to the cannon, and thus baffling the -attempts of the assailants, soon turned the scale of fortune. - -All resistance was now rendered futile by the barracks being set -on fire, when amidst shrieks of agony the miserable wretches were, -on the 15th of June, 1826, destroyed. Many among them were allowed -to effect their escape, with the design of sparing the innocent. The -most dangerous of their number were afterwards arrested and sent to -the European castles on the Bosphorus, where their doom was sealed -by the bow-string, and thus perished this formidable scourge of the -Ottoman Empire. - -Many censures and much opprobrium have been cast upon the memory -of Mahmoud for this act of consummate destruction. He has been -stigmatized as cruel and blood-thirsty, whereas his whole country -was groaning under a scourge of tremendous power, in the shape of an -unlicensed soldiery. - -Day by day, the monster grew in strength, and threatened the utter -annihilation of both sovereign and people. What greater act of humanity -then, than to crush the Hydra with one fell blow. - -By this act Mahmoud not only established his own sovereign authority, -but bursting, for the first time, the bonds of barbarism, made a bold -stride towards the platform of civilization, and the fraternity of -the world. But for Mahmoud, Turkey would, perhaps, have, ere this, -been only a record of the past. - -The army was immediately re-organized, and the soldiers were trained -in European tactics, by distinguished foreign officers. - -They attained great distinction as infantry and artillery-men, and -still greater progress would have been made in military science, had -it not been for the intrigues of Russia, who, just at that period, -availing herself of the forlorn condition of the country, found a -favorable opportunity for declaring war. - -The Allies of the present day, not discerning the Muscovite cunning, -were quiet spectators of the affray, and became as it were silent -partners in the shameful treaty of Adrianople, for which they have -since paid so dearly. - -But the janissaries were not the sole barriers to the civilization of -the country. The Ulema, or the expounders of the faith, have exercised -even greater influence over the minds of the superstitious people, -through their unlimited spiritual authority. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -SPIRITUAL BRANCH OF THE GOVERNMENT. - - -Turkey is a country where church and state are most eminently -combined. The standard of every measure or act is the Koran; the -administration of affairs, both civil and religions, must, therefore, -be in conformity with the precepts of that sacred book; but since that -book does not provide for all emergencies, and in many instances is -not even explicit, those who made the Koran their special study have -ever been consulted, and all matters referred to them for examination -and sanction. - -The entire body of these ecclesiastics are denominated the Ulema, or -learned (in the Koran), and their expositions are termed Fetvas. These -Fetvas constitute, as it were, the statutes of the state. - -The sanction of these doctors in every measure being essential, -each civil tribunal is supplied with one of their number, in order -that their acts may be valid. Hence, even the Grand-Vezir, who only -represents the sultan in temporal matters, is associated with the -chief of the Ulema, viz., the Sheikh-ul-Islam, who, on his part, -personifies his majesty in spiritual affairs. Bearing the title -of Fetvayi-Pena, or the Grand Expositor, his approval is necessary -even to the measures of the great viceroy himself, for no law can be -promulgated without his sanction. - -Considering then the importance attached to the study of the Koran, and -the benefit derived from a full knowledge of its spirit and contents, -which constitute the basis of the law and government, many have been -induced to adopt it as a profession. - -There are no less than forty thousand of these Ulema in Constantinople. - -These men are of very low origin, and are generally the sons of poor -peasants. They come to Constantinople and enlist themselves as Softas, -or students of divinity or law, which are synonymous terms, in one of -the principal mosques, where they go through a regular course of study. - -They receive no salary, but are allowed one loaf of bread a day, -and partake of such food as is gratuitously distributed to the poor -from the Imarets, or charitable institutions, which are attached to -all the principal mosques. - -When they are proficients in writing, they are allowed to copy the -Koran in the original Arabic, which it has hitherto been considered -sacrilege to print or translate. And by the sale of these copies they -gain a livelihood. - -They are afterwards promoted either to the office of Imams, officiating -priests, or to that of Kadis and Mollahs, district judges, or Muftis, -or expounders of the law. The acme of their ambition is to become -either Molla-Hunkiar, chaplain to his majesty, Kazy-ul-Asker chief -justice, or Sheikh-ul-Islam, high pontiff of the realm. This latter -personage is considered by the Mussulmans as an undoubted oracle in -all instances. - -Though the sultan is the head of both church and state, yet the -Sheikh-ul-Islam being appointed for life, and exempted from capital -punishment, his authority, through the superstition of the people, -has been most arbitrary, and even sometimes controlled the actions of -the executive; and it has only happened in our day, that in order to -assert the entire supremacy of the sultan, the Sheikh-ul-Islam has, -for the first time in the annals of the nation, been deposed from -his sacred office, and another substituted in his place. - -The Ulema are not supported by the government, but by the income of -the mosques, which are largely endowed by religious devotees. Those -who are in the civil employment, receive, however, fixed salaries -from the state, in addition to their own ecclesiastical income. - -The real estates owned by the mosques are immense and beyond -calculation. They are called Vakuf, in contradistinction to other lands -of the government, termed mülk. These vakuf lands, which comprise -more than two-thirds of the empire, are sold as under a perpetual -lease, with a yearly tax or rent, and all improvements made on them -are considered to belong by right to the land, and not allowed to be -removed. In case of the death of a proprietor leaving no male heirs, -the property, with all the improvements thereon, reverts to the mosque. - -The documents by which these lands are held, are so carelessly -registered and transferred, that disputes are almost unavoidable. For -instance, a deed is thus drawn up, A B has purchased of C D a piece of -land, belonging to such a vakuf, said to contain about 156 acres more -or less; that is, it might range from 100 to 1,500 or 2,000 acres, -since its limits are not fixed by any actual survey, or specified by -a map; but the boundaries are described in the most primitive style -by sensible objects, viz., an apple tree on one side, a ditch on -the other, the property of so and so on the third, and the main road -on the fourth. This system has hitherto proved most advantageous to -the vakufs; the peculiar elasticity of such indefinite boundaries, -admitting of great territorial trespass upon adjoining lands, until -they have succeeded in absorbing two-thirds of the empire. - -Strangers are not allowed to own these lands, nor hold them in -trust, with the view to avoid litigation with the different foreign -embassies. There has not, therefore, been hitherto any inducement -to European emigration, to the introduction of foreign capital, -nor encouragement to internal improvements. - -The mosques derive an immense revenue, both from the rents of these -estates, and the commission on sales, which is enormous; being no -less than 8 per cent. on each transfer. - -With such a percentage, were the sale repeated fifteen times, the -original cost of the land would be doubled; so that there is an -effectual check upon land speculation. Apart from this, the vakuf -system is ruinous both to the community and to the government. If a -man wants to raise a sum of money, by mortgaging his property for -three months only, besides the customary interest of the country, -which is 1 per cent., he has to bear the enormous expense of the -transfer and retransfer, which amounts, as has been said, to 6 per -cent. This added to the 3 per cent., the interest for the three months, -making altogether no less than 9 per cent. for three months! This -is not all. The natives not being allowed the privilege of borrowing -foreign funds, by mortgaging their own property, are reduced to the -necessity of resorting to their own capitalists, who usually demand -2 or 3 per cent. a month! - -The whole of this vakuf land, or church property, occupied and -unoccupied, pays no taxes, so that a most profitable source of revenue -is unavailable to the government. - -The immense incomes of the vakufs are partly appropriated to the -erection of mosques, hospitals, schools, fountains, baths, and -other charitable institutions; and above all to the support of the -Ulema themselves. But there is always an immense surplus, which lies -dormant with previously accumulated hoards, unless resorted to for the -promotion of some of the fanatical schemes and personal aggrandizement -of the Ulema themselves. - -These men, thus rendered independent of the government, and possessing -unbounded influence over the minds of the superstitious people, and -being, in fact, the ultimatum of every hope and project, have been the -greatest barriers to national improvement; for, surrounded by wealth, -and themselves of the lowest origin, they attach an undue value to -worldly possessions; and trained in religious bigotry, they resist -all innovations as infringing upon their own interests, temporal and -spiritual; so that in destroying the janissaries, and leaving the -Ulema unmolested, Sultan Mahmoud did but half the work of reform. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. - - -The revenue of the government is about thirty-six millions of dollars, -and is thus divided: - - -Göshüre, tithe $11,000,000 -Saliane, land tax 10,000,000 -Haradj, Poll tax on Christian subjects (lately abolished) 2,000,000 -Geömrük, customs 4,300,000 -Mirry and Ihtissab, indirect tax 7,500,000 -Vergys, or tributes of Egypt $1,000,000 -Vergys, or tributes of Wallachia 100,000 -Vergys, or tributes of Moldavia 50,000 -Vergys, or tributes of Servia 100,000 - 1,250,000 - ----------- - $36,050,000 - - -Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, though it contains, -including all its suburbs, a population of nearly a million of -inhabitants, is, owing to the system of centralization, exempt from -the direct tax, which is levied only in the provinces. Of late there -has, however, been a sort of an income tax established, requiring -every house-owner to register all contracts of rent at the Police, -and pay a fee thereon of two per cent. Besides this, they have also -introduced another tax on commercial and financial transactions, -such as stamped bills, &c. - -Some of these taxes and revenues are collected by the agents of the -government on its own account; and others are farmed out at public -auction, with the view of avoiding the abuses and corruptions of the -officials; the benefit of which arrangement was illustrated, when -the custom-house was farmed out to the Armenian banker, Djezâyirly, -who bid double the amount which the treasury used to realize. - -The expenditure of the government has usually been nearly within its -income; but of late years has exceeded it. - -It includes the sultan's personal expenses, and the civil and -military list. - -The sultan receiving a salary of $300,000 per month; the Grand Vezir -$4,000, and the others $3,000 each. - - - Civil list of the Sultan and his harem $4,100,000 - Civil list of the Army 15,000,000 - of the Navy 2,000,000 - Ordnance and Fortifications 1,500,000 - Pay of Functionaries 10,000,000 - Foreign Diplomatic Salaries 500,000 - Public Works 500,000 - Séhims or life annuities &c. 2,200,000 - Interest on Cayimés at 6 per cent. 450,000 - Bank subvention 1,000,000 - ----------- - $37,250,000 - - -The deficiency in the treasury is occasioned partly by arrears of -taxes, and partly by incidental expenses, such as bank subvention, -appropriations for internal improvements, etc. - -With the view of enabling the treasury to carry on its operations, -the government has, for the past few years, been obliged to effect -a local loan of $8,000,000, in the shape of Kayemés, or Treasury -notes, bearing interest of 6 per cent per annum. Apart from this, -it has also contracted a foreign debt of Ł5,000,000--these two are -the only national debts. - -The monetary market in every country is governed by its exports -and imports. The demand in Turkey for articles of foreign produce, -having gradually exceeded its former imports, the balance of trade has -been against the country, and a drain of specie has been the natural -consequence. Apart from this, the payment of the Russian indemnities, -having forced the government to demonetize its currency, the rate -of exchange became very fluctuating, and a fit subject to financial -operators; so that affairs assumed a frightful aspect. - -To remedy this evil, the government was advised to establish a Bank, -in order to keep the foreign exchange at a more uniform par value; -this subvention has cost the government on an average $1,000,000 per -annum; jet without any good success, for it only served to enrich -a few individuals, who were intrusted with its management, without -benefiting the country in general, and involved the national treasury -in greater difficulty. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -ARMY AND NAVY. - - -The standing army of the Ottoman Empire is in time of peace 120,000 -men, and 180,000 during war. It consists of six ordoos or divisions, -viz.: - - - Hassa, or Imperial Guards. - Der-y-Saadet, or Metropolitan Division. - Roumely, or European (Turkey) Division. - Anadolou, or Asiatic, Division. - Arabistan, or Arabian, Division. - Irak, or Messapotamian, Division. - - -Every division comprises, three regiments of foot, two of horse, -and one of artillery, with 32 guns, the whole amounting to 30,000 men. - -The soldiers in active service are called Nizam, and those in reserve, -Redif. They are raised by conscription, and formerly used to serve -all their lifetime, or as long as they were able, but by a commendable -measure recently introduced by Riza Pasha, a military reform has been -effected, by which they are now relieved at the end of five years, -when they go to their respective homes, subject however, to certain -military duties at stated times. By this measure, Turkey has been -enabled to raise a reserve of no less than 400,000 Redifs. - -Both Nizams and Redifs are divided into two bodies, commanded by Feriks -(or Lieutenant Generals) and Livas (Brigadier General), and the whole -of every division by a Serdar or Field Marshal. - -The entire army is subject to the orders of the Ser-Asker or the -Generalissimo, who is the minister of war. - -The famous Omar Pasha who was one of the Serdars commanding the -Asiatic division, has lately been elevated to the post of Ser Asker. - -The rank and file of the Turkish army in composed of able-bodied and -well-drilled soldiers; but they are badly officered by illiterate -men, raised from the ranks, who are untarnished by modern reforms -and imbued with a due share of the popular national conceit. - -It is only very recently, that a military school having been -established, the army is supplied with well instructed officers, -among whom may be found many of the sons of the grandees of the -empire. There is, however, a constant jealousy between these more -enlightened young commanders, and the old veterans of the ancien -régime; the latter regarding the former as mere upstarts and parvenus. - -The Rayas, or Christian subjects have hitherto been exempt from -military service not because they are not fitted to become the -defenders of their country, equally with their Mohammedan compatriots, -but lest by coming into competition with them they should rise to high -posts in the army, and rank even above their Mussulman subordinates. - -The Turkish navy is comprised thus: - - - +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ - | |Ships.| Guns.| Men. | - | +------+------+---------------+ - | Three-Deckers, | 2 | 260 | 2700 | - | Two-Deckers, | 8 | 668 | 9500 | - | Frigates, | 14 | 788 | 5400 | - | Corvettes, | 6 | 100 | Indeterminate | - | Brigs, | 6 | 80 | ,, | - | Schooners, cutters, &c., | 12 | 72 | ,, | - | War Steamers, &c., | 28 | 112 | ,, | - | +------+------+---------------+ - | | 76 | 2080 | 20 @ 25,000 | - | Destroyed at Sinope, | 11 | | | - | +------+ | | - | | 65 | | | - +--------------------------+------+------+---------------+ - - -Many of the Turkish vessels of war are noble specimens of naval -architecture. For ever since the beautiful models built by Ekford and -his successors, Rhodes and Beeves, have floated upon their waters, a -wonderful impetus has been given to the navy of the Osmanlis--and the -prow of almost every vessel bears the impress of American ingenuity. - -Magnificent men of war, vessels of the line, frigates, sloops, brigs, -schooners, and cutters lie all along the Bosphorus, fully manned -and equipped. But so seldom are they in action, or so rarely do they -sail beyond the "ocean stream," that the men are utterly without the -incitement of any real engagements, and unused to rougher seas--so -that if, perchance, they are called into active service, more than -half of them are confined to their hammocks. - -Thus the lamentable occurrence at Sinope may be accounted for; the -squadron having been obliged to anchor there on its way to Batoum, -because nearly all the sailors were sea-sick. - -The officers themselves are illiterate, and ignorant of the science -of navigation. - -It is true that some few have been educated in the British navy, who -are now distinguished in the Turkish marine--and it is to be hoped -that many of the scholars of the new naval academy will hereafter -elevate the character of their nation on the seas; though there are -not the same incentives to maritime emulation as exist in England -and America, or even in France. - -The general staff of the navy contains, - - - 3 Admirals, - 5 Vice Admirals, - 8 Rear Admirals. - - -The staff of a man-of-war of first rank, contains, - - - 1 Commander--whose rank is equal to Lieutenant-Colonel. - 1 Second commander Chef de bataillon. - 1 Hodja Major. - 16 Mulazims Lieutenants. - 1 Physician, 2 Surgeons, 1 Imam or chaplain, - and from 800 to 900 men. - - -The entire naval force is under the command of a Captain Pasha or -High Admiral, who is the Minister of the Navy. - -The men, subalterns and even captains, both of the army and navy, -are most miserably paid. A common soldier at the rate of seventy-five -cents a month, and a captain eleven dollars and rations--so that any -deficiency in hospitality or style of living, is not to be attributed -to indifference on their own part. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -COMMERCE. - - -The trade of Turkey, including that of Egypt and the Danubian -Principalities, amounted, in 1852, to - - - Imports, Ł11,828,300 Sterling. - Exports, 10,644,450 Sterling. - - -The Osmanlis, having no commercial marine except their own few -coasters--the whole foreign, and great part of the internal trade, -is carried on by 35,000 foreign vessels; whose aggregate tonnage -amounts to 5,000,000 annually, and they are admitted to her ports at -small charges. - -The tariff of Turkey is but nominal; being only three per cent. on -all exports, and two per cent. additional as consumptive duty--making -altogether, five per cent. on their value. - -This free-trade principle, is not, however, purely from liberal -motives, but the result of foreign compulsion, and their own ignorance -of political economy. For, in their anxiety to counterbalance the -deficiencies of the treasury, caused by unjust treaties extorted -from them by foreign powers, they have imposed a duty of no less -than thirteen per cent. on all their produce or exports, so that, -when the governmental tithe upon the raw material, the various other -direct and indirect taxes on the same, and the onerous export duty -are together taken into consideration, the cost of the produce is, -in effect, raised to about 30 or 35 per cent. above its original value. - -Apart from this, if sheet iron, which is imported from England, -and upon which the usual duty of 5 per cent. is already levied, be -manufactured into stove pipes, or any other form, it is considered -as home produce, and a new duty of 13 per cent. collected thereon! - -The tariff is regulated every seven years, and the value of the -different articles is determined by a commission of merchants -representing the different nations, each of whom endeavors to maintain -his own interest. One of these gentlemen exultingly boasted, that -his own fortune was made, as he had succeeded in establishing a low -valuation on a certain article in which he dealt very largely. - -America has hitherto had no representative in this body, though her -commerce has, especially of late, been rapidly increasing with this -part of the world. It has only been through ignorance of the country -and its resources, that American enterprise has made so little progress -in the East, or been confined to the interposition of English and -other houses. - -Does this country present no inducements to the mercantile -community? Let the following table of Exports and Imports speak -for itself. - - - EXPORTS. IMPORTS. - - Corn. Silk goods. - Beans, peas, etc. Cotton goods. - Wool. Woollen stuffs. - Raw silk. Linen. - Opium. Haberdashery. - Otto of roses, and other perfumes. Hardware. - Angora hair. Watches and clocks. - Coffee (Mocha). Jewelry. - Canary seed. Sugar. - Linseed. Coffee, pepper, and spices. - Do. oil. Iron and nails. - Rice. Coal. - Yellow berries. Stone ware. - Boxwood. Logwood. - Madder root. Rum and wines. - Tallow. Fancy goods. - Valonea. Cochineal. - Gall nuts. Tanned hides. - Fruits. Glass ware. - Drugs. Furniture. - Soap. Drugs and medicines. - Olives and olive oil. Butter. - Sponges. Kaviar. - Tobacco. Tar. - Cotton. Ropes. - Sesame. Cordage. - Meerschaum. Chains. - Carpets. Corn. - Copper. Stoves. - Hides and skins. Nicknacks. - Bones. Machinery, etc. - Confections. Furs. - Helva. Crockery. - Shawls. Indigo. - Oriental manufactures. Dye stuffs. - Leeches. Paints. - Rags. Mirrors. - Cordials. Millinery. - Cymbals. Musical instruments, etc. - Lumber. Leather. - Embroideries. Boots and shoes. - Hemp and Flax. Lead. - Salt. Paper. - Mastic. Do. hangings. - Chibouks, Nargilles, and amber Tea. - mouthpieces. Books. - Carriages. - India rubber. - Mahogany and rose-wood. - - -If, then, such is the variety of items, more than sufficient to -command the attention of any mercantile community, it is somewhat -astonishing that the Americans should not have been attracted to the -advantages to be derived from an interchange of commerce, so jealous -as they are of commercial supremacy. - -The territory is immense, teeming with undeveloped resources; -the population over 35 millions of souls to be supplied with the -necessities, and many of the superfluities of life. England and France -have fought for the freedom of this commerce, America may spread her -sails unstained by the blood of her citizens, and be wafted into ports, -where treasures and profit are in greater profusion than either in -China or Japan. - -War having ceased, and so many new and salutary reforms soon to -be introduced, commerce and all the arts of peace and prosperity -will flourish with renewed vigor upon the Turkish soil. Internal -improvements are already projected and in progress, demanding the -genius and ingenuity of foreign climes. While then, England and France -are eagerly watching every opening, shall America remain blindfolded -and indifferent?--a country so productive of men of the rarest energy -and perseverance, so full of the brightest Yankee notions, and the -most curious and useful specimens of mechanical art and manufactures! - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -JURISPRUDENCE. - - -In Europe and America disputes often involve a process of tedious -litigation. It is not so in Turkey; although the Koran and its -voluminous commentaries decide every case "from a point of faith to a -right of gutter," yet the form of trial is so simple that it becomes -quite expeditious. For all Turkish jurisprudence may be condensed -into these two principles, viz., - -1st. In every case of litigation the testimony of two witnesses is -required of the plaintiff, and - -2d. In default of witnesses an oath is administered to the defendant -as the only alternative. - -No written document, except judicial, is considered valid, or -recognized by the courts, unless it be substantiated by two witnesses. - -For instance, a banker had advanced to the treasury about $30,000 -on account of a certain pasha, who farmed a province from the -government. Before the year was out the pasha died, and the court -of chancery taking charge of the estate of the deceased, it became -necessary to examine and settle the banker's account current with -the defunct. On examination it was found that the banker had paid -to the treasury the above mentioned sum in thirty-three different -installments, and received from the deceased only $18,000; so that -there was a balance due the banker of $12,000. - -But the court of chancery would not recognize the disbursements of -the banker in behalf of the deceased, unless each of the installments -made by the banker to the government could be substantiated by two -witnesses; thus requiring no less than sixty-six witnesses for the -case. It was in vain the banker produced the vouchers of the government -regularly signed and sealed by the proper authorities. The judges -would admit nothing but the requisite witnesses, and in default of -such witnesses claimed from the banker the $18,000, the receipt of -which was avowed by him, and consequently due to the heirs. - -Nor is this mode of justice, primitive as it is, ever used with -impartiality. - -Witnesses are never subpoenaed by the courts, and no oath is required -of them for the truth of their depositions; also on account of -the spirit of fanatical animosity which exists mutually between -the Christians and Mohammedans, no unbiased testimony is to be -procured. Indeed, formerly, the Christians were not even allowed to -appear as witnesses. - -The judges themselves being men of low birth and grovelling principles, -only hold their offices as sources of personal emolument, as the -wealth of various of these functionaries fully attests. The late -Sheikh-ul Islam, at his death, left the sultan, by bequest, nearly -a million of dollars! - -Although strictly prohibited by the Koran, they are in the constant -habit of receiving bribes to any amount; notwithstanding the precepts -of their religion, which are ever and anon held up as barriers -to all reform, they are so corrupted, that their consciences are -immediately lulled, whenever the requisite bonus is slily slipped -under the cushions on which they sit, and the testimony of hired -witnesses is then winked at by them, and even supported, as their -interest may demand. - -The only qualification requisite for a witness to appear before these -courts of justice, is to be omniscient, and never to utter the fatal -word Bilmem, I don't know. - -When conflicting interests occur, which induce the judges to take side -against the witnesses--and such occasions are by no means rare, since -justice is not only put up at auction, but a single recommendation -from a grandee suffices to turn the scale--the scene is truly farcical, -and its sketch worthy of the pen of Dickens himself. - -The Kadis adopt a singular method to disqualify the testimony. The -questions which are put in the cross-examination, are not only entirely -irrelevant to the subject matter in dispute, but would even puzzle -the "cutest Yankee" how to answer. Their object is to disqualify the -testimony by questions, no matter how ridiculous, but by which the -witnesses will be forced at last to utter the ominous word Bilmem--I -don't know. - -With a view to ascertain whether the witnesses are well acquainted -with the party in whose behalf they are testifying, they are asked, -"who was the grandfather of the plaintiff?" The usual and formal -answer in such cases is, "Abraham," meaning the old Patriarch. "His -great grandfather?" "Adam," beyond whom he (the plaintiff), is not -supposed to have any ancestors. - -On a certain occasion, a judge being very anxious to defeat the -testimony of a clever witness, after various ingenious interrogatories, -made the quaint inquiry, "who married Adam and Eve?" To which the -witness unhesitatingly replied, not, as it may be supposed, "I don't -know,"--oh no, not so stupid as that--but, "I was not invited to -the wedding." - -It was a maxim of the government and a profitable one to its employés, -that in the administration of justice, a speedy infliction of -punishment, even though unjust, was more desirable than a tedious -course of litigation, as the fear and awe thus infused into the -hearts of the people, rendered them submissive to the most irrational -commands, and terrified the mass into a dread of infringing the laws, -although some few might suffer unjustly. - -This principle, though nominally abandoned by the government, is -still maintained by the judiciary; therefore, no pleading by lawyers -is allowed, and the sentence is passed with all possible dispatch, -or deferred at pleasure, as circumstances may require. - -The whole of Turkey is divided into two separate judicial districts, -viz., Anadolou, and Roumely, or Asia and Europe, and there is a -Kazi-ul-Asker, or chief justice, appointed to each district, who -preside over their respective courts. - -There, is, however, a supreme court called, Arz-Odassi, or court of -appeals, where the Grand Vezir and the Grand Mufty conjointly preside, -and there all cases, when appealed, are heard; but the sentences -are seldom reversed, as they wish to preserve the decisions of the -judiciary courts inviolable. When the injustice is too gross and -palpable, a new Ilam or sentence is granted by this court, without -any allusion to prior proceedings. - -It is true that the people have the right to appeal to his majesty -for redress, but as they are invariably referred to this court for -reconsideration, justice is seldom rendered to the appellants. - -Foreigners are not tried before these courts. If the litigation -is between themselves, their cases are tried and settled by their -legations; but if with the natives, they are referred to a special -court of the ministry of commerce, called Medjlissy-Tidjaret, composed -of various merchants both natives and foreigners, and presided over -by the Minister of Commerce, or his deputy. - -The code by which this body pretends to be governed, is the "Code -de Commerce" of Napoleon. How equitably it is applied by them, may -easily be perceived. - -Imagine some twenty-five or thirty merchants, of different nations -and tongues, assembled together in the character of jurors, who not -only do not understand a word or syllable that is uttered in their -hearing, but often do not even possess the means of communicating -their ideas to each other. - -The affair brought before them, being unintelligible to most of them, -it is generally conducted by the government officials, or some of the -members who are fortunate enough to know something of the language, -and their decisions imparted to the passive members, who usually -give their sanction, taking it for granted that all is right. The -consequence is, that if one of the litigants is so happy as to secure -the good will and patronage of an acting member, he is sure to come -off successfully, no matter how bad his case. - -This body, like the other Turkish courts, admits not the pleading by -lawyers, for a good and simple reason, that its members being men of -business, and ignorant of law and legality, prefer to be governed by -their own judgment, and constitute themselves at once, judge, jury, -and prosecutors. - -The interpreters of the foreign legations, are, however, required by -treaty to be present, who not only interpret for the parties, but are -bound to defend and protect their fellow citizens, to the best of their -ability, and report thereupon to their respective ambassadors. It -is to be regretted that the services of these individuals are not -always disinterested. Policy sometimes inclines them to side with -this serio-comical court, for the sake of keeping on good terms -with the officials and its members, and thus maintaining their own -reputations at the Porte as emissaries of foreign lands; while at the -same time a good opportunity is offered them for the gratification -of any personal pique or prejudice against their clients; so that a -foreigner may either suffer injustice, or be injurious to the people -of the country, without the knowledge of his own ambassador. How true, -then, the observation of Lord Stratford, that "the very atmosphere -of Turkey is impregnated with venality." - -The costs of lawsuits are always defrayed by the gainer of the cause, -as he is supposed to be better able to afford such expenses; but the -evident design is to induce people to go to law, since justice is set -aside, and every facility afforded by the suborning of witnesses. Even -the sentences are so carelessly, nay designedly worded, that at any -time flaws may be discovered, and a new trial demanded. - -The equity of making the gainer of the cause pay the costs, was -ludicrously illustrated in the case of an Arnavout or Albanian, who -was accused of stealing a gimlet. When in the presence of the Kadi, -he pleaded not guilty. The plaintiff, according to law, was required -to substantiate his accusation, by producing two witnesses. The man -was in a dilemma, for he had no witnesses to produce; but, as usual, -he was relieved from the anxiety, by the prompt offer of those harpies, -who linger about mehkemes, or courts of justice, and tender their -benevolent services in such emergencies, for certain remuneration. - -Moderate as was their demand, the trifling claim not justifying -much extra expense, he modestly declined availing himself of this -privilege, and pleaded to have no witnesses. The only alternative -then for the kadi was to administer the oath to the defendant; which -was unhesitatingly complied with; for the Arnavouts are generally -noted for their pliable consciences. Thus having been duly sworn, -our hero was pronounced the happy gainer of the cause, and requested -to pay only the costs, which were ten times more than the value of -the article in question. - -The Arnavout being somewhat of a speculative genius, after due -consideration of the pros and cons, in the case, coolly put his hand in -his bosom, and producing the disputed gimlet, threw it at his accuser, -saying, "There, have your gimlet, be you the gainer of the cause, -and pay the costs!" - -As to criminal laws, they cannot be said to exist in Turkey; for this -form of justice being based upon the principle of retaliation, or -kissass, the prosecution is always on account of the injured party, -and not of the government; so that the release of a criminal is at -the option of an individual. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -EDUCATION. - - -Mohammed, who is the oracle on all subjects, having declared, that "the -ink of the learned and the blood of the martyr are equal in the sight -of God," education is not so entirely neglected by his followers, as is -generally supposed. It may, in one sense, be considered general; for -every parent is obliged to send his children, both male and female, -to the schools which are attached to the mosques, and supported -by them. At Constantinople there are no less than 396 mektebs, -or primary free schools, attended by 22,700 children, both boys -and girls. There are six other schools, for more advanced studies, -attended by 870 pupils. - -The initiatory services to the Elif Bé, literature of the young -Moslems, are very imposing. The candidate, blooming with the roses -of six short summers, is decked in his best, and in the best of the -neighbors' too; for there is great borrowing of jewelry and rich -embroideries, when the parents cannot afford to buy. The young tyro -mounts a steed which vies with him in the splendor of its caparison, -and with his badge of honor, a beautiful and glittering satchel slung -over his shoulder, parades the streets. The children of the school -about to be honored by his attendance, are the escort; and the good -old hodja, or school-master, leads the train, and the tune, as they -wend their way, singing and chanting; the boys and girls vociferating -in full chorus, Ameen! Ameen! - -When the children of the sultan are about to begin their literary -pursuits, the procession and rejoicings are, of course, in proportion -to the excelling importance of the royal progeny over all inferior -buds of humanity. - -The public are thus duly notified, though the instruction of the -young sultans is by private masters. - -The system of instruction in the Turkish schools is eminently -primitive, and the branches taught are very elementary. - -They use neither quill nor desk, the peculiarity of the Turkish -characters requiring the stiffness of the reed; and the importance -attached to calligraphy is so great, that the paper is held on the -palm of the hand, in order to give the flexibility requisite for -the formation of the letters. The lessons of the children consist of -spelling and writing; and the higher studies in committing the Koran -to memory. In order to understand this sacred book, they are obliged to -learn the grammar, in which proficiency is seldom made. Hence very few, -even of the officials, especially of the ancien régime, can read or -write correctly, all their correspondence being performed by keatibs, -or scribes. The general deficiency of education creates a great -demand for men of this profession, whose services are needed for all -sorts of letter writing, for petitions, obligatory notes, contracts, -etc. These persons are to be found in the court-yards of the mosques, -in shops and kahvés near the Porte, and in many other places. - -To those who knew not how to affix their own names to any document, a -seal not only became a convenient substitute, but the universal style -of signature. All the grandees have their mëohurdar, or seal-bearer, -and the Sadrazam officiates in this capacity to the sultan. - -The common punishment at schools is the world renowned bastinado, -or falaka. The apparatus consists of a cylindrical piece of wood, -about five feet long, and one inch in diameter. Near the centre of -this rod, there is a loop of rope, sufficiently wide to hold both -the feet of the truant. The rod being turned the rope winds upon it, -and thus secures the feet, which are placed therein. The person is -then thrown upon his back, by the raising of the feet, upon the soles -of which the blows are applied with a cudgel by the schoolmaster. It -is a rather painful operation, as some can tell from sad experience, -who, like other boys that are never naughty, had to go through with -it in their younger days. - -The Turkish, originally Tartar, is at present composed of three -different languages, viz: Arabic, Persian, and Tartar, owing to the -different people with whom the Turcomans came in contact. The Koran -being their fundamental study, the Arabic has become the basis of -the language, as the Latin is of the European dialects. - -It is written from right to left, like all other Oriental languages, -with the exception of the Armenian. - -The Turkish has no capitals or Roman letters, but consists of -italics--or in other words, the written and printed characters have -the same forms, nor have they any punctuation. Their calligraphy may -be divided into five different styles. - -The Rika, or ordinary hand-writing, the same being used for printing. - -Sülüs, or enlarged writing, is used for inscriptions, title-pages, -or the headings of chapters. - -Divany, or the court script, which is an ornamental style of writing, -and only used at the Porte for firmans, or edicts. - -Taalik, or the Persian letters, is used in the judiciary courts, -and for poetry. - -Siyakat, or Turkish hieroglyphics, is only used for treasury bonds. - -The Turkish language is, in itself, most copious and expressive, -euphonious in sound, and capable of the greatest variety of expression, -and is well adapted to the composition of poetry. Although the -Osmanlis formerly possessed but little mathematical, philosophical, -or scientific learning, the Muses have never denied their inspiration -to them. Foreign literature has been much in vogue in latter times, -and many translations have been made into Turkish. The languages of -Europe are also cultivated to some extent, and many are now to be -found at the Porte, who speak the French and English quite fluently. - -The present sultan has done much to elevate the system of public -instruction in his dominions. He has ordained a council to superintend -all educational affairs, and also has commenced the erection of a -magnificent public university, opposite the mosque of St. Sophia. - -There exist already, the school of the mosque of Ahmed, that -of Suleiman, and one founded by the late Validé Sultan, for the -education of the young candidates for public offices. There are, -also, the medical, normal, and naval schools, and last of all, the -agricultural school at San Stefano, the direction of which was, once -upon a time, given to the celebrated Turkey Jim, of South Carolina. - -The sultan himself is present at the examinations of these various -colleges, with his retinue of Ulema, Ministers, and Pashas; his -majesty even propounds questions to the pupils, encouraging them by -his gracious condescension of manner. - -There are as many as 80,000 books in the public libraries, written -or printed in the different Oriental dialects, Arabic, Persian, -and Turkish. These works treat of history, science, and theology; -also belles-lettres, and good breeding, on which last subject, the -Osmanlis are extremely punctilious. The young men, and even children, -are exceedingly simple and unpretending, but at the same time, -intelligent and polite in their demeanor. They maintain a remarkable -gravity of deportment, and in the absence of their fathers, exercise -the prerogatives of hospitality, with all the dignity of the patriarchs -themselves. - -There are now twenty-one different newspapers and periodicals in the -country, viz. two Turkish, eight Armenian, three Greek, five French, -two Italian, and one Jewish. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -MEDICINE. - - -Although the ancient Arabs were celebrated for their medical knowledge, -the Osmanlis have only of late years made some advances in the study -of medicine. - -They are most credulous and superstitious in their notions upon -this subject, and ready to follow the advice of any empiric in the -healing art. They seem to know two diseases peculiar to themselves; -one they call Gelinjik, and the other Yelanjik. The first is used -in a comprehensive universality and signifies almost any ailment; -the second is applied to erysipelas and nervous pains in the face. - -The art of curing the Gelinjik has long been possessed by a single -family, and descended in hereditary succession from one to another of -its members. There is a certain Meriem Kadun of this profession, who -once had the good fortune to cure the present sultan, with some of the -mysterious red nectar, which is the principal medicine administered -for this malady. She has ever since had abundant practice in the -royal palace and everywhere else; and the famous Yelanjikgee has a -far-famed reputation. - -A particular class of Emirs, or the descendants of Fatima, the -daughter of Mohammed, are supposed to possess the virtue of healing the -nervous diseases of the face called Yelanjik. They wear green turbans, -repeat certain prayers over the patient, and are supposed to possess -a charm in their fingers' ends. The Emir lays his thumb on his nose, -breathes upon the extended fingers, then lays it upon the forehead -of the patient, and pressing upon the nerves of the face, utters a -short prayer. Thus he often succeeds in dispelling the malady in a -few minutes--whether by his own medical skill or by the credulity -of his superstitious patients, may be questioned. Strange to say, -their only belief is, that when a cure is not effected, it is not -because of the inefficacy of the charmed fingers, but the disease -was not genuine Yelanjik, and therefore the holy Emir could not cure -it. When any disease fails to be cured by either of these characters, -the Gelinjikgee and Yelanjikgee, then in despair the other disciples -of the healing art are summoned, of whom there is no scarcity in -Constantinople, where the last comer is generally patronized, until -some new pretender succeeds him. - -A person once exceedingly ill of typhus fever, called in one of -these medical gentlemen, who, although he considered the case quite -hopeless, prescribed for his patient and took his leave. The next day, -in passing by, he inquired of a servant at the door if his master -was not dead. "Dead? no. He is much better." Whereupon the doctor -proceeded up stairs to obtain the solution of this miracle. "Why," -said the convalescent, "I was consumed with thirst, and I drank a -pailful of the juice of pickled cabbage." - -Wonderful! quoth the doctor--and out came the tablets, whereupon -was inscribed, "Cured of typhus fever, Mehemed Agha, an upholsterer, -by drinking a pailful of pickled cabbage juice." - -Soon after the worthy doctor was called to another patient, -a Yaghlikgee, or dealer in embroidered handkerchiefs, suffering -from the same malady. He forthwith prescribed "a pailful of pickled -cabbage juice." - -On calling the next day to congratulate his patient on his recovery, -he was astonished to be told, the man was dead! - -The Oriental Esculapius, in his bewilderment as to these phenomena, -came to the safe conclusion, and duly noted it in his memoranda, -that, "Although in cases of typhus fever, pickled cabbage juice is an -efficient remedy, it is not, however, to be used unless the patient -be by profession an upholsterer!" - -Fortunately for the community, this branch of science is improving -in Turkey, and there are numerous graduates from the medical college, -who are employed in the army, and by the inhabitants in general. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -WESTERN PREJUDICES, AND EASTERN TOLERATION. - - -The etiquettes and punctilious ceremonies of society were doubtless -unknown in the primitive condition of our race. - -Modern civilization has put the world into fetters with its laws and -by-laws, which seem the result of some secret combination, as they -are generally known only to the initiated, while the less fortunate -mass of the communities become the laughing-stock of these wiseacres. - -The true politeness and generosity which spring from good feeling -and common-sense, are little regarded by the aristocracy of society, -unless you have the open sesame to their doors, which is nothing less -than an entire conformity to their pre-conceived ideas. - -A certain air and style, only perceivable to the critics themselves, -is to be maintained; a certain contour of costume rigorously to -be adopted, whether agreeable to the wearer or not--an unvaried and -monotonous similarity must pervade the whole world, or those venturing -to differ, must suffer not only an exclusion from the company of -very agreeable people (barring their prejudices), but an absolute -persecution of ill-sounding epithets--such as vulgar, conceited, -independent, and even the moral character is often libelled. - -You must not attend the church of the Rev. ----, unless your hat is -black as a stove-pipe, and with a rim of approved dimensions. The -fastidious ladies of upper-tendom show symptoms of nervous agitation, -as you unwittingly mount their steps in your native head-gear, which -may chance to be a sombrero, or a Turkish fess--what if a TURBAN! - -The only occasion on which a foreigner might be permitted to appear -in his own every-day clothes, would be at some fancy ball, as if -in masquerade. All this may do among themselves, but why attempt to -renovate the habits of a life-time in others. Indeed, the Americans are -very exacting, for when did they ever conform to any other nation's -mode of dress? while the moment you set foot on their shores, you -must turn American in toto, or you are no go. - -The English are proverbial for their snobbism, and stiff -shirt-collars--yet in London, you may meet the Hindostanee in his -white robes and turban, the Turk in his fess or red cap, and many -others, as they are accustomed to be at home. Still more common is -this variety in Paris, and all over Europe. - -Americans, English, and French, traverse the East dressed as they like, -without creating either the sensation of disgust or astonishment in the -beholders. Why, then, this illiberality in the land of freedom? why -force the Chinese, the moment they land, into straight-jackets, or -crown the Osmanli with a sombre stove-pipe, the most uncouth machine, -yclept the hat, which ever any sensible people ventured to place in -so honorable a position. - -Nolens volens, the Osmanli, on his arrival in the land of -"Independence," must needs become a Pasha of two tails, reversed -however, as at home these emblems of rank are carried before him; but -now he becomes his own standard-bearer, parading his honors and entrée -to the fashionable world, in the shape of the time-honored dress coat. - -To those who have never visited foreign lands, one would suppose, -nothing would be more entertaining than to see an exhibition of habits -and customs of other peoples. - -But we must take the world as it is. - -Although the manners and dress of the Orientals were, and are still, -in many respects very different from those of their western neighbors, -yet they have displayed a degree of civilization, if we may so speak, -in their toleration of others as they chanced to meet them. English, -Spanish, Italians, Magiars, Greeks, Albanians, Croats, Bulgarians, -Persians, Kurds, and Arabs, walk their streets and enter their houses -without dreaming of changing their costume, or disguising their own -nationality under any garb whatever. - -Even the European or American travellers, making half-way attempts -at external conformity to those about them, although they become -perfect caricatures, have free scope to sport the travesties they -make of themselves, and are even treated with civility; yet, judging -from appearances, no one could conceive what parts of the world might -claim the honor of their nativity. - -Indeed, the only occasion upon which we remember the Turks to have -taken umbrage at the European costume, was some time ago, when -visitors desired to present themselves before his imperial highness, -their ideas of decency compelled them to furnish each one with a -long pelisse. So far have they yielded their prejudices, as even to -adopt the European military and undress costume, only excluding the -hat; though not without a struggle, as was exemplified when Sultan -Mahmoud ordered the janissaries to doff their cumbersome head-gear, -flowing robes, and ample trowsers. - -But alas for the robes and turbans! the cashmere girdles, and yellow -slippers! they are rapidly passing away. The audience-hall of the -Grand Signor, is now filled with an ordinary assemblage--the sultan -and his minister are stripped of the mysterious appendages of their -gorgeous draperies--beneath which, there seemed to breathe no common -soul. How imposing the garb, as they were wont to stand in the august -presence, immovable, impenetrable; each with his majesty of mien, -flowing beard, and portentous silence. - -We have seen a fac-simile of an ancient court, or, as it was scarce -thirty years ago, in the days of the father of the present sultan. - -Mahmoud was seated on his throne upon an elevated platform; an immense -turban composed of innumerable folds of the purest and finest white -muslin covered his royal head, in the front of which was placed a -magnificent spray of brilliants; his robes of rich silk, were confined -by a girdle of Cashmere's softest and richest fabrics, while over his -shoulders hung a magnificent pelisse, lined throughout with the best -of Russia's sables. Behind him stood his numerous pages, all young, -blooming, and beardless as the fairest maidens, arrayed in robes of -delicate tints. - -The Silahdar holding his majesty's sword upright, stood on the right -hand, while the Haznadar, or Lord Steward, was upon the other side -of the sultan. - -The Ak-agha, or chief of the white eunuchs, was behind the chair, -an old, woman-like man, beardless and wrinkled. In the group were the -imperial cup bearer, Kahvegee Bashi, coffee server, Kaftan-aghassi, -gentlemen of the wardrobe, etc. - -Below the platform, and in front of the sultan, stood in respective -rank, the different ministers of the realm, all robed to the feet in -rich and varied hues, and no two turbans alike. They seemed, indeed, -to be the movers and arbitrary controllers of the destinies of a vast -nation, the secret springs which kept the machine in motion. - -A most interesting collection of illustrative models from life, is -carefully preserved at Constantinople, called the Elbisseyi Atiké, -and exhibited at the great square of At Meydan, or the ancient -Hippodrome, near St. Sophia. It is wonderfully true to nature, and -typical of Eastern life, recalling those very characters with their -various avocations, who but a few years ago were all upon the scene, -enacting the very reality of Orientalism. - -The different grades of life, the officers under government, civil, -religious, and military, the various trades and callings, and -individuals of both sexes were formerly, each and all, designated by -a peculiar style and appearance. The janissaries were also habited -in various costumes, according to their ranks and employments. - -Such was the past magnificence of Turkey, now rapidly losing its -former type of varied external beauty, as it merges from day to day -in the great stream of civilization. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -THE SULTAN AND HIS PERSONNEL. - - -Rousseau has wisely observed, "Il faut étudier la société par les -hommes, et les hommes par la société," and as the tone of society in -all countries is derived from the courts and the wealthy, so also in -Turkey, the sultan and his court are the model of domestic life and -its institutions. - -Sultan Abd-ul Medjid Khan, the Padishah of the Osmanlis, or the -reigning monarch of Turkey, was born May 6th, 1822, and succeeded -his father Sultan Mahmoud, July 1st, 1839, at the age of seventeen. - -He has a brother and a sister, both younger than himself. - -His brother, Aziz Efendi, lives in the same palace with him, having -apartments therein for his own use and accommodation. - -His sister Adilé Sultan, who is married to Mehmed Aali Pasha, the -ex-Grand Vezir, resides in a separate palace on the Bosphorus. - -The sultan has until now had nine children, two girls and seven boys, -but none of his children will succeed him while his brother is living; -for the law of the country requires that the eldest living male member -of the Imperial family shall ascend the throne. - -The ceremony of the coronation consists simply in escorting the -new sultan in a state procession, to a particular mosque at Eyoub, -at the northern extremity of the city, where he girds on the sword -of state after suitable prayers, and is thus constituted Padishah. - -The Princes Regent of Turkey, were formerly shut up at a place called -Kafes or Cage, within the old Seraglio, where they were watched -and closely guarded, and never allowed to go abroad--with a view to -avoid intrigue or civil commotion. But Sultan Mahmoud first broke the -unsocial chains of ancient usages; his successor has nobly followed -in his father's footsteps, and allows his brother liberty to go out -when he wishes, but not without a formal application for permission, -which is enjoined upon him by court etiquette. - -The two brothers differ very materially from each other, in temperament -and character. The sultan is of a mild and affable disposition, and so -willing and yielding is he on matters of state to please his people, -that he is more ready to be governed than to govern. His brother, -on the contrary, is very stern and passionate, and has the same -determined character as his father. - -Abd-ul-Medjid is of medium stature, rather delicately formed. His eyes -are dark and heavy in expression, with lofty and arched eye-brows; -his beard and moustaches of a dark auburn hue, are carefully trimmed -and completely conceal the expression of his lower features. - -His complexion is very pallid, and his whole air decidedly nonchalant. - -On all state occasions he appears in public on horseback, wearing -the national fess, ornamented with the royal aigrette in brilliants. - -His short Spanish cloak falls in graceful folds around his person, -the collar of which is also adorned with diamonds. In a word, his -lofty carriage and beautifully caparisoned steed quite realize the -picturesque ideas generally conceived of an Eastern monarch. - -He never salutes any one in public or private, save by a single glance -of his eye. - -His favorite residence is the palace of Tchiraghan on the European -shore of the Bosphorus, a few miles from the city. - -In order to accommodate the numerous and peculiar retinue of an Osmanli -sovereign, there is a similarity in the internal arrangements of all -the royal residences. - -These palaces, like all other Osmanli houses, are divided into -two compartments; the first is called the Selamluk or the place of -salutation, and is appropriated to the men; the second is the Harem, -which belongs exclusively to the ladies. Between these two are the -apartments of the sultan, called Mabeyn. - -The personnel of a sultan formerly consisted of many -functionaries. Their number has of late been much reduced, though -they are still very numerous. - -The principal honorary officer is the Silahdar or Imperial -sword-bearer, whose office being a sinecure, he only enters the -presence when specially summoned, or to make some official reports. - -Those who are in the most constant communication with the sultan, -are his own Sir-Kiatibs, private secretaries, and the Mabeyngys, -or chamberlains, and he is always attended by one or two of the -latter, when he goes out. These gentlemen having the private ear of -his majesty, there is constant intrigue among the different political -parties to ensure their patronage, as the easiest means of access to -his sublime highness. - -The Enderoun Aghalery, or gentlemen of the royal household, are young -men selected from among the slaves, and also from the families of the -citizens. They are trained from their earliest years to the usages -of the palace, and receive an education suited to their prospective -career. When they are fitted for attendance upon his imperial majesty, -they become Itch-Oghlans, or pages of the presence, and perform -the duties of cup-bearer, towel-bearer, gentlemen of the wardrobe, -and slippers, pipe and coffee bearers, ushers, etc. They are many of -them distinguished for their elegance of manner and intelligence. - -From the rank of pages they are afterwards promoted to be chamberlains, -and often even attain the dignity of Müshirs, or Ministers of -State. The present Ministers Riza Pasha, and Mehmed-Aali Pasha, -the brother-in-law of the sultan, were both Mahmoud's pages. - -The mutes are as indispensable as any of the palace attendants; -when the Grand Vezir goes alone, or in company with the Grand Mufty, -to the Imperial chamber, all the Mabeyngys and the Enderoun Aghalery -withdraw, and the deaf mutes remain in attendance. - -As on no occasion, not even during a grand council, when they -deliberate with closed doors, the Osmanlis can dispense with their -attendants, mutes are always very necessary appendages to them, -both at the palace and the Porte. - -Although they have not the sense of hearing nor the faculty of speech, -they possess a remarkable quickness of comprehension, and have a -great tact in communicating their ideas, even to the divulging of -state secrets to their intimate friends and favorites. - -They were formerly the executioners of the palace; no reason can be -assigned for their holding such an office, unless, being deaf and dumb, -they were not qualified to hear and pity the unfortunate victims. - -There are also generally one or two dwarfs in the royal retinue, -who are a sort of court jesters. There is one now at the palace, -who became a very distinguished character during the reign of Mahmoud. - -On one occasion, when the sultan was in high glee, he summoned this -man of small pretensions to the harem. His majesty wishing to test -his ingenuity, proposed to him, that if he could kiss any one of -those girls (pointing to a group of tall and beautiful Circassian -slaves in attendance), he should have that very one for his wife. - -At this novel and unexpected intimation, Sir Paynim raised his eyes to -survey the bewitching circle, apparently so far beyond his reach. But -such a chance could not be lost; at all hazards, he boldly advanced -to one of the fairest, and while she looked down upon him in dismay, -gave her tangible proofs of his attachment by a tremendous blow on -her stomach. - -As she almost doubled with pain, her pigmy lover seized her around -the neck, imprinted his first kiss of love, and gained the royal -prize by this coup de main. - -At the threshold of the Mabeyn, you will meet the Enderoun Aghalery, -or the gentlemen of the household; passing by these personages, you -ascend the stairway, and enter a large hall. On all sides are many -curtained doorways, at one of which two guards are stationed. These -are the Perdegys, or curtain keepers to his majesty. - -The peculiarity of their domestic habits, viz., the ladies occupying -separate apartments, leaves the entire Selamluk free and accessible -to all. Hence the necessity, when wishing to be retired, of having -curtains suspended to the doorways, and guards stationed to prevent -the abrupt encroachment of visitors and strangers. - -The personal vanity of the Osmanlis is such, that no occasion -is neglected for its gratification, and munificence is always the -concomitant of rank and distinction; therefore the slightest service -is invariably compensated by a remuneration, technically called -bakshish. The keahya at the landing, who holds your cayik while you -disembark, or the ostler who holds your horse, the pabouchjy, who -officiously arranges your slippers as you leave the house, with the -whole household retinue of obsequious attendants, one and all expect -the customary bakshish. - -So universal is this practice, that the grander the establishment, -the lower are the wages of the servants, who are sure to reap so good -a harvest from the numerous visitors, that they willingly compound -for the most trifling salaries; indeed, it may justly be said, that -the grandees support each other's menials. - -This system pervades all classes of the people, and even the palace -of the sultan. - -An amusing story is told illustrative of the way in which these -Perdegys make their post available. - -One of these guards seemed to be enjoying such extensive revenues -from his office, that he was reported to his majesty in a very -ludicrous manner. - -A certain wit, by name Indjyly-Tchavoush, a sort of an Oriental -Curran, occasionally used to visit the sultan; but never without -paying tribute to these keepers of the curtain. - -Nettled at these exactions, and wishing to attract his majesty's -attention to the subject, he one day entered the royal presence -with a large mackerel, the commonest fish in Turkey, in his hand, -as a present. The sultan was struck with the oddity of the gift, and -supposing that the expectations of the donor could only be realized -by some royal munificence, asked, "What he desired in return?" - -"Only 500 lashes, sire," was the prompt reply. This reply added to his -majesty's astonishment, "and why so strange a request?" he demanded. - -"Because, since, I am obliged to share all your majesty's gifts with -your majesty's curtain keepers, I wish the rogues to have their share -in this also!" - -Judging from your benevolent countenance, that you are endowed with -generous impulses, the keepers allow you to pass within the curtained -door. You are now in a large apartment, on three sides of which are -windows, with a wide Turkish sofa at the end, some two feet high -from the floor, where the sultan is seated entirely alone, with a -desk and implements of writing before him, and a long and graceful -chibouk, mounted with a splendid amber mouth-piece ornamented with -diamonds, carelessly lying by his ride. He utters the simple word, -Gel! come! when several attendants appear as if by magic, and stand -before him with folded hands. At every command they make the temennah, -or Turkish salutation, which is done, not by bending the person, -and bringing their arms over their heads, as though they were going -to dive, as is often represented in theatres, but simply by raising -the right hand to the mouth, the fingers touching the lips, then the -right temple, and then carelessly dropping it down. This temennah -is performed without uttering a single word, and signifies perfect -comprehension of the royal orders. - -An air of humility is always maintained in the presence of superiors, -and such signs of active existence, as coughing or sneezing, are -quite unallowable. The person feeling preliminary symptoms of these -actions, being obliged either to suppress them, or to withdraw from -the presence. Indeed the social etiquettes are very strict, even among -equals. Although tobacco is introduced on occasions of ceremony and -social intercourse--the chibouk and nargillé are not the calumets of -peace, but of hospitality--the disagreeable concomitants of the weed -so universal in America, are absolutely unknown in Turkey. - -Spitting, then, is to the Osmanlis a most repulsive act, and their -horror may be imagined when, on a certain occasion, while in the -company of a grandee of the realm, the representative of the great -American nation (the New World), deliberately took his quid from his -pocket, and after cutting the requisite morsel, stored it carefully -in the corner of his mouth, and commenced the slow mastication so -characteristic of good tobacco chewers! The indulgence of such a luxury -having only made his excellency's mouth water, and there being no -other accommodation at hand, in order to relieve his salivary glands, -he was obliged to aim at an open window close by! - -His excellency, consequently, became a sort of a proverb among them, -and the question was repeatedly asked, "Does your American friend -still continue to enact the camel, or does he not weary of chewing -the cud?" Unlearned in classic lore, how should they know that the -poet once said-- - - - - "Tu tantum erucis imprime dentem." - - - -No one is ever seated in the presence of the sultan, nor are any of -the customary rites of hospitality observed; such as the introduction -of pipes, coffee, sherbet, etc. - -On the presentation of foreign ambassadors, the ceremony is so -arranged, that the minister plenipotentiary and his sublime highness, -enter the apartment simultaneously by opposite doors; thus the sultan -receives the representatives of foreign potentates on foot, without -condescending to rise from his seat. - -After the audience is terminated, the royal guests are conducted -into the apartment of the Mabeyngys, where they are treated with true -Oriental hospitality and munificence. - -Those persons who are not aware of the wonderful changes that have -taken place in Turkey, may fancy this monarch to be surrounded by -a group of robed, turbaned, and bearded Osmanlis; on the contrary, -both the sultan and his attendants now wear a European military frock -coat and pantaloons, with only the national fess for a head-dress. - -The moustache is universally worn, and it would seem as ridiculous to -an Osmanli to shave the eyebrows as the upper-lip. Indeed, nothing -excites the curiosity of the rising generation so much, as to see -a man without a moustache; especially an aged man, in whose case, -it would seem to them like an attempt at perpetual youth. - -There is not a beard to be seen on any of the attendants of the palace, -for the beard is considered in Turkey as a mark of dignity and freedom; -consequently, no one in the personal service of the sultan is allowed -this honor, except by special permission of his majesty; which implies, -that the individual is no longer retained in the palace, but soon to -be elevated to some superior office. The beard, then, being indicative -of rank and position, it is preserved with a certain superstitious -reverence; no Mussulman, therefore, after the ceremony of allowing -the beard to grow has been once performed, ever again uses the razor; -nevertheless it is not permitted to assume the natural growth, but -is carefully trimmed according to the fashion of modern times. - -Abd-ul-Medjid makes his appearance in the Mabeyn, early in the morning; -for it is a universal custom with the Osmanlis to rise early. He -generally spends his mornings in the perusal of local and foreign -newspapers, which are translated for him, and other general reading. - -He has lately acquired a taste for the French language, in which -he has made considerable progress. He is, according to the Turkish -acceptance of the term, well-educated; that is, well versed in Turkish -belles-lettres, with a general acquaintance with the history of his -own country. - -The science of mathematics has also engrossed some of his attention, -and he even condescended to receive instructions from Etem Pasha, -a young man of distinguished abilities and foreign education, who was -taken into the royal retinue as colonel of the body-guards; doubtless, -however, with reference to his scientific acquirements. - -His majesty's meals, according to the custom of the country, are two; -one in the morning between ten and eleven, the other at sunset. They -are served by the Tcheshnigear, whose duty it is to break the seals -of the different dishes intended for the sultan's repast, and after -having tasted, to carry them into the royal presence. - -Although the Osmanlis are great epicures, their tastes are very -singular. Their dishes are very diversified and numerous, consisting -usually of twelve or fifteen, and sometimes even thirty courses; -sweet and meat dishes being introduced in alternate succession; the -meal commencing with soup, and ending with pilaf, or a preparation of -rice peculiar to Turkey. They have a species of pastry or paklava, -which is remarkably light and delicious; and the mohalleby, or -Turkish blanc-mange, is much liked, even by Europeans. Fruit, at -Constantinople, is very abundant and delicious, and is partaken of -frequently during a repast. Indeed, the grapes of Scutari, called -Tchavoush, are unrivalled, and even more delicious and delicate than -those of Madeira or Malaga. - -The order in which a dinner is served is as follows: soup, kebab -(or roast meat in small pieces), entremet (or vegetables and meat -cooked together), pastry, roast, fish, entremet, mohalleby, entremet, -maccaroni, fowls, jelly, etc., until at last it winds up with the -significative pilaf and sherbet, or hosh-ab. - -No wine or liquor is served at the table, but his sublimity -occasionally during the day visits the pantry, doubtless, "for his -stomach's sake, and his often infirmities." Unfortunately, modern -civilization has some vices as well as many virtues; and the fashion -of excessive drinking, has, among others, lately crept into Turkey, -to which some of the élégants are becoming much addicted, and, ere -long, they may, perhaps excel even the paragon, John Bull. - -Although many other innovations and attempts at reform have -succeeded in Turkey, yet the original style of eating has not been -much improved. They use neither chairs nor tables; but a low stool -being put in the middle of the room, a large circular copper tray is -placed upon it. - -No such paraphernalia as cloths, napkins, knives, forks, plates, -glasses, etc., are essential; small loaves of bread, alternately -with small dishes of fruit, pickles, anchovies, cheese, etc., are -indiscriminately scattered around the edges of the tray, in the -middle of which the different preparations of food are successively -placed by the ayvaz or scullion, and the food is eaten with the -fingers, excepting the liquid dishes, for which wooden spoons -are provided. Around the tray, the company assemble, sitting with -their legs under them, and all eating from the dish in the middle; -reminding us of the customs of ancient times, when it was said, -"It is one of the twelve who dippeth with me in the dish." - -One long, narrow napkin is provided, which goes all round the tray, -and lies upon the floor; each person slipping under it as he sits down. - -Their tables being accessible to their friends at all times, -dinner-parties are never given, except on state occasions; for, -hospitality being one of the characteristics of the East, and -especially enjoined by the Koran, no one is excluded from their board; -and when the number present is so large as not to allow them to sit -comfortably, they place themselves side-wise, or in a sort of spoon -fashion, as though they were leaning upon one another, and thus -illustrating the scene at the feast of the Passover. - -In some of the houses of the wealthy, and especially of those whose -owners have visited Europe, the European mode of eating is imitated, -when the motley company, which is always assembled, sometimes presents -a most ludicrous scene. - -Once, a Turk at such a table, wishing to conform to the customs of -civilized life, endeavored to use the fork. Failing in several attempts -to take a piece of meat, and determined to overcome his gaucherie, -he resolutely took hold of the morsel with his fingers, and placing -one end of the fork against his breast, stuck the meat upon it with -an immense effort, and then carried it to his mouth, quite contented -with his own success, amid the applause of the company. During the -sacred month of Ramazan, however, the European mode of eating is never -practised, even by the most enlightened and liberal. Knives, forks, -tables and chairs, are then altogether set aside, as being too profane. - -His majesty usually breakfasts at the Mabeyn, and always quite alone; -for no one being equal to him, none can have the honor of his company; -and his evening repast is often taken, weather permitting, at some -beautiful watering-place. - -The time between these two meals is usually occupied with some of -his ministers, or the audiences of the foreign ambassadors, and in -excursions on the Bosphorus or elsewhere. - -Whatever transpires at the Porte, is reported to him every evening, -through the Ameddjy, or state chancellor, expressed in the most -beautiful and elegant style of which the Turkish language is -capable. In fact, the bureau of the Ameddjy is considered the best -school for polite literature, and those who have once served in that -department, invariably acquire a remarkable elegance of diction. The -sultan reads over these documents every evening, together with the -Arzou-hals, or petitions, which are presented to him on Fridays; and -after giving his imperial sanction or veto, returns them to the Porte, -to be acted upon accordingly. - -The approval of the sultan is not expressed by the application of -any royal seal or cypher, but by a bold stroke of his majesty's reed, -representing the Arabic letter S, which is termed sah, meaning correct -or approved. And those which are rejected are torn in one corner. - -The sultan's cipher, called Toora, is formed from the names of -the reigning monarch, and that of his father. It reads thus, -"Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid, son of Sultan Malmoud Khan, the sultan of -sultans." This is the imperial seal, and Ottoman coat of arms, and -it is affixed to all royal edicts, engraved upon public buildings, -and stamped upon the various current coins of the empire. - -When his evening occupations are over, the sultan retires to the harem. - -Such is the ordinary routine of the life of the Turkish sovereign; -but there are also many other public duties which occupy his time -and attention, and fully demonstrate that the post of sultan is by -no means a sinecure. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -PUBLIC DUTIES OF THE SULTAN. - - -The sultan is obliged to attend one of the public mosques in person -every Friday, which is the Mohammedan Sunday. One reason of his public -appearance is to set an example of religious devotion; another, to -assure the people by his actual presence, that he is in the enjoyment -of life and health; and a third, to give an opportunity to any of -his discontented subjects to appeal to him in person; for, the right -of appeal has never been denied in Turkey. This is done by a paper, -which is held in the extended hand of the petitioner, and presented -anywhere in the course of the royal route. - -It is received by his pages and reserved for the future perusal of -his majesty. His departure, both from the palace and the mosque, -is announced by a royal salute of 21 guns from the batteries, and -the ships of war. - -These opportunities are eagerly embraced by all strangers who wish -to gaze on the great "Tamer of Infidels and the scourger of the -unbelieving race of Christian vassals." There are two other great state -festivals, on which occasions the sultan and the whole of the royal -retinue combine to present one of the most beautiful Oriental pageants. - -These are the feasts of Bairam, one of which occurs at the end of -Ramazan or the long fast, and the other the Courban Bairam, or feast -of the sacrifice, sixty-eight days after. - -There is a grand state procession. Surrounded by his numerous pages -in uniforms glittering with golden embroidery and plumed head-dresses, -attended by dignitaries of the realm in full court dress, all mounted -on Arabian steeds, splendidly caparisoned, the sultan enters the -mosque of Sultan Ahmed at the ancient Hippodrome. He alights upon a -velvet carpeting, which extends into the mosque, and is supported on -each side by chamberlains. - -As he dismounts, the voice of the assembled multitude proclaims "Allah -Padishahumuza Oozoon eömürler versin," Long live the king--God bless -the sultan. - -The Padishah after the performance of prayers, returns to his palace at -the Seraglio Point, where the throne room is always preserved. There -he receives the compliments of the season from his ministers and -officers of state. - -The procession to the mosque being public, has been described by -many who have witnessed it; but from the reception at the palace all -foreigners are excluded. - -The sultan is seated on a chair of state, with the princes and younger -princesses of the royal blood on each side. - -Behind the throne, in a semicircle, stand the personnel of the royal -household. - -Opposite the throne, at the farthest end of the hall, a band of -musicians is stationed, and as they perform the national airs, the -dignitaries enter the royal presence according to their respective -ranks, to pay homage to their sovereign. - -As has already been described, the usual mode of salutation in the east -is the temennah, made by touching the hand to the lips and then to the -forehead, which signifies affection and humility. With the desire, -however, to be more respectful, they often bend down to the ground, -as if willing to take up the very dust upon which the honored feet -have rested, or attempt to kiss the hem of the garment. But all these -ordinary modes of salutation are insufficient at a royal reception; -when a beautifully embroidered rug is spread before the sultan, -on one end of which his feet rest. - -As they present themselves, they slowly bend their persons and touch -their lips and foreheads to the border of the carpet, which ceremony -is called the kissing of the sultan's feet; for, no one is allowed -any actual proximity to the royal person--thus guarding him from the -assassin's dagger. - -After kissing the end of the carpet they arrange themselves in two -opposite lines on each side of the sultan, to witness the homages of -the various pashas and other dignitaries. Those who take their stand -in the presence are only the heads of the departments, both civil -and religious. - -After the ceremony is over, every one retires to hit own dwelling, -to enact the sultan to his subordinates. - -The Courban Bairam is the great festival celebrated by the pilgrims -at Mecca, in commemoration of the offering up of Ishmael; and is -generally observed throughout the Mohammedan dominions,--on which -occasion every Mussulman must kill a sheep with his own hand, and -distribute the meat to the poor. - -The sultan performs this sacrifice at his own palace before the -morning prayers. As he stands at the threshold, a ram with gilded -horns is laid at his feet, and girding himself with a silken towel, -he completes the sacrifice. - -The solution of this act of devotion is, that they believe that the -faithful will be transported over the surat or bridge of hair into -paradise on the backs of these immolated victims. - -The old seraglio, which was the residence of so many sultans, -and the scene of the aggrandizement and downfall of so many good -Mussulmans; under whose latticed windows the Bosphorus flows so deeply -as to tell no tales of the hundreds of living and beautiful maidens -that have perished in the blue waves and left no sign of their sad -fate--the bloody and mysterious seraglio is now deserted, save on -such occasions as have been described--notwithstanding travellers' -assertions to the contrary. - -How many of the royal blood, even sultans themselves, within this -time-worn palace, have either drained the insidious and poisoned -potion, or been dispensed with by the surer cord, or assassin's dagger! - -The last victim was Sultan Mustafa, or the uncle of the present -monarch; and Mahmoud himself was miraculously preserved by the -attachment and perseverance of his lala or eunuch, who concealed -him in the fire-place of the bath, until the fury of the mob had -subsided--thus saving him, whom Allah had reserved for the proud -distinction of being the savior and regenerator of his country. - -No wonder, then, that the sultans of later times have recoiled from -such associations and built for themselves other palaces on the bright -and smiling shores of the "ocean stream." - -Abd-ul-Medjid has just erected a magnificent residence opposite the -entrance to the Marmora, the palace of Dolma Bahché. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -ROMANCE OF THE EAST. - - -The ordinary course of events, the humdrum monotonous tinkling of -life's daily and ever recurring necessities, is wearisome to the -soul. There is a longing for variety; the love of the marvelous craves -wherewith to slake its thirst, the imagination seeks its food, and the -beautiful, in fancy or reality, must sometimes minister its soothing -charms. Anything to escape from the physical, cumbersome part of our -nature, into the world of romance and visionary exultation. War and its -glory, its sudden vicissitudes of victory and defeat, its brilliant -arms and thundering voices excite the most thrilling emotions in the -bosoms of care-worn mortals. Love, with its gentle wooing, its kind -sympathies, and tender ministry, comes to the heart, sick of itself, -as the very balm of Gilead. Religion calls the crushed and bleeding -spirit to an unseen world, where fancy may luxuriate in realms of -ethereal anticipations, anon to become the realities of Faith, as -the soul is discharged from its mortal tenement. - -It is, under any guise, a blissful attribute, this ability to soar -out of life's dullness, into scenes of imaginary hope and brightness: -to escape from the real into the unreal, whether to deeds of heroic -valor, whose charm consists in the extravagance of the excitement, or -to linger in the enchantments of a tender passion, or to listen to the -tales of others' woes or joys: all these kindle up the enthusiasm of -the soul. But is there ever any reality to what may be termed romance? - -If, as some would fain have us believe, the very objects which seem -so tangible to our senses, are no realities, what then of the vagaries -of the imagination? The moment you reduce the most thrilling incident -to mere matter of fact, or divest it of the garb in which fancy ever -delights to clothe its objects, the romance loses its charm. The -more remote the scene, the more unfettered by conventionalities the -actors, the more bewitching the tale of their adventures, and the more -impossible the achievements, the better prized. Even the aid of genii -and fairies wonderfully helps on this love of the marvelous. What -was Aladdin's lamp more than any other old piece of copper ore, -until the slave of the lamp suddenly appeared. There has ever hung -over the East, a veil of mystery; it may be from the warmth of the -Oriental imagination and its own extravagant creations, or from the -seclusiveness of the women, who, as they became unfamiliar objects, -seemed to be the very Venuses and Peris of the world of fable. The -reserve of the men themselves, leaving their better halves to an -obliviousness from all the world, is calculated to excite the curiosity -of the community at home, and the rest of the world abroad, and to -invest the fair sex with most improbable charms. The difficulty -and imminent danger of a single interview, excites the love of -adventure. Tottering old crones, themselves the genuine antidotes to -all passion, point with their bony fingers to the penetralia, where a -goddess in human form enshrines her charms. Even a transformation takes -place, a new complexion is produced, feminine draperies and a basket -of wares, and you pass the unsuspecting and smooth-faced guardian of -the portal. You love to linger in the sweetly perfumed halls, to toy -with the beautiful Circassian, as she listlessly lounges on her silken -couch; you love even the sense of danger, as you start at every step, -and again relax into forgetfulness of the external world. But sometimes -there is a sequel; you fly for life; your lovely companion bares her -neck to the bow-string, her beautiful form enters the mystic veil of -the lost woman; the coarse and heavy sack, her coffin--her grave the -blue and briny wave of the ocean stream. - -All this is wild, romantic, thrilling, and tragic. But how rare the -occurrence; and of the multitude of adventure-loving, romance-seeking -beings that people earth's surface, to whose lot shall we assign -the realization? All dream; but how few wake to the vision in life's -action. All fancy; but when does not the broad sunshine of earth's -glare dispel the wreathed and mistlike draperies of imagination. The -ideal has an existence only in the "mind's eye." - -There is, then, no more romance in the East than elsewhere; indeed -there is even more of natural life divested of all extravagance -of fiction. The very lack of education, which, in some respects, -is certainly to be lamented, tends to fasten their hearts together, -in the bonds of nature's best affections. Home has joys enough for -their simple souls; so entirely devoid of that refined selfishness, -which in other lands seems to annihilate those sweet provisions -for kindred sympathies, which arise from the reciprocal affinities -of parent and child, brother and sister. There is little food then -for morbid imaginations, but much for natural pleasures and simple -tastes. The very externals of Orientalism are making their exit -from the world's scene; soon there will not exist even the illusion -of characteristic and graceful forms. Ere long we shall realize, -that, divested of form and coloring, of tinsel and decoration, the -descendants of the great common ancestor of the human race, are all -alike in feature, nature, and spirit. - -Indeed a general acquaintance with the different tribes and nations -under heaven only serves to convince the cosmogonist, that all are -of one family, have a common nature or origin, are but human, and -liable to human frailties and passions. The most powerful emotions -are felt in the bosoms of the savage and the polite. Ambition, love, -hatred, revenge, and a like train of absorbing impulses, rule and sway -wherever man has planted his footsteps. But how interesting to mark -the influence of circumstances, to define the latitudes and longitudes -of ideas and actions, to measure the rise and fall of the thermometer -of life, according to the various climes on earth's broad surface, -to feel the pulse of the dissenting creeds and dogmas, in a word, -to observe the same faculties under such varied culture. - -In comparing the different grades of education and civilization, -it is curious to observe how often an innate refinement of feeling -equals, if not supersedes, the greatest efforts of cultivation, or the -brightest results of philosophy. A lifetime spent in the schools often -leaves the man far behind one, whose early years have passed in shrewd -observation, and practical experience, for while the one is reasoning, -abstracting, ruminating, the other experiments, and lo! he enters the -very penetralia of the temple of wisdom. And where do we find the most -susceptible hearts, the most poetical fancies, the purest aspirations -of nature? Not among the dry and tutored reasoners of civilization, -but where the mind of man has been untrammeled by rules and etiquettes, -forms and ceremonies. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -THE HAREM. - - -We cannot deny that habit is second nature--the axiom holds good in -every form of social existence; yet there is a universal disposition -to mutual criticism and condemnation, whether between nations or -neighbors. There is always the vibrating why and wherefore, and -each, approves his own course of action, without ceding to others -the same privilege. - -There is no doubt that the peculiar style of the toilet of the Turkish -ladies would be deprecated by the belles of modern Christendom. Indeed, -we have often heard these fastidious dames exclaim, in regarding -representations of their Eastern rivals, "most horribly indecent," -while they turned their sensitive vision from the offenders against -all delicacy. And, on the other hand, we have heard the Osmanli Hanums -and Efendis express equal honor at the sight of a European lady, -en costume de bal. - -When the Marchioness of Londonderry presented herself at the palace of -the sultan, en grand tenue for a reception, the gentlemen in waiting -could scarcely persuade themselves to conduct her ladyship into the -royal presence, so astonished were they at the display of the fair -neck, shoulders, etc. - -Both the Western and Eastern toilets may be styled décolletées, the -one a horizontal, the other a longitudinal display of charms. But one -thing may be said in favor of the Orientals, that they never appear -in public without covering their necks and bosoms, and even veiling -their features; they are only permitted to appear uncovered at home, -and even then only in the presence of their nearest relatives. On -the contrary, on the most public occasions, at the operas, balls, -soirées, and many other grand assemblies, do the Western décolletées -delight to vie with each other in their various styles of full dress; -they are even so fastidious as to have no nomenclature but ankles, -while they willingly pay their dollars to see a full extension of -these same ankles on the stage. - -The Turkish ladies with perfect indifference present their unslippered -and even unhosed feet to any shop-boy, at the same time carefully -concealing their shalvar, or full trowsers, which are fastened below -the knee, and tucked up whenever they sally forth for a promenade ŕ -pied ou en voiture. - -As to the intrinsic merit or real modesty of these different styles, -peculiar tastes and prevailing modes can only decide; for habit is -strong in its sway, and imitation is a kindred principle. Therefore, -there is neither vice nor virtue in walking in the footsteps of our -predecessors, or each man or woman adopting the peculiar modes and -customs of their own people. As fertile a brain may throb beneath a -turban as a hat, as pure a form enshroud itself in a modest veil as -lurks beneath the shadow of a Parisian bonnet. What are externals -but whims and caprices; it is the virtue of domestic institutions -and daily habitudes that stamps the character of a people. - -European or American ladies may grace their boudoirs, models of beauty -and excellence, and Turkish Hanums may, by the exercise of domestic -virtues, equally adorn and ennoble the precincts of their Harems. - -The word Harem is familiar to most persons, but how grossly -misunderstood. Some have considered it as unmentionable to ears polite; -while the votaries of pleasure, ever ready to indulge their longing -fancies, have pictured it to themselves as the earthly realization of -the Paradise of Mohammed. Indeed many European authors in describing -the licentious and corrupted courts of their own monarchs, have -seemed to consider this term as the most distinguishing compendium -of immorality. - -Strange perversion, that the very word which inspires every Oriental, -whether Mohammedan or Christian, with the greatest respect, should -suggest to the mind of a European only a system of concubinage and -licentiousness. - -What then is Harem? - -One peculiarity in the construction of society in its primitive -condition was that might makes right. This not only affected personal -property, but even the more domestic relations. If an enemy strong -enough felt the inclination, he might rob his neighbor of his wife -or family, of which there are instances on Biblical record. - -To avoid any occasions of such unjust appropriation, it became a -policy to seclude the women from general observation. - -The unbounded hospitality of those good old days when the worthy -patriarchs lived with open doors, and good cheer; when the three -virtues which made a man distinguished, were bravery, eloquence, -and hospitality, or in the hyperbole of the times, a sharp sword, -a sweet tongue, and forty tables; in such an era of benevolence it -became necessary to separate the more precious and defenseless portion -of the family from the vulgar gaze. - -The seclusion of women, then, has ever been one of the greatest -social peculiarities of the East, and does not date its origin from -modern times, nor even from the foundation of the Moslem faith. In -some forms, it existed in the times of the ancient Jews; for, when -Rebecca lifted up her eyes and saw Isaac, who had gone out to meditate -in the field at even tide, she said unto the servant, "What man is -this, who walketh in the field to meet us?" and the servant said, -"It is my master, therefore she took a veil and covered herself." - -"The mother of Sisera looked out at a window, and cried through -the lattice." - -The same institution existed among the Arabs from time immemorial, so -that Mohammed was not the originator of this separation of women from -general society, but rather the sustainer of an old and established -usage, which the condition of the community in his times, rendered -imperative. - -"Speak unto the true believers, that they restrain their eyes, -and keep themselves from immodest actions. This will be more pure -for them, for God is well acquainted with that which they do; and -speak unto the believing women, that they restrain their eyes, and -preserve their modesty, and discover not their ornaments (personal -charms), except what necessarily appeareth thereof; and let them -throw their veils over their bosoms, and not show their ornaments, -unless to their husbands or their fathers, or their husband's fathers, -or their sons, or their husband's sons, or their brother's sons, or -unto such as attend them and have no need of women, or unto children -who distinguish not the nakedness of men." - -Supposing then society were on a different basis, according to -these tenets, the women would be perpetually veiled, and the men -ever wandering with averted eyes. In order to remedy these evils, -and facilitate their seclusion, the houses are all divided into two -sets of apartments, the Selamluk, or men's apartment, and the Harem, -or the sanctuary of the women, where no men are allowed to enter, -except those specified by the Prophet. - -Now, it is evident that the principle upon which society is constructed -in the East, is the careful seclusion of women from the gaze of -the world. - -The peculiar charm of modesty is known and acknowledged all over the -world, as the domestic arrangements of civilized society everywhere -demonstrate. - -The Greeks of Homer's day had their gynaikeion, the Romans, in -imitation, their Gynćceum; and modern civilization has created its -boudoir; but none of these terms are as expressive of the sanctity -of the abode, as the word Harem of the Orientals. - -It is well known that the cities of Mecca and Medina are the holy -shrines of the Mohammedan faith. No other appellative is used in -speaking of them, but the same word Harem, which, when used in -the plural, in itself comprises these venerated cities. They say, -Hadjj-ul-Haremein, or pilgrim of the two harems, meaning the holy -Mecca and Medina. This word is applied to the temple itself at Mecca, -which is honored by the title of Mesjad-el-Harem, the sacred or -inviolable temple. - -Thus some idea may be formed of the etymology of the term and its -sacred signification, when used by the Arabs and other Orientals, -to designate their firesides or family homes; the sanctity of which, -not only admits of no intrusion, but any summons or interruption to -the master of the family after he has once retired, is considered -indecorous. - -Mohammed received a revelation regarding himself, while he was engaged -in his harem preparing the Koran. - -Some persons had the rudeness to call him out. In order to reprove -them, and like sinners in all times to come, the following passage -was revealed: - -"The interior of thy dwelling is a sanctuary; they who violate it -by calling unto thee, are deficient in the respect which they owe to -the interpreter of heaven." - -This passage has not only rendered the interior of the dwelling, -viz. the harem, an inviolable asylum to the female portion of the -family, but it has made it a convenient place of refuge to pashas and -efendis, where they often seek repose from the multitude of unwelcome -visitors who infest, with perfect freedom, and at all hours, their -selamluks. - -The frequent visits of the Osmanlis to their harems, are not always -indications of the attractions within, but other external motives may -impel them thither; nevertheless, the inviolability of these precincts -has induced the supposition that they contained naught but the shrine -of the fair Goddess of Beauty, and her sly coadjutor. - -The upper part of a house in America, or those rooms appropriated to -the exclusive use of the ladies, are as sacred and inviolable as any -Oriental harem; and are not, as a matter of course, supposed to be -the scenes of mystery and intrigue. Indeed, it is fully evident that -the same spirit of deference to the comfort of the fair sex, exists -in America, where is seen over one of the principal entrances to the -general post-office, the announcement, "Exclusively for Ladies," which -in Turkey would be intimated by the single and expressive word HAREM. - -Again the "Ladies' Cabin" on board the steamers would, in the East, -be designated by the word Harem, written in golden characters, which -would at once indicate its sacred nature, and inspire every Oriental -with the respect due to the sex, which is even more imperative in -that clime than in other lands, where they make a glory and boast of -their excessive deference to the fairer portion of the community. - -Hence how erroneous the impression, that the harem is a species of -female prison, established by the tyranny of men, where the weaker -sex are forcibly shut up against their will. - -If the Osmanli ladies were under no other restrictions, their own sense -of self-respect, based upon time-hallowed usage, and inculcated by the -precepts of their religion, would compel them to the same seclusion. I -one day happened to be in the dressing room of a pasha, adjoining -the harem; when he left the room for a moment. In the interval, -his daughter, supposing her father quite alone, suddenly entered -the apartment; but on seeing me there, instinctively covering her -face with the drapery of her sleeve, as suddenly disappeared. While -I myself as instinctively displayed my sense of the courtesy due to -a lady, by looking as far as I could in an opposite direction. - -I heard her remarking to the slaves in the next room, that she was -so mortified, for, instead of seeing her father there stood ---- -as large as life. - -Her feeling at being seen without the precincts of the harem unveiled, -was the same as would be experienced by a lady of this country, -who should be surprised by the sight of a gentleman, when she was en -toilette de nuit! - -Nor is this seclusion entirely Mohammedan, but being an ancient custom -of the East, it is practised by all who dwell in that clime. The -families of the rayas, or non-mussulman subjects of the Porte, -consisting of the Armenians, Greeks, and Jews, are also under the -same social laws as their Mohammedan compatriots. It is true, that -in proportion as European customs have found their way into these -countries, the rigidity of the Christians has relaxed in this respect; -because the observance in question has never been incorporated with -their religion; whereas Mohammed, on the contrary, took special pains -to enforce the practice upon his followers. - -The word harem being by courtesy applied also to its inmates, has now -become a general term to designate the female portion of the family, -and is by no means synonymous with polygamy, otherwise the same -expression would not be used by the Christian subjects in speaking -of their domestic relations. - -It would be said that a certain pasha or an Armenian banker had gone -to a distant place without his harem, or family. - -An Osmanli lady, on being informed of the arrival of an American -minister in Constantinople, would naturally inquire whether he was -accompanied by his harem, or family. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -CONDITION OF WOMEN. - - -It is fortunate that the less enlightened members of the human family -are unconscious of their comparative inferiority--and are ignorant -of the bliss to which the more sublimated specimens of humanity are -constantly aspiring, and even rendering themselves discontented with -real life, as destiny has accorded it to them. - -The actual condition of women in the East is not then so much to be -lamented, as their ideal of happiness so essentially differs from that -of other portions of the fair sex in Europe or America. As no other -philosophy has yet crept into their minds, they dream not of "woman's -rights," "free love" or "equality of the sexes," and calmly content -themselves with the rights of nature, and the relative position which -has ever existed among their simple and patriarchal ancestors. The -Osmanlis have not yet deviated from the form of family government -which nature dictated to them. - -The venerable father, who has guided his children through youth, and -even counseled them in maturer years, is the monarch in the family -circle--the Dei penates are no creations of myth--but are embodied -in the one and sacred title of Pater familias. - -Each son, as he succeeds to the paternal duties, is invested with -the robes of veneration and respect. Thus the male branches of the -household have a prior rank, which is unconsciously recognized by the -women and younger members of the family. The laws even allow to the -son double the share of inheritance that they do to the daughters, -because of the heavy responsibilities which may devolve upon him in -future by the death of the father. - -There is not, therefore, the most distant suspicion in their -composition that females are equal to males, or girls to boys. It is -as if the members of the body should revolt, and the hands and feet -proclaim themselves superior, or even equal, to the head. - -The women of Turkey know very well, and gracefully submit to facts, -which are stubborn things. They never think of denying that - - - - "Women first were made for men, - Not men for them." - - - -There are countries where the condition of woman is indeed miserable, -and where, also, they are unconscious of their own degradation, -and willingly toil and drudge in the service of men; content with -the slightest proofs of affection with which their lords may honor -them--indeed, any concession to their woman nature is thankfully -received. - -To be bought and sold is a matter of course. In China, the -purchased wife is suddenly transported into the family of a man, -whose name even she has never heard. There she is the slave of the -whole establishment. The husband may beat her with impunity, reduce -her to a state of starvation, or hire her out, if he fancies to do so. - -The Hindoo forces her to immolate herself on her husband's funeral -pile--after having spent a lifetime in his slavery and service. - -Such barbarities are unknown in Turkey. For in no country in the -world are mothers more respected, wives more tenderly cherished, and -children more idolized. If, in the relative position of the sexes, -men rank above women, it is because the man is considered as the -vital principle, and the woman the material. Hence the man loves -and cherishes the woman, who in return regards him with reverence -and respect; and any deviation from these reciprocal affections, -would be considered as the greatest breach of decorum. - -There are certain acts of politeness which devolve altogether upon -the lords of creation in the most exquisitely civilized regions of -the world, which are however sometimes reluctantly performed--but, -as usual, such matters are reversed in the East, where even the sun -rises at a different hour. There the Efendi graciously receives a -glass of water at the hands of his too happy Hanum; his pipe and his -coffee are gracefully served by some fair Hebe of a wife or sister, -who naturally considers herself as the helpmeet for her spouse, -as did Eve, the first and fairest of woman kind. - -The reluctance they feel to have their ladies appear in general -society does not arise from any want of deference and respect on the -part of the men, but rather from an intuitive desire to guard and -protect them from public scandal. - -As the Osmanlis enshrine the objects of their affection in the recesses -of their own hearts, so they love to guard them from all contact of a -selfish world. Indeed, Moore has beautifully expressed their feelings -in the warblings of the Peri, - - - "No pearl ever lay under Oman's green water, - More pure in its shell, than thy spirit in thee." - - -They feel so sensitive on this score, that they do not make their -Harems a subject of conversation. Even the most distant allusion -to this part of their establishment would consequently be, not -only indelicate, but also an infringement of etiquette--so that -the ordinary questions, such as "how are madam and the ladies," -or according to Irish vocabulary, "how's yer wife and the gals," -would cause the lord of the house to redden with astonishment. - -As a further proof of the respect a man is supposed to feel for his -family, his enemy, when wishing to touch him to the quick, in cursing -him, only utters maledictions against his wife, mother, or sister. - -A man may be publicly executed, but a woman is sacked, entirely out -of respect. - -A Turkish lady is eminently queen of her own dominions, sometimes -even a despot--and most independent on all occasions, both public -and private. - -It is not necessary for ladies to be attended by their husband or any -other gentleman when they go out; public sentiment entirely protects -them; for, if any one should accost them rudely, the commonest citizen -would immediately turn avenger. When the ladies are attended by -servants and eunuchs, they are only appendages of rank and distinction. - -They seem, indeed, to be a privileged class. Wherever they appear -the men must retire--and woe to the man who ventures upon a warfare -of words with a Turkish woman; for her tongue has no bounds, and her -slipper is a ready weapon of chastisement; and no man would dare to -repel the attack. - -The convenience of the slipper as a ready means of self-defence, -seems to have been familiar in the days of the old classics, for, -the Roman poet says: - - - - "Et soleâ pulsare nates," - - -And doubtless many of the rising generation can testify to its abuse, -even in these days of modern improvement. - -The very whims and caprices which seem indigenous to the fair sex, -are tolerated as a matter of course with philosophic resignation, -as they are instructed by the Koran, "If ye be kind towards women -and fear to wrong them, God is well acquainted with what ye do." They -have a proverb also which supplants all reasoning on such occasions. - - - - "Satchi-ouzoun, Akli-Kissa." Long hair, short brains. - - - -To salute a lady, or in any way accost her, in public would be an -act of consummate rudeness; even a husband would pass by his wife and -family with an air of affected indifference. Certainly such a neglect -of the fair sex would be unpardonable in Europe and this country, but -on the contrary, in the East, it only evinces the greatest deference -and respect. - -Nevertheless, the Mohammedans have been most maliciously reported -by ignorant writers on the East, to hold that women have no souls; -or if they have, that they will perish like those of brute beasts. - -This assumption is founded upon the promise of the Prophet, that the -faithful shall be provided with black-eyed Houris in Paradise. - -If this excludes the Mussulman women from Paradise, we may reasonably -place the Christian ladies in the same category, for they are assured -in the Gospel that "there will be no marrying nor giving in marriage -in Heaven." - -On the contrary, Houris are but an addition to the earthly wives of the -Mussulmans, and the faithful are assured that "God promiseth unto the -true believers, both men and women, gardens through which rivers flow, -wherein they shall remain for ever," and that "whoso doth good works, -whether he be male or female, and is a true believer, shall be admitted -into Paradise, and shall not in the least be unjustly dealt with." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND COSTUME. - - -The first years of the life of every girl are spent both in the -Harem and Selamluk (or men's apartment), indiscriminately. The female -children being then allowed free access to the society of the men, -they imbibe certain notions in their youth, which are not always -consistent with refinement. - -As there is not in the Selamluk, the restraint which the presence -of ladies always imposes, the manners and conversation of the men -are often but ill calculated to nurture a sense of delicacy in the -minds of the children, who mingle so freely with them. Nevertheless, -they seem to possess an innate sense of propriety, and are never -deficient in politeness of deportment. - -Every girl is permitted to attend either the public schools, or to -receive private instruction at home, until she is eight or ten years of -age, when she is no longer allowed the freedom of her childhood. Very -little learning is acquired by them, the language being difficult, -and the mode of instruction altogether unsystematical; so that for -all future years they retain their simplicity, and are but overgrown -children. - -Their minds having had no culture, the senses assume entire dominion -over them, and their time is spent either in adorning their persons, -or in etiquetical observances, by which they hope to render themselves -more bewitching to the lords of creation. - -As in all other countries, fashion is regulated by the court, so at -Constantinople it is controlled by the ladies of the palace. Their -costume, according to the Oriental taste, always consisting of long -flowing robes, may be supposed to admit of no change; but on the -contrary, the ladies having little other occupation, delight in varying -the shape and style of their dress. Sometimes the hair is worn long, -again cropped short. A fess with flossy tassel is one day the mode, -and a fantastic turban is adopted the next morning. The sleeves are -long and wide, and again their drapery is dispensed with, and they -are confined at the wrist. - -The entary, or dress, is invariably cut high, either closed around -the neck, or left open in front; it is made long, trailing about a -yard below the person; sometimes left open at the sides to the hips, -and at others, made wide, and sewed up as low as the ankles. - -The shalvar, or full trowsers, are made to match the dress, and again -of varied and contrasting hues. - -There in a great variety in the fashion for trimming the dresses -and handkerchiefs, which generally are adorned with most exquisite -embroideries in silk or gold, as may suit the mode, or taste of the -wearer. Sometimes an immense cashmere shawl is wound round the waist; -at others, a light gauze scarf, or belt of gold, with a clasp adorned -with brilliants, serves for a girdle. No Turkish lady can dispense -with jewelry, and even women of the lowest rank adorn themselves -with diamonds. - -Abundant occupation is afforded to the jewellers by the constant -transformation of their bijouterie; for one day the capricious beauties -fancy a star or a crescent, and the next, nothing will suit their -toilet but a large spray of brilliants. - -The number of the ladies in the royal palace and in other wealthy -harems, all of whom are bedecked in elegant and costly costumes, -causes a demand for the services of many merchants, through whom the -last new fashion is immediately promulgated. - -Their beauty is such, however, that it might well afford to be -unadorned, for their complexions are generally exceedingly fair, and -of the most delicate softness; owing to the constant use of the bath, -as well as the protection of the yashmack, or veil, without which -they never go abroad. - -Their features are very regular, and their almond shaped eyes, so -much sung by their poets, are dark and lustrous, and so valued for -their size, that the enjoyment of the great-eyed ladies is promised -by Mohammed as one of the sublimest joys of Paradise. The power of -these electric and darkly beautiful orbs is so terrible, that woe to -those upon whom they are turned, for, as Pertev Pasha, one of their -celebrated poets, has described: - -"On the point of each ray that is darted from those bright meteors, -there is a bloody slaughter house," or as the French would expressively -say, "un regard assassin." - -Exquisitely arched eyebrows are also so essential to their ideas of -beauty, that they are never contented, till by the repeated application -of artificial means, they raise their brows to a lofty semicircle. - -Beauty spots, or moles, are considered of great value; and if nature -has proved niggard in this respect, art is brought into requisition to -produce the same contrasting effect between the tiny circle of jetty -hue and the surrounding fairness. The poet Hafiz has sung their value -in flowing numbers, offering the wealth of Semerkand and Bokhara for -the possession of the Indian mole on the cheek of the fair beauty -of Shiraz. - -The tips of their fingers and toes are frequently stained with henna, -producing the roseate hue so much ŕ la mode. - -Their forms and movements are graceful, being under no artificial -restraints; and there is an exquisite charm about them as they -languidly lounge on their silken couches, or glide about from room -to room in long flowing robes, and slip-shod shup-shups. - -Well has the illustrious bard portrayed the varied charms of the -Eastern houris: - - - "Many and beautiful lay those around, - Like flowers of different hue and clime, and root, - In some exotic garden sometimes found, - With cost, and care, and warmth, induced to shoot." - - -Considering their limited education, it is delightful to listen to -the melodious tone of their voices, as they speak with remarkable -purity the harmonious Turkish language. Notwithstanding their lack -of learning, there have been some among the ladies renowned for -their poetical productions, such as Leyla and Fitnett Hanums, justly -celebrated for their exquisite poetry. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS. - - -The interior arrangements of the Turkish apartments and their -furniture, are very peculiar, and quite unlike those of European -or American drawing rooms, being entirely adapted to the habits and -tastes of the Orientals. There is never any doubt or hesitation as -to the place suitable to be occupied by any one who may happen to -enter a room; nor is it possible to mistake the different ranks of -its occupants. - -Generally there is a sofa on three sides of the room, sufficiently -ample to accommodate the ladies in their style of sitting, which is not -cross-legged as is usually represented in pictures, but with the limbs -folded under their persons and carefully concealed by the drapery of -their long robes; for to show these parts of the person while sitting, -is considered a great breach of etiquette. Hence no Osmanli lady is -ever to be seen perched on the very edge of the sofa, but leaving -her slippers on the floor, she steps upon the couch and gracefully -bending her knees, sits reclining against the cushions behind her. - -On the floor, at the foot of the sofa, are placed mattresses, -furnished with cushions, and these are called erkean mindery or -seats of homage, where humbler visitors or members of the family -are allowed to place themselves. The angles or corners of the sofa, -are regarded as the seats of honor, and the places on either side, -rank in regular succession down to the seat of homage; but the most -honorable person in the company may, at her or his option, occupy -any part of the couch, when the rest place themselves on each side -according to their own rank. The servants are always present, and -stand in a row at the lower end of the room, their arms humbly folded -on their girdles, attentive to the slightest nod of their superiors. - -There are several windows on each of the three sides of the room, so -as to permit a full view of the surrounding scenery, while they are -seated; for the Osmanlis are very fond of sunlight and the beauties of -nature. The windows of the harem are all furnished with close lattices, -permitting those within to see without being seen. - -The more modernized salons, have only a sofa on one side, European -couches, chairs, tables, and mirrors, being substituted for the other -sofas. They also endeavor to imitate the Europeans in the style of -the window draperies, which are often of the most brilliant hues. - -There is one peculiarity in the Oriental houses. You may wander -from one end to the other and not see a single bed-room or any of -its appurtenances--which has induced many persons to report them as -sleeping on the sofas, and never dressing or undressing. It would, -however, seem more natural to suppose, that the Osmanlis never had -any but day dreams. - -The fact is, that the beds are all packed away in large closets during -the day-time, and spread upon the floor at night. In the houses of -the wealthy, the mattresses and coverlets are made of the richest -materials, and the sheets of beautiful silk gauze, manufactured in -Broossa. The whole appearance of the bed, so brilliant in hue, and -rich in ornament, is very different from the style of a European couch. - -Every house has an infinite number and variety of extra beds and -bedding, to be spread on the floors of any of the apartments, for -the accommodation of visitors--hospitality being one of the most -religious precepts and observances of the Orientals. - -In the sultan's palace, however, and in the families of the wealthy, -especially of those pashas who have resided in Europe, bedsteads have -been introduced. - -Upon rising, the person claps her hands, as the apartments are never -furnished with bell ropes, and immediately the attendants appear--one -holding the basin, another the ewer, and a third presenting the towel, -richly embroidered at the ends. - -The usual method of warming the houses, is by the mangal and -tandur. The mangal is generally made of brass highly polished, -somewhat in the form of an hour-glass, about a foot and a half high, -and two, or two and a half in diameter; and contains a large pan of -ignited charcoal. - -The tandur consists of a wooden frame about the height and size of a -table, lined with tin, under which a pan of fire is placed, and the -whole is covered with a thickly wadded quilt. This is surrounded by -sofas, and they sit with their legs and feet under the covering. - -More cozy than any capacious arm-chair, or softly yielding fauteuil, -is this same tandur. The genial warmth excites a wonderful sympathy in -its occupants. They warm to each other, and to the world in general, -and never neglect to take cognizance of their neighbor's affairs and -doings. From the palace of the sultan to the cottage of the crone, -they benignantly travel, bestowing on each and all a blessing, -or when necessary, even a cursing. The ups and downs of pashas, -probable and accomplished--whispers of the sultan's favorites, or of -the efendi's coquettish ladies--the style of Adilé Sultan's feradjé, -or the grand vezir's fess, are each and all passed in review, until -you wonder how ever a set of miserable imprisoned women should be -such arrant gossips. Ah! one cannot believe the fair sex so unjust to -themselves, even in Turkey, as to neglect the observation of those -interesting little items of public or retired life, which become -great and weighty affairs, when discussed by ruby lips, and in the -cadence of sweet-toned voices. - -They possess a most lady-like love of chit-chat, and so little do they -covet repose for their delicate jaws, that should conversation lag, -they keep them in motion by the use of mastic, which is always in -readiness, preserved in little jewelled boxes. - -It is only of late years, that those hot, repelling machines called -stoves, have been introduced; but they have by no means superseded -the social and old-fashioned tandur, whose warmth, and luxurious -cushions, often beguile its occupants to slumber, during which the -fire is overturned, and thus occur many of the conflagrations so -frequent in Turkey. - -There are two occasions when the still air resounds with the echoes -of human voices. The chant of the Muezzin from the minaré, slowly and -musically vibrating through the atmosphere, enticing all to linger at -the casement or in the thoroughfare to catch its melodious accents; -and the terrible cry of yangun var! Fire! Fire! accompanied by the -reverberations of the watchman's club striking upon the pavement. - -A thrill of horror pervades every heart, for there are no bounds to -the devouring element. - -There are two towers, one at the Seraskér's in the city itself, and -the other on the Galata hill, which command an extensive isometrical -view of the whole metropolis and its suburbs. - -Here guards are stationed, who descry the first indications of fire, -and immediately give, from the top of the towers, the requisite signal, -by hoisting, in the day-time, an immense globe, painted red, and at -night by producing a bright and steady light--these signals remain -until the fire is extinguished. - -At Candilly, on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus, and half way up -the stream, there are a battery and a flag-staff stationed on the -mountain top called Kenan-tepessy; as soon as the signals are seen, -the fire globe ascends the flag-staff, and the battery discharges a -certain number of guns, according to the locality of the conflagration. - -From the towers, detailed officers, Neöbetgees, are dispatched to -the different ministers, and guard houses, where the engines are -kept, who create a tremendous sensation, as they rush wildly about, -brandishing their batons of office, and with a protracted yell, warning -every one to clear the way. The different Bekgees or district watchmen, -now take up the cry--striking their iron-shod clubs on the pavement and -repeating with all the power of their lungs yangun-var! Stambolda! or -there is fire at Stamboul. - -The firemen assemble at their respective quarters, and shouldering -their engines, rush to the scene. These firemen receive no pay, -but are exempt from taxes and allowed certain other privileges--yet -they always manage to extort certain compensations for their services, -from the victims of the devastating element. The engines are small and -portable, on account of the narrowness and steepness of the streets, -nor is there any connexion-hose attached to them, the water being -supplied with buckets; yet it is astonishing how much they effect -even with such inadequate means. - -The inflammable materials of which the houses are constructed, the -narrow streets, winding up the hillside like foot-paths, the irregular -and projecting dwellings, from which the people could shake hands -with their opposite neighbors, if it were only the fashion in Turkey, -contribute to make a most desirable promenade for the Fire-King when -he sallies forth. - -The flames leap from house to house; the burning cinders fly in all -directions, and the fire kindles at many and distant points; so that -in less than half an hour, a large district is often wrapt in flames. - -The general panic is so intense, that the whole community is roused; -the pashas desert their couches, and even the sultan himself sometimes -repairs to the scene, to animate, by his presence, the efforts of -the desperate firemen. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. - - -It seems something of an anomaly that a race of beings so distinguished -for selfishness, should be so exceedingly social in their inclinations. - -Birds of a feather flock together, and man loves his fellow, though -he loves himself better. - -To prevent the inroad of this extreme selfishness, certain forms -and ceremonies are established in every community where there is any -interchange of mutual civilities. - -Oriental life has many distinguishing peculiarities and characteristic -forms of politeness, but unlike other parts of the globe, etiquette -in the East is permanent and general. The mental accomplishments being -but few, wealth seems to constitute the only aristocratic distinction, -while the poorest and the richest are equally well versed in the -established routine of civility. - -It is curious to observe the native refinement even of the lower -classes in Turkey. There is no gaucherie, no reluctance in any one to -do the right thing in the right way and place; no fear of being unlike -other distinguished personages in manners and customs; for there is no -doubt as to the prescribed and most elegant style of conduct; even the -salutations, compliments and congratulations are most carefully worded, -and any deviation from the formula would destroy the intended effect. - -There is, consequently, no lack of social etiquette among the -Osmanlis. A visitor is received according to her station in life, -and after being announced, is met by the lady of the house with her -suite, at the head of the staircase, or at the door of the saloon, -or sometimes by merely stepping down from the sofa, as may be demanded -by the rank of the guest. - -There is no ceremony of introducing one person to another, nor is -there any shaking of hands. The company salute each other without any -regard to previous acquaintance; and the younger members of society -always kiss the hem of the garment, or the hands of their superiors -in rank and age. - -The manner of salutation varies--those of equal rank endeavor to kiss -the hem of each other's garments, or only exchange temennas. - -The temenna, which has already been described, is a graceful -salutation, and is used as frequently as thank you by the English; -serving as an acknowledgment for all compliments and kind inquiries. - -When one thinks of the innumerable occasions on which this expressive -temenna is called into action, it seems as if a whole chapter would -scarcely suffice to describe them all. But we will content ourselves -with its demonstration upon the arrival of a guest among a company -of some fifteen or twenty persons. - -As soon as the visitor is seated, the lady welcomes her guest by a -temenna--which is acknowledged by the same signal, and reiterated by -each person in the company successively, according to her rank. - -Now another round commences. The lady of the house makes a new temenna, -which signifies, "How do you do?" Another temenna from the visitor, is -equivalent to an acknowledgment of thanks, who with the same gesture, -intimates a desire to know the state of her hostess's health. - -The whole company then in succession follow suit, to each of whom -the visitor replies in the same way. - -This Quaker-meeting style of receiving company, might be ludicrously -illustrated in American society, by substituting bows for temennas--if, -indeed, the ladies could be expected to preserve the requisite silence -and gravity of demeanor. - -In Turkey, every attention or compliment, brings its train of temennas, -and it is much to be regretted that no mathematician has yet arisen -in Turkey, capable of producing a regular formula for their exact -computation. - -The Meddahs, however, or the famous story-tellers of the East, who -are the best critics, sometimes endeavor to exhibit the danger of -too great an excess in this act of politeness. - -They say there was once a worthy Hodja or schoolmaster, who was -very punctilious. Desirous that all his scholars should realise the -importance of true politeness, he insisted that when he drank water, -not a single one of them should omit to exclaim with a respectful -temenna, afiyet olsoun hodja efendy, or may it do you much good, -respected master--and when he sneezed, they were all to clap their -hands, and vociferate hayr ola hodja efendy, or good luck to the -master. - -The means employed by this worthy schoolmaster to enforce his lessons, -may be readily guessed by others of the same profession; but that -the desired effect was produced, there is no doubt. - -There was a deep well, from which the scholars had to draw water for -their own use. - -One day, it was reported to the teacher that the bucket had fallen -in the well, who, after many vain attempts to fish it up, resolved -to descend by means of a rope, and the scholars were called upon to -assist in his descent and ascent. - -The hodja was accordingly lowered down into the well, and at a -given signal, the boys began to pull him up. But as he approached -the mouth of the well, the change of the atmosphere titillating his -nostrils, unfortunately made him sneeze; when the well-trained pupils, -instinctively making the temenna, and clapping their hands, let go -the rope and shouted, "hayr ola hodja efendy," good luck to the master. - -But, retournons nous ŕ nos moutons. - -After the visitor is seated, and the usual temennas are exchanged, -long chibouks with amber mouthpieces, set in diamonds, are offered -by the halayiks or slaves; after which, sweetmeats are served upon -a silver tray, with goblets of water, and then coffee. - -This beverage is served in small porcelain cups, in stands of silver -or gold, sometimes enamelled and set in diamonds--which ceremony is -thus poetically described by Lord Byron: - - - - "And mocha's berry, from Arabia pure, - In small fine china cups, came in at last; - Gold cups of filagree, made to secure - The hand from burning, underneath them placed." - - - -Although there are certain ceremonies which are never omitted -as matters of form, their intercourse with each other is most -unsophisticated. Mutual criticism, and inspection of toilets, -catechising about prices, etc., are indulged in as matters of course, -and if by chance the guest is a European lady, the scrutiny is the -more intense; so that those who desire to visit Turkish harems, must -go prepared to undergo the most thorough examination with smiles -and good humor; the only satisfaction being a genuine retaliation -upon the fair hanums, who would feel exceedingly flattered thereby, -and by no means dream of being offended. - -The whole establishment is shown to visitors, as one way of -entertaining them; and frequently they get up a dance among themselves, -or call in the dancing girls with their castanets. - -Upon intimation of departure, sherbet is served; after which the visit -is terminated, and the guest reconducted in the same manner in which -she was - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -POLYGAMY. - - -It is true that a Harem is generally composed of an assemblage of -women, but not such as the public usually imagine. - -Although the Mussulmans are allowed by the Koran to have several wives, -there are few who have more than one, especially at the present day; -a fact not to be, however, attributed to any new code of morality, -but rather to the coercion of circumstances. - -It was the practice of the Arabs to have eight or ten wives, whom they -were seldom able to maintain. Mohammed, wishing to remedy this evil, -and not altogether to abolish ancient usages, limited the number--"Take -in marriage of such women as please you, two, or three or four, and -not more. But if ye fear that ye cannot act equitably to so many, -marry only one, or the slaves which ye shall have acquired." They were -allowed to marry a greater number of slaves, as their dowry was much -smaller, and they were maintained in a very different style from the -free women. - -As the Osmanlis have a remarkable love of offspring, it often happens -that a man having had no children by a wife, and unwilling to divorce -her, which is considered discreditable, takes a second one in imitation -of Abraham and Jacob and many other patriarchs of old, whose practices -were but the type of the habits of all Oriental people, even those of -the present day. But such a step being often the source of domestic -difficulty, the substitution of a slave in the place of a second wife -is generally preferred--and such slaves are retained in the harem -with the appellation of Odaluk or handmaid, like Hagar, Bilhah, and -Zilpah. When these Odaluks become mothers, by right of their maternity, -they acquire their freedom and are considered second wives. - -A man may, however, be induced to contract a second marriage either -from mercenary or ambitious motives. - -When circumstances or selfish inclinations induce the Mussulmans to -have several wives, they are obliged to assign to each one private -apartments and attendants. These ladies, although often living under -the same roof, visit each other with all the etiquette of perfect -strangers, and require an expenditure for retinue and accommodations, -which can only be sustained by wealth. - -Besides all partiality being out of the question, there is great cause -for jealousy among the different members of such establishments--and -the less favored being ever ready for intrigue, conspire to render -the husband most miserable and the sanctuary a perfect bedlam, and -the ambition of a second wife sometimes can only be satisfied by the -sacrifice of her rival. - -Fethi Ahmed Pasha was so favored by the sultan that his majesty -bestowed his sister upon him in marriage. Notwithstanding this alliance -with royalty, the wife and children of his humbler fortunes retained -their place in his memory; but he could only visit them in secret. - -The author has, on several occasions, assisted to his incognito, as -he left his state barge and proceeded en bourgeois in a small cayik, -to visit the house of his affections. - -There is, therefore, every reason to believe that our Mussulman -friends will soon come to the conclusion, that, - - - - "Polygamy may well be held in dread, - Not only as a sin, but as a bore:" - - - -Notwithstanding then the toleration of polygamy by the Prophet, it is -evident that circumstances have combined to restrict this practice; -and most particularly the abolition of the Circassian slave-trade, -to a certain extent, has created an effectual check to the use -of Odaluks--thus increasing the necessity of alliances between the -members of different families which were formerly avoided; because -the wife being surrounded and supported by her own relations, attained -an undue share of domestic power and influence. - -Especially when alliances are formed with royalty, the circumstances -are most aggravating. The husband then becomes an abject slave, -and has tacitly to submit to the caprices of his spouse. - -He cannot enter the harem of his sultana unless especially sent for; -nor can he postpone his attendance to her summons no matter what his -circumstances or occupation may be. - -The sultan's brother-in-law has often been seen, sleeping in a corner -of a sofa at the Selamluk, till two or three o'clock in the morning, -awaiting the pleasure of his royal mistress--while she on her part -was amusing herself in the harem with dancing girls, music, &c. - -The pasha's embarrassment has also been very evident when he has been -obliged to leave the company abruptly; no apology being necessary -on such occasions; the entrance of the sable messenger, with a -single temenna intimating the absolute command of the royal wife, -who generally dismisses her train of ladies and slaves before he -makes his appearance. - -It is with the desire to avoid such petticoat government that the young -men do not contract alliances with ladies of rank and distinction; -preferring to marry their own slaves, or to content themselves with -the Odaluks which their mothers bestow upon them to keep them within -the home circle, and out of mischief. - -Sometimes they are forced to a second marriage by the bestowal of a -bride from a superior in power whose orders they cannot refuse. - -A great number of women then in any harem is by no means a sure sign -of the uxorious disposition of its master, but is rather an indication -of his personal rank and wealth. - -For the Osmanlis men and women are proverbially fond of display, they -say "Sense belongs to Europe--wealth to India, beauty to Georgia--but -show and display are the attributes of the Osmanlis alone." - -They therefore delight in all the appendages of luxury, and surround -themselves with crowds of attendants. This Oriental propensity has -even been sustained by the Prophet himself, who says, that "the very -meanest in Paradise will have 80,000 servants," &c. While, then, the -gentleman in the selamluk, has his steward, treasurer, cup-bearer, pipe -bearer, etc., the Hanum on her part, has her own appropriate suite, -which is in many instances more numerous than that of her Efendy. - -This is particularly true with regard to the sultanas or sisters and -daughters of the sultan, whose husbands are not allowed to behold -the faces of any of the fair maidens in the royal train, except by -special permission of the sultanas themselves. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII. - -MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE. - - -Marriage is considered "honorable in all," but most especially among -the Osmanlis, who enter into this condition as they arrive at the age -of puberty. The independent state of bachelorship is therefore unknown -among them, or if such an accident should happen, the unfortunate -gentleman is styled beekear, or useless member of society, which -stigma it is needless to say they by no means covet; as for old maids, -there is not a word in the language descriptive of that class of women. - -The preliminaries of all marriages are effected by the parents, who -not only thus spare their children much trouble and embarrassment, -but use all their own wisdom and experience of genuine terrestrial -happiness in providing for their own offspring. Besides, parental -authority is supreme, and filial obedience equally innate, hence it -never enters into the calculations of the young to weary themselves -with the anticipatory illusions of love, though sometimes when old -enough they join in the matrimonial deliberations. - -Marriage is not a religious, but rather a civil contract among the -Mussulmans, and the ceremony is as simple as in Protestant countries. - -This ceremony which is called Nikeah, is effected by proxies, and -there is always a fixed sum settled upon the bride, according to the -condition of the party. This Nikeah constitutes the legal marriage, -but the bride does not go to her husband's home until three or four -months have elapsed, at which time the friends assemble to partake of -the nuptial festivities, which continue during four days, and always -end on Thursday, as the following day is the Turkish sabbath. - -Upon her arrival, the bride is met at the door of the harem, and -conducted into the room by the bridegroom himself, who carries her -up stairs in his arms, and placing her in the most honorable part of -the sofa, raises her veil of tinsel, and takes the liberty, for the -first time, to gaze upon the features of his beloved. - -Separate establishments are almost unknown in Turkey. The bride goes -to the house of her husband's parents, so that the family circle often -becomes very numerous. It occasionally happens that by special request, -the bridegroom enters the family of his wife's parents; which, however, -is considered a misfortune, for they say, "Itch guveyeeden halludja" -or any condition is preferable to that of a man married into a family. - - - -DIVORCE. - -Voltaire has observed, "Le divorce est probablement de la męme date -ŕ peu prčs que le mariage; je crois, pourtant, que le mariage est de -quelques semaines plus ancien; c'est ŕ dire qu'on se querella avec -sa femme au bout de quinze jours, qu'on se battit au bout d'un mois, -et qu'on s'en sépara aprčs six semaines de cohabitation." - -If such be a true picture of human nature, it is not too highly drawn -for a country where polygamy is practised, since it is no hard matter -for a man to part with one wife, when he has several others. The -privilege of divorce would be somewhat tyrannical if allowed only -to the men, but in Turkey, the women themselves may exercise this -prerogative, if they are maltreated, or not properly provided for, -with at least the requisite "bread and candles." - -A man may put away his wife merely by uttering in the hearing of -a third party, the ominous word "bosh," null, void, which even -if carelessly spoken renders the man and wife strangers to each -other, the lady feeling obliged to assume her veil, and conceal her -charms; and in case of reconciliation, a second marriage ceremony is -necessary. The woman, on her part, has the privilege of leaving her -husband, by declaring before the Cadi, Djanum azad, nikeahum helal--I -forfeit my dowry, and claim my freedom. - -It is fortunate that divorce is very disreputable, and is seldom -practised by either party if they have any respect for public opinion, -or regard for themselves; otherwise, wives and husbands would be -constantly changing hands, as was the practice among the old Arabs, -in the time of Mohammed. - -This custom was decried by the Prophet, "It shall not be lawful for -thee to take other women to wife hereafter, nor to exchange any of -thy wives for them." - -The moral effect of a facility of divorce is to keep both parties -on their good behavior, but at the same time a spirit of extreme -selfishness is induced in the women. For being in constant apprehension -of a sudden separation, they look upon their husbands as a means of -revenue, and endeavor to store up as much jewelry, clothing etc., -as possible, to be ready in case of emergency. The display of shawls -and diamonds upon the persons of women, even of the poorest classes, -is not from a feeling of vanity, but rather an exhibition of the extent -of the personal wealth they have extorted from their lords and masters. - -In case of separation, the children are supported until they are -seven years old, by the father; after which the boys remain under -the paternal care, and the girls belong to the mother; unless some -other arrangement is made by mutual consent. - -The most unjust stigma of illegitimacy, is almost unknown in Turkey; -the children by slaves being as respectable and legitimate as those -by the regular wives, and it is only when the father cannot be -discovered that they are regarded as bastards. Such principles are -certainly right, and more humane than those of Christian lands, where -the innocent are taunted all their lifetime with the immoralities -of others, for whose actions they are as irresponsible as "the babe -unborn." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX. - -THE SULTAN'S HAREM. - - -Although there are more than 2,000 women in the palace, but five of -these hold the rank of kaduns, or wives. - -Mussulmans, in general, are allowed to have four wives, but sultans -can have seven. - -Their superiority to ordinary men is thus attested, and the chance -made surer of an heir to the throne. - -It will, therefore, be perceived that polygamy, in the case of a -sultan, is a matter of policy, and not choice; for even should he -content himself with one wife, the State would interfere. - -The design of limiting his majesty's wives to seven, is to spare the -State the enormous expense attendant upon the maintenance of so many -ladies of royal rank. - -The present sultan, however, in asserting his prerogative, has -limited the number to five, which, while it shows his power to -exceed the restrictions upon other Mussulmans, at the same time, -displays an inclination not to burden the State too heavily with his -private expenses. - -It is true he has had children by several others, whom custom requires -to be elevated to the rank of kaduns, but he has retained them under -the title of ikbals, or favorites, for the sake of sparing the State -the additional expense which the dignity of kaduns would require. - -The sultan being above all law, cannot submit to any matrimonial -bondage; he is not, therefore, legally married to any of his wives, but -those who are selected by him to share his affections, are pronounced -by him Kaduns, or ladies, and not sultanas; for none but those of the -royal blood can enjoy that title, except the mother of the reigning -sultan, who on her son's accession to the throne, takes, by courtesy, -this title, and is called Validé Sultan. - -The title Sultan is equally applied to males and females, with this -difference only, that it precedes the name of the male, and follows -that of the female: thus, they say Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid, but for his -sister, Adilé Sultan. - -When it is used by itself, it always implies the female branch of -the royal family, and never his majesty, who is known by the title -of Padishah, or Hünkear, or, in common parlance, Efendimiz--our Lord. - -His majesty never forming an alliance with any of his subjects, -all his kaduns are originally Georgian or Circassian slaves, who -are selected for this distinguished honor and presented to him by -his mother or sisters, on Kadir Gedjessy, or the night in which the -Koran descended from Heaven. - -They have each their separate establishments and retinue in the palace, -and live as much apart as if in different dwellings, seldom seeing -each other, except on occasions of state ceremony and etiquette. - -The princes of the royal blood also reside in the same palace, who, -if of age, have their own odaluks, attendants, etc. - -It may be supposed, that in such a royal establishment, the rising -generation is well represented; but on the contrary, few of them are -allowed to prolong their lives, while many more never see the light. - -This premature destruction of life, though strictly prohibited in the -Koran, is very prevalent in Turkey. In some cases from State-Policy, -lest the heirs to the crown should become too numerous, and in -others, from a false desire in the ladies to preserve their beauty -and freshness from the toils and trial of maternity. - -But very often the better feelings of their natures are sorely tried, -and two of the sisters of the present sultan pined away in sorrow, -and at last died, because their infant sons were sacrificed upon the -altar of state-policy! - -Abd-ul-Medjid himself, in his younger days, was not exempt from -trials of this sort. For just before coming to the throne, he had a -favorite odaluk, to whom he was much attached. But as the princes are -not permitted to become fathers, she fell a victim in the attempt to -frustrate the probable birth of an heir, when a single week's delay -would have elevated her to the rank of first kadun to the reigning -monarch; for sultan Mahmoud died a few days after she was sacrificed. - -Whenever a child is born to the sultan, or any other Oriental father, -the tidings are immediately communicated to him and the family -relatives, and the messenger handsomely rewarded. Among the Mussulmans -the father himself pronounces the future name of his offspring at -the moment of its birth. - -A certain man, having scarce passed the honeymoon, for he had only been -married three months, one day, while he was in the bath, was suddenly -apprised of the birth of a son and heir. As soon as he recovered from -his surprise at such an unexpected event, he ordered him to be named -Tchapgun or racer, because, said he, he has accomplished in three -months, the customary labor of nine. - -They have a singular notion that the reason a child cries as soon as -it is born is, because his satanic majesty being of course present, -cruelly pinches the tender offshoot of humanity; the only exception -on record, being the Virgin Mary and Jesus Christ, who were protected -from the touch of the devil by a veil, so placed by Allah himself; -thus, doubtless, accounting for the Immaculacy of the Holy Virgin. - -The children, at their birth, are rubbed down with salt, and nicely -bandaged. They are placed in a cradle and secured there. The hands -and feet are bound in, so that the child cannot move. The poor little -victim becomes black and blue under this treatment, and is occasionally -relieved from its fetters to be re-enveloped in swaddling clothes; -and when the toilet is completed, it very much resembles a little -Egyptian mummy. - -The child is nursed while lying down, the mother bending over it, -and tilting the cradle, until she attains the requisite position. - -Owing to the bandages in which the infants are constantly enveloped, -the circulation of the blood is impeded, and they are obliged to be -relieved by occasional scarifications, and the writer still wears -the honorable scars of this traditional practice. - -When the sultan wends his steps from the Mabeyn to the Harem, the -black gentlemen on guard at the door of the ladies' apartments, proceed -immediately to announce his majesty's approach to the Haznadar-Ousta, -or the lady treasuress. - -This personage, is a very important character in the royal household; -being the keeper of all the jewels and other treasures, and the -mistress of ceremonies; she is, in a word-- - - - - "That dame who keeps up discipline among - The general ranks, so that none stir or talk - Without her sanction on their she-parades: - Her title is, the mother of the maids." - - - -There is always one of these Haznadars attached to the harems of -the wealthy; and the individual who fills this office, has been the -nurse of the head of the family in infancy; so that this "mother of -the maids" feels almost a maternal interest in his majesty's happiness. - -The Haznadar-Ousta immediately proceeds to the salon, where she awaits -the entrance of the sultan, who, after receiving her salutations, in -the course of conversation, inquires after the health of one of the -Kaduns, which is taken as an indication that her company is desired -by his majesty. - -This Kadun now enters the royal presence alone, or perhaps with -one of her children, while her train of attendants remain within -call. Like all other Orientals, the Padishah delights in the company -of his children, and they are often seen in public with him, or in -the royal Mabeyn. His first-born was a daughter, and lately married -to Aali-Ghalib Pasha, the son of Reshid. - -The children of the sultan precede their mother in rank, for they -are of royal blood, while she is but a slave. - -Hence the mother always takes a secondary position in cayiks, -carriages, or in the saloon of reception. This apparent superiority -never elates the children, nor in any way lessens the respect which -they feel for their mothers. For whilst they are flattered and -worshipped as Shah-zadés and Sultans, or Princes and Princesses, the -general deference paid to their mothers is undiminished. They have -a proverb which is very expressive of their feelings on this subject, - - - - - "Dagh kadar babam olajaghina, - Yüksük kadar anam ola." - - - - "Rather than a father the size of a mountain, - Give me a mother, small as a thimble." - - - -The late Validé-Sultan, or mother of the sultan, was one of the most -powerful individuals in the realm, and her patronage most assiduously -courted. - -His majesty and his harem are frequently entertained with the graceful -movements and merry castanets of the dancing girls. The Osmanlis -are very fond of dancing, but consider it inconsistent with their -own dignity; they always have beautiful young slaves trained in this -accomplishment, and also made proficient in the music of the country. - -Turkish music is very unlike that of European countries, where there is -a general similarity. Although the Orientals have very good ears for -music, and treat the subject scientifically, yet it is strange that -they do not understand the harmony of sounds--for all their concerts, -both vocal and instrumental, consist of solos, that is, they all sing -and play only the air or tenor, and never the bass and contralto, etc. - -The natural tones of their voices are very sweet; and of late years -the military music having been arranged in European style, they have -made great proficiency in this art. - -The opera house in Pera is also very attractive to the Turkish -gentlemen, and much frequented by them. The sultan has his loge, -or box there, and sometimes honors the house by his royal presence. - -Recently the piano has also become very fashionable among them, and -it is to be heard incessantly jingling in all the harems. The sultan -being himself an amateur, frequently plays on that instrument, and has -also an Italian Opera attached to his palace for the entertainment -of his ladies, where many of the female slaves are trained to sing -and act ŕ la Italienne, in the costumes of both sexes. - -The ladies of the palace are also amused with other exhibitions, -which they witness through latticed partitions. - -From the preceding sketch, it will be readily understood, that all the -ladies in the royal palace, are in reality slaves from the regions -of Circassia, but they are always well treated, and even addressed -by the title of Hanums, or ladies; and we may say their greatest -hardship is being lightly clothed all seasons of the year; their feet -without stockings, and their dresses made of the lightest fabrics, -from which fact many of them fall easy victims to consumption. - -These ladies are not allowed to go abroad as freely as Turkish hanums -in general, on account of the restrictions of court etiquette; this -confinement is also very injurious to their health, and their ennui -is often insupportable. Sometimes, after a due warning to all the -gardeners and other gentlemen to quit the premises, they are allowed -to stroll in the palace gardens, and occasionally the Validé Sultan -takes pity on some of them, and permits them to enjoy a promenade -in her own train, when the exuberance of their spirits often tempts -them to the most childish acts of coquetry. Indeed, so great is their -longing to encounter the lords of creation, that a feigned sickness -affords an occasion of seeing a doctor, and their favorite remedy -for all ailments is bleeding, or the bleeder! - -These beautiful girls having no other ambition than to be as -fascinating as possible, and such aspirations sometimes seem to be felt -in more enlightened bosoms, they do not like to waste their sweetness -on the desert air; as they are consequently a little mischievous, -the practice of locking up each one in her own apartments has been -deemed advisable. When the muezzin proclaims the hour of evening -prayer, the disconsolate ladies are severally consigned to a state -of security by the sable turnkeys of the palace. - -This is not, however, so dismal a fate, when we remember that a short -time ago, all the inhabitants of Stamboul were obliged to be within -their own domiciles, about two hours after sunset; and awhile since, -there was the curfew bell even in good old England. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXX. - -CIRCASSIAN SLAVES. - - -Although the slave trade has been nominally abolished in Turkey, and -the public mart formally closed to this traffic, yet the practice -of buying and selling has not been, nor will it ever be altogether -abandoned, because the slave constitutes an essential element in the -composition of their domestic institutions. - -There are two kinds of servitude in every house; one, the ordinary -labor of domestic service; the other that of personal attendance; -neither of which the free Mussulman women are willing to perform, -because they will thereby be more or less brought in contact with -men, which is proscribed by the Koran. The slave service, therefore, -becomes necessarily indispensable with the Mussulmans, whose houses -have hitherto been supplied with Circassian and Nubian slaves, the -former being a species of ladies in waiting, and the latter performing -the menial services of the household. - -The average price of the slaves is, according to the tariff of the -Custom-house, $500 for the white, and $100 for the black. They bring -these prices when they arrive fresh from their native lands. Those -of the Circassian, who are, however, brought into the country in -childhood, and carefully educated and trained in accomplishments, -attain so rare a style of beauty and delicacy of appearance that they -are frequently sold for $6,000 or $8,000. - -Though the restrictions upon the trade have forced Turkish families to -employ Greek and Armenian women in their houses, yet there is always -a demand for slaves. - -The Armenians having the same institution as the Mussulmans, viz., -the harem, their maidens are prevented from entering any family as -servants; it is only the old women, whose charms have all faded and -gone, who are willing to expose themselves in this way. The Greeks, -though not so scrupulous, are generally ignorant of the Turkish -language, and altogether uncongenial in their habits and ideas, -so that they are unpopular. - -Slaves are still more indispensable in the palace, for the Mussulman -prejudice is opposed to the introduction of any of the subjects who -would thus come in contact with royalty. Besides, is his majesty to -form an alliance with his subjects? - -The Circassian parents so long accustomed to the benefits derived by -the advancement of their daughters to positions of comparative ease, -will always be ready and anxious to supply the metropolis; and the -traffic, notwithstanding the formal prohibition, is still continued -at private houses in Top-hané. - -Circassian slavery in Turkey, is not a condition of servitude. All -the children who are born from odaluks are free, and they also render -their mothers free; an odaluk may be sold alone, but never after she -has become a mother. - -Besides the maids of honor or ladies in waiting, at the palace, -are often bestowed in marriage upon pashas and other dignitaries, -who thus consider themselves in some sense allied to royalty. One of -their number was a slave to Validé Sultan. She was married to Mehmed -Bey, the brother of the sultan's brother-in-law, with the idea of -ameliorating her condition; but being very ill-treated by her husband, -she had a petition written and presented it to her royal patroness, -whereupon the validé summoned the husband, and reprimanded him in -such a manner that he became exasperated, and having intoxicated -himself with racky, or Turkish brandy, rushed into the harem, and -plunged his dagger into the breast of the unfortunate wife. - -Sultan Mahmoud lost his favorite wife, and was so much grieved by -her death, that he ordered her apartments to be locked up, and that -no one should enter them; he only, spent some time there every day -in solitary meditation upon his lost favorite. - -There was a slave girl fourteen or fifteen years old, whose duty -was to clean the bath belonging to these apartments. She was so -curious to know why these rooms were always locked up, that she one -day found herself on an exploring expedition by means of the private -staircase. Finding the door open, she ventured to enter the apartment, -when, lo! and behold! there was the awful Mahmoud himself. - -He said, "how dare you venture here; do you not know my express -commands?" - -The terrified girl fell at his majesty's feet, and craved pardon. - -She was so bewitching in this posture, that the sultan not only -pardoned her, but invited her to meet him every day in the same place, -till at last, he ordered that the apartments should be appropriated -to her, and she became the Fifth Kadun, and the mother of the present -sultan! - -It is the idea of aspiring to such honors and stations, near even -royalty itself, which induces the Circassian parents so readily to -sell their daughters to Mussulmans, when nothing could induce them -to barter their offspring to Christians. - -No wonder that each simple peasant of the Caucasus fancies slavery -in the metropolis, to be a translation from poverty to an earthly -elysium, when tales, and true tales too, not the enchantments of -Aladdin's wonderful lamp, are so common in Oriental life! - -Therefore, even if the traffic is formally prohibited, the Circassian -parents will force their offspring into the market, not only to -ameliorate their condition, but to secure favorable alliances for -themselves; so that if the legal sum be not hereafter realized as -purchase money, their children will still be apprenticed in some way -or other. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI. - -WATERING PLACES. - - -There is a prevalent impression that the Turkish ladies are always -imprisoned at home; but nothing is more erroneous. For, since the -destruction of the janissaries, who molested every one in public, -they are to be seen everywhere, and on all occasions. - -The only requisite for their appearance is to be veiled, and to wear -the Feradjé, or cloak. - -Thus accoutred, they wander through the bazaars, frequent all rural -places of resort, visit the baths, and scarcely a day passes when they -stay at home. Nor is it to be supposed that they are closely muffled, -as they were formerly. The ancient out-door costume was most hideous; -they were enveloped in an immense white sheet, a little piece of -horse-hair gauze being suspended over the eyes. But the yashmak or -veil, is, at the present day, composed of the lightest India mull, -and has little power of concealing their charms, but on the contrary, -serves to heighten their beauty by its gossamer transparency. - -The arched eyebrows, through this deceptive veil, seem more delicately -curved; the large and lustrous eyes shine more darkly from its snowy -folds; and the delicate and peach-like hue of the complexion is -rendered tenfold more lovely. - -The texture of the yashmak is now so exquisitely fine, that the two -square yards of muslin which compose it do not weigh more than a -single drachm! - -The feradjé or cloak is an ample outer garment, made of fine colored -bombazine or Thibet, lined with silk, and the edges are trimmed -with embroidery. - -Their feet are clothed with yellow chedik, or morocco buskins, over -which paboudj, or slippers of the same color, are worn in the street. - -So great is the force of habit and education, that not even the oldest -woman ever appears in public unveiled, although the Koran pronounces -furrows and wrinkles to be all-sufficient disguises for faded charms; -yet, in Turkey, as well as all over the world, the maxim doubtless -is popular, that beauty never dies. - -Even the dames of ebony hue, dreading the display of darkness visible, -are most punctilious in covering their charms, thus affording more -distinguished specimens of the wonderful effects of light and shade. - -During visits of ceremony, when the feradjé and yashmak are taken off, -a long strip of white muslin is left hanging from the top of the head -down the back, for the purpose of covering the face in case of sudden -emergency. But such accidents seldom occur, as the gentlemen of the -family are informed, as soon as they enter the vestibule of the harem, -that there are strangers within. - -Thus equipped, the Osmanli ladies are the most independent creatures -in the world. - -As no one dares to look them in the face, from a sense of respect, -it has been customary for them slightly to encourage their timid -admirers by a few furtive glances, if not positive attacks; so that, -on all public occasions, an attentive observer may detect them in -some of the wiles of coquetry, or unmeaning flirtation. - -Ladies of distinction are attended by black eunuchs, who protect -them from the too familiar approach of any witless knight, who may -ignorantly trespass the limits of Oriental decorum. - -These ebony gentry, from the nature of their position, had become -insolent and overbearing, under the plea of protecting the ladies, -and a native always avoided a collision with them, since they were -sustained by public opinion. But their own extravagant conduct has -put an end to their pretensions and power. - -Kizlar Aghassy, or the head black eunuch of the palace, was formerly -so influential a personage as to rank among the ministers of state; -but at the present time, the eunuchs have lost all their pristine -greatness, and are mere domestics of the household. - -The carriage generally used by the ladies is called an araba, which -is often very richly ornamented and gilded, and well cushioned in the -inside. The top is covered with a crimson or green ehram or shaggy -cloth, manufactured in Albania, and fringed with gold. This spacious -conveyance, capable of accommodating six or eight persons, has no -springs, and is drawn by a couple of oxen, whose heads are gaily -tricked out, and furnished with a charm against the Evil-Eye. The -ends of the tails are tied to a cluster of red tassels, which are -fastened to a hoop set in the yoke, and gracefully arched over their -backs. This arrangement is to prevent the animals from spattering -the mud with their tails. - -The araba is entered by means of a small temporary ladder at the -back. There is a conductor, or arabagee, who leads the oxen by a chain -attached to their heads, and a yanashma, or boy, who walks by the side, -and goads them on. - -But many of the families are now to be seen in public, in European -carriages, and they delight in excursions on the water in their -beautiful cayiks. - -Nature has been so lavish in her gifts to the land of the Osmanlis, -that they have every temptation to linger for hours in some one of -the many lovely spots which are to be found all along the Bosphorus. - -Boghas-itchy or the Bosphorus, is the most magnificent stream in -the world. Its winding way, its shores besprinkled with palaces, -mosques and minaré's, in the peculiar picturesque style of the East; -the gradually sloping hills, here and there studded with airy and -pretty dwellings, and decked out in green array--all combine to -enchant the eye and delight the mind. - -There is nothing so exquisite as the cayiks of the Bosphorus. Their -forms are as slender as the canoe's, and certainly more graceful than -the gondola's, defying any other aquatic conveyance rowed by men. They -are always propelled by long sculls of one, two, or three pair, -fastened on the gunnels at about midships, to pins, by leather bands. - -The hold is allotted to the accommodation of passengers; there you -recline amid downy cushions, and noiselessly glide along, with the -measured oars of the boatmen, who look like very sea-nymphs, in their -snow-white robes. - -By moonlight, the shores, with their latticed and irregular buildings, -seem to be some fantastic realms in the distance; and the blue waters -reflecting back the silvery stars, almost tempt one to plunge beneath -their glassy surface. No wonder, then, that the Osmanlis should -spend most of their time, when the summer sun cheers and invigorates, -in loitering among such scenes as these. - -The sultan has numerous kiosks of his own; on the most lofty summits -of the hills, in the most sweetly embosomed valleys, by the margin -of the briny sea, where wave after wave has "noiselessly rolled up -the beach" ever since the waters which were above the firmament were -divided from those below--in the midst of plains, by the roadside, -and in the noisy populous streets of the metropolis, are these tasteful -pleasure bowers ever to be met with, but carefully guarded from profane -footsteps. Generally, however, in the spots thus consecrated by royal -pleasure, are to be found coffee shops, and mats or low stools, for -the accommodation of other classes of this nature-loving multitude, -where at all times the most lovely groups of men, women, and children -are collected. - -There are some places of resort more frequented than others. The -Kehat-hané, or as it is commonly known to Europeans the "Sweet-waters -of Europe," at the head of the Golden Horn, Fener-Bahchessy, or, the -garden of the Light House, and Moda Bournou, or the Fashionable Point, -on the Marmora, the Geök-Souyou or the Heavenly Waters of Asia, on -the Bosphorus, Hunkear-Iskellesy or the Sultan's Valley--and Kalender -on the opposite shore. - -To all of these places, the people flock in cayiks and carriages, -and spreading their carpets upon the green sward, recline with true -Oriental nonchalance and comfort. The chibouk adds its curling fumes -to the scene, the narghillé bubbles in unison, the favorite kahvé is -handed round in tiny cups, the wild notes of the Lahouta and Kementché -are re-echoed by the verdant hills, while an entire lamb on a spit -sheds its fragrant odors, predicting a pic-nic champętre. The itinerant -seller of bon-bons plants his tray before you, and you cannot refuse -to partake of its luscious contents--wandering gipsies present you -wild flowers, and proffer their services in unfolding the pages of -destiny. Group after group glides along in the fanciful costumes of -Stamboul, and all are joyous and contented. - -Thus the Osmanlis enjoy that sensation of delight, their indescribable -Kief, when for the moment all care and trouble are forgotten, amid -the scenes of beauty which nature so freely lavishes upon all, rich -and poor. - -Especially on a Friday, or the Mohammedan Sunday, there are -congregated thousands of persons, people from every clime, and of -every rank--Persians in their peaked papakhs; Albanians with their -fustanels; Circassians in their woolly caps; Zeybeks, or Turkish -mountaineers, in gay costumes and lofty head-gear, and armed from head -to foot; strange men on horse-back, who seem to be made up of gold -embroidery and cashmere shawls; Turkish soldiers, and ebony negroes -on milk-white steeds; the representatives of the different western -powers in their elegant carriages, with their own ladies and families; -European travellers and book-making authors, mingle in the crowd. The -imported beauties of Circassia, sit on their embroidered cushions, -sable guards patroling around, while their lords and masters keep at -a respectful distance. - -The Osmanli ladies seem all to be beautiful, especially in their white -and delicate veils, and costumes of such varied hues, with brilliant -diamonds glittering upon their heads, necks, arms, and fingers--in -a word, a Turkish watering-place would eclipse even Broadway itself -in recherchées toilettes and unparalleled beauty; while the charm of -such an endless variety furnishes a study for the artist, and leaves -nothing to be desired to complete a picture exquisitely perfect. - -Amid such scenes as these, the blue heavens for a canopy, with nature's -emerald carpeting, the tall and majestic trees bearing the impress of -unnumbered seasons, more beautiful in their leafy verdure than the most -exquisitely carved and marble columns of the palaces of kings; while -the tuneful songsters of the grove trill their plaintive notes--are -displayed the simple tastes and habits of this people, so inaccessible -when they are once within the precincts of their own domiciles. - -Here may the stranger, who for the first time treads the shores of -the Eastern world, perceive the real spirit of Oriental society and -manners, as exhibited in the exchange of mutual intercourse and the -etiquettes of life. - -The group just before you may be the harem of an Armenian -banker. Though composed of many ladies, yet the Armenians being -Christians, by virtue of their religion, they are not allowed to -number more than one wife in their harems. - -Again, under the shadow of yonder tree, are two lovely Mussulman girls, -surrounded by a train of halayiks, or female slaves, and attended -by black eunuchs. Stay your footsteps, for it is the harem of ---- -Efendy--a Redjal or grandee of the realm. - -This distinguished man had the misfortune to lose his interesting -and beloved wife; and so strong was her memory upon his heart, that -he never sought to replace her loss; consoling himself with these -two beautiful pledges of her love, and lavishing upon them all his -affection and indulgence. - -These young ladies alone now constitute the harem of a man who has -perfect freedom to number as many as four lawful wives! - -Thus it may be perceived, how far from being synonymous are the two -words Harem and Polygamy. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII. - -THE BAZAARS. - - -The bazaars of Constantinople are built of stone, and lighted from -the top. They seem like long streets covered with arched roofs, -each street being appropriated to some particular merchandise; thus, -there are the spice bazaar, where all kinds of condiments, drugs, -and dye stuffs are sold; the perfumery bazaar, containing the most -delicious perfumes of the East, the otto of roses, Tcherkess-souyou, -and many other essences, also the fragrant pastilles, which are placed -upon the pipe bowls, filling the atmosphere with their delicious -scent, and the singular rat's tails which emit a perfume like musk, -and retain their odor for any length of time; the silk bazaar, the -calico bazaar, the shoe bazaar, depots of most varied and exquisite -embroideries; the jewelry bazaar, the pipe bazaar, where are displayed -the beautiful and costly mouthpieces studded with gems, the long and -graceful stems of jessamine, or cherry, and the gilded and delicately -modelled red clay bowls. - -The space occupied by these bazaars is equal to the whole of the -sixth ward in the city of New York, and the internal arrangements are -entirely unlike the shops of this country. There are no front windows, -nor counters. The entire façade of the streets being shelved for the -display of wares and goods, presents a whole front with the appearance -of a vast library, not of books, but of merchandise. A sort of elevated -platform, about five or six feet wide, and two feet from the ground, -extends the whole side, on which both merchants and customers sit, -thus serving the double purpose of counter and seats. The shops are -divided by elbow boards, and a small room is attached behind each -for the storage of goods, etc. - -The ends of the streets are furnished with immense gates, which are -closed every evening about an hour before sunset, and are opened -again in the morning about eight. - -The whole effect is very interesting; the fanciful wares, the great -number and proximity of the stalls or shops, and the varied costumes of -the venders and purchasers, combine to create rare and beautiful groups -for the pencil of the artist. Carriages, horses, and foot-passengers, -are continually passing and re-passing in crowds. - -Occasionally the owners of the shops are obliged to leave their -merchandise for a short time, and during their absence, a covering -of net-work suspended across the front of the stall, is sufficient -to indicate the absence of the proprietor, and also to protect the -property from all depredation. - -These bazaars are the favorite resort of the Turkish ladies of -all ranks, and there is no little coquetry displayed by the fair -purchasers, when the unusually handsome appearance of the merchant -tempts them literally to ransack his whole establishment for the -most trifling article. These occasions are also made available -for the purposes of flirtation, assignation, and all other romantic -amusements. It is amusing to observe the ladies as they fit themselves -with their peculiarly colored and shaped chaussure, for they make -no scruple of displaying their beautiful ankles, which are generally -divested of every semblance of hosiery. - -The method of buying and selling is peculiar to the country, and -doubtless very entertaining to strangers. The system of Prix-Fix, -is unknown in Turkey, for, as they go on the principle "each -one for himself," no one is content with any price except his own -valuation. Besides, the people are so conceited that any concession on -the part of the merchant is flattering to their vanity. He, therefore -enjoys the privilege of being beaten down, merely as complimentary to -his customers. So the merchant always demands an exorbitant price, -which he has no idea of receiving, in order to give his customer a -fair chance to gratify his vanity, and also to exercise his judgment. - -As London has its "Whitechapel Road," Paris its "Temple," and New -York its "Chatham street," so Constantinople has its "Bit-Bazaar," -emphatically so denominated from the vermin which infest old clothing. - -Infinite diversity pervades the garments here displayed, and as -people's clothes always look something like themselves, so the empty -garments seem to tell tales of their good or bad fortunes, whether -the former owners died of plague or small pox, were solitary occupants -of the robes, or shared them with other animalculć. - -At the auction, which occurs every day in these purlieus, poverty may -find a momentary relief by the disposal of its surplus wardrobe, or -may even don the cast off rags of some less fortunate victim of misery. - -There is a more respectable auction at the Bezesten every day except -Friday, until noon, where jewelry, embroideries, carpets, arms, -and all sorts of superior second-hand garments are disposed of. Here -the humblest citizen may at least enjoy the semblance of grandeur, -as he invests himself in the same setry which the Efendi discarded -the day before; or an ambitious mother may procure the same toilette -de noces as graced the form of a beautiful Hanum. - -The Bezesten is a large quadrangular stone building, surmounted by a -cupola, in the centre of the bazaars, and serves not only as a place -of public auction, but for the safe deposit of valuable property, -either money, shawls, or jewelry. - -There are numerous khans in the city, which are constructed in the -form of a hollow square, and are two or three stories in height. The -various rooms are occupied as offices, by jobbers, wholesale merchants, -and bankers. - -Goods are sold in wholesale, usually at two or three installments of -31 days each, which are seldom liquidated in less than 6 or 8 months. - -The trades are divided into different guilds, called esnafs; each one -governed by its own laws and officers. The chiefs of these guilds are -always Mussulmans, and appointed out of the corps of superannuated -palace attendants, such as boatmen, cooks, and scullions, who are -thus pensioned off. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII. - -KAHVÉS. - - -We have desires to which we are impelled by nature, and their -attainment is indispensable to the continuation of life; but we have -desires also which are the results of acquired tastes, and which habit -often makes as impulsive as our natural wants. Thus are created the -luxuries of life, and to increase the delight which we derive from -such sources of enjoyment, we endeavor to refine, to etherealize their -forms, and to divest them of all sensual and grosser accompaniments. - -Among such luxuries, coffee and tobacco are pre-eminent, which are -made even the basis of hospitality and the bond of social intercourse -by all the Osmanlis. Tobacco, when imbibed in its exquisite forms, -is the source of the most refined enjoyments, creating those reveries -and dreamy sensations which float for the moment about our listless -senses, beclouding with a silvery vapor some of life's dull realities. - -Tobacco, ever since its first introduction to the civilized world, -has become so indispensable an item of consumption that it has long -been ranked among the staple commodities of life, and seems to claim -the double title of a natural and artificial taste. Yet, no form of -pleasure and exhilaration has ever been the subject of so much study, -as the ways and means of enjoying this fragrant weed. - -All the world are well aware of the different forms in which tobacco is -used, viz., inhaling in the form of smoke, titillating the nostrils by -its powder called snuff, or imbibing the juice into the system by the -process of mastication. The two latter forms of enjoying this luxury, -seem to admit of no refinement, as time has rolled on, and snuffing -and chewing yet remain in their pristine state of simplicity. - -On the contrary, no ingenuity has been spared to invent, improve or -remodel the various vehicles by which the more exquisite and graceful -practice of smoking may be enjoyed. - -Although tobacco may have been indigenous to America, yet we have -the assertion of Professor Beckman to corroborate the fact, that -this plant was known to the Tartars long before the discovery of -America. As early as the year 1610 a native Turk was paraded through -the streets of Constantinople with a pipe transfixed through his nose, -as the penalty of indulging in the pastime of smoking, which was then -in great disrepute. - -Indeed, if we may credit tradition, Mohammed himself predicted "that -in times to come there should be men, bearing the name of Mussulmans, -but not really such, who should smoke a certain weed called Dükhan, -or Tobacco." - -Tobacco was introduced into England soon after the discovery of -Columbus, by Sir Walter Raleigh, and thence found its way into Europe; -but not until fifteen years after do we hear of it among the Turks, -whence it seems that the Orientals must have acquired their knowledge -of this plant through some other channel, most probably from their -Tartar neighbors. But from whatever clime we first derived this -fragrant weed, there is no doubt that the earliest method of using it -was in a pipe, and not in the form of cigars, or by imbibing the juice -by chewing--which latter practice was unknown to the early lovers of -tobacco, and is unpractised by the Orientals even at this day. - -As the aromatic plant by degrees became essential to the happiness -of mankind, even including the fair sex, doubtless the inconvenience -of the pipe suggested the idea of a more portable form, whence the -invention of cigars. - -In Holland, in 1570, they smoked out of conical tubes, made of -palm-leaves plaited together; and subsequently the leaf of the -plant was rolled up, and the present form of cigars adopted. The -only recommendation to the form of cigars is their convenience; but -many amateurs pretend that they thus attain a stronger relish of the -tobacco than from pipes. The cigar is certainly strong in its fumes, -but whether the relish is greater is a matter to be questioned, and -in this form the injurious and even poisonous properties of the plant -are imparted to the system. Besides, there is the close proximity of -the fire to the mouth and teeth; secondly, the condensation of the -essential oil on the lips, leaving a yellow tinge around the mouth; -thirdly, the gradual dissolving of the end of the cigar in the mouth, -producing, by its nicotine property, irritation of the gums and the -salivary glands; fourthly, there is the necessity of always holding -the cigar, which in the course of time imparts a dingy hue to the -fingers; fifthly, the danger of injuring the clothes and furniture -by the constant falling of the ashes; sixthly, the eyes suffer from -their proximity to the heated fumes; and last, but not least, there -is the satisfaction of imbibing the nectar-juice of some black mouth, -for the black nymphs who are employed in this manufacture, always -salivate their handiwork, by way of giving it a smooth and handsome -finish. Surely, could our amateurs but witness the manufacture of -their favorite Havanas, they would forever eschew that form of the -aromatic weed. - -But apart from all these considerations, the very convenience of the -cigar becomes an objection; for being always at hand, the too frequent -use of it has converted the pleasure into an evil--such a constant -craving being excited that even the health is injured. Doubtless -this perverted taste, in circumstances where smoking has not been -permitted, as on board ships, behind counters, in offices, etc., -has induced the pernicious practice of chewing. - -Those nations who retain the original, natural, and simplest mode -of enjoying the weed, have never relinquished the pipe, but have -varied the form of this implement, and much beautified and improved -it. The people who have retained the use of the pipe, are the Dutch, -Irish, English, Scotch, Germans, Russians, Turks, Persians, and all -Orientals. In the perfection of the art of smoking the Persians may -rank first, then the Osmanlis, Russians, Hungarians, Dutch, English, -and last of all the Germans. - -The Persians rank high in this respect, because they have studied -the philosophy of enjoying the fumes of tobacco in their greatest -purity. This they have attained by passing the smoke through water, -and thus purifying it from the essential oil of the plant. The kaleon -of the Persians, the hookah of Hindostan, the shishé of the Arabs, or -the narghillé of the Turks, is an air-tight vessel partially filled -with water, on the top of which is a bowl to contain the ignited -tobacco. From this bowl a tube descends into the water, and the long -and flexible pipe is inserted into the vessel above the level of the -water. When the smoker begins to draw through the pipe, a partial -vacuum is created in the vessel, which occasions the pressure of -the external air to force the smoke of the tobacco downward through -the small tube above mentioned into the water beneath, where, after -losing its solid particles, it bubbles up into the vacant space above, -and thence through the pipe to the mouth of the smoker. - -But ever since the peculiar and agreeable properties of this fragrant -plant have been known, the ingenuity of its votaries has been excited -to invent and improve the ways and means of obtaining the greatest -amount of satisfaction from its use. - -In the earliest stages the pipe was made of one entire piece of clay, -but soon the fact was established that this substance became so heated -as to decompose the tobacco. Metallic and other pipes were tried, -but still the same evil existed; until wood became the most popular -material. But that being combustible, the flavor of the tobacco was -deteriorated; and at last the arrangement was made of a stem of wood -with a bowl of clay attached to it, to contain the ignited plant. The -wood was a nonconductor of heat, capable of being constructed of any -length, and moreover, easily cleaned, so that this was pronounced -the great desideratum. - -The Turks have displayed the greatest refinement and taste in the -manufacture of their long and beautiful chibouks or pipe-stems, to -which they attach the amber mouth-piece, so agreeable to the lips -and free from all impurities. - -A peculiar species of clay was discovered in Turkey so remarkably -argillaceous as to supersede all other substances for the construction -of pipe-bowls; and these Oriental and philosophic smokers have -displayed their wisdom and science in the peculiar form into which -they have molded them. The form of a lüllé, or Turkish pipe-bowl, -is that of an inverted cone, the base of which, when filled with -tobacco, forms the surface. The design of this form is to present a -greater surface of exposure to the atmosphere, and to bring a smaller -body of tobacco in contact with the bowl, which is made as thin and -delicate as the nature of the material will permit, so as to possess -the least quantity of body, and thus less power of retaining heat. The -pipe should be lighted in the centre of the bowl, not with a piece -of paper, which would scorch the surface of the tobacco, but with a -small piece of spunk. At each inhalation the ignited circle enlarges -and extends toward the edge of the bowl, and as the combustion takes -place proportionally downward, it is evident that all the tobacco is -consumed without the assistance of fingering it, as the Germans are -in the habit of doing. - -The stem is always of wood, but great care is used in its -selection. Jasmine is cultivated expressly for pipe-stems, -and carefully trained so as to increase in length and uniform -thickness. Cherry-stems are much prized and more durable than the -jasmine, and there is a species of wild fruit tree called germeshek, -peculiar to Turkey, remarkably suited for the use of tobacco, and very -generally used. These pipe-stems are never less than four or five feet -long, and perfectly straight. The object gained by the length is that -the smoke arrives at the lips comparatively cool, having deposited its -more solid particles in the stem, which being perfectly straight is -easily cleansed; for it is an essential point that the pipe should, -contrary to German philosophy, be kept pure. Still another advantage -gained by the length is that the pipe may be easily disposed of for -the moment, resting by the side or against a table without deranging -the tobacco in the bowl, which should always have a small brass tray -beneath it to protect the floor from any accident. - -Certainly, then, a Turkish chibouk is unequalled as an implement for -smoking. The pure amber mouthpiece often glittering with brilliants, -the long stem, one unbroken length of slender jasmine, and the delicate -and beautifully-gilded bowl, seem to constitute the very essence of -refinement in the luxury of smoking; and no wonder that the Osmanlis -recline for hours on their silken cushions, and puff and puff again -"ambrosial gales." - -One reason of the luxury displayed in the Turkish pipe is, that the -chibouk is an indispensable appendage of hospitality, always presented -to the guests, and constantly changed and replaced by another, each -successive pipe exceeding its predecessor in beauty and value, until -the visit is terminated. - -The chibouks and narghillés are symbols of luxury and wealth among -the Osmanlis, as services of silver are appendages of elegant life -to the Europeans, and there is great ambition to excel each other in -the costliness of their appurtenances of smoking. Many of the pashas -and other men of wealth, possess chibouks to the value of $50,000, -ranging from $10 upwards. - -Sultan Mahmoud was forced to issue an edict forbidding the hosts to -present them to visitors, and ordering that every one should provide -his own chibouk. Hence the appendage to all gentlemen of rank of a -Chibouk-gy, who always accompanies his master. - -The narghillés or hookahs are also very popular, and often of exquisite -workmanship; but pipes being more portable and handy, are generally -preferred. The effort necessary to draw the smoke from the narghillé -is, by some, considered as objectionable, but a little practice soon -habituates to its use, and certainly with this instrument we have -the smoke in its greatest purity. - -But it is not only the utility and beauty of the long chibouk which -constitute the Osmanlis the best and most philosophical smokers. There -is no tobacco in the world so delicious as the Turkish; so varied in -its degrees of narcotic strength, or so carefully prepared, and a taste -once being acquired for this species of the plant, all other varieties -become intolerable. A growing taste for this tobacco has of late been -acquired in America, and the increasing demand for this article has -induced speculators to flood the market with spurious imitations or -adulterations both imported and of home manufacture. Even in Turkey the -greatest connoisseurs can, with difficulty, procure the best species; -there are so many varieties offered for sale; the very worst kind, -of which so much is exported to America, being from Smyrna and its -immediate neighborhood. The tobacco most valued, and justly so, for -its pure and aromatic flavor, is only raised in a small district of -Thessaly, in European Turkey, and is called Yenijé tobacco, from the -name of the region where it is cultivated. - -There has been concocted a peculiar kind or brand of the plant under -the title of scafarlatti, which seems to have gained great celebrity -in the United States as being the genuine Turkish article. This -appellation is as yet unknown in Turkey, and must have sprung from -the inventive brain of some one of the Barnum race, who would even -enlarge the Turkish vocabulary at the expense of the lingua Italiana. - -Not to notice the Western nations, who, with their clay pipes, have -remained in statu quo in the art of smoking, the Germans deserve some -criticism: for they have made many attempts to arrive at perfection. - -The material of which the German pipe-bowls are made, poetically -called meerschaum, is ill adapted for the purpose, and the forms of -their stems and mouth-pieces imply entire ignorance of the science -of smoking. - -The meerschaum, or froth of the sea, is a native rock formation of -Turkey, and is excavated about two or three hundred miles from the -sea of Marmora. Every particle is exported to Vienna, and it is -never used by the natives, because it is a calcareous substance, -and when in contact with fire undergoes a process of combustion -to a sufficient degree to decompose the tobacco. This fact is well -attested by the circumstance that a meerschaum pipe-bowl is greatly -enhanced in value when by a long and tedious process it has lost -all its combustible properties, and is thus rendered incapable of -deteriorating the tobacco. But why select a substance which requires -so long an apprenticeship, when nature furnishes one well suited for -the purpose? and why esteem an article for its power of absorption -and then prize it the more for having lost it by time and use? German -philosophy only can explain! - -Apart from the unfitness of meerschaum for the bowl, the form in which -it is modelled shows how little the nature of tobacco is understood -by those sturdy people; for the form of an elongated cylinder only -serves to surround the weed by a heavy body of combustible material -capable of containing an excessive degree of heat, and thus decomposing -the tobacco. But the main object of these amateurs of the mere-sham -seems to be to deteriorate the fume of the narcotic plant as much as -possible--for to cap the climax of their absurdity, a metallic cover -is nicely fitted to those exquisite pipe-bowls, and thus the favorite -meerschaum is converted into a perfect retort for the manufacture -of tobacco-gas! - -Their stems are generally made of the most ordinary wood, short -and curving, and the mouth-piece of the minutest dimensions. The -object in having such small mouth-pieces is to imitate the process -by which infants are nourished, by introducing them into the mouth -and regularly sucking up the smoke instead of inhaling it, as the -Osmanlis do, by merely resting their lips upon the large and oval -surface of the amber. The introduction of the piece into the mouth -immediately excites the saliva, which in part passes into the pipe, -and is otherwise discharged by spitting--a most disgusting practice -unknown among the Orientals. Notwithstanding also the shortness of -the pipe, owing to its curved form and the diminutive mouthpiece, -it is almost impossible to keep it clean. But it seems to be a sort -of German philosophy not only to have their pipes in a most filthy -state, but to delight in and value them the more in proportion to -their antiquity and impurity. Truly there is no accounting for taste, -nor is it any longer a matter of wonder that pigs delight to wallow -in the mire. - -If, then, the nations of the East, the Persians and Osmanlis, are -behind the age in other matters of civilization, they have surely -attained the acme of refinement in this delight. - -Nature, too, has favored them in the peculiar quality of their tobacco, -and the very indolence of their habits has led them to meditate more -diligently on their favorite luxury. Hence the palm in this matter is -to be given to their musical gurgling narghillé, purifying and cooling -the fragrant fumes, and to the long and graceful chibouk, which a -little care will keep always pure and ready for use. These are well -worth the adaptation of other nations. Some have, however, objected to -the chibouk as not being portable and convenient during a promenade, -as if there were a municipal law requiring all good citizens to smoke -in the streets. If the good taste of the community should render the -use of these chibouks and narghillés popular, there is no doubt that -all the places for public refreshment would be provided with them, -as they now are in Turkey and all over the East. - -The coffee plant is well known to be a native of Arabia; it was used as -a drink in that part of the world as early as the ninth century of the -Hegira, and was gradually introduced into the countries of the Levant; -it was many times declared unlawful by the followers of the Koran, -as being of the class of inebriating liquors so often condemned -by Mohammed; but the Eastern nations are so addicted to its use, -that they say, "A cup of coffee and a pipe of tobacco are a complete -entertainment!" It seems that this beverage was made fashionable in -Paris about the year 1668, by a Turkish ambassador. "The elegance of -the equipage recommended it to the eye, and charmed the women; the -brilliant porcelain cups in which it was poured, the napkins fringed -with gold, and the Turkish slaves on their knees, presenting it to -the ladies seated on the ground on cushions, turned the heads of the -Parisian dames. This elegant introduction made the exotic beverage -a subject of conversation; and in 1672, an Armenian at Paris, at -the fair time, opened a coffee house." This establishment was much -frequented by the literati, until the proprietor added the sale of -wine and beer to its attractions. - -A similar attempt was made in New York in 1855, but soon relinquished; -notwithstanding the proverbial fondness of the Americans for good -coffee and tobacco. The fact is, their temperament is too nervous, -and their habits are too restless to allow them quietly to sip their -coffee and smoke their pipes as the Orientals do. - -Besides, the style of preparing the coffee in Turkey is decidedly -superior to any known in Europe or America, and has met with the -approbation of those who have tasted it either in New York, or in -the sultan's dominions. - -"Coffee is found on chemical analysis to contain a highly nutritious -element, known as caffein. This component part of all good coffee -is found to contain a larger proportion of nitrogen than any other -vegetable principle, and in this respect equals some of the most -highly animalized products, rendering it nutritious as a drink." - -The essential oil of the berry is so volatile, that the greatest -care and skill are requisite in its roasting and pulverization; -for if too much burnt, the aroma is destroyed, if underdone, the -water fails to absorb or extract the nutritious material, and if not -properly pulverized, a perfect chemical combination of the particles -in solution is not effected. - -There is no doubt a desire among the Americans, to obtain this -beverage in its purity and excellence, as evince the many machines -and contrivances they use; yet they seldom if ever succeed in their -attempts. - -The mixture from the grocers, and the ingredients they mingle at home, -such as eggs, isinglass, etc., render it impossible to secure a pure, -unadulterated, fragrant solution of this berry. - -The commercial competition is so great that in order to be able to -undersell each other, all sorts of cheaper substitutes are mixed with -the coffee, such as chicory, beans, peas, etc.; thus annihilating -the really nutritive properties of the genuine plant. - -In a word, those who have never tasted a cup of good Turkish coffee, -are yet in unhappy ignorance of the peculiar aroma and deliciousness -of coffee as a beverage. - -Coffee being the universal and favorite beverage in Turkey, the -first ideas of an Osmanli, upon opening his eyes in the morning, -are associated with his kahvé and chibouk, or coffee and pipe, which -in reality constitute his only breakfast, and are not only used upon -rising, but at all hours during the day, and at the very moment of -his retiring. - -These luxuries are invariably offered to visitors, and their omission -is regarded as a breach of hospitality. - -Their universal use has given rise to the establishment of -numerous kahvés, which are the resort of persons of all ranks and -condition. They are to be met with in all parts and quarters of -the city, each having its own set of customers, and constituting, -in reality, the only casinos or club houses, where politics are -discussed, business transacted, and the news of the day freely -circulated; in fact the only Bourse or Exchange in Constantinople, -was a coffee house at Pershembé-Pazar, in Galata: and it is only of -late years that a regular Exchange has been erected. - -Many of these kahvés are very beautifully constructed, and adorned -with pillars and fountains, with gardens attached to them, where -visitors are entertained with sweet strains of music; and crowds -assemble to listen to the extravagant fictions of the Meddahs, or -professed story-tellers, or otherwise to wile away the time; smoking, -sipping the fragrant berry, and playing backgammon, dama, or mangala. - -All games of chance are played by the Osmanlis, only for amusement, -and gambling is not generally practised by them. - -The moral effect of these establishments upon the community is -very evident; for though wine is forbidden by the Koran, there are -many mey-hanés, or grog-shops, to be found in Turkey, which are not -generally frequented by people of any pretensions to respectability; -indeed drunkenness is a very uncommon vice, doubtless owing to the -numerous kahvés, which afford the habitual refreshments of pipes and -coffee to the people, with every facility for social intercourse. - -On entering the coffee shop, there is an elevated platform on the three -sides, which is furnished with cushions or mats for the accommodation -of visitors. On the sides of the wall are various grotesque pictures, -and also shelves, where the implements of shaving and toilette are -so fantastically displayed as to create a somewhat comic appearance, -and one altogether peculiar to Turkey. At one of the remotest corners -is an elevated fire-place for the preparation of coffee, which is -served in very small cups. The diminutive quantity of this beverage -was so unsatisfactory to one of the sailors of the English fleet at -Constantinople, that upon tasting it he observed, "This is excellent; -just bring me a dozen." - -Surrounding the fire-place are shelves, upon which stand the graceful -narghillés, with their brazen and polished mountings, attractive and -pleasing to the eye. But the most active and busy personage in this -establishment is the Berber, or barber, who is not only the shaver, -hair-dresser, and trimmer in general, but extends the province of his -sharp profession to bleeding, cupping, leeching, and tooth-drawing; the -results of which avocations are displayed at the door, fantastically -strung and diversified with colored beads. - -Barbers always follow in the train of doctors, and even precede them, -for bleeding is a universal remedy in Turkey, whether the patient -is sick of fever or fright. Indeed, it is the custom for every -body to be bled once a year, generally in the spring, in order to -purify the system. Add to this the frequent application of leeches, -scarifications, and cupping, and it may be easily conceived that -this branch of industry is very profitable; still more so when -it was the custom to shave the whole head, for the convenience of -frequent ablutions. Many, in conformity with European civilization, -now allow the hair to grow, but those who oppose other reforms are -equally unyielding in this respect, and "calculating even to a hair." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIV. - -HAMAM, OR BATH. - - -In the East there is one source of comfort and enjoyment which is -more essential than all else, and that is the use of the bath, which -follows all other pleasures, when excess has wearied the system, and -precedes and prepares for anticipated luxuries physical or mental. This -process of purifying and refreshing the body, is eagerly sought for -as soon as the traveller arrives at Constantinople; indeed seems to -be second only in his mind to the impressions of an entrance to the -magnificent harbor. - -The baths of classic memory, where the heroes of ancient Rome were -wont to prepare their sinews for the athletic games, and where the -patrician dames of Pompeii resorted, to add fresher and more glowing -tints to their fair charms, were all conducted on the same principle -as those of Stamboul at the present day. - -It is wonderful that modern civilization should not yet have adopted -the refinements of olden times, when they are so essential to real -health and comfort. - -As by some mishap this desideratum exists, it would not be mal-a-propos -to describe the real charm and merit of these institutions. The object -of all bathing is to free the skin from the deposits of insensible -perspiration. This idea has been much in vogue of late, as testify -the water-cures, vapor-baths, medicated, sulphurated, etc., being in -reality rather vehicles for disease than remedies. But the peculiar -substance which closes up the pores of the skin, cannot be removed -by simple immersion in soap and water, for, like all other greasy -substances, it is composed of solid and liquid, or stearine and olein, -the liquid part of which may, in a chemical combination, be absorbed -by the water, but the skin will still remain clogged up. Seeing the -futility of the process of immersion, many have supposed that a profuse -perspiration excited by fumigation, vaporization, etc., would carry -off these deposits, by which processes, however, the liquid portion -only would be removed, and the system reduced to a state of perfect -exhaustion. The Turkish baths are neither immersion nor vapor baths; -but the atmosphere is heated by means of flues through the walls, to -a temperature suited to induce a free perspiration, without causing -over-exhaustion; for the interior is so arranged that the bather, in -passing from one apartment to another, gradually becomes acclimated -to the heat. - -These baths, unlike many other institutions in the East, are -perfectly accessible to all, both natives and foreigners, and are -the more attractive on account of their entire dissimilarity from -all establishments for the same purpose in Europe or America. - -Frequent ablutions, and the greatest personal cleanliness being -strictly enjoined upon all true believers, by the precepts of the -Koran, it is considered an act of piety to erect edifices and public -fountains for those purposes, either during life-time, or by personal -bequest; consequently, such instances of benevolence are by no means -rare, nor are the structures deficient in architectural beauty. They -are built of stone, and adorned with cupolas, besprinkled with globular -glasses, which transmit a softened light to the interior. - -The interior is divided into three compartments; the saloon, the -tepidarium, and the bath itself. - -The saloon, where the visitors dress and undress, is a large apartment -surrounded on three sides by elevated platforms, on which are placed -mattresses and cushions for the comfort and accommodation of those -who frequent the bath. In the centre of this room there is usually a -marble fountain, whose trickling waters soothe the ear, and add beauty -to the scene, dispensing a delicious coolness to the atmosphere. On -his entrance to this saloon, the visitor is immediately greeted with -Bouyourun, (you are welcome), from the attendants, who conduct him to -one of the mattresses on the platform, where he is undressed, within -a temporary screen, made by holding up a towel to prevent exposure -of the person; for the Osmanlis are sensitively modest, and feel a -feminine delicacy in this respect, so that none ever bathe in public -without being suitably invested. - -His watch, ring, and purse, are handed over to the Hamamgy for -safe keeping, and his apparel being carefully folded in a shawl, and -designated by his own head-gear, which is placed upon it, is deposited -by the side of the mattress, now appropriated to his exclusive use. - -Notwithstanding all these precautions, very ludicrous mistakes -sometimes occur, as happened recently to a certain soldier, who was -anxious to abandon the ranks, and possessing no other means of changing -his uniform for a citizen's dress, entered the bath en militaire; -where, after having performed his ablutions, he committed the very -slight error of appropriating to himself a neighbor's mattress, with -its accompanying wardrobe, and thus was enabled to make an honorable -retreat en bourgeois. - -Being now undressed, enveloped in large towels, and mounted on nalluns, -or wooden pattens, to protect his feet from the hot marble and the -water, the bather is conducted into the Halvet, or tepidarium, which -is heated to a degree a little above temperate, where he reposes on -cushions until he is gradually acclimated to the atmosphere. - -When the pores of the skin are opened, and perspiration excited, -the visitor proceeds to the inner room to go through the process -of bathing. - -The Hamam, or bath itself, whose temperature is raised to any requisite -degree by means of flues constructed within, and all along the walls, -so as to allow the flames to circulate freely in every direction, -is in many of these establishments, exceedingly beautiful; the dome -being supported on magnificent columns, and the walls and doors inlaid -with large slabs of marble, and adorned with finely chiselled fonts -on all sides, which are furnished with double ornamented brass cocks, -for the supply of warm and cold water. - -There is an elevated marble platform in the middle, where the bathers -lie at full length, for the purpose of having their sinews relaxed, and -joints examined. Both the apartment, and this process in particular, -have been most ridiculously described, and, either through malice or -ignorance, most egregiously exaggerated by travellers; for example, -the public are informed that, "A dense vapor sometimes so fills the -saloon, that he (the bather), sees nothing distinctly, but figures -flit before him like visions in a mist. Having walked, or sat in this -heated mist, till a profuse perspiration bursts out, the tellak again -approaches, and commences his operations. He lays the bather on his -back or face, and pins him to the ground by kneeling heavily on him, -and having thus secured him, he handles him in the rudest and most -painful manner. He twists and turns the limbs, so as to seem to -dislocate every joint. The sufferer feels as if the very spine was -separated, and the vertebrć of the back torn asunder. It is in vain he -complains of this treatment, screams out in anguish and apprehension, -and struggles to extricate himself. The incubus sits grinning upon him, -and torturing him, till he becomes passive from very exhaustion." - -In the first place, there is no dense vapor in a Turkish bath, but the -heat is produced by the flues in the walls; true, there is sometimes -the appearance of mist, which is only created momentarily by the -quantity of hot water poured over the bathers, and is soon dispersed by -ventilation, for such an atmosphere is never tolerated by the natives. - -Now, as to the bather being pinned to the ground in the rudest and -most painful manner, etc., there is more of a spirit of ridicule than -simple truth in this description; it being only resorted to in cases -of rheumatism, and the like maladies, when the patient is extended -on the marble platform, and all his joints examined and rubbed by -the tellak, or assistant, who, owing to the relaxed condition of -the nervous system, easily discovers the seat of any local pain, -and proceeds to dispel it by friction. - -Many having experienced decided relief from this mode of treatment, -it is very frequently resorted to in Turkey. No such treatment, -therefore, ever occurs on ordinary occasions, unless the farce -is got up by special request, and for the benefit of strangers or -travellers, who, not content with the usual modus operandi, insist -upon the realization of their own extravagant ideas. - -A native of Constantinople had to stop at Smyrna on his way to -America. Being anxious to enjoy the luxury of a bath once more, -he repaired to one of the establishments. As he wore a hat, the -attendants mistook him for a regular Frank or European, and he resolved -to maintain the joke by pretending utter ignorance of all the languages -of the country. After having experienced many absurdities, all novel -to a native, he was at last stretched full length upon his stomach -on the marble platform of the bath. The tellak kneeling by his side -commenced a regular process of pommelling him, and, at the same time, -of cracking his joints. The incubus, as though not satisfied with -his own exertions, now called for assistance from another tellak, -who came and placed himself on the opposite side, when both commenced -in the rudest manner to push their victim from one to the other. The -sufferer, astonished at this extraordinary treatment, was ready to -split his sides with laughter, which one of the tellaks taking as an -indication of uneasiness, observed to the other not to be so rude in -his manipulations. He was, in return, assured "this is the way the -Franks like, the harder the better; also, they must not be allowed -to think they haven't had their money's worth!" - -Doubtless an Osmanli would not only be much amused, but astonished, -could he behold the victim of a European vapor bath, as he sits boxed -up, and enveloped in blankets to his throat, parboiled with steam, -and suffocated by the fumes of brimstone; surely he would believe he -had by mistake got into the regions of Eblis. - -When the person is in a state of free perspiration, he is seated by -the side of one of the fountains, beneath which are marble basins to -receive the water, both hot and cold, as it flows from the ornamented -cocks, for no Osmanli ever uses the tub, water which has once been -in contact with the body, having imbibed its impurities, is deemed -unfit for further use; therefore, on all occasions, their ablutions -are performed with flowing water, for they do not delight to wallow -and splash in a solution of their own dirt. - -The tellak having upon his right hand a kesse, or bag made of raw -silk, commences a gentle rubbing (for they cannot bear any rude or -rough treatment, for which reason the delicate hands of boys are -employed), over the surface of the body, by which the deposits of -insensible perspiration are disengaged from the pores of the skin, -and combining together fall from the person like fibres of paste, -which, to the uninitiated, might seem like the peeling off of the -outer pellicle itself. - -In this process consists the real virtue of a Hamam, and to it alone -is to be attributed the peculiar velvet-like softness of the skin of -an Oriental, which even gives them an air of effeminacy. - -Immediately after the process of shampooing or rubbing, the marble -font having been filled with water of the desired temperature, it is -poured over the person of the bather from the brass tass, or bowl, -used for the purpose by the attendant. The person is now thoroughly -washed with perfumed soap, again water is poured over him in abundance, -and he is finally enveloped in the havlous, or large napped towels, -manufactured in the country expressly for the purpose, and admirably -adapted to absorb moisture. - -Now perfectly purified, with a sensation of languor, the bather -proceeds to the dressing saloon, where, as he reclines upon luxurious -cushions, his whole being seems momentarily lost in that dreamy repose -of half-conscious existence, which is the true kief of an Oriental. - -He is only awakened to real life by the assiduities of his attendants, -some gently fanning him, and others presenting sherbet, coffee, -pipes, etc. - -The fatigue and languor gradually pass away, as, with a sensation -of renovated existence, he reposes until the heat of his body is -reduced to its natural temperature. His toilette being completed, he -surveys himself in a small enamelled mirror which is offered to him, -and after depositing upon it the amount of money compatible with -his own station in life, he quits the precincts of this luxurious -establishment, light, joyful, and contented. - -The Hamams being altogether charitable institutions, there is no fixed -price demanded from visitors, for the use of the bath itself--it -being entirely left to their own option. But the personal services -of the attendants, and the wear and tear of the splendid bathing -paraphernalia not being included in the same category, an adequate -remuneration is of course expected. This also is left to individual -generosity; in ordinary cases, from half to three quarters of a dollar -is sufficient, but there may be no limit to a person's munificence, -nor to the attentions bestowed upon him. - -A gentleman of rank once visited a bath where he was an entire -stranger, and although he was not treated with even ordinary -politeness, he left on his departure a sum of money far beyond the -expectations of the attendants, which, opening their eyes, forced them -to make a thousand apologies for their remissness, and protestations -for the future. The gentleman soon after gave them an opportunity to -retrieve their former errors, and contrary to their excited hopes -rewarded them with a couple of piasters (about 8 cents) observing, -"This is what you merited on my first visit, and what you then received -is the equivalent for your present services." - -The money collected at the bath is divided into two portions; one -of which is for the Hamamgy, or proprietor, and the other is shared -among the attendants. - -Many of the public bathing houses are divided into two parts, one -for men, and the other for women, and when the establishment is not -a double one, Fridays and Sundays only are reserved for men, and the -rest of the week allotted to the ladies. - -There are always exquisite specimens of these Hamams attached to -the houses of the wealthy; and their friends and neighbors are often -invited to partake with them of this amusement. - -As the Osmanli ladies very seldom enjoy the excitement and bustle -of a crowd, they consider the occasion of going to bathe as one of -the greatest festivity; and they always carry with them every article -necessary for comfort or luxury, the Hamamgy not furnishing mattresses, -towels, etc., as in the case of the gentlemen. - -Besides the opportunity of displaying embroidered cushions, napkins, -etc., they find rare and ample amusement in the discussion of scandal, -moral and political, as well as general domestic gossip. - -The tout ensemble of a lady's bath is one altogether peculiar, and of -course more enchanting to the eye than the ablutions of their lords -and masters. - -The following description of a visit to a bath by a lady long a -resident in Constantinople, may be interesting as the result of -personal observation and experience. - -"My first Turkish bath--shall I describe it, dear?--We were a large -party. The mother, her three daughters, three maids, and my humble -self. You would have supposed we were arranging our wardrobes for -a long season of travel--except that the garments would be rather -unpresentable on ordinary occasions. Very peculiar nappy towels, large -as sheets, issued forth from their repose in the vast closets, white -and colored, embroidered and fringed; head-gear of the same style; -curious-looking yellow woollen mittens, to rub with, they told me; -innumerable shining bowls; tremendous stilt-like clogs for the feet, -great bars of soap, precious packages of dyes, paints, capillary -antidotes, perfumes, essences, mirrors in embroidered frames, and a -thousand other etceteras of Oriental toilette, in due order entered the -vast bundles which were in preparation. Next appeared a beautiful rug -or carpet, a rich silken mattress and cushions, and a large piece of -crimson woollen, shaggy material, to envelope the cushions, such as I -have frequently seen spread in the beautiful cayiks. Really one would -have supposed we were to be deposited in some unfurnished dwelling -with all this paraphernalia. - -"Then came the private wardrobe of each individual neatly folded in a -separate envelope--and last but not least; the most refreshing array -of fruit, sherbets, and a curious machine, some five stories high, -in whose different compartments were packed various specimens of -Turkish cookery. I began to wonder if we were ever to return from this -bathing pic-nic, so vast were the preparations; but every one was gay, -and nothing was tiresome. Besides we always go to bathe in this style, -at least once a month. - -"Our carriage waited at the door, a grand spacious one, covered with -crimson shag, the ends trimmed with deep fringes of gold--no seats, -but plenty of cushions, and two milk-white oxen were our steeds. - -"Having duly veiled ourselves, that our 'ornaments' or charms might -not be displayed to the eyes of the unprivileged, we ascended the -steps at the end of our araba, and were seated according to our -respective ranks. The old lady and myself occupying the honorable -places in the front, just behind the tails of the oxen, which were -fortunately looped up, so that they could neither switch us, nor -themselves. There is a decided advantage in this seat, the view -being unobstructed by any coachman, as that dignitary always walks -before the head of the animals. Next to us were the three Hanums, -behind whom were the maids and bundles, and the large pannier was -slung underneath full of its creature comforts. - -"I felt as if I had suddenly been transformed into a houri, as they -all declared that the Yashmak converted me into a real Circassian -beauty. In due time we arrived, and descended from our airy -vehicle. As we entered the outer hall of the bath, each one made a -polite temennah to the Hamamgy-Kadun, or the lady proprietress, who was -squatting on her cushions in a corner. This salutation she returned, -to all genuine Turkish ladies (myself included) with the same polite -gesture--but the unfortunate giavours only received a slight nod, no -matter how profound their selams. It is well to be queen somewhere, -even of a bathing establishment. - -"The maids, Eleny, Maria, and Sophy, spread out our cushions in one -of the niches upon the elevated platform, and as they modestly held -up a towel as a screen, we proceeded to reduce ourselves to a state -of nature. Enveloped from head to feet in our bathing habiliments, -which hung about us in just such folds as they drape the statues--we -willingly thrust our pedestrial extremities into the great clogs, -inlaid with mother of pearl, entered the antechamber of the bath, -and sat down on the marble platform to acclimate ourselves. Here we -take a coup d'oeil of the strange scene. - -"Old women without any charms to conceal, spare themselves the effort, -and multitudes of naked cherubs patter about. Yonder sits a victim -to paints and dyes--her hair now white, suddenly becomes beautifully -black, and the colour streaming over her body bedecks her for the -moment ŕ l'Indienne. But that was all washed off, and they proceeded -to rub a sort of mud all over her body, to take out the pains. Then -she underwent a process of pommelling, as she was stretched out on -the marble floor--poor thing, she had both rheumatism and grey hairs, -and was a fit subject for the most special and extra efforts of the -attendants of the bath. But the children! such victims, of all ages, -from one month upwards, were screaming to the highest pitch of their -little voices, as they were unmercifully rubbed and lathered from the -crown of their heads to the soles of their feet. 'Rough up and smooth -down,' seemed to be no part of the nursery creed of their unmerciful -mothers, but rough all ways. Amid these infantile yells and agonies, -the girls, young and pretty, walked up and down, pattering with their -clogs, and chanting their wild native melodies, as if to put out all -other noises, and the great marble halls did their best to re-echo -all these floating sounds. - -"Was I in Paradise or Pandemonium; were these peris or demons, I -could not tell; everything was so bewildering. I was duly rubbed, -and washed like the rest--then it was proposed to take lunch. Our -party en déshabillé de-pechetemal, which means, crimson faces and -napkin drapery, with long and dripping hair, sea nymphs--maids of the -mist--seated themselves on the marble platform in the cooler room, -and the large round tray made its appearance. - -"How delicious the iced sherbet, the little balls of rice covered with -delicate vine leaves--the artichokes ŕ l'huile d'olive, the kebab, -the helva--in a word, spite of the strange table, strange costume, -and general humidity, we all had tremendous appetites. - -"Then, came a chibouk to the old lady, little cigarettes to the young -maidens--a delicious cup of coffee, and we all raised our voices in -a sweet Turkish song, about loves, jessamines, güle and bülbüls. - -"Being thus recruited, we were able to undergo the last ablutions, -and with a complete investment of pure white and delicately perfumed -towels, we proceeded to our first niche in the great dressing-room, -and laid us down to dream, or listlessly to watch the innumerable -toilettes of the devotees to Venus and Love. - -"Some, all fair and rosy, were reclining luxuriously like ourselves, -enveloped in fine white drapery, richly embroidered and fringed with -gold, while their beautiful slaves, whose charming figures were not -so carefully concealed, were combing, braiding, and perfuming the -long silken tresses of the fair hanums. - -"After we had amused ourselves at the indifference of the really -beautiful, and the minute and strenuous efforts of others to appear -so, we again sipped our coffee and completed our toilette, ready at -any time, to spend another day in such delightful aquatic luxuries. I -could not help contrasting my sensations with those I had often felt -on leaving one of the bathing establishments in my own country. There, -a solitary closet, a tub, from which perhaps some dirty wench had -just emerged, a hook or two, a dirty flesh brush for general service, -etc. True, the warm water was agreeable, and for the moment caused an -oblivion of all antecedents, the hook convenient, and the brush need -not be used. After an immersion of perhaps half an hour, you hurry -on your apparel, and hurry home, all ŕ l'Américaine. But here, in -this Turkish bath, how imperceptibly a whole day had passed away, how -entertaining the scene, how beautiful the fair handmaidens of Nature, -so soft and pure, after their watery festivities. Their skin so white, -their lips so red, the delicate rosy tinge of their cheeks so tempting; -even old age seemed to bloom again, while a universal exhilaration -took possession of us all. A delicate tissue of softness seemed to -envelop my body, and a wonderful feeling of amiability and love for -all the race of human kind glowed within my breast. Every motion gave -me pleasure, and I could scarce recognize myself. Alas! for American -ladies, they can never feel the true oriental Kief in bathing; for -they have no cushions to repose upon, no softly murmuring fountains -to lull their senses, nor any such relaxation from all external and -internal woes, as follows a Turkish bath. In vain they tinge their -complexions, powder, and wash, they cannot attain this to kalon of -beauty, nor be electrified by this wand of enchantment, which renders -the humblest Cinderella of the Orient lovely as a princess, and says -avaunt to all the modern mysteries of the toilette." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXV. - -THE RAYAS OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS. - -THE ARMENIANS. - - -The whole population of Turkey may be estimated at over 35,000,000 -of souls, including the principalities and other tributary states, -which, if deducted, leaves 27,000,000 in Turkey proper, half of whom -are Mohammedans, and the rest Christians and Jews. - -The Christians are of various denominations, each denomination -constituting a separate community, governed by their own municipal -regulations, and guided by their respective spiritual heads. - -Hitherto the Europeans have regarded the Greeks as the predominating -Christian population of the East; the truth is, among the different -communities the Armenians stand most prominent, because not only next -to the Bulgarians they rank high in numbers, but in reality supersede -all others, politically and morally, in their relations with Turkey. - -Although the Bosnians, Bulgarians, and the Greeks profess the same -religion, they do not surrender their respective nationalities. The -Greeks themselves are not, therefore, so numerous as is generally -supposed, but have erroneously been confounded with the others. - -The Armenians, of whom there are 3,500,000 in Turkey, like other -nations, have evinced their pride in national pedigree, by tracing -their origin to Haig, the grandson of Noah, and they call themselves -Haiks even at the present day. - -In the year of the creation of the world, 1757, Jewish chronology, -soon after the flood, and even during the lifetime of Noah, Haig, -or Haicus, with his sons and daughters, resided in the country of -Senaar, in Mesapotamia. - -While they lived in those regions, the famous Tower of Babel was -erected, and the Babylonian Empire was founded by Belus. - -Haig, unwilling to submit to the authority of Belus, returned with -his family, of about 300 persons, to the country of Ararat, where he -incorporated himself with the earliest settlers in those regions, who -had never wandered thence, and retained all the undisciplined habits -and freedom of their utter seclusion from the progress of civilization. - -It is more than probable that he and his descendants continued to -speak the language of their father Noah, and in that case there is no -more ancient tongue than the Armenian. Besides, while the descendants -of Shem and Ham emigrated to other lands, those of Japhet who begat -Gomer who begat Togarmah, the father of Haig remained in the vicinity -of Ararat, and there is no reason to suppose ever changed their -language. The Biblical history records the confusion of languages of -those who were in the land of Shinar. - -The Armenians are as ancient as the Jews, and have ever remained as -separate a people; and even amid all their vicissitudes have preserved -their nationality with equal tenacity. - -But Haig was not left long in quiet, for Belus, fearing that he would -become too powerful a rival, marched against him with his warriors all -clad in iron armour. Yet destiny was about to found a great nation, -and the small band of Haig proved victorious--an arrow from the bow -of Haig, transfixed the proud Belus as he was retiring. Thus was the -first impetus given to this embryo empire. - -Victory and the spoils of war inflamed their breasts and strengthened -their resources; cities were erected, one on the very spot of this -battle. - -Haig was a man of noble appearance, and superior intellect, which -must have had a perfect development during his long life of five -hundred years. - -His immediate descendants built fortified towns, adorned with -palaces, and caravanserais. A very beautiful city was built by -Semiramis, the queen of Babylon, which occupied 12,000 workmen and -600 architects. She was enamored of Arah, the Armenian king, who was -surnamed the Handsome, and being a widow wished to marry him. But he, -disgusted at her demonstrations of excessive fondness, refused the -alliance. The consequence was, that she determined to take him by -force, and marched with her troops into his dominions. - -But all she obtained was the dead body of the beautiful young -Armenian prince, which she endeavored to restore to life by magical -incantations. - -The beauty of the country and her own romantic associations, inspired -her with the desire to erect a monument of her magnificence, and she -founded the city of Shamiram, now called Bitlis, on the borders of -Lake Van, which became ever after her summer residence. - -The Armenians enjoyed a long period of prosperity, waging successful -wars with the Syrians, Medes, Persians, and other neighboring nations, -until they were at last conquered by Alexander the Great, and remained -tributary to him for 176 years, under governors appointed by him and -by his successors the Seleucidć. - -They now changed masters, and enjoyed great prosperity under the -Arsacidć or Parthians who freed them from the Seleucian yoke. - -Their prosperity lasted for 580 years, until internal dissensions -rendered them easy victims to the intrigues of the Greeks and Persians, -who eventually divided this beautiful domain between them. Oppression -of all sorts, spiritual and temporal, now pervaded the once peaceful -and happy homes of this fated race. - -Royal blood could not quench the fire of its rage, profusely shed by -the princes, in defence of their people and religion. Idolatry was -enshrined upon the altars, and the priesthood sacrificed to fire and -tortured upon the rack. - -A temporary relief was afforded to the country by the rise of the -Bagratian princes, who were the descendants of Abraham, and who -first came into Armenia during the captivity of the Jews under -Nebuchadnezzar. - -Bagarat, the founder of this Jewish line of princes, was distinguished -in the reign of Valarsace, and was appointed by him to the hereditary -office of placing the crown upon the king's head, and all his -descendants were known as the Bagratians. Now it happened that Ashot, -one of their number, so pleased the caliph in his administration of the -affairs of his own tribe, that in the year 859 A. D., he appointed him -governor of Armenia, and dispatched Aali-Ermeny, an apostate Armenian, -to invest him with magnificent robes of state. Although the nation -was again restored to comparative tranquillity under this race of -princes, yet internal disunion and foreign oppression did not cease -to harass the country, and the Greeks finally destroyed the Bagratian -monarchy. But Melik-Shah, of Persia, regained his sway over Armenia, -and the power of the Greeks was thenceforth annihilated. - -The Armenian princes of the line of Reuben now governed the country, -and it was during their reign that the Crusaders took Jerusalem; -and while they were besieging Antioch, Constantine, the second of -these Armenian princes, supplied the army with provisions. He was in -return made a marquis, and received the order of knighthood, besides -many valuable presents. This line of princes was extirpated by the -Egyptians, who poured an immense and devastating army into their -country, and after besieging Leo, the last king, for nine months, -took him and all his family to Cairo, with all the royal treasures. - -They remained in prison seven years, because they refused to renounce -Christianity. By the intervention of king Juan, of Spain, they were -set at liberty, and received from him many valuable possessions, -such as houses and lands. - -King Leo even appealed to England and France to assist him in regaining -the throne of Armenia, but without any good success. He died in Paris, -A. D. 1393, and was buried in the convent of Celestine. - -His wife Mary, who belonged to the family of Lewis Charles, king of -Hungary, died at Jerusalem. - -The Armenians next fell into the power of the Ottomans; with their -last king their glory perished. - -The sunrise over Mount Ararat, the meridian brightness over the fairest -portion of Asia, and the last departing rays shed over the regions -of Silicia, are all merged into the dark pages of history--where but -few ever seek to read the tale. - -The ancient religion of the Armenians was that of the Magi, but the -introduction of Christianity among them was coeval with Christ. - -Abgar, one of their kings, having had occasion to send ambassadors to -the Roman general Marinus, in Syria, upon the return of his messengers, -was apprised of the wonderful and miraculous performances of the -Messiah. - -Giving a ready credence to the report that this was indeed the Son of -God, a second embassy was sent to entreat the great healer of the sick -to visit the king Abgar, who was laboring under a distressing malady. - -The letter was as follows: "I have heard that the Jews murmur against -you, and seek to destroy you. I have a small but beautiful city, -which I offer you to partake with me. It is sufficient for us both." - -It is said that the Saviour received this embassy with much -satisfaction, and dictated to the Apostle Thomas this remarkable -reply,--"When I shall rise to my glory, I will send you one of my -disciples, who shall remove your pains, and give life to you and -those around you." - -After the Ascension of Christ, according to his request, Thaddeus, -one of the seventy, was sent to Edessa, who, having instructed the king -in the true faith, baptized him and the citizens of that metropolis. - -The seeds of Christianity were thus early sown in Armenia, still but -little progress was made until the appearance of Gregory of Cesarea, -three centuries later, who created such a revival of this faith, -that he was called the Illuminator, and his followers, the Gregorians. - -The Armenian resembles the Greek church in some respects. They are -both Episcopal in their government. Both acknowledge the Trinity, -and the Immaculacy of the Holy Virgin, and perform the ceremony -of the Lord's supper, or the mass, with even more pomp than the -Catholics. The Armenians believe the divine and human nature of Christ -to be so blended as to form but one; whereas the Greeks declare them -to be entirely separate. Therefore the former, in administering the -Eucharist, use only wine, and unleavened bread, and the latter mingle -water with the wine, and use leaven in the bread. The Armenians, in -case of necessity, partake of the holy sacrament in other Christian -churches, whereas the Greeks acknowledge no church ceremonies as -canonical but their own; always re-baptizing those who may wish to come -under their spiritual jurisdiction. Their manner of signing the cross -even differs, the one making it from left to right, and the other from -right to left. They celebrate the church festivals on different days, -and find many other occasions on which to disagree. - -The Armenians are not, therefore, to be confounded with the Greeks, -nor with that sect called Arminians, or the followers of Arminius, -but as a distinct people, originally inhabiting the country about -Mount Ararat, and professing Christianity at an early period. - -The reason why they are known to the Western nations as the Armenians, -and not by their proper name, Haiks, is, that when Aram, one of -their early kings, and the father of Ara the Handsome, succeeded -to the throne of Armenia, he, by his wisdom and policy, so greatly -extended his dominions, that the power and valor of the nation was -acknowledged from Mount Caucasus to Mount Tauris. This prince first -raised his people to any degree of renown, both by the exercise of -arms and the cultivation of the arts of peace; so that contemporary -nations, in making mention of the actions performed by his subjects, -called them the deeds of the Aramians, or the followers of Aram, a name -which has been corrupted into Armenians; the country which these people -originally inhabited was called by them Haikastan, or Hayasdan, and -those regions which were added to their territories by the conquest of -Prince Aram were called Aramia, or in contradistinction to each other, -the former were called the Greater, and the latter the Lesser Hayasdan, -which the Western nations transcribed as Armenia Major and Minor. - -It will be perceived that they were at one time a very powerful and -flourishing nation, and were the envy of all the neighboring tribes; -facts well authenticated even by Roman historians. - -In the reign of Tigranes, many unfortunate princes, who had fallen -prisoners to the Armenian king, were obliged to stand in his presence -in an attitude of Oriental deference, with arms folded on their -breasts, in token of perfect submission. Four of these wretched -monarchs had also to attend him constantly in their regal robes, and -when he appeared in public on horseback, his royal captives preceded -him on foot. - -Mithridates, the uncle to the king Tigranes, rendered himself no -less glorious. He extended his dominions even to the borders of -Scythia. His subjects and tributaries comprised twenty-two nations; -and it is related that this prince conversed with equal fluency in -all the languages spoken by those peoples. Even Hannibal, the great -Carthaginian general, found an asylum in Armenia. - -In the time of their greatest prosperity, they amounted to 30,000,000 -of souls, but constant wars, with their attendant train of famine, -disease, and death, have sadly diminished their numbers, and reduced -them to less than five millions. - -The depopulated condition of their provinces, and the internal -dissension of their princes, favored the depredatory invasions of -various nations, Romans, Greeks, Persians, Saracens, and Scythians, -or Turks. These last finally crossing over the Caspian Mountains -in hordes, subjugated them, and took possession of their immense -territories, and have ever since held them in bondage. - -The Armenians were the first Christians who were subjugated by -the Mussulmans, and as they were the earliest Christian subjects, -they became, in their mutual relations, the model or measure for -all succeeding conquests; for the Turks, profiting by their first -experience, ever after practised accordingly. - -The conquerors, imbued with a spirit of Islamism, added to their -barbarities a system of religious persecution. The cruelties which -they committed on the inhabitants were horrible in the extreme. Aged -men and women were often tied in pairs, and then together cut in -halves. Pregnant women were frequently ripped open, and their unborn -babes wantonly thrown into the air; infants sucking at the breast were -torn from the arms, and massacred before the eyes of their distracted -mothers, so that human blood flowed in torrents throughout the country, -and well may the Osmanlis of the present day regard the very name of -Turk opprobrious, as it reminds them of former barbarities. - -At last these persecutions and cruelties ceased; for perceiving the -advantages which they might derive from this hardy and industrious -race, and finding them also strong and enthusiastic in their faith, -the persecutors moderated their religious ardor, and adopting a more -politic course, opened negotiations with the Armenians, and willingly -compromised by making them tributaries, with the payment of Kharadj, -or poll tax, as recommended by the Koran; and by kind promises for -the future, their servitude was rendered more tolerable. - -Besides, with the design of ruling them through religions prejudices, -the Armenians were granted the privilege of being governed by one -of their own priesthood, to whom they gave the title of Patrik, -or Patriarch. - -The people being now deprived of all civil rights, regarded this -Patriarch as the sole bond of national unity. - -The Turks, on their part, finding it an easy policy to govern the -mass through one individual, allowed great privileges to this office, -and the free exercise of the principles of their own religion in -its administration. - -The power of the Patriarch was so unlimited, that he could even -levy taxes, punish any person with the bastinado, imprison, or send -into exile. - -National enthusiasm and the politic tolerance of their conquerors, -in the course of time, led the Patriarchs into the abuse of their -privileges. - -Cloaked though they were under the mantle of religion, their despotism -was not always exempt from impunity. For the people, long accustomed -to regard the church apart from temporal authorities, could not brook -such conduct in their high priest, and therefore there has always -been a strife between them and the priesthood. - -The government has sometimes sustained the popular will, and at others, -the rights of the pontiff, as interest or policy required. - -This community constitutes the very life of Turkey, for the Turks long -accustomed to rule rather than serve, have relinquished to them all -branches of industry. Hence the Armenians are the bankers, merchants, -mechanics, and traders of all sorts in Turkey. - -Besides, there exists a congeniality of sentiment and community -of interest between them and the Mussulmans. For, being originally -from the same region, they were alike in their habits and feelings; -therefore, easily assimilating themselves to their conquerors, -they gained their confidence, and became and still are the most -influential of all the rayas. There is not a pasha, or a grandee, -who is not indebted to them, either pecuniarily, or for his promotion, -and the humblest peasant owes them the value of the very seed he sows; -so that without them the Osmanlis could not survive a single day. - -This is a fact so well attested, that Russia, with the design of -undermining Turkey, always endeavored to gain over this part of the -population, and in 1828, when she took possession of Erzeroum, she -enticed the Armenians of that place to acts of violence and revenge -against the Turks, so that when the Russians retired, the Armenians -were obliged to emigrate with them. - -Besides, in the demarcation of her boundaries with Turkey, she so -managed as to embody Etchmiadzin, the see of the high pontiff of the -Armenians, within her own territories, for the express purpose of -governing them through their spiritual head. - -Even the correspondent of the London Morning Post, in speaking of -the corruptions of the country, in his ribaldry, termed the Armenians -the cloaca of Turkey, accusing them of being the means through whom -all the filth passed. - -Naturally endowed with a brave and warlike spirit; of noble and -intelligent appearance, and great athletic vigor, their services have -ever been invaluable to the country; it has only been their protracted -servitude which has reduced them to the timid and cautious temperament -that they now possess. - -Some have even distinguished themselves as statesmen, patriots, and -faithful servants. Had it not been for the good advice and diplomacy -of Abro, or, as he is commonly known to Europe, of Boghos Bey, Mehmed -Aali could not have secured to his heirs the independence of Egypt. - -Again, at the conclusion of the last war with Russia, when Sultan -Mahmoud was writhing under his inability to meet the peremptory -demands of his enemy, an Armenian came to his rescue. - -Kazaz Artyn was a most noted personage of the Armenian nation. Having -risen from the lowest rank in life, he finally became the head of the -Royal Mint, and the friend and factotum of his majesty Sultan Mahmoud, -who never passed a day without seeing him. - -He was so much beloved by his imperial master, that although he was a -giavour, his majesty visited him at his last hours. This condescension -was not only remarkable in the king, but more wonderful in a Mussulman; -for the Koran forbids all intimacy with Christians. "O true believers, -take not the Jews or Christians for your friends; they are friends the -one to the other; but whoso among you taketh them for his friends, -he is surely one of them." This passage explains the antipathy of -the Mohammedans to all Christians, as well as to the institutions -of Christianity. - -Sultan Mahmoud being of an imperious nature, waived such religious -considerations when impelled by gratitude, and no one of the ministry -dared to breathe a censure against the imperial will; for as sultan, -he was not only above the law, but the law itself. Besides, every -one knew the extent of Kazaz Artyn's services to his royal master. - -At the end of the last war, when the Russian indemnities were to be -paid, there was not a single piaster in the treasury. - -The sultan, in despair, shut himself up, and forbade any one to -approach him; but, reckless of consequences, Kazaz Artyn rushed into -the royal presence, and anxiously begged to be informed the cause -of his majesty's grief. "The Muscovite giavours are insisting upon -their indemnities, and I am told the treasury is empty." Whereupon -Kazaz Artyn assured his majesty that their demands should be met, -even on the very next day. - -He accordingly summoned all the bankers, and collected the necessary -funds, which were transmitted to the Russian Embassy to their utter -astonishment, in the course of twenty-four hours. This money remained -at the Russian Embassy, out of which they were accustomed to pay -the salaries of the whole legation, etc. The bankers were afterwards -repaid in beshliks, a species of spurious coin, which are now being -redeemed by the present sultan. - -The cultivation of the arts and sciences were of an early origin with -the Armenians. - -In the reign of Valarsace, the Parthian, 150 B. C. the archives of -Nineveh were searched by Maribas, and made to contribute to the -literature of the nation; and during Arsaces' reign, the city of -Armavir was embellished with several pieces of beautiful statuary, -which were taken from the Greeks. Three, in particular, those of Diana, -Hercules, and Apollo, well executed, brazen and gilt, were from the -hands of the celebrated Cretan artists Scyllis and Dipćnus. - -Duin, Ani, Edessa, and several other cities, were noted for their -architectural beauties, and, considering that Armenia is coeval with -the Babylonian Empire, there is no reason to doubt, that researches -into its territories would be as interesting, as those of Mossoul. - -The Armenians having no alphabet of their own, adopted the characters -of other nations, viz., the Syriac in religious writings, the Greek -in scientific works, and the Persian for statutes of law. But at the -commencement of the 5th century, a monk, Mesrop by name, invented the -present characters, which have been in use ever since. They are neat -in appearance, and capable of representing any articulate sound; thirty -nine in number, and styled by Lord Byron, a Waterloo of an alphabet. - -There is no doubt that they early possessed some literature of -their own, prior to the invention of their alphabet, for even the -writings of Eusebius were originally discovered in the archives of the -Armenians. Many very eminent works, generally in MSS. on martyrology -and the affairs of the church, are still extant, and it is reported -that the old monasteries in Armenia contain records of history, which, -if brought to light, would prove great additions to the annals of -very ancient times. - -They boast of classic authors, to whom Lord Byron alludes in eulogistic -terms, and the works of Moses of Khoren, which have been translated, -are highly appreciated by the literati of Europe. - -The Armenians of the present day are also many of them distinguished -for their acquisitions in both Armenian and Turkish literature; and -so great is their aptitude for acquiring languages, that they are -often well versed in the various dialects of Europe. Even the children -are in the daily habit of speaking three different languages, viz., -Turkish, Armenian, and Greek. - -In their domestic relations, living in constant intercourse with the -Osmanlis, and the lapse of time throwing the veil of oblivion over -their past sufferings, all their habits of life and general ideas have -become assimilated to those of their masters, with those distinctions -only, which result from the tenets of their faith. Self-respect has -forced them to seclude their women from the public, and hence they -have the same domestic arrangements, style of dress, etc., as those -of the Osmanlis. - -Their social institutions, like other Orientals, are very patriarchal, -every man being a monarch in his own family, and the children are -educated to observe the greatest deference and respect to their -parents. No son or daughter ever dreams of contracting a marriage on -their own responsibility, but the destined bride is selected by the -mother and her friends, and is thankfully accepted by the happy son. - -The betrothal having been arranged with all due ceremony, the -wedding takes place at the appointed time. The marriage ceremonies -are celebrated both at the house of the bride and of the bridegroom -during three days. - -The bride is conducted by the bridegroom and his friends to the house -of her intended husband, and the ceremony is performed on Sunday -at midnight. - -The bride, muffled and tinselled, is conducted to a carpet in the -middle of the saloon, where she is placed opposite to the chosen -bridegroom. Their right hands are joined by the officiating priest, and -they are severally demanded whether they will "love, cherish, and honor -each other." The man is also asked, as he stands opposite to this mass -of shawls and tinsel, "will you take this girl, whether she be lame, or -deaf, or humped, or blind," to which he responds with due resignation, -"even so I will take her." A silken cord, twisted of two colors, is -now tied round the head of each, and after a long service, reading of -prayers and chanting, the happy pair are pronounced man and wife! The -bride, over whose varying emotions during the interesting ceremonies -an impenetrable veil was suspended, is now led by two attendants to -a corner of the sofa, where she is temporarily enthroned on a cushion. - -The propitious moment has at last arrived, and the legalized husband -may ascertain for himself the measure of charms to which he is -allied. While the agitated maiden sits, oppressed by shawls and -tinsel, and internal anxiety as to the effect she may produce upon -her future lord, he slowly approaches, pale and tottering--for he -has sworn to have her, blind or hump-backed. With such alternatives, -even a moderate share of good-looks, or the mere absence of actual -deformity, would almost constitute beauty. - -The attendant bridemaids exultingly raise the veil, and the new husband -ventures to take one look of love and admiration, in return for which -he places a valuable ring on her finger, and slowly retreats to muse -upon his fate, which is not often so deplorable, for the Armenian -girls are generally pretty. At all events, he submits with the best -grace, for, unlike his Mohammedan compatriots, he has no retrieve or -door of escape, but must abide by his bargain "till death us do part." - -The veil is again dropped, and the bride left to her own meditations. - -She receives presents from all the guests, so that the tickets of -admission to an Armenian wedding are no trivial affairs to one's -pockets. - -Three days after the ceremony, the newly married couple are at length -left to a better acquaintance, unmolested by veils or spectators. - -The Sunday following, the bridegroom proceeds to his father-in-law's -house, to acknowledge his gratitude for the possession of such a -charming treasure, etc., all which is expressed by the ceremony of -kissing the hands of the parents of the maiden, and this Sunday is -called, par excellence, the "Kissing Sunday." - -These are the real Armenians; but about a hundred and fifty years -ago there was a secession in favor of Catholicism. The Catholic -Armenians, of whom there are about fifteen thousand in the metropolis, -and seventy-five thousand throughout Turkey, although distinct from -the Roman Catholics, have assimilated themselves, in many respects, -to European habits; forgetting their nationality and language, and -aping customs and usages they do not even understand; so much so, -that a very amusing work has been written in Armeno-Turkish under the -title of Acaby, as a burlesque upon such inclinations. They are not, -therefore, to be confounded with the orthodox Armenians. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVI. - -THE GREEKS. - - -The Greeks, who sent the trophies of their versatile genius, their -graceful architectural adornings, and exquisite paintings to the -temples at Rome, and over the western world, whose classic lore is -yet the theme and model of the learned, once gloried in the possession -of the proud Stamboul. - -About a century after its foundation by Constantine, it is said -to have possessed "a capital, a school of learning, a circus, -two theatres, eight public and one hundred and fifty-three private -baths, fifty-two porticoes, five granaries, eight aqueducts of water, -four spacious halls of justice, fourteen churches, fourteen palaces, -and four thousand and three hundred and eighty-eight houses, which, -for their size and beauty, deserved to be distinguished from the -multitude of plebeian habitations." - -The magnificent temple Ayia-Sophia, dedicated to the Goddess of Divine -Wisdom, rose like a Phoenix from its ruins, under the liberal patronage -of Justinian, and the assiduous labors of ten thousand workmen during -five years, eleven months, and ten days. - -This was the shrine of the Greek Faith, and those walls glittering -with golden mosaic and precious stones, re-echoed the Kyrie eleęson -of the adoring Christians. The magnificent altar of precious metals -and glittering gems witnessed the prostrations of patriarchs and -their acolyths--and the impenetrable veil was suspended before the -Holy of Holies. - -The great city was the arena for the sports of the pleasure-loving -Greeks; sometimes in the race of wild beasts with each other, and -again in the more terrible contests of the gladiators. - -The Bosphorus was alive with human freight, youths and maidens, wooed -by its blue and sparkling waves, delighted to dream of love as they -glided over the gently-heaving waters. - -The shores were gay and gladsome, as the enamored throng tripped -through the mazes of their fantastic Romaica to the tinkling music. But -the Grecian prince is hurled from his throne, and the grave and sombre -Moslem sits there, the despot and bloody conqueror. The great temple, -which rivalled even that of Solomon, is suddenly divested of the -symbols of a Christian faith. Its mosaics of the saints which adorn -the walls are obliterated, its cherubim are torn down, its altar -demolished, and nothing left of all the gorgeous decorations. The -bare, unadorned niche--the mihrab or index to the temple of Mohammed, -is instituted, and "Allah-il-Allah," is henceforth the cry of the -Faithful. - -Yet, they say, the distant chant of the last officiating priest of -the Greek religion still lingers within the walls, from whence he -will issue when the edifice is restored to its original worship. - -Sports are over--maidens and youths are coy of their charms, for a -change has come over the spirit of their dreams. - -The liberty of woman is shackled, and the dominion of seclusion -established. Certain quarters of the city are assigned to the Greek -subjects--and externally their very dwellings assume the dusky tints -of bondage and ruin. - -Truly their glory has departed, and their name as a nation is only -sustained by the shades of their ancient heroes, who even after their -last degenerate descendant has mouldered into dust, will continue -to flit around the civilized world, scattering the scintillations -of early genius amid earth's darkness. Yet, as it is their nature to -boast, they point into the past, and even one day hope to sit on the -throne of their ancestors eis tin polin of yore. - -There are no less than a million and a half of Greeks in the Turkish -dominions, of whom 150,000 live in the capital. At the time of their -conquest, the Turks allowed them the same municipal immunities and -privileges as they had done to the Armenians. - -As the Greeks seemed to approximate more nearly to the western nations -in their habits, than any of the other rayahs, the Osmanlis supposed -them more fitted to act as intermediaries between themselves and the -European states; they therefore became the first interpreters of the -Divan. Many of their number have thus risen to wealth and distinction, -and after long services they even succeeded to the government of the -Danubian Principalities--yet the Osmanlis have never felt the same -sympathy and confidence towards them as for the Armenians, who, though -not so advanced in civilization, possess better stamina of character, -greater honesty, and more congeniality of temperament. Many Greeks, -even now, occupy places of trust, which are confided to them rather -from political motives than as marks of peculiar confidence. The -office of saraf or banker, which is equivalent to homme de confiance, -has never been successfully filled by them, though attempts have been -made to do so; this post has invariably been assigned to the Armenians. - -It is customary with the Osmanli grandee, when appointed to some -high station in the provinces, before their departure, to leave with -their banker a certain number of blanks to be filled by him whenever -occasion should require their use. And many even entrust their personal -property to the sarafs on their pilgrimage to Mecca, for safe keeping. - -One of the principal dignitaries of the present day, who is reputed -for his irascible temper, was some years ago involved in a dilemma. One -of his attendants was found to be guilty of a liaison with a slave in -his harem. The circumstances were aggravating, and his pride could -not be satisfied, save by dire revenge; and the two, instead of -being married, according to the custom of the country, fell victims -to his fury. But after the commission of the rash act, he repented, -and began to fear the disgrace which would probably fall on himself. - -In his perplexity he sent for his old Armenian saraf, and when -closeted with him, poured his sorrows into the bosom of his confidant, -relating to him the whole circumstance, weeping bitterly for his act, -and asking advice and consolation. - -Now, no Osmanli has as yet evinced such confidence and sympathy -towards the Greeks. - -Besides, the pride of the Mussulmans is not compromised in associating -with the Armenians, who are so much like their masters in manners and -language, that often it is impossible to detect any difference. On the -contrary, although some of the Greeks have distinguished themselves in -Oriental literature, especially Yacobaky, in his History of Russia, -written in elegant Turkish, yet they have never been able to speak -the language of the country correctly. - -The moment they open their mouths, out leaps the native accent. This -is equally true of the French and other languages, and even their own -beautiful Hellenic can scarce ever be heard in Stamboul, a miserable, -mongrel island dialect being the substitute. - -The character of the Greeks of Constantinople is thus admirably -portrayed by the author of Anastasius, the best work extant on Turkey. - -"The complexion of the modern Greek may receive a different cast -from different surrounding objects; the core still is the same -as in the days of Pericles. Credulity, versatility, and thirst -of distinction, from the earliest periods formed, still form, and -ever will continue to form, the basis of the Greek character; and -the dissimilarity in the external appearance of the nation arises, -not from any radical change in its temper and disposition, but only -from the incidental variation in the means through which the same -propensities are to be gratified. The ancient Greeks worshipped a -hundred gods, the modern Greeks adore as many saints. The ancient -Greeks believed in oracles and prodigies, in incantations and spells; -the modern Greeks have faith in relics and miracles, in amulets and -divinations. The ancient Greeks brought rich offerings and gifts to -the shrines of their deities, for the purpose of obtaining success -in war, and pre-eminence in peace; the modern Greeks hang up dirty -rags round the sanctuaries of their saints, to shake off an ague, -or propitiate a mistress. The former were staunch patriots at home, -and subtle courtiers in Persia; the latter defy the Turks in Mayno, -and fawn upon them at the Fanar. Besides, was not every commonwealth -of ancient Greece as much a prey to cabals and factions as every -community of modern Greece? Does not every modern Greek preserve -the same desire for supremacy, the same readiness to undermine, by -every means, fair or foul, his competitors, which was displayed by his -ancestors? Do not the Turks of the present day resemble the Romans of -past ages in their respect for the ingenuity, and at the same time, -in their contempt for the character of their Greek subjects? And does -the Greek of the Fanar show the least inferiority to the Greek of -the Pirćus in quickness of perception, in fluency of tongue, and in -fondness for quibbles, for disputation, and for sophistry? Believe me, -the very difference between the Greeks of time past and of the present -day arises only from their thorough resemblance, from that equal -pliability of temper and of faculties in both, which has ever made -them receive, with equal readiness, the impression of every mould, -and the impulse of every agent. When patriotism, public spirit, and -pre-eminence in arts, science, literature, and warfare were the road -to distinction, the Greeks shone the first of patriots, of heroes, of -painters, of poets, and of philosophers. Now that craft and subtlety, -adulation, and intrigue, are the only paths to greatness, these same -Greeks are--what you see them!" - -Although the Armenians have borne the first impetus of Mussulman -fanaticism, and consequently suffered more than any other Christian -subjects, yet the Greeks excel them in their animosity towards their -conquerors. - -This is owing to their excessive bigotry, and it is recorded that -even while the enemy was before the gates of Constantinople, they -were discussing the great question, whether the Holy Ghost proceeded -from the Father or the Son. - -This disposition to cavil on religious points, has made them a ready -prey to the domineering priesthood who have completely swayed the -multitude. These priests being a mean and grovelling set, utterly -indifferent to the moral elevation of their people, are ever ready -to make traffic of the sins of those who are still more ignorant -than themselves; the consequence is, that lying, cheating, stealing, -and other immoralities to any extent, are very common among this -community, for a few piastres, or even paras, cancel the crime and -lull the conscience. - -The whole community suffers from such a system, as business and other -necessities bring them into constant contact. - -The servants are generally Greek, and there is no virtue in lock -and key in any house. You suddenly find your wardrobe emptied by -imperceptible degrees, and the jars of preserves gradually diminish, -as they are repeatedly licked and sleeked over again. - -Divorces are easily obtained, or they are granted after the priest -has extorted the last para he can from the applicant. - -The corruption of the masses through their spiritual leaders is -painfully evident. The most dire superstition rules every mind, -and the veriest knaves, and even prostitutes, follow their injurious -callings without compunction, if under the patronage of one of their -saints. Christos kai Panayiaumo is an expiatory charm, and the dingy -portrait of any saint in the calendar annihilates the bad effects of -every crime. The most abandoned class of women are generally Greeks; -and while they perform the obscene rites of Bacchus and Venus, they -watch with holy trembling the twinkling taper which burns night and -day before the anointed picture of their guardian angel. This flame, -like the Vestal fire, is never suffered to go out, if perchance, -Dii avertite omen! - -The Greek islands furnish a miserable set of men and women to the -population of Turkey, who come to gather spoils in the metropolis, and -then return to enjoy them at home. Robberies, and even assassinations -are committed by them, which, if they are detected, are either -protected by the Greek legation, or punished by a short imprisonment, -and then the miscreants are again let loose, hardened in crime, -and thirsting to revenge their temporary detention. - -It is only within the last two years, that a famous bandit, in -the vicinity of Smyrna, has been captured. Katurjy Yanny and his -merry men had long infested the neighboring mountains, detaining -gentlemen on their travels, carrying them blindfolded to their den, -and only liberating them upon the receipt of a handsome ransom -from their friends. The eagle of the mountain was at last caged in -the humble prison of Smyrna. While other miserable victims were -peeping through their latticed and iron bound casements, whining -out a feeble cry for alms, he, the proud chieftain, sat upon a -sofa, dressed in the picturesque costume of the Greek mountaineer, -his eyes flashing defiance, and his lofty bearing all princely, -as he puffed his narghillé, and chatted with those about him. But -he must now feel somewhat crest-fallen, as day succeeds day, and he -still dwells within the awful precincts of the Bagnio, whence, like -the rest of its miserable occupants, the once proud Katurgy Yanny, -sometimes emerges, broom in hand, and chained to his fellow, to sweep -the streets of the metropolis. - -The restless temperament and fanaticism of the Greeks have ever made -them the most turbulent of the Ottoman subjects, and ready instruments -in the hands of Russian diplomatists for sowing the seeds of discord -and confusion in the Turkish empire. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVII. - -THE JEWS. - - -The Jews of Turkey, of whom there are about 170,000, are by no means -exempt from the sorrows and curses of their race. As if conscious that -there is no escape from the contempt of the rest of the world, they -are willing to undertake the meanest of earth's callings, literally to -"eat the dirt" of their Moslem masters. - -Content to appear like the refuse of humanity, they strive to -accumulate the miser's hoards, and receive the buffetings and cursings -of their neighbors as if they were choice blessings--usury of all -sorts, whether upon sequins or old clothes, peddling the meanest of -wares in the streets, rag-picking, and filth-gathering in general, -are their means of earning a livelihood. - -The venerated names of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, are almost needless, -or seldom heard--for the one comprehensive word Yahoudy (Jew) is the -nomenclature of the whole remnant of the chosen people. Yahoudy come, -and Yahoudy go, are the summons and dismissal--while the rabble boys -mockingly shout Tchefut, and snatch some fragment of their tattered -garments. - -Public sentiment having stigmatized them as utterly depraved, they -have no incentive to honesty, and not daring enough to commit any -atrocious crime, they become more expert in petty larcenies and like -misdemeanors. They are even accused of stealing a Christian child -once a year, in order to mingle its blood in their festivals, as a -retaliation upon the Christians in general. - -This, of course, refers to the mass, who, victims as they are to misery -of all sorts, cannot be expected to practice the kindlier virtues which -distinguish those among them to whom a better fate has been allotted. - -There was a celebrated Armenian banker, Tcharazly, who, having fallen -under the displeasure of a certain Turkish grandee, was suddenly one -day seized and hung before the door of his own dwelling; his property -confiscated, and his only son cast into prison. - -A certain Jewish banker, Shabgee by name, had long been the friend -and neighbor of this family; and now, in the time of their trouble, -he spared nothing for the liberation of the unfortunate young man, -the son of his friend; which, he not only succeeded in obtaining, -but reinstated him in all the honors of which he was the lawful heir. - -The Jews are to be found in many villages on the Bosphorus, though -their principal quarter is at Balat, on the Golden Horn. They live -also in other parts of the city, but as may naturally be inferred, -in such places as no one else would inhabit. - -Their houses are like bee-hives, literally swarming with human -life; even one single room serves for the only home of several -families--and the streets of their quarters are almost impassable, -from the collection of garbage and all sorts of refuse, which are -indiscriminately thrown from the windows of their dwellings. Their -misery may partly be attributed to their practice of very early -marriages, as before a man is twenty-one years of age he is burdened -with the care and support of a numerous family, which reduces him to -such poverty, that even the meanest economy can scarcely enable him to -support his own existence and that of the helpless beings dependent on -him. The exactions of the Khakhams or priests, which are very great, -help also to impoverish this pitiable people. It is no wonder, -then, that they appear in rags and tatters--and herd together in -styes--yet it is most amusing to see them on a Jewish Sabbath. The -filthy gabardines which they wore in the week, as they exercised -their various callings, being laid aside, and bright and gaudy finery -substituted, in which they strut about the streets, seeming to be other -beings, and to have no relation to the wretches of yesterday. But, of -course, in such a population there will be various grades of misery, -and a few families of wealth are to be found among them. - -They have some of the domestic institutions of the Osmanlis, and the -women wear thick white veils, but without concealing the features, -as in the case of the Turkish ladies. The young virgins are allowed -to wear their hair long and flowing--but after marriage it is -carefully concealed beneath a towering and cumbersome headgear, -which is a wonderful illustration of the tenacity with which this -singular race adheres to ancient usages. It recalls to mind the days -of Pharaoh and the people of Israel, for the similarity is perfect -between their present head-dress and that of the mummies who have -reposed in their tombs ever since the family of Joseph "took their -cattle and their goods, which they had gotten in the land of Canaan, -and came into Egypt, Jacob and all his seed with him." - -As they were originally from Spain, their language is still a mongrel -dialect of that country. - -They are very strict in the observance of their religious rites -and ceremonies--never transacting any business on the Sabbath, nor -performing any domestic duties. Even their lamps on Sabbath evenings -must be lighted by some one of their Christian neighbors--and should a -conflagration occur on that day, their helplessness is truly pitiable, -for they will see all their property consumed without making one -effort to save it. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVIII. - -PERA AND THE PEROTES, OR FRANKS. - - -At the time that the Turks took Constantinople, there was a colony of -Genoese Venetians established in a suburb of the city, called Galata, -who were allowed to retain this quarter, which occupies the declivity -of the hill with the summit called Pera, where the European emigrants, -attracted by commerce and other motives, as well as the foreign -dignitaries, have ever since continued to reside. The warehouses of -the merchants are at Galata, which is connected with the city by a -floating bridge across the Golden Horn. - -A little above Galata, on the Bosphorus, is a Turkish quarter called -Top-hané, or the department of ordnance, through which access -is usually obtained to Pera. The most busy and varied scene is -constantly presented to the eye at this quay. The graceful cayiks -with their delicately pointed prows lie on all sides, some waiting -for the convenience of passengers, and others engaged in disembarking -their living freight. It is wonderful to observe the dexterity of -cayikgees. Now, a single boatman pushes up his slender craft, and -succeeds in gaining just space enough to slip in, so closely packed -are the boats all around. It may be some lonely veiled woman who is -safely landed. Anon arrives the large omnibus cayik, as completely -stored with live stock as the New York avenue cars on a Sunday. - -The boatmen vociferate, and shove alongside in spite of all their -competitors; the motley group of passengers, Mussulmans, Armenians, -Greeks, Jews, Franks, all huddled together, move not, speak not, -but fasten their eyes upon the shore, with the firm conviction, -that as they were safely landed the day before, they will be equally -successful to-day. A prolonged, shrill musical cry, ya-lu-nuz! hushes -every other sound; there is a simultaneous movement among the cayiks, -a moment's pause in the hurrying crowd on shore, as way is made for -the embassy boat with its gilded prow, flying colors, and five pair -of oars. The Eltchy-Bey! is whispered from ear to ear. - -Even the beautiful canopied boat of the sultan sometimes passes this -way; propelled by twenty-eight men, it rapidly glides over the waters, -with the regular music of the plashing oars. The cannon peals forth -a royal salute from the shore, and the landing of Top-hané resumes -its bustling appearance. - -Thousands of men, women, and children, are daily landed here, of every -rank and clime, and doubtless, in each bosom one similar emotion, -for a moment displaces all others: gratitude for the footing gained; -then rushes in the vast tide of human hopes, cares and anxieties. The -platform upon which they step, is wretchedly out of repair; the keahya, -who gains a slender pittance by holding the boats from which so many -are safely landed, is invariably a trembling old man; and as the crowd -necessarily jostle each other, it is astonishing that there are so -few accidents. But Oriental self-possession has its careful measured -gait, and it is rarely that any stumble, though Turkish indifference -leaves cracks, crevices, and chasms in yawning boldness. There is -a large open area, just after you land; apparently Nature's great -warehouse, solid ground for a foundation and the vault of heaven for -a roofing. Along the shore lie numberless small coasters, whose crews -and cargoes are alike begrimed with darkness, for they have come down -from the Black Sea to supply the city with charcoal, the ordinary fuel; -and immense piles of wood proclaim the demolition of forests of trees. - -There, too, is a great market place, or rather a centre of attraction -to the venders of various merchandise, whom time and custom have -established in their prerogatives, for there is no building whatever -for the convenience or protection of this sort of commerce. Here, then, -in the open air, are butchers, green-grocers, fishmongers, bakers, -fruiterers, and basket-makers, an epitome of practical life. But here -too, is the mosque, the minaré, and the fountain, carrying away in -its limped flowing, impurities both spiritual and physical. - -This fountain is a beautiful specimen of Oriental architecture. It is -an edifice about 30 feet square, built of pure white marble. Beneath -the cornice which surrounds the roof is a border of arabesque -characters, richly gilt, and from each side the water flows into a -marble basin. - -Not far from this fountain is a cluster of small shops, for the sale -of Kebabs, tobacco, bonbons, and also many small Kahvés. - -The Kebabs are small pieces of mutton, passed on iron skewers, -and roasted over fires of ignited charcoal, and, though the -establishments are small, they are constantly filled with groups, -who surrounding the copper dishes, seem to attest the excellence of -the viands. After satisfying the more imperative calls of nature, a -visit to the tetune-gee, or tobacco merchant, is inevitable; for not -to mention the almost hourly use of the far-famed weed, this luxury -must always succeed every other repast. Then a moment of kief at -the coffee shop, the fumes of the chibouque, a sip of mocha's berry, -a little neighborly chit-chat, or it may be a business rendezvous, -and you are ready to proceed up the steep hill to Pera. Some mount -their own horses, which the grooms hold in attendance, others avail -themselves of the more jaded looking animals who are waiting to be -hired, and sometimes the Turkish ladies,--rather antiquities of the -species, deliberately mount the leather hunch on the Hamal's back, and -they too ride up, while others still are obliged, either from a lack -of a like independence, or other stringent motives, to go on Shank's -mare. Those who do not ascend the hill, disperse in various directions -through the many narrow by-ways which diverge from the great area. - -Pera is the Elysium of shop-keepers, the very essence of ŕ la Franga, -the Bey-oghlu or dwelling-place of Princes, the rendezvous of Ministers -Plenipotentiary, Ministers resident, Consular dignitaries, secretaries -of Legations, Dragomans, Attachés, and all the élite of society--a -swarming hive of Diplomacy--only get inside of the hive, even as drone, -and you are comme il faut. There is a certain imposing, mysterious, -impenetrable air about every member of this haute noblesse--each one -is full of importance, each one is condescending to the other; all -are on the qui vive for a stray word, an echo of the all-important -diplomatic measures of their rivals; all are cautious not to betray -by look or action any embryo intrigues or manoeuvres. Thus social -intercourse consists of gracious words, unmeaning civilities, and -mutual distrust and suspicion. - -Those who have been born in Pera, and others who have been bred -there, have one and all become so very diplomatic that conversation -ordinarily dwindles into monosyllables, general inquiries after health, -and prognostics of the weather. - -The simplest question is regarded by them as an inquisitive intrusion -upon their prerogatives and peculiar sphere, so that, not to exceed the -bounds of decorum, absolute silence becomes the only alternative. But -when any sudden change takes place in the Turkish administration, or -a new public measure is adopted, there is a jubilee in this social -clique--for the discussion of the pros and cons, probabilities and -possibilities, are talked over until the original theme is lost sight -of, and all the excitement subsides--unless something else turns up -at the Porte. - -Intermarriage has produced a race of Perotes who never having had the -benefit of finding their proper level by contact with a more elevated -and extended sphere, consider themselves the very salt of civilization, -and are even more afraid than the members of the Legations themselves, -of mingling in general society. - -The honorable distinction of being a Perote, does not only depend upon -birth, but a still more essential point is allegiance to the Catholic -religion. For the embassies under whose wings these colonies first -sheltered themselves were the representatives of Catholic nations. The -Oriental principle that religion and nationality are synonymous, -had its effect even on this mongrel race; who, by degrees came to -consider Catholicity as also identical with Europeanism. - -Enjoying peculiar immunities as protégés of these embassies, in their -imagined superiority, as Catholics, to all around them, they regarded -the rest of their fellow citizens with even greater contempt than the -Mohammedans felt towards the Giavours. This soi-disant aristocracy -is not confined to Pera, but is to be found scattered throughout the -Levant, at Smyrna and other commercial ports. - -Ignorance of the language of the country where they are born is -considered only a proof of their superiority to the other nations; but -for their ignorance of all languages and miserable mongrel dialect -called lingua Franca, we can find no excuse either aristocratic -or diplomatic. - -This lingua Franca is a corrupted dialect of the Greek language, -interlarded with French and Italian; and in writing the Roman -characters are substituted for the Hellenic, as being more -distingués. Even family names have been modified so as to ignore any -traces of parentage--such as Sazan Oghlou into Salsani, and Zipgy -Oghlou into Zipcy, etc. - -When the foreign ambassadors first became residents of Pera, as long -ago as the days of Suleyman, they found this mixed people apparently -a connecting link between the East and the West; and being themselves -then ignorant of Oriental peculiarities, and the languages of Stamboul, -they were glad to receive these Perotes as employés, dragomans, etc. - -Thus, by degrees, they became a sort of necessary evil to the foreign -diplomatists. - -Greater familiarity with the country, and still more, a just -appreciation of these aspirants to aristocratic honors and functions, -has, however, of late years, opened the eyes of the foreign -representatives; and each embassy is now furnished with employés -from the home government--consequently, the Perotes are now decidedly -below par. - -Adventurers, who, in their own lands, would never be heard of, in Pera -become the guests of ambassadors and statesmen, and aping the airs and -manners of their distinguished patrons, manage to pass current. Women -at every other word murdering their mother tongues, are transformed -into ladies of quality in the palaces of the representatives of their -respective sovereigns. - -But these are trifling matters. The outcasts of European society -here find a safe retreat, and are even protected in their outrages, -while the various protégés of the different Legations, natives and -foreigners, constitute a privileged community. - -Russia has endeavored to increase her own power by inducing the -rayas to adopt her protection, in order to secure any claims whatever -against either Turks or Christians. - -"The most desperate ruffians of Southern Europe are in Turkey under -British, Austrian, French, or Greek protection. The English give -impunity to Ionians and Maltese; Austria has her Croats; French -passports screen a crowd of Levantines, whose professed attachment -to Catholicism is allowed to be the cloak to any knavery; while -Greece and Naples send a contingent whose character may be easily -imagined. While the worst of them have protection for delinquencies, -the whole enjoy immunities of the most unjust kind. - -"They can only be sued in the consular courts of their own -country. They pay less taxes than their neighbors, and in some places -none at all. They are wholly beyond the jurisdiction of the Porte, -while for all claims on the government, or on Turkish subjects -they can bring into play the whole machinery of their embassy. Each -representative is almost bound to make every private complaint an -affair of state, and, in fact the real or nominal Austrian, Briton, -or Frenchman, practically turns the diplomatists of his sovereign -into his own special attorneys whenever he pleases." - -This picture is not too highly drawn, and shows that if the Mussulmans -need reforms, the nominal Frank population are in a somewhat similar -category. - -The effect which has been produced upon the minds of the Osmanlis by -such specimens of civilized Europeans has certainly not been favorable; -and it is to be hoped that more extended intercourse with Europe will -counteract these influences. - -The Diplomatic corps and the Perotes, though the Upper Tendom, and -codfish aristocracy of Pera, are by no means the greater part of -the population. - -English, Americans, French, Germans, Greeks, Armenians, and even -Moslems, reside there, preferring the bustle and public amusements -which are to be secured, to the quiet atmosphere of Stamboul. The -opera house and the fashionable emporiums of commerce have their -attractions. On a Friday, it is amusing to see the crowds of Turkish -women in the different shops, relentlessly handling the merchandize to -the infinite annoyance of the proprietors themselves, who are not so -patient as the merchants of the Bazaars. Often the most extravagant -prices are paid for trifling articles of luxury, by the Osmanlis of -wealth, who, even in this sort of trade, seem to feel that everything -ŕ la Franca must cost them dear. - -The modistes have grown rich by selling them feathers, flowers, -and haberdashery, and the confiseurs have exchanged their honeyed -stores for bags of Turkish gold. There is a great fondness for dress -in the population of Pera, and the balls, soirees and reunions are -so numerous that many shopkeepers, having reaped a rich harvest, have -retired from business. Feast days and holidays, which are so frequent, -require their appropriate garb, and the Carnival, its masquerades -and costumes de bal. - -All the people, high and low, are determined to dress well, and -display their toilets, so that the marts of fashion and luxury are -never deserted. - -The great rendezvous for these happy souls, when their supremest -efforts in outward adorning are accomplished, is the Grand champ -des Morts. Whither they resort in crowds, and sit among the verdure -that springs from the dust of their ancestors, the white tombstones, -the only records of those who once walked in their midst! Occasional -funeral trains, slowly moving towards the newly opened graves, and -the mournful strains of the requiems of the dead, do not distract -the thoughts of those who are bent in chasing the shadows of Time, -even while the realities of Eternity are passing in review before them, -and the very spectres of the tombs seem ready to burst their cerements, -and start up in mocking derision. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIX. - -THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE PEOPLE. - - -As in every country there ate two classes, viz., the aristocracy and -the people, so in Turkey, there are the Kibars and the Nass. - -Aristocracy may everywhere be sub-divided into the aristocracies of -birth, of letters, wealth and position. - -In Turkey, all hereditary rank is vested solely in the person of -the sultan; titles are conferred at his sovereign will and pleasure, -and they do not descend from father to son. - -There is not, therefore, a regular or systematic aristocracy, and -the spirit of democracy is there very evident. - -Although the Osmanlis hold all learning in great respect, yet -Turkish literature having hitherto been confined to the Koran and -its commentaries, the aristocracy of letters has consequently been -constituted by the expounders of the faith, who arrogate to themselves -the modest appellative of Ulema, or savans. Nevertheless, the people -have the greatest reverence and consideration for Zadés, or those -who are the descendants of illustrious and enlightened parents. - -L'argent fait tout is known and acknowledged by all the world; and -wealth is everywhere the great highway to power and distinction; -elevating its possessor above the common herd. But the love of -riches usually begets the love of power; for, N'est on que riche, -on veut ętre grand, this is most evident in a country where the great -tenure by which individual wealth is preserved and personal respect -commanded, is official authority. Hence no Osmanli is contented, -however great his wealth, without some civil function by which he can -avert the overbearing disposition of his rivals. Indeed, so great is -their ambition for supremacy, that wealth and everything else is but -secondary in their estimation. - -Therefore the only aristocracy in Turkey is that of wealth combined -with position. - -It is not generally merit that raises a man to power in any part -of the world, but still less in Turkey. No matter what his previous -avocations, or utter ignorance, it is supposed that when Allah, or -his proxy, the Padishah, gives the office, that within the turban of -distinction lie all the sense and wit needed for the post! Hence, -what if the cobbler become the pasha, or the shop-boy Grand Vezir, -Allah Kerim! - -This a country where versatility of talent is very remarkable, if -not great depth of genius; for one day a man may be head cook to -his majesty, the next a captain pasha, or minister of finance! Thus -are often realized the tales of the Arabian Nights, and the humblest -subject may dream of greatness, and wake to find himself a Redjal, -or grandee of the realm. - -Indeed the only real statesmen and true patriots may be reduced to -few individuals, all told, viz., Reshid, Aali, Fuad, Riza, Rifaat, -and Omer Pashas. - -Besides, those who have been long employed as servants of the palace, -or have proved themselves cunning buffoons, or able intriguers, are -rewarded by some official post instead of a royal pension, provided -they are of the Faithful. For elevation to office is the privilege of -the Mussulmans only, who, considering themselves lords of the soil, -as they are the proprietors, are unwilling to consign their rights to -their rayas, on the principle that "to the victors belong the spoils." - -The very existence of the rayas has rendered the Osmanlis proud and -arrogant in their peculiar right as Mussulmans; and, though holding -all high places themselves, they have been willing to call in the -assistance of their subjects in secondary employments. The rayas -thus employed, are, of course, but a small proportion of the whole; -to all the rest life dwindles into a tinkering, jobbing affair. - -This mushroom aristocracy, which was formerly ephemeral, like Jonas' -gourd, springing suddenly into existence, coming to maturity in an -incredibly short space of time, then perishing ere the sun of its -glory arrived at meridian height, has now, by virtue of the Tanzimat, -which secures the enjoyment of life and property, attained a sort -of permanency. - -These officials being originally of the people, it may be supposed, -would feel some sympathy for them; but the moment they come into power, -they become an exclusive class. Because in Turkey the patriarchal -idea that everything belongs to the sovereign, has led them to regard -the government as not made for the people, but the people for the -government; they think, therefore, that all advantages should accrue -not to the governed but to the governing, thus reducing the mass -into the state of individual nonentities, or mere conduits for the -resources of the empire. The persons in authority seek, therefore, only -the prosperity of the government, and constitute, as it were, a sort -of fiscal administration, rather than one mindful of the good of the -commonwealth. Hence, whenever a project of public utility is proposed, -the first idea that crosses the mind of a Turkish functionary, is what -direct advantage may accrue to the government? With such perverted -ideas, the aristocracy, who are termed par excellence the Kibars, -though few in numbers, are like leaven to the whole mass; domineering, -exciting, and often corrupting the best materials; and as men are -creatures of circumstances, their moral and temporal conditions -are but the results of the good or bad government under which they -live. The evils, corruptions, and miseries existing in a community, -are not therefore to be attributed to the mass indiscriminately, -but rather to the influences that surround them. - -Baluk bashdan Kokar is a common proverb with the Osmanlis, or as is -the fountain so will be the streams which flow from it; therefore -a government which exercises its prerogatives to revenge, not to -punish; to remove the offender, not to benefit others by making an -example of him; to deal death-blows to all who stand in the way; -to encourage self-aggrandizement rather than study the wants of the -community; to prefer the intriguant before the patriot; to patronize -the buffoon rather than the statesman; such a government cannot fail -to stamp its sanguinary and arbitrary character upon its subjects. - -A country where the insidious poison is ever at hand, and where -the innocent and new-born infant who may endanger the heirs to the -throne is forced to yield the life it has but just received; in such -a land the same scenes will be enacted in its darkest corners, and -the peasant will mimic the lord as far as he dares. - -The selfish and corrupt principles of the government have naturally -had their pernicious effects upon all its agents, and through them, -upon the people. - -The sultan is the great sun of the system--around whom the many lesser -orbs revolve. While the pashas and dignitaries are themselves planets -of no small lustre, attended by innumerable satellites of their own. - -The grandee holds the cable of power upon which tremblingly cling a -numerous train, from its summit to its lowest extremity--all sustained, -as long as the rope is firm; all crushed, when it slips from the hand -of its supporter. - -Indiscriminate patronage being a principle, favoritism and corruption -become of necessity a natural consequence. Indifferent men are -therefore raised to places of trust, to perform duties which can -never occupy their minds or engross their intellect, but the want of -money is their first and their keenest necessity; for "N'est on que -grand? On veut ętre riche. Est on et grand et riche? On veut ętre -plus grand et plus riche." - -Thus all patriotism is subverted--and individual interest and position -are made the sine quâ non of existence. - -Before they were enervated by conquest and the possession of vast -tributary states, which intoxicated them with sudden wealth, the -Turks were brave in battle, faithful to their friends, and generous -to their enemies. But being inured to war and excitement, peace and -tranquillity only reduced them to a state of sloth and idleness, and -inspired them with conceit and arrogance to all around them. Content -with being the lords of the realm, ignorant and unfitted for the arts -of peace, all their affairs were consigned to their rayas. - -The titles of Vali, Pasha, Mussellim, etc., were enjoyed by them while -their provinces and Pashaliks were either farmed out to subordinates -or managed by their Armenian sarafs or bankers--who received and -disbursed their incomes; so that the Osmanli grandee had nothing to do -but lounge listlessly in his Keosk and puff his long chibouk--varying -his life by occasional official visits to the Porte, or in the softer -seclusion of his harem. - -The enviable condition of indolence, and the desire to be surrounded -with the trappings of wealth, created a rivalry among them, not to -attain high and honorable posts as the champions of their country's -welfare, but to ensure the means of luxury and display--and to excel -each other in supremacy. - -Hence they have arrived at the acme of perfection in the arts of -adulation, servility, deceit, and intrigue. Real virtue is of no -avail, where successful vice only is admired, and the most insidious -and faithless ever the favorites of fortune. Indeed, ingratitude -is stamped upon their character, for an Osmanli raised to power, -would turn the enemy even of his patron, should he dare to cross his -schemes. This is so proverbial that they have a saying--Bir Osmanli -bir piré itchin koss kodja yorgani yakar! an Osmanli would burn up an -entire coverlet to rid himself of a single flea! or in other words, -no consideration would deter him from any sacrifice that would promote -his own interests--examples of which are of daily occurrence in their -political machinations. - -In such a malarious atmosphere, it would be supposed that every moral -virtue would perish, and only noisome weeds choke the soil--but such is -by no means the case. As the richest fruits and most fragrant flowers -often grow from the very putrefactions that lie on the surface of -the earth, so the people in Turkey, surrounded by such a depraved -and corrupted court, are themselves often specimens of nature's -best handiwork. - -The native honesty of the Turks is proverbial, and in illustration -thereof the following story has been widely circulated. - -An Englishman having landed a cargo of goods at one of the -custom-houses in the East, was unwilling to leave them at the wharf -unguarded; when he was told by the officer, that there was no need for -apprehension, as there was not another Englishman within fifty miles! - -Whatever may be the truth of this statement, it may be observed, -that some of the Osmanlis of the present day have so far advanced in -civilization as to even excel in this respect their present honorable -Allies! For, the idea that to rob the treasury of the sultan is not -defrauding the people, has led the officials into all the wiles of -corruption and systematic cheating--so that cheating and bribery may -be considered as the corner stones of this vast edifice. - -In the purchase of government supplies there is a display of honesty -on the part of the officials, and also of the European merchants, who -endeavor to underbid each other in prices, which may be considered by -an outsider as ruinous, but on the contrary, always proves profitable -to the co-partners in the speculation. - -On a certain occasion 780 pieces of cotton cloth were palmed off upon -the government by a European merchant for 78,000 pieces! for which -amount the Treasury gave a note. - -Such instances are not of rare occurrence, nor confined only to -officials--they pervade all classes. Hence the scullion cheats -the cook; the cook the steward; the steward the master; the master -the efendy; the efendy the pasha; and the pasha the sultan; and why -not? Where the strife for aggrandizement and power is so great, and the -battle not to the brave and good, but to the wealthy and intriguing, -there is little or no inducement to honesty and good faith. - -Russia seems to understand our people better than any other Europeans, -owing perhaps to her natural proximity; also since "a fellow feeling -makes us wond'rous kind," she knew where to touch the sensitive -Osmanlis, when she provided Prince Menschikoff, on his late mission -to Constantinople, with a surplus fund of 300,000 Paul Imperials, -or over a million of dollars! - -It is not, however, only in Turkey that bribery and corruption -prevail--even Europe, France and England, the very centres of -civilization, have furnished sad examples of personal aggrandizement, -under the garb of patriotism. - -Nevertheless, it is eminently true, that those of the people who have -retained their primitive simplicity are truly honest and confiding; -while others have become contaminated by the corruption of the court, -and the grasping spirit of European adventurers. - -Many of the peasants remove to the metropolis, with the hope of -bettering their condition. Some of them become hamals, or porters, -Tellaks, or attendants of the baths; cayikjys, or boatmen, common -laborers, venders in general, and others, domestics in private houses. - -A certain Armenian, native of Van, immediately upon his arrival in -Constantinople, was engaged as a scullion. - -In course of time, he complained to his companions that he was not -doing a good business on such a salary as he received, and he wondered -at their apparent prosperity. - -His simplicity was, of course, ridiculed at first, and through -compassion, he was initiated into the tricks of the trade. He was told -that he must always add to his account the customary Khamin of 20 or -30 per cent., a technical term, expressing overcharge, or cheating, -not understood by novices. - -So the next day, when this simple son of Armenia presented his account -to his master, at the foot of the bill there was an item, which seemed -not quite intelligible to him. He therefore called for an explanation; -when the servant, in all his native simplicity, informed him that, -that item was the Khamin, or the sum total of his cheating, which his -companions assured him was customary, and allowed to all servants in -their daily purchases! How fortunate and consoling it would be, if, -instead of being drugged in small doses, we could thus be informed -of the sum total of all the cheatings to which we are subjected! - -The most unlimited confidence is stamped upon all their reciprocal -transactions, and they intrust each other with any amount of goods, -without demanding a receipt, check, or counter check. In the exercise -of their avocation as hamals, they are often intrusted with bags of -money untold; they are generally the watchmen or guardians to the -stores and mercantile houses of the Franks, and in any deficiency -or robbery, their character and integrity are never questioned or -suspected. - -The Osmanlis possess the domestic virtues of kindness and affection -in a remarkable degree; their love of offspring is very great, and -their patient endurance of the whims and caprices of their women -quite exemplary. - -Merhamet, or compassion, is an essential component in their character, -and induces them to extend a most unlimited patronage even to the -lower orders of creation. Hence the streets in Turkey swarm with dogs, -the roofs of the houses with cats, and the domes of the mosques with -venerated pigeons, which, one and all, are objects of special charity. - -The thousands of cayiks that ply up and down the Bosphorus, acting as -aquatic omnibuses, besides their designated load of passengers, make -a point to carry one or more boys gratuitously, as an act of charity; -and how astonished would they be at the cry of "cut behind," which -so often greets the ears of beggars in more eminent Christian lands, -who mistaking wishes for horses might otherwise chance to ride. - -Yet a Turk is a singular being, apparently composed of contrarieties, -of savage traits, as well as domestic virtues, and this contrariety -is to be attributed solely to his fanaticism. Social and humane until -you touch his religious prejudices, when he becomes implacable. - -It has been the interest of the clergy to nurture a fanatical conceit, -by which the great principle of human nature, self-glorification, has -well sustained, and the Mussulmans been led to consider themselves -the very salt of the earth, and the rest of the human family as -contemptible Giavours. - -Hence they will not honor a Christian with the Mohammedan salutation, -Selamin Aleküm, "Pax vobiscum," nor will they observe any one in the -company, until they have looked for a true believer, to whom, however -humble he may be, is offered the Arabic, or orthodox salutation; and -on the Christians present, however great in their own estimation, -will afterwards be bestowed as their due, a simple Sabahlar-Hayr -Olsoon, or good morning, in plain Turkish. - -Though they have been subdued into a certain degree of external -deference by the progress of civilization, yet in the exchange of -social etiquettes, there is always a meaning slight cast upon their -unbelieving friends, which is well understood and appreciated among -themselves. - -Even the humblest Mohammedan will appropriate to himself the best -position in a public conveyance, or in any promiscuous assembly, -considering himself as fully entitled to such privileges, by the -simple guarantee of his faith, which elevates him above all humanity. - -In the medical school, where some of the scholars belong to the -families of the rayas, this Mussulman conceit is most evident, and -even tolerated and encouraged by the government at the present day; -for regardless of actual merit, it has hitherto been a principle with -the faculty always to place a Mussulman boy at the head of the class! - -It may be a matter of wonder to see such bigoted characters adopting -the very garb of the contemptible giavours. But the change of costume -was effected by the invincible Mahmoud, who, to liberate his people -from the thraldom of the janissaries, and the superstitions of darker -ages, feared neither priest or Koran, and at all hazards resolved to -make a daring stride towards civilization and reform. - -Therefore this change of costume was not effected through any -relaxation of religious bigotry, but by the force of the supreme power -of the sultan; and the Ulema themselves were obliged to compromise, -by wearing a fez, with a simple turban around it, with some other -slight modification of their flowing robes. - -Reform in dress having become an essential principle of the government, -those connected with the court and all public officers, were obliged -to conform to the established style, and the young élégans of Stamboul -now vie with the Parisian exquisites in their recherchées toilettes. - -But beyond the circle of court etiquette and fashion, the artisans -and peasants still preserve all the varieties of costumes identified -with Orientalism. - -Religious fanaticism in the East, is not confined to the Mussulmans -alone. It seems to have a universal sway in this climate, pervading -every community. - -The Mussulman would feel callous at the sight of the decapitation of -a Christian, and a Christian would experience a secret exultation at -the death of a Mussulman. - -Some years ago, I had the misfortune to meet with an accident; -my carriage was lost in the Bosphorus, and my horse and hostler -were drowned. Near the spot of this occurrence, there was a Greek -coaster lying at anchor, and the sailors soon came to my call for -assistance; but perceiving that the drowning man was dressed in -Turkish costume, and taking him for a Mussulman, they instinctively -exclaimed, Tourkos eine, Tourkos eine, he is a Turk, he is a Turk, -left him to his sad fate. It was in vain that I proclaimed that he -was a Greek and co-religionist of their own. - -The Mussulman is fanatical, because he has thereby been goaded on -to victory, and attributes all his successes to the banner of the -Prophet--and the Christian is bigoted, because his religion is the -only thing left him--his church is the cradle of his superstitions, -and the badge of his nationality. - -Even a Turk designates his nationality by his religion; for if you -ask him, Of what nation are you? his answer will invariably be, -El-hamd-ullah Mussulmanem, or Thank God I am a Mussulman. - -Indeed, religion in the East is so pre-eminent, that a declaration of -faith is equal to an allegiance of fealty, and the Mohammedan formula -of La-Illah-Illallah, etc., is the only oath of naturalization, -which, if once pronounced, fully entitles the individual to all the -privileges and immunities of Turkish citizenship. - -Neither is there a community of sentiment among the Christians -themselves--who, all abhorring Islamism, hate none the less each -other through their religious differences. - -An Armenian, native of Angora--whose inhabitants are reputed for their -religious bigotry--and a Roman Catholic by persuasion, had occasion to -visit Trieste on some commercial business. On his arrival there, he was -asked by the officer of the quarantine what nation he belonged to! His -unsophistical and prompt answer was "Catholic." The officer, somewhat -puzzled at this novel nationality, reminded him that they were also all -Catholics there, but called themselves Austrians or Italians--now, what -is your nation? thereupon our worthy friend unflinchingly reiterated -that he was a Catholic; nothing else but a Catholic; for they now -had, through the interference of the French Ambassador, a Patriarch -of their own, and were recognized as a nation! meaning a community. - -If a Greek mendicant happen to call at your door, and you ask his -co-religionist who it is, his answer will surely be Christianos or -a Christian; but if the applicant for charity should chance to be of -any other creed, his only title would be ztiyanos, or beggar. - -Apart from the religious fanaticism, which is universal, the people, -uncontaminated by a depraved and corrupted court--unlike the enervated -and luxurious Osmanlis of the metropolis, are simple-minded, brave, -robust, temperate, intelligent, active and industrious. - -The Mussulmans formerly taught that apostasy should be punished with -death; but now a new system of instruction, on this and other points, -proceeding from supreme authority, is as readily received by the -credulous multitude. - -Their bravery has been attested by the late massacre of Sinope, -when one and all preferred death to an ignominious surrender. The -events of the recent war have established the fact, that there are -no better soldiers than the Turks. - -We have the testimony of a distinguished American who - - - "Stood - Among them, but not of them." - - -He says that "we had an agreeable conversation with General Omar -Pasha's staff surgeon.... Among other things, he said the Turks -had long been extremely anxious to unite with their Allies in a -direct assault upon Sebastopol. I was somewhat surprised at this -intimation, knowing their considerate nature, and general inclination -to conservative views." Yet, notwithstanding, they have been accused -of cowardice for the desertion of the batteries daring the battle -of Balaklava, which could not well have been avoided under the -circumstances. The triumphs of Silistria, Tchetate and Kars, afford -ample refutation of such calumnies. - -The Orientals are strong and athletic men, capable of enduring the -greatest bodily fatigue. - -The hamals or porters, both Mussulman and Armenian, have been known -to carry on their backs immense weights; and one of these Oriental -Hercules has been seen carrying, on a wager, a load of no less than -a thousand pounds to a distance of a quarter of a mile! - -The heavier hardens are suspended from long poles, the number of -which increases in proportion to the weight. And when the contents -are of glassware, instead of being marked Fragile, a full size -representation of a bottle is painted upon the package. The ends of -these poles rest on the shoulders of the hamals, and they walk in a -steady and measured soldier-like step. One of them once accidentally -slipped and fell, and the end of the pole striking him on the chest, -he became senseless. His companions raised him up, whilst one of their -number stood back to back with the injured man, and locking his arms -within those of his comrade, repeatedly raised him from the ground, -thus expanding the chest, until he recovered his breath, when, to the -astonishment of the bystanders, the man, after taking one or two long -inspirations, smiling at the funny incident, shouldered his pole and -marched on as if nothing had happened! - -These very men live habitually on the simplest diet, consisting of -the coarsest brown bread, in the middle of which they make a cavity, -and fill it with equal proportions of olive oil and molasses, and -it is really a pleasure to see them enjoy their simple meals with a -relish that would kill all dyspepsia doctors from sheer envy. - -The native intelligence of the people is evinced by their aptitude -in acquiring the arts of civilized life; for after a residence of -a couple of years in the metropolis, the rudest peasants become -accomplished soldiers and skillful artisans. - -The facility with which they have adapted themselves to the European -style of music is very remarkable, and certainly implies much talent -or cleverness. - -Indeed, many of those who have risen to the higher ranks of society, -evince no signs, in their general deportment, of plebeian origin, -save the peculiar brogue of local rusticity. - -Nothing is more erroneous and unjust than the idea that the Orientals -are indolent or inactive. - -The tabys or garçons of the Kahvés even excel their Parisian -competitors in alertness and general ubiquity--serving scores of -customers at once with coffee, chibouk, and narghillés. - -The boatmen, who transport the pashas and others to their homes, -after the adjourning of the Porte, and closing of the Bazaars, -delight to compete with each other in speed, and linger on their -course until they meet with an antagonist, when the race sometimes -extends the whole length of the Bosphorus. - -Their sports and national games, consisting of horsemanship, wrestling, -chasing, cricket, etc, all tend to show their love of activity. - -There is none of the bustle, or American go-a-headism, in the -Oriental character and habits; none of that nervous excitement -which has so much the air of great progress, too often, like the -whirlwind among the natural elements, creating prodigies of human -noise and commotion, which subside and leave no sign; or it may be, -only havoc and destruction. In all the machineries of Eastern life, -public or domestic, steady and quiet perseverance rules the motion, -the oil of gentleness falling drop by drop upon the rolling wheels, -suffices for the friction; while in the land of modern adventure, by -increasing the pressure to a tremendous degree, the whole structure -is often crushed to atoms. This giddy rushing to a certain point -is too apt to wear out human energy, and most surely annihilates -self-possession, which is the keystone to success. Leave then, we say, -the Oriental sometimes to sit amid the fumes of his favorite chibouk; -for while external things are beclouded, often a mighty scheme is -in conception, and the sunshine of matured judgment suddenly bursts -upon the dim atmosphere, in full power and glory, ready to fructify -and yield all manner of increase. - -The apparent idleness which some persons have attributed to the natives -of this country, is more the effect of a spirit of resignation to -external circumstances, than of a desire to be unemployed. - -Taking for a basis the idea that the interest of the people is but -secondary, and under the pretence of increasing the revenue of the -country, and thus benefiting the state as it were, but with the -secret hope of self-aggrandizement, all advantageous projects are -seized upon by the officials; thus an effectual check is thrown upon -all private and public enterprise. - -The writer was the first to propose to the Turkish government the -establishment of a railroad from the capital to Adrianople. Not -succeeding in this, a line of post coaches was suggested, for which, -after great exertion, a Firman was granted. But no sooner were -the advantages of the project understood, than several persons in -authority began to intrigue, until they succeeded in appropriating -the Firman to themselves, which had been obtained at so much expense -and toil by another. - -But as usual, it proved to them more ruinous than profitable, because -of the numerous contenders for the spoils. - -No internal improvements are dreamt of, and no motive left for -speculation, and as there is no mutual confidence between the -government and the people, the formation of corporate companies, -which require united action, is out of the question, or, if attempted, -they are sure to fall through by official exactions. Thus, a country -teeming with mines and minerals, is left unexplored, and all other -internal resources lie dormant. - -Some attempts have of late been made by the government at internal -improvements, such as the post-road from Trebizond to Erzuroum; but -the over-exertions of those intrusted with the work soon exhausted -the appropriations, and the road was but half completed. - -The coal mines at Heraclea have shared a similar fate. Indeed, no -undertaking can be prosperous in the lands of the officials--and if -any such privilege be granted to private individuals, it is invariably -under the patronage of some grandee. - -A permission was obtained from government by an individual to light the -streets of Pera. In the course of six months the lamps were demolished -by the citizens, because they were heavily taxed to fill the pockets -of the speculator, without any advantage to themselves--the streets -for the most part, being as dark as before. - -All innovations are, therefore, in disrepute, not that they are not -appreciated, but because they invariably prove to be mere schemes -for individual advantage, and never pro bono publico. - -Hence it is also that the streets, even in the metropolis, are ill -paved, filthy, and not lighted--each person carrying his own lantern, -and getting along as best he can. - -Public enterprise being at so low an ebb, a spirit of indifference -pervades the country and if you once pass the aristocracy, the actual -necessities of the community are but few. They have no idea therefore -of bettering their condition. If you offer them any new invention, -they admire its ingenuity, and dryly tell you they have no need of -it--consequently there is no need of patent rights for new inventions. - -This indifference is not to be construed into a love of inactivity--but -is rather the result of selfishness--each man's interests being -circumscribed by the sphere in which he moves. In case of any emergency -they are most indefatigable and persevering. It needs only to cite the -fact that Pera, one of the suburbs of the city, has, in the course of -twenty years, been destroyed by fire four times, and entirely rebuilt -by native industry. Indeed, inactivity is against the spirit of the -country, for there, there are no Rentiers--but every one must have a -calling--even the sultan is traditionally supposed to belong to the -tooth-pick trade! - -Since the abolition of capital and summary punishments and the -monopolies, by the promulgation of of the Tanzimat, which was an -attempt at reformation, not without some beneficial results, a new -impulse has been given to the activity of the population. In a word, -give but the necessary impetus, and as much genuine go-a-headism may -be found in Turkey, as in Yankee-land itself. - -With such a population, and so many internal resources, it may be -deemed a matter of wonder that this empire should be in so ruinous -a condition. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XL. - -THE FUTURE OF TURKEY. - - -The survey that has been taken of the Turkish empire, political and -social, will furnish the component parts of this wonderful structure -of human power and religious fanaticism. Owing to the remarkable -sway attained by the sword of the Prophet, the various ingredients -mingled by the power of conquest, have all been brought together, -like so many antagonistic elements, to be wrought into some degree -of unity of spirit and purpose, and to be rendered subservient to -one great potentate, absolute and despotic. - -The dread power of the Turk, ravaging and blood-thirsty, has only of -late years ceased to inspire terror to the world in general, and to -hold in trembling awe the subjects over which it domineered. Suddenly -the dark cloud of barbarism began to disperse from this vast clime of -the Orient, as Mahmoud, seizing the torch of civilization, scattered -the light of science and reform over the land. - -Ever since his day, the struggling beams of knowledge and truth have -been casting a mistlike glow over these dominions, sometimes almost -bursting into a blaze of brightness, and again subsiding into the -obscurity of olden times and religions bigotry. - -The principles of progress, and the maintenance of ancient and -long established usages were now at war; the former supported by the -semi-enlighted portion of the people, and the latter by the formidable -body of the ulema or the Mohammedan clergy. - -The Rayas, or Christian subjects, hitherto quiescent and despairing, -now saw the star of hope and comparative liberty in their horizon, -and were ready to grasp at any straw of deliverance from the storms -of oppression and tyranny. The mass is in commotion--Mussulman power -trembles at the vision of the emancipation of its victims. Oppressed -and suffering humanity even dares to utter one vast groan, and to -raise a furtive glance towards the glorious temple of liberty, and -the equality of man with man. - -Mahmoud, the bold champion of his country, is surrounded by intrigues, -both foreign and domestic, and becomes entangled in the web of -turbulence and opposition, until his soul can endure no longer, -and wings its flight from the terrible field of battle. - -But the iron gates of barbarism had been unlocked; and even the -extreme youth of the succeeding Sultan, Abd-ul-Medjid, bringing with -him a sort of regency, could not refasten the heavy bolts. - -Thus we find this empire only advancing in progress, the more wonderful -since there has been comparatively so little reform in the actual -government. Even the Sultan has abrogated his absolute and despotic -sway; the once powerful viceroy still sits at his right hand, but no -longer unfettered; and the various religious and civil functionaries, -although the same as the creatures of yesterday, are themselves -amenable to the tribunal of justice and reform, where the spirit of -Mahmoud seems to linger as a reproving and condemning monitor. - -The opposing influences to all innovations were strong; the very soil -rank with bigotry, conceit, and prejudice, and the powers in actual -possession of the commonwealth self-willed and cunning. Hitherto a -comparative isolation had created natural walls, within which despotism -had its unmitigated sway. But as distance became annihilated throughout -the world's dominions, as oceans dwindled into lakes, rivers into -little rills, and broad acres into mere pleasure gardens, before -the mighty achievements of modern invention, all natural barriers -disappeared. - -As in ancient times the walls of the great city of Jericho fell at -the blast of the trumpets of Joshua, no sooner did the echoes of the -shrill whistle of the mighty steamship reverberate along the shores -and among the seven hills of Stamboul, than were annihilated the -frontiers of a barbarous and spiritual despotism, in the stronghold -of the Mussulmans. Civilization from Europe was no longer stayed, -but boldly stepped into this natural garden of the world. To stem -the current would be to perish in an overwhelming vortex; and the -very government was obliged to conform, to compromise, and to make -treaties of peace with this new element, social and political progress. - -Not only in Turkey, but universally, the spirit of domination has -been pre-eminent, until the march of human improvement awakened the -community to a sense of their own power and individual rights. Thus -the elements of democracy have been arrayed in opposition to the -oppressions of despotism, threatening its utter annihilation, and -forcing the ruling powers to terms of capitulation. The Reformation -checked the authority of the Pope, a charter was granted to the -English, and their colonies in America soon grew to a great and -independent state. - -Though the European states cannot boast of that degree of independence -they have ofttimes struggled for, yet their rulers and potentates -have ever been, and are still, forced to don the mantle of Liberty, -and maintain the guise of Justice in their various administrations; -thus proving the supremacy of the spirit of democracy. - -But despotism, fostered in the bosom of the little dukedom of Moscow, -has maintained its unbroken sway, and spread over the vast territories -now known as the Russian dominions. - -It has engulphed Finland, Crimea, Poland, Bessarabia, Circassia, -Georgia and many other provinces, and by its continued and systematic -encroachments upon Turkey, even threatened to overwhelm Europe -itself. Local circumstances have combined to favor her designs, -and render her aggressions successful. - -The remarkable spirit of Mohammedan fanaticism led the Turks on to -conquest. The neighboring countries were all subjugated, until the -thirst for war enticed them into Europe, where victory still followed -their banner. But the very nations that they conquered, many of whom -were induced, by force or otherwise, to make their abode in the Turkish -dominions, tended by degrees to undermine their power. With them came -various religions and creeds, conflicting with each other, and creating -the bitterest animosities. Apart from this, the vast extent of their -territories, without any of the modern facilities of intercourse, -rendered the empire unmanageable by an unenlightened and barbarous -government. The army was numerous and powerful, but turbulent and -refractory, usurping the power of governing to themselves, as attests -the well known history of the Janissaries, who could only be subdued by -the bold daring of the illustrious Mahmoud. A new army was organized, -on European principles, and various civil reforms attempted, but -without any beneficial result; for the neighboring nations, especially -the formidable power of Russia, the inveterate enemy of Turkey, -were anxiously regarding the waning decline of Ottoman supremacy. - -Russia, who never missed an opportunity to expedite the rain of -this rival empire, has at various times waged war upon the most -trifling pretexts. Upon the termination of the Greek insurrection, -and immediately after the destruction of the Janissaries, a most -aggressive and iniquitous war was commenced, in which the European -powers acted as sleeping partners. The Albanian, Servian, Egyptian -and Kürdish rebellions were each successively instigated by Russian -and Austrian emissaries, or secret agents, until the whole country -became the arena of party intrigue, and the direst confusion, thus -realizing the plans of its enemy, and rendering it an easy prey to -Moscovite cunning. - -To Europe, now awakened to a sense of her own impending danger, the -division of Turkey seemed the only alternative, since that empire -showed evident symptoms of decay and inability to resist so powerful -an enemy as Russia. - -Reshid Pasha, one of the ablest and oldest statesmen and a true -patriot, was at this time in Europe as representative of the Porte. On -hearing of this proposed division of his country, he hastened home -to offer his counsels to the young sultan who had just ascended -the throne. By his representations and suggestions, his majesty was -induced to issue a proclamation called the Tanzimat, or reformation, -by which it was hoped that the country would be regenerated, and the -world convinced that Turkey could maintain itself. - - - -THE TANZIMAT. - -Translated from the Turkish. - -In the former days of the Ottoman empire, as every one knows, the -glorious precepts of the Koran and the laws of the monarchy were -universally observed; and consequently the empire increased both in -power and size, and all subjects, without exception, attained the -highest degree of ease and prosperity. For one hundred and fifty -years a succession of accidents and of divers causes have put an end -to this obedience to the sacred code of the laws, and to the rules -which spring from it, and our former power and prosperity have been -changed into weakness and poverty; for an empire loses all stability -when the laws cease to be observed. - -These considerations are constantly present to our mind, and from the -day of our accession to the throne, the idea of the public welfare, -the amelioration of the state of the provinces, and condolence with -the people, have been its sole occupations. Now, when we consider -the geographical position of the Ottoman empire, the fertility of -the soil, the aptitude and intelligence of the inhabitants, we are -convinced that by applying ourselves to discover suitable means, the -result, which by the aid of God we hope to attain, may be obtained -in the space of a few years. Thus, then, full of confidence in the -Most High, and relying upon the intercession of our Prophet, we have -judged proper to seek by new institutions to procure for the provinces -composing the Ottoman empire the benefit of a good administration. - -These institutions must bear principally upon three points, to wit; -1st. The pledges which insure to our subjects a perfect security of -life, honor and fortune. 2d. A regular mode of assessing and levying -the taxes. 3d. A mode equally regular, for the levy of soldiers, -and the duration of the service. - -And are not life and honor truly the most precious goods which -exist? What man, however base his situation, if his character adapt -him for violence, could be prevented from having recourse to it, and -thus doing injury to his government and the country, if his life and -honor are endangered? If, on the contrary, he enjoys, in this respect, -a perfect security, he will not wander from the paths of loyalty, -and all his acts will concur to the prosperity of the government, and -of his brethren. If his fortune be not secured to him, each remains -cold to the voice of the prince and the country; no one is occupied -with the progress of public fortune, absorbed as every one must be in -his own inquietudes. But if, on the other hand, the citizen possess -in confidence his property of every kind, then full of ardor in his -business, the circle of which he seeks to enlarge in order to extend -that of his pleasure, he finds each day redoubled in his heart the -love of his prince and country, and devotion to her cause; these -sentiments become in him the source of the most praiseworthy actions. - -As to the regular assessment and establishment of the taxes, it is -very important that this matter should be regulated, for the State -that is driven to various expenses for the defense of its territory, -can procure the money necessary for its armies and other services only -by the contributions levied upon the subjects. Although, thanks be -to God, those of our empire have for some time been delivered from -the scourge of monopolies, improperly regarded in former times as -a source of revenue, an injurious custom still exists, and which -cannot but have disastrous consequences, I mean that practice of -venal concession known as the Iltizam. By this system the civil and -financial administration of a locality is delivered to the arbitration -of a single man, and sometimes to the iron hand of the most violent -and base passions, for if this farmer of the revenue be not good, -he will only have regard to his own advantage. - -It is requisite, then, that this time forward each individual of -the Ottoman society be taxed his quota of his established impost, -in the ratio of his fortune and possessions, and nothing farther can -be required of him. Special laws too must fix and limit the expenses -of our armies by sea and land. - -Although, as we have said, the defense of our common country is an -important matter, and although it is the duty of all the inhabitants -to furnish soldiers to that effect; laws must now be established to -regulate the proportion that each locality shall furnish upon the -necessity of the moment, and to reduce to four or five years the term -of military service. For it is both acting unjustly, and giving a -death blow to agriculture and industry, to take, without regard to -the respective population of the districts, from one more, and from -another fewer, than they can supply; while it reduces the soldiers -to despair, and contributes to the depopulation of the country to -retain them all their life-time in the service. - -To resume, without these different laws, the necessity for which we -have just seen, the empire can possess neither power, riches, happiness -nor tranquillity; while all these blessings may be obtained from -the existence of the new laws. Therefore, from this time forward the -cause of every accused will be publicly judged conformably to our own -divine law, after thorough inquest and examination, and so long as the -regular judgment is not interrupted, no one will be able in secret, or -in public, to put another to death by poison, or any other punishment. - -No one will be permitted to attaint the honor of another. Each -individual will possess his property, of every kind, and will dispose -of it with the most entire liberty, without the opposition of any one; -thus, for example, the property of a criminal shall not be confiscated -to his innocent heirs. - -These imperial concessions, extending to all our subjects, of -whatever religion or sect they may be, shall by them be enjoyed -without exception. A perfect security is thus granted by us to the -inhabitants of the empire in their lives, honor, and fortunes, as -the sacred text of our law demands. - -Upon all other points, as they must be regulated by the agreement of -enlightened opinion, our Council of Justice (augmented by new members -when it shall be necessary), to which will be joined, on certain -days by us appointed, our Ministers and the Notables of the Empire, -will assemble for the purpose of establishing regular laws, for the -security of life and fortune, and the imposition of taxes. In these -assemblies each man will freely express his ideas and give his opinion. - -The laws for the regulation of the military service will be fixed -by the military council, to hold its sessions at the Palace of the -Seraskier. - -As soon as a law is fixed to be forever available and executory, it -shall be presented to us, and we will give it our sanction, which we -shall write at the head with our own imperial hand. - -As the present institutions have for their aim but the establishment of -religion, government, the nation and the empire, we pledge ourselves -to do nothing contrary to them. In pledge of our promise we will, -after having placed them in the hall in which is kept the glorious -mantle of our Prophet, in presence of all the ulema and grandees of -the empire, make oath by the name of God, and afterwards the ulema -and grandees shall also swear. And if, after this, any one among the -ulema, or grandees of the empire, or any other person whatsoever, -shall violate these institutions, he shall undergo, without regard to -rank, consideration, or credit, the penalty annexed to his well-proved -crime. To this effect a penal code will be re-enacted. - -As all the functionaries of the empire at the present day receive -suitable salaries, and as the appointments of those, whose duties -are not sufficiently well remunerated as yet, will be regulated, -a vigorous law will be enacted against the traffic of favor and of -charges (richvet), which is reproved by the divine law, and which is -one of the principal causes of the decadence of the empire. - -These dispositions, above stated, being an alteration, and a complete -renovation from the ancient usages, this imperial edict will be -published at Constantinople, and in all the other cities of our empire, -and will be communicated officially to all the Ambassadors of friendly -powers residing at Constantinople, that they may be witnesses of -the alteration in our institutions, which, if it please God, shall -ever endure. - -To this may God have us all in his holy and worthy keeping. - -May those who are guilty of an act contrary to the present -institutions, be the object of divine malediction, and be forever -deprived of every kind of happiness. - - - - - -This document, which is an official acknowledgment of the existing -evils and corruptions, was read at Gül-hané, on the 3d of November, -1839, with the greatest solemnity, before a vast concourse of people, -and in the presence of the foreign representatives. - -In order to commemorate the occasion, and enforce these new principles, -it was proposed to erect a magnificent public monument, the plans -and designs of which were confided to the writer; but before the -foundations could be laid, a complete - - - - - "Change came o'er the spirit of their dreams." - - - -The great Napoleon has wisely pronounced that "Constantinople is the -key to all Europe, and designed to be the capital of the world." Turkey -may, therefore, be divided and subdivided, but Constantinople, the -great bone of contention, being indivisible, the partition of Turkey -becomes an impossibility, and political equilibrium will not permit -any one power to usurp its possession. - -It was fortunate that it fell accidentally into the hands of the -Turks, who were incapable of availing themselves of its advantages; -and for the same reason it is desirable they should retain it. Hence -the maintenance, or diplomatically speaking, the integrity of Turkey -became an essential element in the polity of Europe. - -The proclamation of the above Hatti Sherif, or Royal Edict, was -therefore hailed with general satisfaction by the European states, -and hopes were awakened that the impending danger would be averted -by such an entire change in the administrative government. - -But the Turks of the ancien régime, perceiving no threatening attitude -in their European neighbors, and highly offended at the ultra-liberal -measures of the reform party, who even dared to insult their Mussulman -prejudices, and coolly inform them that "the council chamber was -not a theological school for the discussion of religious polemics, -nor convertible into a mosque," resolved to resist to the utmost, and -re-establish their own party. They, therefore, in a body, protested -to the sultan, who, in such a dilemma, could do nothing but dismiss -the actual ministry, and organize a new one. - -Rendered bold by success, the new ministry, at whose head was placed -Riza Pasha, soon began to adopt fanatical measures, whereby to modify -the Tanzimat, which it did not suit their policy to nullify altogether; -for, by it additional security of life and property was granted even -to themselves. - -Besides, the lords of the realm, who only existed by the "cohesive -power of public plunder," foresaw that the Tanzimat secured equality -of civil and political rights to the Christians, especially to the -Armenians, who, being better educated and more enlightened than -they themselves were, and in fact the ruling spirits, would soon -have preceded them in all the departments, and taken the lead in the -control of the country. - -Schemes of oppression were formed to deprive the Rayas of their newly -acquired privileges. Even the external semblance of equality was no -longer tolerated. To distinguish them from the true followers of the -Prophet, their dress being the same, an order was issued, that the -giavours should wear a certain mark on their fesses, a piece of black -tape. Even the grandees of the Christian community were stigmatized -by a mock badge of honor, made of gold, to be also worn on the side -of the fess. They carried their fanaticism so far as even to defy -Europe in the decapitation of Ovagim, an Armenian apostate, who had -abjured Mohammedanism. - -Though his life was promised to Lord Stratford, no sooner had the -secretary of legation, Mr. Alison, left the Porte, than the unfortunate -victim was led forth and beheaded. Whatever may have been the cause -of the sudden reversal of their merciful intentions, it is well known -that Prince Handgery, the Russian Dragoman, was also at the Porte, -and did not leave until the consummation of the sentence. His body -was exposed in the streets of Constantinople at Baluk-Bazaar, the -head placed between his legs, as was customary, with the European -cap which he wore, upon it, as an extra insult to all Europe. - -The bodies of state criminals were formerly exposed in public for -three days, but the weather being at this time excessively warm, -the late Sheikh-ul-Islam was advised that injurious effects might -result from such a long exposure; who sagely remarked, that "the -fact was indeed so, but the sad results would be still more palpably -felt three years hence." Strange to say the prediction has been fully -verified by recent events. - -Thus Mussulman fanaticism brought on a retrograde movement, and -threatened the entire ruin of the country; and the rapacious and -ambitious dispositions of those who lived on the fat of the land, by -degrees so consumed its vitality that it justly merited the cognomen -of the SICK-MAN. - -The Eagle and the Vulture were hovering over the expiring empire, -and Humanity and Civilization demanded that it should be watched -over, with the hope either of prolonging its existence, or at least -of giving it a decent burial. - -Russia and Austria, who thought that the propitious moment had arrived -to pounce upon their victim, resolved to accomplish their own plans -by one sudden and effective coup-de-main, as the insulting conduct and -threatening attitude of their respective emissaries fully demonstrated. - -But their expectations were not to be realized; for, notwithstanding -the corrupt character of those in power, the spirit of regeneration -was not wholly extinct in the country. The liberal party, some of whom -had retired from public life in disgust, and others, who, giving up -all hope of reform, had abandoned their favorite project, and joined -the powers that be, in such an emergency, like true patriots, whose -moral influence had been silently exerted over the people, came to -the rescue; resisting every form of bribery and fearless of menaces, -they boldly took up the gauntlet, and war was declared. - -The interests of Europe being involved in the fate of Turkey, "foreign -interference" became inevitable. Fortunate it is not only for Turkey, -but for Europe in general, that this event happened at a time when such -interference was available, otherwise Turkey, like Poland, would have -been ingulphed by Russia and Austria. The result is known to the world. - -Although the battle has been fought, the Russian bear been driven -to his den, and the congress of nations at Paris has adopted the -Osmanlis into their fraternity, still the "Eastern question," or the -maintenance of Turkey, as a barrier between Russian despotism and -European liberty, is far from being settled. For the problem is not -solved, in as much as the ways and means for the future permanence -of this empire are not proclaimed to the world. - -Turkey is apparently secured from Russian animosities, but unless the -country be set on a new basis, and rendered capable of maintaining -itself, the future of Turkey will inevitably be only a repetition of -the past, if not indeed far worse. - -This difficult subject will, no doubt, engross the wisdom of Europe, -but the present is the moment to be seized, while the indebtedness -of the Osmanlis to their allies is fresh in their memories, and the -gates of their vast empire stand open to civilization and reform. - -Will the Allies again content themselves with mere scrolls, parchments, -and state papers like the Tanzimat of 1839? Shall the patriots of -the state again be left subject to the sway of a conceited bigotry -and blind fanaticism? In a word, shall the country be permitted to -feed upon its own vitals until it consumes itself? - -The time has arrived when fictitious progress can no longer be -tolerated, and a wholesome reaction most take place. - -Turkey and its inhabitants have suffered not only from external -aggressions, but internal discord has maintained an empire of misrule. - -Religious animosity and party spirit have reigned supreme. Greeks -and Christians hating each other, Christians denouncing Christians, -and the Grand Mufti pouring out the anathemas of the Prophet upon -the whole host of giavours. Whence then, in such a population, can -any unity of feeling or of action spring? Amor patrić, philanthropy, -progress are all merged in sectarianism and the rage for religious -supremacy. Hitherto, Mohammedanism filling the places of authority, -and possessing the only permanent foothold upon the territory itself, -has left the Christian population without incentive to competition -of any sort. Even in the earliest conflicts of Mohammedanism, -three proposals were always made to those whose territories were -invaded--to join the standard of the Prophet; to adhere to their -own religious tenets as tributaries; or the trial by combat; thus -evincing a wonderful spirit of liberality in a conquering power, -whether the antagonism was that of conquest or propagandism. - -Religious toleration was only a wise policy of the Ottoman government, -for as long as the rayas were of various creeds and conflicting -with each other, the Mussulmans were in no danger. As in union is -strength, so in the disunion of the subjects was the safety of the -rulers. The rayas, as has been said, losing their own nationality in -their condition of servitude, clung to the tenets of their respective -creeds, and knew no country, no nationality but that of religion. In -Turkey all classes of Christians and Jews have always had freedom of -religions worship with the free exercise of their peculiar rites and -observances, public and private. - -The proof may daily be witnessed in their funeral processions with -torches, crosses, and chanting priests, preceded by kavasses or police -officers, as the pages of the "Missionary Herald of the American Board -for Foreign Missions" amply testify. Besides it is a well known fact -that all the Christian churches are privileged to hold vakufs of their -own, on the same footing as those of the mosques; the very existence -of so many differing creeds, and their constant free discussions, -is proof of a great degree of religious toleration. - -Even the recent war was the result of this tolerance; for it is well -known that the original matter of debate was whether Russia or France, -or, in other words, whether the Greek church or the Catholic should -control the holy places of Jerusalem! - -These holy places not only are in the dominions of the Sultan, but -are the objects of religious veneration to the Mussulmans themselves, -who reverently style them Coods-u-Sherif, or Holy Jerusalem; yet with -a remarkable spirit of conciliation, their jurisdiction was conceded -to the Christians. - -Travellers who have chanced to be in Jerusalem during the festivities -of Easter, may remember, that when the Christians are quarrelling and -contending with each other, the Mussulmans are forced to interfere -to keep peace and tranquillity! - -It is true that the Ottoman government has frequently refused -permission to the Christians to erect or repair churches, etc. This, -however, is not from a spirit of intolerance, for it soon was -understood that a liberal sum might be obtained for these privileges, -and the officials could not resist such occasions for increasing their -revenues. The same advantage is taken of the party intrigues, at the -time of the election of the new patriarchs of the Armenians and Greeks. - -In the days of ignorance, this election cost the Armenians 40,000 -piasters, but years of experience have raised the value of the -Sultan's sanction to 200,000 piasters, and the Greeks, amongst whom -party strife is far greater, pay between two and three millions for -the installation of their spiritual head. - -Hence it is evident that religious toleration is a principle of the -government, and the contrary an incidental abuse for the advantage of -those in power. This very abuse has had its origin among the Christians -themselves, who were ready to bribe the ruling power to any amount, -in order to gain their own ends. - -Nevertheless, Russia has endeavored to mislead the whole world, and -especially the Christian population of Turkey, with the plausible -pretence of a "Guarantee of Liberty of Worship to all classes of -Christians in Turkey;" while her conduct at home belies her sincerity. - -The cross upon the Armenian church at Odessa was, not long ago, -removed by order of the government, lest the population should be -misled by the impression that the edifice belonged to the established -church. And in the case of intermarriage, the law orders that the -children should invariably be educated in the Russian faith. - -The adage "nearer the church, farther from God," is peculiarly -applicable to Russia; for we are told by Gibbon, that long before the -Turks were in Constantinople, the Russians made several attempts -to capture this fated city, and were only driven away by the -flood discharged from the batteries. Were the Greeks of that time -Mohammedans, or was there any suffering Christianity, that these -philanthropic Muscovites were impelled to come to the rescue of the -Christian faith? - -There are some strange records in history which conflict materially -with political hypocrisy! The fact is, under the pretence of being -the champion of the Cross, the real object of Russia has ever been -to avail herself of the existing religious fanaticism of the East, -and by fanning the flames of Christian ardor, to institute a crusade -of the nineteenth century! - -Nations are not, however, governed by sympathy, but by interest, and -the Christians have had too bitter experience of Russian protection -to be again caught in the same net. - -The Armenians of Erzuroum were induced to emigrate into the Russian -land of Canaan, which, they were assured, flowed with milk and honey; -but when they drank these honeyed waters, they found them only -wormwood and gall, and all who could, eagerly burst their fetters, -and returned to Turkey, preferring Moslem oppression to Moscovite -despotism and systematic serfdom. - -The Greeks, who were so clamorous against the Turks, when they -succeeded in obtaining their independence, by raising the standard -of the Cross against the Crescent of the Prophet, showed very little -preference for the Hellenic government, since after a while they -returned by thousands into Turkey! - -The effect of Turkish policy has been such, that there is a prevalent -desire among the Rayas to escape from their allegiance to such a -government, and place themselves under foreign protection, not from -any fear of religious intolerance whatever, but merely to obtain -comparative liberty and justice. Indeed, what incentive have the -people in general, either Turks or Rayas, to patriotism, or what -care they for national prosperity, when they are forced to regard -themselves as mere tenants of their own houses and lands? - -Missak, the late Armenian banker, did not escape into Russia from any -fear of religious oppression, but to avoid the vindictive persecutions -of the Minister of Finance. - -It is not, then, religious freedom that the Christians of Turkey -require, but political franchise and unbiased justice. - -The past has sadly proved that the Mohammedans are incapable even -of self government, or at best, Mohammedan domination has had a -demoralizing tendency over half, if not the entire population. - -Is the country, then to be ruled by the other half of the inhabitants -viz., the Christian population? - -This is another impossibility; for this population is like a house -divided against itself, and besides their incapacity in other -respects, they, having so long felt the bitterest animosity towards -their Mussulman masters, would in their turn become even greater -oppressors than the Mohammedans themselves, as was evinced by the -conduct of the Armenians of Erzuroum during the last war with Russia. - -The "Eastern question" is not, however, one of propagandism, either -of Christianity or of Mohammedanism, but demands, while granting -perfect liberty of conscience to all classes, how political and civil -equality may be maintained throughout the Ottoman dominions. Fusion, -then, is the only policy that can resuscitate the Turkish Empire. - -The Tanzimat was the beginning of a reform, but there were no coercive -measures put into play, to overthrow the power of ancient usages, -so that the proclamation soon became almost a dead letter. The -blind bigotry of the people and the absolute power of the heads -of government, imbued as they are with a spirit of favoritism and -corruption, have hitherto excluded the unfortunate subjects of the -sultan from the justice and protection which are the sacred rights -of every son of Adam. There has been no security for property nor -any inducement to honesty in Turkey. - -A man has, under the existing laws, every temptation to injure -his neighbor to any extent, and the innocent have no other means -of protecting themselves and their interests, than by resorting to -counter dishonesty. For instance, if a man is unjustly accused of a -debt of one hundred dollars, it would naturally be inferred that he -would at once deny the accusation, and call for proof. But such an -honest procedure would not answer in the Turkish courts of justice, -for it would immediately give the plaintiff the desired privilege of -producing two hired witnesses, by whose testimony the defendant would, -beyond a doubt, be condemned to pay the pretended debt. - -The only alternative, in such instances, is to verify the principle -"set a rogue to catch a rogue" by acknowledging the debt, at the same -time declaring that it has already been paid; thus the accuser is -deprived of the privilege of suborning witnesses, and the defendant -avails himself of that prerogative. - -Therefore the moral sense of the community is corrupted, and -self-preservation impels the people only to strive to excel each other -in roguery. In such a poisoned atmosphere, no salutary influence can -be exercised until the axe is laid at the root of the evil. In order, -then, to give a fresh stamina to this fading empire-- - -1. A new and complete code of justice is needed, consistent with -progressive civilization, and suited to the necessities of these -heterogeneous peoples. - -2. To overthrow the sceptre of oppressive bigotry, the next thing -to be effected is an entire separation of church and state, so as -to prevent the interference of the ulema in the administration of -justice. Thus also the aristocracy of religion being abolished, -the animosity existing between the Moslems and Christians will be -annihilated, and the hitherto excluded portion of the subjects of -the sultan acknowledged as members of the great Ottoman family. - -The identity of religious faith and nationality long swayed even the -European states, but in those countries, this idea is now obsolete, -and must of necessity become so in Turkey, since she has entered -their confederacy. - -3. A mixed administration must be formed, composed of representatives -of the different communities, and Mussulman supremacy no longer -tolerated. The mutual benefit of this combination is evident; for -while the Christians, in sharing the supreme power, would lose their -former incentives to cunning and self-interest, the Mussulmans, on -their part, would make rapid strides in the true science of government. - -The tenure by which this mutual authority is to be held, must be -supported and confirmed by a superior tribunal, as it were, consisting -of the powers of Europe, who, having constituted themselves the -champions of Turkey, and shed their blood in her defense, are entitled -to become the guardians of her interests, which are, henceforth, -so identified with their own. - -4. The resources of the country must be developed, and a system of -internal improvements established, by which the ruinous principle of -centralization will be counteracted, and the beneficial effects of -this regeneration felt in the uttermost corners of the land. - -A general and accurate survey of the country is indispensable, defining -the exact boundaries of both public and private lands, and the idea -that the natural treasures of the soil, belonging to individuals, -appertain to the government, must be abandoned. Hitherto much of the -wealth of the country has lain dormant, because there was no incentive -to exploration of any sort. - -5. The Vakuf system must be abolished, and the accumulated wealth -devoted to internal improvements, thus depriving the Ulema of their -great arm of power. It is true, the government has in some measure -controlled these revenues, and established a Bureau of all the Vakufs, -called Evkaf, but it has never dared to appropriate, or to touch any -portion of this income for its own purposes. - -6. Equal taxation should be levied on property, and the tariff -equitably regulated. - -7. A limited free press must be established as the only means of -bringing into publicity the corruptions and abuses to which the -officials have hitherto been addicted. - -These are the most apparent means of the preservation and regeneration -of Turkey. - -Broad principles may be laid as the foundation, but the edifice is -to be raised and the master builders must not desert their work. For, -unless these salutary reforms are accomplished by the aid and influence -of the European Powers, there is no hope of the preservation of Turkey, -nor is there any security for the peace of all Europe and the world -in general. - -The only question is, Can these reformations be effected in Turkey? - -The nature of the Mohammedan religion is not essentially in opposition -to reform. Modern times have proved the Koran of a more elastic nature -than was once supposed, as was exemplified in the establishment of -quarantine regulations; when it was pretended, that it was blasphemous -to interfere with the decrees of Allah to protect human life; but as -it was proved that the Koran allowed self-protection, the measure -was sanctioned by the expounders of that sacred book, and accepted -by the Mussulmans. - -Apostasy from Islamism was formerly punished with death; but when -Lord Stratford de Redcliffe interfered in behalf of humanity in the -case of poor Ovagim, who was beheaded in 1843, the Koran was found to -be on his side. The same lenity was manifested by the Mohammedans of -Hindoostan, only a few months ago, towards an apostate, on the plea -that the country was now under British jurisdiction. The reason is, -that the principles of Islamism are so very simple that they can be -adapted to any degree of modification and reform, especially under -the pressure of circumstances--besides, necessity knows no law, -not even the Koran itself. - -But it may be said that the government thus remodelled will no longer -be Turkish or Mohammedan. - -Surely the aim of the friends of this falling empire is not to -re-instate a decaying faith, but to enable the Turks and all the -inhabitants of the land, to gird up their strength and stand before -the world a united and powerful people, freed from bigotry and -superstition, a great Ottoman nation. - -Turkey has been admitted into the fraternity of Europe; not as a -Mohammedan power, but as one of the powers that rule the earth's -domains. - -The sultan has a voice among the potentates of his times--not the -voice of Mohammed the Prophet, but of the civilized and regenerated -friend of his own people and the world in general. - -A new era has dawned upon Mohammedanism; for, if the Christian -world has for the first time received into its confederation -an anti-Christian empire, the Mohammedans, by entering such a -confederation, have also for the first time placed themselves on an -equality with the former Giavours, whom the precepts of the Koran have -proscribed, and doomed to the sword of the Faithful. Here then is a -bold stride beyond the confines of a faith only suited to barbaric -days, and well calculated to sway the minds of a superstitious -multitude on to conquest. As consanguinity with civilization is -strengthened, who can trace the pathway of the Mussulman nation -through the world's history! - -The genius of the country and the condition of the people are not in -opposition to the progress of reform. - -The past history of this nation has been the progress of -Mohammedanism--its conquests and its laws. As Moses was both the -spiritual and temporal law-giver to the Jews, so has Mohammed been -to the Turkomans. Such laws suited the exigencies of the times; but -the sword is sheathed, and in its sheath too, must abide the darkness -and barbarity of past ages. - -Besides Mohammedanism in Turkey is not the same as in Arabia or -Bokhara, where Imams and priests predominate. The Turkomans had, -previous to embracing Islamism, a civil government of their own; -and in making the Koran the rule of faith and conduct, they never -lost the idea of Sovereignty independent of Religion. Hence the -Turkish has never been like the Papal government, where cardinals and -bishops represent all the departments of the pontifical state. The -very existence of two distinct representatives of the Sultan, the -Grand Vezir and the Sheikh-ul-Islam, are evidences of a separation -of church and state. If the ecclesiastical has hitherto superseded -the civil power, it has been through the superstitions of the people, -and the chicanery of the officials. - -The only real union is in the person of the Sultan, who is the proxy -of Allah, and the supreme Ruler of his people. His will and his edicts -are regarded by them with superstitious reverence. - -The natural relations of this empire with the rest of the world, -as well as its new ties of consanguinity with civilization, must, -of necessity, bring about a revolution of policy as well as of action. - -His majesty has already introduced many measures of reform--such -as the abolishing of capital punishment--the promulgation of a new -constitution, with the privilege of free deliberation in the national -councils, etc.; and besides all these, he has already commenced, even -in his own person and household, a renovation, which is, in reality, -only a conformation to the habits of civilized life. He has become -himself a salaried executive, diminished his own retinue, etc. - -The Sultan well understands the imitative nature of his own people, -and is aware that he is the model to the Grand Vezir and the various -Pashas, who, in their turn, are the channels of his majesty's own -movements to the rest of their fellow citizens. Constantinople is -the city where the game is played by high and low, "So does the -Grand Mufti." - -Indeed, the very monkeys of India cannot excel them in their -disposition to imitate each other. For, it is said that a merchant -once carrying a large bale of fesses, or red caps on a speculation, -opened his goods on the way, with the view to examine them; and taking -one out and putting it upon his head laid down to repose a while under -a tree. What was his astonishment on waking, to find his stock of caps -had taken wings. He looked around in dismay, but happening to cast -his eyes upwards, he beheld a whole colony of monkeys each sporting -one of his caps! It seemed a hopeless case to catch each one of them -and force him to surrender the cap. In his anger and bewilderment -he seized his cap and in a passion threw it to the ground; when the -whole tribe of these mimicking creatures of the grove, instinctively, -with the same vehemence, divested themselves of their head-gear! - -In imitation of Sultan, Pashas, and Efendi, the people in the East -have already doffed their robes and turbans; and are ready for other -reforms, if derived from the same honored projectors; crosses now -adorn the breasts of statesmen, and his majesty, the Sultan, displays -on his person the insignia of the garter. Indeed much good may be -anticipated from the liberal sentiments and benevolent dispositions of -the Sultan, were he but rightly advised and sustained in the exercise -of his absolute power; with the requisite protection against inimical -intrigues and aggressions, both foreign and domestic. - -Besides, the government itself is already divided into two parties, the -liberal, who are ready to throw off the yoke of ancient prejudices, -and the church party, who not only with a blind zeal, but with -hopes of self-aggrandizement, are resolved to maintain the rule of -superstition. Now as the advancement, the maintenance of the country -is dependent on the one, its retrogradation and downfall involved in -the other, so Europe necessarily holds out its strong arm to the one, -and leaves the other not only unsupported but threatened. The wisest -of the Turkish statesmen are therefore prepared for changes; indeed, -they feel themselves bound to certain compromises with their friends -the Allied Powers, who engaged in the war, as they well know, not with -the view to reinstate Mussulman oppression and bigoted misrule, but to -set the country on a new footing--by raising the Christian population -to a level with the Mussulman. Considering the almost equal proportion -of the Christians to the Mohammedans, it is but just, there should -at least be an equality of national rights and privileges. For in -civilized countries, even a MINORITY is protected and their rights -respected; how much more then should this be the case where there -is not only no disproportion in numbers--but decided superiority -in civilization. - -Besides, should the Mohammedans resist the required concessions--the -great Christian population of Turkey is ready to join their western -co-religionists in any movement. Therefore it is only a wise policy -in the Mohammedans, making a virtue of necessity, to submit to -circumstances, rather than by opposing, to work their own ruin. - -The great essential is a community of interest, which has already, -in some cases, produced a legitimate action. The corps of firemen is -composed of both Mussulmans and Christians, who not only unite in a -common effort for mutual good, but call each other brothers, carouse -together, shed their blood in each other's defense, and never seem -to remember their characteristic dissimilarities. - -There is already an indisposedness towards the tenacity of religious -fanaticism, which is so hostile to moral and social progress. Many -of the distinguished men of Turkey having resided abroad, and -acquired foreign languages, have imbibed a taste for the literature -of Europe. A familiarity with the works of such authors as Voltaire, -Volney, and Rousseau, has made many of them free-thinkers. Indeed, -most of the younger members of the Porte are men of liberal sentiments. - -They pay external deference to the religion of the state rather from -motives of self-interest than from any moral conviction. - -Nevertheless, some of these very men, so long habituated to power and -the spoils of office, may, under the guise of religious enthusiasm, -become the instigators of opposition through the superstitions of -the multitude. - -Hence the gazettes will occasionally report hostile demonstrations, -and even bloodshed; but any attempts at insurrection must prove -futile; for, with the destruction of the Janissaries, the spirit of -rebellion perished in Turkey. Besides, recent events having brought -the superiority and power of Europe within the immediate vision of -the whole population, they have been forced to call to mind their -own proverb, that "the elephant is greater than the camel," and -doubtless they will henceforth arrive at a juster appreciation of -their own capabilities. - -Much more might be written on so extended a theme as The Sultan and -His People, and an abler pen portray the condition of this interesting -Eastern empire, just emerging from barbarism into civilization. Yet -it may be hoped that these humble efforts will awaken some sympathy -in behalf of a country and its inhabitants, who so much need the -interest and assistance of other lands; at a moment, too, when the -question is of life or death; of free progressive life, under the -shelter of the broad wings of civilization, or of a suffering death -within the claws of the rapacious Vulture of despotism and oppression. - -It may be objected that Turkey has been represented "en couleur de -rose." If that roseate hue has been given, the odorous flower has -been presented with all its thorns, divested of the verdure which -might have concealed their bristling points. - -But the sweetest rose may preserve its pure essence and odor, even -while growing amid wild and poisonous roots; and if the noxious weeds -can be uprooted, Turkey may, with the requisite culture, become one -of the fairest gardens which adorn our beautiful planet. - -It is to be hoped, that the morning twilight is already casting its -softening beams over this land of the Orient; and that the noon-tide -glory of the sun of peace and regeneration, will, ere long, irradiate -with its glorious effulgence, this ancient and interesting Empire! - - - THE END. - - - - - - - - -NOTE - - -[1] Some historians attribute the origin of the janissaries to -Orkhan; at the same time all agree that they were blessed by Hadji -Bektash--forgetting that the said sheikh was only contemporary with -Mourad, and not Orkhan. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Sultan and his People, by C. 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