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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f631c1b --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #54757 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54757) diff --git a/old/54757-8.txt b/old/54757-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index d5519d1..0000000 --- a/old/54757-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10410 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Sultan and his People, by C. Oscanyan - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Sultan and his People - -Author: C. Oscanyan - -Release Date: May 21, 2017 [EBook #54757] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE *** - - - - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE. - - BY - C. OSCANYAN, - OF CONSTANTINOPLE. - - - - Illustrated by a Native of Turkey. - - - - NEW YORK: - DERBY & JACKSON, 119 NASSAU STREET. - CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY & CO. - LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, SON & CO. - - 1857. - - - - - - - - - Entered according to Act of Congress, to the year 1857, by - DERBY & JACKSON, - - In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, - for the Southern District of New York. - - W. H. TINSON, STEREOTYPER. - - GEO. RUSSELL & CO., PRINTERS. - - - - - - - - - TO MY - ALMA MATER, - The University of the City of New York, - THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED - BY - ONE OF ITS OFFSPRING. - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. PRELIMINARY CHAPTER, 9 - II. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ORIGIN OF THE TURKS, 20 - III. THEIR RELIGIOUS CREEDS, 27 - IV. SECTARIANISM, 37 - V. PRACTICE OF RELIGION, 51 - VI. PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA, 67 - VII. PRINCIPLES OF THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT, 105 - VIII. THE ADMINISTRATIVE GOVERNMENT, 109 - IX. POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT, 114 - X. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE JANISSARIES, 117 - XI. THE ULEMA OR SPIRITUAL BRANCH OF THE TURKISH - GOVERNMENT, 127 - XII. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, 134 - XIII. ARMY AND NAVY, 138 - XIV. COMMERCE, 144 - XV. JURISPRUDENCE, 149 - XVI. EDUCATION, 159 - XVII. MEDICINE, 167 - XVIII. WESTERN PREJUDICES AND EASTERN TOLERATION, 171 - XIX. THE SULTAN AND HIS PERSONNEL, 180 - XX. PUBLIC DUTIES OF THE SULTAN, 200 - XXI. THE ROMANCE OF THE EAST, 206 - XXII. THE HAREM, 212 - XXIII. CONDITION OF WOMEN, 224 - XXIV. PERSONAL APPEARANCE, COSTUME, ETC., 232 - XXV. DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS, 238 - XXVI. SOCIAL INTERCOURSE, 246 - XXVII. POLYGAMY, 253 - XXVIII. MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE, 259 - XXIX. SULTAN'S HAREM AND HOUSEHOLD, 264 - XXX. CIRCASSIAN AND NUBIAN SLAVES, 274 - XXXI. THE WATERING PLACES, 280 - XXXII. THE BAZAARS, 293 - XXXIII. THE KAHVÉS, 299 - XXXIV. THE HAMAMS, OR BATHS, 320 - XXXV. THE RAYAS, OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS--ARMENIANS, 340 - XXXVI. THE RAYAS, OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS--GREEKS, 364 - XXXVII. THE RAYAS, OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS--JEWS, 376 - XXXVIII. PERA AND THE PEROTES, OR FRANKS, 381 - XXXIX. THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE PEOPLE, 393 - XL. THE FUTURE OF TURKEY, 419 - - - - - - - - -THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE. - -PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. - - -Mutability is the appropriate motto of humanity; for what are men -but creatures of a day; monarchs, but transient shadows of earthly -greatness; empires, but passing events? Time, with more than eagle -swiftness, hurls all things into the great bosom of Eternity. Futurity -is dark and impenetrable, but the present is with us, and still more -the past, teeming with vast records of human life, of rising and -falling empires, bloody tales of extinguished armies and extirpated -races of mankind, detailing the effects of the wild ambition of kings, -emperors, sultans, themselves but atoms, yet involving the whole mass -in their career. - -Contrast is often the greatest source of pleasure to the mind; -therefore do the citizens of this New World delight to revel in the -scenes of the olden hemisphere, which was in full glory when this -vast continent lay in undiscovered obscurity. - -Orientalism! Talisman to conjure up the shades of the very parents of -our race, and of the old patriarchs of Israel, to array in picturesque -and savage beauty the vision of Arabian horsemen, flying steeds, vast -encampments on arid plains, tribes of wandering Tartars, and almost -to awaken the echoes of the clashing and blood-stained scimitars -of the desperate champions of the Crescent, the followers of the -Prophet. And while there is a wall of iron between us and our future, -the eventful record of by-gone times displays to us the development -of all that was hidden to our ancestors. - -There is a great difference between the primitive condition of the -human race and the effects which Time has produced upon that wonderful -structure, MAN! - -Simplicity, almost childlike, seems to characterize the living mind -of man in its embryo state, while years of successive re-conceptions -have continued to develop this noble emanation from the great spirit -of the universe. - -But how deeply interesting to us, who are the embodiment of the more -mature and experienced human wisdom, to look into the vast womb of -the Past, and trace the growth of the great human foetus. - -The impress of the original condition of our race is yet upon the -nations of the East, and wonderfully do they still retain the habits -and ideas of the earliest ages. - -How vividly are the scenes of Biblical record exemplified in the -every-day habits of the people, who, at the present time, dwell -in those venerated countries. The patriarchal family government, -the flowing robes, even the very style of garment of which it is -recorded--"They parted my raiment, and upon my vesture they cast lots," -are one and all in daily use in the East. - -Our attention is peculiarly directed to the history of former ages, -and the progress of different empires, by the events which mark the -present course of time--for the great theme of the day is the Past and -Future of Turkey, the very garden of the East, and the desired of all -nations, upon whose shores has lately been poured the life-blood of -thousands of valiant heroes, each and all members of the vast human -family, whether known to us as Turks, Russians, English, or French. - -There is an indefinable charm about all that relates to this land -of the Orient. The position by nature, the variety of scenery, hill, -valley, and undulating plain; the great streams which water its shores, -and the rich productions of the soil, the ancient capital proudly -towering from its verdant hills, the key to two continents, with the -"Ocean stream" for a highway. The lovers of classic lore delight -to realize the existence of ancient heroes, and the very homes of -the demigods, as they tread its honored shores. Romance seems to be -merged in reality, as the robed and turbaned Moslem, with stately step -and meditative countenance, passes beneath your latticed casement; or -the veiled lady and sable eunuch, with mysterious silence, stealthily -glide along. Sultans, vezirs, pashas, grand muftis, sultanas, harems, -and slaves, intriguing ulema and judges, so long enveloped in the -mist of fancy, are, in modern days, to emerge into the sunlight of -truth and civilization, and exhibit to the study of philanthropy, -only the type of ancient usages and the actual scenes of everyday -life. Amid the votaries to superstition and fanaticism, side by side -with the banner of the Cross, the followers of the Prophet, with the -Crescent of the faithful, will, henceforth, march through time into -eternity, but known and read of all men. The door to the East stands -open, and we may pass within the portal to study men and manners, -with their institutions, both social and political. - -Many attempts have been made to portray the actual and past condition -of this Oriental empire, and as various have been the lights and -shadows in which it has been pictured; some making the Osmanli a -paragon of humanity, and others again reducing him to a mere polypus -on legs. - -"If those who are resident among us," observes the editor of the -"New York Herald," "cannot, after the lapse of years, always succeed -in identifying themselves with our ideas, it is not to be expected -that writers at a distance, should be able to form a fair estimate -of American society from such imperfect evidences as they have before -them. We have seen how few foreign tourists have penetrated below the -surface of things in their analysis of our social and political life." - -If these strictures of the "Herald" are just and true with reference -to American and European countries in general, where there is such -similarity, how much more applicable to our Oriental clime; for, -considering the peculiar form of government, and construction of -society in Turkey, based, as they are, upon the Koran, traditional -customs, and Oriental conventionalities, hitherto so inaccessible as -well as incomprehensible to strangers, it is, indeed, no matter of -wonder that such heterogeneous portraits of Eastern men and manners -have been promulgated to the world by travellers and bibliomanists. - -Language is the great vehicle of ideas, the bond of man with man, the -"open sesame" to the spirit of every community--the record of the past, -the exponent of the present, and the foreteller of the future. But -how few, even of modern savans, have acquired a knowledge of the -Oriental dialects, which are never used in Europe, and only called -into exercise by researches into ancient chronicles. Even many who -have long resided in the East, and whose daily and hourly contact -with the inhabitants would seem to demand a mutual understanding, -have lived and died in a stoical adherence to their own mother tongues. - -A French merchant, Mons. B., who had enjoyed the advantages of commerce -in the East for twenty-five years, may be quoted as an example. Either -considering his own superior civilization compromised by such a -condescension to barbarism, or unable to train his exclusively -French organs to any other guise of speech, Mons. B.'s ideas and -expressions were always in his mother tongue. When, therefore, -on a certain occasion, his Turkish porter excited his displeasure, -he poured out his indignation in pure Gallic, which lost much of its -intended effect upon his employé, who could not imagine the cause -of his master's agitation and vehemence, and ventured to ask an -explanation of a bystander. "What?" said the irritated Frenchman, -"does the stupid fellow mean to say that having been with me -for the past five-and-twenty years, he does not yet understand -French?" "Mashallah!" responded the astonished Turk, "My master, -who has been here so long a time, why can he not scold me in Turkish?" - -Emergencies are constantly occurring, and as interpreters cannot be -omnipresent, ridiculous misunderstandings are often the results. - -The complacent French and English seem to think their respective -languages universal, and upon their arrival in the East, address the -people accordingly, who can only look and listen, and strain their -senses for one familiar word or phrase; sometimes the simplest -expression, through some euphonious resemblance, may convey an -opposite meaning, or even a flattering compliment be mistaken for a -victimizing oath. - -A party of French naval officers, one day visited the shoe bazaar, -and were attracted by the beauty of the collection of a certain -merchant. The author happening to be present, officiated as interpreter -for them, and advised the merchant to display all his best specimens -of embroidered slippers, so that the gentlemen soon had an innumerable -variety before them. But one of them yet unsatisfied, with a spirit -of independence, took a slipper in his hand, and showing it to the -merchant, said, "Beaucoup mieux, beaucoup mieux, Efendi." The grave -merchant instead of replying, turned all of a sudden pale with rage, -and gathering up his embroidered wares, mercilessly consigned them to -the recesses of his shop, and bestowing upon these insolent giavours -a most genuine Turkish benediction, ordered them to quit his premises -instanter. Bewildered at the singular conduct of the merchant, I -inquired as to the cause of his sudden irritation. "What! did you -not hear the impudent rascal say, bokoumu-yé?" said the enraged Turk; -an expression too unfit for ears polite to be translated into English, -though sometimes heard in the purlieus of the Five Points. I attempted -to explain, but in vain; the Turkish was unmistakable, so thought the -shoe-merchant, who insisted that they had at least learned that much -of the language of the country. - -Thus, with entire ignorance of the language, thoroughly impregnated -with the prejudices of a European education, the foreigner looks -only upon the surface of things, and comprehends nothing, where the -simplest habits of life and etiquette are diametrically opposed to -his preconceived ideas. - -The Osmanli would stare with astonishment at the presumption with which -a Frank uncovered his head in his august presence; while the exquisite -of the beau-monde would be lost in wonder to see his Oriental rival -enter his presence without shoes, and seat himself on the sofa with -his feet carefully concealed beneath him; thus only conforming to the -ancient etiquettes of the Bible, for Moses was not commanded to uncover -his head, but to put off his shoes. At least, some of the Oriental -forms of politeness have antiquity as their origin, and the sanction -of many generations; but for the varying code of western manners, -where can we look, save to the capricious tastes of the passing times. - -Thus are the simplest habits of life reversed, and what is excessive -rudeness to the one, may be the essence of politeness to the -other. Very frequently these contrary customs are the source of -ludicrous mistakes. - -As we were walking one day with a friend, a sailor from the English -fleet accidentally dropped his pocket-handkerchief. The gentleman -regretting that the worthy tar should meet with such a loss, hailed -him, at the same time beckoning with his hand ŕ la Turque, which -is done by extending the arm and moving the fingers with the palm -downwards, or just in the same manner as would here be done to imply -a more distant removal. - -A police officer happening to be at no great distance, the sailor, -on looking back, understood quite naturally my friend's movement as a -signal for him to make his escape, and accordingly took to his heels -with the greatest rapidity, leaving my companion in utter amazement. I -endeavored to explain to him the reason of the sailor's conduct, by -showing him the genuine European style of beckoning, by reversing -the hand and moving the up-turned forefinger back and forth. This -astonished him the more, since that motion is equivalent, in Turkey, -to that comical American gesture of placing the thumb on the tip end -of the nose, and extending the fingers. - -Thus things which are in themselves trifles, may lead or mislead to -mighty results, and can only be appreciated when circumstances call -them into action. Therefore nothing but actual nativity and education -among the people, with the enlarged views which are acquired by a -residence in European countries, can enable an individual to judge -and appreciate the peculiar institutions of Turkey. - -The author presents himself to the American public a native of -Constantinople, and of Armenian parentage, with the hope that he -may be able to unfold some new phases of Turkey and Orientalism, -which may tend to remove any unfounded prejudices, and enlighten -their minds with regard to the real and existing state of his country. - -In order to attain a just and correct idea of the present state of -Turkey and its probable future, it is most essential to take a cursory -glance at the origin of the nation, its religion, government, civil -laws, social condition, and domestic relations, which are the elements -of nationality. In so doing, the writer has carefully avoided all -partiality, and endeavored to display the truth, simply, and nothing -but the truth, invested with the garb of a peculiar nationality, -and only adorned with the poetry of Oriental tastes and habits as -they actually exist. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ORIGIN AND HISTORY. - - -Turkish and Eastern proverbs have often a deep and significative -meaning under a simple simile. They say, "a neighbor's chicken has -always so unreal a magnitude in covetous eyes, that it swells in its -proportions even to the size of a goose!" - -Human nature has in reality undergone but few changes since it -descended upon this planet. The simplest shepherds and the richest -sovereigns have been alike swayed by the demon of envy. The earth -no sooner became the inheritance of man, than its treasures excited -the desire of appropriation in his breast. Mine and thine were the -earliest appellatives between man and his brother. - -All-bountiful Nature provided a perpetual feast to their physical -wants, in her luxuriant offerings, ready for use, without toil or -labor. The flocks of the early pastoral days wandered from field to -field, along with their shepherd kings. Ample was the territory as -they forsook the soil when winter chilled, and roamed to summer climes -exempt from care. Simple in their tastes, they grew and multiplied -until they became mighty nations. But the monarchs of the animal -world, the kings of the forests, could not brook any inroads upon -their dominions, and self-defence awoke man's ingenuity, and armed him -with the war-club, the unerring stone and sling, the quivering arrow, -and pointed javelin. The practised hand, thus trained in vanquishing -the roaring lion, easily turned against his neighbor man, and the -stronger prevailed in the usurpation of coveted territories. - -Thus war, in the absence of the arts of modern civilization became -the sole aim of these wandering tribes. Alliances were sometimes -formed for mutual protection, and territories were ever changing -masters. The primitive belief that the soil was common property, -and that occupancy gave the only title to possession, induced them to -trespass upon the neighboring territories. This same principle exists -even at this present day among some of the people of the East, of whom -the tribe of Yürücks is well known in Turkey, traversing the whole -dominion of Asia Minor, according to the climate they desire to find. - -Passing by the days of Biblical History and the ancient pedigree of -the Arabians, we will observe the first appearance of the Turks on -the pages of history. - -As early as the ninth century, a small but adventurous band of -Scythians, known as the Turkomans, impelled either by famine or -hostility, crossed the Caspian Mountains, and invaded the Armenian -territories. - -Although they were bravely repulsed, still the prosperous condition -of the country was too alluring for them to give up all hope of its -ultimate conquest, they therefore continued to harass the inhabitants -by their incessant incursions. - -In the middle of the eleventh century, a vigorous attempt was made, -under the command of Toghrul Bey, a grandson of Seljuk, one of the -principal families of Tartary, with an army of one hundred thousand -men, who ravaged twenty-four of its provinces. - -Toghrul, already so distinguished by his valor, now embraced Islamism, -and thus added to the thirst of conquest, the ardor of the religion -of the Prophet. Another more desperate sally was made with redoubled -force, which met with similar discomfiture. - -Fourteen years after, the infuriated Tartars collecting an army of -no less than three hundred thousand men, renewed their assaults. - -Armenia was at this time not only harassed on all sides by Greeks, -Saracens, and Persians, but rent by the internal dissensions of its own -princes; so that it now fell a prey to Toghrul, who massacred, in cold -blood, 140,000 of the inhabitants, carrying many also into captivity. - -The most flourishing provinces in due time were added to the -conquests of the Turkomans, by Alf-arslan the nephew and successor of -Toghrul. Their empire was greatly extended by the son of Alf-arslan, -Melik-Shah, and was subsequently divided among three branches of -the house of Seljuk. Suleyman, the third in descent from Melik-Shah, -was the first Turkoman prince who governed Asia Minor. - -Er-Toghrul, or Orthogrul, the son of Suleyman, having by his assistance -on a certain occasion, secured a victory to Ali-ed-din, the sultan of -Babylon, Kara-Hissar in Bithynia, was bestowed upon him, and there -he settled with his family, which consisted of three sons. Osman, -the eldest son and successor of his father, Orthogrul, was left by -the death of Ali-ed-din, the ally of his father, without a rival in -the government of Syria; he was accordingly proclaimed sultan. - -In the year 1,300 he made Neapolis the capital of his dominions, -and from thence is dated the foundation of the present Ottoman empire. - -Osman was so distinguished by his conquests, and became so endeared to -his subjects, that ever since his time, the appellation of Osmanlis has -been adopted by them; and the word Türk, or Turk, so indiscriminately -applied to them by the Europeans, is not only inappropriate, but of -a disagreeable signification, for it is only used among themselves -as an epithet of opprobrium. - -In the twenty-sixth year of his reign, Osman took the city of Broossa, -in Asia Minor, which his son Orkhan, who succeeded him, made the -capital of his dominions. The desire, however, to possess the city of -Stamboul, was transferred with increasing ardor from sultan to sultan; -but the glory of its conquest was reserved for Mohammed II. - -The effeminate condition of the Greeks favored his design; for out -of a population of 200,000 men, there were scarcely 8,000 ready to -defend their capital; and on the 29th of May, 1453, Constantinople -fell into the hands of the Osmanlis, or descendants of Osman, who -have held it in possession until the present day. - -It is evident that the Osmanlis are the descendants of the Scythians, -or one of the Tartar tribes; but who those Scythians originally were, -may be questioned. - -A very curious, but plausible theory is advanced by some persons, -that the Tartars are of the Jewish race. Tarat-har or Tartar, in the -Syrian language, signifies the remnant of a people. - -Now, in the second book of Kings, it is recorded that the King of -Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria, and placed -them in Halah and Habor, by the river of Gozan in the cities of the -Medes. This was about 720 years before Christ. - -Medea is situated near the Caspian Sea; possessed entirely by these -Tartars. - -The names which are given to their principal cities, are the same as -were common among the Jews. For instance, the capital of Tartary is -called Semerkand; which is a corruption of Samaryan, very similar to -Samaria. There are, moreover, many relics of antiquity in this city, -which bear undeniable evidences of having been Jewish monuments. They -have also another town called Jericho, a Mount Sion and a Mount Tabor, -with a river Yordon or Jordan. - -They are divided into ten tribes, bearing names similar to the ancient -patriarchs of Israel. - -They are under one government, but avoid all intermarriages; which -was also a peculiar observance of the Jews. There is also a great -similarity between the Tartar and the Hebrew languages. The degeneracy -of their language, may be attributed to the fact, that they were -long captives in a strange land, and removed from all intercourse -with more enlightened nations. - -The Tartars have even been known to observe the Jewish rites of -worship and circumcision, and they traditionally boast themselves to -be descended from those Israelites, who, conquering their conquerors, -became possessed of all the territories by the Caspian Sea. Indeed, -Timour-link or Tamerlane the Great, is said to have proudly asserted, -that he was descended in a direct line from the tribe of Dan. - -From these facts, it seems very probable that the people known as the -Tartars, are the ten lost tribes of the Jews; and it is historically -certain, that the founders of the present Turkish Empire, are -descendants of these Tartars. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -RELIGION. - - -Five hundred and sixty-nine years after Christ, Mohammed the prophet -was born at Mecca, where his immediate ancestors had for many years -enjoyed a sort of regal and priestly authority over the Caaba or Temple -of the Arabians, which, for at least seven hundred years, had been the -shrine of adoration for the worshippers of the sun, moon, and stars. - -His family was considered the most illustrious, among the tribes of -the Arabs, so that he was born to distinction. - -The early loss of his parents left him an orphan, under the care of -his uncle Abu-Taleb, who paid little attention to his nephew. - -At the early age of twelve years, he was initiated into the mysteries -of Eastern commerce, as he journeyed with his uncle through Syria, -to Bassora and Damascus. But the contemplative mind of this youth, -destined to become the Prophet of his country, gathered into its -fructifying soil the tenets of the religious faith of the Christians, -which were more congenial to his spirit than the idolatries of his -own people. - -The Arabs too, were anticipating the birth of a Messiah of their own, -who was to descend from the sacred guardians of the Caaba; so that -circumstances seemed to point out to the precocious youth, this road -to greatness. - -Well born, of insinuating manners and graceful address, noble and -majestic in appearance, Mohammed became the object of affection to -the wealthy widow Khatijeh, who married him, and thus riches were -added to his facilities. - -The great crowd of pilgrims who assembled in Mecca, afforded the -Prophet constant occasions for the discussion of various systems of -religious faith, until Mohammed resolved to announce himself as the -completion of the revelation of God to the Jews and Christians--the -predicted by Moses and Christ, who coming after them, should be the -greatest of all the prophets. - -To the idolatrous Arabs he proclaimed one God, omnipotent and -imperishable; to the Christians he revived the unity of their Maker, -and recalled to the Jews the Jehovah, whose worship they had so -corrupted. - -The confusion of the Asiatic states, rent with wars, tumults and -heresies, wonderfully favored the spread of Mohammedanism, even beyond -the warmest anticipations of the Prophet. - -Arming himself with the sword, and promising the joys of paradise to -every soldier of the Crescent who should die on the battle-field, -he led on this wonderful prodigy of a religious faith, conquering -and to conquer. - -At this day there are no less than 200,550,000 Mahommedans! The Koran, -or the written, is the compendium of the faith, practice and civil laws -of Mussulmans, ingeniously compiled by their great Arabian Prophet, and -is styled by the Faithful, The Light of God, Sole Guide to Paradise, -Divine Director to Heavenly Glories, and in common parlance, The -Eternal Word--Kelamu-Kadim. They acknowledge the divine origin of -the Pentateuch, the Psalms of David, and the four Gospels, and upon -these books, with the Koran, their oaths are taken. - -The Koran declares, "Verily the true religion in the sight of God -is Islam," which is the proper name of the Mohammedan faith, and it -signifies resignation or submission to the service and commands of -God. It consists of two principles, Iman, or Faith, and Din, Religion -or Practice. - - - - -IMAN OR FAITH. - -The great article of Faith is called Salavat, and is expressed in -these words: - -"La-Illah, Ill-Allah, Mohammed Ressoul-Ullah." There is no God, -but God, and Mohammed is the Apostle of God. - -They deny the doctrine of the Trinity, although they acknowledge the -attributes of God, his greatness, goodness, justice, omnipresence, -omniscience, and incomprehensibility. Christ is acknowledged to have -been a prophet greater than Moses, but inferior to Mohammed. He is -styled the Word of God, Kelam-Ullah, in their writings, supposed -to have been miraculously conceived by the Virgin Mary, but not of -divine origin. The crucifixion they regard as inconsistent with the -justice of God; to yield up so mighty a prophet, endowed with power to -work miracles, and raise the dead, a victim to the unbelieving Jews, -they deem incompatible with divine supremacy, and even say, that when -Christ was led out to die, he was, invisibly to his persecutors, -transported into heaven, Judas the betrayer being substituted -in his stead. No terrors of eternal punishment in a future state -distract the unfaithful Moslems, all of whom will, in due time, -expiate their offences and be admitted to happiness. Two angels -are supposed to attend them through life and in death. One white, -glorious and commiserate; the other black, severe, and cruel. - -There will also be a last judgment, when a tremendous trumpet will -shake the earth to atoms. God will judge all men. Moses, Christ, -and Mohammed, will appear at the head of their respective followers, -as intercessors. And Cain will lead the immense multitude of the -damned, who are doomed to suffer till their sins are cancelled, -when they will take their seats in Paradise; while Hell, the Devil, -and his wicked angels, will be suddenly annihilated. - -A narrow bridge, fine as a hair, called Surat, lies over the region -of the damned. The righteous, upheld by their guardian angels, pass -over safely; while the guilty fall down into awful flames and torture, -doomed to quaff nothing but "boiling water, until their bowels burst." - -Paradise is above the seventh heaven, near the throne of God. A vast -and beautiful region, with palaces of gold and gardens of perpetual -delight, in the midst of which is the tree of happiness, Tuba, -whose roots are in the palace of the Prophet, but whose branches, -loaded with luscious fruits and all kinds of meats prepared for food, -silken robes and caparisoned steeds, will extend to the dwelling of -every true believer. Softly murmuring fountains, cooling shades and -grottoes, mountains of sparkling diamonds, and golden trees, will -adorn the gardens of delight, while the ravishing houris of these -enchanting regions, will be blessed with perpetual youth and virginity. - -The most insignificant of the Faithful will have a retinue of -80,000 servants and 72 wives, of the sweetly odoriferous damsels, -created of pure musk, in addition to the companions of his earthly -sojourn. Delicious streams of wine, milk, and honey, will flow on -perpetually; balmy zephyrs will pervade the atmosphere; the very -physical excretions of the true believers will be but odoriferous -exhalations. - -While the senses are thus ravished with delights, the most excelling -of all their beatific visions will be the presence of Allah, which -is beyond the power of language to describe. - -Fatalism is a characteristic item in the Mohammedan creed. - -They believe that whatever happens is pre-ordained by the Omniscient, -which article of faith is designated Kader or predestination. But the -doctrine of "free-agency" the Iradeyi-Jüseeyé or the "lesser will," -is also in their creed. Hence every one is bound to exert himself to -his utmost; and it is only when he fails, that he resigns himself -calmly and philosophically to his disappointment, saying kader, -or it is my fate. - -The following legend may perhaps serve to illustrate the spirit of -Oriental Fatalism: - -Half-way across the Bosphorus, and between Seraglio Point and Scutari, -in Asia, is the renowned Kiz-Koulessi, or the Maiden's Tower. It -was predicted that the beautiful daughter of a certain sultan would -meet with an early death, from the bite of a serpent. Contrary to -prediction, her father hoped to avert her fate, by placing her in a -situation inaccessible to those reptiles. As he revolved the subject -in his mind, from the windows of the Seraglio, his eye rested on -the rock in the stream, where he immediately ordered a tower to be -erected, and thither the unhappy princess was conveyed and immured -in her island home. - -But who can resist the decrees of Fate? - - - Bin djahd etsen na-muradé - Olmaz moukadderden ziyadé. - - You may do your utmost, - But you cannot conquer Fate. - - -Scutari, fruitful in vineyards, and far-famed for its delicious grapes, -was destined to furnish the venom, which poisoned the crimson tide in -the veins of the beautiful sultana; for a basket of Scutari grapes -concealed the viper, which was the instrument in the hand of Fate, -and the fulfillment of the prophecy. - -It is, doubtless, in the recollection of many of the citizens of New -York, that a short time ago an individual passing by Wallack's Theatre -was suddenly killed by the falling of the flag-staff from the top of -the building. This sad occurrence was not the result of carelessness -or temerity, but purely accidental; and would also be termed in Turkey -kaza or accident. Yet why the accident should have happened to this -individual more than to any other of the hundreds of persons who -passed the same spot--Mohammedan doctrine would simply answer, "it -was his kader or predestination." To mourn, therefore, for the dead, -or complain against misfortune, would by them be esteemed a grievous -sin, as though censuring the Almighty, without whose knowledge "not -a sparrow falleth to the ground." - -It is not Fatalism that makes the Mohammedan indifferent -to casualties, but his exaggerated and misconceived ideas of his -religious obligations; for human imperfectibility is as prominent an -article of their creed as Fatalism, and even induces a disposition to -avoid self-improvement either intellectually or externally. Perfection -being the attribute of the Deity, it is unbecoming in his creatures to -assert, in any form whatever, their capabilities of approximation to -such a condition. While, then, their minds repose in the simplicity of -innate ideas, they even seek imperfection in the investiture of their -bodies. They will rend their garments so as to mar their completeness, -assume an air of general slovenliness, or studiously clip the corner -of a sheet of paper to destroy its regular uniformity. - -It is, then, most erroneous to suppose that the doctrine of Fatalism -is so antagonistic to civilization in the East, as it implies -resignation to the Divine will, and by no means impedes active -personal exertion. But in reality it is the seeming propriety of -human imperfection, in contradistinction to the Divine excellence, -which has hitherto maintained a spirit of indifference to progressive -improvement. While an entire submission to the course of events, as -preordained and predestined by the Omniscient, prevents all restless -anxiety, and calms the repinings of the heart-broken and weary, -this more truly fatal and false notion of inferiority, only leaves -the immortal mind in a sort of embryo state, lest, perchance, there -should be any assimilation to the great Supreme Essence, from which -it is but an emanation, or the spark should glow with the brightness -of the fire from which it has been wafted. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -SECTARIANISM. - - -Besides the Koran, there are other sacred and traditional books -called the Sonnah, the productions of Abubekir, Omer, and Osman, the -successors of the Prophet. The ancient caliphs of Egypt and Babylon -have also added their own. These books have numerous commentaries upon -them, which constitute the principal part of the Mohammedan literature, -and have been the source of much dissension. Sectarianism, therefore, -prevails among the Mussulmans as in every part of the world. We will -only mention those sects with whom the traveller in the East is apt -to come in contact. - -The principal schism which divides the Mohammedan nation is that of -the Sünnees and the Sheyees. - -The Sünnees are the orthodox party, and believe in the traditions -attributed to the Prophet and his successors, and are strict in all -their observances. Whereas the Sheyees reject all traditions and -are strict legitimists, adhering to Aali, who married the Prophet's -daughter, as the rightful successor, and rendering their homage to -his descendants. - -The Turks are all Sünnees, and the Persians Sheyees, the one is more -fanatical, the other more superstitious, and as the difference between -them is small, so is their mutual hatred proportionably intense. - -The Sünnees repudiate Aali, the infallible director of the Sheyees, -who, in their turn, decapitate the representatives of the Prophet, -Abubekir, Omer, and Osman in effigy. For they erect these persons in -sugar at their festivals, and when merry over their wine, cut the -respected friends of Mohammed into pieces and actually drink them -in solution. - -The Turks elevate the sacred color, green, to their heads and -turbans with the greatest respect, but in contradistinction, the -Persians choose this hue for their shoes, trowsers, and every other -disrespectful use their ingenuity can devise. When the one shaves, the -other does not, and scorns the thorough ablutions of his rival. Indeed -no matter how or what, so it be vice versâ. - -Most ingenious and vituperative are their mutual curses. "May your -fatigued and hated soul, when damned to Berzak (purgatory), find -no more rest than a Giavour's hat enjoys upon earth." Doubtless -alluding to the peculiar custom of the Franks in uncovering their -head in saluting, and the wear and tear that head-gear has to -undergo. "May your transmuted soul become in hell a hackney ass, -for the Jews themselves to ride about on," and many such emphatic -compliments are the height of fashion among the zealous adherents of -each adverse party. - -Not only in the West, but in the East, - - - "'Tis strange there should such difference be, - 'Twixt tweedledum and tweedledee." - - -Apart from the foregoing, the very meaning of the word Islam, or -resignation to the service and commands of God, has been a source of -much dissertation and dissension, and has produced a variety of sects, -of which the Hanefees, Mevlevees, Rifayees, and Abdals, are the most -noted in Turkey. The Hanefees are the contemplative philosophers, -Oriental spiritualists or transcendentalists; and to this class the -sultan and the principal part of the people belong. The Mevlevees are -the dancing or whirling dervishes, and they may therefore be considered -as the Oriental Shakers. Their object is practical resignation to -God, which state of mind they think they attain, by whirling round -and round until their senses are lost in the dizzy motion. - -They conform to the general tenets and observances, but their form -of worship is peculiar. - -Their religious edifices are called Tekkés, which are open every -Tuesday and Friday, and are frequently visited by the sultan and -Europeans in general. - -A large square space, which is surrounded by a circular railing, -constitutes the scene of their ritual, or ceremonies. A gallery -occupies three sides of the building, in which is the latticed -apartment of the sultan, and the place for the Turkish ladies. - -In every mosque, and here also, there is a niche opposite the entrance, -called the Mihrab, which indicates the direction of Mecca. The walls -are adorned with entablatures, ornamented with verses from the Koran, -and with ciphers of sultans, and mottos in memory of other benevolent -individuals, who have endowed the Tekké. - -The Sheikh, or leader of the community, sits in front of the Mihrab, -on an Angora goat-skin, or a carpet, attended by two of his disciples. - -An attenuated old man, with a visage furrowed and withered by -time, bronzed by many successive suns, his long and grizzly beard -witnessing to the ravages of age, while his prominent eyes sparkling -like lightnings amid the surrounding darkness, are the only symbols -of animation or life, in his worn-out frame. - -The dervishes, as they enter, make a low obeisance with folded hands -to this patron saint, with an air of mystic veneration, and take -their stand with their faces towards Mecca. The old sheikh arises, -and presiding over the assembly commences the services. - -Their peculiar head-gear, called sikké, of thick brown felt, in the -shape of a sugar loaf, and long and flowing robes of varied hues, -make them seem like fantastic representations of some other sphere, -particularly, when they commence the slow and measured prostrations -of Mussulman worship. - -Prayers being over, each dervish doffs his mantle, and appears in a -long white fustanella, trailing the polished floor, and of innumerable -folds, with a tightly fitting vest of the same pure color. - -They now defile two by two before the sheikh, who extending his hand -towards them, seems to diffuse a sort of magnetism, which irradiates -every countenance. - -As they stand immovable, the wild and thrilling music slowly pervades -every sense, until suddenly one of the number extends his arms, -and begins to revolve noiselessly, with slow and measured step. The -folds of his ample skirt now gradually open like the wings of a bird, -and with the swiftness of his motion, expand, until the dervish -only appears like the centre of a whirlwind. The rest are all alike -in motion, arms extended, eyes half closed as in a dream, the head -inclined on one side, they move round and round to the measured time -of the music, as if floating in ecstasy. - -The calm and unimpassioned chief, with slow and stealthy step, -wanders among their evolutions. Suddenly they cease, and march around -the circle. The music increases its measure, and the dervishes again -commence their giddy motions; old and young seem to be in a visionary -rhapsody. Perhaps transported in the bewildering whirl to the regions -of the blest, they languish with rapture in the arms of the houris -of Paradise; or lose their earthly senses amid the glories which -surround the throne of Allah; till suddenly they stand transfixed, -their outspread and snowy drapery folding around them like the marble -investment of an antique statue. - -They are all prostrated, exhausted by their ecstasies, and immovable, -until the sheikh recalls them to the realities of time by his holy -benediction, when they slowly rise again, compass the building, and -enveloping themselves with their cast-off mantles, silently disappear. - - - - -HOWLING DERVISHES. - -There is an intoxication in the very motions of the whirling dervishes, -but the horrible ceremonies of the Rifayees are really distressing -to the beholder. - -A long, empty hall, much like that of the Inquisition, as its walls are -adorned by an infinite variety of instruments of torture, constitutes -their temple of worship. - -The fanatical disciples of this sect assemble every Thursday at -their Tekké, which is in Scutari, and after the performance of the -usual ritual of the Mussulmans, commence their ceremonies by ranging -themselves along the three sides of the apartment and within the -balustrade, which serves to separate them from the spectators. - -Their sheikh takes his stand before the Mihrab facing the assembly, -and three or four of the members furnishing themselves with instruments -of music place themselves in the centre of the hall. - -The performance then begins, by a monotonous chant, accompanied -with music, and the waving of their heads to and fro, which seems to -create a sympathetic vertigo in the Mussulman bystanders--for they -often are irresistibly drawn into the ranks. - -By degrees, the motion increases, the chant grows louder, and their -countenances become livid, and their lungs seem to expand with the -noise and excitement. - -The line becomes a solid phalanx as they place their arms on each -other's shoulders, and withdrawing a step, suddenly advance with a -tremendous and savage yell, Allah--Allah--Allah--hoo! which divine -appellative is to be repeated a thousand times uninterruptedly. - -This strenuous effort renders them perfectly hideous, their very eyes -seem ready to start from their sockets, and their lips foam as the -inspiration possesses them. Thus retreating and springing forward, -they, each time, with increasing energy, renew their invocations of -Allah, Allah, Allah, hoo! until the distinctness of their articulation -is lost, and their exclamation becomes, in reality a complete howl, -as if proceeding from a pack of enraged dogs--thus meriting the -sobriquet of the "Howling Dervishes." - -The movements and cries increase in swiftness until a mist of dust -pervades the dim apartment, and the wild and pale enthusiasts, -drenched with perspiration, seem like fantastic demons in the realms -of discord. Suddenly some of them, stripped to their waists, rush -forward and seizing the poignards and stilettoes, commence a wild, -infuriated dance, jumping, leaping, and lacerating themselves--fixing -the weapons into the hollow of their cheeks, and twisting them round -and round, as if on pivots, until, exhausted from exertion, they fall -to the ground in a spasmodic fit. - - - "Only to show with how small pain, - The sores of faith are cured again," - - -Now the enthusiastic mothers approach, and cast their children -before the presiding sheikh, who, as they lie extended before him, -deliberately plants his heavy feet upon their frail bodies, and -so stands for some seconds. Old men and maidens, lay themselves low -before this saint, who is supposed to be by this time so inspired as to -have a miraculous power of expressing all ailments and maladies from -the human frame, and to have become so etherealized by the ecstatic -ceremonies as to lose all his specific gravity. - -The Abdals include the various classes of the stoics, who generally -pretend to a total renunciation of all worldly comforts. Sometimes -clothed in the coarsest garments, and again half naked, and even -with lacerated bodies, they wander through the Mohammedan dominions, -a miserable set of frantic, idle, and conceited beggars. They may, -in fact, be considered the "communists" of the East, who despising -honest pursuits, live upon the community at large. - -They commit the worst extravagances under the pretence of heavenly -raptures, and are even supposed to be divinely inspired. Idiots and -fools are esteemed by the Mohammedans as the favorites of Heaven; -their spirits are supposed to have deserted their earthly tenements, -and to be holding converse with angels, while their bodies still -wander about the earth. - -It would be wearisome to go into further details; for infinite is the -diversity of the orthodox theologies of the Mohammedans, with the 235 -articles of the creed, on which all the doctors of divinity differ; -hopeless must be the task of the student to surmount the commentaries -of the 280 canonical authors, not to mention the innumerable heretical -tenets of other sects, which must be studied to be controverted. - -Verily we would suggest the recipe of a certain Molla, who must have -given up in dire despair, "Whenever you meet with an infidel, abuse him -with all your might, and no one will doubt you are a staunch believer." - -As long as war and its exciting scenes occupied the restless minds -of the Arabs, there was no time for religious or party intrigue. The -simple "La Illah-Illallah," satisfied the momentary breathings of -their souls heavenward. - -The turmoil of their life, the glitter of their arms and dreadful -carnage of all infidels, sufficed to ease their fancy, and satisfy -the thirst for excitement. - -It was as they wiped their blood-stained scimitars, and during the -reaction which comparative peace and luxury created, that their minds, -free from more substantial food and activity, sought greater refinement -of spirituality. - -In the absence of the real, the speculative began to grow, until Imams -and Ulema found that they could turn the tide of human affairs to their -own advantage, by exciting polemical and theological controversies. - -A comparative study of the niceties of Mussulman doctrine, and -hair-breadth distinctions with those of more refined and enlightened -creeds, while it displays many and striking similarities, only -illustrates, with startling vividness, the time worn maxim, that -"there is nothing new under the sun." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -DIN OR PRACTICE OF RELIGION. - - -The Din, or Practice of Religion, comprises ablution, prayer, alms, -fasting, and a pilgrimage to Mecca. - -Ablution.--Bathing, and various forms of ablutions, were practised long -before the time of Mohammed; but he has incorporated cleanliness with -his religion, until his followers seem to regard water as not only -possessed of virtue to cleanse the pollutions of their bodies, but -as purifying their souls from the contamination of sin. Therefore, -fountains are always to be found in the neighborhood of all the -mosques, in every part of the city and its suburbs, and on the -highways--for they never omit this preliminary to their devotions, -which includes washing the face, hands, and feet; and when they -happen to be in the desert, where no water can be obtained, sand -is substituted. Indeed, the same ablutions are so essential, that -their observance is invariably required of the faithful, before the -administration of an oath. - -Prayers. Five times a day the Mussulmans are summoned to prayer by -the muezzin. - -Early in the morning, just before the sun is above the horizon, the -ezan resounds through the still atmosphere, from the airy balcony of -the tapering Minaré. - -The Muezzin, covering his ears with his hands, as if to exclude all -terrestrial sound, turns his face towards Mecca, and chants with -musical cadence, the beautiful Arabic formula. "Allah, ikber! Allah -ikber! &c, great God! great God! there is no God, but God! I attest -that Mohammed is the apostle of God! Oh, Great Redeemer! Oh! Ruler -of the universe! great God! great God! there is no God but God!" and -he slowly moves round the balcony, as if addressing the inhabitants -of all parts of the world. - -Those who catch the echoes of the holy call, exclaim with solemn -earnestness, "There is no power, no strength but in God Almighty." - -Again, when the hour of noon seems to indicate a moment of repose -to the work-day world, the ezan summons all thoughts and aspirations -to the great God. At three o'clock in the afternoon, at sunset, and -finally at nine o'clock, the call resounds ere they prepare for sleep. - -How beautiful thus to note the passage of time, to look thus from earth -to heaven, to forget for a moment all worldly cares, and breathe out -a soul aspiration towards a better land. - -Those who happen to be near a mosque, enter it for the purpose -of performing their devotions; others are in their own houses; -and many prostrate themselves by the wayside; or even on board the -daily steamers. The mosques are always open, and there is an Imam -who presides over the devotions. - -The interior of a mosque, is as simple as that of any Protestant -church. The only ornaments seen are the suspended lamps, interspersed -here and there with ostrich eggs. There are no accommodations for -sitting down, and the altar is the niche or mihrab. There is a small -pulpit on one side, from which a sermon is preached every Friday noon; -but the form of prayer is always the same. - -As they assemble, they leave their shoes at the door, "for the ground -is holy," and seat themselves upon the floor, which is either covered -with carpet or matting. - -At the appointed time, the Imam commences the service, by taking his -position before the mihrab; and placing his thumbs behind his ears, -as if with his open palms to shut out all objects of sense, proclaims -to the assembly, "Allah-ikber! Allah-ikber!" The congregation rise and -imitate the officiating priest. All remain standing with their hands -folded on their bosoms, while the Imam repeats the first chapter of the -Koran--which is the Lord's Prayer of the Mohammedans, termed Fatiha. - -"In the name of the most merciful God; praise be to God, the Lord of -all creatures; the most merciful; the King of the day of judgment; -thee do we worship, and of thee do we beg assistance; direct us in -the right way, in the way of those to whom thou hast been gracious; -not of those against whom them art incensed, nor of those who go -astray. Amen." - -They then make a semi-genuflexion, by placing the hands on the knees, -and bending the person forward. A complete genuflexion succeeds, -which is made by bending the knees to the ground, and extending the -arms forward as a support to the body, while the forehead touches -the ground. - -These same genuflexions are again repeated; then partially rising they -sit on their bended knees. Here endeth the first lesson, for two other -similar ceremonies are repeated successively, during which any portion -of the Koran may be selected by the officiating Imam for recitation. - -The termination of the service is known when the Imam, after a few -moments of silent meditation, slowly turns his head, first towards -the right and then to the left, in token of salutation to the two -recording angels who are supposed to be hovering over each shoulder. He -then strokes his beard, and rises from his devotions. His example is -followed by the congregation, who immediately disperse. - -There is a wonderful air of sacred stillness during the services in -a mosque. The simplest and plainest attire is worn, and everything -excluded which could divert the attention from God and his worship. - -No man utters prayers as matters of form, while he stares about to -see how his neighbors' clothes are fashioned. No sound of footsteps or -creaking boots is heard, nor opening or shutting of pews. No cushioned -seats invite to listlessness, or even to slumbers; no ennui steals -over their devotional spirits; the world is literally and practically -excluded. No earthly houris tempt their thoughts from God, with -alluring smiles and recognitions; there is no peeping from behind -the prayer books, or fluttering fans, or any other of the insinuating -wiles of coquetry. - -Ladies with their sweet eyes turned to heaven, while their rosy lips -are modeled to scorn of their neighbor's want of taste and fashion, -are invisible in the Mohammedan temple. - -Here the faithful come to worship God, and they wisely divest the -shrine of their devotions of all the trappings of earthly grandeur, -and leave beyond the portal the alluring and sensual pleasures -of earth. The presence of Infidels during the hours of worship -is expressly forbidden, not only as being a source of mental -distraction to the faithful, but in reality an act of perjury on -their own part. "It is not fitting that the idolaters should visit -the temples of God, being witnesses against their own souls of their -infidelity. The works of these men are vain, and they shall remain -in hell-fire forever. But he only shall visit the temples of God, -who believeth in God and the last day, and is constant at prayer, -and payeth legal alms, and feareth God alone." - -Alms.--The essence of Islamism, resignation to the will of God, has -its legitimate effect upon the benevolence of the Mohammedans. If Allah -bestows wealth and luxury, they receive and enjoy the good gifts, but -without any self-gratulation. If misfortune arrive, they submit without -any feeling of degradation, practically illustrating the words of Job, -"Shall we receive good at the hand of the Lord and not evil?" - -The faithful are enjoined to be constant in prayer and give -alms. "Contribute out of your substance towards the religion of God, -and throw not yourselves into perdition. Do good, for God loveth those -who do good; unto such of you as believe and bestow alms, shall be -given a great reward," and whoever pays not his legal contribution of -alms duly, it is declared by Mohammed, that he shall have a serpent -twisted about his neck at the resurrection; so that the Mussulmans -have every incentive to charity, both as regards this life and that -which is to come. - -It is very common for them to found charitable institutions, such -as poorhouses, hospitals, etc., and the same principles of charity -induce them to an unlimited hospitality. - -During the feast of Ramazan, a special table is set for the poor, -in the houses of the wealthy, who come and partake without summons or -invitation. The innumerable beggars and mendicant dervishes in Turkey, -are doubtless tolerated from the same spirit of liberality. - -As the Koran is but a compilation from Jewish and Christian writers, -adapted to the spirit of the age in which it was promulgated, no -doubt the difficult but sublime doctrine of Christ, "Let not thy right -hand know what thy left hand doeth," was appreciated by the Prophet -in his directions regarding the exercise of the grace of charity: -"God loveth not the proud or vainglorious, nor those who bestow -their wealth in charity, to be observed of men." "Verily God will not -wrong any one, even the weight of an ant, and if it be a good action, -He will double it, and will recompense it in his sight with a great -reward." Their charities are, therefore, bestowed with the greatest -modesty and willingness, their supplications for aid from others made -without any air of servility. - -It devolves, then, upon modern civilization to establish corporate -and organized charitable bodies in Turkey, and to initiate the simple -Mussulmans into the self satisfaction which is awakened by public -meetings, and the parade of printed records. - -Fasting.--We live to eat, or we eat to live--therefore when we -are denied the great business and aim of life, we undergo a very -palpable kind of mortification. The dainty epicurean seldom conforms -to any regulations for extra abstemiousness, while others, more -superstitious, merely vary the hours of their repast--merging the -substantial meal into those which have not the nomenclature, but yet -become the reality of a good dinner. Again, the pleasant variety of -fish for fowl, or of oil for butter, does not leave any sensation of -emptiness, or mortification of the appetite. But there is a sort of -genuineness in the Mohammedan style of observing a fast--when, for -fourteen consecutive hours, absolutely nothing passes the lips--not -a drop of water, not even the homemade saliva is swallowed--no -hunger-easing pipe is smoked, nor anything indulged in to palliate -the gnawings of hunger and thirst. The laborer toils under a summer -sun--the weary hammal climbs the towering hills under an incredible -load--the athletic boatman for many hours pulls the oars; work, toil, -labor cease not, but the wonted sustenance is utterly withheld. - -It is wonderful to see this part of the Mussulman population during -the fasting season--bodily strength and vigor exuding in profuse -perspiration from every pore, while steady persistence in utter -abstinence from all refreshment is persevered in. - -This great monthly fast occurs once in every year-- - -"The month of Ramazan shall ye fast, in which the Koran was sent down." - -As they observe the lunar year, it falls in all seasons--and when it -occurs during the dog-days, the sufferings of the faithful are truly -great and distressing. Not only are they forbidden all lusts of the -belly and the flesh, such as may be committed by the eye, ear, tongue, -hand, feet and other members, but the heart must be abstracted as much -as possible from the world, and turned only to God and paradise--thus, -a season of holy rest is instituted. - -Among the many idlers who can afford to loiter away the day, some -assume an appearance of unusual sanctimoniousness, whose peculiarly -long faces and abstracted airs, most effectually ward off any attempts -to recall them to the realities of life. - -They listlessly toy with their chaplets, gazing into vacancy as -polished bead after bead slips through their fingers, and seemingly are -as divested of thought, as the unmeaning, but apparently, absorbing -playthings they ever dangle. These beads have no such significance -as the Catholic rosaries, but are always in the hand of the Oriental -gentlemen and ladies, and are often of great value, being composed -of large pearls and other precious gems, though the ordinary style -is to make them of cocoa shells, whale teeth, ivory or amber. - -During this fast the faithful are at the gate of religion, and the -very odor of their breath is considered to be sweeter than musk to -the olfactories of Allah! - -Some of them observe the fast in its true spirit and letter, and -all externally conform to its regulations. No doubt to those who are -incapable of religious ecstasies, who cannot transport themselves out -of the world, while clogged with their human tenements, who relish -not the unsubstantial viands of a superstitious faith, the hours drag -very heavily on from sunrise to sunset. - -Physical necessities sometimes force the less spiritualized to taste -some of the forbidden fruits, or to avail themselves of this occasion -to test the truth of the proverb, that "Stolen waters are sweet, -and bread eaten in secret is pleasant." - -The more faithful, in the midst of their sufferings remember that -as Mohammed was, fortunately, of human mould like themselves, -he informed them "God would make this an ease unto you and not a -difficulty--therefore * * * * * God knoweth that ye defraud yourselves -therein and forgiveth you, and now therefore * * * * * and earnestly -desire that which God ordaineth you, and eat and drink until ye can -plainly distinguish a white thread by the day-break, then keep the -fast until night," &c. - -Thus the faithful acquire new zest for all their sensual appetites as -they anxiously listen for the sunset Ezan, which releases them from -their sufferings. The breaking of the fast is called Iftar. Each person -is furnished with a small table, upon which are a bowl of light soup, -a few olives, some preserves and cakes. A chibouk, already filled and -ready to be lighted, is placed by their side. When the cannon booming -over the Bosphorus, announces the setting sun, each one partakes -sparingly of these refreshments, and having regaled himself with the -fumes of tobacco, attends to his regular sunset prayers, after which -a sumptuous dinner is served and enjoyed. The grand Namaz (prayer) -is performed, after which night is turned into day. The streets, -usually dark and sombre, are brightly illuminated and filled with -people, Mussulmans, Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and other Giavours, -who all seem anxious to enjoy the carnival, if not to share the -penance. The slender and tapering minarés are now girdled in light, -while between the consecrated spires, depend fantastic and luminous -bodies, the brilliant but mimic forms of familiar objects. The kahvés -are crowded with wearied Mussulmans, puffing out clouds of smoke, -in pure spite for their long abstinence from their favorite weed, -while their imaginations are regaled with the exciting tales of the -Meddahs, or the drolleries of the far famed Kara-gueöz. - -Stalls are erected with all the various preparations of food peculiarly -agreeable to Turkish palates; tempting shops stand invitingly open, and -tinkling music vibrates through the air. If Allah only is remembered in -the day, night seems to exclude that divinity from every thought; while -Eblis is apparently enthroned with all the orgies of his dominions. - -Exhausted nature at length compels the laboring classes to seek -their couches, while the more fortunate pashas and efendis, beguile -the remaining hours till morn, with continued festivities and the -exchange of social visits. - -Just before daybreak, the drum resounds through the streets of the -metropolis, when the faithful, without any reluctance, arise from -their slumbers to avail themselves of their last chance of regaling -their appetites and fortifying their corporeal frames against the -sufferings of the next fourteen consecutive hours. - -The morning gun, now booming upon the still air, re-echoed from hill -to hill, proclaims the dawn of another day, of self mortification at -the "gate of Heaven." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA. - - -How true the observation that the most helpless of all creatures -is man, born of a woman, who cometh forth like the tender bud of a -delicate and fading flower. - -The ever-living soul embarks on the vast ocean of life, in so frail and -delicate a tenement, that there is no semblance of strength to resist -the angry waves that continually dash against the tempest-tossed and -quivering fabric. - -But it outrides the storm of three score years and ten, until it -is engulfed in the maelstrom and eddying circles of the river of -Death. How vast, how exquisite are the sensibilities of man, whose -first emotions of pleasure and pain, are the alphabet of humanity. - -The pleasure felt by a sentient being, creates the first ideas of -good, while on the other hand the sensation of pain is synonymous -with evil. As we awake into existence, each passing moment seems to -develop new desires; our grasping souls and bodily wants are constantly -re-echoing each other's cravings; unsatisfied human nature is ever -on the alert, crying, give, give. This restless search for good, -pleasure, or happiness, leads its victims astray, and thus is created -the preponderance of evil; for such hot and eager haste stays not to -discriminate. The fatal apple seemed so good and so much to be desired -to the mother of all living, that she took, and ate; but when she had -eaten her eyes were opened. Thus by such efforts to secure the good, -the limit is overstepped, and suffering and sorrow entailed. Still, -none enjoy, and none suffer in the same degree; innumerable have -been the specimens of nature's handiwork, yet never were any two -individuals alike in their natural or intellectual structure. - -There is a wonderful connection between the physical and the moral -in our curious composition; and the latter is so much modified by -the former, that the variety of temperaments and dispositions may be -attributed to the reciprocal influences of these two constituents -of our being. The origin of good and evil is then embodied in our -own hearts, in the structure of the human frame, in our natural -susceptibilities to pleasure and pain. - -The individuality of pleasure and pain creates an approving and -disapproving principle in every human frame, and each man is pleased -with himself, when he enjoys a personal benefit from good or pleasure, -and displeased when he suffers from the consequences of pain or -evil. The lesson is soon learned that the evil might have been avoided, -and conscience raises her silent testimony in the bosom. Apart from our -own sensations, there seems to be a superstitious principle innate in -the human breast, a deference to a supreme good, which as the Ruler -and Creator of the universe, holds all created things in awe, and to -whom the conscience or self-approving and self-condemning principle -pays all deference. - -This principle has existed under every form of humanity, in every -variety of nation and blood, and has been educated, and developed by -different circumstances. - -Thus are derived all religions, and the fear of retribution for -transgressing the bounds which conscience claims for the real good, -and its essence the supreme Creator, has led men to various acts of -atonement or self-recommendation. - -The mind of man instinctively looked from "Nature up to Nature's God," -and sought an embodiment for the Divine essence, as there was for -the human. - -The earliest semblance of Divinity was displayed in the sun, moon, -and stars. The glorious orb of day, the great source of light and -heat, the vivifier of all creation, whose genial rays warming the -bosom of the mother earth, caused the tender grass to spring forth, -and every herb yielding fruit, to give its increase for the sustenance -of animal life, the great luminary of the vast universe, so beautiful -to gaze upon, and so powerful in its sway over the world alotted to -man for a dwelling-place, seemed as if placed in the heavens for the -especial adoration of all created things. - -The gentle moon with silver sheen, and softer radiance was fitting -bride for the all glorious and omnipotent god of day. And the -sparkling stars, like so many distant portals to the dominions of -divine effulgence, emitting each a ray of the internal brightness, -seemed one and all shrines of holy devotion. - -Such was the revelation of nature; and no wonder that the innate -impulse to revere and worship the Author of the universe, was kindled -into a fire of enthusiasm by the scintillations of the starry world. - -Not content with the semblance of the Creator in his works, the -ever-working mind of man sought an object more tangible--and thus, -doubtless originated the idol worship of the ancients. Then followed -a succession of creeds and dogmas, rites and ceremonies, to which -the superstitious principle was ever ready to yield obeisance. - -Ambitious and designing men sought to embody in themselves the germs of -sanctity and holiness--even did they add the sanction of intercourse -with the gods; even did they awaken the silent marble into mysterious -life, and utter oracles and decrees from the lifeless stone. - -Thus was nurtured the superstitious feeling in the multitude, until -the most absurd and revolting rites became the sole end, and aim of -existence--until the simple Hindoo, would, with a holy zeal, cast -himself under the wheels of the ponderous car of Juggernaut, and -while his tortured body was crushed to atoms, rejoice with ecstatic -faith in future felicity. - -The same principle of superstitious self-torment has existed in as -great force under the Christian dispensation. - -Even kings and emperors have tried to stifle the voice of conscience -by the most severe acts of penance and humiliation; and the humbler -members of the human family have willingly suffered every variety -of bodily anguish, which the most cunning devices of a wily and -calculating priesthood could contrive, while from many and hidden -motives, they have striven to produce an entire abnegation of self, -and a renunciation of all worldly hopes in the sin-tormented hearts -of their victims. - -Wars were undertaken, territories were coveted, and a holy crusade -was the pretext for taking possession of the city of Jerusalem, the -shrine of the holy sepulchre, and where crowds of pilgrims brought -their offerings and laid them in the coffers of the sanctuary. - -The dangers which beset the pilgrims amid the scimitars of the -barbarous Tartars, was the pretext for all Europe to rise in arms -with the determination to conquer or die in their defence. - -A wild enthusiast, with haggard features--a body worn and wasted with -fasting and holy vigils, and enveloped in coarse and dusty sackcloth, -elevating the symbolic cross in his attenuated fingers, wanders from -palace to palace, from house to house, from hut to hamlet, calling -aloud for vengeance upon the followers of the Crescent, who dared -to molest the children of God in the performance of their sacred -duties. As his naked feet, pierced by every flinty rock, leave their -crimson stains in his track, so does the thirst for Moslem blood burn -and consume the vitals of the restless human throngs, who listen to -his wild harangues. - -Pope Urban was ready to fan this flame, and the panting multitude -were by his holy and supreme power absolved from the weight of all -past offences as well as all those they should ever commit, if they -would prosecute with zeal this holy war. - -The worst of sinners, robbers and assassins, over whose hardened -hearts there still lingered the dying glow of the internal fire of -conscience, or before whose sin-distempered vision ever flittered -the phantoms of past transgressions, rejoiced to say avaunt for ever, -to the ghosts of their departed crimes, and feel an assurance of no -future retribution for their dark deeds of horror. A new field for -rapine and adventure opened before them, and they rushed impetuously -on to the combat. Many, who had led a life of more retired wickedness -and grown grey in sin were glad to seize a hope of salvation even on -the borders of eternity, and tottered along with the vast concourse. - -Rich and poor, young and old, with fervid zeal embraced the means -of future happiness beyond the grave. And the vast territory through -which these soldiers of the Cross wended their way was whitened with -the bones of the self sacrificed. - -Even after the great champion Godfrey de Bouillon, had gained the -prize, and enjoyed a regal rank of one short year's duration, he -had to surrender his earthly throne to his holiness at Rome, and -content himself like his followers with the hopes of a kingdom in -the unseen world. - -Vain would be the effort to count the victims of religious enthusiasm; -of the attempts to appease the great unseen essence of human life; -to propitiate the favor of that Power, which, as it has called into -being, can also summon his creatures from their earthly tenements, -and dispose of their spirits, as seemeth best to his sovereign will. - -But holy wars, and sin-atoning pilgrimages, are not confined to the -followers of the Cross. - -Wherever the Cresent glitters on the dome, or the muezzin proclaims the -ezan from the pointed minaré; wherever throughout the vast dominions -of the Mussulmans, resounds the cry Allah Ikber! Allah Ikber! are -the countless votaries of the religion of Mohammed, ready to arise -from their peaceful homes, and perform the sacred journey to the -shrine of their faith, the holy temple at Mecca. And year after -year, do the pilgrims trace a wearisome way through desert plains -and scorching heats, to the spot where they may roll off the burden -of self-condemnation, and kiss the all-atoning stone, which has been -the heirloom to mortality, since the foundation of the world. - -Although throngs of Mussulman pilgrims yearly visit the holy city -of Mecca, but few Europeans have left the impress of their footsteps -upon its soil. - -What millions of human beings, nothing intimidated by deserts, -mountains, and all sorts of hardships, have paid their devotions -to this shrine! The great have visited it with pomp, and all its -train of luxury and display; the grasping spirit of trade, has -summoned merchants from all parts of the East. The learned and wise, -of times that were, and times that are, have on the same occasion, -collecting the productions of genius, sought a mart for literature -and renown. Sultanas, and ladies of high and noble rank, have changed -their silken couches for wandering homes through the desert. - -Old age has tottered thither staff in hand, and poverty has never -failed to swell the concourse with its numberless train. The vast -multitude, hundreds of thousands of every rank and profession, crying -"La Illah! Il-Allah! Mohammed Ressoul Ullah!" every year people the -silent wastes of sand with the buzz of human voices, as they toil -along their weary way to the holy city of Mecca. - -Every Mohammedan is enjoined to perform this pilgrimage, or if unable -to go, to send a proxy, or an offering. - -"Verily, the first house appointed unto men to worship in, was that -which is in Mecca, blessed, and a direction to all creatures." - -For there was the Kubla, or point to which they were to turn their -faces in prayer. - -"And proclaim unto the people a solemn pilgrimage; let them come unto -thee on foot, and on every lean camel, arriving from every distant -road; that they may be witnesses of the advantages which accrue to -them from the visiting this holy place, and may commemorate the name -of God, on the appointed days, in gratitude for the brute cattle -which he hath bestowed on them." - -According to the traditions of the Arabs, the city of Mecca has been -the place of religious veneration, from the earliest times. Near -this city, on a mountain, Adam is said to have met his wife Eve, -two hundred years after the expulsion from Paradise. - -Here when Abraham was ready to sacrifice his son Ishmael (not Isaac), -the identical ram, which had been offered by Abel many years before, -was substituted in his place, sent expressly from Paradise. - -Here also, in the days of idolatry, was a temple dedicated to Saturn, -now the holy temple of Mecca. So that Mohammed found this place -already consecrated by sacred and ancient associations. - -Mecca, the birth-place, and Medina, the tomb of the Prophet, are -situated near each other; and not far from the coast of the Red -Sea. Mecca is in a valley surrounded by barren hills, which produce -nothing but the stones of which the houses are constructed. Water, -so essential to life, and most especially to all Mussulmans, is only -supplied by rain which is collected in cisterns; no streams flowing -from the adjacent mountains. Doubtless, the exceeding value all -Mohammedans attach to the pure element, is owing to its scarcity in -these regions, where their religion was promulgated, and the Koran -revealed from heaven. Their Paradise is represented as abounding -in fountains. - -There is "the water of Keafeeree, or camphor," a fountain at which the -people of God shall drink, so likened from the aromatic freshness of -this gum, and its snowy whiteness. The waters of zengefeel or ginger, -and the fountain of zelzebil, whose streams glide softly down the -throat; and the fountain of Taz-nim, which flows from the highest -regions of Paradise, and whereof those shall drink who approach the -Divine presence. - -Notwithstanding the barrenness of the soil and the unfavorable -situation of the city of Mecca, the wealth of its inhabitants is -very great. - -Arabia Felix, truly happy in comparison to the barren and desert tracts -by which she is surrounded, where the gentle zephyrs are perfumed -and laden with aromatic odors, whose villages and towns are crowned -with plenty, and adorned with gardens of delight, and trees bearing -all kinds of fruit, "Araby the blest" pours her treasures into this -holy city. Her gums and spices, olibanum, or frankincense, myrrh of -many kinds, balsams, sugar canes, cocoa nuts, and the fragrant berry -from Mocha. Nature rejoices in a perpetual spring, in this genial -clime which neither chills nor scorches her spicy products. - -In Mecca, congregate a vast crowd of Mussulmans with their merchandise -from all quarters of the East, so that the inducement, held out by -the Prophet, that "they may be witnesses of the advantages which -accrue from visiting this holy place," has no little power on the -calculations of the enterprising, while a misguided religious zeal -sways the multitude. - -The holy temple of Mecca has been under the successive patronage -of the caliphs, the sultans of Egypt and of Turkey, until by the -constant acquisition of wealth, it has attained its present splendid -magnificence. - -No unbeliever can profane the sacred precincts with the dust of his -feet, nor approach within gun shot of the consecrated portico, during -the season of the visitation of the pilgrims. Nor must the Faithful -defile their sinless bodies by any contact with the unsanctified -flesh and blood of the infidel Jews and Christians. - -"O true believers, verily the idolaters are unclean; let them not -therefore come near unto the holy temple after this year. - -"And if ye fear want, by the cutting off trade, and communication -with them, God will enrich you of his abundance, if he pleaseth; -for God is knowing and wise." - -"It is not fitting that the idolaters should visit the temples of God, -being witnesses against their own souls of their infidelity." - -Considering the resources which have contributed to construct and -adorn this shrine of the Mohammedan faith, the great wealth of many -nations, and the centuries which have successively rolled on, each -adding the superstitious offerings of religious votaries, it is no -wonder that it is magnificent to behold. The model from Paradise, -the rebuilding by Abram, and its preservation for so many years. - -The whole city of Mecca is considered holy ground but the objects of -special adoration are inclosed within a magnificent colonnade, the -foundation of which was laid by the second caliph Omer, to prevent -intrusion upon the sanctum sanctorum. The space inclosed by this -portico is about seven statium. The foundations are broad and lofty, -and approached by an extended flight of marble steps, on both sides, -without and within. No less than four hundred and eighty-four columns -support an arched entablature, which is crowned by a succession -of domes, surmounted by glittering crescents. The colonnade is -quadrangular, and in the four corners are minarés, raising their -tapering spires to heaven, in emblem of the ascending orisons of the -faithful, and from whose gilded galleries the sacred imams have, since -unnumbered suns have risen and set, proclaimed the hours of adoration. - -No gloomy darkness ever enshrouds this structure; for when day -withdraws its more glaring brightness, innumerable lamps cast their -fitful light around the pillars. - -What tales could these marble columns whisper of human hopes, and -even holier aspirations; of the wicked schemes of intriguing imams, -as with sacerdotal robes and turbans of emerald hue, they traced -their cautious way from pillar to pillar, and received and blessed -the vast concourse of souls, borne down with the ills and sins of -humanity. How honeyed their benedictions as they lay their gilded -palms on the humble suppliant, who would gladly bestow all his earthly -treasures for a sure hope of heaven where his joys would be enduring. - -Poor weak mortals! tools of each other, and victims of the calculating; -the deceiver and deceived, on the same journey, on the same race -course, where the goal is Eternity! - -Beneath these domes, and overshadowed by these tall minarés, the poet -and the scholar have met to repeat the traditions and romances so -peculiar to the glowing imaginations of the Oriental world, and to vie -with each other for literary fame; the astrologer and diviner, no doubt -the very genii and fairies of Arabian myth, have mingled in the throng. - -With what emotion have the deluded victims of superstition and remorse -prostrated themselves upon the hallowed ground, and with what ecstatic -faith in the rewards of their holy pilgrimage, have the only true -believers kissed the dust of the consecrated earth. - -Within this beautiful portico, there is a vast space, in the middle -of which stands the Caaba itself. - -After Adam was driven from Paradise, he begged the Almighty to allow -him to erect a Beit-el-maamur, or house of God, similar to the one he -had seen there. Therefore the Caaba was let down to Mecca, directly -under the Heavenly Temple. This was rebuilt after the deluge by Abram, -or as some say, again descended from the celestial realms, where it -had been preserved, and has been in the possession of the Ishmaelites, -or Arabs, ever since. - -The Caaba, or house of God, is a square building of stone, 24 cubits -long, 23 broad and 27 high. It is nearly surrounded by a semicircular -colonnade, at the base of which is a low balustrade. - -Bars of silver, from which lamps are suspended, connect the pillars -at the top. - -How mystic and beautiful are the glimmerings of these lights, as they -glisten on the dark night, in their silver lamps, casting uncertain -shadows around the marble columns--their dubious shining conjuring -up the shades of the Prophet and his honored descendants, all arrayed -in jealous and sacred green to watch the devotions of the multitude, -as they surround the shrine. - -The outside of the Caaba is covered with rich black damask, which is -renewed every year. - -The holy imams, pitying the true and faithful, and wishing to ward -off from them the dangers of sudden death, and the thousand other -casualties of life, bestow a small portion of the covering of this -house of God, which has imbibed the sanctity of three hundred and -sixty-five days' duration, and, therewith, the power to avert all -such evils. A small amount of worldly wealth is sufficient to touch -the heart of the holy Emir, who grants this precious charm, which, -resting in the bosom of its happy possessor, yields to him a sweet -repose from the anticipation of sudden trials which befall the less -fortunate inheritors of human life. - -Outside of this black damask is a band of gold which surrounds the -Caaba, and whose lustre is undimmed by time, for it is renewed every -year by the sultan of Turkey. The very rain which flows from the -roof of this edifice, partakes of its sanctity, and is conducted -therefrom by a spout of solid gold, whence it trickles down on the -tomb of Ishmael, the head and founder of the Arab race. - -Near the Caaba is the stone on which the patriarch Abraham stood, -when he was rebuilding the holy temple; and even his very foot-prints -are to be seen on the solid piece of rock, leaving no shadow of doubt -as to its identity. - -This ancient architect, unwilling to deface the walls by a scaffolding, -when they were beyond his reach, stood upon this stone, which chance -threw in his way; and, wonderful interposition of Allah! the stone -raised him when necessary, let him down again, and transported him -around his precious work, until the whole was finished! - -What a treasure to architecture, more worthy of fame than the -undiscovered stone of the philosopher; how carefully to be watched -and guarded from the profanations of unbelieving house-builders for -all time to come. - -Upon the southeast corner of the Caaba is the black stone set in -silver, which was dropped down from Paradise. - -Like other gems of the heavenly sphere, it was originally white and -shining--but alas! its brightness is dimmed, and even changed to -perfect blackness, by its contact with human sin. For ever since its -removal to this world, it has been polluted by the touch of mortals, -and the contact of their sinful lips. - -The interior of the Caaba is approached by a silver door, about the -height of a man from the ground, to which they ascend by movable -steps. There is a single room hung with red and green embroidered -damask, and the roof is supported by four pillars eight feet square, -made of aloes wood. - -A sweet perfume pervades this apartment, which has been emitted from -these pillars ever since Mohammed was born in the holy city of Medina, -and silver lamps are suspended, which burn night and day. Near the -Caaba are small chapels for the imams of the different Mohammedan -sects, who severally bestow their blessings upon the pilgrims. - -The agonized mother of Ishmael, wandering in the wilderness, her -scanty bottle of water quite empty, having cast her helpless infant -under the shrubs, and retreated that she might not see him die, -sat at a distance and lifted up her voice and wept. - -The dying moans of the infant reached the ears of the angel of God, -who, to save the father of a great nation, caused the well-spring of -water to gush forth from its recesses in the bowels of the earth. - -As the ministering angel wiped the tears from the eyes of the -disconsolate mother, she spied the crystal water, and hastened to -administer to the fainting child. This same well, called the well of -zem-zem, is near the holy house of prayer, and the thirsty pilgrims -every year quaff its venerated waters and carry some of it to all -parts of the Mohammedan dominions. - -Such being the holy places, no wonder that every Mussulman, whether -commanded or not, should desire to visit these sacred relics of -antiquity. - -And were it not forbidden, doubtless the unbelievers also would gladly -undertake the same pilgrimage to witness the miraculous preservation -of objects which are, some of them, incorporated with their own faith. - -Four caravans meet in the city of Mecca, in the month Zil-hidjay, -or the month of pilgrimage, every year--one from Cairo, one from -Constantinople, a third from the Barbary states, and a fourth from -India. The Egyptian caravan waits for the arrival of the one from -Constantinople at Redowa near the holy cities. As the Sultan of Turkey -holds the possession of the holy cities in his own territories, he -is bound to send certain offerings to the shrine, which are the gold -band and black damask covering for the Caaba, with a large sum of -money to be distributed among the priests at Mecca. A certain kind -of money is expressly coined at the royal mint for the pilgrimage, -called the Caaba money. It is in gold pieces, and every one who goes -to Mecca must provide himself with this circulating medium. - -The wants of the numerous poor pilgrims are provided for in part, -by an appeal to the superstitions of the populace. A model of the -temple at Mecca is paraded through the streets followed by a crowd -of the zealous chanting hosannas in Arabic, accompanied by the music -of a drum of antique contrivance. - -But few can withhold a tribute. The miser opens his hoards, and the -widow adds her slender mite; the grandee and the slave, one and all, -gladly answer the appeal of their fellows, when under a banner of -such sacred veneration, and for a cause so laudable as a pilgrimage -to the holy shrine of their faith. Rich and poor are busily employed -in preparations. - -The dervish in his humble robes, needs no costly array. His garb of -sanctity, and the renunciation of all the trappings of wealth, open the -purses of the more gaily apparelled; and often the rags of a mendicant -conceal a full purse, much better filled perhaps, than his, who has -spent his all on costly embroideries and richly caparisoned steeds. - -The pasha and the efendi arrange their financial affairs, taking -care to carry costly offerings, and largesse, wherewith to impress -the multitude with their own greatness. - -The ladies of the harems, in like manner, collect their jewels, their -perfumes, in a word gifts of all things esteemed rare and precious, -that they may not go empty-handed to the holy temple. - -The merchants pack up their silks and rich stuffs of all sorts, -and prepare for edification both temporal and spiritual. - -Considering the immense throng of pilgrims, what must be the din of -preparation throughout the Ottoman dominion? - -Constantinople, its sultan, its treasury, its inhabitants high and -low, its ladies, its saints and beggars--even the lisping children -are whispering, God is great, Mohammed is his Apostle, and the Caaba -is the house of God. The Egyptian viceroy is assembling his horseman -and his camels at Berket el Hadge; the Maghrubees, or Barbaresques, -are sharpening their scimitars, and preparing as if for war. India's -wealth, her pearls, shawls, and rubies, and stately elephants, are -slowly wending their way to the shores of the Persian Gulf, where at -al Katif, on the Arabian side, the old sheikh is tarrying with his -herds of camels, to sell or hire them for the passage of the desert. - -The holy Mecca is thus, for several months at least, the theme of -all classes of Mohammedans. - -At length the day arrives to begin the journey so fraught with -blessings temporal and spiritual. - -The conductor of the Constantinople caravan, called the Surré Emminee, -or the trustee of the pilgrimage, proceeds to the palace, to receive -his commission from the sultan; and to him are consigned all the -treasures destined for Mecca. - -All hopes of worldly aggrandizement are henceforth renounced by this -dignitary; for having once imbibed the holy atmosphere of Mecca, his -future aspirations are supposed to be only heavenward. He therefore, -upon his return, generally retires to Damascus, where, nearer to -the shrine, and in a clime more genial for holiness, he awaits his -translation into that Paradise, of which his earthly honors are the -type and foretaste. - -Quitting the august presence of the "Thrice happy lord of the refulgent -Mecca," the Surré Emminee goes to the Porte, where he takes leave of -his former colleagues in temporal greatness, and thence to the gate -of the Sheikh-ul-Islam, who grants his blessing on the enterprise. - -The pilgrims and others collect about him, and they proceed to Bahchai -Capusoo, where a steamer is waiting to transport them over to Scutari, -in Asia. - -There, all along the route, are multitudes of people waiting to see -the procession. - -The insignia of the Surré Emminee are borne before him; two long poles, -to which the expressive horse-tails are attached, and the Pasha of -two tails follows on a beautiful Arabian charger. - -The treasures destined for Mecca succeed on a train of camels, all -bedecked with ribbons and spangles. But this world's grandeurs are -bestowed unequally even to these patient animals; for there is one -of their number who outshines all his fellows. A venerable camel -is covered with trappings enriched with precious stones of rare -and sparkling lustre, for on his back he carries the sacred Koran -extravagantly bound, and enclosed in a golden box set in brilliants; -the gift of the sultan to the temple. - -Happy is this distinguished animal, and his companions also, if they -survive the pilgrimage and return; for, like the Surré Emminee, they -are exempt from all future toil in this work-day world; and when Death -at last claims them for his prey, they enjoy the honors of a burial, -where no rude dogs or vultures can disturb their remains. - -The Validé Sultan, or the mother of the sultan, reclines in her -Tahtravan, a sort of elongated sedan chair, which is suspended on -long poles between two camels and magnificent in proportion to the -high rank of its occupant. - -Mussulman women and children follow, in huge panniers, suspended on -the sides of camels, horses, and donkeys. - -Indeed, the good fathers and husbands of the Osmanlis are ever anxious -to ensure to the female portion of their families high places in the -celestial regions; and they are generally accompanied by their harems. - -"It is incumbent on him whose family shall not be present at the holy -temple, to fast three days in the pilgrimage, and seven when he is -returned; they shall be ten days complete." - -And the same period of fasting is enjoined upon him "who findeth not -anything to offer" at the shrine. - -Mohammed himself set an example in this respect; for when he -encompassed the Caaba, he was accompanied by his family, and his wife -Kadijah, who, with his daughter Fatima, were two of the four women -whom he pronounced to have attained a state of perfection on this -side of the grave. - -Trains of servants, led horses and camels, swell the concourse; -and the whole is protected by a body of cavalry. - -About six miles from Scutari, there is a fountain which bears the -name of Iraluk Cheshmaysee, or the fountain of separation. - -Thus far a number of friends and relations have accompanied the -pilgrims; but, as in the journey of life, none can carry their loved -ones with them into the celestial regions, so these travellers who -are on an emblematic pilgrimage must now sunder strong ties, and -loosen their hearts from earthly affections. - -Fountain of parting! how are thy streams now accumulating, as the -pearly drops of human woe trickle in among thy waters; how many -days must pass ere those waters regain their crystal brightness, now -all turbid with the crimson gushings of the heart blood of fathers, -mothers, wives, husbands, and children! - -Sadly they part: some turn their faces homeward with bitter sighs, -while the pilgrims pursue their course, every advancing step widening -the distance, till their clouded eyes can discern no further traces -of the severed. - -Even as faith reveals to the dying the glory of a celestial world, -and reconciles the most trembling to a passage from the dim scenes -of Earth; so does superstition foreshadowing the hour of mortal -dissolution, display an earthly temple as the vestibule to the -heavenly. - -With eager steps, the pilgrims now press onwards, till they reach the -most ancient and beautiful city of Damascus; where they halt for the -caravans from Bagdad, Aleppo, and the neighboring towns. Time-worn -associations flit about this monument of the wealth of the earliest -founders of cities, after the universal deluge. - -As the descendants of the great survivor of the wreck of the -antediluvian world sought out a portion of the wide expanse of -uninhabited, and as yet uncultivated earth, this lovely valley -of nature's own handiwork seemed to invite their tarrying, as it -lay in calm repose, all fresh and verdant from the great waste of -waters. Perhaps they discovered the ruins of a great city, the remnants -of ancestral wealth; or the relics of the luxury and degeneracy which -brought about the awful destruction of the victims of the flood. - -Rapidly rose the proud city, and was famed even at the time of the -first battle of which there is any record, of the five kings against -four, the great Chedorlaomar and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, -when the patriarch Abram went to rescue his nephew Lot, who had been -taken captive. - -It was the birth-place, too, of Eliezer, the steward of Abram, who -must have been a man of superior attainments, as he had the care -of all his master's possessions, and even of the betrothal of his -beloved son Isaac. - -This ancient capital of Syria did not escape the enthusiasm of Moslem -conquest, and the great Saracen generals, Abu-Obeidah and Khaled, -took possession of the famous city, after a slaughter of 50,000 -infidels, during the reign of Abubekir, the successor of Mohammed, -A. D. 633. Damascus now became the capital of the Ottoman dominions, -and their pride and glory; for they boast Evvely sham, Akhery sham, -or, that as they had their beginning in Sham or Damascus, so there -also, they will have their end. - -So precious do they esteem this city, that it is styled the pearl -surrounded by diamonds, and the gate of the most holy Mecca. - -Here, then, at the most beautiful gate, do the pilgrims to the -sacred shrine delight to repose awhile, their senses ravished with -the loveliest enchantments of nature. Their eager vision extends over -vast plains of richly waving foliage, mingling with its emerald hues, -the brilliant tints of the citron, pomegranate, and fig. Sweet odors -of aromatic freshness pervade the balmy air, while luscious and juicy -fruits revive their thirsty senses. Over this vast and exquisite -prospect, tower tall minarés, and graceful domes with glittering -crescents, proclaiming as far as the eye can reach, the sway of -Mohammed Ressoul Ullah. - -But there is yet a weary way to the shrine, and the zealous throng, -now swelled to a vast multitude, renew their journey. If the weather -is very oppressive, they encamp in the day-time, and proceed by the -light of innumerable torches at night. - -How mysterious the pageant, stretching its long train over the -barren and trackless sands. The camels, with stealthy step, waving -their long necks slowly and majestically; now and then the Arabian -coursers neighing in wearied restlessness, break the silence. Then a -voice chanting a hymn of praise, and anon, a shout or chorus from the -multitude. Now all is still, and fitful shadows glide along side by -side with the wanderers, as the bright jewels on the camels glisten -in the torch-light. - -The caravan has passed, leaving in its track many palpitating forms, -panting on the sands for that breath of life, which is rapidly exhaling -from their bodies. - -So weary a way--sometimes no water to quench the thirst, which rages -in proportion to the scarcity of its antidote; fatigue adding its -prostrating effects day by day, no wonder that many of the way-worn -pilgrims are transferred to the Heavenly Temple, without a sight of -the earthly. - -The caravan from Cairo is also moving onwards, made up of a motley -multitude, headed by the Emir Hadgee, who is appointed by the pasha of -Cairo, and receives great emoluments from his office. Every pilgrim -pays him a certain sum for the enregistering of his name and property, -and the possessions of all those who die on the road, are also his -perquisites. He is the governor of the pilgrimage, and is judge -and jury in all matters of dispute. The Egyptians always carry with -them the tomb of Hassan, and accompanied by cavalry and artillery, -they proceed as far as Redowa, near Medina, where they are to meet -the Constantinople caravan. About two days' journey from Cairo, -they arrive at a place called Miz-Haara, the ancient Marah of the -Israelites, where, when the people murmured at the bitterness of -the waters, Moses cast a tree into them, and they became sweet, of -surpassing sweetness to all thirsty pilgrims. Thus they travel over -the same wilderness as their ancient predecessors, encamping in the -very spots selected by Moses for the tents of the chosen people of God. - -After these caravans meet, they proceed, a vast multitude, to a -village about sixty miles from Mecca, where is Abram's mountain, -on which he erected the altar to sacrifice his son. - -On the top of this hill is a mosque, where an old sheikh resides, who, -as the pilgrims halt, stands on the brow of the hill, and delivers an -address to them on the importance of the duty they are performing, -reminding them also of the blessings in store for all zealous -Mussulmans. To what an immense audience does this lonely old man once -a year proclaim the tenets of the Koran, and how eagerly do their -thirsty souls quaff the water of everlasting life as he dispenses it. - -Now the Emir Hadgee conducts the pilgrims one by one to the feet of the -sheikh, as he stands in the mosque on the top of the hill, Rabiie. As -they enter one door and pass out at the other in rapid succession, -each one is touched by the divining rod in the hands of the old sheikh, -and the burden of all their past transgressions rolls from their backs, -as he pronounces the words, "May sin here leave thee." - -Lightened from the pressure of sin in every form, they run swiftly down -the hill, and bathing their hands and faces in a stream which flows -below, they become renewed, men, women, and children; and prepared -to gaze upon the holy city of Mecca, which is not far distant. Now -turning their faces to the shrine, the true believers hasten on their -way; sometimes halting at the tomb of Eve, which is at Giddeh, the -port of Mecca. - -This illustrious and ancient mother of the human race must have been a -dame of fair proportions; for her grave measures, from the head to the -foot stone, no less than twenty-five yards, or seventy-five English -feet. If she was of such exceeding stature, what must have been the -dimensions of our great parent Adam, or what lofty personages must -have been the giants of those days. - -After travelling about three days longer, the domes of the Holy Temple -are descried in the distance; when the multitude with mad delight -prostrate themselves on the ground, and kissing the earth three times, -proclaim with tremendous clamor, La Illah! Ill Lallah! Mohammed -Ressoul Ullah! - -There is no other God but God! Mohammed the Apostle of God! - -The artillery is now fired to announce the arrival of the caravans to -the inhabitants of Mecca, who, headed by the Shereef of the city and -all the Imams, immediately proceed to meet the pilgrims, and conduct -them within the sacred precincts. - -Those who possess but scanty means, encamp without the city, and -others are accommodated at khans, which are very numerous. - -The next thing is to visit the bath, and thus purify themselves for -the ceremonies at the temple--"I will wash my hands in innocency, -so will I compass thine altar, O Lord." Having invested themselves -in the ehram, or covering of crimson woollen shag, which is always -wrapped around the person on this occasion, they proceed to the Caaba. - -Mohammed having performed these same ceremonies, his followers have -ever since imitated his example. - -Immediately after the Prophet took possession of the city of Mecca, -he proceeded to the Caaba. There he stood upon the roof of the house of -prayer, and proclaimed the first ezan, or call to prayer, at noon-day. - -He then commenced his adorations at the shrine, by first kissing -the black stone in the corner, near the door of the Caaba, then he -proceeded to compass the building seven times, and then again kissed -the sin-atoning stone. When the Caaba was let down from heaven to Adam, -he requested that it might be so placed that he could compass it as -he had seen the angels do. Ever since the creation, the number seven -has had a mystic signification, and its sacred meaning is demonstrated -in these devotions of the faithful. Mohammed then proclaimed to the -people from Mount Arafat, the manner in which they were to perform -the ceremonies at the Temple, and went to the valley of Mina, where -he threw seven stones at the devil, every time pronouncing the words, -Allah Ikbér! Allah Ikbér! God Almighty! God Omnipotent, as did Adam -and Abraham, when the great Adversary interrupted their devotions. - -The enemies of the Prophet account for the accumulation of stones in -this valley by the following story. - -It is well known that Mohammed was assisted in the preparation of -the Koran, by an Armenian monk, by name Serkiss. When their work was -completed, the Prophet wished to attest it by a miracle. - -He accordingly persuaded Serkiss to descend into a deep well, while -he called all the multitude to assemble. Holding a blank book in his -hand, he declared that if the Koran was indeed revealed from Heaven, -he would drop this blank-book into the well, and Allah would send it -up all written and inscribed. - -The book descended, and Serkiss sent up the one he had already -prepared. "Now," said Mohammed, "let each man cast a stone into the -well, which will be a monument to the world." Whereupon every one -of the great concourse cast a stone, and thus effectually prevented -Serkiss from appearing to contradict the miracle. Ever since that -time, the pilgrims have helped to accumulate these stones, until a -vast monument, indeed, has been erected. - -The Prophet now offered the sacrifice of sixty-three camels, according -to the years of his own life, shaved his head, and having run seven -times between the two hills Safa and Merwa, in imitation of Hagar -searching for water, he completed the holy ceremonies. - -According to this model have the pilgrims continued, ever since his -time, the performance of these superstitious devotions. - -The holy duties of the shrine being over, after a few worldly cares are -disposed of, the now self-satisfied travellers turn their footsteps -homewards. Purified, and set apart, henceforth the chosen of Allah, -fearless of all danger, as if within the shadow of the eternal world, -nothing intimidates the followers of the Prophet, as with the greatest -self-complacency they anticipate the rest of their sojourn in this -lower world. Many have sacrificed all their earthly possessions, -but are they not sure of the imperishable riches of paradise. With -eager fondness, they embrace once again friends and relations, while -the odor of sanctity exhales from their sacred persons. With what -panting bosoms and restless vision do the friends search among the -remnant returned from the wanderings, for dear and familiar faces; -and human wailings rend the air, as they are told that brother, sister, -and husband, lie whitening on the sand, long ere this the prey of the -vulture. The happy father clasps to his breast his precious offspring, -and with sweet complacency, ties around its neck a morsel the holy -covering of the Caaba, so sure the charm, and obtained at such infinite -perils. The pilgrims are surrounded, and with jealous caution they -bestow a few drops of the water of the holy well Zem-Zem, which glides -down the throats of the faithful like the oily fountains of Paradise. - -The weary camels even linger out their lives in luxurious idleness, -retired from oppressive service, with an air of unconscious sanctity -and repose. - -Henceforward, the glorious title of Hadgee, belongs to the returned -pilgrim; no razor profanes the beard, and the very door of the house, -by its hue of the Prophet's robe, the sacred green, proclaims the -rank and holiness of its master. - -The Hadgee, with long and solemn face, never wearies of recounting -his wonderful adventures, portraying with ecstasy, the splendors of -the shrine, detailing with holy rapture the ceremonies and devotions, -until the flame of superstitious zeal is enkindled in every bosom, and -their spirits yearn for the sweet sanctity and all-atoning atmosphere -of the most refulgent Mecca--and many vows are made that in the coming -year, their footsteps shall surely be thitherward. - -Such, then, are the illusions which beguile life's wearisome journey -to the followers of Mohammed; such the stepping-stones to their -future Elysium. - -Thus the tortures of conscience are eased, and thus does superstition -stand fully armed at the portals of the soul. - -Few, indeed, are the members of the great human family, who dare -to combat this enemy to moral greatness; and how small the number -of those, who renounce her sway. Chained down to creeds and dogmas, -the mind of man seldom soars above the atmosphere of human inventions, -but relyingly lingers in the leading strings of bigotry, in one form -or another. - - - -Thus is constituted the Practice of the Mohammedan Religion, viz., -Ablutions, Prayers, Alms, Fasting, and the Pilgrimage to Mecca, -which are denominated Farz, or obligatory. There are, however, many -other traditional observances termed Sünnet, which as the Turks are -Sünnees or traditionists, they have incorporated with their religious -duties, such as circumcision, and many other rites. These rites, whose -observance is only optional, are, however, performed with as much zeal -and ceremony as those required by the Koran. Although the ceremony -of circumcision is not alluded to in the Koran, and therefore not -indispensable, yet it is a custom generally observed, and is performed -when the child is able to pronounce the formula of faith "La Illah, -Ill Allah, Mohammed Ressoul Ullah," or is about the age of seven years. - -This is a great festival, and when the sultan's children, or those -of any of the grandees, are the neophytes, a general invitation is -extended to other candidates. Music, dancing, and feasting occupy -the minds and distract the thoughts of the numerous company, young -and old, during the week devoted to this ceremony. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -PRINCIPLES OF THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT. - - -A people descended from nomadic tribes, and, until very recently, -severed from foreign intercourse, would naturally retain its simple -and national type. Besides, the peculiar bond of an exclusive faith, -would still more tend to the preservation of ancient and characteristic -usages. - -Thus the Osmanlis have, with hitherto but few deviations, preserved -their identity as an eminently patriarchal nation. As the son -recognized the parent to be the governor and controller of his career, -the fountain of experience and wisdom, and rendered to him a willing -and natural obedience; so the people, needing such a fatherly care and -control, were ready to invest one of their number with this authority. - -Every system has its centre. The sun rules in the heavens--and the -great mass of humanity seek a centre, around which to rally. The -wonderful magnetism of mortal emotion tends to a common point, as -surely as the needle to the pole. Thus some species of monarchy, -whether elective or hereditary, seems inevitable to a multitude of -beings, cast in human mould. - -Tribes were instituted in early times, each with its patriarch or -petty monarch; and when, for mutual strength or by conquest, these -various tribes were combined, the monarch, with increasing subjects, -became more powerful and distinguished. - -When the wandering Tartars embraced Islamism, their chief becoming -the successor to the Caliphate, was not only their temporal, but -spiritual head. These two elements of power, church and state, -endowed the monarch with unlimited sway, beyond whom there could be -no appeal. The simple patriarch now becomes not only the father of -his people, but the representative of Allah; the sole controller of -life and death, property and religion. Years, even centuries, roll -on, the scimitar gains nation after nation, fertile territories and -treasures to the followers of the Crescent, and innumerable multitudes -swarm around the standard. - -The Padi-Shah, or ruler of this vast concourse of men, the absolute -owner of the domain far and wide, now rejoices in the adulations of -his superstitious subjects who acknowledge him as the - -"King of Kings, and Lord of Lords; Ruler of the East and West, -and of all parts of the world; Prince of the Holy and chaste city of -Jerusalem; shining with the brightness of God. Thrice happy Lord of the -refulgent Mecca. Tamer of infidels, and the scourger of the unbelieving -race of Christian vassals. Lord of the White (Mediterranean), and the -Black Seas. The most mighty and invincible Sultan, who has power from -God to rule all people with a bridle." - -Many other similar titles are bestowed upon him, which, though they -may seem somewhat bombastic, or even ridiculous, in these days of -equality and freedom, yet are not unparalleled in some of the more -civilized realms of modern Europe; nor without their legitimate -influences upon the subjects of this potentate. - -In order to illustrate the wonderful effect which the assumption -of such high-sounding appellatives has upon the general mass of the -people, I will relate an incident which happened to myself:-- - -During a recent sail on the Bosphorus in a cayik, and immediately -after the arrival of the allied fleets, I thought to amuse myself with -some political chit-chat with my boatman. As I was remarking about the -assistance of the Allies, the simple-minded, but thorough Mussulman, -was very prompt in solving the mystery of this unheard-of political -combination; why should two sets of giavours combine with the true -believers, against a third? - -The reason seemed plain enough to him. The French giavours had a new -king, and since the Padi-shah is the "Prince of Princes, and Lord of -Lords," in order to merit at his hands the consummation of royalty, -they had come to fight for him, bringing along England to intercede -for them. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE ADMINISTRATIVE GOVERNMENT. - - -Although the power and authority of the sultan is unlimited, and his -sway entirely arbitrary, the disposal of affairs is naturally consigned -to various officers. The two principal of these are the Grand Vezir, -and the Sheikh-ul-Islam. - -The Grand Vezir was formerly called Lala, or Tutor, because he -was the sole adviser to his majesty, and as he exercised the civil -functions of the executive, he was styled "Vekili-Mutlah," or vicar -absolute. He therefore enjoyed all the rights and immunities of his -imperial master--to the entire control of property and life itself. - -He used to head the army in time of war; make all appointments -to office; give audiences to the foreign ambassadors, receive and -answer their memorials; and he only, of all the ministers of the -realm, had free access to the royal presence. As he was amenable to -no tribunal, his only forfeit being his own head, and his worldly -possessions, it was his policy to render the person of the sultan -inapproachable--between whom and his people, a mystic veil seemed -ever to depend. By degrees, the monarch, who should have been the -father of his people, removed from all intercourse with his subjects, -became only the shrine of their superstitious devotions, the deity of -their worship, the proxy of Allah; while the real administrator of the -realm, was the selfish, ambitious, scheming, and blood-thirsty Grand -Vezir. Even on Fridays, as his majesty appeared in public on his way -to the mosque, he was so surrounded by pomp and royal pageantry, as -to be almost invisible. But since the promulgation of the Tanzimat or -reformation, an entire change has been effected in the administrative -department, and a substantial check imposed upon the Grand Vezir, -whose former prerogatives and immunities have been much curtailed. - -There is now a council attached to each department, which deliberates -upon the various measures proposed. A grand national council, -established on a somewhat European system, called the Medjlissi-Wala, -or senate, composed of the dignitaries and notables of the nation, and -presided over by a Reiss or chief of its own, controls the affairs of -the nation in general. Its duties are to prepare the laws; establish or -revise the basis of the taxation; regulate the revenues and expenditure -of the government; to draft the instructions for the governors of the -provinces; to try all treasonable acts and crimes committed against -the state; to correct the abuses of the functionaries; to attend to -the complaints of citizens brought against the different agents or -authorities; to draw up sentences for criminals, which are either -maintained or modified by his majesty, etc. etc., - -There is another council called the Medjlissi-Khass, or special -council, which, being composed of the ministers of the different -departments, may be termed a cabinet, or privy council. - -The Grand Vezir, as prime minister, presides over this. These two -councils together, constitute what is termed and generally known as -the Baabu-Aali, or the Sublime Porte. - -Baab is the Arabic word for gate, or porte in French. Ever since -Mordecai sat in the king's gate, and perhaps long before his time, all -the places of public administration in the East, have been designated -by this term. For instance, Baabu-Sheik-ul-Islam, is the Superior -Court; Baabu-Serasker, the war department, and in contradistinction -to all the other courts or departments, the government of the Ottoman -empire is denominated the Baabu-Aali, or the supreme gate or court; -a term of similar significance, with the Court of St. James, the -Tuileries, or the Government at Washington. - -Thus it will be perceived, that the original autocratic government -has now been reduced into a form of bureaucracy. - -The vast empire of Turkey, partaking of the territories of no less than -three continents, is divided into thirty-seven Ayalets or provinces; -each Ayalet being sub-divided into Livas or counties; and each Liva -into Kazas or townships. These provinces, counties, and townships, -are respectively governed by Valis, Kaimakams, and Müdirs. - -The governors, etc., of these provinces, formerly enjoyed in their -respective domains the same absolute authority as the Grand Vezir, -and answered with the same forfeiture of their heads and property -for their misdemeanors. But of late years, the same check has also -been put upon their powers, as in the central government, by the -establishment of councils, &c. - -All the ministers and governors of Provinces are now appointed by -the sultan, and the secondary places are filled by the appointment -of the Grand Vezir. - -When his majesty designs to elevate a person to the office of minister -of the realm, one of the chamberlains of the palace proceeds to -summon the individual to the royal presence, where he is invested in -his new office by the bestowal of the Nishani-Müshir or the badge of -rank in brilliants, which is suspended around the neck; and an Iradé -or Edict is granted him by the Sultan. He then proceeds with much -pomp and ceremony to the Porte, where he is immediately recognized, -according to the royal commands. He is met at the foot of the stairway -by the Grand Vezir in person, who bows to the edict presented to him -by the chamberlain with as much reverence as if it were his royal -master himself. Holding the document over his head, the viceroy -enters the grand council chamber, where he reads it in a loud voice, -and the ceremony is concluded by an extempore prayer, offered by the -mufty of the council--and the new minister is conducted to his gate, -or his own department. - -When they are deposed from office, the royal chamberlain appears, -demanding the Nishan which is immediately relinquished. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT. - - -The policy of the government has hitherto been centralization, that -is, to draw the mass of the people from the frontiers to a common -centre, in order the more readily to suppress any rebellion; and by -depopulating the borders, to prevent the approach of foreign invasion. - -Besides, even while consigning the inhabitants of the provinces to -the arbitrary control of the governors, a certain degree of awe and -ready submission might be inspired towards the central government, -which could, at pleasure and option punish, with one fell blow, -the very ruler who was regarded as omnipotent in his own territories. - -Also, it was with ulterior designs, that such a degree of laxity was -tolerated. The distant and provincial authorities, in grasping all -within their reach, and oppressing the people under their control, -were able to amass great possessions for themselves; but they were -amenable to the supreme power, which availed itself of its prerogatives -to judge and condemn, upon the slightest accusation, and to confiscate -and appropriate the spoils, with the semblance of justice itself--as -if avenging the wrongs of an injured population. - -Notwithstanding, there was often an assumption of independence in -many of the provincial authorities, who succeeded in maintaining -the dignity of Déré-Beys or Feudal Barons, such as Tchapan-Oghlou, -Tepelene, and Mehmed Aali. - -The consequence has been, that as you receded from the seat of -government over the vast tracts of territory, the very limited internal -communications, combined with the independence and rapacity of the -governors of the distant provinces, produced anarchy, misrule and -misery, in frightful ratio. Some amelioration has been attempted of -late by the Tanzimat or reformation, and the establishing of roads -and post-offices, councils, &c.; but the spirit of centralization -still pervades with all its legitimate evils. - -Another equally pernicious error in their policy, was the idea -that it was better to employ the heads and hands of the people in -foreign wars, with the view to keep them constantly occupied, and to -maintain a military ardor. Although this system contributed vastly -to the extension of the empire, yet sad experience has developed -its injurious effects. For constant acquisitions so enlarged their -dominions and inflated the soldiery, that the very sultan began to -tremble on his throne, until the destruction of the janissaries became -indispensable for the preservation of the empire. - -This famous military body was created in the reign of Sultan Mourad, -the son and successor of Orkhan; and it was notorious for many -centuries, till they were at last destroyed by Mahmoud, the father -of the present sultan. - -The janissaries are so interwoven with the past and present history -of Turkey, that it does not seem amiss to give here a slight sketch -of their origin and downfall. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -HISTORY OF THE JANISSARIES. - - -The Janissaries were first instituted for the protection of the -throne and person of the sultan; the army being then composed of the -victorious Turkomans, who had become turbulent, and were ready to -take the reins of government into their own hands. A new militia was -consequently instituted by Mourad, composed of young prisoners of war, -who were brought up in the Moslem faith: and, in contradistinction -to the existing army, were denominated Yeni-tcheri, or new soldiers. - -With the design of giving more solemnity to the new order, the founder -resorted to the aid of religion, and they were blessed by a famous -sheikh, Hadji-Bektash, [1] who extending his arms over the troops, -invoked the blessing of Allah, and predicted their future victories, -pronouncing these words: - -"Let them be called Yeni-tcheries. May their countenance ever be -bright! their hand victorious! their sword keen! May their spear -always hang over the head of their enemies, and wheresoever they go, -may they return with a white face!" - -Their uniform consisted of loose trousers, and long, flowing robes, -tucked up. Their head-gear, when in full dress, was very peculiar. A -round cap of grey felt, with a long piece of the same hanging behind, -in commemoration of the loose sleeve of the saint, which was suspended -over their heads when he extended his arms to bless their institution. - -They were armed with sabres, scimitars, pistols, yataghans, muskets, -constituting, as it were, a peripatetic model arsenal. - -Their mode of warfare was quite primitive; each fighting on his own -responsibility. - -From their earliest years, these Christian slaves snatched from -the bosom of their families, were inured to all sorts of hardships, -and to perfect resignation to the will of their superiors. They were -diligently trained in the art of war, and every trace of their parents -and native country being obliterated from their minds, their only -aim was to promote the interest and glory of their lord and sultan, -and they were, for many centuries, justly distinguished for the -excellence of their discipline, and for their indomitable courage. - -But, owing to their constant successes, they at last began to consider -themselves invincible, and by degrees becoming insolent, respected -neither the laws nor even the sultan himself. They thus turned that -power, which was originally the defence and glory of the country, to -its ruin and destruction; and many were the sultans who fell victims -to their audacity and rebellion. - -Sultan Selim III., in his attempt to reform them, was sacrificed to -their fury. - -They were, in reality, the ruling power in the country: dethroning -sultans, and taking off the heads of ministers at their will. They -were upheld in all their excesses by the people, from a dread of -their vengeance, many of whom, from motives of personal safety, even -enlisted as honorary members of their corps. For, even the assassin -could find a secure asylum in their barracks, from which no power or -authority could claim him. - -Nothing was sacred in their estimation; families dared not to -venture abroad without a janissary escort; and, on this account, -the different foreign embassies were always accommodated with two or -three of their number, which custom is still in vogue; though Kavasses, -or Turkish police officers, have been substituted for the janissaries -of former times. - -Even the royal harem was not safe from them, and neither life nor -property were secure from their depredations. - -Besides their regular rations, their pay was at the rate of from one -asper to twenty, according to their rank, per day. An asper was, at -that time, equal to one cent of Federal money. But they had various -ways of increasing their personal revenues. - -They assumed a peculiar style of taxing the peaceable citizens, by -carelessly tossing their handkerchiefs at them, with an intimation -that their pockets needed replenishing, and none dared to return the -handkerchief without a tribute tied in one of its corners. - -Those who were stationed in the city as metropolitan guards, generally -contrived to amass a quantity of mud before the guardhouse, which -they would ask all the rayahs who passed by, either to sweep away, -or contribute something for its removal. - -The day of their revolt was most memorable, and our own janissary -boatman coolly put the number and mark of his regiment upon the -street-door of our residence, as an intimation to his comrades that -the house was already appropriated by one of the brotherhood. - -Assassination was a matter of frequent occurrence in those days. The -father of the writer once narrowly escaped with his life. - -He happened to be passing by a shop, where a janissary was examining -a yataghan with a view of purchasing it. - -"Stop," cried the janissary, to him, "come here, I want to test this -blade on you." - -He knew the character of those villains too well to suppose that the -rascal was joking--as a forlorn hope, he indifferently remarked, -"that it would be hardly worth the while to try such an exquisite -blade on my old tottering body," at the same time suggesting, that -it would be better for his excellency to accept the sword as a gift, -with the view of trying it on some worthier subject, and throwing -the money to the merchant, the old gentleman very suddenly disappeared. - -Imbued with the wildest fanaticism, and with all the prejudices of -ancient times, and habituated to command rather than to obey, these -janissaries constituted the most effectual barrier to all progress -or national reform. - -Indeed, their outrageous conduct was often the principal cause of -war with foreign nations--and a stigma upon their country. - -Any monarch, then, who appreciated the real interest of his subjects, -and could anticipate the future downfall of his country, would be -impelled to annihilate this scourge. - -Eternal gratitude is due to the illustrious Mahmoud, who at last, -accomplished this task. A man of remarkable energy and discernment, -more inspired with the spirit of civilization and modern reform -than any of his predecessors; with a determination and perseverance -unparalleled in the history of his country, Mahmoud effected this -coup d'état, and has justly been designated of "Glorious memory." - -He first gained over to himself the renowned Hüssein Pasha, who -was then the Agha or chief of the janissaries; then Kara-Jehennem -or Black-Hell, the chief of the artillery, and Bostangy-Bashi, the -head of the life-guards; with the co-operation of these personages a -system of military reform was ordered, requiring all the soldiery to -be regularly drilled, and to adopt a certain uniform better suited -to military life, than the flowing robes and cumbersome head gears -they had hitherto worn. - -The artillery corps and the life-guards cheerfully submitted to this -order, but the janissaries considered this change of costume as an -innovation upon long established customs, and averse to any military -discipline, there arose great dissatisfaction among them; and, as -usual, they commissioned the Kool-Keahiassi, their representative, -to remonstrate with his majesty, upon whose refusal to listen to -their murmurs, they determined on rebellion. - -Having no suspicions of their chief, Hüssein-Pasha, according to his -counsel and public proclamation, the janissaries all assembled in -their own barracks, at the great square of Et-Meydan, nearly in the -centre of the city, to be in readiness to resist any attempt on the -part of the sultan, to enforce his edict. - -The sultan being informed of this circumstance, he, on his part, -issued a proclamation that all good Mussulmans should repair to the -holy standard of the Prophet in the court of the seraglio. - -This standard is never brought out except in cases of great -emergency, and no Mussulman would refuse to repair to it when -summoned. Accordingly all the Mussulman citizens, the artillery and -the life-guards, who hated the janissaries, assembled at the seraglio -and proceeded in a body to the great rallying point of the rebels, -where they met with a warm reception from the barrack windows of -the janissaries, who, confident in their own sheltered position, -were sure of a glorious victory. - -But they were soon undeceived; for, by the order of Kara-Jehennem, -two field pieces had been slily transported to the very doors of the -barracks, whose first discharge shattered the gates and prostrated -hundreds of the rebels. - -The janissaries now desperate, rushed to seize the cannon, which -were just reloading: and had it not been for the heroic action of -Kara-Jehennem at this critical emergency, all would have been lost. The -brave general perceiving the nature of the affair, and although wounded -as he was in the thigh, promptly jumped from his horse, and seizing -the torch, instantly applied it to the cannon, and thus baffling the -attempts of the assailants, soon turned the scale of fortune. - -All resistance was now rendered futile by the barracks being set -on fire, when amidst shrieks of agony the miserable wretches were, -on the 15th of June, 1826, destroyed. Many among them were allowed -to effect their escape, with the design of sparing the innocent. The -most dangerous of their number were afterwards arrested and sent to -the European castles on the Bosphorus, where their doom was sealed -by the bow-string, and thus perished this formidable scourge of the -Ottoman Empire. - -Many censures and much opprobrium have been cast upon the memory -of Mahmoud for this act of consummate destruction. He has been -stigmatized as cruel and blood-thirsty, whereas his whole country -was groaning under a scourge of tremendous power, in the shape of an -unlicensed soldiery. - -Day by day, the monster grew in strength, and threatened the utter -annihilation of both sovereign and people. What greater act of humanity -then, than to crush the Hydra with one fell blow. - -By this act Mahmoud not only established his own sovereign authority, -but bursting, for the first time, the bonds of barbarism, made a bold -stride towards the platform of civilization, and the fraternity of -the world. But for Mahmoud, Turkey would, perhaps, have, ere this, -been only a record of the past. - -The army was immediately re-organized, and the soldiers were trained -in European tactics, by distinguished foreign officers. - -They attained great distinction as infantry and artillery-men, and -still greater progress would have been made in military science, had -it not been for the intrigues of Russia, who, just at that period, -availing herself of the forlorn condition of the country, found a -favorable opportunity for declaring war. - -The Allies of the present day, not discerning the Muscovite cunning, -were quiet spectators of the affray, and became as it were silent -partners in the shameful treaty of Adrianople, for which they have -since paid so dearly. - -But the janissaries were not the sole barriers to the civilization of -the country. The Ulema, or the expounders of the faith, have exercised -even greater influence over the minds of the superstitious people, -through their unlimited spiritual authority. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -SPIRITUAL BRANCH OF THE GOVERNMENT. - - -Turkey is a country where church and state are most eminently -combined. The standard of every measure or act is the Koran; the -administration of affairs, both civil and religions, must, therefore, -be in conformity with the precepts of that sacred book; but since that -book does not provide for all emergencies, and in many instances is -not even explicit, those who made the Koran their special study have -ever been consulted, and all matters referred to them for examination -and sanction. - -The entire body of these ecclesiastics are denominated the Ulema, or -learned (in the Koran), and their expositions are termed Fetvas. These -Fetvas constitute, as it were, the statutes of the state. - -The sanction of these doctors in every measure being essential, -each civil tribunal is supplied with one of their number, in order -that their acts may be valid. Hence, even the Grand-Vezir, who only -represents the sultan in temporal matters, is associated with the -chief of the Ulema, viz., the Sheikh-ul-Islam, who, on his part, -personifies his majesty in spiritual affairs. Bearing the title -of Fetvayi-Pena, or the Grand Expositor, his approval is necessary -even to the measures of the great viceroy himself, for no law can be -promulgated without his sanction. - -Considering then the importance attached to the study of the Koran, and -the benefit derived from a full knowledge of its spirit and contents, -which constitute the basis of the law and government, many have been -induced to adopt it as a profession. - -There are no less than forty thousand of these Ulema in Constantinople. - -These men are of very low origin, and are generally the sons of poor -peasants. They come to Constantinople and enlist themselves as Softas, -or students of divinity or law, which are synonymous terms, in one of -the principal mosques, where they go through a regular course of study. - -They receive no salary, but are allowed one loaf of bread a day, -and partake of such food as is gratuitously distributed to the poor -from the Imarets, or charitable institutions, which are attached to -all the principal mosques. - -When they are proficients in writing, they are allowed to copy the -Koran in the original Arabic, which it has hitherto been considered -sacrilege to print or translate. And by the sale of these copies they -gain a livelihood. - -They are afterwards promoted either to the office of Imams, officiating -priests, or to that of Kadis and Mollahs, district judges, or Muftis, -or expounders of the law. The acme of their ambition is to become -either Molla-Hunkiar, chaplain to his majesty, Kazy-ul-Asker chief -justice, or Sheikh-ul-Islam, high pontiff of the realm. This latter -personage is considered by the Mussulmans as an undoubted oracle in -all instances. - -Though the sultan is the head of both church and state, yet the -Sheikh-ul-Islam being appointed for life, and exempted from capital -punishment, his authority, through the superstition of the people, -has been most arbitrary, and even sometimes controlled the actions of -the executive; and it has only happened in our day, that in order to -assert the entire supremacy of the sultan, the Sheikh-ul-Islam has, -for the first time in the annals of the nation, been deposed from -his sacred office, and another substituted in his place. - -The Ulema are not supported by the government, but by the income of -the mosques, which are largely endowed by religious devotees. Those -who are in the civil employment, receive, however, fixed salaries -from the state, in addition to their own ecclesiastical income. - -The real estates owned by the mosques are immense and beyond -calculation. They are called Vakuf, in contradistinction to other lands -of the government, termed mülk. These vakuf lands, which comprise -more than two-thirds of the empire, are sold as under a perpetual -lease, with a yearly tax or rent, and all improvements made on them -are considered to belong by right to the land, and not allowed to be -removed. In case of the death of a proprietor leaving no male heirs, -the property, with all the improvements thereon, reverts to the mosque. - -The documents by which these lands are held, are so carelessly -registered and transferred, that disputes are almost unavoidable. For -instance, a deed is thus drawn up, A B has purchased of C D a piece of -land, belonging to such a vakuf, said to contain about 156 acres more -or less; that is, it might range from 100 to 1,500 or 2,000 acres, -since its limits are not fixed by any actual survey, or specified by -a map; but the boundaries are described in the most primitive style -by sensible objects, viz., an apple tree on one side, a ditch on -the other, the property of so and so on the third, and the main road -on the fourth. This system has hitherto proved most advantageous to -the vakufs; the peculiar elasticity of such indefinite boundaries, -admitting of great territorial trespass upon adjoining lands, until -they have succeeded in absorbing two-thirds of the empire. - -Strangers are not allowed to own these lands, nor hold them in -trust, with the view to avoid litigation with the different foreign -embassies. There has not, therefore, been hitherto any inducement -to European emigration, to the introduction of foreign capital, -nor encouragement to internal improvements. - -The mosques derive an immense revenue, both from the rents of these -estates, and the commission on sales, which is enormous; being no -less than 8 per cent. on each transfer. - -With such a percentage, were the sale repeated fifteen times, the -original cost of the land would be doubled; so that there is an -effectual check upon land speculation. Apart from this, the vakuf -system is ruinous both to the community and to the government. If a -man wants to raise a sum of money, by mortgaging his property for -three months only, besides the customary interest of the country, -which is 1 per cent., he has to bear the enormous expense of the -transfer and retransfer, which amounts, as has been said, to 6 per -cent. This added to the 3 per cent., the interest for the three months, -making altogether no less than 9 per cent. for three months! This -is not all. The natives not being allowed the privilege of borrowing -foreign funds, by mortgaging their own property, are reduced to the -necessity of resorting to their own capitalists, who usually demand -2 or 3 per cent. a month! - -The whole of this vakuf land, or church property, occupied and -unoccupied, pays no taxes, so that a most profitable source of revenue -is unavailable to the government. - -The immense incomes of the vakufs are partly appropriated to the -erection of mosques, hospitals, schools, fountains, baths, and -other charitable institutions; and above all to the support of the -Ulema themselves. But there is always an immense surplus, which lies -dormant with previously accumulated hoards, unless resorted to for the -promotion of some of the fanatical schemes and personal aggrandizement -of the Ulema themselves. - -These men, thus rendered independent of the government, and possessing -unbounded influence over the minds of the superstitious people, and -being, in fact, the ultimatum of every hope and project, have been the -greatest barriers to national improvement; for, surrounded by wealth, -and themselves of the lowest origin, they attach an undue value to -worldly possessions; and trained in religious bigotry, they resist -all innovations as infringing upon their own interests, temporal and -spiritual; so that in destroying the janissaries, and leaving the -Ulema unmolested, Sultan Mahmoud did but half the work of reform. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. - - -The revenue of the government is about thirty-six millions of dollars, -and is thus divided: - - -Göshüre, tithe $11,000,000 -Saliane, land tax 10,000,000 -Haradj, Poll tax on Christian subjects (lately abolished) 2,000,000 -Geömrük, customs 4,300,000 -Mirry and Ihtissab, indirect tax 7,500,000 -Vergys, or tributes of Egypt $1,000,000 -Vergys, or tributes of Wallachia 100,000 -Vergys, or tributes of Moldavia 50,000 -Vergys, or tributes of Servia 100,000 - 1,250,000 - ----------- - $36,050,000 - - -Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, though it contains, -including all its suburbs, a population of nearly a million of -inhabitants, is, owing to the system of centralization, exempt from -the direct tax, which is levied only in the provinces. Of late there -has, however, been a sort of an income tax established, requiring -every house-owner to register all contracts of rent at the Police, -and pay a fee thereon of two per cent. Besides this, they have also -introduced another tax on commercial and financial transactions, -such as stamped bills, &c. - -Some of these taxes and revenues are collected by the agents of the -government on its own account; and others are farmed out at public -auction, with the view of avoiding the abuses and corruptions of the -officials; the benefit of which arrangement was illustrated, when -the custom-house was farmed out to the Armenian banker, Djezâyirly, -who bid double the amount which the treasury used to realize. - -The expenditure of the government has usually been nearly within its -income; but of late years has exceeded it. - -It includes the sultan's personal expenses, and the civil and -military list. - -The sultan receiving a salary of $300,000 per month; the Grand Vezir -$4,000, and the others $3,000 each. - - - Civil list of the Sultan and his harem $4,100,000 - Civil list of the Army 15,000,000 - of the Navy 2,000,000 - Ordnance and Fortifications 1,500,000 - Pay of Functionaries 10,000,000 - Foreign Diplomatic Salaries 500,000 - Public Works 500,000 - Séhims or life annuities &c. 2,200,000 - Interest on Cayimés at 6 per cent. 450,000 - Bank subvention 1,000,000 - ----------- - $37,250,000 - - -The deficiency in the treasury is occasioned partly by arrears of -taxes, and partly by incidental expenses, such as bank subvention, -appropriations for internal improvements, etc. - -With the view of enabling the treasury to carry on its operations, -the government has, for the past few years, been obliged to effect -a local loan of $8,000,000, in the shape of Kayemés, or Treasury -notes, bearing interest of 6 per cent per annum. Apart from this, -it has also contracted a foreign debt of Ł5,000,000--these two are -the only national debts. - -The monetary market in every country is governed by its exports -and imports. The demand in Turkey for articles of foreign produce, -having gradually exceeded its former imports, the balance of trade has -been against the country, and a drain of specie has been the natural -consequence. Apart from this, the payment of the Russian indemnities, -having forced the government to demonetize its currency, the rate -of exchange became very fluctuating, and a fit subject to financial -operators; so that affairs assumed a frightful aspect. - -To remedy this evil, the government was advised to establish a Bank, -in order to keep the foreign exchange at a more uniform par value; -this subvention has cost the government on an average $1,000,000 per -annum; jet without any good success, for it only served to enrich -a few individuals, who were intrusted with its management, without -benefiting the country in general, and involved the national treasury -in greater difficulty. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -ARMY AND NAVY. - - -The standing army of the Ottoman Empire is in time of peace 120,000 -men, and 180,000 during war. It consists of six ordoos or divisions, -viz.: - - - Hassa, or Imperial Guards. - Der-y-Saadet, or Metropolitan Division. - Roumely, or European (Turkey) Division. - Anadolou, or Asiatic, Division. - Arabistan, or Arabian, Division. - Irak, or Messapotamian, Division. - - -Every division comprises, three regiments of foot, two of horse, -and one of artillery, with 32 guns, the whole amounting to 30,000 men. - -The soldiers in active service are called Nizam, and those in reserve, -Redif. They are raised by conscription, and formerly used to serve -all their lifetime, or as long as they were able, but by a commendable -measure recently introduced by Riza Pasha, a military reform has been -effected, by which they are now relieved at the end of five years, -when they go to their respective homes, subject however, to certain -military duties at stated times. By this measure, Turkey has been -enabled to raise a reserve of no less than 400,000 Redifs. - -Both Nizams and Redifs are divided into two bodies, commanded by Feriks -(or Lieutenant Generals) and Livas (Brigadier General), and the whole -of every division by a Serdar or Field Marshal. - -The entire army is subject to the orders of the Ser-Asker or the -Generalissimo, who is the minister of war. - -The famous Omar Pasha who was one of the Serdars commanding the -Asiatic division, has lately been elevated to the post of Ser Asker. - -The rank and file of the Turkish army in composed of able-bodied and -well-drilled soldiers; but they are badly officered by illiterate -men, raised from the ranks, who are untarnished by modern reforms -and imbued with a due share of the popular national conceit. - -It is only very recently, that a military school having been -established, the army is supplied with well instructed officers, -among whom may be found many of the sons of the grandees of the -empire. There is, however, a constant jealousy between these more -enlightened young commanders, and the old veterans of the ancien -régime; the latter regarding the former as mere upstarts and parvenus. - -The Rayas, or Christian subjects have hitherto been exempt from -military service not because they are not fitted to become the -defenders of their country, equally with their Mohammedan compatriots, -but lest by coming into competition with them they should rise to high -posts in the army, and rank even above their Mussulman subordinates. - -The Turkish navy is comprised thus: - - - +--------------------------+-----------------------------+ - | |Ships.| Guns.| Men. | - | +------+------+---------------+ - | Three-Deckers, | 2 | 260 | 2700 | - | Two-Deckers, | 8 | 668 | 9500 | - | Frigates, | 14 | 788 | 5400 | - | Corvettes, | 6 | 100 | Indeterminate | - | Brigs, | 6 | 80 | ,, | - | Schooners, cutters, &c., | 12 | 72 | ,, | - | War Steamers, &c., | 28 | 112 | ,, | - | +------+------+---------------+ - | | 76 | 2080 | 20 @ 25,000 | - | Destroyed at Sinope, | 11 | | | - | +------+ | | - | | 65 | | | - +--------------------------+------+------+---------------+ - - -Many of the Turkish vessels of war are noble specimens of naval -architecture. For ever since the beautiful models built by Ekford and -his successors, Rhodes and Beeves, have floated upon their waters, a -wonderful impetus has been given to the navy of the Osmanlis--and the -prow of almost every vessel bears the impress of American ingenuity. - -Magnificent men of war, vessels of the line, frigates, sloops, brigs, -schooners, and cutters lie all along the Bosphorus, fully manned -and equipped. But so seldom are they in action, or so rarely do they -sail beyond the "ocean stream," that the men are utterly without the -incitement of any real engagements, and unused to rougher seas--so -that if, perchance, they are called into active service, more than -half of them are confined to their hammocks. - -Thus the lamentable occurrence at Sinope may be accounted for; the -squadron having been obliged to anchor there on its way to Batoum, -because nearly all the sailors were sea-sick. - -The officers themselves are illiterate, and ignorant of the science -of navigation. - -It is true that some few have been educated in the British navy, who -are now distinguished in the Turkish marine--and it is to be hoped -that many of the scholars of the new naval academy will hereafter -elevate the character of their nation on the seas; though there are -not the same incentives to maritime emulation as exist in England -and America, or even in France. - -The general staff of the navy contains, - - - 3 Admirals, - 5 Vice Admirals, - 8 Rear Admirals. - - -The staff of a man-of-war of first rank, contains, - - - 1 Commander--whose rank is equal to Lieutenant-Colonel. - 1 Second commander Chef de bataillon. - 1 Hodja Major. - 16 Mulazims Lieutenants. - 1 Physician, 2 Surgeons, 1 Imam or chaplain, - and from 800 to 900 men. - - -The entire naval force is under the command of a Captain Pasha or -High Admiral, who is the Minister of the Navy. - -The men, subalterns and even captains, both of the army and navy, -are most miserably paid. A common soldier at the rate of seventy-five -cents a month, and a captain eleven dollars and rations--so that any -deficiency in hospitality or style of living, is not to be attributed -to indifference on their own part. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -COMMERCE. - - -The trade of Turkey, including that of Egypt and the Danubian -Principalities, amounted, in 1852, to - - - Imports, Ł11,828,300 Sterling. - Exports, 10,644,450 Sterling. - - -The Osmanlis, having no commercial marine except their own few -coasters--the whole foreign, and great part of the internal trade, -is carried on by 35,000 foreign vessels; whose aggregate tonnage -amounts to 5,000,000 annually, and they are admitted to her ports at -small charges. - -The tariff of Turkey is but nominal; being only three per cent. on -all exports, and two per cent. additional as consumptive duty--making -altogether, five per cent. on their value. - -This free-trade principle, is not, however, purely from liberal -motives, but the result of foreign compulsion, and their own ignorance -of political economy. For, in their anxiety to counterbalance the -deficiencies of the treasury, caused by unjust treaties extorted -from them by foreign powers, they have imposed a duty of no less -than thirteen per cent. on all their produce or exports, so that, -when the governmental tithe upon the raw material, the various other -direct and indirect taxes on the same, and the onerous export duty -are together taken into consideration, the cost of the produce is, -in effect, raised to about 30 or 35 per cent. above its original value. - -Apart from this, if sheet iron, which is imported from England, -and upon which the usual duty of 5 per cent. is already levied, be -manufactured into stove pipes, or any other form, it is considered -as home produce, and a new duty of 13 per cent. collected thereon! - -The tariff is regulated every seven years, and the value of the -different articles is determined by a commission of merchants -representing the different nations, each of whom endeavors to maintain -his own interest. One of these gentlemen exultingly boasted, that -his own fortune was made, as he had succeeded in establishing a low -valuation on a certain article in which he dealt very largely. - -America has hitherto had no representative in this body, though her -commerce has, especially of late, been rapidly increasing with this -part of the world. It has only been through ignorance of the country -and its resources, that American enterprise has made so little progress -in the East, or been confined to the interposition of English and -other houses. - -Does this country present no inducements to the mercantile -community? Let the following table of Exports and Imports speak -for itself. - - - EXPORTS. IMPORTS. - - Corn. Silk goods. - Beans, peas, etc. Cotton goods. - Wool. Woollen stuffs. - Raw silk. Linen. - Opium. Haberdashery. - Otto of roses, and other perfumes. Hardware. - Angora hair. Watches and clocks. - Coffee (Mocha). Jewelry. - Canary seed. Sugar. - Linseed. Coffee, pepper, and spices. - Do. oil. Iron and nails. - Rice. Coal. - Yellow berries. Stone ware. - Boxwood. Logwood. - Madder root. Rum and wines. - Tallow. Fancy goods. - Valonea. Cochineal. - Gall nuts. Tanned hides. - Fruits. Glass ware. - Drugs. Furniture. - Soap. Drugs and medicines. - Olives and olive oil. Butter. - Sponges. Kaviar. - Tobacco. Tar. - Cotton. Ropes. - Sesame. Cordage. - Meerschaum. Chains. - Carpets. Corn. - Copper. Stoves. - Hides and skins. Nicknacks. - Bones. Machinery, etc. - Confections. Furs. - Helva. Crockery. - Shawls. Indigo. - Oriental manufactures. Dye stuffs. - Leeches. Paints. - Rags. Mirrors. - Cordials. Millinery. - Cymbals. Musical instruments, etc. - Lumber. Leather. - Embroideries. Boots and shoes. - Hemp and Flax. Lead. - Salt. Paper. - Mastic. Do. hangings. - Chibouks, Nargilles, and amber Tea. - mouthpieces. Books. - Carriages. - India rubber. - Mahogany and rose-wood. - - -If, then, such is the variety of items, more than sufficient to -command the attention of any mercantile community, it is somewhat -astonishing that the Americans should not have been attracted to the -advantages to be derived from an interchange of commerce, so jealous -as they are of commercial supremacy. - -The territory is immense, teeming with undeveloped resources; -the population over 35 millions of souls to be supplied with the -necessities, and many of the superfluities of life. England and France -have fought for the freedom of this commerce, America may spread her -sails unstained by the blood of her citizens, and be wafted into ports, -where treasures and profit are in greater profusion than either in -China or Japan. - -War having ceased, and so many new and salutary reforms soon to -be introduced, commerce and all the arts of peace and prosperity -will flourish with renewed vigor upon the Turkish soil. Internal -improvements are already projected and in progress, demanding the -genius and ingenuity of foreign climes. While then, England and France -are eagerly watching every opening, shall America remain blindfolded -and indifferent?--a country so productive of men of the rarest energy -and perseverance, so full of the brightest Yankee notions, and the -most curious and useful specimens of mechanical art and manufactures! - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -JURISPRUDENCE. - - -In Europe and America disputes often involve a process of tedious -litigation. It is not so in Turkey; although the Koran and its -voluminous commentaries decide every case "from a point of faith to a -right of gutter," yet the form of trial is so simple that it becomes -quite expeditious. For all Turkish jurisprudence may be condensed -into these two principles, viz., - -1st. In every case of litigation the testimony of two witnesses is -required of the plaintiff, and - -2d. In default of witnesses an oath is administered to the defendant -as the only alternative. - -No written document, except judicial, is considered valid, or -recognized by the courts, unless it be substantiated by two witnesses. - -For instance, a banker had advanced to the treasury about $30,000 -on account of a certain pasha, who farmed a province from the -government. Before the year was out the pasha died, and the court -of chancery taking charge of the estate of the deceased, it became -necessary to examine and settle the banker's account current with -the defunct. On examination it was found that the banker had paid -to the treasury the above mentioned sum in thirty-three different -installments, and received from the deceased only $18,000; so that -there was a balance due the banker of $12,000. - -But the court of chancery would not recognize the disbursements of -the banker in behalf of the deceased, unless each of the installments -made by the banker to the government could be substantiated by two -witnesses; thus requiring no less than sixty-six witnesses for the -case. It was in vain the banker produced the vouchers of the government -regularly signed and sealed by the proper authorities. The judges -would admit nothing but the requisite witnesses, and in default of -such witnesses claimed from the banker the $18,000, the receipt of -which was avowed by him, and consequently due to the heirs. - -Nor is this mode of justice, primitive as it is, ever used with -impartiality. - -Witnesses are never subpoenaed by the courts, and no oath is required -of them for the truth of their depositions; also on account of -the spirit of fanatical animosity which exists mutually between -the Christians and Mohammedans, no unbiased testimony is to be -procured. Indeed, formerly, the Christians were not even allowed to -appear as witnesses. - -The judges themselves being men of low birth and grovelling principles, -only hold their offices as sources of personal emolument, as the -wealth of various of these functionaries fully attests. The late -Sheikh-ul Islam, at his death, left the sultan, by bequest, nearly -a million of dollars! - -Although strictly prohibited by the Koran, they are in the constant -habit of receiving bribes to any amount; notwithstanding the precepts -of their religion, which are ever and anon held up as barriers -to all reform, they are so corrupted, that their consciences are -immediately lulled, whenever the requisite bonus is slily slipped -under the cushions on which they sit, and the testimony of hired -witnesses is then winked at by them, and even supported, as their -interest may demand. - -The only qualification requisite for a witness to appear before these -courts of justice, is to be omniscient, and never to utter the fatal -word Bilmem, I don't know. - -When conflicting interests occur, which induce the judges to take side -against the witnesses--and such occasions are by no means rare, since -justice is not only put up at auction, but a single recommendation -from a grandee suffices to turn the scale--the scene is truly farcical, -and its sketch worthy of the pen of Dickens himself. - -The Kadis adopt a singular method to disqualify the testimony. The -questions which are put in the cross-examination, are not only entirely -irrelevant to the subject matter in dispute, but would even puzzle -the "cutest Yankee" how to answer. Their object is to disqualify the -testimony by questions, no matter how ridiculous, but by which the -witnesses will be forced at last to utter the ominous word Bilmem--I -don't know. - -With a view to ascertain whether the witnesses are well acquainted -with the party in whose behalf they are testifying, they are asked, -"who was the grandfather of the plaintiff?" The usual and formal -answer in such cases is, "Abraham," meaning the old Patriarch. "His -great grandfather?" "Adam," beyond whom he (the plaintiff), is not -supposed to have any ancestors. - -On a certain occasion, a judge being very anxious to defeat the -testimony of a clever witness, after various ingenious interrogatories, -made the quaint inquiry, "who married Adam and Eve?" To which the -witness unhesitatingly replied, not, as it may be supposed, "I don't -know,"--oh no, not so stupid as that--but, "I was not invited to -the wedding." - -It was a maxim of the government and a profitable one to its employés, -that in the administration of justice, a speedy infliction of -punishment, even though unjust, was more desirable than a tedious -course of litigation, as the fear and awe thus infused into the -hearts of the people, rendered them submissive to the most irrational -commands, and terrified the mass into a dread of infringing the laws, -although some few might suffer unjustly. - -This principle, though nominally abandoned by the government, is -still maintained by the judiciary; therefore, no pleading by lawyers -is allowed, and the sentence is passed with all possible dispatch, -or deferred at pleasure, as circumstances may require. - -The whole of Turkey is divided into two separate judicial districts, -viz., Anadolou, and Roumely, or Asia and Europe, and there is a -Kazi-ul-Asker, or chief justice, appointed to each district, who -preside over their respective courts. - -There, is, however, a supreme court called, Arz-Odassi, or court of -appeals, where the Grand Vezir and the Grand Mufty conjointly preside, -and there all cases, when appealed, are heard; but the sentences -are seldom reversed, as they wish to preserve the decisions of the -judiciary courts inviolable. When the injustice is too gross and -palpable, a new Ilam or sentence is granted by this court, without -any allusion to prior proceedings. - -It is true that the people have the right to appeal to his majesty -for redress, but as they are invariably referred to this court for -reconsideration, justice is seldom rendered to the appellants. - -Foreigners are not tried before these courts. If the litigation -is between themselves, their cases are tried and settled by their -legations; but if with the natives, they are referred to a special -court of the ministry of commerce, called Medjlissy-Tidjaret, composed -of various merchants both natives and foreigners, and presided over -by the Minister of Commerce, or his deputy. - -The code by which this body pretends to be governed, is the "Code -de Commerce" of Napoleon. How equitably it is applied by them, may -easily be perceived. - -Imagine some twenty-five or thirty merchants, of different nations -and tongues, assembled together in the character of jurors, who not -only do not understand a word or syllable that is uttered in their -hearing, but often do not even possess the means of communicating -their ideas to each other. - -The affair brought before them, being unintelligible to most of them, -it is generally conducted by the government officials, or some of the -members who are fortunate enough to know something of the language, -and their decisions imparted to the passive members, who usually -give their sanction, taking it for granted that all is right. The -consequence is, that if one of the litigants is so happy as to secure -the good will and patronage of an acting member, he is sure to come -off successfully, no matter how bad his case. - -This body, like the other Turkish courts, admits not the pleading by -lawyers, for a good and simple reason, that its members being men of -business, and ignorant of law and legality, prefer to be governed by -their own judgment, and constitute themselves at once, judge, jury, -and prosecutors. - -The interpreters of the foreign legations, are, however, required by -treaty to be present, who not only interpret for the parties, but are -bound to defend and protect their fellow citizens, to the best of their -ability, and report thereupon to their respective ambassadors. It -is to be regretted that the services of these individuals are not -always disinterested. Policy sometimes inclines them to side with -this serio-comical court, for the sake of keeping on good terms -with the officials and its members, and thus maintaining their own -reputations at the Porte as emissaries of foreign lands; while at the -same time a good opportunity is offered them for the gratification -of any personal pique or prejudice against their clients; so that a -foreigner may either suffer injustice, or be injurious to the people -of the country, without the knowledge of his own ambassador. How true, -then, the observation of Lord Stratford, that "the very atmosphere -of Turkey is impregnated with venality." - -The costs of lawsuits are always defrayed by the gainer of the cause, -as he is supposed to be better able to afford such expenses; but the -evident design is to induce people to go to law, since justice is set -aside, and every facility afforded by the suborning of witnesses. Even -the sentences are so carelessly, nay designedly worded, that at any -time flaws may be discovered, and a new trial demanded. - -The equity of making the gainer of the cause pay the costs, was -ludicrously illustrated in the case of an Arnavout or Albanian, who -was accused of stealing a gimlet. When in the presence of the Kadi, -he pleaded not guilty. The plaintiff, according to law, was required -to substantiate his accusation, by producing two witnesses. The man -was in a dilemma, for he had no witnesses to produce; but, as usual, -he was relieved from the anxiety, by the prompt offer of those harpies, -who linger about mehkemes, or courts of justice, and tender their -benevolent services in such emergencies, for certain remuneration. - -Moderate as was their demand, the trifling claim not justifying -much extra expense, he modestly declined availing himself of this -privilege, and pleaded to have no witnesses. The only alternative -then for the kadi was to administer the oath to the defendant; which -was unhesitatingly complied with; for the Arnavouts are generally -noted for their pliable consciences. Thus having been duly sworn, -our hero was pronounced the happy gainer of the cause, and requested -to pay only the costs, which were ten times more than the value of -the article in question. - -The Arnavout being somewhat of a speculative genius, after due -consideration of the pros and cons, in the case, coolly put his hand in -his bosom, and producing the disputed gimlet, threw it at his accuser, -saying, "There, have your gimlet, be you the gainer of the cause, -and pay the costs!" - -As to criminal laws, they cannot be said to exist in Turkey; for this -form of justice being based upon the principle of retaliation, or -kissass, the prosecution is always on account of the injured party, -and not of the government; so that the release of a criminal is at -the option of an individual. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -EDUCATION. - - -Mohammed, who is the oracle on all subjects, having declared, that "the -ink of the learned and the blood of the martyr are equal in the sight -of God," education is not so entirely neglected by his followers, as is -generally supposed. It may, in one sense, be considered general; for -every parent is obliged to send his children, both male and female, -to the schools which are attached to the mosques, and supported -by them. At Constantinople there are no less than 396 mektebs, -or primary free schools, attended by 22,700 children, both boys -and girls. There are six other schools, for more advanced studies, -attended by 870 pupils. - -The initiatory services to the Elif Bé, literature of the young -Moslems, are very imposing. The candidate, blooming with the roses -of six short summers, is decked in his best, and in the best of the -neighbors' too; for there is great borrowing of jewelry and rich -embroideries, when the parents cannot afford to buy. The young tyro -mounts a steed which vies with him in the splendor of its caparison, -and with his badge of honor, a beautiful and glittering satchel slung -over his shoulder, parades the streets. The children of the school -about to be honored by his attendance, are the escort; and the good -old hodja, or school-master, leads the train, and the tune, as they -wend their way, singing and chanting; the boys and girls vociferating -in full chorus, Ameen! Ameen! - -When the children of the sultan are about to begin their literary -pursuits, the procession and rejoicings are, of course, in proportion -to the excelling importance of the royal progeny over all inferior -buds of humanity. - -The public are thus duly notified, though the instruction of the -young sultans is by private masters. - -The system of instruction in the Turkish schools is eminently -primitive, and the branches taught are very elementary. - -They use neither quill nor desk, the peculiarity of the Turkish -characters requiring the stiffness of the reed; and the importance -attached to calligraphy is so great, that the paper is held on the -palm of the hand, in order to give the flexibility requisite for -the formation of the letters. The lessons of the children consist of -spelling and writing; and the higher studies in committing the Koran -to memory. In order to understand this sacred book, they are obliged to -learn the grammar, in which proficiency is seldom made. Hence very few, -even of the officials, especially of the ancien régime, can read or -write correctly, all their correspondence being performed by keatibs, -or scribes. The general deficiency of education creates a great -demand for men of this profession, whose services are needed for all -sorts of letter writing, for petitions, obligatory notes, contracts, -etc. These persons are to be found in the court-yards of the mosques, -in shops and kahvés near the Porte, and in many other places. - -To those who knew not how to affix their own names to any document, a -seal not only became a convenient substitute, but the universal style -of signature. All the grandees have their mëohurdar, or seal-bearer, -and the Sadrazam officiates in this capacity to the sultan. - -The common punishment at schools is the world renowned bastinado, -or falaka. The apparatus consists of a cylindrical piece of wood, -about five feet long, and one inch in diameter. Near the centre of -this rod, there is a loop of rope, sufficiently wide to hold both -the feet of the truant. The rod being turned the rope winds upon it, -and thus secures the feet, which are placed therein. The person is -then thrown upon his back, by the raising of the feet, upon the soles -of which the blows are applied with a cudgel by the schoolmaster. It -is a rather painful operation, as some can tell from sad experience, -who, like other boys that are never naughty, had to go through with -it in their younger days. - -The Turkish, originally Tartar, is at present composed of three -different languages, viz: Arabic, Persian, and Tartar, owing to the -different people with whom the Turcomans came in contact. The Koran -being their fundamental study, the Arabic has become the basis of -the language, as the Latin is of the European dialects. - -It is written from right to left, like all other Oriental languages, -with the exception of the Armenian. - -The Turkish has no capitals or Roman letters, but consists of -italics--or in other words, the written and printed characters have -the same forms, nor have they any punctuation. Their calligraphy may -be divided into five different styles. - -The Rika, or ordinary hand-writing, the same being used for printing. - -Sülüs, or enlarged writing, is used for inscriptions, title-pages, -or the headings of chapters. - -Divany, or the court script, which is an ornamental style of writing, -and only used at the Porte for firmans, or edicts. - -Taalik, or the Persian letters, is used in the judiciary courts, -and for poetry. - -Siyakat, or Turkish hieroglyphics, is only used for treasury bonds. - -The Turkish language is, in itself, most copious and expressive, -euphonious in sound, and capable of the greatest variety of expression, -and is well adapted to the composition of poetry. Although the -Osmanlis formerly possessed but little mathematical, philosophical, -or scientific learning, the Muses have never denied their inspiration -to them. Foreign literature has been much in vogue in latter times, -and many translations have been made into Turkish. The languages of -Europe are also cultivated to some extent, and many are now to be -found at the Porte, who speak the French and English quite fluently. - -The present sultan has done much to elevate the system of public -instruction in his dominions. He has ordained a council to superintend -all educational affairs, and also has commenced the erection of a -magnificent public university, opposite the mosque of St. Sophia. - -There exist already, the school of the mosque of Ahmed, that -of Suleiman, and one founded by the late Validé Sultan, for the -education of the young candidates for public offices. There are, -also, the medical, normal, and naval schools, and last of all, the -agricultural school at San Stefano, the direction of which was, once -upon a time, given to the celebrated Turkey Jim, of South Carolina. - -The sultan himself is present at the examinations of these various -colleges, with his retinue of Ulema, Ministers, and Pashas; his -majesty even propounds questions to the pupils, encouraging them by -his gracious condescension of manner. - -There are as many as 80,000 books in the public libraries, written -or printed in the different Oriental dialects, Arabic, Persian, -and Turkish. These works treat of history, science, and theology; -also belles-lettres, and good breeding, on which last subject, the -Osmanlis are extremely punctilious. The young men, and even children, -are exceedingly simple and unpretending, but at the same time, -intelligent and polite in their demeanor. They maintain a remarkable -gravity of deportment, and in the absence of their fathers, exercise -the prerogatives of hospitality, with all the dignity of the patriarchs -themselves. - -There are now twenty-one different newspapers and periodicals in the -country, viz. two Turkish, eight Armenian, three Greek, five French, -two Italian, and one Jewish. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -MEDICINE. - - -Although the ancient Arabs were celebrated for their medical knowledge, -the Osmanlis have only of late years made some advances in the study -of medicine. - -They are most credulous and superstitious in their notions upon -this subject, and ready to follow the advice of any empiric in the -healing art. They seem to know two diseases peculiar to themselves; -one they call Gelinjik, and the other Yelanjik. The first is used -in a comprehensive universality and signifies almost any ailment; -the second is applied to erysipelas and nervous pains in the face. - -The art of curing the Gelinjik has long been possessed by a single -family, and descended in hereditary succession from one to another of -its members. There is a certain Meriem Kadun of this profession, who -once had the good fortune to cure the present sultan, with some of the -mysterious red nectar, which is the principal medicine administered -for this malady. She has ever since had abundant practice in the -royal palace and everywhere else; and the famous Yelanjikgee has a -far-famed reputation. - -A particular class of Emirs, or the descendants of Fatima, the -daughter of Mohammed, are supposed to possess the virtue of healing the -nervous diseases of the face called Yelanjik. They wear green turbans, -repeat certain prayers over the patient, and are supposed to possess -a charm in their fingers' ends. The Emir lays his thumb on his nose, -breathes upon the extended fingers, then lays it upon the forehead -of the patient, and pressing upon the nerves of the face, utters a -short prayer. Thus he often succeeds in dispelling the malady in a -few minutes--whether by his own medical skill or by the credulity -of his superstitious patients, may be questioned. Strange to say, -their only belief is, that when a cure is not effected, it is not -because of the inefficacy of the charmed fingers, but the disease -was not genuine Yelanjik, and therefore the holy Emir could not cure -it. When any disease fails to be cured by either of these characters, -the Gelinjikgee and Yelanjikgee, then in despair the other disciples -of the healing art are summoned, of whom there is no scarcity in -Constantinople, where the last comer is generally patronized, until -some new pretender succeeds him. - -A person once exceedingly ill of typhus fever, called in one of -these medical gentlemen, who, although he considered the case quite -hopeless, prescribed for his patient and took his leave. The next day, -in passing by, he inquired of a servant at the door if his master -was not dead. "Dead? no. He is much better." Whereupon the doctor -proceeded up stairs to obtain the solution of this miracle. "Why," -said the convalescent, "I was consumed with thirst, and I drank a -pailful of the juice of pickled cabbage." - -Wonderful! quoth the doctor--and out came the tablets, whereupon -was inscribed, "Cured of typhus fever, Mehemed Agha, an upholsterer, -by drinking a pailful of pickled cabbage juice." - -Soon after the worthy doctor was called to another patient, -a Yaghlikgee, or dealer in embroidered handkerchiefs, suffering -from the same malady. He forthwith prescribed "a pailful of pickled -cabbage juice." - -On calling the next day to congratulate his patient on his recovery, -he was astonished to be told, the man was dead! - -The Oriental Esculapius, in his bewilderment as to these phenomena, -came to the safe conclusion, and duly noted it in his memoranda, -that, "Although in cases of typhus fever, pickled cabbage juice is an -efficient remedy, it is not, however, to be used unless the patient -be by profession an upholsterer!" - -Fortunately for the community, this branch of science is improving -in Turkey, and there are numerous graduates from the medical college, -who are employed in the army, and by the inhabitants in general. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -WESTERN PREJUDICES, AND EASTERN TOLERATION. - - -The etiquettes and punctilious ceremonies of society were doubtless -unknown in the primitive condition of our race. - -Modern civilization has put the world into fetters with its laws and -by-laws, which seem the result of some secret combination, as they -are generally known only to the initiated, while the less fortunate -mass of the communities become the laughing-stock of these wiseacres. - -The true politeness and generosity which spring from good feeling -and common-sense, are little regarded by the aristocracy of society, -unless you have the open sesame to their doors, which is nothing less -than an entire conformity to their pre-conceived ideas. - -A certain air and style, only perceivable to the critics themselves, -is to be maintained; a certain contour of costume rigorously to -be adopted, whether agreeable to the wearer or not--an unvaried and -monotonous similarity must pervade the whole world, or those venturing -to differ, must suffer not only an exclusion from the company of -very agreeable people (barring their prejudices), but an absolute -persecution of ill-sounding epithets--such as vulgar, conceited, -independent, and even the moral character is often libelled. - -You must not attend the church of the Rev. ----, unless your hat is -black as a stove-pipe, and with a rim of approved dimensions. The -fastidious ladies of upper-tendom show symptoms of nervous agitation, -as you unwittingly mount their steps in your native head-gear, which -may chance to be a sombrero, or a Turkish fess--what if a TURBAN! - -The only occasion on which a foreigner might be permitted to appear -in his own every-day clothes, would be at some fancy ball, as if -in masquerade. All this may do among themselves, but why attempt to -renovate the habits of a life-time in others. Indeed, the Americans are -very exacting, for when did they ever conform to any other nation's -mode of dress? while the moment you set foot on their shores, you -must turn American in toto, or you are no go. - -The English are proverbial for their snobbism, and stiff -shirt-collars--yet in London, you may meet the Hindostanee in his -white robes and turban, the Turk in his fess or red cap, and many -others, as they are accustomed to be at home. Still more common is -this variety in Paris, and all over Europe. - -Americans, English, and French, traverse the East dressed as they like, -without creating either the sensation of disgust or astonishment in the -beholders. Why, then, this illiberality in the land of freedom? why -force the Chinese, the moment they land, into straight-jackets, or -crown the Osmanli with a sombre stove-pipe, the most uncouth machine, -yclept the hat, which ever any sensible people ventured to place in -so honorable a position. - -Nolens volens, the Osmanli, on his arrival in the land of -"Independence," must needs become a Pasha of two tails, reversed -however, as at home these emblems of rank are carried before him; but -now he becomes his own standard-bearer, parading his honors and entrée -to the fashionable world, in the shape of the time-honored dress coat. - -To those who have never visited foreign lands, one would suppose, -nothing would be more entertaining than to see an exhibition of habits -and customs of other peoples. - -But we must take the world as it is. - -Although the manners and dress of the Orientals were, and are still, -in many respects very different from those of their western neighbors, -yet they have displayed a degree of civilization, if we may so speak, -in their toleration of others as they chanced to meet them. English, -Spanish, Italians, Magiars, Greeks, Albanians, Croats, Bulgarians, -Persians, Kurds, and Arabs, walk their streets and enter their houses -without dreaming of changing their costume, or disguising their own -nationality under any garb whatever. - -Even the European or American travellers, making half-way attempts -at external conformity to those about them, although they become -perfect caricatures, have free scope to sport the travesties they -make of themselves, and are even treated with civility; yet, judging -from appearances, no one could conceive what parts of the world might -claim the honor of their nativity. - -Indeed, the only occasion upon which we remember the Turks to have -taken umbrage at the European costume, was some time ago, when -visitors desired to present themselves before his imperial highness, -their ideas of decency compelled them to furnish each one with a -long pelisse. So far have they yielded their prejudices, as even to -adopt the European military and undress costume, only excluding the -hat; though not without a struggle, as was exemplified when Sultan -Mahmoud ordered the janissaries to doff their cumbersome head-gear, -flowing robes, and ample trowsers. - -But alas for the robes and turbans! the cashmere girdles, and yellow -slippers! they are rapidly passing away. The audience-hall of the -Grand Signor, is now filled with an ordinary assemblage--the sultan -and his minister are stripped of the mysterious appendages of their -gorgeous draperies--beneath which, there seemed to breathe no common -soul. How imposing the garb, as they were wont to stand in the august -presence, immovable, impenetrable; each with his majesty of mien, -flowing beard, and portentous silence. - -We have seen a fac-simile of an ancient court, or, as it was scarce -thirty years ago, in the days of the father of the present sultan. - -Mahmoud was seated on his throne upon an elevated platform; an immense -turban composed of innumerable folds of the purest and finest white -muslin covered his royal head, in the front of which was placed a -magnificent spray of brilliants; his robes of rich silk, were confined -by a girdle of Cashmere's softest and richest fabrics, while over his -shoulders hung a magnificent pelisse, lined throughout with the best -of Russia's sables. Behind him stood his numerous pages, all young, -blooming, and beardless as the fairest maidens, arrayed in robes of -delicate tints. - -The Silahdar holding his majesty's sword upright, stood on the right -hand, while the Haznadar, or Lord Steward, was upon the other side -of the sultan. - -The Ak-agha, or chief of the white eunuchs, was behind the chair, -an old, woman-like man, beardless and wrinkled. In the group were the -imperial cup bearer, Kahvegee Bashi, coffee server, Kaftan-aghassi, -gentlemen of the wardrobe, etc. - -Below the platform, and in front of the sultan, stood in respective -rank, the different ministers of the realm, all robed to the feet in -rich and varied hues, and no two turbans alike. They seemed, indeed, -to be the movers and arbitrary controllers of the destinies of a vast -nation, the secret springs which kept the machine in motion. - -A most interesting collection of illustrative models from life, is -carefully preserved at Constantinople, called the Elbisseyi Atiké, -and exhibited at the great square of At Meydan, or the ancient -Hippodrome, near St. Sophia. It is wonderfully true to nature, and -typical of Eastern life, recalling those very characters with their -various avocations, who but a few years ago were all upon the scene, -enacting the very reality of Orientalism. - -The different grades of life, the officers under government, civil, -religious, and military, the various trades and callings, and -individuals of both sexes were formerly, each and all, designated by -a peculiar style and appearance. The janissaries were also habited -in various costumes, according to their ranks and employments. - -Such was the past magnificence of Turkey, now rapidly losing its -former type of varied external beauty, as it merges from day to day -in the great stream of civilization. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -THE SULTAN AND HIS PERSONNEL. - - -Rousseau has wisely observed, "Il faut étudier la société par les -hommes, et les hommes par la société," and as the tone of society in -all countries is derived from the courts and the wealthy, so also in -Turkey, the sultan and his court are the model of domestic life and -its institutions. - -Sultan Abd-ul Medjid Khan, the Padishah of the Osmanlis, or the -reigning monarch of Turkey, was born May 6th, 1822, and succeeded -his father Sultan Mahmoud, July 1st, 1839, at the age of seventeen. - -He has a brother and a sister, both younger than himself. - -His brother, Aziz Efendi, lives in the same palace with him, having -apartments therein for his own use and accommodation. - -His sister Adilé Sultan, who is married to Mehmed Aali Pasha, the -ex-Grand Vezir, resides in a separate palace on the Bosphorus. - -The sultan has until now had nine children, two girls and seven boys, -but none of his children will succeed him while his brother is living; -for the law of the country requires that the eldest living male member -of the Imperial family shall ascend the throne. - -The ceremony of the coronation consists simply in escorting the -new sultan in a state procession, to a particular mosque at Eyoub, -at the northern extremity of the city, where he girds on the sword -of state after suitable prayers, and is thus constituted Padishah. - -The Princes Regent of Turkey, were formerly shut up at a place called -Kafes or Cage, within the old Seraglio, where they were watched -and closely guarded, and never allowed to go abroad--with a view to -avoid intrigue or civil commotion. But Sultan Mahmoud first broke the -unsocial chains of ancient usages; his successor has nobly followed -in his father's footsteps, and allows his brother liberty to go out -when he wishes, but not without a formal application for permission, -which is enjoined upon him by court etiquette. - -The two brothers differ very materially from each other, in temperament -and character. The sultan is of a mild and affable disposition, and so -willing and yielding is he on matters of state to please his people, -that he is more ready to be governed than to govern. His brother, -on the contrary, is very stern and passionate, and has the same -determined character as his father. - -Abd-ul-Medjid is of medium stature, rather delicately formed. His eyes -are dark and heavy in expression, with lofty and arched eye-brows; -his beard and moustaches of a dark auburn hue, are carefully trimmed -and completely conceal the expression of his lower features. - -His complexion is very pallid, and his whole air decidedly nonchalant. - -On all state occasions he appears in public on horseback, wearing -the national fess, ornamented with the royal aigrette in brilliants. - -His short Spanish cloak falls in graceful folds around his person, -the collar of which is also adorned with diamonds. In a word, his -lofty carriage and beautifully caparisoned steed quite realize the -picturesque ideas generally conceived of an Eastern monarch. - -He never salutes any one in public or private, save by a single glance -of his eye. - -His favorite residence is the palace of Tchiraghan on the European -shore of the Bosphorus, a few miles from the city. - -In order to accommodate the numerous and peculiar retinue of an Osmanli -sovereign, there is a similarity in the internal arrangements of all -the royal residences. - -These palaces, like all other Osmanli houses, are divided into -two compartments; the first is called the Selamluk or the place of -salutation, and is appropriated to the men; the second is the Harem, -which belongs exclusively to the ladies. Between these two are the -apartments of the sultan, called Mabeyn. - -The personnel of a sultan formerly consisted of many -functionaries. Their number has of late been much reduced, though -they are still very numerous. - -The principal honorary officer is the Silahdar or Imperial -sword-bearer, whose office being a sinecure, he only enters the -presence when specially summoned, or to make some official reports. - -Those who are in the most constant communication with the sultan, -are his own Sir-Kiatibs, private secretaries, and the Mabeyngys, -or chamberlains, and he is always attended by one or two of the -latter, when he goes out. These gentlemen having the private ear of -his majesty, there is constant intrigue among the different political -parties to ensure their patronage, as the easiest means of access to -his sublime highness. - -The Enderoun Aghalery, or gentlemen of the royal household, are young -men selected from among the slaves, and also from the families of the -citizens. They are trained from their earliest years to the usages -of the palace, and receive an education suited to their prospective -career. When they are fitted for attendance upon his imperial majesty, -they become Itch-Oghlans, or pages of the presence, and perform -the duties of cup-bearer, towel-bearer, gentlemen of the wardrobe, -and slippers, pipe and coffee bearers, ushers, etc. They are many of -them distinguished for their elegance of manner and intelligence. - -From the rank of pages they are afterwards promoted to be chamberlains, -and often even attain the dignity of Müshirs, or Ministers of -State. The present Ministers Riza Pasha, and Mehmed-Aali Pasha, -the brother-in-law of the sultan, were both Mahmoud's pages. - -The mutes are as indispensable as any of the palace attendants; -when the Grand Vezir goes alone, or in company with the Grand Mufty, -to the Imperial chamber, all the Mabeyngys and the Enderoun Aghalery -withdraw, and the deaf mutes remain in attendance. - -As on no occasion, not even during a grand council, when they -deliberate with closed doors, the Osmanlis can dispense with their -attendants, mutes are always very necessary appendages to them, -both at the palace and the Porte. - -Although they have not the sense of hearing nor the faculty of speech, -they possess a remarkable quickness of comprehension, and have a -great tact in communicating their ideas, even to the divulging of -state secrets to their intimate friends and favorites. - -They were formerly the executioners of the palace; no reason can be -assigned for their holding such an office, unless, being deaf and dumb, -they were not qualified to hear and pity the unfortunate victims. - -There are also generally one or two dwarfs in the royal retinue, -who are a sort of court jesters. There is one now at the palace, -who became a very distinguished character during the reign of Mahmoud. - -On one occasion, when the sultan was in high glee, he summoned this -man of small pretensions to the harem. His majesty wishing to test -his ingenuity, proposed to him, that if he could kiss any one of -those girls (pointing to a group of tall and beautiful Circassian -slaves in attendance), he should have that very one for his wife. - -At this novel and unexpected intimation, Sir Paynim raised his eyes to -survey the bewitching circle, apparently so far beyond his reach. But -such a chance could not be lost; at all hazards, he boldly advanced -to one of the fairest, and while she looked down upon him in dismay, -gave her tangible proofs of his attachment by a tremendous blow on -her stomach. - -As she almost doubled with pain, her pigmy lover seized her around -the neck, imprinted his first kiss of love, and gained the royal -prize by this coup de main. - -At the threshold of the Mabeyn, you will meet the Enderoun Aghalery, -or the gentlemen of the household; passing by these personages, you -ascend the stairway, and enter a large hall. On all sides are many -curtained doorways, at one of which two guards are stationed. These -are the Perdegys, or curtain keepers to his majesty. - -The peculiarity of their domestic habits, viz., the ladies occupying -separate apartments, leaves the entire Selamluk free and accessible -to all. Hence the necessity, when wishing to be retired, of having -curtains suspended to the doorways, and guards stationed to prevent -the abrupt encroachment of visitors and strangers. - -The personal vanity of the Osmanlis is such, that no occasion -is neglected for its gratification, and munificence is always the -concomitant of rank and distinction; therefore the slightest service -is invariably compensated by a remuneration, technically called -bakshish. The keahya at the landing, who holds your cayik while you -disembark, or the ostler who holds your horse, the pabouchjy, who -officiously arranges your slippers as you leave the house, with the -whole household retinue of obsequious attendants, one and all expect -the customary bakshish. - -So universal is this practice, that the grander the establishment, -the lower are the wages of the servants, who are sure to reap so good -a harvest from the numerous visitors, that they willingly compound -for the most trifling salaries; indeed, it may justly be said, that -the grandees support each other's menials. - -This system pervades all classes of the people, and even the palace -of the sultan. - -An amusing story is told illustrative of the way in which these -Perdegys make their post available. - -One of these guards seemed to be enjoying such extensive revenues -from his office, that he was reported to his majesty in a very -ludicrous manner. - -A certain wit, by name Indjyly-Tchavoush, a sort of an Oriental -Curran, occasionally used to visit the sultan; but never without -paying tribute to these keepers of the curtain. - -Nettled at these exactions, and wishing to attract his majesty's -attention to the subject, he one day entered the royal presence -with a large mackerel, the commonest fish in Turkey, in his hand, -as a present. The sultan was struck with the oddity of the gift, and -supposing that the expectations of the donor could only be realized -by some royal munificence, asked, "What he desired in return?" - -"Only 500 lashes, sire," was the prompt reply. This reply added to his -majesty's astonishment, "and why so strange a request?" he demanded. - -"Because, since, I am obliged to share all your majesty's gifts with -your majesty's curtain keepers, I wish the rogues to have their share -in this also!" - -Judging from your benevolent countenance, that you are endowed with -generous impulses, the keepers allow you to pass within the curtained -door. You are now in a large apartment, on three sides of which are -windows, with a wide Turkish sofa at the end, some two feet high -from the floor, where the sultan is seated entirely alone, with a -desk and implements of writing before him, and a long and graceful -chibouk, mounted with a splendid amber mouth-piece ornamented with -diamonds, carelessly lying by his ride. He utters the simple word, -Gel! come! when several attendants appear as if by magic, and stand -before him with folded hands. At every command they make the temennah, -or Turkish salutation, which is done, not by bending the person, -and bringing their arms over their heads, as though they were going -to dive, as is often represented in theatres, but simply by raising -the right hand to the mouth, the fingers touching the lips, then the -right temple, and then carelessly dropping it down. This temennah -is performed without uttering a single word, and signifies perfect -comprehension of the royal orders. - -An air of humility is always maintained in the presence of superiors, -and such signs of active existence, as coughing or sneezing, are -quite unallowable. The person feeling preliminary symptoms of these -actions, being obliged either to suppress them, or to withdraw from -the presence. Indeed the social etiquettes are very strict, even among -equals. Although tobacco is introduced on occasions of ceremony and -social intercourse--the chibouk and nargillé are not the calumets of -peace, but of hospitality--the disagreeable concomitants of the weed -so universal in America, are absolutely unknown in Turkey. - -Spitting, then, is to the Osmanlis a most repulsive act, and their -horror may be imagined when, on a certain occasion, while in the -company of a grandee of the realm, the representative of the great -American nation (the New World), deliberately took his quid from his -pocket, and after cutting the requisite morsel, stored it carefully -in the corner of his mouth, and commenced the slow mastication so -characteristic of good tobacco chewers! The indulgence of such a luxury -having only made his excellency's mouth water, and there being no -other accommodation at hand, in order to relieve his salivary glands, -he was obliged to aim at an open window close by! - -His excellency, consequently, became a sort of a proverb among them, -and the question was repeatedly asked, "Does your American friend -still continue to enact the camel, or does he not weary of chewing -the cud?" Unlearned in classic lore, how should they know that the -poet once said-- - - - - "Tu tantum erucis imprime dentem." - - - -No one is ever seated in the presence of the sultan, nor are any of -the customary rites of hospitality observed; such as the introduction -of pipes, coffee, sherbet, etc. - -On the presentation of foreign ambassadors, the ceremony is so -arranged, that the minister plenipotentiary and his sublime highness, -enter the apartment simultaneously by opposite doors; thus the sultan -receives the representatives of foreign potentates on foot, without -condescending to rise from his seat. - -After the audience is terminated, the royal guests are conducted -into the apartment of the Mabeyngys, where they are treated with true -Oriental hospitality and munificence. - -Those persons who are not aware of the wonderful changes that have -taken place in Turkey, may fancy this monarch to be surrounded by -a group of robed, turbaned, and bearded Osmanlis; on the contrary, -both the sultan and his attendants now wear a European military frock -coat and pantaloons, with only the national fess for a head-dress. - -The moustache is universally worn, and it would seem as ridiculous to -an Osmanli to shave the eyebrows as the upper-lip. Indeed, nothing -excites the curiosity of the rising generation so much, as to see -a man without a moustache; especially an aged man, in whose case, -it would seem to them like an attempt at perpetual youth. - -There is not a beard to be seen on any of the attendants of the palace, -for the beard is considered in Turkey as a mark of dignity and freedom; -consequently, no one in the personal service of the sultan is allowed -this honor, except by special permission of his majesty; which implies, -that the individual is no longer retained in the palace, but soon to -be elevated to some superior office. The beard, then, being indicative -of rank and position, it is preserved with a certain superstitious -reverence; no Mussulman, therefore, after the ceremony of allowing -the beard to grow has been once performed, ever again uses the razor; -nevertheless it is not permitted to assume the natural growth, but -is carefully trimmed according to the fashion of modern times. - -Abd-ul-Medjid makes his appearance in the Mabeyn, early in the morning; -for it is a universal custom with the Osmanlis to rise early. He -generally spends his mornings in the perusal of local and foreign -newspapers, which are translated for him, and other general reading. - -He has lately acquired a taste for the French language, in which -he has made considerable progress. He is, according to the Turkish -acceptance of the term, well-educated; that is, well versed in Turkish -belles-lettres, with a general acquaintance with the history of his -own country. - -The science of mathematics has also engrossed some of his attention, -and he even condescended to receive instructions from Etem Pasha, -a young man of distinguished abilities and foreign education, who was -taken into the royal retinue as colonel of the body-guards; doubtless, -however, with reference to his scientific acquirements. - -His majesty's meals, according to the custom of the country, are two; -one in the morning between ten and eleven, the other at sunset. They -are served by the Tcheshnigear, whose duty it is to break the seals -of the different dishes intended for the sultan's repast, and after -having tasted, to carry them into the royal presence. - -Although the Osmanlis are great epicures, their tastes are very -singular. Their dishes are very diversified and numerous, consisting -usually of twelve or fifteen, and sometimes even thirty courses; -sweet and meat dishes being introduced in alternate succession; the -meal commencing with soup, and ending with pilaf, or a preparation of -rice peculiar to Turkey. They have a species of pastry or paklava, -which is remarkably light and delicious; and the mohalleby, or -Turkish blanc-mange, is much liked, even by Europeans. Fruit, at -Constantinople, is very abundant and delicious, and is partaken of -frequently during a repast. Indeed, the grapes of Scutari, called -Tchavoush, are unrivalled, and even more delicious and delicate than -those of Madeira or Malaga. - -The order in which a dinner is served is as follows: soup, kebab -(or roast meat in small pieces), entremet (or vegetables and meat -cooked together), pastry, roast, fish, entremet, mohalleby, entremet, -maccaroni, fowls, jelly, etc., until at last it winds up with the -significative pilaf and sherbet, or hosh-ab. - -No wine or liquor is served at the table, but his sublimity -occasionally during the day visits the pantry, doubtless, "for his -stomach's sake, and his often infirmities." Unfortunately, modern -civilization has some vices as well as many virtues; and the fashion -of excessive drinking, has, among others, lately crept into Turkey, -to which some of the élégants are becoming much addicted, and, ere -long, they may, perhaps excel even the paragon, John Bull. - -Although many other innovations and attempts at reform have -succeeded in Turkey, yet the original style of eating has not been -much improved. They use neither chairs nor tables; but a low stool -being put in the middle of the room, a large circular copper tray is -placed upon it. - -No such paraphernalia as cloths, napkins, knives, forks, plates, -glasses, etc., are essential; small loaves of bread, alternately -with small dishes of fruit, pickles, anchovies, cheese, etc., are -indiscriminately scattered around the edges of the tray, in the -middle of which the different preparations of food are successively -placed by the ayvaz or scullion, and the food is eaten with the -fingers, excepting the liquid dishes, for which wooden spoons -are provided. Around the tray, the company assemble, sitting with -their legs under them, and all eating from the dish in the middle; -reminding us of the customs of ancient times, when it was said, -"It is one of the twelve who dippeth with me in the dish." - -One long, narrow napkin is provided, which goes all round the tray, -and lies upon the floor; each person slipping under it as he sits down. - -Their tables being accessible to their friends at all times, -dinner-parties are never given, except on state occasions; for, -hospitality being one of the characteristics of the East, and -especially enjoined by the Koran, no one is excluded from their board; -and when the number present is so large as not to allow them to sit -comfortably, they place themselves side-wise, or in a sort of spoon -fashion, as though they were leaning upon one another, and thus -illustrating the scene at the feast of the Passover. - -In some of the houses of the wealthy, and especially of those whose -owners have visited Europe, the European mode of eating is imitated, -when the motley company, which is always assembled, sometimes presents -a most ludicrous scene. - -Once, a Turk at such a table, wishing to conform to the customs of -civilized life, endeavored to use the fork. Failing in several attempts -to take a piece of meat, and determined to overcome his gaucherie, -he resolutely took hold of the morsel with his fingers, and placing -one end of the fork against his breast, stuck the meat upon it with -an immense effort, and then carried it to his mouth, quite contented -with his own success, amid the applause of the company. During the -sacred month of Ramazan, however, the European mode of eating is never -practised, even by the most enlightened and liberal. Knives, forks, -tables and chairs, are then altogether set aside, as being too profane. - -His majesty usually breakfasts at the Mabeyn, and always quite alone; -for no one being equal to him, none can have the honor of his company; -and his evening repast is often taken, weather permitting, at some -beautiful watering-place. - -The time between these two meals is usually occupied with some of -his ministers, or the audiences of the foreign ambassadors, and in -excursions on the Bosphorus or elsewhere. - -Whatever transpires at the Porte, is reported to him every evening, -through the Ameddjy, or state chancellor, expressed in the most -beautiful and elegant style of which the Turkish language is -capable. In fact, the bureau of the Ameddjy is considered the best -school for polite literature, and those who have once served in that -department, invariably acquire a remarkable elegance of diction. The -sultan reads over these documents every evening, together with the -Arzou-hals, or petitions, which are presented to him on Fridays; and -after giving his imperial sanction or veto, returns them to the Porte, -to be acted upon accordingly. - -The approval of the sultan is not expressed by the application of -any royal seal or cypher, but by a bold stroke of his majesty's reed, -representing the Arabic letter S, which is termed sah, meaning correct -or approved. And those which are rejected are torn in one corner. - -The sultan's cipher, called Toora, is formed from the names of -the reigning monarch, and that of his father. It reads thus, -"Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid, son of Sultan Malmoud Khan, the sultan of -sultans." This is the imperial seal, and Ottoman coat of arms, and -it is affixed to all royal edicts, engraved upon public buildings, -and stamped upon the various current coins of the empire. - -When his evening occupations are over, the sultan retires to the harem. - -Such is the ordinary routine of the life of the Turkish sovereign; -but there are also many other public duties which occupy his time -and attention, and fully demonstrate that the post of sultan is by -no means a sinecure. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -PUBLIC DUTIES OF THE SULTAN. - - -The sultan is obliged to attend one of the public mosques in person -every Friday, which is the Mohammedan Sunday. One reason of his public -appearance is to set an example of religious devotion; another, to -assure the people by his actual presence, that he is in the enjoyment -of life and health; and a third, to give an opportunity to any of -his discontented subjects to appeal to him in person; for, the right -of appeal has never been denied in Turkey. This is done by a paper, -which is held in the extended hand of the petitioner, and presented -anywhere in the course of the royal route. - -It is received by his pages and reserved for the future perusal of -his majesty. His departure, both from the palace and the mosque, -is announced by a royal salute of 21 guns from the batteries, and -the ships of war. - -These opportunities are eagerly embraced by all strangers who wish -to gaze on the great "Tamer of Infidels and the scourger of the -unbelieving race of Christian vassals." There are two other great state -festivals, on which occasions the sultan and the whole of the royal -retinue combine to present one of the most beautiful Oriental pageants. - -These are the feasts of Bairam, one of which occurs at the end of -Ramazan or the long fast, and the other the Courban Bairam, or feast -of the sacrifice, sixty-eight days after. - -There is a grand state procession. Surrounded by his numerous pages -in uniforms glittering with golden embroidery and plumed head-dresses, -attended by dignitaries of the realm in full court dress, all mounted -on Arabian steeds, splendidly caparisoned, the sultan enters the -mosque of Sultan Ahmed at the ancient Hippodrome. He alights upon a -velvet carpeting, which extends into the mosque, and is supported on -each side by chamberlains. - -As he dismounts, the voice of the assembled multitude proclaims "Allah -Padishahumuza Oozoon eömürler versin," Long live the king--God bless -the sultan. - -The Padishah after the performance of prayers, returns to his palace at -the Seraglio Point, where the throne room is always preserved. There -he receives the compliments of the season from his ministers and -officers of state. - -The procession to the mosque being public, has been described by -many who have witnessed it; but from the reception at the palace all -foreigners are excluded. - -The sultan is seated on a chair of state, with the princes and younger -princesses of the royal blood on each side. - -Behind the throne, in a semicircle, stand the personnel of the royal -household. - -Opposite the throne, at the farthest end of the hall, a band of -musicians is stationed, and as they perform the national airs, the -dignitaries enter the royal presence according to their respective -ranks, to pay homage to their sovereign. - -As has already been described, the usual mode of salutation in the east -is the temennah, made by touching the hand to the lips and then to the -forehead, which signifies affection and humility. With the desire, -however, to be more respectful, they often bend down to the ground, -as if willing to take up the very dust upon which the honored feet -have rested, or attempt to kiss the hem of the garment. But all these -ordinary modes of salutation are insufficient at a royal reception; -when a beautifully embroidered rug is spread before the sultan, -on one end of which his feet rest. - -As they present themselves, they slowly bend their persons and touch -their lips and foreheads to the border of the carpet, which ceremony -is called the kissing of the sultan's feet; for, no one is allowed -any actual proximity to the royal person--thus guarding him from the -assassin's dagger. - -After kissing the end of the carpet they arrange themselves in two -opposite lines on each side of the sultan, to witness the homages of -the various pashas and other dignitaries. Those who take their stand -in the presence are only the heads of the departments, both civil -and religious. - -After the ceremony is over, every one retires to hit own dwelling, -to enact the sultan to his subordinates. - -The Courban Bairam is the great festival celebrated by the pilgrims -at Mecca, in commemoration of the offering up of Ishmael; and is -generally observed throughout the Mohammedan dominions,--on which -occasion every Mussulman must kill a sheep with his own hand, and -distribute the meat to the poor. - -The sultan performs this sacrifice at his own palace before the -morning prayers. As he stands at the threshold, a ram with gilded -horns is laid at his feet, and girding himself with a silken towel, -he completes the sacrifice. - -The solution of this act of devotion is, that they believe that the -faithful will be transported over the surat or bridge of hair into -paradise on the backs of these immolated victims. - -The old seraglio, which was the residence of so many sultans, -and the scene of the aggrandizement and downfall of so many good -Mussulmans; under whose latticed windows the Bosphorus flows so deeply -as to tell no tales of the hundreds of living and beautiful maidens -that have perished in the blue waves and left no sign of their sad -fate--the bloody and mysterious seraglio is now deserted, save on -such occasions as have been described--notwithstanding travellers' -assertions to the contrary. - -How many of the royal blood, even sultans themselves, within this -time-worn palace, have either drained the insidious and poisoned -potion, or been dispensed with by the surer cord, or assassin's dagger! - -The last victim was Sultan Mustafa, or the uncle of the present -monarch; and Mahmoud himself was miraculously preserved by the -attachment and perseverance of his lala or eunuch, who concealed -him in the fire-place of the bath, until the fury of the mob had -subsided--thus saving him, whom Allah had reserved for the proud -distinction of being the savior and regenerator of his country. - -No wonder, then, that the sultans of later times have recoiled from -such associations and built for themselves other palaces on the bright -and smiling shores of the "ocean stream." - -Abd-ul-Medjid has just erected a magnificent residence opposite the -entrance to the Marmora, the palace of Dolma Bahché. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXI. - -ROMANCE OF THE EAST. - - -The ordinary course of events, the humdrum monotonous tinkling of -life's daily and ever recurring necessities, is wearisome to the -soul. There is a longing for variety; the love of the marvelous craves -wherewith to slake its thirst, the imagination seeks its food, and the -beautiful, in fancy or reality, must sometimes minister its soothing -charms. Anything to escape from the physical, cumbersome part of our -nature, into the world of romance and visionary exultation. War and its -glory, its sudden vicissitudes of victory and defeat, its brilliant -arms and thundering voices excite the most thrilling emotions in the -bosoms of care-worn mortals. Love, with its gentle wooing, its kind -sympathies, and tender ministry, comes to the heart, sick of itself, -as the very balm of Gilead. Religion calls the crushed and bleeding -spirit to an unseen world, where fancy may luxuriate in realms of -ethereal anticipations, anon to become the realities of Faith, as -the soul is discharged from its mortal tenement. - -It is, under any guise, a blissful attribute, this ability to soar -out of life's dullness, into scenes of imaginary hope and brightness: -to escape from the real into the unreal, whether to deeds of heroic -valor, whose charm consists in the extravagance of the excitement, or -to linger in the enchantments of a tender passion, or to listen to the -tales of others' woes or joys: all these kindle up the enthusiasm of -the soul. But is there ever any reality to what may be termed romance? - -If, as some would fain have us believe, the very objects which seem -so tangible to our senses, are no realities, what then of the vagaries -of the imagination? The moment you reduce the most thrilling incident -to mere matter of fact, or divest it of the garb in which fancy ever -delights to clothe its objects, the romance loses its charm. The -more remote the scene, the more unfettered by conventionalities the -actors, the more bewitching the tale of their adventures, and the more -impossible the achievements, the better prized. Even the aid of genii -and fairies wonderfully helps on this love of the marvelous. What -was Aladdin's lamp more than any other old piece of copper ore, -until the slave of the lamp suddenly appeared. There has ever hung -over the East, a veil of mystery; it may be from the warmth of the -Oriental imagination and its own extravagant creations, or from the -seclusiveness of the women, who, as they became unfamiliar objects, -seemed to be the very Venuses and Peris of the world of fable. The -reserve of the men themselves, leaving their better halves to an -obliviousness from all the world, is calculated to excite the curiosity -of the community at home, and the rest of the world abroad, and to -invest the fair sex with most improbable charms. The difficulty -and imminent danger of a single interview, excites the love of -adventure. Tottering old crones, themselves the genuine antidotes to -all passion, point with their bony fingers to the penetralia, where a -goddess in human form enshrines her charms. Even a transformation takes -place, a new complexion is produced, feminine draperies and a basket -of wares, and you pass the unsuspecting and smooth-faced guardian of -the portal. You love to linger in the sweetly perfumed halls, to toy -with the beautiful Circassian, as she listlessly lounges on her silken -couch; you love even the sense of danger, as you start at every step, -and again relax into forgetfulness of the external world. But sometimes -there is a sequel; you fly for life; your lovely companion bares her -neck to the bow-string, her beautiful form enters the mystic veil of -the lost woman; the coarse and heavy sack, her coffin--her grave the -blue and briny wave of the ocean stream. - -All this is wild, romantic, thrilling, and tragic. But how rare the -occurrence; and of the multitude of adventure-loving, romance-seeking -beings that people earth's surface, to whose lot shall we assign -the realization? All dream; but how few wake to the vision in life's -action. All fancy; but when does not the broad sunshine of earth's -glare dispel the wreathed and mistlike draperies of imagination. The -ideal has an existence only in the "mind's eye." - -There is, then, no more romance in the East than elsewhere; indeed -there is even more of natural life divested of all extravagance -of fiction. The very lack of education, which, in some respects, -is certainly to be lamented, tends to fasten their hearts together, -in the bonds of nature's best affections. Home has joys enough for -their simple souls; so entirely devoid of that refined selfishness, -which in other lands seems to annihilate those sweet provisions -for kindred sympathies, which arise from the reciprocal affinities -of parent and child, brother and sister. There is little food then -for morbid imaginations, but much for natural pleasures and simple -tastes. The very externals of Orientalism are making their exit -from the world's scene; soon there will not exist even the illusion -of characteristic and graceful forms. Ere long we shall realize, -that, divested of form and coloring, of tinsel and decoration, the -descendants of the great common ancestor of the human race, are all -alike in feature, nature, and spirit. - -Indeed a general acquaintance with the different tribes and nations -under heaven only serves to convince the cosmogonist, that all are -of one family, have a common nature or origin, are but human, and -liable to human frailties and passions. The most powerful emotions -are felt in the bosoms of the savage and the polite. Ambition, love, -hatred, revenge, and a like train of absorbing impulses, rule and sway -wherever man has planted his footsteps. But how interesting to mark -the influence of circumstances, to define the latitudes and longitudes -of ideas and actions, to measure the rise and fall of the thermometer -of life, according to the various climes on earth's broad surface, -to feel the pulse of the dissenting creeds and dogmas, in a word, -to observe the same faculties under such varied culture. - -In comparing the different grades of education and civilization, -it is curious to observe how often an innate refinement of feeling -equals, if not supersedes, the greatest efforts of cultivation, or the -brightest results of philosophy. A lifetime spent in the schools often -leaves the man far behind one, whose early years have passed in shrewd -observation, and practical experience, for while the one is reasoning, -abstracting, ruminating, the other experiments, and lo! he enters the -very penetralia of the temple of wisdom. And where do we find the most -susceptible hearts, the most poetical fancies, the purest aspirations -of nature? Not among the dry and tutored reasoners of civilization, -but where the mind of man has been untrammeled by rules and etiquettes, -forms and ceremonies. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXII. - -THE HAREM. - - -We cannot deny that habit is second nature--the axiom holds good in -every form of social existence; yet there is a universal disposition -to mutual criticism and condemnation, whether between nations or -neighbors. There is always the vibrating why and wherefore, and -each, approves his own course of action, without ceding to others -the same privilege. - -There is no doubt that the peculiar style of the toilet of the Turkish -ladies would be deprecated by the belles of modern Christendom. Indeed, -we have often heard these fastidious dames exclaim, in regarding -representations of their Eastern rivals, "most horribly indecent," -while they turned their sensitive vision from the offenders against -all delicacy. And, on the other hand, we have heard the Osmanli Hanums -and Efendis express equal honor at the sight of a European lady, -en costume de bal. - -When the Marchioness of Londonderry presented herself at the palace of -the sultan, en grand tenue for a reception, the gentlemen in waiting -could scarcely persuade themselves to conduct her ladyship into the -royal presence, so astonished were they at the display of the fair -neck, shoulders, etc. - -Both the Western and Eastern toilets may be styled décolletées, the -one a horizontal, the other a longitudinal display of charms. But one -thing may be said in favor of the Orientals, that they never appear -in public without covering their necks and bosoms, and even veiling -their features; they are only permitted to appear uncovered at home, -and even then only in the presence of their nearest relatives. On -the contrary, on the most public occasions, at the operas, balls, -soirées, and many other grand assemblies, do the Western décolletées -delight to vie with each other in their various styles of full dress; -they are even so fastidious as to have no nomenclature but ankles, -while they willingly pay their dollars to see a full extension of -these same ankles on the stage. - -The Turkish ladies with perfect indifference present their unslippered -and even unhosed feet to any shop-boy, at the same time carefully -concealing their shalvar, or full trowsers, which are fastened below -the knee, and tucked up whenever they sally forth for a promenade ŕ -pied ou en voiture. - -As to the intrinsic merit or real modesty of these different styles, -peculiar tastes and prevailing modes can only decide; for habit is -strong in its sway, and imitation is a kindred principle. Therefore, -there is neither vice nor virtue in walking in the footsteps of our -predecessors, or each man or woman adopting the peculiar modes and -customs of their own people. As fertile a brain may throb beneath a -turban as a hat, as pure a form enshroud itself in a modest veil as -lurks beneath the shadow of a Parisian bonnet. What are externals -but whims and caprices; it is the virtue of domestic institutions -and daily habitudes that stamps the character of a people. - -European or American ladies may grace their boudoirs, models of beauty -and excellence, and Turkish Hanums may, by the exercise of domestic -virtues, equally adorn and ennoble the precincts of their Harems. - -The word Harem is familiar to most persons, but how grossly -misunderstood. Some have considered it as unmentionable to ears polite; -while the votaries of pleasure, ever ready to indulge their longing -fancies, have pictured it to themselves as the earthly realization of -the Paradise of Mohammed. Indeed many European authors in describing -the licentious and corrupted courts of their own monarchs, have -seemed to consider this term as the most distinguishing compendium -of immorality. - -Strange perversion, that the very word which inspires every Oriental, -whether Mohammedan or Christian, with the greatest respect, should -suggest to the mind of a European only a system of concubinage and -licentiousness. - -What then is Harem? - -One peculiarity in the construction of society in its primitive -condition was that might makes right. This not only affected personal -property, but even the more domestic relations. If an enemy strong -enough felt the inclination, he might rob his neighbor of his wife -or family, of which there are instances on Biblical record. - -To avoid any occasions of such unjust appropriation, it became a -policy to seclude the women from general observation. - -The unbounded hospitality of those good old days when the worthy -patriarchs lived with open doors, and good cheer; when the three -virtues which made a man distinguished, were bravery, eloquence, -and hospitality, or in the hyperbole of the times, a sharp sword, -a sweet tongue, and forty tables; in such an era of benevolence it -became necessary to separate the more precious and defenseless portion -of the family from the vulgar gaze. - -The seclusion of women, then, has ever been one of the greatest -social peculiarities of the East, and does not date its origin from -modern times, nor even from the foundation of the Moslem faith. In -some forms, it existed in the times of the ancient Jews; for, when -Rebecca lifted up her eyes and saw Isaac, who had gone out to meditate -in the field at even tide, she said unto the servant, "What man is -this, who walketh in the field to meet us?" and the servant said, -"It is my master, therefore she took a veil and covered herself." - -"The mother of Sisera looked out at a window, and cried through -the lattice." - -The same institution existed among the Arabs from time immemorial, so -that Mohammed was not the originator of this separation of women from -general society, but rather the sustainer of an old and established -usage, which the condition of the community in his times, rendered -imperative. - -"Speak unto the true believers, that they restrain their eyes, -and keep themselves from immodest actions. This will be more pure -for them, for God is well acquainted with that which they do; and -speak unto the believing women, that they restrain their eyes, and -preserve their modesty, and discover not their ornaments (personal -charms), except what necessarily appeareth thereof; and let them -throw their veils over their bosoms, and not show their ornaments, -unless to their husbands or their fathers, or their husband's fathers, -or their sons, or their husband's sons, or their brother's sons, or -unto such as attend them and have no need of women, or unto children -who distinguish not the nakedness of men." - -Supposing then society were on a different basis, according to -these tenets, the women would be perpetually veiled, and the men -ever wandering with averted eyes. In order to remedy these evils, -and facilitate their seclusion, the houses are all divided into two -sets of apartments, the Selamluk, or men's apartment, and the Harem, -or the sanctuary of the women, where no men are allowed to enter, -except those specified by the Prophet. - -Now, it is evident that the principle upon which society is constructed -in the East, is the careful seclusion of women from the gaze of -the world. - -The peculiar charm of modesty is known and acknowledged all over the -world, as the domestic arrangements of civilized society everywhere -demonstrate. - -The Greeks of Homer's day had their gynaikeion, the Romans, in -imitation, their Gynćceum; and modern civilization has created its -boudoir; but none of these terms are as expressive of the sanctity -of the abode, as the word Harem of the Orientals. - -It is well known that the cities of Mecca and Medina are the holy -shrines of the Mohammedan faith. No other appellative is used in -speaking of them, but the same word Harem, which, when used in -the plural, in itself comprises these venerated cities. They say, -Hadjj-ul-Haremein, or pilgrim of the two harems, meaning the holy -Mecca and Medina. This word is applied to the temple itself at Mecca, -which is honored by the title of Mesjad-el-Harem, the sacred or -inviolable temple. - -Thus some idea may be formed of the etymology of the term and its -sacred signification, when used by the Arabs and other Orientals, -to designate their firesides or family homes; the sanctity of which, -not only admits of no intrusion, but any summons or interruption to -the master of the family after he has once retired, is considered -indecorous. - -Mohammed received a revelation regarding himself, while he was engaged -in his harem preparing the Koran. - -Some persons had the rudeness to call him out. In order to reprove -them, and like sinners in all times to come, the following passage -was revealed: - -"The interior of thy dwelling is a sanctuary; they who violate it -by calling unto thee, are deficient in the respect which they owe to -the interpreter of heaven." - -This passage has not only rendered the interior of the dwelling, -viz. the harem, an inviolable asylum to the female portion of the -family, but it has made it a convenient place of refuge to pashas and -efendis, where they often seek repose from the multitude of unwelcome -visitors who infest, with perfect freedom, and at all hours, their -selamluks. - -The frequent visits of the Osmanlis to their harems, are not always -indications of the attractions within, but other external motives may -impel them thither; nevertheless, the inviolability of these precincts -has induced the supposition that they contained naught but the shrine -of the fair Goddess of Beauty, and her sly coadjutor. - -The upper part of a house in America, or those rooms appropriated to -the exclusive use of the ladies, are as sacred and inviolable as any -Oriental harem; and are not, as a matter of course, supposed to be -the scenes of mystery and intrigue. Indeed, it is fully evident that -the same spirit of deference to the comfort of the fair sex, exists -in America, where is seen over one of the principal entrances to the -general post-office, the announcement, "Exclusively for Ladies," which -in Turkey would be intimated by the single and expressive word HAREM. - -Again the "Ladies' Cabin" on board the steamers would, in the East, -be designated by the word Harem, written in golden characters, which -would at once indicate its sacred nature, and inspire every Oriental -with the respect due to the sex, which is even more imperative in -that clime than in other lands, where they make a glory and boast of -their excessive deference to the fairer portion of the community. - -Hence how erroneous the impression, that the harem is a species of -female prison, established by the tyranny of men, where the weaker -sex are forcibly shut up against their will. - -If the Osmanli ladies were under no other restrictions, their own sense -of self-respect, based upon time-hallowed usage, and inculcated by the -precepts of their religion, would compel them to the same seclusion. I -one day happened to be in the dressing room of a pasha, adjoining -the harem; when he left the room for a moment. In the interval, -his daughter, supposing her father quite alone, suddenly entered -the apartment; but on seeing me there, instinctively covering her -face with the drapery of her sleeve, as suddenly disappeared. While -I myself as instinctively displayed my sense of the courtesy due to -a lady, by looking as far as I could in an opposite direction. - -I heard her remarking to the slaves in the next room, that she was -so mortified, for, instead of seeing her father there stood ---- -as large as life. - -Her feeling at being seen without the precincts of the harem unveiled, -was the same as would be experienced by a lady of this country, -who should be surprised by the sight of a gentleman, when she was en -toilette de nuit! - -Nor is this seclusion entirely Mohammedan, but being an ancient custom -of the East, it is practised by all who dwell in that clime. The -families of the rayas, or non-mussulman subjects of the Porte, -consisting of the Armenians, Greeks, and Jews, are also under the -same social laws as their Mohammedan compatriots. It is true, that -in proportion as European customs have found their way into these -countries, the rigidity of the Christians has relaxed in this respect; -because the observance in question has never been incorporated with -their religion; whereas Mohammed, on the contrary, took special pains -to enforce the practice upon his followers. - -The word harem being by courtesy applied also to its inmates, has now -become a general term to designate the female portion of the family, -and is by no means synonymous with polygamy, otherwise the same -expression would not be used by the Christian subjects in speaking -of their domestic relations. - -It would be said that a certain pasha or an Armenian banker had gone -to a distant place without his harem, or family. - -An Osmanli lady, on being informed of the arrival of an American -minister in Constantinople, would naturally inquire whether he was -accompanied by his harem, or family. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXIII - -CONDITION OF WOMEN. - - -It is fortunate that the less enlightened members of the human family -are unconscious of their comparative inferiority--and are ignorant -of the bliss to which the more sublimated specimens of humanity are -constantly aspiring, and even rendering themselves discontented with -real life, as destiny has accorded it to them. - -The actual condition of women in the East is not then so much to be -lamented, as their ideal of happiness so essentially differs from that -of other portions of the fair sex in Europe or America. As no other -philosophy has yet crept into their minds, they dream not of "woman's -rights," "free love" or "equality of the sexes," and calmly content -themselves with the rights of nature, and the relative position which -has ever existed among their simple and patriarchal ancestors. The -Osmanlis have not yet deviated from the form of family government -which nature dictated to them. - -The venerable father, who has guided his children through youth, and -even counseled them in maturer years, is the monarch in the family -circle--the Dei penates are no creations of myth--but are embodied -in the one and sacred title of Pater familias. - -Each son, as he succeeds to the paternal duties, is invested with -the robes of veneration and respect. Thus the male branches of the -household have a prior rank, which is unconsciously recognized by the -women and younger members of the family. The laws even allow to the -son double the share of inheritance that they do to the daughters, -because of the heavy responsibilities which may devolve upon him in -future by the death of the father. - -There is not, therefore, the most distant suspicion in their -composition that females are equal to males, or girls to boys. It is -as if the members of the body should revolt, and the hands and feet -proclaim themselves superior, or even equal, to the head. - -The women of Turkey know very well, and gracefully submit to facts, -which are stubborn things. They never think of denying that - - - - "Women first were made for men, - Not men for them." - - - -There are countries where the condition of woman is indeed miserable, -and where, also, they are unconscious of their own degradation, -and willingly toil and drudge in the service of men; content with -the slightest proofs of affection with which their lords may honor -them--indeed, any concession to their woman nature is thankfully -received. - -To be bought and sold is a matter of course. In China, the -purchased wife is suddenly transported into the family of a man, -whose name even she has never heard. There she is the slave of the -whole establishment. The husband may beat her with impunity, reduce -her to a state of starvation, or hire her out, if he fancies to do so. - -The Hindoo forces her to immolate herself on her husband's funeral -pile--after having spent a lifetime in his slavery and service. - -Such barbarities are unknown in Turkey. For in no country in the -world are mothers more respected, wives more tenderly cherished, and -children more idolized. If, in the relative position of the sexes, -men rank above women, it is because the man is considered as the -vital principle, and the woman the material. Hence the man loves -and cherishes the woman, who in return regards him with reverence -and respect; and any deviation from these reciprocal affections, -would be considered as the greatest breach of decorum. - -There are certain acts of politeness which devolve altogether upon -the lords of creation in the most exquisitely civilized regions of -the world, which are however sometimes reluctantly performed--but, -as usual, such matters are reversed in the East, where even the sun -rises at a different hour. There the Efendi graciously receives a -glass of water at the hands of his too happy Hanum; his pipe and his -coffee are gracefully served by some fair Hebe of a wife or sister, -who naturally considers herself as the helpmeet for her spouse, -as did Eve, the first and fairest of woman kind. - -The reluctance they feel to have their ladies appear in general -society does not arise from any want of deference and respect on the -part of the men, but rather from an intuitive desire to guard and -protect them from public scandal. - -As the Osmanlis enshrine the objects of their affection in the recesses -of their own hearts, so they love to guard them from all contact of a -selfish world. Indeed, Moore has beautifully expressed their feelings -in the warblings of the Peri, - - - "No pearl ever lay under Oman's green water, - More pure in its shell, than thy spirit in thee." - - -They feel so sensitive on this score, that they do not make their -Harems a subject of conversation. Even the most distant allusion -to this part of their establishment would consequently be, not -only indelicate, but also an infringement of etiquette--so that -the ordinary questions, such as "how are madam and the ladies," -or according to Irish vocabulary, "how's yer wife and the gals," -would cause the lord of the house to redden with astonishment. - -As a further proof of the respect a man is supposed to feel for his -family, his enemy, when wishing to touch him to the quick, in cursing -him, only utters maledictions against his wife, mother, or sister. - -A man may be publicly executed, but a woman is sacked, entirely out -of respect. - -A Turkish lady is eminently queen of her own dominions, sometimes -even a despot--and most independent on all occasions, both public -and private. - -It is not necessary for ladies to be attended by their husband or any -other gentleman when they go out; public sentiment entirely protects -them; for, if any one should accost them rudely, the commonest citizen -would immediately turn avenger. When the ladies are attended by -servants and eunuchs, they are only appendages of rank and distinction. - -They seem, indeed, to be a privileged class. Wherever they appear -the men must retire--and woe to the man who ventures upon a warfare -of words with a Turkish woman; for her tongue has no bounds, and her -slipper is a ready weapon of chastisement; and no man would dare to -repel the attack. - -The convenience of the slipper as a ready means of self-defence, -seems to have been familiar in the days of the old classics, for, -the Roman poet says: - - - - "Et soleâ pulsare nates," - - -And doubtless many of the rising generation can testify to its abuse, -even in these days of modern improvement. - -The very whims and caprices which seem indigenous to the fair sex, -are tolerated as a matter of course with philosophic resignation, -as they are instructed by the Koran, "If ye be kind towards women -and fear to wrong them, God is well acquainted with what ye do." They -have a proverb also which supplants all reasoning on such occasions. - - - - "Satchi-ouzoun, Akli-Kissa." Long hair, short brains. - - - -To salute a lady, or in any way accost her, in public would be an -act of consummate rudeness; even a husband would pass by his wife and -family with an air of affected indifference. Certainly such a neglect -of the fair sex would be unpardonable in Europe and this country, but -on the contrary, in the East, it only evinces the greatest deference -and respect. - -Nevertheless, the Mohammedans have been most maliciously reported -by ignorant writers on the East, to hold that women have no souls; -or if they have, that they will perish like those of brute beasts. - -This assumption is founded upon the promise of the Prophet, that the -faithful shall be provided with black-eyed Houris in Paradise. - -If this excludes the Mussulman women from Paradise, we may reasonably -place the Christian ladies in the same category, for they are assured -in the Gospel that "there will be no marrying nor giving in marriage -in Heaven." - -On the contrary, Houris are but an addition to the earthly wives of the -Mussulmans, and the faithful are assured that "God promiseth unto the -true believers, both men and women, gardens through which rivers flow, -wherein they shall remain for ever," and that "whoso doth good works, -whether he be male or female, and is a true believer, shall be admitted -into Paradise, and shall not in the least be unjustly dealt with." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXIV. - -PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND COSTUME. - - -The first years of the life of every girl are spent both in the -Harem and Selamluk (or men's apartment), indiscriminately. The female -children being then allowed free access to the society of the men, -they imbibe certain notions in their youth, which are not always -consistent with refinement. - -As there is not in the Selamluk, the restraint which the presence -of ladies always imposes, the manners and conversation of the men -are often but ill calculated to nurture a sense of delicacy in the -minds of the children, who mingle so freely with them. Nevertheless, -they seem to possess an innate sense of propriety, and are never -deficient in politeness of deportment. - -Every girl is permitted to attend either the public schools, or to -receive private instruction at home, until she is eight or ten years of -age, when she is no longer allowed the freedom of her childhood. Very -little learning is acquired by them, the language being difficult, -and the mode of instruction altogether unsystematical; so that for -all future years they retain their simplicity, and are but overgrown -children. - -Their minds having had no culture, the senses assume entire dominion -over them, and their time is spent either in adorning their persons, -or in etiquetical observances, by which they hope to render themselves -more bewitching to the lords of creation. - -As in all other countries, fashion is regulated by the court, so at -Constantinople it is controlled by the ladies of the palace. Their -costume, according to the Oriental taste, always consisting of long -flowing robes, may be supposed to admit of no change; but on the -contrary, the ladies having little other occupation, delight in varying -the shape and style of their dress. Sometimes the hair is worn long, -again cropped short. A fess with flossy tassel is one day the mode, -and a fantastic turban is adopted the next morning. The sleeves are -long and wide, and again their drapery is dispensed with, and they -are confined at the wrist. - -The entary, or dress, is invariably cut high, either closed around -the neck, or left open in front; it is made long, trailing about a -yard below the person; sometimes left open at the sides to the hips, -and at others, made wide, and sewed up as low as the ankles. - -The shalvar, or full trowsers, are made to match the dress, and again -of varied and contrasting hues. - -There in a great variety in the fashion for trimming the dresses -and handkerchiefs, which generally are adorned with most exquisite -embroideries in silk or gold, as may suit the mode, or taste of the -wearer. Sometimes an immense cashmere shawl is wound round the waist; -at others, a light gauze scarf, or belt of gold, with a clasp adorned -with brilliants, serves for a girdle. No Turkish lady can dispense -with jewelry, and even women of the lowest rank adorn themselves -with diamonds. - -Abundant occupation is afforded to the jewellers by the constant -transformation of their bijouterie; for one day the capricious beauties -fancy a star or a crescent, and the next, nothing will suit their -toilet but a large spray of brilliants. - -The number of the ladies in the royal palace and in other wealthy -harems, all of whom are bedecked in elegant and costly costumes, -causes a demand for the services of many merchants, through whom the -last new fashion is immediately promulgated. - -Their beauty is such, however, that it might well afford to be -unadorned, for their complexions are generally exceedingly fair, and -of the most delicate softness; owing to the constant use of the bath, -as well as the protection of the yashmack, or veil, without which -they never go abroad. - -Their features are very regular, and their almond shaped eyes, so -much sung by their poets, are dark and lustrous, and so valued for -their size, that the enjoyment of the great-eyed ladies is promised -by Mohammed as one of the sublimest joys of Paradise. The power of -these electric and darkly beautiful orbs is so terrible, that woe to -those upon whom they are turned, for, as Pertev Pasha, one of their -celebrated poets, has described: - -"On the point of each ray that is darted from those bright meteors, -there is a bloody slaughter house," or as the French would expressively -say, "un regard assassin." - -Exquisitely arched eyebrows are also so essential to their ideas of -beauty, that they are never contented, till by the repeated application -of artificial means, they raise their brows to a lofty semicircle. - -Beauty spots, or moles, are considered of great value; and if nature -has proved niggard in this respect, art is brought into requisition to -produce the same contrasting effect between the tiny circle of jetty -hue and the surrounding fairness. The poet Hafiz has sung their value -in flowing numbers, offering the wealth of Semerkand and Bokhara for -the possession of the Indian mole on the cheek of the fair beauty -of Shiraz. - -The tips of their fingers and toes are frequently stained with henna, -producing the roseate hue so much ŕ la mode. - -Their forms and movements are graceful, being under no artificial -restraints; and there is an exquisite charm about them as they -languidly lounge on their silken couches, or glide about from room -to room in long flowing robes, and slip-shod shup-shups. - -Well has the illustrious bard portrayed the varied charms of the -Eastern houris: - - - "Many and beautiful lay those around, - Like flowers of different hue and clime, and root, - In some exotic garden sometimes found, - With cost, and care, and warmth, induced to shoot." - - -Considering their limited education, it is delightful to listen to -the melodious tone of their voices, as they speak with remarkable -purity the harmonious Turkish language. Notwithstanding their lack -of learning, there have been some among the ladies renowned for -their poetical productions, such as Leyla and Fitnett Hanums, justly -celebrated for their exquisite poetry. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXV. - -DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS. - - -The interior arrangements of the Turkish apartments and their -furniture, are very peculiar, and quite unlike those of European -or American drawing rooms, being entirely adapted to the habits and -tastes of the Orientals. There is never any doubt or hesitation as -to the place suitable to be occupied by any one who may happen to -enter a room; nor is it possible to mistake the different ranks of -its occupants. - -Generally there is a sofa on three sides of the room, sufficiently -ample to accommodate the ladies in their style of sitting, which is not -cross-legged as is usually represented in pictures, but with the limbs -folded under their persons and carefully concealed by the drapery of -their long robes; for to show these parts of the person while sitting, -is considered a great breach of etiquette. Hence no Osmanli lady is -ever to be seen perched on the very edge of the sofa, but leaving -her slippers on the floor, she steps upon the couch and gracefully -bending her knees, sits reclining against the cushions behind her. - -On the floor, at the foot of the sofa, are placed mattresses, -furnished with cushions, and these are called erkean mindery or -seats of homage, where humbler visitors or members of the family -are allowed to place themselves. The angles or corners of the sofa, -are regarded as the seats of honor, and the places on either side, -rank in regular succession down to the seat of homage; but the most -honorable person in the company may, at her or his option, occupy -any part of the couch, when the rest place themselves on each side -according to their own rank. The servants are always present, and -stand in a row at the lower end of the room, their arms humbly folded -on their girdles, attentive to the slightest nod of their superiors. - -There are several windows on each of the three sides of the room, so -as to permit a full view of the surrounding scenery, while they are -seated; for the Osmanlis are very fond of sunlight and the beauties of -nature. The windows of the harem are all furnished with close lattices, -permitting those within to see without being seen. - -The more modernized salons, have only a sofa on one side, European -couches, chairs, tables, and mirrors, being substituted for the other -sofas. They also endeavor to imitate the Europeans in the style of -the window draperies, which are often of the most brilliant hues. - -There is one peculiarity in the Oriental houses. You may wander -from one end to the other and not see a single bed-room or any of -its appurtenances--which has induced many persons to report them as -sleeping on the sofas, and never dressing or undressing. It would, -however, seem more natural to suppose, that the Osmanlis never had -any but day dreams. - -The fact is, that the beds are all packed away in large closets during -the day-time, and spread upon the floor at night. In the houses of -the wealthy, the mattresses and coverlets are made of the richest -materials, and the sheets of beautiful silk gauze, manufactured in -Broossa. The whole appearance of the bed, so brilliant in hue, and -rich in ornament, is very different from the style of a European couch. - -Every house has an infinite number and variety of extra beds and -bedding, to be spread on the floors of any of the apartments, for -the accommodation of visitors--hospitality being one of the most -religious precepts and observances of the Orientals. - -In the sultan's palace, however, and in the families of the wealthy, -especially of those pashas who have resided in Europe, bedsteads have -been introduced. - -Upon rising, the person claps her hands, as the apartments are never -furnished with bell ropes, and immediately the attendants appear--one -holding the basin, another the ewer, and a third presenting the towel, -richly embroidered at the ends. - -The usual method of warming the houses, is by the mangal and -tandur. The mangal is generally made of brass highly polished, -somewhat in the form of an hour-glass, about a foot and a half high, -and two, or two and a half in diameter; and contains a large pan of -ignited charcoal. - -The tandur consists of a wooden frame about the height and size of a -table, lined with tin, under which a pan of fire is placed, and the -whole is covered with a thickly wadded quilt. This is surrounded by -sofas, and they sit with their legs and feet under the covering. - -More cozy than any capacious arm-chair, or softly yielding fauteuil, -is this same tandur. The genial warmth excites a wonderful sympathy in -its occupants. They warm to each other, and to the world in general, -and never neglect to take cognizance of their neighbor's affairs and -doings. From the palace of the sultan to the cottage of the crone, -they benignantly travel, bestowing on each and all a blessing, -or when necessary, even a cursing. The ups and downs of pashas, -probable and accomplished--whispers of the sultan's favorites, or of -the efendi's coquettish ladies--the style of Adilé Sultan's feradjé, -or the grand vezir's fess, are each and all passed in review, until -you wonder how ever a set of miserable imprisoned women should be -such arrant gossips. Ah! one cannot believe the fair sex so unjust to -themselves, even in Turkey, as to neglect the observation of those -interesting little items of public or retired life, which become -great and weighty affairs, when discussed by ruby lips, and in the -cadence of sweet-toned voices. - -They possess a most lady-like love of chit-chat, and so little do they -covet repose for their delicate jaws, that should conversation lag, -they keep them in motion by the use of mastic, which is always in -readiness, preserved in little jewelled boxes. - -It is only of late years, that those hot, repelling machines called -stoves, have been introduced; but they have by no means superseded -the social and old-fashioned tandur, whose warmth, and luxurious -cushions, often beguile its occupants to slumber, during which the -fire is overturned, and thus occur many of the conflagrations so -frequent in Turkey. - -There are two occasions when the still air resounds with the echoes -of human voices. The chant of the Muezzin from the minaré, slowly and -musically vibrating through the atmosphere, enticing all to linger at -the casement or in the thoroughfare to catch its melodious accents; -and the terrible cry of yangun var! Fire! Fire! accompanied by the -reverberations of the watchman's club striking upon the pavement. - -A thrill of horror pervades every heart, for there are no bounds to -the devouring element. - -There are two towers, one at the Seraskér's in the city itself, and -the other on the Galata hill, which command an extensive isometrical -view of the whole metropolis and its suburbs. - -Here guards are stationed, who descry the first indications of fire, -and immediately give, from the top of the towers, the requisite signal, -by hoisting, in the day-time, an immense globe, painted red, and at -night by producing a bright and steady light--these signals remain -until the fire is extinguished. - -At Candilly, on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus, and half way up -the stream, there are a battery and a flag-staff stationed on the -mountain top called Kenan-tepessy; as soon as the signals are seen, -the fire globe ascends the flag-staff, and the battery discharges a -certain number of guns, according to the locality of the conflagration. - -From the towers, detailed officers, Neöbetgees, are dispatched to -the different ministers, and guard houses, where the engines are -kept, who create a tremendous sensation, as they rush wildly about, -brandishing their batons of office, and with a protracted yell, warning -every one to clear the way. The different Bekgees or district watchmen, -now take up the cry--striking their iron-shod clubs on the pavement and -repeating with all the power of their lungs yangun-var! Stambolda! or -there is fire at Stamboul. - -The firemen assemble at their respective quarters, and shouldering -their engines, rush to the scene. These firemen receive no pay, -but are exempt from taxes and allowed certain other privileges--yet -they always manage to extort certain compensations for their services, -from the victims of the devastating element. The engines are small and -portable, on account of the narrowness and steepness of the streets, -nor is there any connexion-hose attached to them, the water being -supplied with buckets; yet it is astonishing how much they effect -even with such inadequate means. - -The inflammable materials of which the houses are constructed, the -narrow streets, winding up the hillside like foot-paths, the irregular -and projecting dwellings, from which the people could shake hands -with their opposite neighbors, if it were only the fashion in Turkey, -contribute to make a most desirable promenade for the Fire-King when -he sallies forth. - -The flames leap from house to house; the burning cinders fly in all -directions, and the fire kindles at many and distant points; so that -in less than half an hour, a large district is often wrapt in flames. - -The general panic is so intense, that the whole community is roused; -the pashas desert their couches, and even the sultan himself sometimes -repairs to the scene, to animate, by his presence, the efforts of -the desperate firemen. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXVI. - -SOCIAL INTERCOURSE. - - -It seems something of an anomaly that a race of beings so distinguished -for selfishness, should be so exceedingly social in their inclinations. - -Birds of a feather flock together, and man loves his fellow, though -he loves himself better. - -To prevent the inroad of this extreme selfishness, certain forms -and ceremonies are established in every community where there is any -interchange of mutual civilities. - -Oriental life has many distinguishing peculiarities and characteristic -forms of politeness, but unlike other parts of the globe, etiquette -in the East is permanent and general. The mental accomplishments being -but few, wealth seems to constitute the only aristocratic distinction, -while the poorest and the richest are equally well versed in the -established routine of civility. - -It is curious to observe the native refinement even of the lower -classes in Turkey. There is no gaucherie, no reluctance in any one to -do the right thing in the right way and place; no fear of being unlike -other distinguished personages in manners and customs; for there is no -doubt as to the prescribed and most elegant style of conduct; even the -salutations, compliments and congratulations are most carefully worded, -and any deviation from the formula would destroy the intended effect. - -There is, consequently, no lack of social etiquette among the -Osmanlis. A visitor is received according to her station in life, -and after being announced, is met by the lady of the house with her -suite, at the head of the staircase, or at the door of the saloon, -or sometimes by merely stepping down from the sofa, as may be demanded -by the rank of the guest. - -There is no ceremony of introducing one person to another, nor is -there any shaking of hands. The company salute each other without any -regard to previous acquaintance; and the younger members of society -always kiss the hem of the garment, or the hands of their superiors -in rank and age. - -The manner of salutation varies--those of equal rank endeavor to kiss -the hem of each other's garments, or only exchange temennas. - -The temenna, which has already been described, is a graceful -salutation, and is used as frequently as thank you by the English; -serving as an acknowledgment for all compliments and kind inquiries. - -When one thinks of the innumerable occasions on which this expressive -temenna is called into action, it seems as if a whole chapter would -scarcely suffice to describe them all. But we will content ourselves -with its demonstration upon the arrival of a guest among a company -of some fifteen or twenty persons. - -As soon as the visitor is seated, the lady welcomes her guest by a -temenna--which is acknowledged by the same signal, and reiterated by -each person in the company successively, according to her rank. - -Now another round commences. The lady of the house makes a new temenna, -which signifies, "How do you do?" Another temenna from the visitor, is -equivalent to an acknowledgment of thanks, who with the same gesture, -intimates a desire to know the state of her hostess's health. - -The whole company then in succession follow suit, to each of whom -the visitor replies in the same way. - -This Quaker-meeting style of receiving company, might be ludicrously -illustrated in American society, by substituting bows for temennas--if, -indeed, the ladies could be expected to preserve the requisite silence -and gravity of demeanor. - -In Turkey, every attention or compliment, brings its train of temennas, -and it is much to be regretted that no mathematician has yet arisen -in Turkey, capable of producing a regular formula for their exact -computation. - -The Meddahs, however, or the famous story-tellers of the East, who -are the best critics, sometimes endeavor to exhibit the danger of -too great an excess in this act of politeness. - -They say there was once a worthy Hodja or schoolmaster, who was -very punctilious. Desirous that all his scholars should realise the -importance of true politeness, he insisted that when he drank water, -not a single one of them should omit to exclaim with a respectful -temenna, afiyet olsoun hodja efendy, or may it do you much good, -respected master--and when he sneezed, they were all to clap their -hands, and vociferate hayr ola hodja efendy, or good luck to the -master. - -The means employed by this worthy schoolmaster to enforce his lessons, -may be readily guessed by others of the same profession; but that -the desired effect was produced, there is no doubt. - -There was a deep well, from which the scholars had to draw water for -their own use. - -One day, it was reported to the teacher that the bucket had fallen -in the well, who, after many vain attempts to fish it up, resolved -to descend by means of a rope, and the scholars were called upon to -assist in his descent and ascent. - -The hodja was accordingly lowered down into the well, and at a -given signal, the boys began to pull him up. But as he approached -the mouth of the well, the change of the atmosphere titillating his -nostrils, unfortunately made him sneeze; when the well-trained pupils, -instinctively making the temenna, and clapping their hands, let go -the rope and shouted, "hayr ola hodja efendy," good luck to the master. - -But, retournons nous ŕ nos moutons. - -After the visitor is seated, and the usual temennas are exchanged, -long chibouks with amber mouthpieces, set in diamonds, are offered -by the halayiks or slaves; after which, sweetmeats are served upon -a silver tray, with goblets of water, and then coffee. - -This beverage is served in small porcelain cups, in stands of silver -or gold, sometimes enamelled and set in diamonds--which ceremony is -thus poetically described by Lord Byron: - - - - "And mocha's berry, from Arabia pure, - In small fine china cups, came in at last; - Gold cups of filagree, made to secure - The hand from burning, underneath them placed." - - - -Although there are certain ceremonies which are never omitted -as matters of form, their intercourse with each other is most -unsophisticated. Mutual criticism, and inspection of toilets, -catechising about prices, etc., are indulged in as matters of course, -and if by chance the guest is a European lady, the scrutiny is the -more intense; so that those who desire to visit Turkish harems, must -go prepared to undergo the most thorough examination with smiles -and good humor; the only satisfaction being a genuine retaliation -upon the fair hanums, who would feel exceedingly flattered thereby, -and by no means dream of being offended. - -The whole establishment is shown to visitors, as one way of -entertaining them; and frequently they get up a dance among themselves, -or call in the dancing girls with their castanets. - -Upon intimation of departure, sherbet is served; after which the visit -is terminated, and the guest reconducted in the same manner in which -she was - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXVII. - -POLYGAMY. - - -It is true that a Harem is generally composed of an assemblage of -women, but not such as the public usually imagine. - -Although the Mussulmans are allowed by the Koran to have several wives, -there are few who have more than one, especially at the present day; -a fact not to be, however, attributed to any new code of morality, -but rather to the coercion of circumstances. - -It was the practice of the Arabs to have eight or ten wives, whom they -were seldom able to maintain. Mohammed, wishing to remedy this evil, -and not altogether to abolish ancient usages, limited the number--"Take -in marriage of such women as please you, two, or three or four, and -not more. But if ye fear that ye cannot act equitably to so many, -marry only one, or the slaves which ye shall have acquired." They were -allowed to marry a greater number of slaves, as their dowry was much -smaller, and they were maintained in a very different style from the -free women. - -As the Osmanlis have a remarkable love of offspring, it often happens -that a man having had no children by a wife, and unwilling to divorce -her, which is considered discreditable, takes a second one in imitation -of Abraham and Jacob and many other patriarchs of old, whose practices -were but the type of the habits of all Oriental people, even those of -the present day. But such a step being often the source of domestic -difficulty, the substitution of a slave in the place of a second wife -is generally preferred--and such slaves are retained in the harem -with the appellation of Odaluk or handmaid, like Hagar, Bilhah, and -Zilpah. When these Odaluks become mothers, by right of their maternity, -they acquire their freedom and are considered second wives. - -A man may, however, be induced to contract a second marriage either -from mercenary or ambitious motives. - -When circumstances or selfish inclinations induce the Mussulmans to -have several wives, they are obliged to assign to each one private -apartments and attendants. These ladies, although often living under -the same roof, visit each other with all the etiquette of perfect -strangers, and require an expenditure for retinue and accommodations, -which can only be sustained by wealth. - -Besides all partiality being out of the question, there is great cause -for jealousy among the different members of such establishments--and -the less favored being ever ready for intrigue, conspire to render -the husband most miserable and the sanctuary a perfect bedlam, and -the ambition of a second wife sometimes can only be satisfied by the -sacrifice of her rival. - -Fethi Ahmed Pasha was so favored by the sultan that his majesty -bestowed his sister upon him in marriage. Notwithstanding this alliance -with royalty, the wife and children of his humbler fortunes retained -their place in his memory; but he could only visit them in secret. - -The author has, on several occasions, assisted to his incognito, as -he left his state barge and proceeded en bourgeois in a small cayik, -to visit the house of his affections. - -There is, therefore, every reason to believe that our Mussulman -friends will soon come to the conclusion, that, - - - - "Polygamy may well be held in dread, - Not only as a sin, but as a bore:" - - - -Notwithstanding then the toleration of polygamy by the Prophet, it is -evident that circumstances have combined to restrict this practice; -and most particularly the abolition of the Circassian slave-trade, -to a certain extent, has created an effectual check to the use -of Odaluks--thus increasing the necessity of alliances between the -members of different families which were formerly avoided; because -the wife being surrounded and supported by her own relations, attained -an undue share of domestic power and influence. - -Especially when alliances are formed with royalty, the circumstances -are most aggravating. The husband then becomes an abject slave, -and has tacitly to submit to the caprices of his spouse. - -He cannot enter the harem of his sultana unless especially sent for; -nor can he postpone his attendance to her summons no matter what his -circumstances or occupation may be. - -The sultan's brother-in-law has often been seen, sleeping in a corner -of a sofa at the Selamluk, till two or three o'clock in the morning, -awaiting the pleasure of his royal mistress--while she on her part -was amusing herself in the harem with dancing girls, music, &c. - -The pasha's embarrassment has also been very evident when he has been -obliged to leave the company abruptly; no apology being necessary -on such occasions; the entrance of the sable messenger, with a -single temenna intimating the absolute command of the royal wife, -who generally dismisses her train of ladies and slaves before he -makes his appearance. - -It is with the desire to avoid such petticoat government that the young -men do not contract alliances with ladies of rank and distinction; -preferring to marry their own slaves, or to content themselves with -the Odaluks which their mothers bestow upon them to keep them within -the home circle, and out of mischief. - -Sometimes they are forced to a second marriage by the bestowal of a -bride from a superior in power whose orders they cannot refuse. - -A great number of women then in any harem is by no means a sure sign -of the uxorious disposition of its master, but is rather an indication -of his personal rank and wealth. - -For the Osmanlis men and women are proverbially fond of display, they -say "Sense belongs to Europe--wealth to India, beauty to Georgia--but -show and display are the attributes of the Osmanlis alone." - -They therefore delight in all the appendages of luxury, and surround -themselves with crowds of attendants. This Oriental propensity has -even been sustained by the Prophet himself, who says, that "the very -meanest in Paradise will have 80,000 servants," &c. While, then, the -gentleman in the selamluk, has his steward, treasurer, cup-bearer, pipe -bearer, etc., the Hanum on her part, has her own appropriate suite, -which is in many instances more numerous than that of her Efendy. - -This is particularly true with regard to the sultanas or sisters and -daughters of the sultan, whose husbands are not allowed to behold -the faces of any of the fair maidens in the royal train, except by -special permission of the sultanas themselves. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXVIII. - -MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE. - - -Marriage is considered "honorable in all," but most especially among -the Osmanlis, who enter into this condition as they arrive at the age -of puberty. The independent state of bachelorship is therefore unknown -among them, or if such an accident should happen, the unfortunate -gentleman is styled beekear, or useless member of society, which -stigma it is needless to say they by no means covet; as for old maids, -there is not a word in the language descriptive of that class of women. - -The preliminaries of all marriages are effected by the parents, who -not only thus spare their children much trouble and embarrassment, -but use all their own wisdom and experience of genuine terrestrial -happiness in providing for their own offspring. Besides, parental -authority is supreme, and filial obedience equally innate, hence it -never enters into the calculations of the young to weary themselves -with the anticipatory illusions of love, though sometimes when old -enough they join in the matrimonial deliberations. - -Marriage is not a religious, but rather a civil contract among the -Mussulmans, and the ceremony is as simple as in Protestant countries. - -This ceremony which is called Nikeah, is effected by proxies, and -there is always a fixed sum settled upon the bride, according to the -condition of the party. This Nikeah constitutes the legal marriage, -but the bride does not go to her husband's home until three or four -months have elapsed, at which time the friends assemble to partake of -the nuptial festivities, which continue during four days, and always -end on Thursday, as the following day is the Turkish sabbath. - -Upon her arrival, the bride is met at the door of the harem, and -conducted into the room by the bridegroom himself, who carries her -up stairs in his arms, and placing her in the most honorable part of -the sofa, raises her veil of tinsel, and takes the liberty, for the -first time, to gaze upon the features of his beloved. - -Separate establishments are almost unknown in Turkey. The bride goes -to the house of her husband's parents, so that the family circle often -becomes very numerous. It occasionally happens that by special request, -the bridegroom enters the family of his wife's parents; which, however, -is considered a misfortune, for they say, "Itch guveyeeden halludja" -or any condition is preferable to that of a man married into a family. - - - -DIVORCE. - -Voltaire has observed, "Le divorce est probablement de la męme date -ŕ peu prčs que le mariage; je crois, pourtant, que le mariage est de -quelques semaines plus ancien; c'est ŕ dire qu'on se querella avec -sa femme au bout de quinze jours, qu'on se battit au bout d'un mois, -et qu'on s'en sépara aprčs six semaines de cohabitation." - -If such be a true picture of human nature, it is not too highly drawn -for a country where polygamy is practised, since it is no hard matter -for a man to part with one wife, when he has several others. The -privilege of divorce would be somewhat tyrannical if allowed only -to the men, but in Turkey, the women themselves may exercise this -prerogative, if they are maltreated, or not properly provided for, -with at least the requisite "bread and candles." - -A man may put away his wife merely by uttering in the hearing of -a third party, the ominous word "bosh," null, void, which even -if carelessly spoken renders the man and wife strangers to each -other, the lady feeling obliged to assume her veil, and conceal her -charms; and in case of reconciliation, a second marriage ceremony is -necessary. The woman, on her part, has the privilege of leaving her -husband, by declaring before the Cadi, Djanum azad, nikeahum helal--I -forfeit my dowry, and claim my freedom. - -It is fortunate that divorce is very disreputable, and is seldom -practised by either party if they have any respect for public opinion, -or regard for themselves; otherwise, wives and husbands would be -constantly changing hands, as was the practice among the old Arabs, -in the time of Mohammed. - -This custom was decried by the Prophet, "It shall not be lawful for -thee to take other women to wife hereafter, nor to exchange any of -thy wives for them." - -The moral effect of a facility of divorce is to keep both parties -on their good behavior, but at the same time a spirit of extreme -selfishness is induced in the women. For being in constant apprehension -of a sudden separation, they look upon their husbands as a means of -revenue, and endeavor to store up as much jewelry, clothing etc., -as possible, to be ready in case of emergency. The display of shawls -and diamonds upon the persons of women, even of the poorest classes, -is not from a feeling of vanity, but rather an exhibition of the extent -of the personal wealth they have extorted from their lords and masters. - -In case of separation, the children are supported until they are -seven years old, by the father; after which the boys remain under -the paternal care, and the girls belong to the mother; unless some -other arrangement is made by mutual consent. - -The most unjust stigma of illegitimacy, is almost unknown in Turkey; -the children by slaves being as respectable and legitimate as those -by the regular wives, and it is only when the father cannot be -discovered that they are regarded as bastards. Such principles are -certainly right, and more humane than those of Christian lands, where -the innocent are taunted all their lifetime with the immoralities -of others, for whose actions they are as irresponsible as "the babe -unborn." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXIX. - -THE SULTAN'S HAREM. - - -Although there are more than 2,000 women in the palace, but five of -these hold the rank of kaduns, or wives. - -Mussulmans, in general, are allowed to have four wives, but sultans -can have seven. - -Their superiority to ordinary men is thus attested, and the chance -made surer of an heir to the throne. - -It will, therefore, be perceived that polygamy, in the case of a -sultan, is a matter of policy, and not choice; for even should he -content himself with one wife, the State would interfere. - -The design of limiting his majesty's wives to seven, is to spare the -State the enormous expense attendant upon the maintenance of so many -ladies of royal rank. - -The present sultan, however, in asserting his prerogative, has -limited the number to five, which, while it shows his power to -exceed the restrictions upon other Mussulmans, at the same time, -displays an inclination not to burden the State too heavily with his -private expenses. - -It is true he has had children by several others, whom custom requires -to be elevated to the rank of kaduns, but he has retained them under -the title of ikbals, or favorites, for the sake of sparing the State -the additional expense which the dignity of kaduns would require. - -The sultan being above all law, cannot submit to any matrimonial -bondage; he is not, therefore, legally married to any of his wives, but -those who are selected by him to share his affections, are pronounced -by him Kaduns, or ladies, and not sultanas; for none but those of the -royal blood can enjoy that title, except the mother of the reigning -sultan, who on her son's accession to the throne, takes, by courtesy, -this title, and is called Validé Sultan. - -The title Sultan is equally applied to males and females, with this -difference only, that it precedes the name of the male, and follows -that of the female: thus, they say Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid, but for his -sister, Adilé Sultan. - -When it is used by itself, it always implies the female branch of -the royal family, and never his majesty, who is known by the title -of Padishah, or Hünkear, or, in common parlance, Efendimiz--our Lord. - -His majesty never forming an alliance with any of his subjects, -all his kaduns are originally Georgian or Circassian slaves, who -are selected for this distinguished honor and presented to him by -his mother or sisters, on Kadir Gedjessy, or the night in which the -Koran descended from Heaven. - -They have each their separate establishments and retinue in the palace, -and live as much apart as if in different dwellings, seldom seeing -each other, except on occasions of state ceremony and etiquette. - -The princes of the royal blood also reside in the same palace, who, -if of age, have their own odaluks, attendants, etc. - -It may be supposed, that in such a royal establishment, the rising -generation is well represented; but on the contrary, few of them are -allowed to prolong their lives, while many more never see the light. - -This premature destruction of life, though strictly prohibited in the -Koran, is very prevalent in Turkey. In some cases from State-Policy, -lest the heirs to the crown should become too numerous, and in -others, from a false desire in the ladies to preserve their beauty -and freshness from the toils and trial of maternity. - -But very often the better feelings of their natures are sorely tried, -and two of the sisters of the present sultan pined away in sorrow, -and at last died, because their infant sons were sacrificed upon the -altar of state-policy! - -Abd-ul-Medjid himself, in his younger days, was not exempt from -trials of this sort. For just before coming to the throne, he had a -favorite odaluk, to whom he was much attached. But as the princes are -not permitted to become fathers, she fell a victim in the attempt to -frustrate the probable birth of an heir, when a single week's delay -would have elevated her to the rank of first kadun to the reigning -monarch; for sultan Mahmoud died a few days after she was sacrificed. - -Whenever a child is born to the sultan, or any other Oriental father, -the tidings are immediately communicated to him and the family -relatives, and the messenger handsomely rewarded. Among the Mussulmans -the father himself pronounces the future name of his offspring at -the moment of its birth. - -A certain man, having scarce passed the honeymoon, for he had only been -married three months, one day, while he was in the bath, was suddenly -apprised of the birth of a son and heir. As soon as he recovered from -his surprise at such an unexpected event, he ordered him to be named -Tchapgun or racer, because, said he, he has accomplished in three -months, the customary labor of nine. - -They have a singular notion that the reason a child cries as soon as -it is born is, because his satanic majesty being of course present, -cruelly pinches the tender offshoot of humanity; the only exception -on record, being the Virgin Mary and Jesus Christ, who were protected -from the touch of the devil by a veil, so placed by Allah himself; -thus, doubtless, accounting for the Immaculacy of the Holy Virgin. - -The children, at their birth, are rubbed down with salt, and nicely -bandaged. They are placed in a cradle and secured there. The hands -and feet are bound in, so that the child cannot move. The poor little -victim becomes black and blue under this treatment, and is occasionally -relieved from its fetters to be re-enveloped in swaddling clothes; -and when the toilet is completed, it very much resembles a little -Egyptian mummy. - -The child is nursed while lying down, the mother bending over it, -and tilting the cradle, until she attains the requisite position. - -Owing to the bandages in which the infants are constantly enveloped, -the circulation of the blood is impeded, and they are obliged to be -relieved by occasional scarifications, and the writer still wears -the honorable scars of this traditional practice. - -When the sultan wends his steps from the Mabeyn to the Harem, the -black gentlemen on guard at the door of the ladies' apartments, proceed -immediately to announce his majesty's approach to the Haznadar-Ousta, -or the lady treasuress. - -This personage, is a very important character in the royal household; -being the keeper of all the jewels and other treasures, and the -mistress of ceremonies; she is, in a word-- - - - - "That dame who keeps up discipline among - The general ranks, so that none stir or talk - Without her sanction on their she-parades: - Her title is, the mother of the maids." - - - -There is always one of these Haznadars attached to the harems of -the wealthy; and the individual who fills this office, has been the -nurse of the head of the family in infancy; so that this "mother of -the maids" feels almost a maternal interest in his majesty's happiness. - -The Haznadar-Ousta immediately proceeds to the salon, where she awaits -the entrance of the sultan, who, after receiving her salutations, in -the course of conversation, inquires after the health of one of the -Kaduns, which is taken as an indication that her company is desired -by his majesty. - -This Kadun now enters the royal presence alone, or perhaps with -one of her children, while her train of attendants remain within -call. Like all other Orientals, the Padishah delights in the company -of his children, and they are often seen in public with him, or in -the royal Mabeyn. His first-born was a daughter, and lately married -to Aali-Ghalib Pasha, the son of Reshid. - -The children of the sultan precede their mother in rank, for they -are of royal blood, while she is but a slave. - -Hence the mother always takes a secondary position in cayiks, -carriages, or in the saloon of reception. This apparent superiority -never elates the children, nor in any way lessens the respect which -they feel for their mothers. For whilst they are flattered and -worshipped as Shah-zadés and Sultans, or Princes and Princesses, the -general deference paid to their mothers is undiminished. They have -a proverb which is very expressive of their feelings on this subject, - - - - - "Dagh kadar babam olajaghina, - Yüksük kadar anam ola." - - - - "Rather than a father the size of a mountain, - Give me a mother, small as a thimble." - - - -The late Validé-Sultan, or mother of the sultan, was one of the most -powerful individuals in the realm, and her patronage most assiduously -courted. - -His majesty and his harem are frequently entertained with the graceful -movements and merry castanets of the dancing girls. The Osmanlis -are very fond of dancing, but consider it inconsistent with their -own dignity; they always have beautiful young slaves trained in this -accomplishment, and also made proficient in the music of the country. - -Turkish music is very unlike that of European countries, where there is -a general similarity. Although the Orientals have very good ears for -music, and treat the subject scientifically, yet it is strange that -they do not understand the harmony of sounds--for all their concerts, -both vocal and instrumental, consist of solos, that is, they all sing -and play only the air or tenor, and never the bass and contralto, etc. - -The natural tones of their voices are very sweet; and of late years -the military music having been arranged in European style, they have -made great proficiency in this art. - -The opera house in Pera is also very attractive to the Turkish -gentlemen, and much frequented by them. The sultan has his loge, -or box there, and sometimes honors the house by his royal presence. - -Recently the piano has also become very fashionable among them, and -it is to be heard incessantly jingling in all the harems. The sultan -being himself an amateur, frequently plays on that instrument, and has -also an Italian Opera attached to his palace for the entertainment -of his ladies, where many of the female slaves are trained to sing -and act ŕ la Italienne, in the costumes of both sexes. - -The ladies of the palace are also amused with other exhibitions, -which they witness through latticed partitions. - -From the preceding sketch, it will be readily understood, that all the -ladies in the royal palace, are in reality slaves from the regions -of Circassia, but they are always well treated, and even addressed -by the title of Hanums, or ladies; and we may say their greatest -hardship is being lightly clothed all seasons of the year; their feet -without stockings, and their dresses made of the lightest fabrics, -from which fact many of them fall easy victims to consumption. - -These ladies are not allowed to go abroad as freely as Turkish hanums -in general, on account of the restrictions of court etiquette; this -confinement is also very injurious to their health, and their ennui -is often insupportable. Sometimes, after a due warning to all the -gardeners and other gentlemen to quit the premises, they are allowed -to stroll in the palace gardens, and occasionally the Validé Sultan -takes pity on some of them, and permits them to enjoy a promenade -in her own train, when the exuberance of their spirits often tempts -them to the most childish acts of coquetry. Indeed, so great is their -longing to encounter the lords of creation, that a feigned sickness -affords an occasion of seeing a doctor, and their favorite remedy -for all ailments is bleeding, or the bleeder! - -These beautiful girls having no other ambition than to be as -fascinating as possible, and such aspirations sometimes seem to be felt -in more enlightened bosoms, they do not like to waste their sweetness -on the desert air; as they are consequently a little mischievous, -the practice of locking up each one in her own apartments has been -deemed advisable. When the muezzin proclaims the hour of evening -prayer, the disconsolate ladies are severally consigned to a state -of security by the sable turnkeys of the palace. - -This is not, however, so dismal a fate, when we remember that a short -time ago, all the inhabitants of Stamboul were obliged to be within -their own domiciles, about two hours after sunset; and awhile since, -there was the curfew bell even in good old England. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXX. - -CIRCASSIAN SLAVES. - - -Although the slave trade has been nominally abolished in Turkey, and -the public mart formally closed to this traffic, yet the practice -of buying and selling has not been, nor will it ever be altogether -abandoned, because the slave constitutes an essential element in the -composition of their domestic institutions. - -There are two kinds of servitude in every house; one, the ordinary -labor of domestic service; the other that of personal attendance; -neither of which the free Mussulman women are willing to perform, -because they will thereby be more or less brought in contact with -men, which is proscribed by the Koran. The slave service, therefore, -becomes necessarily indispensable with the Mussulmans, whose houses -have hitherto been supplied with Circassian and Nubian slaves, the -former being a species of ladies in waiting, and the latter performing -the menial services of the household. - -The average price of the slaves is, according to the tariff of the -Custom-house, $500 for the white, and $100 for the black. They bring -these prices when they arrive fresh from their native lands. Those -of the Circassian, who are, however, brought into the country in -childhood, and carefully educated and trained in accomplishments, -attain so rare a style of beauty and delicacy of appearance that they -are frequently sold for $6,000 or $8,000. - -Though the restrictions upon the trade have forced Turkish families to -employ Greek and Armenian women in their houses, yet there is always -a demand for slaves. - -The Armenians having the same institution as the Mussulmans, viz., -the harem, their maidens are prevented from entering any family as -servants; it is only the old women, whose charms have all faded and -gone, who are willing to expose themselves in this way. The Greeks, -though not so scrupulous, are generally ignorant of the Turkish -language, and altogether uncongenial in their habits and ideas, -so that they are unpopular. - -Slaves are still more indispensable in the palace, for the Mussulman -prejudice is opposed to the introduction of any of the subjects who -would thus come in contact with royalty. Besides, is his majesty to -form an alliance with his subjects? - -The Circassian parents so long accustomed to the benefits derived by -the advancement of their daughters to positions of comparative ease, -will always be ready and anxious to supply the metropolis; and the -traffic, notwithstanding the formal prohibition, is still continued -at private houses in Top-hané. - -Circassian slavery in Turkey, is not a condition of servitude. All -the children who are born from odaluks are free, and they also render -their mothers free; an odaluk may be sold alone, but never after she -has become a mother. - -Besides the maids of honor or ladies in waiting, at the palace, -are often bestowed in marriage upon pashas and other dignitaries, -who thus consider themselves in some sense allied to royalty. One of -their number was a slave to Validé Sultan. She was married to Mehmed -Bey, the brother of the sultan's brother-in-law, with the idea of -ameliorating her condition; but being very ill-treated by her husband, -she had a petition written and presented it to her royal patroness, -whereupon the validé summoned the husband, and reprimanded him in -such a manner that he became exasperated, and having intoxicated -himself with racky, or Turkish brandy, rushed into the harem, and -plunged his dagger into the breast of the unfortunate wife. - -Sultan Mahmoud lost his favorite wife, and was so much grieved by -her death, that he ordered her apartments to be locked up, and that -no one should enter them; he only, spent some time there every day -in solitary meditation upon his lost favorite. - -There was a slave girl fourteen or fifteen years old, whose duty -was to clean the bath belonging to these apartments. She was so -curious to know why these rooms were always locked up, that she one -day found herself on an exploring expedition by means of the private -staircase. Finding the door open, she ventured to enter the apartment, -when, lo! and behold! there was the awful Mahmoud himself. - -He said, "how dare you venture here; do you not know my express -commands?" - -The terrified girl fell at his majesty's feet, and craved pardon. - -She was so bewitching in this posture, that the sultan not only -pardoned her, but invited her to meet him every day in the same place, -till at last, he ordered that the apartments should be appropriated -to her, and she became the Fifth Kadun, and the mother of the present -sultan! - -It is the idea of aspiring to such honors and stations, near even -royalty itself, which induces the Circassian parents so readily to -sell their daughters to Mussulmans, when nothing could induce them -to barter their offspring to Christians. - -No wonder that each simple peasant of the Caucasus fancies slavery -in the metropolis, to be a translation from poverty to an earthly -elysium, when tales, and true tales too, not the enchantments of -Aladdin's wonderful lamp, are so common in Oriental life! - -Therefore, even if the traffic is formally prohibited, the Circassian -parents will force their offspring into the market, not only to -ameliorate their condition, but to secure favorable alliances for -themselves; so that if the legal sum be not hereafter realized as -purchase money, their children will still be apprenticed in some way -or other. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXI. - -WATERING PLACES. - - -There is a prevalent impression that the Turkish ladies are always -imprisoned at home; but nothing is more erroneous. For, since the -destruction of the janissaries, who molested every one in public, -they are to be seen everywhere, and on all occasions. - -The only requisite for their appearance is to be veiled, and to wear -the Feradjé, or cloak. - -Thus accoutred, they wander through the bazaars, frequent all rural -places of resort, visit the baths, and scarcely a day passes when they -stay at home. Nor is it to be supposed that they are closely muffled, -as they were formerly. The ancient out-door costume was most hideous; -they were enveloped in an immense white sheet, a little piece of -horse-hair gauze being suspended over the eyes. But the yashmak or -veil, is, at the present day, composed of the lightest India mull, -and has little power of concealing their charms, but on the contrary, -serves to heighten their beauty by its gossamer transparency. - -The arched eyebrows, through this deceptive veil, seem more delicately -curved; the large and lustrous eyes shine more darkly from its snowy -folds; and the delicate and peach-like hue of the complexion is -rendered tenfold more lovely. - -The texture of the yashmak is now so exquisitely fine, that the two -square yards of muslin which compose it do not weigh more than a -single drachm! - -The feradjé or cloak is an ample outer garment, made of fine colored -bombazine or Thibet, lined with silk, and the edges are trimmed -with embroidery. - -Their feet are clothed with yellow chedik, or morocco buskins, over -which paboudj, or slippers of the same color, are worn in the street. - -So great is the force of habit and education, that not even the oldest -woman ever appears in public unveiled, although the Koran pronounces -furrows and wrinkles to be all-sufficient disguises for faded charms; -yet, in Turkey, as well as all over the world, the maxim doubtless -is popular, that beauty never dies. - -Even the dames of ebony hue, dreading the display of darkness visible, -are most punctilious in covering their charms, thus affording more -distinguished specimens of the wonderful effects of light and shade. - -During visits of ceremony, when the feradjé and yashmak are taken off, -a long strip of white muslin is left hanging from the top of the head -down the back, for the purpose of covering the face in case of sudden -emergency. But such accidents seldom occur, as the gentlemen of the -family are informed, as soon as they enter the vestibule of the harem, -that there are strangers within. - -Thus equipped, the Osmanli ladies are the most independent creatures -in the world. - -As no one dares to look them in the face, from a sense of respect, -it has been customary for them slightly to encourage their timid -admirers by a few furtive glances, if not positive attacks; so that, -on all public occasions, an attentive observer may detect them in -some of the wiles of coquetry, or unmeaning flirtation. - -Ladies of distinction are attended by black eunuchs, who protect -them from the too familiar approach of any witless knight, who may -ignorantly trespass the limits of Oriental decorum. - -These ebony gentry, from the nature of their position, had become -insolent and overbearing, under the plea of protecting the ladies, -and a native always avoided a collision with them, since they were -sustained by public opinion. But their own extravagant conduct has -put an end to their pretensions and power. - -Kizlar Aghassy, or the head black eunuch of the palace, was formerly -so influential a personage as to rank among the ministers of state; -but at the present time, the eunuchs have lost all their pristine -greatness, and are mere domestics of the household. - -The carriage generally used by the ladies is called an araba, which -is often very richly ornamented and gilded, and well cushioned in the -inside. The top is covered with a crimson or green ehram or shaggy -cloth, manufactured in Albania, and fringed with gold. This spacious -conveyance, capable of accommodating six or eight persons, has no -springs, and is drawn by a couple of oxen, whose heads are gaily -tricked out, and furnished with a charm against the Evil-Eye. The -ends of the tails are tied to a cluster of red tassels, which are -fastened to a hoop set in the yoke, and gracefully arched over their -backs. This arrangement is to prevent the animals from spattering -the mud with their tails. - -The araba is entered by means of a small temporary ladder at the -back. There is a conductor, or arabagee, who leads the oxen by a chain -attached to their heads, and a yanashma, or boy, who walks by the side, -and goads them on. - -But many of the families are now to be seen in public, in European -carriages, and they delight in excursions on the water in their -beautiful cayiks. - -Nature has been so lavish in her gifts to the land of the Osmanlis, -that they have every temptation to linger for hours in some one of -the many lovely spots which are to be found all along the Bosphorus. - -Boghas-itchy or the Bosphorus, is the most magnificent stream in -the world. Its winding way, its shores besprinkled with palaces, -mosques and minaré's, in the peculiar picturesque style of the East; -the gradually sloping hills, here and there studded with airy and -pretty dwellings, and decked out in green array--all combine to -enchant the eye and delight the mind. - -There is nothing so exquisite as the cayiks of the Bosphorus. Their -forms are as slender as the canoe's, and certainly more graceful than -the gondola's, defying any other aquatic conveyance rowed by men. They -are always propelled by long sculls of one, two, or three pair, -fastened on the gunnels at about midships, to pins, by leather bands. - -The hold is allotted to the accommodation of passengers; there you -recline amid downy cushions, and noiselessly glide along, with the -measured oars of the boatmen, who look like very sea-nymphs, in their -snow-white robes. - -By moonlight, the shores, with their latticed and irregular buildings, -seem to be some fantastic realms in the distance; and the blue waters -reflecting back the silvery stars, almost tempt one to plunge beneath -their glassy surface. No wonder, then, that the Osmanlis should -spend most of their time, when the summer sun cheers and invigorates, -in loitering among such scenes as these. - -The sultan has numerous kiosks of his own; on the most lofty summits -of the hills, in the most sweetly embosomed valleys, by the margin -of the briny sea, where wave after wave has "noiselessly rolled up -the beach" ever since the waters which were above the firmament were -divided from those below--in the midst of plains, by the roadside, -and in the noisy populous streets of the metropolis, are these tasteful -pleasure bowers ever to be met with, but carefully guarded from profane -footsteps. Generally, however, in the spots thus consecrated by royal -pleasure, are to be found coffee shops, and mats or low stools, for -the accommodation of other classes of this nature-loving multitude, -where at all times the most lovely groups of men, women, and children -are collected. - -There are some places of resort more frequented than others. The -Kehat-hané, or as it is commonly known to Europeans the "Sweet-waters -of Europe," at the head of the Golden Horn, Fener-Bahchessy, or, the -garden of the Light House, and Moda Bournou, or the Fashionable Point, -on the Marmora, the Geök-Souyou or the Heavenly Waters of Asia, on -the Bosphorus, Hunkear-Iskellesy or the Sultan's Valley--and Kalender -on the opposite shore. - -To all of these places, the people flock in cayiks and carriages, -and spreading their carpets upon the green sward, recline with true -Oriental nonchalance and comfort. The chibouk adds its curling fumes -to the scene, the narghillé bubbles in unison, the favorite kahvé is -handed round in tiny cups, the wild notes of the Lahouta and Kementché -are re-echoed by the verdant hills, while an entire lamb on a spit -sheds its fragrant odors, predicting a pic-nic champętre. The itinerant -seller of bon-bons plants his tray before you, and you cannot refuse -to partake of its luscious contents--wandering gipsies present you -wild flowers, and proffer their services in unfolding the pages of -destiny. Group after group glides along in the fanciful costumes of -Stamboul, and all are joyous and contented. - -Thus the Osmanlis enjoy that sensation of delight, their indescribable -Kief, when for the moment all care and trouble are forgotten, amid -the scenes of beauty which nature so freely lavishes upon all, rich -and poor. - -Especially on a Friday, or the Mohammedan Sunday, there are -congregated thousands of persons, people from every clime, and of -every rank--Persians in their peaked papakhs; Albanians with their -fustanels; Circassians in their woolly caps; Zeybeks, or Turkish -mountaineers, in gay costumes and lofty head-gear, and armed from head -to foot; strange men on horse-back, who seem to be made up of gold -embroidery and cashmere shawls; Turkish soldiers, and ebony negroes -on milk-white steeds; the representatives of the different western -powers in their elegant carriages, with their own ladies and families; -European travellers and book-making authors, mingle in the crowd. The -imported beauties of Circassia, sit on their embroidered cushions, -sable guards patroling around, while their lords and masters keep at -a respectful distance. - -The Osmanli ladies seem all to be beautiful, especially in their white -and delicate veils, and costumes of such varied hues, with brilliant -diamonds glittering upon their heads, necks, arms, and fingers--in -a word, a Turkish watering-place would eclipse even Broadway itself -in recherchées toilettes and unparalleled beauty; while the charm of -such an endless variety furnishes a study for the artist, and leaves -nothing to be desired to complete a picture exquisitely perfect. - -Amid such scenes as these, the blue heavens for a canopy, with nature's -emerald carpeting, the tall and majestic trees bearing the impress of -unnumbered seasons, more beautiful in their leafy verdure than the most -exquisitely carved and marble columns of the palaces of kings; while -the tuneful songsters of the grove trill their plaintive notes--are -displayed the simple tastes and habits of this people, so inaccessible -when they are once within the precincts of their own domiciles. - -Here may the stranger, who for the first time treads the shores of -the Eastern world, perceive the real spirit of Oriental society and -manners, as exhibited in the exchange of mutual intercourse and the -etiquettes of life. - -The group just before you may be the harem of an Armenian -banker. Though composed of many ladies, yet the Armenians being -Christians, by virtue of their religion, they are not allowed to -number more than one wife in their harems. - -Again, under the shadow of yonder tree, are two lovely Mussulman girls, -surrounded by a train of halayiks, or female slaves, and attended -by black eunuchs. Stay your footsteps, for it is the harem of ---- -Efendy--a Redjal or grandee of the realm. - -This distinguished man had the misfortune to lose his interesting -and beloved wife; and so strong was her memory upon his heart, that -he never sought to replace her loss; consoling himself with these -two beautiful pledges of her love, and lavishing upon them all his -affection and indulgence. - -These young ladies alone now constitute the harem of a man who has -perfect freedom to number as many as four lawful wives! - -Thus it may be perceived, how far from being synonymous are the two -words Harem and Polygamy. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXII. - -THE BAZAARS. - - -The bazaars of Constantinople are built of stone, and lighted from -the top. They seem like long streets covered with arched roofs, -each street being appropriated to some particular merchandise; thus, -there are the spice bazaar, where all kinds of condiments, drugs, -and dye stuffs are sold; the perfumery bazaar, containing the most -delicious perfumes of the East, the otto of roses, Tcherkess-souyou, -and many other essences, also the fragrant pastilles, which are placed -upon the pipe bowls, filling the atmosphere with their delicious -scent, and the singular rat's tails which emit a perfume like musk, -and retain their odor for any length of time; the silk bazaar, the -calico bazaar, the shoe bazaar, depots of most varied and exquisite -embroideries; the jewelry bazaar, the pipe bazaar, where are displayed -the beautiful and costly mouthpieces studded with gems, the long and -graceful stems of jessamine, or cherry, and the gilded and delicately -modelled red clay bowls. - -The space occupied by these bazaars is equal to the whole of the -sixth ward in the city of New York, and the internal arrangements are -entirely unlike the shops of this country. There are no front windows, -nor counters. The entire façade of the streets being shelved for the -display of wares and goods, presents a whole front with the appearance -of a vast library, not of books, but of merchandise. A sort of elevated -platform, about five or six feet wide, and two feet from the ground, -extends the whole side, on which both merchants and customers sit, -thus serving the double purpose of counter and seats. The shops are -divided by elbow boards, and a small room is attached behind each -for the storage of goods, etc. - -The ends of the streets are furnished with immense gates, which are -closed every evening about an hour before sunset, and are opened -again in the morning about eight. - -The whole effect is very interesting; the fanciful wares, the great -number and proximity of the stalls or shops, and the varied costumes of -the venders and purchasers, combine to create rare and beautiful groups -for the pencil of the artist. Carriages, horses, and foot-passengers, -are continually passing and re-passing in crowds. - -Occasionally the owners of the shops are obliged to leave their -merchandise for a short time, and during their absence, a covering -of net-work suspended across the front of the stall, is sufficient -to indicate the absence of the proprietor, and also to protect the -property from all depredation. - -These bazaars are the favorite resort of the Turkish ladies of -all ranks, and there is no little coquetry displayed by the fair -purchasers, when the unusually handsome appearance of the merchant -tempts them literally to ransack his whole establishment for the -most trifling article. These occasions are also made available -for the purposes of flirtation, assignation, and all other romantic -amusements. It is amusing to observe the ladies as they fit themselves -with their peculiarly colored and shaped chaussure, for they make -no scruple of displaying their beautiful ankles, which are generally -divested of every semblance of hosiery. - -The method of buying and selling is peculiar to the country, and -doubtless very entertaining to strangers. The system of Prix-Fix, -is unknown in Turkey, for, as they go on the principle "each -one for himself," no one is content with any price except his own -valuation. Besides, the people are so conceited that any concession on -the part of the merchant is flattering to their vanity. He, therefore -enjoys the privilege of being beaten down, merely as complimentary to -his customers. So the merchant always demands an exorbitant price, -which he has no idea of receiving, in order to give his customer a -fair chance to gratify his vanity, and also to exercise his judgment. - -As London has its "Whitechapel Road," Paris its "Temple," and New -York its "Chatham street," so Constantinople has its "Bit-Bazaar," -emphatically so denominated from the vermin which infest old clothing. - -Infinite diversity pervades the garments here displayed, and as -people's clothes always look something like themselves, so the empty -garments seem to tell tales of their good or bad fortunes, whether -the former owners died of plague or small pox, were solitary occupants -of the robes, or shared them with other animalculć. - -At the auction, which occurs every day in these purlieus, poverty may -find a momentary relief by the disposal of its surplus wardrobe, or -may even don the cast off rags of some less fortunate victim of misery. - -There is a more respectable auction at the Bezesten every day except -Friday, until noon, where jewelry, embroideries, carpets, arms, -and all sorts of superior second-hand garments are disposed of. Here -the humblest citizen may at least enjoy the semblance of grandeur, -as he invests himself in the same setry which the Efendi discarded -the day before; or an ambitious mother may procure the same toilette -de noces as graced the form of a beautiful Hanum. - -The Bezesten is a large quadrangular stone building, surmounted by a -cupola, in the centre of the bazaars, and serves not only as a place -of public auction, but for the safe deposit of valuable property, -either money, shawls, or jewelry. - -There are numerous khans in the city, which are constructed in the -form of a hollow square, and are two or three stories in height. The -various rooms are occupied as offices, by jobbers, wholesale merchants, -and bankers. - -Goods are sold in wholesale, usually at two or three installments of -31 days each, which are seldom liquidated in less than 6 or 8 months. - -The trades are divided into different guilds, called esnafs; each one -governed by its own laws and officers. The chiefs of these guilds are -always Mussulmans, and appointed out of the corps of superannuated -palace attendants, such as boatmen, cooks, and scullions, who are -thus pensioned off. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIII. - -KAHVÉS. - - -We have desires to which we are impelled by nature, and their -attainment is indispensable to the continuation of life; but we have -desires also which are the results of acquired tastes, and which habit -often makes as impulsive as our natural wants. Thus are created the -luxuries of life, and to increase the delight which we derive from -such sources of enjoyment, we endeavor to refine, to etherealize their -forms, and to divest them of all sensual and grosser accompaniments. - -Among such luxuries, coffee and tobacco are pre-eminent, which are -made even the basis of hospitality and the bond of social intercourse -by all the Osmanlis. Tobacco, when imbibed in its exquisite forms, -is the source of the most refined enjoyments, creating those reveries -and dreamy sensations which float for the moment about our listless -senses, beclouding with a silvery vapor some of life's dull realities. - -Tobacco, ever since its first introduction to the civilized world, -has become so indispensable an item of consumption that it has long -been ranked among the staple commodities of life, and seems to claim -the double title of a natural and artificial taste. Yet, no form of -pleasure and exhilaration has ever been the subject of so much study, -as the ways and means of enjoying this fragrant weed. - -All the world are well aware of the different forms in which tobacco is -used, viz., inhaling in the form of smoke, titillating the nostrils by -its powder called snuff, or imbibing the juice into the system by the -process of mastication. The two latter forms of enjoying this luxury, -seem to admit of no refinement, as time has rolled on, and snuffing -and chewing yet remain in their pristine state of simplicity. - -On the contrary, no ingenuity has been spared to invent, improve or -remodel the various vehicles by which the more exquisite and graceful -practice of smoking may be enjoyed. - -Although tobacco may have been indigenous to America, yet we have -the assertion of Professor Beckman to corroborate the fact, that -this plant was known to the Tartars long before the discovery of -America. As early as the year 1610 a native Turk was paraded through -the streets of Constantinople with a pipe transfixed through his nose, -as the penalty of indulging in the pastime of smoking, which was then -in great disrepute. - -Indeed, if we may credit tradition, Mohammed himself predicted "that -in times to come there should be men, bearing the name of Mussulmans, -but not really such, who should smoke a certain weed called Dükhan, -or Tobacco." - -Tobacco was introduced into England soon after the discovery of -Columbus, by Sir Walter Raleigh, and thence found its way into Europe; -but not until fifteen years after do we hear of it among the Turks, -whence it seems that the Orientals must have acquired their knowledge -of this plant through some other channel, most probably from their -Tartar neighbors. But from whatever clime we first derived this -fragrant weed, there is no doubt that the earliest method of using it -was in a pipe, and not in the form of cigars, or by imbibing the juice -by chewing--which latter practice was unknown to the early lovers of -tobacco, and is unpractised by the Orientals even at this day. - -As the aromatic plant by degrees became essential to the happiness -of mankind, even including the fair sex, doubtless the inconvenience -of the pipe suggested the idea of a more portable form, whence the -invention of cigars. - -In Holland, in 1570, they smoked out of conical tubes, made of -palm-leaves plaited together; and subsequently the leaf of the -plant was rolled up, and the present form of cigars adopted. The -only recommendation to the form of cigars is their convenience; but -many amateurs pretend that they thus attain a stronger relish of the -tobacco than from pipes. The cigar is certainly strong in its fumes, -but whether the relish is greater is a matter to be questioned, and -in this form the injurious and even poisonous properties of the plant -are imparted to the system. Besides, there is the close proximity of -the fire to the mouth and teeth; secondly, the condensation of the -essential oil on the lips, leaving a yellow tinge around the mouth; -thirdly, the gradual dissolving of the end of the cigar in the mouth, -producing, by its nicotine property, irritation of the gums and the -salivary glands; fourthly, there is the necessity of always holding -the cigar, which in the course of time imparts a dingy hue to the -fingers; fifthly, the danger of injuring the clothes and furniture -by the constant falling of the ashes; sixthly, the eyes suffer from -their proximity to the heated fumes; and last, but not least, there -is the satisfaction of imbibing the nectar-juice of some black mouth, -for the black nymphs who are employed in this manufacture, always -salivate their handiwork, by way of giving it a smooth and handsome -finish. Surely, could our amateurs but witness the manufacture of -their favorite Havanas, they would forever eschew that form of the -aromatic weed. - -But apart from all these considerations, the very convenience of the -cigar becomes an objection; for being always at hand, the too frequent -use of it has converted the pleasure into an evil--such a constant -craving being excited that even the health is injured. Doubtless -this perverted taste, in circumstances where smoking has not been -permitted, as on board ships, behind counters, in offices, etc., -has induced the pernicious practice of chewing. - -Those nations who retain the original, natural, and simplest mode -of enjoying the weed, have never relinquished the pipe, but have -varied the form of this implement, and much beautified and improved -it. The people who have retained the use of the pipe, are the Dutch, -Irish, English, Scotch, Germans, Russians, Turks, Persians, and all -Orientals. In the perfection of the art of smoking the Persians may -rank first, then the Osmanlis, Russians, Hungarians, Dutch, English, -and last of all the Germans. - -The Persians rank high in this respect, because they have studied -the philosophy of enjoying the fumes of tobacco in their greatest -purity. This they have attained by passing the smoke through water, -and thus purifying it from the essential oil of the plant. The kaleon -of the Persians, the hookah of Hindostan, the shishé of the Arabs, or -the narghillé of the Turks, is an air-tight vessel partially filled -with water, on the top of which is a bowl to contain the ignited -tobacco. From this bowl a tube descends into the water, and the long -and flexible pipe is inserted into the vessel above the level of the -water. When the smoker begins to draw through the pipe, a partial -vacuum is created in the vessel, which occasions the pressure of -the external air to force the smoke of the tobacco downward through -the small tube above mentioned into the water beneath, where, after -losing its solid particles, it bubbles up into the vacant space above, -and thence through the pipe to the mouth of the smoker. - -But ever since the peculiar and agreeable properties of this fragrant -plant have been known, the ingenuity of its votaries has been excited -to invent and improve the ways and means of obtaining the greatest -amount of satisfaction from its use. - -In the earliest stages the pipe was made of one entire piece of clay, -but soon the fact was established that this substance became so heated -as to decompose the tobacco. Metallic and other pipes were tried, -but still the same evil existed; until wood became the most popular -material. But that being combustible, the flavor of the tobacco was -deteriorated; and at last the arrangement was made of a stem of wood -with a bowl of clay attached to it, to contain the ignited plant. The -wood was a nonconductor of heat, capable of being constructed of any -length, and moreover, easily cleaned, so that this was pronounced -the great desideratum. - -The Turks have displayed the greatest refinement and taste in the -manufacture of their long and beautiful chibouks or pipe-stems, to -which they attach the amber mouth-piece, so agreeable to the lips -and free from all impurities. - -A peculiar species of clay was discovered in Turkey so remarkably -argillaceous as to supersede all other substances for the construction -of pipe-bowls; and these Oriental and philosophic smokers have -displayed their wisdom and science in the peculiar form into which -they have molded them. The form of a lüllé, or Turkish pipe-bowl, -is that of an inverted cone, the base of which, when filled with -tobacco, forms the surface. The design of this form is to present a -greater surface of exposure to the atmosphere, and to bring a smaller -body of tobacco in contact with the bowl, which is made as thin and -delicate as the nature of the material will permit, so as to possess -the least quantity of body, and thus less power of retaining heat. The -pipe should be lighted in the centre of the bowl, not with a piece -of paper, which would scorch the surface of the tobacco, but with a -small piece of spunk. At each inhalation the ignited circle enlarges -and extends toward the edge of the bowl, and as the combustion takes -place proportionally downward, it is evident that all the tobacco is -consumed without the assistance of fingering it, as the Germans are -in the habit of doing. - -The stem is always of wood, but great care is used in its -selection. Jasmine is cultivated expressly for pipe-stems, -and carefully trained so as to increase in length and uniform -thickness. Cherry-stems are much prized and more durable than the -jasmine, and there is a species of wild fruit tree called germeshek, -peculiar to Turkey, remarkably suited for the use of tobacco, and very -generally used. These pipe-stems are never less than four or five feet -long, and perfectly straight. The object gained by the length is that -the smoke arrives at the lips comparatively cool, having deposited its -more solid particles in the stem, which being perfectly straight is -easily cleansed; for it is an essential point that the pipe should, -contrary to German philosophy, be kept pure. Still another advantage -gained by the length is that the pipe may be easily disposed of for -the moment, resting by the side or against a table without deranging -the tobacco in the bowl, which should always have a small brass tray -beneath it to protect the floor from any accident. - -Certainly, then, a Turkish chibouk is unequalled as an implement for -smoking. The pure amber mouthpiece often glittering with brilliants, -the long stem, one unbroken length of slender jasmine, and the delicate -and beautifully-gilded bowl, seem to constitute the very essence of -refinement in the luxury of smoking; and no wonder that the Osmanlis -recline for hours on their silken cushions, and puff and puff again -"ambrosial gales." - -One reason of the luxury displayed in the Turkish pipe is, that the -chibouk is an indispensable appendage of hospitality, always presented -to the guests, and constantly changed and replaced by another, each -successive pipe exceeding its predecessor in beauty and value, until -the visit is terminated. - -The chibouks and narghillés are symbols of luxury and wealth among -the Osmanlis, as services of silver are appendages of elegant life -to the Europeans, and there is great ambition to excel each other in -the costliness of their appurtenances of smoking. Many of the pashas -and other men of wealth, possess chibouks to the value of $50,000, -ranging from $10 upwards. - -Sultan Mahmoud was forced to issue an edict forbidding the hosts to -present them to visitors, and ordering that every one should provide -his own chibouk. Hence the appendage to all gentlemen of rank of a -Chibouk-gy, who always accompanies his master. - -The narghillés or hookahs are also very popular, and often of exquisite -workmanship; but pipes being more portable and handy, are generally -preferred. The effort necessary to draw the smoke from the narghillé -is, by some, considered as objectionable, but a little practice soon -habituates to its use, and certainly with this instrument we have -the smoke in its greatest purity. - -But it is not only the utility and beauty of the long chibouk which -constitute the Osmanlis the best and most philosophical smokers. There -is no tobacco in the world so delicious as the Turkish; so varied in -its degrees of narcotic strength, or so carefully prepared, and a taste -once being acquired for this species of the plant, all other varieties -become intolerable. A growing taste for this tobacco has of late been -acquired in America, and the increasing demand for this article has -induced speculators to flood the market with spurious imitations or -adulterations both imported and of home manufacture. Even in Turkey the -greatest connoisseurs can, with difficulty, procure the best species; -there are so many varieties offered for sale; the very worst kind, -of which so much is exported to America, being from Smyrna and its -immediate neighborhood. The tobacco most valued, and justly so, for -its pure and aromatic flavor, is only raised in a small district of -Thessaly, in European Turkey, and is called Yenijé tobacco, from the -name of the region where it is cultivated. - -There has been concocted a peculiar kind or brand of the plant under -the title of scafarlatti, which seems to have gained great celebrity -in the United States as being the genuine Turkish article. This -appellation is as yet unknown in Turkey, and must have sprung from -the inventive brain of some one of the Barnum race, who would even -enlarge the Turkish vocabulary at the expense of the lingua Italiana. - -Not to notice the Western nations, who, with their clay pipes, have -remained in statu quo in the art of smoking, the Germans deserve some -criticism: for they have made many attempts to arrive at perfection. - -The material of which the German pipe-bowls are made, poetically -called meerschaum, is ill adapted for the purpose, and the forms of -their stems and mouth-pieces imply entire ignorance of the science -of smoking. - -The meerschaum, or froth of the sea, is a native rock formation of -Turkey, and is excavated about two or three hundred miles from the -sea of Marmora. Every particle is exported to Vienna, and it is -never used by the natives, because it is a calcareous substance, -and when in contact with fire undergoes a process of combustion -to a sufficient degree to decompose the tobacco. This fact is well -attested by the circumstance that a meerschaum pipe-bowl is greatly -enhanced in value when by a long and tedious process it has lost -all its combustible properties, and is thus rendered incapable of -deteriorating the tobacco. But why select a substance which requires -so long an apprenticeship, when nature furnishes one well suited for -the purpose? and why esteem an article for its power of absorption -and then prize it the more for having lost it by time and use? German -philosophy only can explain! - -Apart from the unfitness of meerschaum for the bowl, the form in which -it is modelled shows how little the nature of tobacco is understood -by those sturdy people; for the form of an elongated cylinder only -serves to surround the weed by a heavy body of combustible material -capable of containing an excessive degree of heat, and thus decomposing -the tobacco. But the main object of these amateurs of the mere-sham -seems to be to deteriorate the fume of the narcotic plant as much as -possible--for to cap the climax of their absurdity, a metallic cover -is nicely fitted to those exquisite pipe-bowls, and thus the favorite -meerschaum is converted into a perfect retort for the manufacture -of tobacco-gas! - -Their stems are generally made of the most ordinary wood, short -and curving, and the mouth-piece of the minutest dimensions. The -object in having such small mouth-pieces is to imitate the process -by which infants are nourished, by introducing them into the mouth -and regularly sucking up the smoke instead of inhaling it, as the -Osmanlis do, by merely resting their lips upon the large and oval -surface of the amber. The introduction of the piece into the mouth -immediately excites the saliva, which in part passes into the pipe, -and is otherwise discharged by spitting--a most disgusting practice -unknown among the Orientals. Notwithstanding also the shortness of -the pipe, owing to its curved form and the diminutive mouthpiece, -it is almost impossible to keep it clean. But it seems to be a sort -of German philosophy not only to have their pipes in a most filthy -state, but to delight in and value them the more in proportion to -their antiquity and impurity. Truly there is no accounting for taste, -nor is it any longer a matter of wonder that pigs delight to wallow -in the mire. - -If, then, the nations of the East, the Persians and Osmanlis, are -behind the age in other matters of civilization, they have surely -attained the acme of refinement in this delight. - -Nature, too, has favored them in the peculiar quality of their tobacco, -and the very indolence of their habits has led them to meditate more -diligently on their favorite luxury. Hence the palm in this matter is -to be given to their musical gurgling narghillé, purifying and cooling -the fragrant fumes, and to the long and graceful chibouk, which a -little care will keep always pure and ready for use. These are well -worth the adaptation of other nations. Some have, however, objected to -the chibouk as not being portable and convenient during a promenade, -as if there were a municipal law requiring all good citizens to smoke -in the streets. If the good taste of the community should render the -use of these chibouks and narghillés popular, there is no doubt that -all the places for public refreshment would be provided with them, -as they now are in Turkey and all over the East. - -The coffee plant is well known to be a native of Arabia; it was used as -a drink in that part of the world as early as the ninth century of the -Hegira, and was gradually introduced into the countries of the Levant; -it was many times declared unlawful by the followers of the Koran, -as being of the class of inebriating liquors so often condemned -by Mohammed; but the Eastern nations are so addicted to its use, -that they say, "A cup of coffee and a pipe of tobacco are a complete -entertainment!" It seems that this beverage was made fashionable in -Paris about the year 1668, by a Turkish ambassador. "The elegance of -the equipage recommended it to the eye, and charmed the women; the -brilliant porcelain cups in which it was poured, the napkins fringed -with gold, and the Turkish slaves on their knees, presenting it to -the ladies seated on the ground on cushions, turned the heads of the -Parisian dames. This elegant introduction made the exotic beverage -a subject of conversation; and in 1672, an Armenian at Paris, at -the fair time, opened a coffee house." This establishment was much -frequented by the literati, until the proprietor added the sale of -wine and beer to its attractions. - -A similar attempt was made in New York in 1855, but soon relinquished; -notwithstanding the proverbial fondness of the Americans for good -coffee and tobacco. The fact is, their temperament is too nervous, -and their habits are too restless to allow them quietly to sip their -coffee and smoke their pipes as the Orientals do. - -Besides, the style of preparing the coffee in Turkey is decidedly -superior to any known in Europe or America, and has met with the -approbation of those who have tasted it either in New York, or in -the sultan's dominions. - -"Coffee is found on chemical analysis to contain a highly nutritious -element, known as caffein. This component part of all good coffee -is found to contain a larger proportion of nitrogen than any other -vegetable principle, and in this respect equals some of the most -highly animalized products, rendering it nutritious as a drink." - -The essential oil of the berry is so volatile, that the greatest -care and skill are requisite in its roasting and pulverization; -for if too much burnt, the aroma is destroyed, if underdone, the -water fails to absorb or extract the nutritious material, and if not -properly pulverized, a perfect chemical combination of the particles -in solution is not effected. - -There is no doubt a desire among the Americans, to obtain this -beverage in its purity and excellence, as evince the many machines -and contrivances they use; yet they seldom if ever succeed in their -attempts. - -The mixture from the grocers, and the ingredients they mingle at home, -such as eggs, isinglass, etc., render it impossible to secure a pure, -unadulterated, fragrant solution of this berry. - -The commercial competition is so great that in order to be able to -undersell each other, all sorts of cheaper substitutes are mixed with -the coffee, such as chicory, beans, peas, etc.; thus annihilating -the really nutritive properties of the genuine plant. - -In a word, those who have never tasted a cup of good Turkish coffee, -are yet in unhappy ignorance of the peculiar aroma and deliciousness -of coffee as a beverage. - -Coffee being the universal and favorite beverage in Turkey, the -first ideas of an Osmanli, upon opening his eyes in the morning, -are associated with his kahvé and chibouk, or coffee and pipe, which -in reality constitute his only breakfast, and are not only used upon -rising, but at all hours during the day, and at the very moment of -his retiring. - -These luxuries are invariably offered to visitors, and their omission -is regarded as a breach of hospitality. - -Their universal use has given rise to the establishment of -numerous kahvés, which are the resort of persons of all ranks and -condition. They are to be met with in all parts and quarters of -the city, each having its own set of customers, and constituting, -in reality, the only casinos or club houses, where politics are -discussed, business transacted, and the news of the day freely -circulated; in fact the only Bourse or Exchange in Constantinople, -was a coffee house at Pershembé-Pazar, in Galata: and it is only of -late years that a regular Exchange has been erected. - -Many of these kahvés are very beautifully constructed, and adorned -with pillars and fountains, with gardens attached to them, where -visitors are entertained with sweet strains of music; and crowds -assemble to listen to the extravagant fictions of the Meddahs, or -professed story-tellers, or otherwise to wile away the time; smoking, -sipping the fragrant berry, and playing backgammon, dama, or mangala. - -All games of chance are played by the Osmanlis, only for amusement, -and gambling is not generally practised by them. - -The moral effect of these establishments upon the community is -very evident; for though wine is forbidden by the Koran, there are -many mey-hanés, or grog-shops, to be found in Turkey, which are not -generally frequented by people of any pretensions to respectability; -indeed drunkenness is a very uncommon vice, doubtless owing to the -numerous kahvés, which afford the habitual refreshments of pipes and -coffee to the people, with every facility for social intercourse. - -On entering the coffee shop, there is an elevated platform on the three -sides, which is furnished with cushions or mats for the accommodation -of visitors. On the sides of the wall are various grotesque pictures, -and also shelves, where the implements of shaving and toilette are -so fantastically displayed as to create a somewhat comic appearance, -and one altogether peculiar to Turkey. At one of the remotest corners -is an elevated fire-place for the preparation of coffee, which is -served in very small cups. The diminutive quantity of this beverage -was so unsatisfactory to one of the sailors of the English fleet at -Constantinople, that upon tasting it he observed, "This is excellent; -just bring me a dozen." - -Surrounding the fire-place are shelves, upon which stand the graceful -narghillés, with their brazen and polished mountings, attractive and -pleasing to the eye. But the most active and busy personage in this -establishment is the Berber, or barber, who is not only the shaver, -hair-dresser, and trimmer in general, but extends the province of his -sharp profession to bleeding, cupping, leeching, and tooth-drawing; the -results of which avocations are displayed at the door, fantastically -strung and diversified with colored beads. - -Barbers always follow in the train of doctors, and even precede them, -for bleeding is a universal remedy in Turkey, whether the patient -is sick of fever or fright. Indeed, it is the custom for every -body to be bled once a year, generally in the spring, in order to -purify the system. Add to this the frequent application of leeches, -scarifications, and cupping, and it may be easily conceived that -this branch of industry is very profitable; still more so when -it was the custom to shave the whole head, for the convenience of -frequent ablutions. Many, in conformity with European civilization, -now allow the hair to grow, but those who oppose other reforms are -equally unyielding in this respect, and "calculating even to a hair." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIV. - -HAMAM, OR BATH. - - -In the East there is one source of comfort and enjoyment which is -more essential than all else, and that is the use of the bath, which -follows all other pleasures, when excess has wearied the system, and -precedes and prepares for anticipated luxuries physical or mental. This -process of purifying and refreshing the body, is eagerly sought for -as soon as the traveller arrives at Constantinople; indeed seems to -be second only in his mind to the impressions of an entrance to the -magnificent harbor. - -The baths of classic memory, where the heroes of ancient Rome were -wont to prepare their sinews for the athletic games, and where the -patrician dames of Pompeii resorted, to add fresher and more glowing -tints to their fair charms, were all conducted on the same principle -as those of Stamboul at the present day. - -It is wonderful that modern civilization should not yet have adopted -the refinements of olden times, when they are so essential to real -health and comfort. - -As by some mishap this desideratum exists, it would not be mal-a-propos -to describe the real charm and merit of these institutions. The object -of all bathing is to free the skin from the deposits of insensible -perspiration. This idea has been much in vogue of late, as testify -the water-cures, vapor-baths, medicated, sulphurated, etc., being in -reality rather vehicles for disease than remedies. But the peculiar -substance which closes up the pores of the skin, cannot be removed -by simple immersion in soap and water, for, like all other greasy -substances, it is composed of solid and liquid, or stearine and olein, -the liquid part of which may, in a chemical combination, be absorbed -by the water, but the skin will still remain clogged up. Seeing the -futility of the process of immersion, many have supposed that a profuse -perspiration excited by fumigation, vaporization, etc., would carry -off these deposits, by which processes, however, the liquid portion -only would be removed, and the system reduced to a state of perfect -exhaustion. The Turkish baths are neither immersion nor vapor baths; -but the atmosphere is heated by means of flues through the walls, to -a temperature suited to induce a free perspiration, without causing -over-exhaustion; for the interior is so arranged that the bather, in -passing from one apartment to another, gradually becomes acclimated -to the heat. - -These baths, unlike many other institutions in the East, are -perfectly accessible to all, both natives and foreigners, and are -the more attractive on account of their entire dissimilarity from -all establishments for the same purpose in Europe or America. - -Frequent ablutions, and the greatest personal cleanliness being -strictly enjoined upon all true believers, by the precepts of the -Koran, it is considered an act of piety to erect edifices and public -fountains for those purposes, either during life-time, or by personal -bequest; consequently, such instances of benevolence are by no means -rare, nor are the structures deficient in architectural beauty. They -are built of stone, and adorned with cupolas, besprinkled with globular -glasses, which transmit a softened light to the interior. - -The interior is divided into three compartments; the saloon, the -tepidarium, and the bath itself. - -The saloon, where the visitors dress and undress, is a large apartment -surrounded on three sides by elevated platforms, on which are placed -mattresses and cushions for the comfort and accommodation of those -who frequent the bath. In the centre of this room there is usually a -marble fountain, whose trickling waters soothe the ear, and add beauty -to the scene, dispensing a delicious coolness to the atmosphere. On -his entrance to this saloon, the visitor is immediately greeted with -Bouyourun, (you are welcome), from the attendants, who conduct him to -one of the mattresses on the platform, where he is undressed, within -a temporary screen, made by holding up a towel to prevent exposure -of the person; for the Osmanlis are sensitively modest, and feel a -feminine delicacy in this respect, so that none ever bathe in public -without being suitably invested. - -His watch, ring, and purse, are handed over to the Hamamgy for -safe keeping, and his apparel being carefully folded in a shawl, and -designated by his own head-gear, which is placed upon it, is deposited -by the side of the mattress, now appropriated to his exclusive use. - -Notwithstanding all these precautions, very ludicrous mistakes -sometimes occur, as happened recently to a certain soldier, who was -anxious to abandon the ranks, and possessing no other means of changing -his uniform for a citizen's dress, entered the bath en militaire; -where, after having performed his ablutions, he committed the very -slight error of appropriating to himself a neighbor's mattress, with -its accompanying wardrobe, and thus was enabled to make an honorable -retreat en bourgeois. - -Being now undressed, enveloped in large towels, and mounted on nalluns, -or wooden pattens, to protect his feet from the hot marble and the -water, the bather is conducted into the Halvet, or tepidarium, which -is heated to a degree a little above temperate, where he reposes on -cushions until he is gradually acclimated to the atmosphere. - -When the pores of the skin are opened, and perspiration excited, -the visitor proceeds to the inner room to go through the process -of bathing. - -The Hamam, or bath itself, whose temperature is raised to any requisite -degree by means of flues constructed within, and all along the walls, -so as to allow the flames to circulate freely in every direction, -is in many of these establishments, exceedingly beautiful; the dome -being supported on magnificent columns, and the walls and doors inlaid -with large slabs of marble, and adorned with finely chiselled fonts -on all sides, which are furnished with double ornamented brass cocks, -for the supply of warm and cold water. - -There is an elevated marble platform in the middle, where the bathers -lie at full length, for the purpose of having their sinews relaxed, and -joints examined. Both the apartment, and this process in particular, -have been most ridiculously described, and, either through malice or -ignorance, most egregiously exaggerated by travellers; for example, -the public are informed that, "A dense vapor sometimes so fills the -saloon, that he (the bather), sees nothing distinctly, but figures -flit before him like visions in a mist. Having walked, or sat in this -heated mist, till a profuse perspiration bursts out, the tellak again -approaches, and commences his operations. He lays the bather on his -back or face, and pins him to the ground by kneeling heavily on him, -and having thus secured him, he handles him in the rudest and most -painful manner. He twists and turns the limbs, so as to seem to -dislocate every joint. The sufferer feels as if the very spine was -separated, and the vertebrć of the back torn asunder. It is in vain he -complains of this treatment, screams out in anguish and apprehension, -and struggles to extricate himself. The incubus sits grinning upon him, -and torturing him, till he becomes passive from very exhaustion." - -In the first place, there is no dense vapor in a Turkish bath, but the -heat is produced by the flues in the walls; true, there is sometimes -the appearance of mist, which is only created momentarily by the -quantity of hot water poured over the bathers, and is soon dispersed by -ventilation, for such an atmosphere is never tolerated by the natives. - -Now, as to the bather being pinned to the ground in the rudest and -most painful manner, etc., there is more of a spirit of ridicule than -simple truth in this description; it being only resorted to in cases -of rheumatism, and the like maladies, when the patient is extended -on the marble platform, and all his joints examined and rubbed by -the tellak, or assistant, who, owing to the relaxed condition of -the nervous system, easily discovers the seat of any local pain, -and proceeds to dispel it by friction. - -Many having experienced decided relief from this mode of treatment, -it is very frequently resorted to in Turkey. No such treatment, -therefore, ever occurs on ordinary occasions, unless the farce -is got up by special request, and for the benefit of strangers or -travellers, who, not content with the usual modus operandi, insist -upon the realization of their own extravagant ideas. - -A native of Constantinople had to stop at Smyrna on his way to -America. Being anxious to enjoy the luxury of a bath once more, -he repaired to one of the establishments. As he wore a hat, the -attendants mistook him for a regular Frank or European, and he resolved -to maintain the joke by pretending utter ignorance of all the languages -of the country. After having experienced many absurdities, all novel -to a native, he was at last stretched full length upon his stomach -on the marble platform of the bath. The tellak kneeling by his side -commenced a regular process of pommelling him, and, at the same time, -of cracking his joints. The incubus, as though not satisfied with -his own exertions, now called for assistance from another tellak, -who came and placed himself on the opposite side, when both commenced -in the rudest manner to push their victim from one to the other. The -sufferer, astonished at this extraordinary treatment, was ready to -split his sides with laughter, which one of the tellaks taking as an -indication of uneasiness, observed to the other not to be so rude in -his manipulations. He was, in return, assured "this is the way the -Franks like, the harder the better; also, they must not be allowed -to think they haven't had their money's worth!" - -Doubtless an Osmanli would not only be much amused, but astonished, -could he behold the victim of a European vapor bath, as he sits boxed -up, and enveloped in blankets to his throat, parboiled with steam, -and suffocated by the fumes of brimstone; surely he would believe he -had by mistake got into the regions of Eblis. - -When the person is in a state of free perspiration, he is seated by -the side of one of the fountains, beneath which are marble basins to -receive the water, both hot and cold, as it flows from the ornamented -cocks, for no Osmanli ever uses the tub, water which has once been -in contact with the body, having imbibed its impurities, is deemed -unfit for further use; therefore, on all occasions, their ablutions -are performed with flowing water, for they do not delight to wallow -and splash in a solution of their own dirt. - -The tellak having upon his right hand a kesse, or bag made of raw -silk, commences a gentle rubbing (for they cannot bear any rude or -rough treatment, for which reason the delicate hands of boys are -employed), over the surface of the body, by which the deposits of -insensible perspiration are disengaged from the pores of the skin, -and combining together fall from the person like fibres of paste, -which, to the uninitiated, might seem like the peeling off of the -outer pellicle itself. - -In this process consists the real virtue of a Hamam, and to it alone -is to be attributed the peculiar velvet-like softness of the skin of -an Oriental, which even gives them an air of effeminacy. - -Immediately after the process of shampooing or rubbing, the marble -font having been filled with water of the desired temperature, it is -poured over the person of the bather from the brass tass, or bowl, -used for the purpose by the attendant. The person is now thoroughly -washed with perfumed soap, again water is poured over him in abundance, -and he is finally enveloped in the havlous, or large napped towels, -manufactured in the country expressly for the purpose, and admirably -adapted to absorb moisture. - -Now perfectly purified, with a sensation of languor, the bather -proceeds to the dressing saloon, where, as he reclines upon luxurious -cushions, his whole being seems momentarily lost in that dreamy repose -of half-conscious existence, which is the true kief of an Oriental. - -He is only awakened to real life by the assiduities of his attendants, -some gently fanning him, and others presenting sherbet, coffee, -pipes, etc. - -The fatigue and languor gradually pass away, as, with a sensation -of renovated existence, he reposes until the heat of his body is -reduced to its natural temperature. His toilette being completed, he -surveys himself in a small enamelled mirror which is offered to him, -and after depositing upon it the amount of money compatible with -his own station in life, he quits the precincts of this luxurious -establishment, light, joyful, and contented. - -The Hamams being altogether charitable institutions, there is no fixed -price demanded from visitors, for the use of the bath itself--it -being entirely left to their own option. But the personal services -of the attendants, and the wear and tear of the splendid bathing -paraphernalia not being included in the same category, an adequate -remuneration is of course expected. This also is left to individual -generosity; in ordinary cases, from half to three quarters of a dollar -is sufficient, but there may be no limit to a person's munificence, -nor to the attentions bestowed upon him. - -A gentleman of rank once visited a bath where he was an entire -stranger, and although he was not treated with even ordinary -politeness, he left on his departure a sum of money far beyond the -expectations of the attendants, which, opening their eyes, forced them -to make a thousand apologies for their remissness, and protestations -for the future. The gentleman soon after gave them an opportunity to -retrieve their former errors, and contrary to their excited hopes -rewarded them with a couple of piasters (about 8 cents) observing, -"This is what you merited on my first visit, and what you then received -is the equivalent for your present services." - -The money collected at the bath is divided into two portions; one -of which is for the Hamamgy, or proprietor, and the other is shared -among the attendants. - -Many of the public bathing houses are divided into two parts, one -for men, and the other for women, and when the establishment is not -a double one, Fridays and Sundays only are reserved for men, and the -rest of the week allotted to the ladies. - -There are always exquisite specimens of these Hamams attached to -the houses of the wealthy; and their friends and neighbors are often -invited to partake with them of this amusement. - -As the Osmanli ladies very seldom enjoy the excitement and bustle -of a crowd, they consider the occasion of going to bathe as one of -the greatest festivity; and they always carry with them every article -necessary for comfort or luxury, the Hamamgy not furnishing mattresses, -towels, etc., as in the case of the gentlemen. - -Besides the opportunity of displaying embroidered cushions, napkins, -etc., they find rare and ample amusement in the discussion of scandal, -moral and political, as well as general domestic gossip. - -The tout ensemble of a lady's bath is one altogether peculiar, and of -course more enchanting to the eye than the ablutions of their lords -and masters. - -The following description of a visit to a bath by a lady long a -resident in Constantinople, may be interesting as the result of -personal observation and experience. - -"My first Turkish bath--shall I describe it, dear?--We were a large -party. The mother, her three daughters, three maids, and my humble -self. You would have supposed we were arranging our wardrobes for -a long season of travel--except that the garments would be rather -unpresentable on ordinary occasions. Very peculiar nappy towels, large -as sheets, issued forth from their repose in the vast closets, white -and colored, embroidered and fringed; head-gear of the same style; -curious-looking yellow woollen mittens, to rub with, they told me; -innumerable shining bowls; tremendous stilt-like clogs for the feet, -great bars of soap, precious packages of dyes, paints, capillary -antidotes, perfumes, essences, mirrors in embroidered frames, and a -thousand other etceteras of Oriental toilette, in due order entered the -vast bundles which were in preparation. Next appeared a beautiful rug -or carpet, a rich silken mattress and cushions, and a large piece of -crimson woollen, shaggy material, to envelope the cushions, such as I -have frequently seen spread in the beautiful cayiks. Really one would -have supposed we were to be deposited in some unfurnished dwelling -with all this paraphernalia. - -"Then came the private wardrobe of each individual neatly folded in a -separate envelope--and last but not least; the most refreshing array -of fruit, sherbets, and a curious machine, some five stories high, -in whose different compartments were packed various specimens of -Turkish cookery. I began to wonder if we were ever to return from this -bathing pic-nic, so vast were the preparations; but every one was gay, -and nothing was tiresome. Besides we always go to bathe in this style, -at least once a month. - -"Our carriage waited at the door, a grand spacious one, covered with -crimson shag, the ends trimmed with deep fringes of gold--no seats, -but plenty of cushions, and two milk-white oxen were our steeds. - -"Having duly veiled ourselves, that our 'ornaments' or charms might -not be displayed to the eyes of the unprivileged, we ascended the -steps at the end of our araba, and were seated according to our -respective ranks. The old lady and myself occupying the honorable -places in the front, just behind the tails of the oxen, which were -fortunately looped up, so that they could neither switch us, nor -themselves. There is a decided advantage in this seat, the view -being unobstructed by any coachman, as that dignitary always walks -before the head of the animals. Next to us were the three Hanums, -behind whom were the maids and bundles, and the large pannier was -slung underneath full of its creature comforts. - -"I felt as if I had suddenly been transformed into a houri, as they -all declared that the Yashmak converted me into a real Circassian -beauty. In due time we arrived, and descended from our airy -vehicle. As we entered the outer hall of the bath, each one made a -polite temennah to the Hamamgy-Kadun, or the lady proprietress, who was -squatting on her cushions in a corner. This salutation she returned, -to all genuine Turkish ladies (myself included) with the same polite -gesture--but the unfortunate giavours only received a slight nod, no -matter how profound their selams. It is well to be queen somewhere, -even of a bathing establishment. - -"The maids, Eleny, Maria, and Sophy, spread out our cushions in one -of the niches upon the elevated platform, and as they modestly held -up a towel as a screen, we proceeded to reduce ourselves to a state -of nature. Enveloped from head to feet in our bathing habiliments, -which hung about us in just such folds as they drape the statues--we -willingly thrust our pedestrial extremities into the great clogs, -inlaid with mother of pearl, entered the antechamber of the bath, -and sat down on the marble platform to acclimate ourselves. Here we -take a coup d'oeil of the strange scene. - -"Old women without any charms to conceal, spare themselves the effort, -and multitudes of naked cherubs patter about. Yonder sits a victim -to paints and dyes--her hair now white, suddenly becomes beautifully -black, and the colour streaming over her body bedecks her for the -moment ŕ l'Indienne. But that was all washed off, and they proceeded -to rub a sort of mud all over her body, to take out the pains. Then -she underwent a process of pommelling, as she was stretched out on -the marble floor--poor thing, she had both rheumatism and grey hairs, -and was a fit subject for the most special and extra efforts of the -attendants of the bath. But the children! such victims, of all ages, -from one month upwards, were screaming to the highest pitch of their -little voices, as they were unmercifully rubbed and lathered from the -crown of their heads to the soles of their feet. 'Rough up and smooth -down,' seemed to be no part of the nursery creed of their unmerciful -mothers, but rough all ways. Amid these infantile yells and agonies, -the girls, young and pretty, walked up and down, pattering with their -clogs, and chanting their wild native melodies, as if to put out all -other noises, and the great marble halls did their best to re-echo -all these floating sounds. - -"Was I in Paradise or Pandemonium; were these peris or demons, I -could not tell; everything was so bewildering. I was duly rubbed, -and washed like the rest--then it was proposed to take lunch. Our -party en déshabillé de-pechetemal, which means, crimson faces and -napkin drapery, with long and dripping hair, sea nymphs--maids of the -mist--seated themselves on the marble platform in the cooler room, -and the large round tray made its appearance. - -"How delicious the iced sherbet, the little balls of rice covered with -delicate vine leaves--the artichokes ŕ l'huile d'olive, the kebab, -the helva--in a word, spite of the strange table, strange costume, -and general humidity, we all had tremendous appetites. - -"Then, came a chibouk to the old lady, little cigarettes to the young -maidens--a delicious cup of coffee, and we all raised our voices in -a sweet Turkish song, about loves, jessamines, güle and bülbüls. - -"Being thus recruited, we were able to undergo the last ablutions, -and with a complete investment of pure white and delicately perfumed -towels, we proceeded to our first niche in the great dressing-room, -and laid us down to dream, or listlessly to watch the innumerable -toilettes of the devotees to Venus and Love. - -"Some, all fair and rosy, were reclining luxuriously like ourselves, -enveloped in fine white drapery, richly embroidered and fringed with -gold, while their beautiful slaves, whose charming figures were not -so carefully concealed, were combing, braiding, and perfuming the -long silken tresses of the fair hanums. - -"After we had amused ourselves at the indifference of the really -beautiful, and the minute and strenuous efforts of others to appear -so, we again sipped our coffee and completed our toilette, ready at -any time, to spend another day in such delightful aquatic luxuries. I -could not help contrasting my sensations with those I had often felt -on leaving one of the bathing establishments in my own country. There, -a solitary closet, a tub, from which perhaps some dirty wench had -just emerged, a hook or two, a dirty flesh brush for general service, -etc. True, the warm water was agreeable, and for the moment caused an -oblivion of all antecedents, the hook convenient, and the brush need -not be used. After an immersion of perhaps half an hour, you hurry -on your apparel, and hurry home, all ŕ l'Américaine. But here, in -this Turkish bath, how imperceptibly a whole day had passed away, how -entertaining the scene, how beautiful the fair handmaidens of Nature, -so soft and pure, after their watery festivities. Their skin so white, -their lips so red, the delicate rosy tinge of their cheeks so tempting; -even old age seemed to bloom again, while a universal exhilaration -took possession of us all. A delicate tissue of softness seemed to -envelop my body, and a wonderful feeling of amiability and love for -all the race of human kind glowed within my breast. Every motion gave -me pleasure, and I could scarce recognize myself. Alas! for American -ladies, they can never feel the true oriental Kief in bathing; for -they have no cushions to repose upon, no softly murmuring fountains -to lull their senses, nor any such relaxation from all external and -internal woes, as follows a Turkish bath. In vain they tinge their -complexions, powder, and wash, they cannot attain this to kalon of -beauty, nor be electrified by this wand of enchantment, which renders -the humblest Cinderella of the Orient lovely as a princess, and says -avaunt to all the modern mysteries of the toilette." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXV. - -THE RAYAS OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS. - -THE ARMENIANS. - - -The whole population of Turkey may be estimated at over 35,000,000 -of souls, including the principalities and other tributary states, -which, if deducted, leaves 27,000,000 in Turkey proper, half of whom -are Mohammedans, and the rest Christians and Jews. - -The Christians are of various denominations, each denomination -constituting a separate community, governed by their own municipal -regulations, and guided by their respective spiritual heads. - -Hitherto the Europeans have regarded the Greeks as the predominating -Christian population of the East; the truth is, among the different -communities the Armenians stand most prominent, because not only next -to the Bulgarians they rank high in numbers, but in reality supersede -all others, politically and morally, in their relations with Turkey. - -Although the Bosnians, Bulgarians, and the Greeks profess the same -religion, they do not surrender their respective nationalities. The -Greeks themselves are not, therefore, so numerous as is generally -supposed, but have erroneously been confounded with the others. - -The Armenians, of whom there are 3,500,000 in Turkey, like other -nations, have evinced their pride in national pedigree, by tracing -their origin to Haig, the grandson of Noah, and they call themselves -Haiks even at the present day. - -In the year of the creation of the world, 1757, Jewish chronology, -soon after the flood, and even during the lifetime of Noah, Haig, -or Haicus, with his sons and daughters, resided in the country of -Senaar, in Mesapotamia. - -While they lived in those regions, the famous Tower of Babel was -erected, and the Babylonian Empire was founded by Belus. - -Haig, unwilling to submit to the authority of Belus, returned with -his family, of about 300 persons, to the country of Ararat, where he -incorporated himself with the earliest settlers in those regions, who -had never wandered thence, and retained all the undisciplined habits -and freedom of their utter seclusion from the progress of civilization. - -It is more than probable that he and his descendants continued to -speak the language of their father Noah, and in that case there is no -more ancient tongue than the Armenian. Besides, while the descendants -of Shem and Ham emigrated to other lands, those of Japhet who begat -Gomer who begat Togarmah, the father of Haig remained in the vicinity -of Ararat, and there is no reason to suppose ever changed their -language. The Biblical history records the confusion of languages of -those who were in the land of Shinar. - -The Armenians are as ancient as the Jews, and have ever remained as -separate a people; and even amid all their vicissitudes have preserved -their nationality with equal tenacity. - -But Haig was not left long in quiet, for Belus, fearing that he would -become too powerful a rival, marched against him with his warriors all -clad in iron armour. Yet destiny was about to found a great nation, -and the small band of Haig proved victorious--an arrow from the bow -of Haig, transfixed the proud Belus as he was retiring. Thus was the -first impetus given to this embryo empire. - -Victory and the spoils of war inflamed their breasts and strengthened -their resources; cities were erected, one on the very spot of this -battle. - -Haig was a man of noble appearance, and superior intellect, which -must have had a perfect development during his long life of five -hundred years. - -His immediate descendants built fortified towns, adorned with -palaces, and caravanserais. A very beautiful city was built by -Semiramis, the queen of Babylon, which occupied 12,000 workmen and -600 architects. She was enamored of Arah, the Armenian king, who was -surnamed the Handsome, and being a widow wished to marry him. But he, -disgusted at her demonstrations of excessive fondness, refused the -alliance. The consequence was, that she determined to take him by -force, and marched with her troops into his dominions. - -But all she obtained was the dead body of the beautiful young -Armenian prince, which she endeavored to restore to life by magical -incantations. - -The beauty of the country and her own romantic associations, inspired -her with the desire to erect a monument of her magnificence, and she -founded the city of Shamiram, now called Bitlis, on the borders of -Lake Van, which became ever after her summer residence. - -The Armenians enjoyed a long period of prosperity, waging successful -wars with the Syrians, Medes, Persians, and other neighboring nations, -until they were at last conquered by Alexander the Great, and remained -tributary to him for 176 years, under governors appointed by him and -by his successors the Seleucidć. - -They now changed masters, and enjoyed great prosperity under the -Arsacidć or Parthians who freed them from the Seleucian yoke. - -Their prosperity lasted for 580 years, until internal dissensions -rendered them easy victims to the intrigues of the Greeks and Persians, -who eventually divided this beautiful domain between them. Oppression -of all sorts, spiritual and temporal, now pervaded the once peaceful -and happy homes of this fated race. - -Royal blood could not quench the fire of its rage, profusely shed by -the princes, in defence of their people and religion. Idolatry was -enshrined upon the altars, and the priesthood sacrificed to fire and -tortured upon the rack. - -A temporary relief was afforded to the country by the rise of the -Bagratian princes, who were the descendants of Abraham, and who -first came into Armenia during the captivity of the Jews under -Nebuchadnezzar. - -Bagarat, the founder of this Jewish line of princes, was distinguished -in the reign of Valarsace, and was appointed by him to the hereditary -office of placing the crown upon the king's head, and all his -descendants were known as the Bagratians. Now it happened that Ashot, -one of their number, so pleased the caliph in his administration of the -affairs of his own tribe, that in the year 859 A. D., he appointed him -governor of Armenia, and dispatched Aali-Ermeny, an apostate Armenian, -to invest him with magnificent robes of state. Although the nation -was again restored to comparative tranquillity under this race of -princes, yet internal disunion and foreign oppression did not cease -to harass the country, and the Greeks finally destroyed the Bagratian -monarchy. But Melik-Shah, of Persia, regained his sway over Armenia, -and the power of the Greeks was thenceforth annihilated. - -The Armenian princes of the line of Reuben now governed the country, -and it was during their reign that the Crusaders took Jerusalem; -and while they were besieging Antioch, Constantine, the second of -these Armenian princes, supplied the army with provisions. He was in -return made a marquis, and received the order of knighthood, besides -many valuable presents. This line of princes was extirpated by the -Egyptians, who poured an immense and devastating army into their -country, and after besieging Leo, the last king, for nine months, -took him and all his family to Cairo, with all the royal treasures. - -They remained in prison seven years, because they refused to renounce -Christianity. By the intervention of king Juan, of Spain, they were -set at liberty, and received from him many valuable possessions, -such as houses and lands. - -King Leo even appealed to England and France to assist him in regaining -the throne of Armenia, but without any good success. He died in Paris, -A. D. 1393, and was buried in the convent of Celestine. - -His wife Mary, who belonged to the family of Lewis Charles, king of -Hungary, died at Jerusalem. - -The Armenians next fell into the power of the Ottomans; with their -last king their glory perished. - -The sunrise over Mount Ararat, the meridian brightness over the fairest -portion of Asia, and the last departing rays shed over the regions -of Silicia, are all merged into the dark pages of history--where but -few ever seek to read the tale. - -The ancient religion of the Armenians was that of the Magi, but the -introduction of Christianity among them was coeval with Christ. - -Abgar, one of their kings, having had occasion to send ambassadors to -the Roman general Marinus, in Syria, upon the return of his messengers, -was apprised of the wonderful and miraculous performances of the -Messiah. - -Giving a ready credence to the report that this was indeed the Son of -God, a second embassy was sent to entreat the great healer of the sick -to visit the king Abgar, who was laboring under a distressing malady. - -The letter was as follows: "I have heard that the Jews murmur against -you, and seek to destroy you. I have a small but beautiful city, -which I offer you to partake with me. It is sufficient for us both." - -It is said that the Saviour received this embassy with much -satisfaction, and dictated to the Apostle Thomas this remarkable -reply,--"When I shall rise to my glory, I will send you one of my -disciples, who shall remove your pains, and give life to you and -those around you." - -After the Ascension of Christ, according to his request, Thaddeus, -one of the seventy, was sent to Edessa, who, having instructed the king -in the true faith, baptized him and the citizens of that metropolis. - -The seeds of Christianity were thus early sown in Armenia, still but -little progress was made until the appearance of Gregory of Cesarea, -three centuries later, who created such a revival of this faith, -that he was called the Illuminator, and his followers, the Gregorians. - -The Armenian resembles the Greek church in some respects. They are -both Episcopal in their government. Both acknowledge the Trinity, -and the Immaculacy of the Holy Virgin, and perform the ceremony -of the Lord's supper, or the mass, with even more pomp than the -Catholics. The Armenians believe the divine and human nature of Christ -to be so blended as to form but one; whereas the Greeks declare them -to be entirely separate. Therefore the former, in administering the -Eucharist, use only wine, and unleavened bread, and the latter mingle -water with the wine, and use leaven in the bread. The Armenians, in -case of necessity, partake of the holy sacrament in other Christian -churches, whereas the Greeks acknowledge no church ceremonies as -canonical but their own; always re-baptizing those who may wish to come -under their spiritual jurisdiction. Their manner of signing the cross -even differs, the one making it from left to right, and the other from -right to left. They celebrate the church festivals on different days, -and find many other occasions on which to disagree. - -The Armenians are not, therefore, to be confounded with the Greeks, -nor with that sect called Arminians, or the followers of Arminius, -but as a distinct people, originally inhabiting the country about -Mount Ararat, and professing Christianity at an early period. - -The reason why they are known to the Western nations as the Armenians, -and not by their proper name, Haiks, is, that when Aram, one of -their early kings, and the father of Ara the Handsome, succeeded -to the throne of Armenia, he, by his wisdom and policy, so greatly -extended his dominions, that the power and valor of the nation was -acknowledged from Mount Caucasus to Mount Tauris. This prince first -raised his people to any degree of renown, both by the exercise of -arms and the cultivation of the arts of peace; so that contemporary -nations, in making mention of the actions performed by his subjects, -called them the deeds of the Aramians, or the followers of Aram, a name -which has been corrupted into Armenians; the country which these people -originally inhabited was called by them Haikastan, or Hayasdan, and -those regions which were added to their territories by the conquest of -Prince Aram were called Aramia, or in contradistinction to each other, -the former were called the Greater, and the latter the Lesser Hayasdan, -which the Western nations transcribed as Armenia Major and Minor. - -It will be perceived that they were at one time a very powerful and -flourishing nation, and were the envy of all the neighboring tribes; -facts well authenticated even by Roman historians. - -In the reign of Tigranes, many unfortunate princes, who had fallen -prisoners to the Armenian king, were obliged to stand in his presence -in an attitude of Oriental deference, with arms folded on their -breasts, in token of perfect submission. Four of these wretched -monarchs had also to attend him constantly in their regal robes, and -when he appeared in public on horseback, his royal captives preceded -him on foot. - -Mithridates, the uncle to the king Tigranes, rendered himself no -less glorious. He extended his dominions even to the borders of -Scythia. His subjects and tributaries comprised twenty-two nations; -and it is related that this prince conversed with equal fluency in -all the languages spoken by those peoples. Even Hannibal, the great -Carthaginian general, found an asylum in Armenia. - -In the time of their greatest prosperity, they amounted to 30,000,000 -of souls, but constant wars, with their attendant train of famine, -disease, and death, have sadly diminished their numbers, and reduced -them to less than five millions. - -The depopulated condition of their provinces, and the internal -dissension of their princes, favored the depredatory invasions of -various nations, Romans, Greeks, Persians, Saracens, and Scythians, -or Turks. These last finally crossing over the Caspian Mountains -in hordes, subjugated them, and took possession of their immense -territories, and have ever since held them in bondage. - -The Armenians were the first Christians who were subjugated by -the Mussulmans, and as they were the earliest Christian subjects, -they became, in their mutual relations, the model or measure for -all succeeding conquests; for the Turks, profiting by their first -experience, ever after practised accordingly. - -The conquerors, imbued with a spirit of Islamism, added to their -barbarities a system of religious persecution. The cruelties which -they committed on the inhabitants were horrible in the extreme. Aged -men and women were often tied in pairs, and then together cut in -halves. Pregnant women were frequently ripped open, and their unborn -babes wantonly thrown into the air; infants sucking at the breast were -torn from the arms, and massacred before the eyes of their distracted -mothers, so that human blood flowed in torrents throughout the country, -and well may the Osmanlis of the present day regard the very name of -Turk opprobrious, as it reminds them of former barbarities. - -At last these persecutions and cruelties ceased; for perceiving the -advantages which they might derive from this hardy and industrious -race, and finding them also strong and enthusiastic in their faith, -the persecutors moderated their religious ardor, and adopting a more -politic course, opened negotiations with the Armenians, and willingly -compromised by making them tributaries, with the payment of Kharadj, -or poll tax, as recommended by the Koran; and by kind promises for -the future, their servitude was rendered more tolerable. - -Besides, with the design of ruling them through religions prejudices, -the Armenians were granted the privilege of being governed by one -of their own priesthood, to whom they gave the title of Patrik, -or Patriarch. - -The people being now deprived of all civil rights, regarded this -Patriarch as the sole bond of national unity. - -The Turks, on their part, finding it an easy policy to govern the -mass through one individual, allowed great privileges to this office, -and the free exercise of the principles of their own religion in -its administration. - -The power of the Patriarch was so unlimited, that he could even -levy taxes, punish any person with the bastinado, imprison, or send -into exile. - -National enthusiasm and the politic tolerance of their conquerors, -in the course of time, led the Patriarchs into the abuse of their -privileges. - -Cloaked though they were under the mantle of religion, their despotism -was not always exempt from impunity. For the people, long accustomed -to regard the church apart from temporal authorities, could not brook -such conduct in their high priest, and therefore there has always -been a strife between them and the priesthood. - -The government has sometimes sustained the popular will, and at others, -the rights of the pontiff, as interest or policy required. - -This community constitutes the very life of Turkey, for the Turks long -accustomed to rule rather than serve, have relinquished to them all -branches of industry. Hence the Armenians are the bankers, merchants, -mechanics, and traders of all sorts in Turkey. - -Besides, there exists a congeniality of sentiment and community -of interest between them and the Mussulmans. For, being originally -from the same region, they were alike in their habits and feelings; -therefore, easily assimilating themselves to their conquerors, -they gained their confidence, and became and still are the most -influential of all the rayas. There is not a pasha, or a grandee, -who is not indebted to them, either pecuniarily, or for his promotion, -and the humblest peasant owes them the value of the very seed he sows; -so that without them the Osmanlis could not survive a single day. - -This is a fact so well attested, that Russia, with the design of -undermining Turkey, always endeavored to gain over this part of the -population, and in 1828, when she took possession of Erzeroum, she -enticed the Armenians of that place to acts of violence and revenge -against the Turks, so that when the Russians retired, the Armenians -were obliged to emigrate with them. - -Besides, in the demarcation of her boundaries with Turkey, she so -managed as to embody Etchmiadzin, the see of the high pontiff of the -Armenians, within her own territories, for the express purpose of -governing them through their spiritual head. - -Even the correspondent of the London Morning Post, in speaking of -the corruptions of the country, in his ribaldry, termed the Armenians -the cloaca of Turkey, accusing them of being the means through whom -all the filth passed. - -Naturally endowed with a brave and warlike spirit; of noble and -intelligent appearance, and great athletic vigor, their services have -ever been invaluable to the country; it has only been their protracted -servitude which has reduced them to the timid and cautious temperament -that they now possess. - -Some have even distinguished themselves as statesmen, patriots, and -faithful servants. Had it not been for the good advice and diplomacy -of Abro, or, as he is commonly known to Europe, of Boghos Bey, Mehmed -Aali could not have secured to his heirs the independence of Egypt. - -Again, at the conclusion of the last war with Russia, when Sultan -Mahmoud was writhing under his inability to meet the peremptory -demands of his enemy, an Armenian came to his rescue. - -Kazaz Artyn was a most noted personage of the Armenian nation. Having -risen from the lowest rank in life, he finally became the head of the -Royal Mint, and the friend and factotum of his majesty Sultan Mahmoud, -who never passed a day without seeing him. - -He was so much beloved by his imperial master, that although he was a -giavour, his majesty visited him at his last hours. This condescension -was not only remarkable in the king, but more wonderful in a Mussulman; -for the Koran forbids all intimacy with Christians. "O true believers, -take not the Jews or Christians for your friends; they are friends the -one to the other; but whoso among you taketh them for his friends, -he is surely one of them." This passage explains the antipathy of -the Mohammedans to all Christians, as well as to the institutions -of Christianity. - -Sultan Mahmoud being of an imperious nature, waived such religious -considerations when impelled by gratitude, and no one of the ministry -dared to breathe a censure against the imperial will; for as sultan, -he was not only above the law, but the law itself. Besides, every -one knew the extent of Kazaz Artyn's services to his royal master. - -At the end of the last war, when the Russian indemnities were to be -paid, there was not a single piaster in the treasury. - -The sultan, in despair, shut himself up, and forbade any one to -approach him; but, reckless of consequences, Kazaz Artyn rushed into -the royal presence, and anxiously begged to be informed the cause -of his majesty's grief. "The Muscovite giavours are insisting upon -their indemnities, and I am told the treasury is empty." Whereupon -Kazaz Artyn assured his majesty that their demands should be met, -even on the very next day. - -He accordingly summoned all the bankers, and collected the necessary -funds, which were transmitted to the Russian Embassy to their utter -astonishment, in the course of twenty-four hours. This money remained -at the Russian Embassy, out of which they were accustomed to pay -the salaries of the whole legation, etc. The bankers were afterwards -repaid in beshliks, a species of spurious coin, which are now being -redeemed by the present sultan. - -The cultivation of the arts and sciences were of an early origin with -the Armenians. - -In the reign of Valarsace, the Parthian, 150 B. C. the archives of -Nineveh were searched by Maribas, and made to contribute to the -literature of the nation; and during Arsaces' reign, the city of -Armavir was embellished with several pieces of beautiful statuary, -which were taken from the Greeks. Three, in particular, those of Diana, -Hercules, and Apollo, well executed, brazen and gilt, were from the -hands of the celebrated Cretan artists Scyllis and Dipćnus. - -Duin, Ani, Edessa, and several other cities, were noted for their -architectural beauties, and, considering that Armenia is coeval with -the Babylonian Empire, there is no reason to doubt, that researches -into its territories would be as interesting, as those of Mossoul. - -The Armenians having no alphabet of their own, adopted the characters -of other nations, viz., the Syriac in religious writings, the Greek -in scientific works, and the Persian for statutes of law. But at the -commencement of the 5th century, a monk, Mesrop by name, invented the -present characters, which have been in use ever since. They are neat -in appearance, and capable of representing any articulate sound; thirty -nine in number, and styled by Lord Byron, a Waterloo of an alphabet. - -There is no doubt that they early possessed some literature of -their own, prior to the invention of their alphabet, for even the -writings of Eusebius were originally discovered in the archives of the -Armenians. Many very eminent works, generally in MSS. on martyrology -and the affairs of the church, are still extant, and it is reported -that the old monasteries in Armenia contain records of history, which, -if brought to light, would prove great additions to the annals of -very ancient times. - -They boast of classic authors, to whom Lord Byron alludes in eulogistic -terms, and the works of Moses of Khoren, which have been translated, -are highly appreciated by the literati of Europe. - -The Armenians of the present day are also many of them distinguished -for their acquisitions in both Armenian and Turkish literature; and -so great is their aptitude for acquiring languages, that they are -often well versed in the various dialects of Europe. Even the children -are in the daily habit of speaking three different languages, viz., -Turkish, Armenian, and Greek. - -In their domestic relations, living in constant intercourse with the -Osmanlis, and the lapse of time throwing the veil of oblivion over -their past sufferings, all their habits of life and general ideas have -become assimilated to those of their masters, with those distinctions -only, which result from the tenets of their faith. Self-respect has -forced them to seclude their women from the public, and hence they -have the same domestic arrangements, style of dress, etc., as those -of the Osmanlis. - -Their social institutions, like other Orientals, are very patriarchal, -every man being a monarch in his own family, and the children are -educated to observe the greatest deference and respect to their -parents. No son or daughter ever dreams of contracting a marriage on -their own responsibility, but the destined bride is selected by the -mother and her friends, and is thankfully accepted by the happy son. - -The betrothal having been arranged with all due ceremony, the -wedding takes place at the appointed time. The marriage ceremonies -are celebrated both at the house of the bride and of the bridegroom -during three days. - -The bride is conducted by the bridegroom and his friends to the house -of her intended husband, and the ceremony is performed on Sunday -at midnight. - -The bride, muffled and tinselled, is conducted to a carpet in the -middle of the saloon, where she is placed opposite to the chosen -bridegroom. Their right hands are joined by the officiating priest, and -they are severally demanded whether they will "love, cherish, and honor -each other." The man is also asked, as he stands opposite to this mass -of shawls and tinsel, "will you take this girl, whether she be lame, or -deaf, or humped, or blind," to which he responds with due resignation, -"even so I will take her." A silken cord, twisted of two colors, is -now tied round the head of each, and after a long service, reading of -prayers and chanting, the happy pair are pronounced man and wife! The -bride, over whose varying emotions during the interesting ceremonies -an impenetrable veil was suspended, is now led by two attendants to -a corner of the sofa, where she is temporarily enthroned on a cushion. - -The propitious moment has at last arrived, and the legalized husband -may ascertain for himself the measure of charms to which he is -allied. While the agitated maiden sits, oppressed by shawls and -tinsel, and internal anxiety as to the effect she may produce upon -her future lord, he slowly approaches, pale and tottering--for he -has sworn to have her, blind or hump-backed. With such alternatives, -even a moderate share of good-looks, or the mere absence of actual -deformity, would almost constitute beauty. - -The attendant bridemaids exultingly raise the veil, and the new husband -ventures to take one look of love and admiration, in return for which -he places a valuable ring on her finger, and slowly retreats to muse -upon his fate, which is not often so deplorable, for the Armenian -girls are generally pretty. At all events, he submits with the best -grace, for, unlike his Mohammedan compatriots, he has no retrieve or -door of escape, but must abide by his bargain "till death us do part." - -The veil is again dropped, and the bride left to her own meditations. - -She receives presents from all the guests, so that the tickets of -admission to an Armenian wedding are no trivial affairs to one's -pockets. - -Three days after the ceremony, the newly married couple are at length -left to a better acquaintance, unmolested by veils or spectators. - -The Sunday following, the bridegroom proceeds to his father-in-law's -house, to acknowledge his gratitude for the possession of such a -charming treasure, etc., all which is expressed by the ceremony of -kissing the hands of the parents of the maiden, and this Sunday is -called, par excellence, the "Kissing Sunday." - -These are the real Armenians; but about a hundred and fifty years -ago there was a secession in favor of Catholicism. The Catholic -Armenians, of whom there are about fifteen thousand in the metropolis, -and seventy-five thousand throughout Turkey, although distinct from -the Roman Catholics, have assimilated themselves, in many respects, -to European habits; forgetting their nationality and language, and -aping customs and usages they do not even understand; so much so, -that a very amusing work has been written in Armeno-Turkish under the -title of Acaby, as a burlesque upon such inclinations. They are not, -therefore, to be confounded with the orthodox Armenians. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVI. - -THE GREEKS. - - -The Greeks, who sent the trophies of their versatile genius, their -graceful architectural adornings, and exquisite paintings to the -temples at Rome, and over the western world, whose classic lore is -yet the theme and model of the learned, once gloried in the possession -of the proud Stamboul. - -About a century after its foundation by Constantine, it is said -to have possessed "a capital, a school of learning, a circus, -two theatres, eight public and one hundred and fifty-three private -baths, fifty-two porticoes, five granaries, eight aqueducts of water, -four spacious halls of justice, fourteen churches, fourteen palaces, -and four thousand and three hundred and eighty-eight houses, which, -for their size and beauty, deserved to be distinguished from the -multitude of plebeian habitations." - -The magnificent temple Ayia-Sophia, dedicated to the Goddess of Divine -Wisdom, rose like a Phoenix from its ruins, under the liberal patronage -of Justinian, and the assiduous labors of ten thousand workmen during -five years, eleven months, and ten days. - -This was the shrine of the Greek Faith, and those walls glittering -with golden mosaic and precious stones, re-echoed the Kyrie eleęson -of the adoring Christians. The magnificent altar of precious metals -and glittering gems witnessed the prostrations of patriarchs and -their acolyths--and the impenetrable veil was suspended before the -Holy of Holies. - -The great city was the arena for the sports of the pleasure-loving -Greeks; sometimes in the race of wild beasts with each other, and -again in the more terrible contests of the gladiators. - -The Bosphorus was alive with human freight, youths and maidens, wooed -by its blue and sparkling waves, delighted to dream of love as they -glided over the gently-heaving waters. - -The shores were gay and gladsome, as the enamored throng tripped -through the mazes of their fantastic Romaica to the tinkling music. But -the Grecian prince is hurled from his throne, and the grave and sombre -Moslem sits there, the despot and bloody conqueror. The great temple, -which rivalled even that of Solomon, is suddenly divested of the -symbols of a Christian faith. Its mosaics of the saints which adorn -the walls are obliterated, its cherubim are torn down, its altar -demolished, and nothing left of all the gorgeous decorations. The -bare, unadorned niche--the mihrab or index to the temple of Mohammed, -is instituted, and "Allah-il-Allah," is henceforth the cry of the -Faithful. - -Yet, they say, the distant chant of the last officiating priest of -the Greek religion still lingers within the walls, from whence he -will issue when the edifice is restored to its original worship. - -Sports are over--maidens and youths are coy of their charms, for a -change has come over the spirit of their dreams. - -The liberty of woman is shackled, and the dominion of seclusion -established. Certain quarters of the city are assigned to the Greek -subjects--and externally their very dwellings assume the dusky tints -of bondage and ruin. - -Truly their glory has departed, and their name as a nation is only -sustained by the shades of their ancient heroes, who even after their -last degenerate descendant has mouldered into dust, will continue -to flit around the civilized world, scattering the scintillations -of early genius amid earth's darkness. Yet, as it is their nature to -boast, they point into the past, and even one day hope to sit on the -throne of their ancestors eis tin polin of yore. - -There are no less than a million and a half of Greeks in the Turkish -dominions, of whom 150,000 live in the capital. At the time of their -conquest, the Turks allowed them the same municipal immunities and -privileges as they had done to the Armenians. - -As the Greeks seemed to approximate more nearly to the western nations -in their habits, than any of the other rayahs, the Osmanlis supposed -them more fitted to act as intermediaries between themselves and the -European states; they therefore became the first interpreters of the -Divan. Many of their number have thus risen to wealth and distinction, -and after long services they even succeeded to the government of the -Danubian Principalities--yet the Osmanlis have never felt the same -sympathy and confidence towards them as for the Armenians, who, though -not so advanced in civilization, possess better stamina of character, -greater honesty, and more congeniality of temperament. Many Greeks, -even now, occupy places of trust, which are confided to them rather -from political motives than as marks of peculiar confidence. The -office of saraf or banker, which is equivalent to homme de confiance, -has never been successfully filled by them, though attempts have been -made to do so; this post has invariably been assigned to the Armenians. - -It is customary with the Osmanli grandee, when appointed to some -high station in the provinces, before their departure, to leave with -their banker a certain number of blanks to be filled by him whenever -occasion should require their use. And many even entrust their personal -property to the sarafs on their pilgrimage to Mecca, for safe keeping. - -One of the principal dignitaries of the present day, who is reputed -for his irascible temper, was some years ago involved in a dilemma. One -of his attendants was found to be guilty of a liaison with a slave in -his harem. The circumstances were aggravating, and his pride could -not be satisfied, save by dire revenge; and the two, instead of -being married, according to the custom of the country, fell victims -to his fury. But after the commission of the rash act, he repented, -and began to fear the disgrace which would probably fall on himself. - -In his perplexity he sent for his old Armenian saraf, and when -closeted with him, poured his sorrows into the bosom of his confidant, -relating to him the whole circumstance, weeping bitterly for his act, -and asking advice and consolation. - -Now, no Osmanli has as yet evinced such confidence and sympathy -towards the Greeks. - -Besides, the pride of the Mussulmans is not compromised in associating -with the Armenians, who are so much like their masters in manners and -language, that often it is impossible to detect any difference. On the -contrary, although some of the Greeks have distinguished themselves in -Oriental literature, especially Yacobaky, in his History of Russia, -written in elegant Turkish, yet they have never been able to speak -the language of the country correctly. - -The moment they open their mouths, out leaps the native accent. This -is equally true of the French and other languages, and even their own -beautiful Hellenic can scarce ever be heard in Stamboul, a miserable, -mongrel island dialect being the substitute. - -The character of the Greeks of Constantinople is thus admirably -portrayed by the author of Anastasius, the best work extant on Turkey. - -"The complexion of the modern Greek may receive a different cast -from different surrounding objects; the core still is the same -as in the days of Pericles. Credulity, versatility, and thirst -of distinction, from the earliest periods formed, still form, and -ever will continue to form, the basis of the Greek character; and -the dissimilarity in the external appearance of the nation arises, -not from any radical change in its temper and disposition, but only -from the incidental variation in the means through which the same -propensities are to be gratified. The ancient Greeks worshipped a -hundred gods, the modern Greeks adore as many saints. The ancient -Greeks believed in oracles and prodigies, in incantations and spells; -the modern Greeks have faith in relics and miracles, in amulets and -divinations. The ancient Greeks brought rich offerings and gifts to -the shrines of their deities, for the purpose of obtaining success -in war, and pre-eminence in peace; the modern Greeks hang up dirty -rags round the sanctuaries of their saints, to shake off an ague, -or propitiate a mistress. The former were staunch patriots at home, -and subtle courtiers in Persia; the latter defy the Turks in Mayno, -and fawn upon them at the Fanar. Besides, was not every commonwealth -of ancient Greece as much a prey to cabals and factions as every -community of modern Greece? Does not every modern Greek preserve -the same desire for supremacy, the same readiness to undermine, by -every means, fair or foul, his competitors, which was displayed by his -ancestors? Do not the Turks of the present day resemble the Romans of -past ages in their respect for the ingenuity, and at the same time, -in their contempt for the character of their Greek subjects? And does -the Greek of the Fanar show the least inferiority to the Greek of -the Pirćus in quickness of perception, in fluency of tongue, and in -fondness for quibbles, for disputation, and for sophistry? Believe me, -the very difference between the Greeks of time past and of the present -day arises only from their thorough resemblance, from that equal -pliability of temper and of faculties in both, which has ever made -them receive, with equal readiness, the impression of every mould, -and the impulse of every agent. When patriotism, public spirit, and -pre-eminence in arts, science, literature, and warfare were the road -to distinction, the Greeks shone the first of patriots, of heroes, of -painters, of poets, and of philosophers. Now that craft and subtlety, -adulation, and intrigue, are the only paths to greatness, these same -Greeks are--what you see them!" - -Although the Armenians have borne the first impetus of Mussulman -fanaticism, and consequently suffered more than any other Christian -subjects, yet the Greeks excel them in their animosity towards their -conquerors. - -This is owing to their excessive bigotry, and it is recorded that -even while the enemy was before the gates of Constantinople, they -were discussing the great question, whether the Holy Ghost proceeded -from the Father or the Son. - -This disposition to cavil on religious points, has made them a ready -prey to the domineering priesthood who have completely swayed the -multitude. These priests being a mean and grovelling set, utterly -indifferent to the moral elevation of their people, are ever ready -to make traffic of the sins of those who are still more ignorant -than themselves; the consequence is, that lying, cheating, stealing, -and other immoralities to any extent, are very common among this -community, for a few piastres, or even paras, cancel the crime and -lull the conscience. - -The whole community suffers from such a system, as business and other -necessities bring them into constant contact. - -The servants are generally Greek, and there is no virtue in lock -and key in any house. You suddenly find your wardrobe emptied by -imperceptible degrees, and the jars of preserves gradually diminish, -as they are repeatedly licked and sleeked over again. - -Divorces are easily obtained, or they are granted after the priest -has extorted the last para he can from the applicant. - -The corruption of the masses through their spiritual leaders is -painfully evident. The most dire superstition rules every mind, -and the veriest knaves, and even prostitutes, follow their injurious -callings without compunction, if under the patronage of one of their -saints. Christos kai Panayiaumo is an expiatory charm, and the dingy -portrait of any saint in the calendar annihilates the bad effects of -every crime. The most abandoned class of women are generally Greeks; -and while they perform the obscene rites of Bacchus and Venus, they -watch with holy trembling the twinkling taper which burns night and -day before the anointed picture of their guardian angel. This flame, -like the Vestal fire, is never suffered to go out, if perchance, -Dii avertite omen! - -The Greek islands furnish a miserable set of men and women to the -population of Turkey, who come to gather spoils in the metropolis, and -then return to enjoy them at home. Robberies, and even assassinations -are committed by them, which, if they are detected, are either -protected by the Greek legation, or punished by a short imprisonment, -and then the miscreants are again let loose, hardened in crime, -and thirsting to revenge their temporary detention. - -It is only within the last two years, that a famous bandit, in -the vicinity of Smyrna, has been captured. Katurjy Yanny and his -merry men had long infested the neighboring mountains, detaining -gentlemen on their travels, carrying them blindfolded to their den, -and only liberating them upon the receipt of a handsome ransom -from their friends. The eagle of the mountain was at last caged in -the humble prison of Smyrna. While other miserable victims were -peeping through their latticed and iron bound casements, whining -out a feeble cry for alms, he, the proud chieftain, sat upon a -sofa, dressed in the picturesque costume of the Greek mountaineer, -his eyes flashing defiance, and his lofty bearing all princely, -as he puffed his narghillé, and chatted with those about him. But -he must now feel somewhat crest-fallen, as day succeeds day, and he -still dwells within the awful precincts of the Bagnio, whence, like -the rest of its miserable occupants, the once proud Katurgy Yanny, -sometimes emerges, broom in hand, and chained to his fellow, to sweep -the streets of the metropolis. - -The restless temperament and fanaticism of the Greeks have ever made -them the most turbulent of the Ottoman subjects, and ready instruments -in the hands of Russian diplomatists for sowing the seeds of discord -and confusion in the Turkish empire. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVII. - -THE JEWS. - - -The Jews of Turkey, of whom there are about 170,000, are by no means -exempt from the sorrows and curses of their race. As if conscious that -there is no escape from the contempt of the rest of the world, they -are willing to undertake the meanest of earth's callings, literally to -"eat the dirt" of their Moslem masters. - -Content to appear like the refuse of humanity, they strive to -accumulate the miser's hoards, and receive the buffetings and cursings -of their neighbors as if they were choice blessings--usury of all -sorts, whether upon sequins or old clothes, peddling the meanest of -wares in the streets, rag-picking, and filth-gathering in general, -are their means of earning a livelihood. - -The venerated names of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, are almost needless, -or seldom heard--for the one comprehensive word Yahoudy (Jew) is the -nomenclature of the whole remnant of the chosen people. Yahoudy come, -and Yahoudy go, are the summons and dismissal--while the rabble boys -mockingly shout Tchefut, and snatch some fragment of their tattered -garments. - -Public sentiment having stigmatized them as utterly depraved, they -have no incentive to honesty, and not daring enough to commit any -atrocious crime, they become more expert in petty larcenies and like -misdemeanors. They are even accused of stealing a Christian child -once a year, in order to mingle its blood in their festivals, as a -retaliation upon the Christians in general. - -This, of course, refers to the mass, who, victims as they are to misery -of all sorts, cannot be expected to practice the kindlier virtues which -distinguish those among them to whom a better fate has been allotted. - -There was a celebrated Armenian banker, Tcharazly, who, having fallen -under the displeasure of a certain Turkish grandee, was suddenly one -day seized and hung before the door of his own dwelling; his property -confiscated, and his only son cast into prison. - -A certain Jewish banker, Shabgee by name, had long been the friend -and neighbor of this family; and now, in the time of their trouble, -he spared nothing for the liberation of the unfortunate young man, -the son of his friend; which, he not only succeeded in obtaining, -but reinstated him in all the honors of which he was the lawful heir. - -The Jews are to be found in many villages on the Bosphorus, though -their principal quarter is at Balat, on the Golden Horn. They live -also in other parts of the city, but as may naturally be inferred, -in such places as no one else would inhabit. - -Their houses are like bee-hives, literally swarming with human -life; even one single room serves for the only home of several -families--and the streets of their quarters are almost impassable, -from the collection of garbage and all sorts of refuse, which are -indiscriminately thrown from the windows of their dwellings. Their -misery may partly be attributed to their practice of very early -marriages, as before a man is twenty-one years of age he is burdened -with the care and support of a numerous family, which reduces him to -such poverty, that even the meanest economy can scarcely enable him to -support his own existence and that of the helpless beings dependent on -him. The exactions of the Khakhams or priests, which are very great, -help also to impoverish this pitiable people. It is no wonder, -then, that they appear in rags and tatters--and herd together in -styes--yet it is most amusing to see them on a Jewish Sabbath. The -filthy gabardines which they wore in the week, as they exercised -their various callings, being laid aside, and bright and gaudy finery -substituted, in which they strut about the streets, seeming to be other -beings, and to have no relation to the wretches of yesterday. But, of -course, in such a population there will be various grades of misery, -and a few families of wealth are to be found among them. - -They have some of the domestic institutions of the Osmanlis, and the -women wear thick white veils, but without concealing the features, -as in the case of the Turkish ladies. The young virgins are allowed -to wear their hair long and flowing--but after marriage it is -carefully concealed beneath a towering and cumbersome headgear, -which is a wonderful illustration of the tenacity with which this -singular race adheres to ancient usages. It recalls to mind the days -of Pharaoh and the people of Israel, for the similarity is perfect -between their present head-dress and that of the mummies who have -reposed in their tombs ever since the family of Joseph "took their -cattle and their goods, which they had gotten in the land of Canaan, -and came into Egypt, Jacob and all his seed with him." - -As they were originally from Spain, their language is still a mongrel -dialect of that country. - -They are very strict in the observance of their religious rites -and ceremonies--never transacting any business on the Sabbath, nor -performing any domestic duties. Even their lamps on Sabbath evenings -must be lighted by some one of their Christian neighbors--and should a -conflagration occur on that day, their helplessness is truly pitiable, -for they will see all their property consumed without making one -effort to save it. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXVIII. - -PERA AND THE PEROTES, OR FRANKS. - - -At the time that the Turks took Constantinople, there was a colony of -Genoese Venetians established in a suburb of the city, called Galata, -who were allowed to retain this quarter, which occupies the declivity -of the hill with the summit called Pera, where the European emigrants, -attracted by commerce and other motives, as well as the foreign -dignitaries, have ever since continued to reside. The warehouses of -the merchants are at Galata, which is connected with the city by a -floating bridge across the Golden Horn. - -A little above Galata, on the Bosphorus, is a Turkish quarter called -Top-hané, or the department of ordnance, through which access -is usually obtained to Pera. The most busy and varied scene is -constantly presented to the eye at this quay. The graceful cayiks -with their delicately pointed prows lie on all sides, some waiting -for the convenience of passengers, and others engaged in disembarking -their living freight. It is wonderful to observe the dexterity of -cayikgees. Now, a single boatman pushes up his slender craft, and -succeeds in gaining just space enough to slip in, so closely packed -are the boats all around. It may be some lonely veiled woman who is -safely landed. Anon arrives the large omnibus cayik, as completely -stored with live stock as the New York avenue cars on a Sunday. - -The boatmen vociferate, and shove alongside in spite of all their -competitors; the motley group of passengers, Mussulmans, Armenians, -Greeks, Jews, Franks, all huddled together, move not, speak not, -but fasten their eyes upon the shore, with the firm conviction, -that as they were safely landed the day before, they will be equally -successful to-day. A prolonged, shrill musical cry, ya-lu-nuz! hushes -every other sound; there is a simultaneous movement among the cayiks, -a moment's pause in the hurrying crowd on shore, as way is made for -the embassy boat with its gilded prow, flying colors, and five pair -of oars. The Eltchy-Bey! is whispered from ear to ear. - -Even the beautiful canopied boat of the sultan sometimes passes this -way; propelled by twenty-eight men, it rapidly glides over the waters, -with the regular music of the plashing oars. The cannon peals forth -a royal salute from the shore, and the landing of Top-hané resumes -its bustling appearance. - -Thousands of men, women, and children, are daily landed here, of every -rank and clime, and doubtless, in each bosom one similar emotion, -for a moment displaces all others: gratitude for the footing gained; -then rushes in the vast tide of human hopes, cares and anxieties. The -platform upon which they step, is wretchedly out of repair; the keahya, -who gains a slender pittance by holding the boats from which so many -are safely landed, is invariably a trembling old man; and as the crowd -necessarily jostle each other, it is astonishing that there are so -few accidents. But Oriental self-possession has its careful measured -gait, and it is rarely that any stumble, though Turkish indifference -leaves cracks, crevices, and chasms in yawning boldness. There is -a large open area, just after you land; apparently Nature's great -warehouse, solid ground for a foundation and the vault of heaven for -a roofing. Along the shore lie numberless small coasters, whose crews -and cargoes are alike begrimed with darkness, for they have come down -from the Black Sea to supply the city with charcoal, the ordinary fuel; -and immense piles of wood proclaim the demolition of forests of trees. - -There, too, is a great market place, or rather a centre of attraction -to the venders of various merchandise, whom time and custom have -established in their prerogatives, for there is no building whatever -for the convenience or protection of this sort of commerce. Here, then, -in the open air, are butchers, green-grocers, fishmongers, bakers, -fruiterers, and basket-makers, an epitome of practical life. But here -too, is the mosque, the minaré, and the fountain, carrying away in -its limped flowing, impurities both spiritual and physical. - -This fountain is a beautiful specimen of Oriental architecture. It is -an edifice about 30 feet square, built of pure white marble. Beneath -the cornice which surrounds the roof is a border of arabesque -characters, richly gilt, and from each side the water flows into a -marble basin. - -Not far from this fountain is a cluster of small shops, for the sale -of Kebabs, tobacco, bonbons, and also many small Kahvés. - -The Kebabs are small pieces of mutton, passed on iron skewers, -and roasted over fires of ignited charcoal, and, though the -establishments are small, they are constantly filled with groups, -who surrounding the copper dishes, seem to attest the excellence of -the viands. After satisfying the more imperative calls of nature, a -visit to the tetune-gee, or tobacco merchant, is inevitable; for not -to mention the almost hourly use of the far-famed weed, this luxury -must always succeed every other repast. Then a moment of kief at -the coffee shop, the fumes of the chibouque, a sip of mocha's berry, -a little neighborly chit-chat, or it may be a business rendezvous, -and you are ready to proceed up the steep hill to Pera. Some mount -their own horses, which the grooms hold in attendance, others avail -themselves of the more jaded looking animals who are waiting to be -hired, and sometimes the Turkish ladies,--rather antiquities of the -species, deliberately mount the leather hunch on the Hamal's back, and -they too ride up, while others still are obliged, either from a lack -of a like independence, or other stringent motives, to go on Shank's -mare. Those who do not ascend the hill, disperse in various directions -through the many narrow by-ways which diverge from the great area. - -Pera is the Elysium of shop-keepers, the very essence of ŕ la Franga, -the Bey-oghlu or dwelling-place of Princes, the rendezvous of Ministers -Plenipotentiary, Ministers resident, Consular dignitaries, secretaries -of Legations, Dragomans, Attachés, and all the élite of society--a -swarming hive of Diplomacy--only get inside of the hive, even as drone, -and you are comme il faut. There is a certain imposing, mysterious, -impenetrable air about every member of this haute noblesse--each one -is full of importance, each one is condescending to the other; all -are on the qui vive for a stray word, an echo of the all-important -diplomatic measures of their rivals; all are cautious not to betray -by look or action any embryo intrigues or manoeuvres. Thus social -intercourse consists of gracious words, unmeaning civilities, and -mutual distrust and suspicion. - -Those who have been born in Pera, and others who have been bred -there, have one and all become so very diplomatic that conversation -ordinarily dwindles into monosyllables, general inquiries after health, -and prognostics of the weather. - -The simplest question is regarded by them as an inquisitive intrusion -upon their prerogatives and peculiar sphere, so that, not to exceed the -bounds of decorum, absolute silence becomes the only alternative. But -when any sudden change takes place in the Turkish administration, or -a new public measure is adopted, there is a jubilee in this social -clique--for the discussion of the pros and cons, probabilities and -possibilities, are talked over until the original theme is lost sight -of, and all the excitement subsides--unless something else turns up -at the Porte. - -Intermarriage has produced a race of Perotes who never having had the -benefit of finding their proper level by contact with a more elevated -and extended sphere, consider themselves the very salt of civilization, -and are even more afraid than the members of the Legations themselves, -of mingling in general society. - -The honorable distinction of being a Perote, does not only depend upon -birth, but a still more essential point is allegiance to the Catholic -religion. For the embassies under whose wings these colonies first -sheltered themselves were the representatives of Catholic nations. The -Oriental principle that religion and nationality are synonymous, -had its effect even on this mongrel race; who, by degrees came to -consider Catholicity as also identical with Europeanism. - -Enjoying peculiar immunities as protégés of these embassies, in their -imagined superiority, as Catholics, to all around them, they regarded -the rest of their fellow citizens with even greater contempt than the -Mohammedans felt towards the Giavours. This soi-disant aristocracy -is not confined to Pera, but is to be found scattered throughout the -Levant, at Smyrna and other commercial ports. - -Ignorance of the language of the country where they are born is -considered only a proof of their superiority to the other nations; but -for their ignorance of all languages and miserable mongrel dialect -called lingua Franca, we can find no excuse either aristocratic -or diplomatic. - -This lingua Franca is a corrupted dialect of the Greek language, -interlarded with French and Italian; and in writing the Roman -characters are substituted for the Hellenic, as being more -distingués. Even family names have been modified so as to ignore any -traces of parentage--such as Sazan Oghlou into Salsani, and Zipgy -Oghlou into Zipcy, etc. - -When the foreign ambassadors first became residents of Pera, as long -ago as the days of Suleyman, they found this mixed people apparently -a connecting link between the East and the West; and being themselves -then ignorant of Oriental peculiarities, and the languages of Stamboul, -they were glad to receive these Perotes as employés, dragomans, etc. - -Thus, by degrees, they became a sort of necessary evil to the foreign -diplomatists. - -Greater familiarity with the country, and still more, a just -appreciation of these aspirants to aristocratic honors and functions, -has, however, of late years, opened the eyes of the foreign -representatives; and each embassy is now furnished with employés -from the home government--consequently, the Perotes are now decidedly -below par. - -Adventurers, who, in their own lands, would never be heard of, in Pera -become the guests of ambassadors and statesmen, and aping the airs and -manners of their distinguished patrons, manage to pass current. Women -at every other word murdering their mother tongues, are transformed -into ladies of quality in the palaces of the representatives of their -respective sovereigns. - -But these are trifling matters. The outcasts of European society -here find a safe retreat, and are even protected in their outrages, -while the various protégés of the different Legations, natives and -foreigners, constitute a privileged community. - -Russia has endeavored to increase her own power by inducing the -rayas to adopt her protection, in order to secure any claims whatever -against either Turks or Christians. - -"The most desperate ruffians of Southern Europe are in Turkey under -British, Austrian, French, or Greek protection. The English give -impunity to Ionians and Maltese; Austria has her Croats; French -passports screen a crowd of Levantines, whose professed attachment -to Catholicism is allowed to be the cloak to any knavery; while -Greece and Naples send a contingent whose character may be easily -imagined. While the worst of them have protection for delinquencies, -the whole enjoy immunities of the most unjust kind. - -"They can only be sued in the consular courts of their own -country. They pay less taxes than their neighbors, and in some places -none at all. They are wholly beyond the jurisdiction of the Porte, -while for all claims on the government, or on Turkish subjects -they can bring into play the whole machinery of their embassy. Each -representative is almost bound to make every private complaint an -affair of state, and, in fact the real or nominal Austrian, Briton, -or Frenchman, practically turns the diplomatists of his sovereign -into his own special attorneys whenever he pleases." - -This picture is not too highly drawn, and shows that if the Mussulmans -need reforms, the nominal Frank population are in a somewhat similar -category. - -The effect which has been produced upon the minds of the Osmanlis by -such specimens of civilized Europeans has certainly not been favorable; -and it is to be hoped that more extended intercourse with Europe will -counteract these influences. - -The Diplomatic corps and the Perotes, though the Upper Tendom, and -codfish aristocracy of Pera, are by no means the greater part of -the population. - -English, Americans, French, Germans, Greeks, Armenians, and even -Moslems, reside there, preferring the bustle and public amusements -which are to be secured, to the quiet atmosphere of Stamboul. The -opera house and the fashionable emporiums of commerce have their -attractions. On a Friday, it is amusing to see the crowds of Turkish -women in the different shops, relentlessly handling the merchandize to -the infinite annoyance of the proprietors themselves, who are not so -patient as the merchants of the Bazaars. Often the most extravagant -prices are paid for trifling articles of luxury, by the Osmanlis of -wealth, who, even in this sort of trade, seem to feel that everything -ŕ la Franca must cost them dear. - -The modistes have grown rich by selling them feathers, flowers, -and haberdashery, and the confiseurs have exchanged their honeyed -stores for bags of Turkish gold. There is a great fondness for dress -in the population of Pera, and the balls, soirees and reunions are -so numerous that many shopkeepers, having reaped a rich harvest, have -retired from business. Feast days and holidays, which are so frequent, -require their appropriate garb, and the Carnival, its masquerades -and costumes de bal. - -All the people, high and low, are determined to dress well, and -display their toilets, so that the marts of fashion and luxury are -never deserted. - -The great rendezvous for these happy souls, when their supremest -efforts in outward adorning are accomplished, is the Grand champ -des Morts. Whither they resort in crowds, and sit among the verdure -that springs from the dust of their ancestors, the white tombstones, -the only records of those who once walked in their midst! Occasional -funeral trains, slowly moving towards the newly opened graves, and -the mournful strains of the requiems of the dead, do not distract -the thoughts of those who are bent in chasing the shadows of Time, -even while the realities of Eternity are passing in review before them, -and the very spectres of the tombs seem ready to burst their cerements, -and start up in mocking derision. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XXXIX. - -THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE PEOPLE. - - -As in every country there ate two classes, viz., the aristocracy and -the people, so in Turkey, there are the Kibars and the Nass. - -Aristocracy may everywhere be sub-divided into the aristocracies of -birth, of letters, wealth and position. - -In Turkey, all hereditary rank is vested solely in the person of -the sultan; titles are conferred at his sovereign will and pleasure, -and they do not descend from father to son. - -There is not, therefore, a regular or systematic aristocracy, and -the spirit of democracy is there very evident. - -Although the Osmanlis hold all learning in great respect, yet -Turkish literature having hitherto been confined to the Koran and -its commentaries, the aristocracy of letters has consequently been -constituted by the expounders of the faith, who arrogate to themselves -the modest appellative of Ulema, or savans. Nevertheless, the people -have the greatest reverence and consideration for Zadés, or those -who are the descendants of illustrious and enlightened parents. - -L'argent fait tout is known and acknowledged by all the world; and -wealth is everywhere the great highway to power and distinction; -elevating its possessor above the common herd. But the love of -riches usually begets the love of power; for, N'est on que riche, -on veut ętre grand, this is most evident in a country where the great -tenure by which individual wealth is preserved and personal respect -commanded, is official authority. Hence no Osmanli is contented, -however great his wealth, without some civil function by which he can -avert the overbearing disposition of his rivals. Indeed, so great is -their ambition for supremacy, that wealth and everything else is but -secondary in their estimation. - -Therefore the only aristocracy in Turkey is that of wealth combined -with position. - -It is not generally merit that raises a man to power in any part -of the world, but still less in Turkey. No matter what his previous -avocations, or utter ignorance, it is supposed that when Allah, or -his proxy, the Padishah, gives the office, that within the turban of -distinction lie all the sense and wit needed for the post! Hence, -what if the cobbler become the pasha, or the shop-boy Grand Vezir, -Allah Kerim! - -This a country where versatility of talent is very remarkable, if -not great depth of genius; for one day a man may be head cook to -his majesty, the next a captain pasha, or minister of finance! Thus -are often realized the tales of the Arabian Nights, and the humblest -subject may dream of greatness, and wake to find himself a Redjal, -or grandee of the realm. - -Indeed the only real statesmen and true patriots may be reduced to -few individuals, all told, viz., Reshid, Aali, Fuad, Riza, Rifaat, -and Omer Pashas. - -Besides, those who have been long employed as servants of the palace, -or have proved themselves cunning buffoons, or able intriguers, are -rewarded by some official post instead of a royal pension, provided -they are of the Faithful. For elevation to office is the privilege of -the Mussulmans only, who, considering themselves lords of the soil, -as they are the proprietors, are unwilling to consign their rights to -their rayas, on the principle that "to the victors belong the spoils." - -The very existence of the rayas has rendered the Osmanlis proud and -arrogant in their peculiar right as Mussulmans; and, though holding -all high places themselves, they have been willing to call in the -assistance of their subjects in secondary employments. The rayas -thus employed, are, of course, but a small proportion of the whole; -to all the rest life dwindles into a tinkering, jobbing affair. - -This mushroom aristocracy, which was formerly ephemeral, like Jonas' -gourd, springing suddenly into existence, coming to maturity in an -incredibly short space of time, then perishing ere the sun of its -glory arrived at meridian height, has now, by virtue of the Tanzimat, -which secures the enjoyment of life and property, attained a sort -of permanency. - -These officials being originally of the people, it may be supposed, -would feel some sympathy for them; but the moment they come into power, -they become an exclusive class. Because in Turkey the patriarchal -idea that everything belongs to the sovereign, has led them to regard -the government as not made for the people, but the people for the -government; they think, therefore, that all advantages should accrue -not to the governed but to the governing, thus reducing the mass -into the state of individual nonentities, or mere conduits for the -resources of the empire. The persons in authority seek, therefore, only -the prosperity of the government, and constitute, as it were, a sort -of fiscal administration, rather than one mindful of the good of the -commonwealth. Hence, whenever a project of public utility is proposed, -the first idea that crosses the mind of a Turkish functionary, is what -direct advantage may accrue to the government? With such perverted -ideas, the aristocracy, who are termed par excellence the Kibars, -though few in numbers, are like leaven to the whole mass; domineering, -exciting, and often corrupting the best materials; and as men are -creatures of circumstances, their moral and temporal conditions -are but the results of the good or bad government under which they -live. The evils, corruptions, and miseries existing in a community, -are not therefore to be attributed to the mass indiscriminately, -but rather to the influences that surround them. - -Baluk bashdan Kokar is a common proverb with the Osmanlis, or as is -the fountain so will be the streams which flow from it; therefore -a government which exercises its prerogatives to revenge, not to -punish; to remove the offender, not to benefit others by making an -example of him; to deal death-blows to all who stand in the way; -to encourage self-aggrandizement rather than study the wants of the -community; to prefer the intriguant before the patriot; to patronize -the buffoon rather than the statesman; such a government cannot fail -to stamp its sanguinary and arbitrary character upon its subjects. - -A country where the insidious poison is ever at hand, and where -the innocent and new-born infant who may endanger the heirs to the -throne is forced to yield the life it has but just received; in such -a land the same scenes will be enacted in its darkest corners, and -the peasant will mimic the lord as far as he dares. - -The selfish and corrupt principles of the government have naturally -had their pernicious effects upon all its agents, and through them, -upon the people. - -The sultan is the great sun of the system--around whom the many lesser -orbs revolve. While the pashas and dignitaries are themselves planets -of no small lustre, attended by innumerable satellites of their own. - -The grandee holds the cable of power upon which tremblingly cling a -numerous train, from its summit to its lowest extremity--all sustained, -as long as the rope is firm; all crushed, when it slips from the hand -of its supporter. - -Indiscriminate patronage being a principle, favoritism and corruption -become of necessity a natural consequence. Indifferent men are -therefore raised to places of trust, to perform duties which can -never occupy their minds or engross their intellect, but the want of -money is their first and their keenest necessity; for "N'est on que -grand? On veut ętre riche. Est on et grand et riche? On veut ętre -plus grand et plus riche." - -Thus all patriotism is subverted--and individual interest and position -are made the sine quâ non of existence. - -Before they were enervated by conquest and the possession of vast -tributary states, which intoxicated them with sudden wealth, the -Turks were brave in battle, faithful to their friends, and generous -to their enemies. But being inured to war and excitement, peace and -tranquillity only reduced them to a state of sloth and idleness, and -inspired them with conceit and arrogance to all around them. Content -with being the lords of the realm, ignorant and unfitted for the arts -of peace, all their affairs were consigned to their rayas. - -The titles of Vali, Pasha, Mussellim, etc., were enjoyed by them while -their provinces and Pashaliks were either farmed out to subordinates -or managed by their Armenian sarafs or bankers--who received and -disbursed their incomes; so that the Osmanli grandee had nothing to do -but lounge listlessly in his Keosk and puff his long chibouk--varying -his life by occasional official visits to the Porte, or in the softer -seclusion of his harem. - -The enviable condition of indolence, and the desire to be surrounded -with the trappings of wealth, created a rivalry among them, not to -attain high and honorable posts as the champions of their country's -welfare, but to ensure the means of luxury and display--and to excel -each other in supremacy. - -Hence they have arrived at the acme of perfection in the arts of -adulation, servility, deceit, and intrigue. Real virtue is of no -avail, where successful vice only is admired, and the most insidious -and faithless ever the favorites of fortune. Indeed, ingratitude -is stamped upon their character, for an Osmanli raised to power, -would turn the enemy even of his patron, should he dare to cross his -schemes. This is so proverbial that they have a saying--Bir Osmanli -bir piré itchin koss kodja yorgani yakar! an Osmanli would burn up an -entire coverlet to rid himself of a single flea! or in other words, -no consideration would deter him from any sacrifice that would promote -his own interests--examples of which are of daily occurrence in their -political machinations. - -In such a malarious atmosphere, it would be supposed that every moral -virtue would perish, and only noisome weeds choke the soil--but such is -by no means the case. As the richest fruits and most fragrant flowers -often grow from the very putrefactions that lie on the surface of -the earth, so the people in Turkey, surrounded by such a depraved -and corrupted court, are themselves often specimens of nature's -best handiwork. - -The native honesty of the Turks is proverbial, and in illustration -thereof the following story has been widely circulated. - -An Englishman having landed a cargo of goods at one of the -custom-houses in the East, was unwilling to leave them at the wharf -unguarded; when he was told by the officer, that there was no need for -apprehension, as there was not another Englishman within fifty miles! - -Whatever may be the truth of this statement, it may be observed, -that some of the Osmanlis of the present day have so far advanced in -civilization as to even excel in this respect their present honorable -Allies! For, the idea that to rob the treasury of the sultan is not -defrauding the people, has led the officials into all the wiles of -corruption and systematic cheating--so that cheating and bribery may -be considered as the corner stones of this vast edifice. - -In the purchase of government supplies there is a display of honesty -on the part of the officials, and also of the European merchants, who -endeavor to underbid each other in prices, which may be considered by -an outsider as ruinous, but on the contrary, always proves profitable -to the co-partners in the speculation. - -On a certain occasion 780 pieces of cotton cloth were palmed off upon -the government by a European merchant for 78,000 pieces! for which -amount the Treasury gave a note. - -Such instances are not of rare occurrence, nor confined only to -officials--they pervade all classes. Hence the scullion cheats -the cook; the cook the steward; the steward the master; the master -the efendy; the efendy the pasha; and the pasha the sultan; and why -not? Where the strife for aggrandizement and power is so great, and the -battle not to the brave and good, but to the wealthy and intriguing, -there is little or no inducement to honesty and good faith. - -Russia seems to understand our people better than any other Europeans, -owing perhaps to her natural proximity; also since "a fellow feeling -makes us wond'rous kind," she knew where to touch the sensitive -Osmanlis, when she provided Prince Menschikoff, on his late mission -to Constantinople, with a surplus fund of 300,000 Paul Imperials, -or over a million of dollars! - -It is not, however, only in Turkey that bribery and corruption -prevail--even Europe, France and England, the very centres of -civilization, have furnished sad examples of personal aggrandizement, -under the garb of patriotism. - -Nevertheless, it is eminently true, that those of the people who have -retained their primitive simplicity are truly honest and confiding; -while others have become contaminated by the corruption of the court, -and the grasping spirit of European adventurers. - -Many of the peasants remove to the metropolis, with the hope of -bettering their condition. Some of them become hamals, or porters, -Tellaks, or attendants of the baths; cayikjys, or boatmen, common -laborers, venders in general, and others, domestics in private houses. - -A certain Armenian, native of Van, immediately upon his arrival in -Constantinople, was engaged as a scullion. - -In course of time, he complained to his companions that he was not -doing a good business on such a salary as he received, and he wondered -at their apparent prosperity. - -His simplicity was, of course, ridiculed at first, and through -compassion, he was initiated into the tricks of the trade. He was told -that he must always add to his account the customary Khamin of 20 or -30 per cent., a technical term, expressing overcharge, or cheating, -not understood by novices. - -So the next day, when this simple son of Armenia presented his account -to his master, at the foot of the bill there was an item, which seemed -not quite intelligible to him. He therefore called for an explanation; -when the servant, in all his native simplicity, informed him that, -that item was the Khamin, or the sum total of his cheating, which his -companions assured him was customary, and allowed to all servants in -their daily purchases! How fortunate and consoling it would be, if, -instead of being drugged in small doses, we could thus be informed -of the sum total of all the cheatings to which we are subjected! - -The most unlimited confidence is stamped upon all their reciprocal -transactions, and they intrust each other with any amount of goods, -without demanding a receipt, check, or counter check. In the exercise -of their avocation as hamals, they are often intrusted with bags of -money untold; they are generally the watchmen or guardians to the -stores and mercantile houses of the Franks, and in any deficiency -or robbery, their character and integrity are never questioned or -suspected. - -The Osmanlis possess the domestic virtues of kindness and affection -in a remarkable degree; their love of offspring is very great, and -their patient endurance of the whims and caprices of their women -quite exemplary. - -Merhamet, or compassion, is an essential component in their character, -and induces them to extend a most unlimited patronage even to the -lower orders of creation. Hence the streets in Turkey swarm with dogs, -the roofs of the houses with cats, and the domes of the mosques with -venerated pigeons, which, one and all, are objects of special charity. - -The thousands of cayiks that ply up and down the Bosphorus, acting as -aquatic omnibuses, besides their designated load of passengers, make -a point to carry one or more boys gratuitously, as an act of charity; -and how astonished would they be at the cry of "cut behind," which -so often greets the ears of beggars in more eminent Christian lands, -who mistaking wishes for horses might otherwise chance to ride. - -Yet a Turk is a singular being, apparently composed of contrarieties, -of savage traits, as well as domestic virtues, and this contrariety -is to be attributed solely to his fanaticism. Social and humane until -you touch his religious prejudices, when he becomes implacable. - -It has been the interest of the clergy to nurture a fanatical conceit, -by which the great principle of human nature, self-glorification, has -well sustained, and the Mussulmans been led to consider themselves -the very salt of the earth, and the rest of the human family as -contemptible Giavours. - -Hence they will not honor a Christian with the Mohammedan salutation, -Selamin Aleküm, "Pax vobiscum," nor will they observe any one in the -company, until they have looked for a true believer, to whom, however -humble he may be, is offered the Arabic, or orthodox salutation; and -on the Christians present, however great in their own estimation, -will afterwards be bestowed as their due, a simple Sabahlar-Hayr -Olsoon, or good morning, in plain Turkish. - -Though they have been subdued into a certain degree of external -deference by the progress of civilization, yet in the exchange of -social etiquettes, there is always a meaning slight cast upon their -unbelieving friends, which is well understood and appreciated among -themselves. - -Even the humblest Mohammedan will appropriate to himself the best -position in a public conveyance, or in any promiscuous assembly, -considering himself as fully entitled to such privileges, by the -simple guarantee of his faith, which elevates him above all humanity. - -In the medical school, where some of the scholars belong to the -families of the rayas, this Mussulman conceit is most evident, and -even tolerated and encouraged by the government at the present day; -for regardless of actual merit, it has hitherto been a principle with -the faculty always to place a Mussulman boy at the head of the class! - -It may be a matter of wonder to see such bigoted characters adopting -the very garb of the contemptible giavours. But the change of costume -was effected by the invincible Mahmoud, who, to liberate his people -from the thraldom of the janissaries, and the superstitions of darker -ages, feared neither priest or Koran, and at all hazards resolved to -make a daring stride towards civilization and reform. - -Therefore this change of costume was not effected through any -relaxation of religious bigotry, but by the force of the supreme power -of the sultan; and the Ulema themselves were obliged to compromise, -by wearing a fez, with a simple turban around it, with some other -slight modification of their flowing robes. - -Reform in dress having become an essential principle of the government, -those connected with the court and all public officers, were obliged -to conform to the established style, and the young élégans of Stamboul -now vie with the Parisian exquisites in their recherchées toilettes. - -But beyond the circle of court etiquette and fashion, the artisans -and peasants still preserve all the varieties of costumes identified -with Orientalism. - -Religious fanaticism in the East, is not confined to the Mussulmans -alone. It seems to have a universal sway in this climate, pervading -every community. - -The Mussulman would feel callous at the sight of the decapitation of -a Christian, and a Christian would experience a secret exultation at -the death of a Mussulman. - -Some years ago, I had the misfortune to meet with an accident; -my carriage was lost in the Bosphorus, and my horse and hostler -were drowned. Near the spot of this occurrence, there was a Greek -coaster lying at anchor, and the sailors soon came to my call for -assistance; but perceiving that the drowning man was dressed in -Turkish costume, and taking him for a Mussulman, they instinctively -exclaimed, Tourkos eine, Tourkos eine, he is a Turk, he is a Turk, -left him to his sad fate. It was in vain that I proclaimed that he -was a Greek and co-religionist of their own. - -The Mussulman is fanatical, because he has thereby been goaded on -to victory, and attributes all his successes to the banner of the -Prophet--and the Christian is bigoted, because his religion is the -only thing left him--his church is the cradle of his superstitions, -and the badge of his nationality. - -Even a Turk designates his nationality by his religion; for if you -ask him, Of what nation are you? his answer will invariably be, -El-hamd-ullah Mussulmanem, or Thank God I am a Mussulman. - -Indeed, religion in the East is so pre-eminent, that a declaration of -faith is equal to an allegiance of fealty, and the Mohammedan formula -of La-Illah-Illallah, etc., is the only oath of naturalization, -which, if once pronounced, fully entitles the individual to all the -privileges and immunities of Turkish citizenship. - -Neither is there a community of sentiment among the Christians -themselves--who, all abhorring Islamism, hate none the less each -other through their religious differences. - -An Armenian, native of Angora--whose inhabitants are reputed for their -religious bigotry--and a Roman Catholic by persuasion, had occasion to -visit Trieste on some commercial business. On his arrival there, he was -asked by the officer of the quarantine what nation he belonged to! His -unsophistical and prompt answer was "Catholic." The officer, somewhat -puzzled at this novel nationality, reminded him that they were also all -Catholics there, but called themselves Austrians or Italians--now, what -is your nation? thereupon our worthy friend unflinchingly reiterated -that he was a Catholic; nothing else but a Catholic; for they now -had, through the interference of the French Ambassador, a Patriarch -of their own, and were recognized as a nation! meaning a community. - -If a Greek mendicant happen to call at your door, and you ask his -co-religionist who it is, his answer will surely be Christianos or -a Christian; but if the applicant for charity should chance to be of -any other creed, his only title would be ztiyanos, or beggar. - -Apart from the religious fanaticism, which is universal, the people, -uncontaminated by a depraved and corrupted court--unlike the enervated -and luxurious Osmanlis of the metropolis, are simple-minded, brave, -robust, temperate, intelligent, active and industrious. - -The Mussulmans formerly taught that apostasy should be punished with -death; but now a new system of instruction, on this and other points, -proceeding from supreme authority, is as readily received by the -credulous multitude. - -Their bravery has been attested by the late massacre of Sinope, -when one and all preferred death to an ignominious surrender. The -events of the recent war have established the fact, that there are -no better soldiers than the Turks. - -We have the testimony of a distinguished American who - - - "Stood - Among them, but not of them." - - -He says that "we had an agreeable conversation with General Omar -Pasha's staff surgeon.... Among other things, he said the Turks -had long been extremely anxious to unite with their Allies in a -direct assault upon Sebastopol. I was somewhat surprised at this -intimation, knowing their considerate nature, and general inclination -to conservative views." Yet, notwithstanding, they have been accused -of cowardice for the desertion of the batteries daring the battle -of Balaklava, which could not well have been avoided under the -circumstances. The triumphs of Silistria, Tchetate and Kars, afford -ample refutation of such calumnies. - -The Orientals are strong and athletic men, capable of enduring the -greatest bodily fatigue. - -The hamals or porters, both Mussulman and Armenian, have been known -to carry on their backs immense weights; and one of these Oriental -Hercules has been seen carrying, on a wager, a load of no less than -a thousand pounds to a distance of a quarter of a mile! - -The heavier hardens are suspended from long poles, the number of -which increases in proportion to the weight. And when the contents -are of glassware, instead of being marked Fragile, a full size -representation of a bottle is painted upon the package. The ends of -these poles rest on the shoulders of the hamals, and they walk in a -steady and measured soldier-like step. One of them once accidentally -slipped and fell, and the end of the pole striking him on the chest, -he became senseless. His companions raised him up, whilst one of their -number stood back to back with the injured man, and locking his arms -within those of his comrade, repeatedly raised him from the ground, -thus expanding the chest, until he recovered his breath, when, to the -astonishment of the bystanders, the man, after taking one or two long -inspirations, smiling at the funny incident, shouldered his pole and -marched on as if nothing had happened! - -These very men live habitually on the simplest diet, consisting of -the coarsest brown bread, in the middle of which they make a cavity, -and fill it with equal proportions of olive oil and molasses, and -it is really a pleasure to see them enjoy their simple meals with a -relish that would kill all dyspepsia doctors from sheer envy. - -The native intelligence of the people is evinced by their aptitude -in acquiring the arts of civilized life; for after a residence of -a couple of years in the metropolis, the rudest peasants become -accomplished soldiers and skillful artisans. - -The facility with which they have adapted themselves to the European -style of music is very remarkable, and certainly implies much talent -or cleverness. - -Indeed, many of those who have risen to the higher ranks of society, -evince no signs, in their general deportment, of plebeian origin, -save the peculiar brogue of local rusticity. - -Nothing is more erroneous and unjust than the idea that the Orientals -are indolent or inactive. - -The tabys or garçons of the Kahvés even excel their Parisian -competitors in alertness and general ubiquity--serving scores of -customers at once with coffee, chibouk, and narghillés. - -The boatmen, who transport the pashas and others to their homes, -after the adjourning of the Porte, and closing of the Bazaars, -delight to compete with each other in speed, and linger on their -course until they meet with an antagonist, when the race sometimes -extends the whole length of the Bosphorus. - -Their sports and national games, consisting of horsemanship, wrestling, -chasing, cricket, etc, all tend to show their love of activity. - -There is none of the bustle, or American go-a-headism, in the -Oriental character and habits; none of that nervous excitement -which has so much the air of great progress, too often, like the -whirlwind among the natural elements, creating prodigies of human -noise and commotion, which subside and leave no sign; or it may be, -only havoc and destruction. In all the machineries of Eastern life, -public or domestic, steady and quiet perseverance rules the motion, -the oil of gentleness falling drop by drop upon the rolling wheels, -suffices for the friction; while in the land of modern adventure, by -increasing the pressure to a tremendous degree, the whole structure -is often crushed to atoms. This giddy rushing to a certain point -is too apt to wear out human energy, and most surely annihilates -self-possession, which is the keystone to success. Leave then, we say, -the Oriental sometimes to sit amid the fumes of his favorite chibouk; -for while external things are beclouded, often a mighty scheme is -in conception, and the sunshine of matured judgment suddenly bursts -upon the dim atmosphere, in full power and glory, ready to fructify -and yield all manner of increase. - -The apparent idleness which some persons have attributed to the natives -of this country, is more the effect of a spirit of resignation to -external circumstances, than of a desire to be unemployed. - -Taking for a basis the idea that the interest of the people is but -secondary, and under the pretence of increasing the revenue of the -country, and thus benefiting the state as it were, but with the -secret hope of self-aggrandizement, all advantageous projects are -seized upon by the officials; thus an effectual check is thrown upon -all private and public enterprise. - -The writer was the first to propose to the Turkish government the -establishment of a railroad from the capital to Adrianople. Not -succeeding in this, a line of post coaches was suggested, for which, -after great exertion, a Firman was granted. But no sooner were -the advantages of the project understood, than several persons in -authority began to intrigue, until they succeeded in appropriating -the Firman to themselves, which had been obtained at so much expense -and toil by another. - -But as usual, it proved to them more ruinous than profitable, because -of the numerous contenders for the spoils. - -No internal improvements are dreamt of, and no motive left for -speculation, and as there is no mutual confidence between the -government and the people, the formation of corporate companies, -which require united action, is out of the question, or, if attempted, -they are sure to fall through by official exactions. Thus, a country -teeming with mines and minerals, is left unexplored, and all other -internal resources lie dormant. - -Some attempts have of late been made by the government at internal -improvements, such as the post-road from Trebizond to Erzuroum; but -the over-exertions of those intrusted with the work soon exhausted -the appropriations, and the road was but half completed. - -The coal mines at Heraclea have shared a similar fate. Indeed, no -undertaking can be prosperous in the lands of the officials--and if -any such privilege be granted to private individuals, it is invariably -under the patronage of some grandee. - -A permission was obtained from government by an individual to light the -streets of Pera. In the course of six months the lamps were demolished -by the citizens, because they were heavily taxed to fill the pockets -of the speculator, without any advantage to themselves--the streets -for the most part, being as dark as before. - -All innovations are, therefore, in disrepute, not that they are not -appreciated, but because they invariably prove to be mere schemes -for individual advantage, and never pro bono publico. - -Hence it is also that the streets, even in the metropolis, are ill -paved, filthy, and not lighted--each person carrying his own lantern, -and getting along as best he can. - -Public enterprise being at so low an ebb, a spirit of indifference -pervades the country and if you once pass the aristocracy, the actual -necessities of the community are but few. They have no idea therefore -of bettering their condition. If you offer them any new invention, -they admire its ingenuity, and dryly tell you they have no need of -it--consequently there is no need of patent rights for new inventions. - -This indifference is not to be construed into a love of inactivity--but -is rather the result of selfishness--each man's interests being -circumscribed by the sphere in which he moves. In case of any emergency -they are most indefatigable and persevering. It needs only to cite the -fact that Pera, one of the suburbs of the city, has, in the course of -twenty years, been destroyed by fire four times, and entirely rebuilt -by native industry. Indeed, inactivity is against the spirit of the -country, for there, there are no Rentiers--but every one must have a -calling--even the sultan is traditionally supposed to belong to the -tooth-pick trade! - -Since the abolition of capital and summary punishments and the -monopolies, by the promulgation of of the Tanzimat, which was an -attempt at reformation, not without some beneficial results, a new -impulse has been given to the activity of the population. In a word, -give but the necessary impetus, and as much genuine go-a-headism may -be found in Turkey, as in Yankee-land itself. - -With such a population, and so many internal resources, it may be -deemed a matter of wonder that this empire should be in so ruinous -a condition. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XL. - -THE FUTURE OF TURKEY. - - -The survey that has been taken of the Turkish empire, political and -social, will furnish the component parts of this wonderful structure -of human power and religious fanaticism. Owing to the remarkable -sway attained by the sword of the Prophet, the various ingredients -mingled by the power of conquest, have all been brought together, -like so many antagonistic elements, to be wrought into some degree -of unity of spirit and purpose, and to be rendered subservient to -one great potentate, absolute and despotic. - -The dread power of the Turk, ravaging and blood-thirsty, has only of -late years ceased to inspire terror to the world in general, and to -hold in trembling awe the subjects over which it domineered. Suddenly -the dark cloud of barbarism began to disperse from this vast clime of -the Orient, as Mahmoud, seizing the torch of civilization, scattered -the light of science and reform over the land. - -Ever since his day, the struggling beams of knowledge and truth have -been casting a mistlike glow over these dominions, sometimes almost -bursting into a blaze of brightness, and again subsiding into the -obscurity of olden times and religions bigotry. - -The principles of progress, and the maintenance of ancient and -long established usages were now at war; the former supported by the -semi-enlighted portion of the people, and the latter by the formidable -body of the ulema or the Mohammedan clergy. - -The Rayas, or Christian subjects, hitherto quiescent and despairing, -now saw the star of hope and comparative liberty in their horizon, -and were ready to grasp at any straw of deliverance from the storms -of oppression and tyranny. The mass is in commotion--Mussulman power -trembles at the vision of the emancipation of its victims. Oppressed -and suffering humanity even dares to utter one vast groan, and to -raise a furtive glance towards the glorious temple of liberty, and -the equality of man with man. - -Mahmoud, the bold champion of his country, is surrounded by intrigues, -both foreign and domestic, and becomes entangled in the web of -turbulence and opposition, until his soul can endure no longer, -and wings its flight from the terrible field of battle. - -But the iron gates of barbarism had been unlocked; and even the -extreme youth of the succeeding Sultan, Abd-ul-Medjid, bringing with -him a sort of regency, could not refasten the heavy bolts. - -Thus we find this empire only advancing in progress, the more wonderful -since there has been comparatively so little reform in the actual -government. Even the Sultan has abrogated his absolute and despotic -sway; the once powerful viceroy still sits at his right hand, but no -longer unfettered; and the various religious and civil functionaries, -although the same as the creatures of yesterday, are themselves -amenable to the tribunal of justice and reform, where the spirit of -Mahmoud seems to linger as a reproving and condemning monitor. - -The opposing influences to all innovations were strong; the very soil -rank with bigotry, conceit, and prejudice, and the powers in actual -possession of the commonwealth self-willed and cunning. Hitherto a -comparative isolation had created natural walls, within which despotism -had its unmitigated sway. But as distance became annihilated throughout -the world's dominions, as oceans dwindled into lakes, rivers into -little rills, and broad acres into mere pleasure gardens, before -the mighty achievements of modern invention, all natural barriers -disappeared. - -As in ancient times the walls of the great city of Jericho fell at -the blast of the trumpets of Joshua, no sooner did the echoes of the -shrill whistle of the mighty steamship reverberate along the shores -and among the seven hills of Stamboul, than were annihilated the -frontiers of a barbarous and spiritual despotism, in the stronghold -of the Mussulmans. Civilization from Europe was no longer stayed, -but boldly stepped into this natural garden of the world. To stem -the current would be to perish in an overwhelming vortex; and the -very government was obliged to conform, to compromise, and to make -treaties of peace with this new element, social and political progress. - -Not only in Turkey, but universally, the spirit of domination has -been pre-eminent, until the march of human improvement awakened the -community to a sense of their own power and individual rights. Thus -the elements of democracy have been arrayed in opposition to the -oppressions of despotism, threatening its utter annihilation, and -forcing the ruling powers to terms of capitulation. The Reformation -checked the authority of the Pope, a charter was granted to the -English, and their colonies in America soon grew to a great and -independent state. - -Though the European states cannot boast of that degree of independence -they have ofttimes struggled for, yet their rulers and potentates -have ever been, and are still, forced to don the mantle of Liberty, -and maintain the guise of Justice in their various administrations; -thus proving the supremacy of the spirit of democracy. - -But despotism, fostered in the bosom of the little dukedom of Moscow, -has maintained its unbroken sway, and spread over the vast territories -now known as the Russian dominions. - -It has engulphed Finland, Crimea, Poland, Bessarabia, Circassia, -Georgia and many other provinces, and by its continued and systematic -encroachments upon Turkey, even threatened to overwhelm Europe -itself. Local circumstances have combined to favor her designs, -and render her aggressions successful. - -The remarkable spirit of Mohammedan fanaticism led the Turks on to -conquest. The neighboring countries were all subjugated, until the -thirst for war enticed them into Europe, where victory still followed -their banner. But the very nations that they conquered, many of whom -were induced, by force or otherwise, to make their abode in the Turkish -dominions, tended by degrees to undermine their power. With them came -various religions and creeds, conflicting with each other, and creating -the bitterest animosities. Apart from this, the vast extent of their -territories, without any of the modern facilities of intercourse, -rendered the empire unmanageable by an unenlightened and barbarous -government. The army was numerous and powerful, but turbulent and -refractory, usurping the power of governing to themselves, as attests -the well known history of the Janissaries, who could only be subdued by -the bold daring of the illustrious Mahmoud. A new army was organized, -on European principles, and various civil reforms attempted, but -without any beneficial result; for the neighboring nations, especially -the formidable power of Russia, the inveterate enemy of Turkey, -were anxiously regarding the waning decline of Ottoman supremacy. - -Russia, who never missed an opportunity to expedite the rain of -this rival empire, has at various times waged war upon the most -trifling pretexts. Upon the termination of the Greek insurrection, -and immediately after the destruction of the Janissaries, a most -aggressive and iniquitous war was commenced, in which the European -powers acted as sleeping partners. The Albanian, Servian, Egyptian -and Kürdish rebellions were each successively instigated by Russian -and Austrian emissaries, or secret agents, until the whole country -became the arena of party intrigue, and the direst confusion, thus -realizing the plans of its enemy, and rendering it an easy prey to -Moscovite cunning. - -To Europe, now awakened to a sense of her own impending danger, the -division of Turkey seemed the only alternative, since that empire -showed evident symptoms of decay and inability to resist so powerful -an enemy as Russia. - -Reshid Pasha, one of the ablest and oldest statesmen and a true -patriot, was at this time in Europe as representative of the Porte. On -hearing of this proposed division of his country, he hastened home -to offer his counsels to the young sultan who had just ascended -the throne. By his representations and suggestions, his majesty was -induced to issue a proclamation called the Tanzimat, or reformation, -by which it was hoped that the country would be regenerated, and the -world convinced that Turkey could maintain itself. - - - -THE TANZIMAT. - -Translated from the Turkish. - -In the former days of the Ottoman empire, as every one knows, the -glorious precepts of the Koran and the laws of the monarchy were -universally observed; and consequently the empire increased both in -power and size, and all subjects, without exception, attained the -highest degree of ease and prosperity. For one hundred and fifty -years a succession of accidents and of divers causes have put an end -to this obedience to the sacred code of the laws, and to the rules -which spring from it, and our former power and prosperity have been -changed into weakness and poverty; for an empire loses all stability -when the laws cease to be observed. - -These considerations are constantly present to our mind, and from the -day of our accession to the throne, the idea of the public welfare, -the amelioration of the state of the provinces, and condolence with -the people, have been its sole occupations. Now, when we consider -the geographical position of the Ottoman empire, the fertility of -the soil, the aptitude and intelligence of the inhabitants, we are -convinced that by applying ourselves to discover suitable means, the -result, which by the aid of God we hope to attain, may be obtained -in the space of a few years. Thus, then, full of confidence in the -Most High, and relying upon the intercession of our Prophet, we have -judged proper to seek by new institutions to procure for the provinces -composing the Ottoman empire the benefit of a good administration. - -These institutions must bear principally upon three points, to wit; -1st. The pledges which insure to our subjects a perfect security of -life, honor and fortune. 2d. A regular mode of assessing and levying -the taxes. 3d. A mode equally regular, for the levy of soldiers, -and the duration of the service. - -And are not life and honor truly the most precious goods which -exist? What man, however base his situation, if his character adapt -him for violence, could be prevented from having recourse to it, and -thus doing injury to his government and the country, if his life and -honor are endangered? If, on the contrary, he enjoys, in this respect, -a perfect security, he will not wander from the paths of loyalty, -and all his acts will concur to the prosperity of the government, and -of his brethren. If his fortune be not secured to him, each remains -cold to the voice of the prince and the country; no one is occupied -with the progress of public fortune, absorbed as every one must be in -his own inquietudes. But if, on the other hand, the citizen possess -in confidence his property of every kind, then full of ardor in his -business, the circle of which he seeks to enlarge in order to extend -that of his pleasure, he finds each day redoubled in his heart the -love of his prince and country, and devotion to her cause; these -sentiments become in him the source of the most praiseworthy actions. - -As to the regular assessment and establishment of the taxes, it is -very important that this matter should be regulated, for the State -that is driven to various expenses for the defense of its territory, -can procure the money necessary for its armies and other services only -by the contributions levied upon the subjects. Although, thanks be -to God, those of our empire have for some time been delivered from -the scourge of monopolies, improperly regarded in former times as -a source of revenue, an injurious custom still exists, and which -cannot but have disastrous consequences, I mean that practice of -venal concession known as the Iltizam. By this system the civil and -financial administration of a locality is delivered to the arbitration -of a single man, and sometimes to the iron hand of the most violent -and base passions, for if this farmer of the revenue be not good, -he will only have regard to his own advantage. - -It is requisite, then, that this time forward each individual of -the Ottoman society be taxed his quota of his established impost, -in the ratio of his fortune and possessions, and nothing farther can -be required of him. Special laws too must fix and limit the expenses -of our armies by sea and land. - -Although, as we have said, the defense of our common country is an -important matter, and although it is the duty of all the inhabitants -to furnish soldiers to that effect; laws must now be established to -regulate the proportion that each locality shall furnish upon the -necessity of the moment, and to reduce to four or five years the term -of military service. For it is both acting unjustly, and giving a -death blow to agriculture and industry, to take, without regard to -the respective population of the districts, from one more, and from -another fewer, than they can supply; while it reduces the soldiers -to despair, and contributes to the depopulation of the country to -retain them all their life-time in the service. - -To resume, without these different laws, the necessity for which we -have just seen, the empire can possess neither power, riches, happiness -nor tranquillity; while all these blessings may be obtained from -the existence of the new laws. Therefore, from this time forward the -cause of every accused will be publicly judged conformably to our own -divine law, after thorough inquest and examination, and so long as the -regular judgment is not interrupted, no one will be able in secret, or -in public, to put another to death by poison, or any other punishment. - -No one will be permitted to attaint the honor of another. Each -individual will possess his property, of every kind, and will dispose -of it with the most entire liberty, without the opposition of any one; -thus, for example, the property of a criminal shall not be confiscated -to his innocent heirs. - -These imperial concessions, extending to all our subjects, of -whatever religion or sect they may be, shall by them be enjoyed -without exception. A perfect security is thus granted by us to the -inhabitants of the empire in their lives, honor, and fortunes, as -the sacred text of our law demands. - -Upon all other points, as they must be regulated by the agreement of -enlightened opinion, our Council of Justice (augmented by new members -when it shall be necessary), to which will be joined, on certain -days by us appointed, our Ministers and the Notables of the Empire, -will assemble for the purpose of establishing regular laws, for the -security of life and fortune, and the imposition of taxes. In these -assemblies each man will freely express his ideas and give his opinion. - -The laws for the regulation of the military service will be fixed -by the military council, to hold its sessions at the Palace of the -Seraskier. - -As soon as a law is fixed to be forever available and executory, it -shall be presented to us, and we will give it our sanction, which we -shall write at the head with our own imperial hand. - -As the present institutions have for their aim but the establishment of -religion, government, the nation and the empire, we pledge ourselves -to do nothing contrary to them. In pledge of our promise we will, -after having placed them in the hall in which is kept the glorious -mantle of our Prophet, in presence of all the ulema and grandees of -the empire, make oath by the name of God, and afterwards the ulema -and grandees shall also swear. And if, after this, any one among the -ulema, or grandees of the empire, or any other person whatsoever, -shall violate these institutions, he shall undergo, without regard to -rank, consideration, or credit, the penalty annexed to his well-proved -crime. To this effect a penal code will be re-enacted. - -As all the functionaries of the empire at the present day receive -suitable salaries, and as the appointments of those, whose duties -are not sufficiently well remunerated as yet, will be regulated, -a vigorous law will be enacted against the traffic of favor and of -charges (richvet), which is reproved by the divine law, and which is -one of the principal causes of the decadence of the empire. - -These dispositions, above stated, being an alteration, and a complete -renovation from the ancient usages, this imperial edict will be -published at Constantinople, and in all the other cities of our empire, -and will be communicated officially to all the Ambassadors of friendly -powers residing at Constantinople, that they may be witnesses of -the alteration in our institutions, which, if it please God, shall -ever endure. - -To this may God have us all in his holy and worthy keeping. - -May those who are guilty of an act contrary to the present -institutions, be the object of divine malediction, and be forever -deprived of every kind of happiness. - - - - - -This document, which is an official acknowledgment of the existing -evils and corruptions, was read at Gül-hané, on the 3d of November, -1839, with the greatest solemnity, before a vast concourse of people, -and in the presence of the foreign representatives. - -In order to commemorate the occasion, and enforce these new principles, -it was proposed to erect a magnificent public monument, the plans -and designs of which were confided to the writer; but before the -foundations could be laid, a complete - - - - - "Change came o'er the spirit of their dreams." - - - -The great Napoleon has wisely pronounced that "Constantinople is the -key to all Europe, and designed to be the capital of the world." Turkey -may, therefore, be divided and subdivided, but Constantinople, the -great bone of contention, being indivisible, the partition of Turkey -becomes an impossibility, and political equilibrium will not permit -any one power to usurp its possession. - -It was fortunate that it fell accidentally into the hands of the -Turks, who were incapable of availing themselves of its advantages; -and for the same reason it is desirable they should retain it. Hence -the maintenance, or diplomatically speaking, the integrity of Turkey -became an essential element in the polity of Europe. - -The proclamation of the above Hatti Sherif, or Royal Edict, was -therefore hailed with general satisfaction by the European states, -and hopes were awakened that the impending danger would be averted -by such an entire change in the administrative government. - -But the Turks of the ancien régime, perceiving no threatening attitude -in their European neighbors, and highly offended at the ultra-liberal -measures of the reform party, who even dared to insult their Mussulman -prejudices, and coolly inform them that "the council chamber was -not a theological school for the discussion of religious polemics, -nor convertible into a mosque," resolved to resist to the utmost, and -re-establish their own party. They, therefore, in a body, protested -to the sultan, who, in such a dilemma, could do nothing but dismiss -the actual ministry, and organize a new one. - -Rendered bold by success, the new ministry, at whose head was placed -Riza Pasha, soon began to adopt fanatical measures, whereby to modify -the Tanzimat, which it did not suit their policy to nullify altogether; -for, by it additional security of life and property was granted even -to themselves. - -Besides, the lords of the realm, who only existed by the "cohesive -power of public plunder," foresaw that the Tanzimat secured equality -of civil and political rights to the Christians, especially to the -Armenians, who, being better educated and more enlightened than -they themselves were, and in fact the ruling spirits, would soon -have preceded them in all the departments, and taken the lead in the -control of the country. - -Schemes of oppression were formed to deprive the Rayas of their newly -acquired privileges. Even the external semblance of equality was no -longer tolerated. To distinguish them from the true followers of the -Prophet, their dress being the same, an order was issued, that the -giavours should wear a certain mark on their fesses, a piece of black -tape. Even the grandees of the Christian community were stigmatized -by a mock badge of honor, made of gold, to be also worn on the side -of the fess. They carried their fanaticism so far as even to defy -Europe in the decapitation of Ovagim, an Armenian apostate, who had -abjured Mohammedanism. - -Though his life was promised to Lord Stratford, no sooner had the -secretary of legation, Mr. Alison, left the Porte, than the unfortunate -victim was led forth and beheaded. Whatever may have been the cause -of the sudden reversal of their merciful intentions, it is well known -that Prince Handgery, the Russian Dragoman, was also at the Porte, -and did not leave until the consummation of the sentence. His body -was exposed in the streets of Constantinople at Baluk-Bazaar, the -head placed between his legs, as was customary, with the European -cap which he wore, upon it, as an extra insult to all Europe. - -The bodies of state criminals were formerly exposed in public for -three days, but the weather being at this time excessively warm, -the late Sheikh-ul-Islam was advised that injurious effects might -result from such a long exposure; who sagely remarked, that "the -fact was indeed so, but the sad results would be still more palpably -felt three years hence." Strange to say the prediction has been fully -verified by recent events. - -Thus Mussulman fanaticism brought on a retrograde movement, and -threatened the entire ruin of the country; and the rapacious and -ambitious dispositions of those who lived on the fat of the land, by -degrees so consumed its vitality that it justly merited the cognomen -of the SICK-MAN. - -The Eagle and the Vulture were hovering over the expiring empire, -and Humanity and Civilization demanded that it should be watched -over, with the hope either of prolonging its existence, or at least -of giving it a decent burial. - -Russia and Austria, who thought that the propitious moment had arrived -to pounce upon their victim, resolved to accomplish their own plans -by one sudden and effective coup-de-main, as the insulting conduct and -threatening attitude of their respective emissaries fully demonstrated. - -But their expectations were not to be realized; for, notwithstanding -the corrupt character of those in power, the spirit of regeneration -was not wholly extinct in the country. The liberal party, some of whom -had retired from public life in disgust, and others, who, giving up -all hope of reform, had abandoned their favorite project, and joined -the powers that be, in such an emergency, like true patriots, whose -moral influence had been silently exerted over the people, came to -the rescue; resisting every form of bribery and fearless of menaces, -they boldly took up the gauntlet, and war was declared. - -The interests of Europe being involved in the fate of Turkey, "foreign -interference" became inevitable. Fortunate it is not only for Turkey, -but for Europe in general, that this event happened at a time when such -interference was available, otherwise Turkey, like Poland, would have -been ingulphed by Russia and Austria. The result is known to the world. - -Although the battle has been fought, the Russian bear been driven -to his den, and the congress of nations at Paris has adopted the -Osmanlis into their fraternity, still the "Eastern question," or the -maintenance of Turkey, as a barrier between Russian despotism and -European liberty, is far from being settled. For the problem is not -solved, in as much as the ways and means for the future permanence -of this empire are not proclaimed to the world. - -Turkey is apparently secured from Russian animosities, but unless the -country be set on a new basis, and rendered capable of maintaining -itself, the future of Turkey will inevitably be only a repetition of -the past, if not indeed far worse. - -This difficult subject will, no doubt, engross the wisdom of Europe, -but the present is the moment to be seized, while the indebtedness -of the Osmanlis to their allies is fresh in their memories, and the -gates of their vast empire stand open to civilization and reform. - -Will the Allies again content themselves with mere scrolls, parchments, -and state papers like the Tanzimat of 1839? Shall the patriots of -the state again be left subject to the sway of a conceited bigotry -and blind fanaticism? In a word, shall the country be permitted to -feed upon its own vitals until it consumes itself? - -The time has arrived when fictitious progress can no longer be -tolerated, and a wholesome reaction most take place. - -Turkey and its inhabitants have suffered not only from external -aggressions, but internal discord has maintained an empire of misrule. - -Religious animosity and party spirit have reigned supreme. Greeks -and Christians hating each other, Christians denouncing Christians, -and the Grand Mufti pouring out the anathemas of the Prophet upon -the whole host of giavours. Whence then, in such a population, can -any unity of feeling or of action spring? Amor patrić, philanthropy, -progress are all merged in sectarianism and the rage for religious -supremacy. Hitherto, Mohammedanism filling the places of authority, -and possessing the only permanent foothold upon the territory itself, -has left the Christian population without incentive to competition -of any sort. Even in the earliest conflicts of Mohammedanism, -three proposals were always made to those whose territories were -invaded--to join the standard of the Prophet; to adhere to their -own religious tenets as tributaries; or the trial by combat; thus -evincing a wonderful spirit of liberality in a conquering power, -whether the antagonism was that of conquest or propagandism. - -Religious toleration was only a wise policy of the Ottoman government, -for as long as the rayas were of various creeds and conflicting -with each other, the Mussulmans were in no danger. As in union is -strength, so in the disunion of the subjects was the safety of the -rulers. The rayas, as has been said, losing their own nationality in -their condition of servitude, clung to the tenets of their respective -creeds, and knew no country, no nationality but that of religion. In -Turkey all classes of Christians and Jews have always had freedom of -religions worship with the free exercise of their peculiar rites and -observances, public and private. - -The proof may daily be witnessed in their funeral processions with -torches, crosses, and chanting priests, preceded by kavasses or police -officers, as the pages of the "Missionary Herald of the American Board -for Foreign Missions" amply testify. Besides it is a well known fact -that all the Christian churches are privileged to hold vakufs of their -own, on the same footing as those of the mosques; the very existence -of so many differing creeds, and their constant free discussions, -is proof of a great degree of religious toleration. - -Even the recent war was the result of this tolerance; for it is well -known that the original matter of debate was whether Russia or France, -or, in other words, whether the Greek church or the Catholic should -control the holy places of Jerusalem! - -These holy places not only are in the dominions of the Sultan, but -are the objects of religious veneration to the Mussulmans themselves, -who reverently style them Coods-u-Sherif, or Holy Jerusalem; yet with -a remarkable spirit of conciliation, their jurisdiction was conceded -to the Christians. - -Travellers who have chanced to be in Jerusalem during the festivities -of Easter, may remember, that when the Christians are quarrelling and -contending with each other, the Mussulmans are forced to interfere -to keep peace and tranquillity! - -It is true that the Ottoman government has frequently refused -permission to the Christians to erect or repair churches, etc. This, -however, is not from a spirit of intolerance, for it soon was -understood that a liberal sum might be obtained for these privileges, -and the officials could not resist such occasions for increasing their -revenues. The same advantage is taken of the party intrigues, at the -time of the election of the new patriarchs of the Armenians and Greeks. - -In the days of ignorance, this election cost the Armenians 40,000 -piasters, but years of experience have raised the value of the -Sultan's sanction to 200,000 piasters, and the Greeks, amongst whom -party strife is far greater, pay between two and three millions for -the installation of their spiritual head. - -Hence it is evident that religious toleration is a principle of the -government, and the contrary an incidental abuse for the advantage of -those in power. This very abuse has had its origin among the Christians -themselves, who were ready to bribe the ruling power to any amount, -in order to gain their own ends. - -Nevertheless, Russia has endeavored to mislead the whole world, and -especially the Christian population of Turkey, with the plausible -pretence of a "Guarantee of Liberty of Worship to all classes of -Christians in Turkey;" while her conduct at home belies her sincerity. - -The cross upon the Armenian church at Odessa was, not long ago, -removed by order of the government, lest the population should be -misled by the impression that the edifice belonged to the established -church. And in the case of intermarriage, the law orders that the -children should invariably be educated in the Russian faith. - -The adage "nearer the church, farther from God," is peculiarly -applicable to Russia; for we are told by Gibbon, that long before the -Turks were in Constantinople, the Russians made several attempts -to capture this fated city, and were only driven away by the -flood discharged from the batteries. Were the Greeks of that time -Mohammedans, or was there any suffering Christianity, that these -philanthropic Muscovites were impelled to come to the rescue of the -Christian faith? - -There are some strange records in history which conflict materially -with political hypocrisy! The fact is, under the pretence of being -the champion of the Cross, the real object of Russia has ever been -to avail herself of the existing religious fanaticism of the East, -and by fanning the flames of Christian ardor, to institute a crusade -of the nineteenth century! - -Nations are not, however, governed by sympathy, but by interest, and -the Christians have had too bitter experience of Russian protection -to be again caught in the same net. - -The Armenians of Erzuroum were induced to emigrate into the Russian -land of Canaan, which, they were assured, flowed with milk and honey; -but when they drank these honeyed waters, they found them only -wormwood and gall, and all who could, eagerly burst their fetters, -and returned to Turkey, preferring Moslem oppression to Moscovite -despotism and systematic serfdom. - -The Greeks, who were so clamorous against the Turks, when they -succeeded in obtaining their independence, by raising the standard -of the Cross against the Crescent of the Prophet, showed very little -preference for the Hellenic government, since after a while they -returned by thousands into Turkey! - -The effect of Turkish policy has been such, that there is a prevalent -desire among the Rayas to escape from their allegiance to such a -government, and place themselves under foreign protection, not from -any fear of religious intolerance whatever, but merely to obtain -comparative liberty and justice. Indeed, what incentive have the -people in general, either Turks or Rayas, to patriotism, or what -care they for national prosperity, when they are forced to regard -themselves as mere tenants of their own houses and lands? - -Missak, the late Armenian banker, did not escape into Russia from any -fear of religious oppression, but to avoid the vindictive persecutions -of the Minister of Finance. - -It is not, then, religious freedom that the Christians of Turkey -require, but political franchise and unbiased justice. - -The past has sadly proved that the Mohammedans are incapable even -of self government, or at best, Mohammedan domination has had a -demoralizing tendency over half, if not the entire population. - -Is the country, then to be ruled by the other half of the inhabitants -viz., the Christian population? - -This is another impossibility; for this population is like a house -divided against itself, and besides their incapacity in other -respects, they, having so long felt the bitterest animosity towards -their Mussulman masters, would in their turn become even greater -oppressors than the Mohammedans themselves, as was evinced by the -conduct of the Armenians of Erzuroum during the last war with Russia. - -The "Eastern question" is not, however, one of propagandism, either -of Christianity or of Mohammedanism, but demands, while granting -perfect liberty of conscience to all classes, how political and civil -equality may be maintained throughout the Ottoman dominions. Fusion, -then, is the only policy that can resuscitate the Turkish Empire. - -The Tanzimat was the beginning of a reform, but there were no coercive -measures put into play, to overthrow the power of ancient usages, -so that the proclamation soon became almost a dead letter. The -blind bigotry of the people and the absolute power of the heads -of government, imbued as they are with a spirit of favoritism and -corruption, have hitherto excluded the unfortunate subjects of the -sultan from the justice and protection which are the sacred rights -of every son of Adam. There has been no security for property nor -any inducement to honesty in Turkey. - -A man has, under the existing laws, every temptation to injure -his neighbor to any extent, and the innocent have no other means -of protecting themselves and their interests, than by resorting to -counter dishonesty. For instance, if a man is unjustly accused of a -debt of one hundred dollars, it would naturally be inferred that he -would at once deny the accusation, and call for proof. But such an -honest procedure would not answer in the Turkish courts of justice, -for it would immediately give the plaintiff the desired privilege of -producing two hired witnesses, by whose testimony the defendant would, -beyond a doubt, be condemned to pay the pretended debt. - -The only alternative, in such instances, is to verify the principle -"set a rogue to catch a rogue" by acknowledging the debt, at the same -time declaring that it has already been paid; thus the accuser is -deprived of the privilege of suborning witnesses, and the defendant -avails himself of that prerogative. - -Therefore the moral sense of the community is corrupted, and -self-preservation impels the people only to strive to excel each other -in roguery. In such a poisoned atmosphere, no salutary influence can -be exercised until the axe is laid at the root of the evil. In order, -then, to give a fresh stamina to this fading empire-- - -1. A new and complete code of justice is needed, consistent with -progressive civilization, and suited to the necessities of these -heterogeneous peoples. - -2. To overthrow the sceptre of oppressive bigotry, the next thing -to be effected is an entire separation of church and state, so as -to prevent the interference of the ulema in the administration of -justice. Thus also the aristocracy of religion being abolished, -the animosity existing between the Moslems and Christians will be -annihilated, and the hitherto excluded portion of the subjects of -the sultan acknowledged as members of the great Ottoman family. - -The identity of religious faith and nationality long swayed even the -European states, but in those countries, this idea is now obsolete, -and must of necessity become so in Turkey, since she has entered -their confederacy. - -3. A mixed administration must be formed, composed of representatives -of the different communities, and Mussulman supremacy no longer -tolerated. The mutual benefit of this combination is evident; for -while the Christians, in sharing the supreme power, would lose their -former incentives to cunning and self-interest, the Mussulmans, on -their part, would make rapid strides in the true science of government. - -The tenure by which this mutual authority is to be held, must be -supported and confirmed by a superior tribunal, as it were, consisting -of the powers of Europe, who, having constituted themselves the -champions of Turkey, and shed their blood in her defense, are entitled -to become the guardians of her interests, which are, henceforth, -so identified with their own. - -4. The resources of the country must be developed, and a system of -internal improvements established, by which the ruinous principle of -centralization will be counteracted, and the beneficial effects of -this regeneration felt in the uttermost corners of the land. - -A general and accurate survey of the country is indispensable, defining -the exact boundaries of both public and private lands, and the idea -that the natural treasures of the soil, belonging to individuals, -appertain to the government, must be abandoned. Hitherto much of the -wealth of the country has lain dormant, because there was no incentive -to exploration of any sort. - -5. The Vakuf system must be abolished, and the accumulated wealth -devoted to internal improvements, thus depriving the Ulema of their -great arm of power. It is true, the government has in some measure -controlled these revenues, and established a Bureau of all the Vakufs, -called Evkaf, but it has never dared to appropriate, or to touch any -portion of this income for its own purposes. - -6. Equal taxation should be levied on property, and the tariff -equitably regulated. - -7. A limited free press must be established as the only means of -bringing into publicity the corruptions and abuses to which the -officials have hitherto been addicted. - -These are the most apparent means of the preservation and regeneration -of Turkey. - -Broad principles may be laid as the foundation, but the edifice is -to be raised and the master builders must not desert their work. For, -unless these salutary reforms are accomplished by the aid and influence -of the European Powers, there is no hope of the preservation of Turkey, -nor is there any security for the peace of all Europe and the world -in general. - -The only question is, Can these reformations be effected in Turkey? - -The nature of the Mohammedan religion is not essentially in opposition -to reform. Modern times have proved the Koran of a more elastic nature -than was once supposed, as was exemplified in the establishment of -quarantine regulations; when it was pretended, that it was blasphemous -to interfere with the decrees of Allah to protect human life; but as -it was proved that the Koran allowed self-protection, the measure -was sanctioned by the expounders of that sacred book, and accepted -by the Mussulmans. - -Apostasy from Islamism was formerly punished with death; but when -Lord Stratford de Redcliffe interfered in behalf of humanity in the -case of poor Ovagim, who was beheaded in 1843, the Koran was found to -be on his side. The same lenity was manifested by the Mohammedans of -Hindoostan, only a few months ago, towards an apostate, on the plea -that the country was now under British jurisdiction. The reason is, -that the principles of Islamism are so very simple that they can be -adapted to any degree of modification and reform, especially under -the pressure of circumstances--besides, necessity knows no law, -not even the Koran itself. - -But it may be said that the government thus remodelled will no longer -be Turkish or Mohammedan. - -Surely the aim of the friends of this falling empire is not to -re-instate a decaying faith, but to enable the Turks and all the -inhabitants of the land, to gird up their strength and stand before -the world a united and powerful people, freed from bigotry and -superstition, a great Ottoman nation. - -Turkey has been admitted into the fraternity of Europe; not as a -Mohammedan power, but as one of the powers that rule the earth's -domains. - -The sultan has a voice among the potentates of his times--not the -voice of Mohammed the Prophet, but of the civilized and regenerated -friend of his own people and the world in general. - -A new era has dawned upon Mohammedanism; for, if the Christian -world has for the first time received into its confederation -an anti-Christian empire, the Mohammedans, by entering such a -confederation, have also for the first time placed themselves on an -equality with the former Giavours, whom the precepts of the Koran have -proscribed, and doomed to the sword of the Faithful. Here then is a -bold stride beyond the confines of a faith only suited to barbaric -days, and well calculated to sway the minds of a superstitious -multitude on to conquest. As consanguinity with civilization is -strengthened, who can trace the pathway of the Mussulman nation -through the world's history! - -The genius of the country and the condition of the people are not in -opposition to the progress of reform. - -The past history of this nation has been the progress of -Mohammedanism--its conquests and its laws. As Moses was both the -spiritual and temporal law-giver to the Jews, so has Mohammed been -to the Turkomans. Such laws suited the exigencies of the times; but -the sword is sheathed, and in its sheath too, must abide the darkness -and barbarity of past ages. - -Besides Mohammedanism in Turkey is not the same as in Arabia or -Bokhara, where Imams and priests predominate. The Turkomans had, -previous to embracing Islamism, a civil government of their own; -and in making the Koran the rule of faith and conduct, they never -lost the idea of Sovereignty independent of Religion. Hence the -Turkish has never been like the Papal government, where cardinals and -bishops represent all the departments of the pontifical state. The -very existence of two distinct representatives of the Sultan, the -Grand Vezir and the Sheikh-ul-Islam, are evidences of a separation -of church and state. If the ecclesiastical has hitherto superseded -the civil power, it has been through the superstitions of the people, -and the chicanery of the officials. - -The only real union is in the person of the Sultan, who is the proxy -of Allah, and the supreme Ruler of his people. His will and his edicts -are regarded by them with superstitious reverence. - -The natural relations of this empire with the rest of the world, -as well as its new ties of consanguinity with civilization, must, -of necessity, bring about a revolution of policy as well as of action. - -His majesty has already introduced many measures of reform--such -as the abolishing of capital punishment--the promulgation of a new -constitution, with the privilege of free deliberation in the national -councils, etc.; and besides all these, he has already commenced, even -in his own person and household, a renovation, which is, in reality, -only a conformation to the habits of civilized life. He has become -himself a salaried executive, diminished his own retinue, etc. - -The Sultan well understands the imitative nature of his own people, -and is aware that he is the model to the Grand Vezir and the various -Pashas, who, in their turn, are the channels of his majesty's own -movements to the rest of their fellow citizens. Constantinople is -the city where the game is played by high and low, "So does the -Grand Mufti." - -Indeed, the very monkeys of India cannot excel them in their -disposition to imitate each other. For, it is said that a merchant -once carrying a large bale of fesses, or red caps on a speculation, -opened his goods on the way, with the view to examine them; and taking -one out and putting it upon his head laid down to repose a while under -a tree. What was his astonishment on waking, to find his stock of caps -had taken wings. He looked around in dismay, but happening to cast -his eyes upwards, he beheld a whole colony of monkeys each sporting -one of his caps! It seemed a hopeless case to catch each one of them -and force him to surrender the cap. In his anger and bewilderment -he seized his cap and in a passion threw it to the ground; when the -whole tribe of these mimicking creatures of the grove, instinctively, -with the same vehemence, divested themselves of their head-gear! - -In imitation of Sultan, Pashas, and Efendi, the people in the East -have already doffed their robes and turbans; and are ready for other -reforms, if derived from the same honored projectors; crosses now -adorn the breasts of statesmen, and his majesty, the Sultan, displays -on his person the insignia of the garter. Indeed much good may be -anticipated from the liberal sentiments and benevolent dispositions of -the Sultan, were he but rightly advised and sustained in the exercise -of his absolute power; with the requisite protection against inimical -intrigues and aggressions, both foreign and domestic. - -Besides, the government itself is already divided into two parties, the -liberal, who are ready to throw off the yoke of ancient prejudices, -and the church party, who not only with a blind zeal, but with -hopes of self-aggrandizement, are resolved to maintain the rule of -superstition. Now as the advancement, the maintenance of the country -is dependent on the one, its retrogradation and downfall involved in -the other, so Europe necessarily holds out its strong arm to the one, -and leaves the other not only unsupported but threatened. The wisest -of the Turkish statesmen are therefore prepared for changes; indeed, -they feel themselves bound to certain compromises with their friends -the Allied Powers, who engaged in the war, as they well know, not with -the view to reinstate Mussulman oppression and bigoted misrule, but to -set the country on a new footing--by raising the Christian population -to a level with the Mussulman. Considering the almost equal proportion -of the Christians to the Mohammedans, it is but just, there should -at least be an equality of national rights and privileges. For in -civilized countries, even a MINORITY is protected and their rights -respected; how much more then should this be the case where there -is not only no disproportion in numbers--but decided superiority -in civilization. - -Besides, should the Mohammedans resist the required concessions--the -great Christian population of Turkey is ready to join their western -co-religionists in any movement. Therefore it is only a wise policy -in the Mohammedans, making a virtue of necessity, to submit to -circumstances, rather than by opposing, to work their own ruin. - -The great essential is a community of interest, which has already, -in some cases, produced a legitimate action. The corps of firemen is -composed of both Mussulmans and Christians, who not only unite in a -common effort for mutual good, but call each other brothers, carouse -together, shed their blood in each other's defense, and never seem -to remember their characteristic dissimilarities. - -There is already an indisposedness towards the tenacity of religious -fanaticism, which is so hostile to moral and social progress. Many -of the distinguished men of Turkey having resided abroad, and -acquired foreign languages, have imbibed a taste for the literature -of Europe. A familiarity with the works of such authors as Voltaire, -Volney, and Rousseau, has made many of them free-thinkers. Indeed, -most of the younger members of the Porte are men of liberal sentiments. - -They pay external deference to the religion of the state rather from -motives of self-interest than from any moral conviction. - -Nevertheless, some of these very men, so long habituated to power and -the spoils of office, may, under the guise of religious enthusiasm, -become the instigators of opposition through the superstitions of -the multitude. - -Hence the gazettes will occasionally report hostile demonstrations, -and even bloodshed; but any attempts at insurrection must prove -futile; for, with the destruction of the Janissaries, the spirit of -rebellion perished in Turkey. Besides, recent events having brought -the superiority and power of Europe within the immediate vision of -the whole population, they have been forced to call to mind their -own proverb, that "the elephant is greater than the camel," and -doubtless they will henceforth arrive at a juster appreciation of -their own capabilities. - -Much more might be written on so extended a theme as The Sultan and -His People, and an abler pen portray the condition of this interesting -Eastern empire, just emerging from barbarism into civilization. Yet -it may be hoped that these humble efforts will awaken some sympathy -in behalf of a country and its inhabitants, who so much need the -interest and assistance of other lands; at a moment, too, when the -question is of life or death; of free progressive life, under the -shelter of the broad wings of civilization, or of a suffering death -within the claws of the rapacious Vulture of despotism and oppression. - -It may be objected that Turkey has been represented "en couleur de -rose." If that roseate hue has been given, the odorous flower has -been presented with all its thorns, divested of the verdure which -might have concealed their bristling points. - -But the sweetest rose may preserve its pure essence and odor, even -while growing amid wild and poisonous roots; and if the noxious weeds -can be uprooted, Turkey may, with the requisite culture, become one -of the fairest gardens which adorn our beautiful planet. - -It is to be hoped, that the morning twilight is already casting its -softening beams over this land of the Orient; and that the noon-tide -glory of the sun of peace and regeneration, will, ere long, irradiate -with its glorious effulgence, this ancient and interesting Empire! - - - THE END. - - - - - - - - -NOTE - - -[1] Some historians attribute the origin of the janissaries to -Orkhan; at the same time all agree that they were blessed by Hadji -Bektash--forgetting that the said sheikh was only contemporary with -Mourad, and not Orkhan. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Sultan and his People, by C. 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-padding-right: 13px; -} -.pglink:hover { -background-color: #DCFFDC; -} -.catlink:hover { -background-color: #FFFFDC; -} -.exlink:hover, .wplink:hover, .biblink:hover { -background-color: #FFDCDC; -}body { -background: #FFFFFF; -font-family: "Times New Roman", Times, serif; -} -body, a.hidden { -color: black; -} -h1, .h1 { -padding-bottom: 5em; -} -h1, h2, .h1, .h2 { -text-align: center; -font-variant: small-caps; -font-weight: normal; -} -p.byline { -text-align: center; -font-style: italic; -margin-bottom: 2em; -} -.figureHead, .noteref, .pseudonoteref, .marginnote, p.legend, .versenum -{ -color: #660000; -} -.rightnote, .pagenum, .linenum, .pagenum a { -color: #AAAAAA; -} -a.hidden:hover, a.noteref:hover { -color: red; -} -h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6 { -font-weight: normal; -} -table { -margin-left: auto; -margin-right: auto; -} -.tablecaption { -text-align: center; -}.pagenum, .linenum { -speak: none; -} -</style> - -<style type="text/css"> -/* CSS rules generated from @rend attributes in TEI file */ -.xd25e2131 { -text-align:right; -} -.cover-imagewidth { -width:480px; -} -.frontis { -display:none; -} -.frontispiecewidth { -width:444px; -} -.xd25e167 { -text-align:center; -} -.xd25e713 { -display:none; -} -.p018width { -width:535px; -} -.p033width { -width:720px; -} -.t12\.1 { -font-size:small; -} -.xd25e3991 { -display:none; -} -.xd25e4020 { -text-indent:2em; -} -.xd25e6295 { -text-indent:10em; -} -.xd25e6823 { -text-align:center; -} -@media handheld { -} -</style> -</head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Sultan and his People, by C. Oscanyan - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The Sultan and his People - -Author: C. Oscanyan - -Release Date: May 21, 2017 [EBook #54757] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE *** - - - - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - -</pre> - -<div class="front"> -<div class="div1 cover"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first"></p> -<div class="figure cover-imagewidth"><img src="images/new-cover.jpg" -alt="Newly Designed Front Cover." width="480" height="720"></div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="titlePage"> -<div class="docTitle"> -<div class="mainTitle">THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE.</div> -</div> -<div class="byline">BY<br> -<span class="docAuthor">C. OSCANYAN,</span><br> -OF CONSTANTINOPLE.<br> -Illustrated by a Native of Turkey.</div> -<div class="docImprint">NEW YORK:<br> -DERBY & JACKSON, 119 NASSAU STREET.<br> -CINCINNATI: H. W. DERBY & CO.<br> -LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, SON & CO.<br> -<span class="docDate">1857.</span></div> -</div> -<div class="div1 copyright"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first xd25e167">Entered according to Act of Congress, to the -year 1857, by<br> -DERBY & JACKSON,</p> -<p class="xd25e167">In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court -of the United States, for the Southern District of New York.</p> -<p class="xd25e167">W. H. TINSON, STEREOTYPER.</p> -<p class="xd25e167">GEO. RUSSELL & CO., PRINTERS.</p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div1 dedication"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first xd25e167">TO MY<br> -ALMA MATER,<br> -The University of the City of New York,<br> -THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED<br> -BY<br> -ONE OF ITS OFFSPRING. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd25e193" href= -"#xd25e193" name="xd25e193">vii</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="toc" class="div1 contents"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">CONTENTS.</h2> -<table class="tocList"> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">CHAPTER</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"></td> -<td class="tocPageNum">PAGE</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">I.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch1" id="xd25e210" name= -"xd25e210">PRELIMINARY CHAPTER</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">9</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">II.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch2" id="xd25e220" name= -"xd25e220">HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ORIGIN OF THE TURKS</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">20</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">III.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch3" id="xd25e230" name= -"xd25e230">THEIR RELIGIOUS CREEDS</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">27</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">IV.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch4" id="xd25e240" name= -"xd25e240">SECTARIANISM</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">37</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">V.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch5" id="xd25e250" name= -"xd25e250">PRACTICE OF RELIGION</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">51</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">VI.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch6" id="xd25e260" name= -"xd25e260">PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">67</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">VII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch7" id="xd25e270" name= -"xd25e270">PRINCIPLES OF THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">105</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">VIII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch8" id="xd25e280" name= -"xd25e280">THE ADMINISTRATIVE GOVERNMENT</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">109</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">IX.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch9" id="xd25e290" name= -"xd25e290">POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">114</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">X.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch10" id="xd25e300" name= -"xd25e300">HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE JANISSARIES</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">117</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XI.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch11" id="xd25e311" name= -"xd25e311">THE ULEMA OR SPIRITUAL BRANCH OF THE TURKISH -GOVERNMENT</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">127</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch12" id="xd25e321" name= -"xd25e321">REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">134</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XIII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch13" id="xd25e331" name= -"xd25e331">ARMY AND NAVY</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">138</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XIV.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch14" id="xd25e341" name= -"xd25e341">COMMERCE</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">144</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XV.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch15" id="xd25e351" name= -"xd25e351">JURISPRUDENCE</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">149</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XVI.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch16" id="xd25e361" name= -"xd25e361">EDUCATION</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">159</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XVII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch17" id="xd25e371" name= -"xd25e371">MEDICINE</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">167</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XVIII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch18" id="xd25e381" name= -"xd25e381">WESTERN PREJUDICES AND EASTERN TOLERATION</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">171</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XIX.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch19" id="xd25e391" name= -"xd25e391">THE SULTAN AND HIS PERSONNEL</a><span class="corr" id= -"xd25e393" title="Not in source">,</span></td> -<td class="tocPageNum">180</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XX.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch20" id="xd25e403" name= -"xd25e403">PUBLIC DUTIES OF THE SULTAN</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">200</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXI.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch21" id="xd25e413" name= -"xd25e413">THE ROMANCE OF THE EAST</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">206</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch22" id="xd25e424" name= -"xd25e424">THE HAREM</a>, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd25e430" href= -"#xd25e430" name="xd25e430">viii</a>]</span></td> -<td class="tocPageNum">212</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXIII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch23" id="xd25e435" name= -"xd25e435">CONDITION OF WOMEN</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">224</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXIV.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch24" id="xd25e445" name= -"xd25e445">PERSONAL APPEARANCE, COSTUME, ETC.</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">232</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXV.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch25" id="xd25e455" name= -"xd25e455">DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">238</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXVI.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch26" id="xd25e465" name= -"xd25e465">SOCIAL INTERCOURSE</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">246</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXVII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch27" id="xd25e475" name= -"xd25e475">POLYGAMY</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">253</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXVIII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch28" id="xd25e485" name= -"xd25e485">MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">259</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXIX.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch29" id="xd25e495" name= -"xd25e495">SULTAN’S HAREM AND HOUSEHOLD</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">264</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXX.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch30" id="xd25e505" name= -"xd25e505">CIRCASSIAN AND NUBIAN SLAVES</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">274</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXXI.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch31" id="xd25e515" name= -"xd25e515">THE WATERING PLACES</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">280</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXXII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch32" id="xd25e525" name= -"xd25e525">THE BAZAARS</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">293</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXXIII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch33" id="xd25e536" name= -"xd25e536">THE KAHVÉS</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">299</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXXIV.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch34" id="xd25e546" name= -"xd25e546">THE HAMAMS, OR BATHS</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">320</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXXV.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch35" id="xd25e556" name= -"xd25e556">THE RAYAS, OR NON-MUSSULMAN -SUBJECTS—ARMENIANS</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">340</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXXVI.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">THE</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">RAYAS,</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">OR</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">NON-MUSSULMAN</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">SUBJECTS—</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><a href="#ch36" id="xd25e568" name= -"xd25e568">GREEKS</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">364</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXXVII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">THE</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">RAYAS,</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">OR</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">NON-MUSSULMAN</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">SUBJECTS—</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><a href="#ch37" id="xd25e580" name= -"xd25e580">JEWS</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">376</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXXVIII.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch38" id="xd25e590" name= -"xd25e590">PERA AND THE PEROTES, OR FRANKS</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">381</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XXXIX.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch39" id="xd25e600" name= -"xd25e600">THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE PEOPLE</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">393</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">XL.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#ch40" id="xd25e610" name= -"xd25e610">THE FUTURE OF TURKEY</a>,</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">419</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb9" href="#pb9" name= -"pb9">9</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="body"> -<div id="ch1" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e210">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="super">THE SULTAN AND HIS PEOPLE.</h2> -<h2 class="main">PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Mutability is the appropriate motto of humanity; for -what are men but creatures of a day; monarchs, but transient shadows of -earthly greatness; empires, but passing events? Time, with more than -eagle swiftness, hurls all things into the great bosom of Eternity. -Futurity is dark and impenetrable, but the present is with us, and -still more the past, teeming with vast records of human life, of rising -and falling empires, bloody tales of extinguished armies and extirpated -races of mankind, detailing the effects of the wild ambition of kings, -emperors, sultans, themselves but atoms, yet involving the whole mass -in their career.</p> -<p><i>Contrast</i> is often the greatest source of pleasure to the -mind; therefore do the citizens of this New World delight to revel in -the scenes of the olden <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb10" href= -"#pb10" name="pb10">10</a>]</span>hemisphere, which was in full glory -when this vast continent lay in undiscovered obscurity.</p> -<p><i>Orientalism!</i> Talisman to conjure up the shades of the very -parents of our race, and of the old patriarchs of Israel, to array in -picturesque and savage beauty the vision of Arabian horsemen, flying -steeds, vast encampments on arid plains, tribes of wandering Tartars, -and almost to awaken the echoes of the clashing and blood-stained -scimitars of the desperate champions of the Crescent, the followers of -the Prophet. And while there is a wall of iron between us and our -future, the eventful record of by-gone times displays to us the -development of all that was hidden to our ancestors.</p> -<p>There is a great difference between the primitive condition of the -human race and the effects which Time has produced upon that wonderful -structure, <span class="sc">MAN</span>!</p> -<p>Simplicity, almost childlike, seems to characterize the living mind -of man in its embryo state, while years of successive re-conceptions -have continued to develop this noble emanation from the great spirit of -the universe.</p> -<p>But how deeply interesting to us, who are the embodiment of the more -mature and experienced human wisdom, to look into the vast womb of the -Past, and trace the growth of the great human fœtus. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb11" href="#pb11" name="pb11">11</a>]</span></p> -<p>The impress of the original condition of our race is yet upon the -nations of the East, and wonderfully do they still retain the habits -and ideas of the earliest ages.</p> -<p>How vividly are the scenes of Biblical record exemplified in the -every-day habits of the people, who, at the present time, dwell in -those venerated countries. The patriarchal family government, the -flowing robes, even the very style of garment of which it is -recorded—“They parted my raiment, and upon my vesture they -cast lots,” are one and all in daily use in the East.</p> -<p>Our attention is peculiarly directed to the history of former ages, -and the progress of different empires, by the events which mark the -present course of time—for the great theme of the day is the Past -and Future of Turkey, the very garden of the East, and the desired of -all nations, upon whose shores has lately been poured the life-blood of -thousands of valiant heroes, each and all members of the vast human -family, whether known to us as Turks, Russians, English, or French.</p> -<p>There is an indefinable charm about all that relates to this land of -the Orient. The position by nature, the variety of scenery, hill, -valley, and undulating plain; the great streams which water its shores, -and the rich productions of the soil, the ancient capital <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb12" href="#pb12" name="pb12">12</a>]</span>proudly -towering from its verdant hills, the key to two continents, with the -“Ocean stream” for a highway. The lovers of classic lore -delight to realize the existence of ancient heroes, and the very homes -of the demigods, as they tread its honored shores. Romance seems to be -merged in reality, as the robed and turbaned Moslem, with stately step -and meditative countenance, passes beneath your latticed casement; or -the veiled lady and sable eunuch, with mysterious silence, stealthily -glide along. Sultans, vezirs, pashas, grand muftis, sultanas, harems, -and slaves, intriguing ulema and judges, so long enveloped in the mist -of fancy, are, in modern days, to emerge into the sunlight of truth and -civilization, and exhibit to the study of philanthropy, only the type -of ancient usages and the actual scenes of <span class="corr" id= -"xd25e656" title="Source: every day">everyday</span> life. Amid the -votaries to superstition and fanaticism, side by side with the banner -of the Cross, the followers of the Prophet, with the Crescent of the -faithful, will, henceforth, march through time into eternity, but known -and read of all men. The door to the East stands open, and we may pass -within the portal to study men and manners, with their institutions, -both social and political.</p> -<p>Many attempts have been made to portray the actual and past -condition of this Oriental empire, and as various have been the lights -and shadows in which <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb13" href="#pb13" -name="pb13">13</a>]</span>it has been pictured; some making the Osmanli -a paragon of humanity, and others again reducing him to a mere polypus -on legs.</p> -<p>“If those who are resident among us,” observes the -editor of the “New York Herald,” “cannot, after the -lapse of years, always succeed in identifying themselves with our -ideas, it is not to be expected that writers at a distance, should be -able to form a fair estimate of American society from such imperfect -evidences as they have before them. We have seen how few foreign -tourists have penetrated below the surface of things in their analysis -of our social and political life.”</p> -<p>If these strictures of the “Herald” are just and true -with reference to American and European countries in general, where -there is such similarity, how much more applicable to our Oriental -clime; for, considering the peculiar form of government, and -construction of society in Turkey, based, as they are, upon the Koran, -traditional customs, and Oriental conventionalities, hitherto so -inaccessible as well as incomprehensible to strangers, it is, indeed, -no matter of wonder that such heterogeneous portraits of Eastern men -and manners have been promulgated to the world by travellers and -bibliomanists.</p> -<p>Language is the great vehicle of ideas, the bond of man with man, -the “open sesame” to the spirit <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb14" href="#pb14" name="pb14">14</a>]</span>of every -community—the record of the past, the exponent of the present, -and the foreteller of the future. But how few, even of modern savans, -have acquired a knowledge of the Oriental dialects, which are never -used in Europe, and only called into exercise by researches into -ancient chronicles. Even many who have long resided in the East, and -whose daily and hourly contact with the inhabitants would seem to -demand a mutual understanding, have lived and died in a stoical -adherence to their own mother tongues.</p> -<p>A French merchant, Mons. B., who had enjoyed the advantages of -commerce in the East for twenty-five years, may be quoted as an -example. Either considering his own superior civilization compromised -by such a condescension to barbarism, or unable to train his -exclusively French organs to any other guise of speech, Mons. -B.’s ideas and expressions were always in his mother tongue. -When, therefore, on a certain occasion, his Turkish porter excited his -displeasure, he poured out his indignation in pure Gallic, which lost -much of its intended effect upon his employé, who could not -imagine the cause of his master’s agitation and vehemence, and -ventured to ask an explanation of a bystander. “What?” said -the irritated Frenchman, “does the stupid fellow mean to say that -having been with me for the past <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb15" -href="#pb15" name="pb15">15</a>]</span>five-and-twenty years, he does -not yet understand French?” “Mashallah!” responded -the astonished Turk, “My master, who has been here so long a -time, why can he not scold me in Turkish?”</p> -<p>Emergencies are constantly occurring, and as interpreters cannot be -omnipresent, ridiculous misunderstandings are often the results.</p> -<p>The complacent French and English seem to think their respective -languages universal, and upon their arrival in the East, address the -people accordingly, who can only look and listen, and strain their -senses for one familiar word or phrase; sometimes the simplest -expression, through some euphonious resemblance, may convey an opposite -meaning, or even a flattering compliment be mistaken for a victimizing -oath.</p> -<p>A party of French naval officers, one day visited the shoe bazaar, -and were attracted by the beauty of the collection of a certain -merchant. The author happening to be present, officiated as interpreter -for them, and advised the merchant to display all his best specimens of -embroidered slippers, so that the gentlemen soon had an innumerable -variety before them. But one of them yet unsatisfied, with a spirit of -independence, took a slipper in his hand, and showing it to the -merchant, said, “<span lang="fr">Beaucoup mieux, beaucoup mieux, -Efendi.</span>” The grave merchant <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb16" href="#pb16" name="pb16">16</a>]</span>instead of replying, -turned all of a sudden pale with rage, and gathering up his embroidered -wares, mercilessly consigned them to the recesses of his shop, and -bestowing upon these insolent giavours a most genuine Turkish -benediction, ordered them to quit his premises instanter. Bewildered at -the singular conduct of the merchant, I inquired as to the cause of his -sudden irritation. “What! did you not hear the impudent rascal -say, <i lang="tr">bokoumu-yé</i>?” said the enraged Turk; -an expression too unfit for ears polite to be translated into English, -though sometimes heard in the purlieus of the Five Points. I attempted -to explain, but in vain; the Turkish was unmistakable, so thought the -shoe-merchant, who insisted that they had at least learned that much of -the language of the country.</p> -<p>Thus, with entire ignorance of the language, thoroughly impregnated -with the prejudices of a European education, the foreigner looks only -upon the surface of things, and comprehends nothing, where the simplest -habits of life and etiquette are diametrically opposed to his -preconceived ideas.</p> -<p>The Osmanli would stare with astonishment at the presumption with -which a Frank uncovered his head in his august presence; while the -exquisite of the <i lang="fr">beau-monde</i> would be lost in wonder to -see his Oriental rival enter his presence <i>without</i> shoes, and -seat himself <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb17" href="#pb17" name= -"pb17">17</a>]</span>on the sofa with his feet carefully concealed -beneath him; thus only conforming to the ancient etiquettes of the -Bible, for Moses was not commanded to uncover his head, but to put off -his shoes. At least, some of the Oriental forms of politeness have -antiquity as their origin, and the sanction of many generations; but -for the varying code of western manners, where can we look, save to the -capricious tastes of the passing times.</p> -<p>Thus are the simplest habits of life reversed, and what is excessive -rudeness to the one, may be the essence of politeness to the other. -Very frequently these contrary customs are the source of ludicrous -mistakes.</p> -<p>As we were walking one day with a friend, a sailor from the English -fleet accidentally dropped his pocket-handkerchief. The gentleman -regretting that the worthy tar should meet with such a loss, hailed -him, at the same time beckoning with his hand <i lang="fr">à la -Turque</i>, which is done by extending the arm and moving the fingers -with the palm downwards, or just in the same manner as would here be -done to imply a more distant removal.</p> -<p>A police officer happening to be at no great distance, the sailor, -on looking back, understood quite naturally my friend’s movement -as a signal for him to make his escape, and accordingly took to his -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb18" href="#pb18" name= -"pb18">18</a>]</span>heels with the greatest rapidity, leaving my -companion in utter amazement. I endeavored to explain to him the reason -of the sailor’s conduct, by showing him the genuine European -style of beckoning, by reversing the hand and moving the up-turned -forefinger back and forth. This astonished him the more, since that -motion is equivalent, in Turkey, to that comical American gesture of -placing the thumb on the tip end of the nose, and extending the -fingers.</p> -<p>Thus things which are in themselves trifles, may lead or mislead to -mighty results, and can only be appreciated when circumstances call -them into action. Therefore nothing but actual nativity and -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb19" href="#pb19" name= -"pb19">19</a>]</span>education among the people, with the enlarged -views which are acquired by a residence in European countries, can -enable an individual to judge and appreciate the peculiar institutions -of Turkey.</p> -<p>The author presents himself to the American public a native of -Constantinople, and of Armenian parentage, with the hope that he may be -able to unfold some new phases of Turkey and Orientalism, which may -tend to remove any unfounded prejudices, and enlighten their minds with -regard to the real and existing state of his country.</p> -<p>In order to attain a just and correct idea of the present state of -Turkey and its probable future, it is most essential to take a cursory -glance at the origin of the nation, its religion, government, civil -laws, social condition, and domestic relations, which are the elements -of nationality. In so doing, the writer has carefully avoided all -partiality, and endeavored to display the truth, simply, and nothing -but the truth, invested with the garb of a peculiar nationality, and -only adorned with the poetry of Oriental tastes and habits as they -actually exist. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb20" href="#pb20" name= -"pb20">20</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e220">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER II.</h2> -<h2 class="main">ORIGIN AND HISTORY.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Turkish and Eastern proverbs have often a deep and -significative meaning under a simple simile. They say, “a -neighbor’s chicken has always so unreal a magnitude in covetous -eyes, that it swells in its proportions even to the size of a -goose!”</p> -<p>Human nature has in reality undergone but few changes since it -descended upon this planet. The simplest shepherds and the richest -sovereigns have been alike swayed by the demon of envy. The earth no -sooner became the inheritance of man, than its treasures excited the -desire of appropriation in his breast. Mine and thine were the earliest -appellatives between man and his brother.</p> -<p>All-bountiful Nature provided a perpetual feast to their physical -wants, in her luxuriant offerings, ready for use, without toil or -labor. The flocks of the early pastoral days wandered from field to -field, along with their shepherd kings. Ample was the territory as they -forsook the soil when winter chilled, and roamed <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb21" href="#pb21" name="pb21">21</a>]</span>to -summer climes exempt from care. Simple in their tastes, they grew and -multiplied until they became mighty nations. But the monarchs of the -animal world, the kings of the forests, could not brook any inroads -upon their dominions, and self-defence awoke man’s ingenuity, and -armed him with the war-club, the unerring stone and sling, the -quivering arrow, and pointed javelin. The practised hand, thus trained -in vanquishing the roaring lion, easily turned against his neighbor -man, and the stronger prevailed in the usurpation of coveted -territories.</p> -<p>Thus war, in the absence of the arts of modern civilization became -the sole aim of these wandering tribes. Alliances were sometimes formed -for mutual protection, and territories were ever changing masters. The -primitive belief that the soil was common property, and that occupancy -gave the only title to possession, induced them to trespass upon the -neighboring territories. This same principle exists even at this -present day among some of the people of the East, of whom the tribe of -Yürücks is well known in Turkey, traversing the whole -dominion of Asia Minor, according to the climate they desire to -find.</p> -<p>Passing by the days of Biblical History and the ancient pedigree of -the Arabians, we will observe the first appearance of the Turks on the -pages of history. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb22" href="#pb22" -name="pb22">22</a>]</span></p> -<p>As early as the ninth century, a small but adventurous band of -Scythians, known as the Turkomans, impelled either by famine or -hostility, crossed the Caspian Mountains, and invaded the Armenian -territories.</p> -<p>Although they were bravely repulsed, still the prosperous condition -of the country was too alluring for them to give up all hope of its -ultimate conquest, they therefore continued to harass the inhabitants -by their incessant incursions.</p> -<p>In the middle of the eleventh century, a vigorous attempt was made, -under the command of Toghrul Bey, a grandson of Seljuk, one of the -principal families of Tartary, with an army of one hundred thousand -men, who ravaged twenty-four of its provinces.</p> -<p>Toghrul, already so distinguished by his valor, now embraced -Islamism, and thus added to the thirst of conquest, the ardor of the -religion of the Prophet. Another more desperate sally was made with -redoubled force, which met with <span class="corr" id="xd25e752" title= -"Source: similiar">similar</span> discomfiture.</p> -<p>Fourteen years after, the infuriated Tartars collecting an army of -no less than three hundred thousand men, renewed their assaults.</p> -<p>Armenia was at this time not only harassed on all sides by Greeks, -Saracens, and Persians, but rent by the internal dissensions of its own -princes; so that it <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb23" href="#pb23" -name="pb23">23</a>]</span>now fell a prey to Toghrul, who massacred, in -cold blood, 140,000 of the inhabitants, carrying many also into -captivity.</p> -<p>The most flourishing provinces in due time were added to the -conquests of the Turkomans, by Alf-arslan the nephew and successor of -Toghrul. Their empire was greatly extended by the son of Alf-arslan, -Melik-Shah, and was subsequently divided among three branches of the -house of Seljuk. Suleyman, the third in descent from Melik-Shah, was -the first Turkoman prince who governed Asia Minor.</p> -<p>Er-Toghrul, or Orthogrul, the son of Suleyman, having by his -assistance on a certain occasion, secured a victory to Ali-ed-din, the -sultan of Babylon, Kara-Hissar in Bithynia, was bestowed upon him, and -there he settled with his family, which consisted of three sons. Osman, -the eldest son and successor of his father, Orthogrul, was left by the -death of Ali-ed-din, the ally of his father, without a rival in the -government of Syria; he was accordingly proclaimed sultan.</p> -<p>In the year 1,300 he made Neapolis the capital of his dominions, and -from thence is dated the foundation of the present Ottoman empire.</p> -<p>Osman was so distinguished by his conquests, and became so endeared -to his subjects, that ever since his time, the appellation of Osmanlis -has been <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb24" href="#pb24" name= -"pb24">24</a>]</span>adopted by them; and the word <i>Türk</i>, or -Turk, so indiscriminately applied to them by the Europeans, is not only -inappropriate, but of a disagreeable signification, for it is only used -among themselves as an epithet of opprobrium.</p> -<p>In the twenty-sixth year of his reign, Osman took the city of -Broossa, in Asia Minor, which his son Orkhan, who succeeded him, made -the capital of his dominions. The desire, however, to possess the city -of Stamboul, was transferred with increasing ardor from sultan to -sultan; but the glory of its conquest was reserved for Mohammed II.</p> -<p>The effeminate condition of the Greeks favored his design; for out -of a population of 200,000 men, there were scarcely 8,000 ready to -defend their capital; and on the 29th of May, 1453, Constantinople fell -into the hands of the Osmanlis, or descendants of Osman, who have held -it in possession until the present day.</p> -<p>It is evident that the Osmanlis are the descendants of the -Scythians, or one of the Tartar tribes; but who those Scythians -originally were, may be questioned.</p> -<p>A very curious, but plausible theory is advanced by some persons, -that the Tartars are of the Jewish race. Tarat-har or Tartar, in the -Syrian language, signifies the <i>remnant of a people</i>. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb25" href="#pb25" name="pb25">25</a>]</span></p> -<p>Now, in the second book of Kings, it is recorded that the King of -Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria, and placed -them in Halah and Habor, by the river of Gozan in the cities of the -Medes. This was about 720 years before Christ.</p> -<p>Medea is situated near the Caspian Sea; possessed entirely by these -Tartars.</p> -<p>The names which are given to their principal cities, are the same as -were common among the Jews. For instance, the capital of Tartary is -called Semerkand; which is a corruption of Samaryan, very similar to -Samaria. There are, moreover, many relics of antiquity in this city, -which bear undeniable evidences of having been Jewish monuments. They -have also another town called Jericho, a Mount Sion and a Mount Tabor, -with a river Yordon or Jordan.</p> -<p>They are divided into <i>ten tribes</i>, bearing names similar to -the ancient patriarchs of Israel.</p> -<p>They are under one government, but avoid all intermarriages; which -was also a peculiar observance of the Jews. There is also a great -similarity between the Tartar and the Hebrew languages. The degeneracy -of their language, may be attributed to the fact, that they were long -captives in a strange land, and removed from all intercourse with more -enlightened nations.</p> -<p>The Tartars have <span class="corr" id="xd25e803" title= -"Source: ever">even</span> been known to observe the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb26" href="#pb26" name="pb26">26</a>]</span>Jewish -rites of worship and circumcision, and they traditionally boast -themselves to be descended from those Israelites, who, conquering their -conquerors, became possessed of all the territories by the Caspian Sea. -Indeed, Timour-link or Tamerlane the Great, is said to have proudly -asserted, that he was descended in a direct line from the tribe of -Dan.</p> -<p>From these facts, it seems very probable that the people known as -the Tartars, are the ten lost tribes of the Jews; and it is -historically certain, that the founders of the present Turkish Empire, -are descendants of these Tartars. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb27" -href="#pb27" name="pb27">27</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch3" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e230">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER III.</h2> -<h2 class="main">RELIGION.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Five hundred and sixty-nine years after Christ, -Mohammed the prophet was born at Mecca, where his immediate ancestors -had for many years enjoyed a sort of regal and priestly authority over -the Caaba or Temple of the Arabians, which, for at least seven hundred -years, had been the shrine of adoration for the worshippers of the sun, -moon, and stars.</p> -<p>His family was considered the most illustrious, among the tribes of -the Arabs, so that he was born to distinction.</p> -<p>The early loss of his parents left him an orphan, under the care of -his uncle Abu-Taleb, who paid little attention to his nephew.</p> -<p>At the early age of twelve years, he was initiated into the -mysteries of Eastern commerce, as he journeyed with his uncle through -Syria, to Bassora and Damascus. But the contemplative mind of this -youth, destined to become the Prophet of his country, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb28" href="#pb28" name="pb28">28</a>]</span>gathered -into its fructifying soil the tenets of the religious faith of the -Christians, which were more congenial to his spirit than the idolatries -of his own people.</p> -<p>The Arabs too, were anticipating the birth of a Messiah of their -own, who was to descend from the sacred guardians of the Caaba; so that -circumstances seemed to point out to the precocious youth, this road to -greatness.</p> -<p>Well born, of insinuating manners and graceful address, noble and -majestic in appearance, Mohammed became the object of affection to the -wealthy widow Khatijeh, who married him, and thus riches were added to -his facilities.</p> -<p>The great crowd of pilgrims who assembled in Mecca, afforded the -Prophet constant occasions for the discussion of various systems of -religious faith, until Mohammed resolved to announce himself as the -completion of the revelation of God to the Jews and -Christians—the predicted by Moses and Christ, who coming after -them, should be the greatest of all the prophets.</p> -<p>To the idolatrous Arabs he proclaimed one God, omnipotent and -imperishable; to the Christians he revived the unity of their Maker, -and recalled to the Jews the Jehovah, whose worship they had so -corrupted. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb29" href="#pb29" name= -"pb29">29</a>]</span></p> -<p>The confusion of the Asiatic states, rent with wars, tumults and -heresies, wonderfully favored the spread of Mohammedanism, even beyond -the warmest anticipations of the Prophet.</p> -<p>Arming himself with the sword, and promising the joys of paradise to -every soldier of the Crescent who should die on the battle-field, he -led on this wonderful prodigy of a religious faith, conquering and to -conquer.</p> -<p>At this day there are no less than 200,550,000 Mahommedans! The -Koran, or <i>the written</i>, is the compendium of the faith, practice -and civil laws of Mussulmans, ingeniously compiled by their great -Arabian Prophet, and is styled by the Faithful, The Light of God, Sole -Guide to Paradise, Divine Director to Heavenly Glories, and in common -parlance, The Eternal Word—<i>Kelamu-Kadim</i>. They acknowledge -the divine origin of the Pentateuch, the Psalms of David, and the four -Gospels, and upon these books, with the Koran, their oaths are -taken.</p> -<p>The Koran declares, “Verily the true religion in the sight of -God is Islam,” which is the proper name of the Mohammedan faith, -and it signifies resignation or submission to the service and commands -of God. It consists of two principles, <i>Iman</i>, or Faith, and -<i>Din</i><span class="corr" id="xd25e856" title="Source: .">,</span> -Religion or Practice. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb30" href="#pb30" -name="pb30">30</a>]</span></p> -<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">IMAN OR FAITH.</h3> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The great article of Faith is called <i>Salavat</i>, -and is expressed in these words:</p> -<p>“La-Illah, Ill-Allah, Mohammed Ressoul-Ullah.” There is -no God, but God, and <span class="corr" id="xd25e871" title= -"Source: Mahommed">Mohammed</span> is the Apostle of God.</p> -<p>They deny the doctrine of the Trinity, although they acknowledge the -attributes of God, his greatness, goodness, justice, omnipresence, -omniscience, and incomprehensibility. Christ is acknowledged to have -been a prophet greater than Moses, but inferior to Mohammed. He is -styled the Word of God, <i>Kelam-Ullah</i>, in their writings, supposed -to have been miraculously conceived by the Virgin Mary, but not of -divine origin. The crucifixion they regard as inconsistent with the -justice of God; to yield up so mighty a prophet, endowed with power to -work miracles, and raise the dead, a victim to the unbelieving Jews, -they deem incompatible with divine supremacy, and even say, that when -Christ was led out to die, he was, invisibly to his persecutors, -transported into heaven, Judas the betrayer being substituted in his -stead. No terrors of <i>eternal</i> punishment in a future state -distract the unfaithful Moslems, all of whom will, in due time, expiate -their offences and be admitted <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb31" -href="#pb31" name="pb31">31</a>]</span>to happiness. Two angels are -supposed to attend them through life and in death. One white, glorious -and commiserate; the other black, severe, and cruel.</p> -<p>There will also be a last judgment, when a tremendous trumpet will -shake the earth to atoms. God will judge all men. Moses, Christ, and -Mohammed, will appear at the head of their respective followers, as -intercessors. And Cain will lead the immense multitude of the damned, -who are doomed to suffer till their sins are cancelled, when they will -take their seats in Paradise; while Hell, the Devil, and his wicked -angels, will be suddenly annihilated.</p> -<p>A narrow bridge, fine as a hair, called <i>Surat</i>, lies over the -region of the damned. The righteous, upheld by their guardian angels, -pass over safely; while the guilty fall down into awful flames and -torture, doomed to quaff nothing but “boiling water, until their -bowels burst.<span class="corr" id="xd25e891" title= -"Not in source">”</span></p> -<p>Paradise is above the seventh heaven, near the throne of God. A vast -and beautiful region, with palaces of gold and gardens of perpetual -delight, in the midst of which is the tree of happiness, Tuba, whose -roots are in the palace of the Prophet, but whose branches, loaded with -luscious fruits and all kinds of meats prepared for food, silken robes -and caparisoned steeds, will extend to the dwelling of <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb32" href="#pb32" name="pb32">32</a>]</span>every -true believer. Softly murmuring fountains, cooling shades and grottoes, -mountains of sparkling diamonds, and golden trees, will adorn the -gardens of delight, while the ravishing houris of these enchanting -regions, will be blessed with perpetual youth and virginity.</p> -<p>The most insignificant of the Faithful will have a retinue of 80,000 -servants and 72 wives, of the sweetly odoriferous damsels, created of -pure musk, in addition to the companions of his earthly sojourn. -Delicious streams of wine, milk, and honey, will flow on perpetually; -balmy zephyrs will pervade the atmosphere; the very physical excretions -of the true believers will be but odoriferous exhalations.</p> -<p>While the senses are thus ravished with delights, the most excelling -of all their beatific visions will be the presence of Allah, which is -beyond the power of language to describe.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Fatalism</span> is a characteristic item in the -Mohammedan creed.</p> -<p>They believe that whatever happens is pre-ordained by the -Omniscient, which article of faith is designated <i>Kader</i> or -predestination. But the doctrine of “free-agency” the -<i>Iradeyi-Jüseeyé</i> or the “lesser will,” is -also in their creed. Hence every one is bound to exert himself to his -utmost; and it is only when he fails, that he resigns himself calmly -and philosophically <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb34" href="#pb34" -name="pb34">34</a>]</span>to his disappointment, saying <i>kader</i>, -or it is my fate.</p> -<p>The following legend may perhaps serve to illustrate the spirit of -Oriental Fatalism:</p> -<p>Half-way across the Bosphorus, and between Seraglio Point and -Scutari, in Asia, is the renowned Kiz-Koulessi, or the Maiden’s -Tower. It was predicted that the beautiful daughter of a certain sultan -would meet with an early death, from the bite of a serpent. Contrary to -prediction, her father hoped to avert her fate, by placing her in a -situation inaccessible to those reptiles. As he revolved the subject in -his mind, from the windows of the Seraglio, his eye rested on the rock -in the stream, where he immediately ordered a tower to be erected, and -thither the unhappy princess was conveyed and immured in her island -home.</p> -<p>But who can resist the decrees of Fate?</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<div lang="tr" class="lg"> -<p class="line">Bin djahd etsen na-muradé</p> -<p class="line">Olmaz moukadderden ziyadé.</p> -</div> -<div class="lg"> -<p class="line">You may do your utmost,</p> -<p class="line">But you cannot conquer Fate.</p> -</div> -</div> -<p class="first">Scutari, fruitful in vineyards, and far-famed for its -delicious grapes, was destined to furnish the venom, which poisoned the -crimson tide in the veins of the beautiful sultana; for a basket of -Scutari grapes <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb35" href="#pb35" name= -"pb35">35</a>]</span>concealed the viper, which was the instrument in -the hand of Fate, and the fulfillment of the prophecy.</p> -<p>It is, doubtless, in the recollection of many of the citizens of New -York, that a short time ago an individual passing by Wallack’s -Theatre was suddenly killed by the falling of the flag-staff from the -top of the building. This sad occurrence was not the result of -carelessness or temerity, but purely accidental; and would also be -termed in Turkey <i>kaza</i> or accident. Yet why the accident should -have happened to this individual more than to any other of the hundreds -of persons who passed the same spot—Mohammedan doctrine would -simply answer, “it was his <i>kader</i> or predestination.” -To mourn, therefore, for the dead, or complain against misfortune, -would by them be esteemed a grievous sin, as though censuring the -Almighty, without whose knowledge “not a sparrow falleth to the -ground.”</p> -<p>It is not Fatalism that makes the Mohammedan indifferent to -casualties, but his exaggerated and misconceived ideas of his religious -obligations; for human imperfectibility is as prominent an article of -their creed as Fatalism, and even induces a disposition to avoid -self-improvement either intellectually or externally. Perfection being -the attribute of the Deity, it is unbecoming in his creatures to -assert, in any form whatever, their capabilities of approximation -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb36" href="#pb36" name= -"pb36">36</a>]</span>to such a condition. While, then, their minds -repose in the simplicity of innate ideas, they even seek imperfection -in the investiture of their bodies. They will rend their garments so as -to mar their completeness, assume an air of general slovenliness, or -studiously clip the corner of a sheet of paper to destroy its regular -uniformity.</p> -<p>It is, then, most erroneous to suppose that the doctrine of Fatalism -is so antagonistic to civilization in the East, as it implies -resignation to the Divine will, and by no means impedes active personal -exertion. But in reality it is the seeming propriety of human -imperfection, in contradistinction to the Divine excellence, which has -hitherto maintained a spirit of indifference to progressive -improvement. While an entire submission to the course of events, as -preordained and predestined by the Omniscient, prevents all restless -anxiety, and calms the repinings of the heart-broken and weary, this -more truly fatal and false notion of inferiority, only leaves the -immortal mind in a sort of embryo state, lest, perchance, there should -be any assimilation to the great Supreme Essence, from which it is but -an emanation, or the spark should glow with the brightness of the fire -from which it has been wafted. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb37" -href="#pb37" name="pb37">37</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch4" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e240">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER IV.</h2> -<h2 class="main">SECTARIANISM.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Besides the Koran, there are other sacred and -traditional books called the <i>Sonnah</i>, the productions of -Abubekir, Omer, and Osman, the successors of the Prophet. The ancient -caliphs of Egypt and Babylon have also added their own. These books -have numerous commentaries upon them, which constitute the principal -part of the Mohammedan literature, and have been the source of much -dissension. Sectarianism, therefore, prevails among the Mussulmans as -in every part of the world. We will only mention those sects with whom -the traveller in the East is apt to come in contact.</p> -<p>The principal schism which divides the Mohammedan nation is that of -the Sünnees and the Sheyees.</p> -<p>The Sünnees are the orthodox party, and believe in the -traditions attributed to the Prophet and his successors, and are strict -in all their observances. Whereas the Sheyees reject all traditions and -are <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb38" href="#pb38" name= -"pb38">38</a>]</span>strict legitimists, adhering to Aali, who married -the Prophet’s daughter, as the rightful successor, and rendering -their homage to his descendants.</p> -<p>The Turks are all Sünnees, and the Persians Sheyees, the one is -more fanatical, the other more superstitious, and as the difference -between them is small, so is their mutual hatred proportionably -intense.</p> -<p>The Sünnees repudiate Aali, the infallible director of the -Sheyees, who, in their turn, decapitate the representatives -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb39" href="#pb39" name= -"pb39">39</a>]</span>of the Prophet, Abubekir, Omer, and Osman in -effigy. For they erect these persons in sugar at their festivals, and -when merry over their wine, cut the respected friends of Mohammed into -pieces and actually drink them in solution.</p> -<p>The Turks elevate the sacred color, green, to their heads and -turbans with the greatest respect, but in contradistinction, the -Persians choose this hue for their shoes, trowsers, and every other -disrespectful use their ingenuity can devise. When the one shaves, the -other does not, and scorns the thorough ablutions of his rival. Indeed -no matter how or what, so it be <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> -<p>Most ingenious and vituperative are their mutual curses. “May -your fatigued and hated soul, when damned to <i>Berzak</i> (purgatory), -find no more rest than a Giavour’s hat enjoys upon earth.” -Doubtless alluding to the peculiar custom of the Franks in uncovering -their head in saluting, and the wear and tear that head-gear has to -undergo. “May your transmuted soul become in hell a hackney ass, -for the Jews themselves to ride about on,” and many such emphatic -compliments are the height of fashion among the zealous adherents of -each adverse party.</p> -<p>Not only in the West, but in the East,</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“’Tis strange there should such difference -be,</p> -<p class="line">’Twixt tweedledum and tweedledee.”</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb40" href="#pb40" name= -"pb40">40</a>]</span></p> -<p>Apart from the foregoing, the very meaning of the word Islam, or -resignation to the service and commands of God, has been a source of -much dissertation and dissension, and has produced a variety of sects, -of which the Hanefees, Mevlevees, Rifayees, and Abdals, are the most -noted in Turkey. The Hanefees are the contemplative philosophers, -Oriental spiritualists or transcendentalists; and to this class the -sultan and the principal part of the people belong. The Mevlevees are -the dancing or whirling dervishes, and they may therefore be considered -as the Oriental Shakers. Their object is practical resignation to God, -which state of mind they think they attain, by whirling round and round -until their senses are lost in the dizzy motion.</p> -<p>They conform to the general tenets and observances, but their form -of worship is peculiar.</p> -<p>Their religious edifices are called <i>Tekkés</i>, which are -open every Tuesday and Friday, and are frequently visited by the sultan -and Europeans in general.</p> -<p>A large square space, which is surrounded by a circular railing, -constitutes the scene of their ritual, or ceremonies. A gallery -occupies three sides of the building, in which is the latticed -apartment of the sultan, and the place for the Turkish ladies.</p> -<p>In every mosque, and here also, there is a niche <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb41" href="#pb41" name="pb41">41</a>]</span>opposite -the entrance, called the <i>Mihrab</i>, which indicates the direction -of Mecca. The walls are adorned with entablatures, ornamented with -verses from the Koran, and with ciphers of sultans, and mottos in -memory of other benevolent individuals, who have endowed the -Tekké.</p> -<p>The Sheikh, or leader of the community, sits in <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb42" href="#pb42" name="pb42">42</a>]</span>front of -the <i>Mihrab</i>, on an Angora goat-skin, or a carpet, attended by two -of his disciples.</p> -<p>An attenuated old man, with a visage furrowed and withered by time, -bronzed by many successive suns, his long and grizzly beard witnessing -to the ravages of age, while his prominent eyes sparkling like -lightnings amid the surrounding darkness, are the only symbols of -animation or life, in his worn-out frame.</p> -<p>The dervishes, as they enter, make a low obeisance with folded hands -to this patron saint, with an air of mystic veneration, and take their -stand with their faces towards Mecca. The old sheikh arises, and -presiding over the assembly commences the services.</p> -<p>Their peculiar head-gear, called <i>sikké</i>, of thick brown -felt, in the shape of a sugar loaf, and long and flowing robes of -varied hues, make them seem like fantastic representations of some -other sphere, particularly, when they commence the slow and measured -prostrations of Mussulman worship.</p> -<p>Prayers being over, each dervish doffs his mantle, and appears in a -long white fustanella, trailing the polished floor, and of innumerable -folds, with a tightly fitting vest of the same pure color.</p> -<p>They now defile two by two before the sheikh, who extending his hand -towards them, seems to diffuse a <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb43" -href="#pb43" name="pb43">43</a>]</span>sort of magnetism, which -irradiates every countenance.</p> -<p>As they stand immovable, the wild and thrilling music slowly -pervades every sense, until suddenly one of the number extends his -arms, and begins to revolve noiselessly, with slow and measured step. -The folds of his ample skirt now gradually open like the wings of a -bird, and with the swiftness of his motion, expand, until the dervish -only appears like the centre of a whirlwind. The rest are all alike in -motion, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb44" href="#pb44" name= -"pb44">44</a>]</span>arms extended, eyes half closed as in a dream, the -head inclined on one side, they move round and round to the measured -time of the music, as if floating in ecstasy.</p> -<p>The calm and unimpassioned chief, with slow and stealthy step, -wanders among their evolutions. Suddenly they cease, and march around -the circle. The music increases its measure, and the dervishes again -commence their giddy motions; old and young seem to be in a visionary -rhapsody. Perhaps transported in the bewildering whirl to the regions -of the blest, they languish with rapture in the arms of the houris of -Paradise; or lose their earthly senses amid the glories which surround -the throne of Allah; till suddenly they stand transfixed, their -outspread and snowy drapery folding around them like the marble -investment of an antique statue.</p> -<p>They are all prostrated, exhausted by their ecstasies, and -immovable, until the sheikh recalls them to the realities of time by -his holy benediction, when they slowly rise again, compass the -building, and enveloping themselves with their cast-off mantles, -silently disappear. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb45" href="#pb45" -name="pb45">45</a>]</span></p> -<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">HOWLING DERVISHES.</h3> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">There is an intoxication in the very motions of the -whirling dervishes, but the horrible ceremonies of the Rifayees are -really distressing to the beholder.</p> -<p>A long, empty hall, much like that of the Inquisition, as its walls -are adorned by an infinite variety <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb46" -href="#pb46" name="pb46">46</a>]</span>of instruments of torture, -constitutes their temple of worship.</p> -<p>The fanatical disciples of this sect assemble every Thursday at -their Tekké, which is in Scutari, and after the performance of -the usual ritual of the Mussulmans, commence their ceremonies by -ranging themselves along the three sides of the apartment and within -the balustrade, which serves to separate them from the spectators.</p> -<p>Their sheikh takes his stand before the Mihrab facing the assembly, -and three or four of the members furnishing themselves with instruments -of music place themselves in the centre of the hall.</p> -<p>The performance then begins, by a monotonous chant, accompanied with -music, and the waving of their heads to and fro, which seems to create -a sympathetic vertigo in the Mussulman bystanders—for they often -are irresistibly drawn into the ranks.</p> -<p>By degrees, the motion increases, the chant grows louder, and their -countenances become livid, and their lungs seem to expand with the -noise and excitement.</p> -<p>The line becomes a solid phalanx as they place their arms on each -other’s shoulders, and withdrawing a step, suddenly advance with -a tremendous and savage yell, Allah—Allah—Allah—hoo! -which divine appellative is to be repeated a thousand times -uninterruptedly. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb47" href="#pb47" name= -"pb47">47</a>]</span></p> -<p>This strenuous effort renders them perfectly hideous, their very -eyes seem ready to start from their sockets, and their lips foam as the -inspiration possesses them. Thus retreating and springing forward, -they, each time, with increasing energy, renew their invocations of -Allah, Allah, Allah, hoo! until the distinctness of their articulation -is lost, and their exclamation becomes, in reality a complete howl, as -if proceeding from a pack of enraged dogs—thus meriting the -sobriquet of the “Howling Dervishes.”</p> -<p>The movements and cries increase in swiftness until a mist of dust -pervades the dim apartment, and the wild and pale enthusiasts, drenched -with perspiration, seem like fantastic demons in the realms of discord. -Suddenly some of them, stripped to their waists, rush forward and -seizing the poignards and stilettoes, commence a wild, infuriated -dance, jumping, leaping, and lacerating themselves—fixing the -weapons into the hollow of their cheeks, and twisting them round and -round, as if on pivots, until, exhausted from exertion, they fall to -the ground in a spasmodic fit.</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“Only to show with how small pain,</p> -<p class="line">The sores of faith are cured again,”</p> -</div> -<p class="first">Now the enthusiastic mothers approach, and cast their -children before the presiding sheikh, who, as <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb48" href="#pb48" name="pb48">48</a>]</span>they lie -extended before him, deliberately plants his heavy feet upon their -frail bodies, and so stands for some seconds. Old men and maidens, lay -themselves low before this saint, who is supposed to be by this time so -inspired as to have a miraculous power of expressing all ailments and -maladies from the human frame, and to have become so etherealized by -the ecstatic ceremonies as to lose all his specific gravity.</p> -<p>The <i>Abdals</i> include the various classes of the stoics, who -generally pretend to a total renunciation of <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb49" href="#pb49" name="pb49">49</a>]</span>all -worldly comforts. Sometimes clothed in the coarsest garments, and again -half naked, and even with lacerated bodies, they wander through the -Mohammedan dominions, a miserable set of frantic, idle, and conceited -beggars. They may, in fact, be considered the “communists” -of the East, who despising honest pursuits, live upon the community at -large.</p> -<p>They commit the worst extravagances under the pretence of heavenly -raptures, and are even supposed to be divinely inspired. Idiots and -fools are esteemed by the Mohammedans as the favorites of Heaven; their -spirits are supposed to have deserted their earthly tenements, and to -be holding converse with angels, while their bodies still wander about -the earth.</p> -<p>It would be wearisome to go into further details; for infinite is -the diversity of the orthodox theologies of the Mohammedans, with the -235 articles of the creed, on which all the doctors of divinity differ; -hopeless must be the task of the student to surmount the commentaries -of the 280 canonical authors, not to mention the innumerable heretical -tenets of other sects, which must be studied to be controverted.</p> -<p>Verily we would suggest the recipe of a certain <i>Molla</i>, who -must have given up in dire despair, “Whenever you meet with an -infidel, abuse him <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb50" href="#pb50" -name="pb50">50</a>]</span>with all your might, and no one will doubt -you are a staunch believer.”</p> -<p>As long as war and its exciting scenes occupied the restless minds -of the Arabs, there was no time for religious or party intrigue. The -simple “La Illah-Illallah,” satisfied the momentary -breathings of their souls heavenward.</p> -<p>The turmoil of their life, the glitter of their arms and dreadful -carnage of all infidels, sufficed to ease their fancy, and satisfy the -thirst for excitement.</p> -<p>It was as they wiped their blood-stained scimitars, and during the -reaction which comparative peace and luxury created, that their minds, -free from more substantial food and activity, sought greater refinement -of spirituality.</p> -<p>In the absence of the real, the speculative began to grow, until -Imams and Ulema found that they could turn the tide of human affairs to -their own advantage, by exciting polemical and theological -controversies.</p> -<p>A comparative study of the niceties of Mussulman doctrine, and -hair-breadth distinctions with those of more refined and enlightened -creeds, while it displays many and striking similarities, only -illustrates, with startling vividness, the time worn maxim, that -“there is nothing new under the sun.” <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb51" href="#pb51" name="pb51">51</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch5" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e250">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER V.</h2> -<h2 class="main">DIN OR PRACTICE OF RELIGION.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The <i>Din</i>, or Practice of Religion, comprises -ablution, prayer, alms, fasting, and a pilgrimage to Mecca.</p> -<p><i>Ablution.</i>—Bathing, and various forms of ablutions, were -practised long before the time of Mohammed; but he has incorporated -cleanliness with his religion, until his followers seem to regard water -as not only possessed of virtue to cleanse the pollutions of their -bodies, but as purifying their souls from the contamination of sin. -Therefore, fountains are always to be found in the neighborhood of all -the mosques, in every part of the city and its suburbs, and on the -highways—for they never omit this preliminary to their devotions, -which includes washing the face, hands, and feet; and when they happen -to be in the desert, where no water can be obtained, sand is -substituted. Indeed, the same ablutions are so essential, that their -observance is invariably required of the faithful, before the -administration of an oath. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb52" href= -"#pb52" name="pb52">52</a>]</span></p> -<p><i>Prayers.</i> Five times a day the Mussulmans are summoned to -prayer by the <i>muezzin</i>.</p> -<p>Early in the morning, just before the sun is above the horizon, the -<i>ezan</i> resounds through the still atmosphere, from the airy -balcony of the tapering <i>Minaré</i>. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb53" href="#pb53" name="pb53">53</a>]</span></p> -<p>The Muezzin, covering his ears with his hands, as if to exclude all -<span class="corr" id="xd25e1183" title= -"Source: terrestial">terrestrial</span> sound, turns his face towards -Mecca, and chants with musical cadence, the beautiful Arabic formula. -<span class="corr" id="xd25e1186" title= -"Not in source">“</span>Allah, ikber! Allah ikber! &c, great -God! great God! there is no God, but God! I attest that Mohammed is the -apostle of God! Oh, Great Redeemer! Oh! Ruler of the universe! great -God! great God! there is no God but God!” and he slowly moves -round the balcony, as if addressing the inhabitants of all parts of the -world.</p> -<p>Those who catch the echoes of the holy call, exclaim with solemn -earnestness, “There is no power, no strength but in God -Almighty.”</p> -<p>Again, when the hour of noon seems to indicate a moment of repose to -the work-day world, the ezan summons all thoughts and aspirations to -the great God. At three o’clock in the afternoon, at sunset, and -finally at nine o’clock, the call resounds ere they prepare for -sleep.</p> -<p>How beautiful thus to note the passage of time, to look thus from -earth to heaven, to forget for a moment all worldly cares, and breathe -out a soul aspiration towards a better land.</p> -<p>Those who happen to be near a mosque, enter it for the purpose of -performing their devotions; others are in their own houses; and many -prostrate themselves by the wayside; or even on board the daily -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb55" href="#pb55" name= -"pb55">55</a>]</span>steamers. The mosques are always open, and there -is an Imam who presides over the devotions.</p> -<p>The interior of a mosque, is as simple as that of any Protestant -church. The only ornaments seen are the suspended lamps, interspersed -here and there with ostrich eggs. There are no accommodations for -sitting down, and the altar is the niche or <i>mihrab</i>. There is a -small pulpit on one side, from which a sermon is preached every Friday -noon; but the form of prayer is always the same.</p> -<p>As they assemble, they leave their shoes at the door, “for the -ground is holy,” and seat themselves upon the floor, which is -either covered with carpet or matting.</p> -<p>At the appointed time, the Imam commences the service, by taking his -position before the mihrab; and placing his thumbs behind his ears, as -if with his open palms to shut out all objects of sense, proclaims to -the assembly, “Allah-ikber! Allah-ikber!” The congregation -rise and imitate the officiating priest. All remain standing with their -hands folded on their bosoms, while the Imam repeats the first chapter -of the Koran—which is the Lord’s Prayer of the Mohammedans, -termed <i>Fatiha</i>.</p> -<p>“In the name of the most merciful God; praise be to God, the -Lord of all creatures; the most merciful; the King of the day of -judgment; thee do we worship, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb56" href= -"#pb56" name="pb56">56</a>]</span>and of thee do we beg assistance; -direct us in the right way, in the way of those to whom thou hast been -gracious; not of those against whom them art incensed, nor of those who -go astray. Amen.<span class="corr" id="xd25e1221" title= -"Not in source">”</span></p> -<p>They then make a semi-genuflexion, by placing the hands on the -knees, and bending the person forward. A complete genuflexion succeeds, -which is made by bending the knees to the ground, and extending the -arms forward as a support to the body, while the forehead touches the -ground.</p> -<p>These same genuflexions are again repeated; then partially rising -they sit on their bended knees. Here endeth the first lesson, for two -other <span class="corr" id="xd25e1233" title= -"Source: similiar">similar</span> ceremonies are repeated successively, -during which any portion of the Koran may be selected by the -officiating Imam for recitation.</p> -<p>The termination of the service is known when the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb57" href="#pb57" name="pb57">57</a>]</span>Imam, -after a few moments of silent meditation, slowly turns his head, first -towards the right and then to the left, in token of salutation to the -two recording angels who are supposed to be hovering over each -shoulder. He then strokes his beard, and rises from his devotions. His -example is followed by the congregation, who immediately disperse.</p> -<p>There is a wonderful air of sacred stillness during the services in -a mosque. The simplest and plainest attire is worn, and everything -excluded which could divert the attention from God and his worship.</p> -<p>No man utters prayers as matters of form, while he stares about to -see how his neighbors’ clothes are fashioned. No sound of -footsteps or creaking boots is heard, nor opening or shutting of pews. -No cushioned seats invite to listlessness, or even to slumbers; no -<i>ennui</i> steals over their devotional spirits; the world is -literally and practically excluded. No earthly houris tempt their -thoughts from God, with alluring smiles and recognitions; there is no -peeping from behind the prayer books, or fluttering fans, or any other -of the insinuating wiles of coquetry.</p> -<p>Ladies with their sweet eyes turned to heaven, while their rosy lips -are modeled to scorn of their neighbor’s want of taste and -fashion, are invisible in the Mohammedan temple.</p> -<p>Here the faithful come to worship God, and they <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb58" href="#pb58" name="pb58">58</a>]</span>wisely -divest the shrine of their devotions of all the trappings of earthly -grandeur, and leave beyond the portal the alluring and sensual -pleasures of earth. The presence of Infidels during the hours of -worship is expressly forbidden, not only as being a source of mental -distraction to the faithful, but in reality an act of <i>perjury</i> on -their own part. “It is not fitting that the idolaters should -visit the temples of God, <i>being witnesses against their own souls of -their infidelity</i>. The works of these men are vain, and they shall -remain in hell-fire forever. But he only shall visit the temples of -God, who believeth in God and the last day, and is constant at prayer, -and payeth legal alms, and feareth God alone.”</p> -<p><i>Alms.</i>—The essence of Islamism, resignation to the will -of God, has its legitimate effect upon the benevolence of the -Mohammedans. If Allah bestows wealth and luxury, they receive and enjoy -the good gifts, but without any self-gratulation. If misfortune arrive, -they submit without any feeling of degradation, practically -illustrating the words of Job, “Shall we receive good at the hand -of the Lord and not evil?”</p> -<p>The faithful are enjoined to be constant in prayer and give alms. -“Contribute out of your substance towards the religion of God, -and throw not yourselves into perdition. Do good, for God loveth those -who <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb59" href="#pb59" name= -"pb59">59</a>]</span>do good; unto such of you as believe and bestow -alms, shall be given a great reward,” and whoever pays not his -legal contribution of alms duly, it is declared by Mohammed, that he -shall have a serpent twisted about his neck at the resurrection; so -that the Mussulmans have every incentive to charity, both as regards -this life and that which is to come.</p> -<p>It is very common for them to found charitable institutions, such as -poorhouses, hospitals, etc., and the same principles of charity induce -them to an unlimited hospitality.</p> -<p>During the feast of Ramazan, a special table is set for the poor, in -the houses of the wealthy, who come and partake without summons or -invitation. The innumerable beggars and mendicant dervishes in Turkey, -are doubtless tolerated from the same spirit of liberality.</p> -<p>As the Koran is but a compilation from Jewish and Christian writers, -adapted to the spirit of the age in which it was promulgated, no doubt -the difficult but sublime doctrine of Christ, “Let not thy right -hand know what thy left hand doeth,” was appreciated by the -Prophet in his directions regarding the exercise of the grace of -charity: “God loveth not the proud or vainglorious, nor those who -bestow their wealth in charity, to be observed of men.” -“Verily God will not wrong any one, even <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb60" href="#pb60" name="pb60">60</a>]</span>the -weight of an ant, and if it be a good action, He will double it, and -will recompense it in his sight with a great reward.” Their -charities are, therefore, bestowed with the greatest modesty and -willingness, their supplications for aid from others made without any -air of servility.</p> -<p>It devolves, then, upon modern civilization to establish corporate -and organized charitable bodies in Turkey, and to initiate the simple -Mussulmans into the self satisfaction which is awakened by public -meetings, and the parade of printed records.</p> -<p><i>Fasting.</i>—We live to eat, or we eat to -live—therefore when we are denied the great business and aim of -life, we undergo a very palpable kind of mortification. The dainty -epicurean seldom conforms to any regulations for extra abstemiousness, -while others, more superstitious, merely vary the hours of their -repast—merging the substantial meal into those which have not the -nomenclature, but yet become the reality of a good dinner. Again, the -pleasant variety of fish for fowl, or of oil for butter, does not leave -any sensation of emptiness, or mortification of the appetite. But there -is a sort of genuineness in the Mohammedan style of observing a -fast—when, for fourteen consecutive hours, absolutely nothing -passes the lips—not a drop of water, not even the homemade saliva -is swallowed—no hunger-easing pipe is <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb61" href="#pb61" name="pb61">61</a>]</span>smoked, -nor anything indulged in to palliate the gnawings of hunger and thirst. -The laborer toils under a summer sun—the weary <i>hammal</i> -climbs the towering hills under an incredible load—the athletic -boatman for many hours pulls the oars; work, toil, labor cease not, but -the wonted sustenance is utterly <span class="corr" id="xd25e1287" -title="Source: witheld">withheld</span>.</p> -<p>It is wonderful to see this part of the Mussulman population during -the fasting season—bodily strength and vigor exuding in profuse -perspiration from every pore, while steady persistence in utter -abstinence from all refreshment is persevered in.</p> -<p>This great monthly fast occurs once in every year—</p> -<p>“The month of Ramazan shall ye fast, in which the Koran was -sent down.”</p> -<p>As they observe the lunar year, it falls in all seasons—and -when it occurs during the dog-days, the sufferings of the faithful are -truly great and distressing. Not only are they forbidden all lusts of -the belly and the flesh, such as may be committed by the eye, ear, -tongue, hand, feet and other members, but the heart must be abstracted -as much as possible from the world, and turned only to God and -paradise—thus, a season of holy rest is instituted.</p> -<p>Among the many idlers who can afford to loiter away the day, some -assume an appearance of unusual sanctimoniousness, whose peculiarly -long faces and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb62" href="#pb62" name= -"pb62">62</a>]</span>abstracted airs, most effectually ward off any -attempts to recall them to the realities of life.</p> -<p>They listlessly toy with their chaplets, gazing into vacancy as -polished bead after bead slips through their fingers, and seemingly are -as divested of thought, as the unmeaning, but apparently, absorbing -playthings they ever dangle. These beads have no such significance as -the Catholic rosaries, but are always in the hand of the Oriental -gentlemen and ladies, and are often of great value, being composed of -large pearls and other precious gems, though the ordinary style is to -make them of cocoa shells, whale teeth, ivory or amber.</p> -<p>During this fast the faithful are at the gate of religion, and the -very odor of their breath is considered to be sweeter than musk to the -olfactories of Allah!</p> -<p>Some of them observe the fast in its true spirit and letter, and all -externally conform to its regulations. No doubt to those who are -incapable of religious ecstasies, who cannot transport themselves out -of the world, while clogged with their human tenements, who relish not -the unsubstantial viands of a superstitious faith, the hours drag very -heavily on from sunrise to sunset.</p> -<p>Physical necessities sometimes force the less spiritualized to taste -some of the forbidden fruits, or to <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb63" -href="#pb63" name="pb63">63</a>]</span>avail themselves of this -occasion to test the truth of the proverb, that “Stolen waters -are sweet, and bread eaten in secret is pleasant.”</p> -<p>The more faithful, in the midst of their sufferings remember that as -Mohammed was, fortunately, of human mould like themselves, he informed -them “God would make this an ease unto you and not a -difficulty—therefore * * * * * God knoweth that ye defraud -yourselves therein and forgiveth you, and now therefore * * * * * and -earnestly desire that which God ordaineth you, and eat and drink until -ye can plainly distinguish a white thread by the day-break, then keep -the fast until night,” &c.</p> -<p>Thus the faithful acquire new zest for all their sensual appetites -as they anxiously listen for the sunset Ezan, which releases them from -their sufferings. The breaking of the fast is called <i>Iftar</i>. Each -person is furnished with a small table, upon which are a bowl of light -soup, a few olives, some preserves and cakes. A chibouk, already filled -and ready to be lighted, is placed by their side. When the cannon -booming over the Bosphorus, announces the setting sun, each one -partakes sparingly of these refreshments, and having regaled himself -with the fumes of tobacco, attends to his regular sunset prayers, after -which a sumptuous dinner is served and enjoyed. The grand <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb64" href="#pb64" name="pb64">64</a>]</span>Namaz -(prayer) is performed, after which night is turned into day. The -streets, usually dark and sombre, are brightly illuminated and filled -with people, Mussulmans, Armenians, Greeks, Jews, and other Giavours, -who all seem anxious to enjoy the carnival, if not to share the -penance. The slender and tapering minarés are now girdled in -light, while between the consecrated spires, depend fantastic and -luminous bodies, the brilliant but mimic forms of familiar objects. The -kahvés are crowded with wearied Mussulmans, puffing out clouds -of smoke, in pure spite for their long abstinence from their favorite -weed, while their imaginations are regaled with the exciting tales of -the <i>Meddahs</i>, or the drolleries of the far famed -Kara-gueöz.</p> -<p>Stalls are erected with all the various preparations of food -peculiarly agreeable to Turkish palates; tempting shops stand -invitingly open, and tinkling music vibrates through the air. If Allah -only is remembered in the day, night seems to exclude that divinity -from every thought; while Eblis is apparently enthroned with all the -orgies of his dominions.</p> -<p>Exhausted nature at length compels the laboring classes to seek -their couches, while the more fortunate pashas and efendis, beguile the -remaining hours till morn, with continued festivities and the exchange -of social visits. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb65" href="#pb65" -name="pb65">65</a>]</span></p> -<p>Just before daybreak, the drum resounds through the streets of the -metropolis, when the faithful, without any reluctance, arise from their -slumbers to avail themselves of their last chance of regaling their -appetites and fortifying their corporeal frames against the sufferings -of the next fourteen consecutive hours.</p> -<p>The morning gun, now booming upon the still air, re-echoed from hill -to hill, proclaims the dawn of another day, of self mortification at -the “gate of Heaven.” <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb67" -href="#pb67" name="pb67">67</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch6" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e260">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER VI.</h2> -<h2 class="main">PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">How true the observation that the most helpless of all -creatures is man, born of a woman, who cometh forth like the tender bud -of a delicate and fading flower.</p> -<p>The ever-living soul embarks on the vast ocean of life, in so frail -and delicate a tenement, that there is no semblance of strength to -resist the angry waves that continually dash against the tempest-tossed -and quivering fabric.</p> -<p>But it outrides the storm of three score years and ten, until it is -engulfed in the maelstrom and eddying circles of the river of Death. -How vast, how exquisite are the sensibilities of man, whose first -emotions of pleasure and pain, are the alphabet of humanity.</p> -<p>The pleasure felt by a sentient being, creates the first ideas of -good, while on the other hand the sensation of pain is synonymous with -evil. As we awake <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb68" href="#pb68" -name="pb68">68</a>]</span>into existence, each passing moment seems to -develop new desires; our grasping souls and bodily wants are constantly -re-echoing each other’s cravings; unsatisfied human nature is -ever on the alert, crying, give, give. This restless search for good, -pleasure, or happiness, leads its victims astray, and thus is created -the preponderance of evil; for such hot and eager haste stays not to -discriminate. The fatal apple seemed so good and so much to be desired -to the mother of all living, that she took, and ate; but when she had -eaten her eyes were opened. Thus by such efforts to secure the good, -the limit is overstepped, and suffering and sorrow entailed. Still, -none enjoy, and none suffer in the same degree; innumerable have been -the specimens of nature’s handiwork, yet never were any two -individuals alike in their natural or intellectual structure.</p> -<p>There is a wonderful connection between the physical and the moral -in our curious composition; and the latter is so much modified by the -former, that the variety of temperaments and dispositions may be -attributed to the reciprocal influences of these two constituents of -our being. The origin of good and evil is then embodied in our own -hearts, in the structure of the human frame, in our natural -susceptibilities to pleasure and pain.</p> -<p>The individuality of pleasure and pain creates an <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb69" href="#pb69" name= -"pb69">69</a>]</span>approving and disapproving principle in every -human frame, and each man is pleased with himself, when he enjoys a -personal benefit from good or pleasure, and displeased when he suffers -from the consequences of pain or evil. The lesson is soon learned that -the evil might have been avoided, and conscience raises her silent -testimony in the bosom. Apart from our own sensations, there seems to -be a superstitious principle innate in the human breast, a deference to -a supreme good, which as the Ruler and Creator of the universe, holds -all created things in awe, and to whom the conscience or self-approving -and self-condemning principle pays all deference.</p> -<p>This principle has existed under every form of humanity, in every -variety of nation and blood, and has been educated, and developed by -different circumstances.</p> -<p>Thus are derived all religions, and the fear of retribution for -transgressing the bounds which conscience claims for the real good, and -its essence the supreme Creator, has led men to various acts of -atonement or self-recommendation.</p> -<p>The mind of man instinctively looked from “Nature up to -Nature’s God,” and sought an embodiment for the Divine -essence, as there was for the human.</p> -<p>The earliest semblance of Divinity was displayed <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb70" href="#pb70" name="pb70">70</a>]</span>in the -sun, moon, and stars. The glorious orb of day, the great source of -light and heat, the vivifier of all creation, whose genial rays warming -the bosom of the mother earth, caused the tender grass to spring forth, -and every herb yielding fruit, to give its increase for the sustenance -of animal life, the great luminary of the vast universe, so beautiful -to gaze upon, and so powerful in its sway over the world alotted to man -for a dwelling-place, seemed as if placed in the heavens for the -especial adoration of all created things.</p> -<p>The gentle moon with silver sheen, and softer radiance was fitting -bride for the all glorious and omnipotent god of day. And the sparkling -stars, like so many distant portals to the dominions of divine -effulgence, emitting each a ray of the internal brightness, seemed one -and all shrines of holy devotion.</p> -<p>Such was the revelation of nature; and no wonder that the innate -impulse to revere and worship the Author of the universe, was kindled -into a fire of enthusiasm by the scintillations of the starry -world.</p> -<p>Not content with the semblance of the Creator in his works, the -ever-working mind of man sought an object more tangible—and thus, -doubtless originated the idol worship of the ancients. Then followed a -succession of creeds and dogmas, rites and ceremonies, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb71" href="#pb71" name="pb71">71</a>]</span>to which -the superstitious principle was ever ready to yield obeisance.</p> -<p>Ambitious and designing men sought to embody in themselves the germs -of sanctity and holiness—even did they add the sanction of -intercourse with the gods; even did they awaken the silent marble into -mysterious life, and utter oracles and decrees from the lifeless -stone.</p> -<p>Thus was nurtured the superstitious feeling in the multitude, until -the most absurd and revolting rites became the sole end, and aim of -existence—until the simple Hindoo, would, with a holy zeal, cast -himself under the wheels of the ponderous car of Juggernaut, and while -his tortured body was crushed to atoms, rejoice with ecstatic faith in -future felicity.</p> -<p>The same principle of superstitious self-torment has existed in as -great force under the Christian dispensation.</p> -<p>Even kings and emperors have tried to stifle the voice of conscience -by the most severe acts of penance and humiliation; and the humbler -members of the human family have willingly suffered every variety of -bodily anguish, which the most cunning devices of a wily and -calculating priesthood could contrive, while from many and hidden -motives, they have striven to produce an entire abnegation of -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb72" href="#pb72" name= -"pb72">72</a>]</span>self, and a renunciation of all worldly hopes in -the sin-tormented hearts of their victims.</p> -<p>Wars were undertaken, territories were coveted, and a holy crusade -was the pretext for taking possession of the city of Jerusalem, the -shrine of the holy sepulchre, and where crowds of pilgrims brought -their offerings and laid them in the coffers of the sanctuary.</p> -<p>The dangers which beset the pilgrims amid the scimitars of the -barbarous Tartars, was the pretext for all Europe to rise in arms with -the determination to conquer or die in their defence.</p> -<p>A wild enthusiast, with haggard features—a body worn and -wasted with fasting and holy vigils, and enveloped in coarse and dusty -sackcloth, elevating the symbolic cross in his attenuated fingers, -wanders from palace to palace, from house to house, from hut to hamlet, -calling aloud for vengeance upon the followers of the Crescent, who -dared to molest the children of God in the performance of their sacred -duties. As his naked feet, pierced by every flinty rock, leave their -crimson stains in his track, so does the thirst for Moslem blood burn -and consume the vitals of the restless human throngs, who listen to his -wild harangues.</p> -<p>Pope Urban was ready to fan this flame, and the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb73" href="#pb73" name="pb73">73</a>]</span>panting -multitude were by his holy and supreme power absolved from the weight -of all past offences as well as all those they should ever commit, if -they would prosecute with zeal this holy war.</p> -<p>The worst of sinners, robbers and assassins, over whose hardened -hearts there still lingered the dying glow of the internal fire of -conscience, or before whose sin-distempered vision ever flittered the -phantoms of past transgressions, rejoiced to say avaunt for ever, to -the ghosts of their departed crimes, and feel an assurance of no future -retribution for their dark deeds of horror. A new field for rapine and -adventure opened before them, and they rushed impetuously on to the -combat. Many, who had led a life of more retired wickedness and grown -grey in sin were glad to seize a hope of salvation even on the borders -of eternity, and tottered along with the vast concourse.</p> -<p>Rich and poor, young and old, with fervid zeal embraced the means of -future happiness beyond the grave. And the vast territory through which -these soldiers of the Cross wended their way was whitened with the -bones of the self sacrificed.</p> -<p>Even after the great champion Godfrey de Bouillon, had gained the -prize, and enjoyed a regal rank of one short year’s duration, he -had to surrender his earthly throne to his holiness at Rome, and -content <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb74" href="#pb74" name= -"pb74">74</a>]</span>himself like his followers with the hopes of a -kingdom in the unseen world.</p> -<p>Vain would be the effort to count the victims of religious -enthusiasm; of the attempts to appease the great unseen essence of -human life; to propitiate the favor of that Power, which, as it has -called into being, can also summon his creatures from their earthly -tenements, and dispose of their spirits, as seemeth best to his -sovereign will.</p> -<p>But holy wars, and sin-atoning pilgrimages, are not confined to the -followers of the Cross.</p> -<p>Wherever the Cresent glitters on the dome, or the muezzin proclaims -the ezan from the pointed minaré; wherever throughout the vast -dominions of the Mussulmans, resounds the cry Allah Ikber! Allah Ikber! -are the countless votaries of the religion of Mohammed, ready to arise -from their peaceful homes, and perform the sacred journey to the shrine -of their faith, the holy temple at Mecca. And year after year, do the -pilgrims trace a wearisome way through desert plains and scorching -heats, to the spot where they may roll off the burden of -self-condemnation, and kiss the all-atoning stone, which has been the -heirloom to mortality, since the foundation of the world.</p> -<p>Although throngs of Mussulman pilgrims yearly visit the holy city of -Mecca, but few Europeans have left the impress of their footsteps upon -its soil. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb75" href="#pb75" name= -"pb75">75</a>]</span></p> -<p>What millions of human beings, nothing intimidated by deserts, -mountains, and all sorts of hardships, have paid their devotions to -this shrine! The great have visited it with pomp, and all its train of -luxury and display; the grasping spirit of trade, has summoned -merchants from all parts of the East. The learned and wise, of times -that were, and times that are, have on the same occasion, collecting -the productions of genius, sought a mart for literature and renown. -Sultanas, and ladies of high and noble rank, have changed their silken -couches for wandering homes through the desert.</p> -<p>Old age has tottered thither staff in hand, and poverty has never -failed to swell the concourse with its numberless train. The vast -multitude, hundreds of thousands of every rank and profession, crying -“La Illah! Il-Allah! Mohammed Ressoul Ullah!” every year -people the silent wastes of sand with the buzz of human voices, as they -toil along their weary way to the holy city of Mecca.</p> -<p>Every Mohammedan is enjoined to perform this pilgrimage, or if -unable to go, to send a proxy, or an offering.</p> -<p>“Verily, the first house appointed unto men to worship in, was -that which is in Mecca, blessed, and a <i>direction</i> to all -creatures.” <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb76" href="#pb76" -name="pb76">76</a>]</span></p> -<p>For there was the Kubla, or point to which they were to turn their -faces in prayer.</p> -<p>“And proclaim unto the people a solemn pilgrimage; let them -come unto thee on foot, and on every lean camel, arriving from every -distant road; that they may be witnesses of the advantages which accrue -to them from the visiting this holy place, and may commemorate the name -of God, on the appointed days, in gratitude for the brute cattle which -he hath bestowed on them.”</p> -<p>According to the traditions of the Arabs, the city of Mecca has been -the place of religious veneration, from the earliest times. Near this -city, on a mountain, Adam is said to have met his wife Eve, two hundred -years after the expulsion from Paradise.</p> -<p>Here when Abraham was ready to sacrifice his son Ishmael (not -Isaac), the identical ram, which had been offered by Abel many years -before, was substituted in his place, sent expressly from Paradise.</p> -<p>Here also, in the days of idolatry, was a temple dedicated to -Saturn, now the holy temple of Mecca. So that Mohammed found this place -already consecrated by sacred and ancient associations.</p> -<p>Mecca, the birth-place, and Medina, the tomb of the Prophet, are -situated near each other; and not far from the coast of the Red Sea. -Mecca is in a <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb77" href="#pb77" name= -"pb77">77</a>]</span>valley surrounded by barren hills, which produce -nothing but the stones of which the houses are constructed. Water, so -essential to life, and most especially to all Mussulmans, is only -supplied by rain which is collected in cisterns; no streams flowing -from the adjacent mountains. Doubtless, the exceeding value all -Mohammedans attach to the pure element, is owing to its scarcity in -these regions, where their religion was promulgated, and the Koran -revealed from heaven. Their Paradise is represented as abounding in -fountains.</p> -<p>There is “the water of <i>Keafeeree</i>, or camphor,” a -fountain at which the people of God shall drink, so likened from the -aromatic freshness of this gum, and its snowy whiteness. The waters of -<i>zengefeel</i> or ginger, and the fountain of <i>zelzebil</i>, whose -streams glide softly down the throat; and the fountain of Taz-nim, -which flows from the highest regions of Paradise, and whereof those -shall drink who approach the Divine presence.</p> -<p>Notwithstanding the barrenness of the soil and the unfavorable -situation of the city of Mecca, the wealth of its inhabitants is very -great.</p> -<p>Arabia Felix, truly happy in <span class="corr" id="xd25e1463" -title="Source: comparision">comparison</span> to the barren and desert -tracts by which she is surrounded, where the gentle zephyrs are -perfumed and laden with aromatic odors, whose villages and towns are -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb78" href="#pb78" name= -"pb78">78</a>]</span>crowned with plenty, and adorned with gardens of -delight, and trees bearing all kinds of fruit, “Araby the -blest” pours her treasures into this holy city. Her gums and -spices, olibanum, or frankincense, myrrh of many kinds, balsams, sugar -canes, cocoa nuts, and the fragrant berry from Mocha. Nature rejoices -in a perpetual spring, in this genial clime which neither chills nor -scorches her spicy products.</p> -<p>In Mecca, congregate a vast crowd of Mussulmans with their -merchandise from all quarters of the East, so that the inducement, held -out by the Prophet, that “they may be witnesses of the advantages -which accrue from visiting this holy place,” has no little power -on the calculations of the enterprising, while a misguided religious -zeal sways the multitude.</p> -<p>The holy temple of Mecca has been under the successive patronage of -the caliphs, the sultans of Egypt and of Turkey, until by the constant -acquisition of wealth, it has attained its present splendid -magnificence.</p> -<p>No unbeliever can profane the sacred precincts with the dust of his -feet, nor approach within gun shot of the consecrated portico, during -the season of the visitation of the pilgrims. Nor must the Faithful -defile their sinless bodies by any contact with the unsanctified flesh -and blood of the infidel Jews and Christians. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb79" href="#pb79" name="pb79">79</a>]</span></p> -<p>“O true believers, verily the idolaters are unclean; let them -not therefore come near unto the holy temple after this year.</p> -<p>“And if ye fear want, by the cutting off trade, and -communication with them, God will enrich you of his abundance, if he -pleaseth; for God is knowing and wise.”</p> -<p>“It is not fitting that the idolaters should visit the temples -of God, being witnesses against their own souls of their -infidelity.”</p> -<p>Considering the resources which have contributed to construct and -adorn this shrine of the Mohammedan faith, the great wealth of many -nations, and the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb80" href="#pb80" name= -"pb80">80</a>]</span>centuries which have successively rolled on, each -adding the superstitious offerings of religious votaries, it is no -wonder that it is magnificent to behold. The model from Paradise, the -rebuilding by Abram, and its preservation for so many years.</p> -<p>The whole city of Mecca is considered holy ground but the objects of -special adoration are inclosed within a magnificent colonnade, the -foundation of which was laid by the second caliph Omer, to prevent -intrusion upon the <span lang="la">sanctum sanctorum</span>. The space -inclosed by this portico is about seven statium. The foundations are -broad and lofty, and approached by an extended flight of marble steps, -on both sides, without and within. No less than four hundred and -eighty-four columns support an arched entablature, which is crowned by -a succession of domes, surmounted by glittering crescents. The -colonnade is quadrangular, and in the four corners are minarés, -raising their tapering spires to heaven, in emblem of the ascending -orisons of the faithful, and from whose gilded galleries the sacred -imams have, since unnumbered suns have risen and set, proclaimed the -hours of adoration.</p> -<p>No gloomy darkness ever enshrouds this structure; for when day -withdraws its more glaring brightness, innumerable lamps cast their -fitful light around the pillars. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb81" -href="#pb81" name="pb81">81</a>]</span></p> -<p>What tales could these marble columns whisper of human hopes, and -even holier aspirations; of the wicked schemes of intriguing imams, as -with sacerdotal robes and turbans of emerald hue, they traced their -cautious way from pillar to pillar, and received and blessed the vast -concourse of souls, borne down with the ills and sins of humanity. How -honeyed their benedictions as they lay their gilded palms on the humble -suppliant, who would gladly bestow all his earthly treasures for a sure -hope of heaven where his joys would be enduring.</p> -<p>Poor weak mortals! tools of each other, and victims of the -calculating; the deceiver and deceived, on the same journey, on the -same race course, where the goal is Eternity!</p> -<p>Beneath these domes, and overshadowed by these tall minarés, -the poet and the scholar have met to repeat the traditions and romances -so peculiar to the glowing imaginations of the Oriental world, and to -vie with each other for literary fame; the astrologer and diviner, no -doubt the very genii and fairies of Arabian myth, have mingled in the -throng.</p> -<p>With what emotion have the deluded victims of superstition and -remorse prostrated themselves upon the hallowed ground, and with what -ecstatic faith in the rewards of their holy pilgrimage, have the only -true believers kissed the dust of the consecrated earth. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb82" href="#pb82" name="pb82">82</a>]</span></p> -<p>Within this beautiful portico, there is a vast space, in the middle -of which stands the Caaba itself.</p> -<p>After Adam was driven from Paradise, he begged the Almighty to allow -him to erect a Beit-el-maamur, or house of God, similar to the one he -had seen there. Therefore the Caaba was let down to Mecca, directly -under the Heavenly Temple. This was rebuilt after the deluge by Abram, -or as some say, again descended from the celestial realms, where it had -been preserved, and has been in the possession of the Ishmaelites, or -Arabs, ever since.</p> -<p>The Caaba, or house of God, is a square building of stone, 24 cubits -long, 23 broad and 27 high. It is nearly surrounded by a semicircular -colonnade, at the base of which is a low balustrade.</p> -<p>Bars of silver, from which lamps are suspended, connect the pillars -at the top.</p> -<p>How mystic and beautiful are the glimmerings of these lights, as -they glisten on the dark night, in their silver lamps, casting -uncertain shadows around the marble columns—their dubious shining -conjuring up the shades of the Prophet and his honored descendants, all -arrayed in jealous and sacred green to watch the devotions of the -multitude, as they surround the shrine.</p> -<p>The outside of the Caaba is covered with rich black damask, which is -renewed every year. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb83" href="#pb83" -name="pb83">83</a>]</span></p> -<p>The holy imams, pitying the true and faithful, and wishing to ward -off from them the dangers of sudden death, and the thousand other -casualties of life, bestow a small portion of the covering of this -house of God, which has imbibed the sanctity of three hundred and -sixty-five <span class="corr" id="xd25e1524" title= -"Source: days,">days’</span> duration, and, therewith, the power -to avert all such evils. A small amount of worldly wealth is sufficient -to touch the heart of the holy Emir, who grants this precious charm, -which, resting in the bosom of its happy possessor, yields to him a -sweet repose from the anticipation of sudden trials which befall the -less fortunate inheritors of human life.</p> -<p>Outside of this black damask is a band of gold which surrounds the -Caaba, and whose lustre is undimmed by time, for it is renewed every -year by the sultan of Turkey. The very rain which flows from the roof -of this edifice, partakes of its sanctity, and is conducted therefrom -by a spout of solid gold, whence it trickles down on the tomb of -Ishmael, the head and founder of the Arab race.</p> -<p>Near the Caaba is the stone on which the patriarch Abraham stood, -when he was rebuilding the holy temple; and even his very foot-prints -are to be seen on the solid piece of rock, leaving no shadow of doubt -as to its identity. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb84" href="#pb84" -name="pb84">84</a>]</span></p> -<p>This ancient architect, unwilling to deface the walls by a -scaffolding, when they were beyond his reach, stood upon this stone, -which chance threw in his way; and, wonderful interposition of Allah! -the stone raised him when necessary, let him down again, and -transported him around his precious work, until the whole was -finished!</p> -<p>What a treasure to architecture, more worthy of fame than the -undiscovered stone of the philosopher; how carefully to be watched and -guarded from the profanations of unbelieving house-builders for all -time to come.</p> -<p>Upon the southeast corner of the Caaba is the black stone set in -silver, which was dropped down from Paradise.</p> -<p>Like other gems of the heavenly sphere, it was originally white and -shining—but alas! its brightness is dimmed, and even changed to -perfect blackness, by its contact with human sin. For ever since its -removal to this world, it has been polluted by the touch of mortals, -and the contact of their sinful lips.</p> -<p>The interior of the Caaba is approached by a silver door, about the -height of a man from the ground, to which they ascend by movable steps. -There is a single room hung with red and green <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb85" href="#pb85" name= -"pb85">85</a>]</span>embroidered damask, and the roof is supported by -four pillars eight feet square, made of aloes wood.</p> -<p>A sweet perfume pervades this apartment, which has been emitted from -these pillars ever since Mohammed was born in the holy city of Medina, -and silver lamps are suspended, which burn night and day. Near the -Caaba are small chapels for the imams of the different Mohammedan -sects, who severally bestow their blessings upon the pilgrims.</p> -<p>The agonized mother of Ishmael, wandering in the wilderness, her -scanty bottle of water quite empty, having cast her helpless infant -under the shrubs, and retreated that she might not see him die, sat at -a distance and lifted up her voice and wept.</p> -<p>The dying moans of the infant reached the ears of the angel of God, -who, to save the father of a great nation, caused the well-spring of -water to gush forth from its recesses in the bowels of the earth.</p> -<p>As the ministering angel wiped the tears from the eyes of the -disconsolate mother, she spied the crystal water, and hastened to -administer to the fainting child. This same well, called the well of -zem-zem, is near the holy house of prayer, and the thirsty pilgrims -every year quaff its venerated waters and carry some of it to all parts -of the Mohammedan dominions.</p> -<p>Such being the holy places, no wonder that every <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb86" href="#pb86" name= -"pb86">86</a>]</span>Mussulman, whether commanded or not, should desire -to visit these sacred relics of antiquity.</p> -<p>And were it not forbidden, doubtless the unbelievers also would -gladly undertake the same pilgrimage to witness the miraculous -preservation of objects which are, some of them, incorporated with -their own faith.</p> -<p>Four caravans meet in the city of Mecca, in the month Zil-hidjay, or -the month of pilgrimage, every year—one from Cairo, one from -Constantinople, a third from the Barbary states, and a fourth from -India. The Egyptian caravan waits for the arrival of the one from -Constantinople at Redowa near the holy cities. As the Sultan of Turkey -holds the possession of the holy cities in his own territories, he is -bound to send certain offerings to the shrine, which are the gold band -and black damask covering for the Caaba, with a large sum of money to -be distributed among the priests at Mecca. A certain kind of money is -expressly coined at the royal mint for the pilgrimage, called the Caaba -money. It is in gold pieces, and every one who goes to Mecca must -provide himself with this circulating medium.</p> -<p>The wants of the numerous poor pilgrims are provided for in part, by -an appeal to the superstitions of the populace. A model of the temple -at Mecca is paraded through the streets followed by a crowd of -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb87" href="#pb87" name= -"pb87">87</a>]</span>the zealous chanting hosannas in Arabic, -accompanied by the music of a drum of antique contrivance.</p> -<p>But few can withhold a tribute. The miser opens his hoards, and the -widow adds her slender mite; the grandee and the slave, one and all, -gladly answer the appeal of their fellows, when under a banner of such -sacred veneration, and for a cause so laudable as a pilgrimage to the -holy shrine of their faith. Rich and poor are busily employed in -preparations.</p> -<p>The dervish in his humble robes, needs no costly array. His garb of -sanctity, and the renunciation of all the trappings of wealth, open the -purses of the more gaily apparelled; and often the rags of a mendicant -conceal a full purse, much better filled perhaps, than his, who has -spent his all on costly embroideries and richly caparisoned steeds.</p> -<p>The pasha and the efendi arrange their financial affairs, taking -care to carry costly offerings, and largesse, wherewith to impress the -multitude with their own greatness.</p> -<p>The ladies of the harems, in like manner, collect their jewels, -their perfumes, in a word gifts of all things esteemed rare and -precious, that they may not go empty-handed to the holy temple.</p> -<p>The merchants pack up their silks and rich stuffs <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb88" href="#pb88" name="pb88">88</a>]</span>of all -sorts, and prepare for edification both temporal and spiritual.</p> -<p>Considering the immense throng of pilgrims, what must be the din of -preparation throughout the Ottoman dominion?</p> -<p>Constantinople, its sultan, its treasury, its inhabitants high and -low, its ladies, its saints and beggars—even the lisping children -are whispering, God is great, Mohammed is his Apostle, and the Caaba is -the house of God. The Egyptian viceroy is assembling his horseman and -his camels at Berket el Hadge; the Maghrubees, or Barbaresques, are -sharpening their scimitars, and preparing as if for war. India’s -wealth, her pearls, shawls, and rubies, and stately elephants, are -slowly wending their way to the shores of the Persian Gulf, where at al -Katif, on the Arabian side, the old sheikh is tarrying with his herds -of camels, to sell or hire them for the passage of the desert.</p> -<p>The holy Mecca is thus, for several months at least, the theme of -all classes of Mohammedans.</p> -<p>At length the day arrives to begin the journey so fraught with -blessings temporal and spiritual.</p> -<p>The conductor of the Constantinople caravan, called the -<i>Surré Emminee</i>, or the trustee of the pilgrimage, proceeds -to the palace, to receive his commission <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb89" href="#pb89" name="pb89">89</a>]</span>from the sultan; and to -him are consigned all the treasures destined for Mecca.</p> -<p>All hopes of worldly aggrandizement are henceforth renounced by this -dignitary; for having once imbibed the holy atmosphere of Mecca, his -future aspirations are supposed to be only heavenward. He therefore, -upon his return, generally retires to Damascus, where, nearer to the -shrine, and in a clime more genial for holiness, he awaits his -translation into that Paradise, of which his earthly honors are the -type and foretaste.</p> -<p>Quitting the august presence of the “Thrice happy lord of the -refulgent Mecca,” the Surré Emminee goes to the Porte, -where he takes leave of his former colleagues in temporal greatness, -and thence to the gate of the Sheikh-ul-Islam, who grants his blessing -on the enterprise.</p> -<p>The pilgrims and others collect about him, and they proceed to -Bahchai Capusoo, where a steamer is waiting to transport them over to -Scutari, in Asia.</p> -<p>There, all along the route, are multitudes of people waiting to see -the procession.</p> -<p>The insignia of the Surré Emminee are borne before him; two -long poles, to which the expressive horse-tails are attached, and the -<i>Pasha of two tails</i> follows on a beautiful Arabian charger.</p> -<p>The treasures destined for Mecca succeed on a <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb90" href="#pb90" name="pb90">90</a>]</span>train of -camels, all bedecked with ribbons and spangles. But this world’s -grandeurs are bestowed unequally even to these patient animals; for -there is one of their number who outshines all his fellows. A venerable -camel is covered with trappings enriched with precious stones of rare -and sparkling lustre, for on his back he carries the sacred Koran -extravagantly bound, and enclosed in a golden box set in brilliants; -the gift of the sultan to the temple.</p> -<p>Happy is this <span class="corr" id="xd25e1613" title= -"Source: distinguised">distinguished</span> animal, and his companions -also, if they survive the pilgrimage and return; for, like the -Surré Emminee, they are exempt from all future toil in this -work-day world; and when Death at last claims them for his prey, they -enjoy the honors of a burial, where no rude dogs or vultures can -disturb their remains.</p> -<p>The Validé Sultan, or the mother of the sultan, reclines in -her Tahtravan, a sort of elongated sedan chair, which is suspended on -long poles between two camels and magnificent in proportion to the high -rank of its occupant.</p> -<p>Mussulman women and children follow, in huge panniers, suspended on -the sides of camels, horses, and donkeys.</p> -<p>Indeed, the good fathers and husbands of the Osmanlis are ever -anxious to ensure to the female portion of their families high places -in the celestial <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb91" href="#pb91" name= -"pb91">91</a>]</span>regions; and they are generally accompanied by -their harems.</p> -<p>“It is incumbent on him whose family shall not be present at -the holy temple, to fast three days in the pilgrimage, and seven when -he is returned; they shall be ten days complete.”</p> -<p>And the same period of fasting is enjoined upon him “who -findeth not anything to offer” at the shrine.</p> -<p>Mohammed himself set an example in this respect; for when he -encompassed the Caaba, he was accompanied by his family, and his wife -Kadijah, who, with his daughter Fatima, were two of the four women whom -he pronounced to have attained a state of perfection on this side of -the grave.</p> -<p>Trains of servants, led horses and camels, swell the concourse; and -the whole is protected by a body of cavalry.</p> -<p>About six miles from Scutari, there is a fountain which bears the -name of Iraluk Cheshmaysee, or the fountain of separation.</p> -<p>Thus far a number of friends and relations have accompanied the -pilgrims; but, as in the journey of life, none can carry their loved -ones with them into the celestial regions, so these travellers who are -on an emblematic pilgrimage must now sunder strong ties, and loosen -their hearts from earthly affections.</p> -<p>Fountain of parting! how are thy streams now <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb92" href="#pb92" name= -"pb92">92</a>]</span>accumulating, as the pearly drops of human woe -trickle in among thy waters; how many days must pass ere those waters -regain their crystal brightness, now all turbid with the crimson -gushings of the heart blood of fathers, mothers, wives, husbands, and -children!</p> -<p>Sadly they part: some turn their faces homeward with bitter sighs, -while the pilgrims pursue their course, every advancing step widening -the distance, till their clouded eyes can discern no further traces of -the severed.</p> -<p>Even as faith reveals to the dying the glory of a celestial world, -and reconciles the most trembling to a passage from the dim scenes of -Earth; so does superstition foreshadowing the hour of mortal -dissolution, display an earthly temple as the vestibule to the -heavenly.</p> -<p>With eager steps, the pilgrims now press onwards, till they reach -the most ancient and beautiful city of Damascus; where they halt for -the caravans from Bagdad, Aleppo, and the neighboring towns. Time-worn -associations flit about this monument of the wealth of the earliest -founders of cities, after the universal deluge.</p> -<p>As the descendants of the great survivor of the wreck of the -antediluvian world sought out a portion of the wide expanse of -uninhabited, and as yet <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb93" href= -"#pb93" name="pb93">93</a>]</span>uncultivated earth, this lovely -valley of nature’s own handiwork seemed to invite their tarrying, -as it lay in calm repose, all fresh and verdant from the great waste of -waters. Perhaps they discovered the ruins of a great city, the remnants -of ancestral wealth; or the relics of the luxury and degeneracy which -brought about the awful destruction of the victims of the flood.</p> -<p>Rapidly rose the proud city, and was famed even at the time of the -first battle of which there is any record, of the five kings against -four, the great Chedorlaomar and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, when -the patriarch Abram went to rescue his nephew Lot, who had been taken -captive.</p> -<p>It was the birth-place, too, of Eliezer, the steward of Abram, who -must have been a man of superior attainments, as he had the care of all -his master’s possessions, and even of the betrothal of his -beloved son Isaac.</p> -<p>This ancient capital of Syria did not escape the enthusiasm of -Moslem conquest, and the great Saracen generals, Abu-Obeidah and -Khaled, took possession of the famous city, after a slaughter of 50,000 -infidels, during the reign of <span class="corr" id="xd25e1658" title= -"Source: Abubeker">Abubekir</span>, the successor of Mohammed, A. D. -633. Damascus now became the capital of the Ottoman dominions, and -their pride and glory; for they boast <i lang="tr">Evvely sham, Akhery -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb94" href="#pb94" name= -"pb94">94</a>]</span>sham</i>, or, that as they had their beginning in -Sham or Damascus, so there also, they will have their end.</p> -<p>So precious do they esteem this city, that it is styled the pearl -surrounded by diamonds, and the gate of the most holy Mecca.</p> -<p>Here, then, at the most beautiful gate, do the pilgrims to the -sacred shrine delight to repose awhile, their senses ravished with the -loveliest enchantments of nature. Their eager vision extends over vast -plains of richly waving foliage, mingling with its emerald hues, the -brilliant tints of the citron, pomegranate, and fig. Sweet odors of -aromatic freshness pervade the balmy air, while luscious and juicy -fruits revive their thirsty senses. Over this vast and exquisite -prospect, tower tall minarés, and graceful domes with glittering -crescents, proclaiming as far as the eye can reach, the sway of -Mohammed Ressoul Ullah.</p> -<p>But there is yet a weary way to the shrine, and the zealous throng, -now swelled to a vast multitude, renew their journey. If the weather is -very oppressive, they encamp in the day-time, and proceed by the light -of innumerable torches at night.</p> -<p>How mysterious the pageant, stretching its long train over the -barren and trackless sands. The camels, with stealthy step, waving -their long necks slowly and majestically; now and then the Arabian -coursers neighing in wearied restlessness, break the silence. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb95" href="#pb95" name= -"pb95">95</a>]</span>Then a voice chanting a hymn of praise, and anon, -a shout or chorus from the multitude. Now all is still, and fitful -shadows glide along side by side with the wanderers, as the bright -jewels on the camels glisten in the torch-light.</p> -<p>The caravan has passed, leaving in its track many palpitating forms, -panting on the sands for that breath of life, which is rapidly exhaling -from their bodies.</p> -<p>So weary a way—sometimes no water to quench the thirst, which -rages in proportion to the scarcity of its antidote; fatigue adding its -prostrating effects day by day, no wonder that many of the way-worn -pilgrims are transferred to the Heavenly Temple, without a sight of the -earthly. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb96" href="#pb96" name= -"pb96">96</a>]</span></p> -<p>The caravan from Cairo is also moving onwards, made up of a motley -multitude, headed by the Emir Hadgee, who is appointed by the pasha of -Cairo, and receives great emoluments from his office. Every pilgrim -pays him a certain sum for the enregistering of his name and property, -and the possessions of all those who die on the road, are also his -perquisites. He is the governor of the pilgrimage, and is judge and -jury in all matters of dispute. The Egyptians always carry with them -the tomb of Hassan, and accompanied by cavalry and artillery, they -proceed as far as Redowa, near Medina, where they are to meet the -Constantinople caravan. About two days’ journey from Cairo, they -arrive at a place called Miz-Haara, the ancient Marah of the -Israelites, where, when the people murmured at the bitterness of the -waters, Moses cast a tree into them, and they became sweet, of -surpassing sweetness to all thirsty pilgrims. Thus they travel over the -same wilderness as their ancient predecessors, encamping in the very -spots selected by Moses for the tents of the chosen people of God.</p> -<p>After these caravans meet, they proceed, a vast multitude, to a -village about sixty miles from Mecca, where is Abram’s mountain, -on which he erected the altar to sacrifice his son.</p> -<p>On the top of this hill is a mosque, where an old <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb97" href="#pb97" name="pb97">97</a>]</span>sheikh -resides, who, as the pilgrims halt, stands on the brow of the hill, and -delivers an address to them on the importance of the duty they are -performing, reminding them also of the blessings in store for all -zealous Mussulmans. To what an immense audience does this lonely old -man once a year proclaim the tenets of the Koran, and how eagerly do -their thirsty souls quaff the water of everlasting life as he dispenses -it.</p> -<p>Now the Emir Hadgee conducts the pilgrims one by one to the feet of -the sheikh, as he stands in the mosque on the top of the hill, Rabiie. -As they enter one door and pass out at the other in rapid succession, -each one is touched by the divining rod in the hands of the old sheikh, -and the burden of all their past transgressions rolls from their backs, -as he pronounces the words, “May sin here leave thee.”</p> -<p>Lightened from the pressure of sin in every form, they run swiftly -down the hill, and bathing their hands and faces in a stream which -flows below, they become renewed, men, women, and children; and -prepared to gaze upon the holy city of Mecca, which is not far distant. -Now turning their faces to the shrine, the true believers hasten on -their way; sometimes halting at the tomb of Eve, which is at Giddeh, -the port of Mecca.</p> -<p>This illustrious and ancient mother of the human <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb98" href="#pb98" name="pb98">98</a>]</span>race -must have been a dame of fair proportions; for her grave measures, from -the head to the foot stone, no less than twenty-five yards, or -seventy-five English feet. If she was of such exceeding stature, what -must have been the dimensions of our great parent Adam, or what lofty -personages must have been the <i>giants</i> of those days.</p> -<p>After travelling about three days longer, the domes of the Holy -Temple are descried in the distance; when the multitude with mad -delight prostrate themselves on the ground, and kissing the earth three -times, proclaim with tremendous clamor, La Illah! Ill Lallah! Mohammed -Ressoul Ullah!</p> -<p>There is no other God but God! Mohammed the Apostle of God!</p> -<p>The artillery is now fired to announce the arrival of the caravans -to the inhabitants of Mecca, who, headed by the Shereef of the city and -all the Imams, immediately proceed to meet the pilgrims, and conduct -them within the sacred precincts.</p> -<p>Those who possess but scanty means, encamp without the city, and -others are accommodated at khans, which are very numerous.</p> -<p>The next thing is to visit the bath, and thus purify themselves for -the ceremonies at the temple—“I will wash my hands in -innocency, so will I compass thine altar, O Lord.” Having -invested themselves in the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb99" href= -"#pb99" name="pb99">99</a>]</span>ehram, or covering of crimson woollen -shag, which is always wrapped around the person on this occasion, they -proceed to the Caaba.</p> -<p>Mohammed having performed these same ceremonies, his followers have -ever since imitated his example.</p> -<p>Immediately after the Prophet took possession of the city of Mecca, -he proceeded to the Caaba. There he stood upon the roof of the house of -prayer, and proclaimed the first <i>ezan</i>, or call to prayer, at -noon-day.</p> -<p>He then commenced his adorations at the shrine, by first kissing the -black stone in the corner, near the door of the Caaba, then he -proceeded to compass the building seven times, and then again kissed -the sin-atoning stone. When the Caaba was let down from heaven to Adam, -he requested that it might be so placed that he could compass it as he -had seen the angels do. Ever since the creation, the number seven has -had a mystic signification, and its sacred meaning is demonstrated in -these devotions of the faithful. Mohammed then proclaimed to the people -from Mount Arafat, the manner in which they were to perform the -ceremonies at the Temple, and went to the valley of Mina, where he -threw seven stones at the devil, every time pronouncing the words, -Allah Ikbér! Allah Ikbér! God Almighty! God <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb100" href="#pb100" name= -"pb100">100</a>]</span>Omnipotent, as did Adam and Abraham, when the -great Adversary interrupted their devotions.</p> -<p>The enemies of the Prophet account for the accumulation of stones in -this valley by the following story.</p> -<p>It is well known that Mohammed was assisted in the preparation of -the Koran, by an Armenian monk, by name Serkiss. When their work was -completed, the Prophet wished to attest it by a miracle.</p> -<p>He accordingly persuaded Serkiss to descend into a deep well, while -he called all the multitude to assemble. Holding a blank book in his -hand, he declared that if the Koran was indeed revealed from Heaven, he -would drop this blank-book into the well, and Allah would send it up -all written and inscribed.</p> -<p>The book descended, and Serkiss sent up the one he had already -prepared. “Now,” said Mohammed, “let each man cast a -stone into the well, which will be a monument to the world.” -Whereupon every one of the great concourse cast a stone, and thus -effectually prevented Serkiss from appearing to contradict the miracle. -Ever since that time, the pilgrims have helped to accumulate these -stones, until a vast monument, indeed, has been erected.</p> -<p>The Prophet now offered the sacrifice of sixty-three camels, -according to the years of his own life, shaved <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb101" href="#pb101" name="pb101">101</a>]</span>his -head, and having run seven times between the two hills Safa and Merwa, -in imitation of Hagar searching for water, he completed the holy -ceremonies.</p> -<p>According to this model have the pilgrims continued, ever since his -time, the performance of these superstitious devotions.</p> -<p>The holy duties of the shrine being over, after a few worldly cares -are disposed of, the now self-satisfied travellers turn their footsteps -homewards. Purified, and set apart, henceforth the chosen of Allah, -fearless of all danger, as if within the shadow of the eternal world, -nothing intimidates the followers of the Prophet, as with the greatest -self-complacency they anticipate the rest of their sojourn in this -lower world. Many have sacrificed all their earthly possessions, but -are they not sure of the imperishable riches of paradise. With eager -fondness, they embrace once again friends and relations, while the odor -of sanctity exhales from their sacred persons. With what panting bosoms -and restless vision do the friends search among the remnant returned -from the wanderings, for dear and familiar faces; and human wailings -rend the air, as they are told that brother, sister, and husband, lie -whitening on the sand, long ere this the prey of the vulture. The happy -father clasps to his breast his precious offspring, and with sweet -complacency, ties around its neck a morsel <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb102" href="#pb102" name="pb102">102</a>]</span>the -holy covering of the Caaba, so sure the charm, and obtained at such -infinite perils. The pilgrims are surrounded, and with jealous caution -they bestow a few drops of the water of the holy well Zem-Zem, which -glides down the throats of the faithful like the oily fountains of -Paradise.</p> -<p>The weary camels even linger out their lives in luxurious idleness, -retired from oppressive service, with an air of unconscious sanctity -and repose.</p> -<p>Henceforward, the glorious title of Hadgee, belongs to the returned -pilgrim; no razor profanes the beard, and the very door of the house, -by its hue of the Prophet’s robe, the sacred green, proclaims the -rank and holiness of its master.</p> -<p>The Hadgee, with long and solemn face, never wearies of recounting -his wonderful adventures, portraying with ecstasy, the splendors of the -shrine, detailing with holy rapture the ceremonies and devotions, until -the flame of superstitious zeal is enkindled in every bosom, and their -spirits yearn for the sweet sanctity and all-atoning atmosphere of the -most refulgent Mecca—and many vows are made that in the coming -year, their footsteps shall surely be thitherward.</p> -<p>Such, then, are the illusions which beguile life’s wearisome -journey to the followers of Mohammed; such the stepping-stones to their -future Elysium. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb103" href="#pb103" -name="pb103">103</a>]</span></p> -<p>Thus the tortures of conscience are eased, and thus does -superstition stand fully armed at the portals of the soul.</p> -<p>Few, indeed, are the members of the great human family, who dare to -combat this enemy to moral greatness; and how small the number of -those, who renounce her sway. Chained down to creeds and dogmas, the -mind of man seldom soars above the atmosphere of human inventions, but -relyingly lingers in the leading strings of bigotry, in one form or -another.</p> -<hr class="tb"> -<p>Thus is constituted the Practice of the Mohammedan Religion, viz., -Ablutions, Prayers, Alms, Fasting, and the Pilgrimage to Mecca, which -are denominated <i>Farz</i>, or obligatory. There are, however, many -other traditional observances termed <i>Sünnet</i>, which as the -Turks are Sünnees or traditionists, they have incorporated with -their religious duties, such as circumcision, and many other rites. -These rites, whose observance is only optional, are, however, performed -with as much zeal and ceremony as those required by the Koran. Although -the ceremony of <span class="corr" id="xd25e1772" title= -"Source: circumsion">circumcision</span> is not alluded to in the -Koran, and therefore not indispensable, yet it is a custom generally -observed, and is performed when the child is able <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb104" href="#pb104" name="pb104">104</a>]</span>to -pronounce the formula of faith “La Illah, Ill Allah, Mohammed -Ressoul Ullah,” or is about the age of seven years.</p> -<p>This is a great festival, and when the sultan’s children, or -those of any of the grandees, are the neophytes, a general invitation -is extended to other candidates. Music, dancing, and feasting occupy -the minds and distract the thoughts of the numerous company, young and -old, during the week devoted to this ceremony. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb105" href="#pb105" name="pb105">105</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch7" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e270">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER VII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">PRINCIPLES OF THE TURKISH GOVERNMENT.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">A people descended from nomadic tribes, and, until -very recently, severed from foreign intercourse, would naturally retain -its simple and national type. Besides, the peculiar bond of an -exclusive faith, would still more tend to the preservation of ancient -and characteristic usages.</p> -<p>Thus the Osmanlis have, with hitherto but few deviations, preserved -their identity as an eminently patriarchal nation. As the son -recognized the parent to be the governor and controller of his career, -the fountain of experience and wisdom, and rendered to him a willing -and natural obedience; so the people, needing such a fatherly care and -control, were ready to invest one of their number with this -authority.</p> -<p>Every system has its centre. The sun rules in the heavens—and -the great mass of humanity seek a centre, around which to rally. The -wonderful magnetism <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb106" href="#pb106" -name="pb106">106</a>]</span>of mortal emotion tends to a common point, -as surely as the needle to the pole. Thus some species of monarchy, -whether elective or hereditary, seems inevitable to a multitude of -beings, cast in human mould.</p> -<p>Tribes were instituted in early times, each with its patriarch or -petty monarch; and when, for mutual strength or by conquest, these -various tribes were combined, the monarch, with increasing subjects, -became more powerful and distinguished.</p> -<p>When the wandering Tartars embraced Islamism, their chief becoming -the successor to the Caliphate, was not only their temporal, but -spiritual head. These two elements of power, church and state, endowed -the monarch with unlimited sway, beyond whom there could be no appeal. -The simple patriarch now becomes not only the father of his people, but -the representative of Allah; the sole controller of life and death, -property and religion. Years, even centuries, roll on, the scimitar -gains nation after nation, fertile territories and treasures to the -followers of the Crescent, and innumerable multitudes swarm around the -standard.</p> -<p>The Padi-Shah, or ruler of this vast concourse of men, the absolute -owner of the domain far and wide, now rejoices in the adulations of his -superstitious subjects who acknowledge him as the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb107" href="#pb107" name="pb107">107</a>]</span></p> -<p>“King of Kings, and Lord of Lords; Ruler of the East and West, -and of all parts of the world; Prince of the Holy and chaste city of -Jerusalem; shining with the brightness of God. Thrice happy Lord of the -refulgent Mecca. Tamer of infidels, and the scourger of the unbelieving -race of Christian vassals. Lord of the White (Mediterranean), and the -Black Seas. The most mighty and invincible Sultan, who has power from -God to rule all people with a bridle.”</p> -<p>Many other similar titles are bestowed upon him, which, though they -may seem somewhat bombastic, or even ridiculous, in these days of -equality and freedom, yet are not unparalleled in some of the more -civilized realms of modern Europe; nor without their legitimate -influences upon the subjects of this potentate.</p> -<p>In order to illustrate the wonderful effect which the assumption of -such high-sounding appellatives has upon the general mass of the -people, I will relate an incident which happened to myself:—</p> -<p>During a recent sail on the Bosphorus in a cayik, and immediately -after the arrival of the allied fleets, I thought to amuse myself with -some political chit-chat with my boatman. As I was remarking about the -assistance of the Allies, the simple-minded, but thorough Mussulman, -was very prompt in solving the mystery of this unheard-of political -combination; <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb108" href="#pb108" name= -"pb108">108</a>]</span>why should two sets of giavours combine with the -true believers, against a third?</p> -<p>The reason seemed plain enough to him. The French giavours had a new -king, and since the Padi-shah is the “Prince of Princes, and Lord -of Lords,” in order to merit at his hands the consummation of -royalty, they had come to fight for him, bringing along England to -intercede for them. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb109" href="#pb109" -name="pb109">109</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch8" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e280">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER VIII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE ADMINISTRATIVE GOVERNMENT.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Although the power and authority of the sultan is -unlimited, and his sway entirely arbitrary, the disposal of affairs is -naturally consigned to various officers. The two principal of these are -the Grand Vezir, and the Sheikh-ul-Islam.</p> -<p>The Grand Vezir was formerly called Lala, or Tutor, because he was -the sole adviser to his majesty, and as he exercised the civil -functions of the executive, he was styled “Vekili-Mutlah,” -or vicar absolute. He therefore enjoyed all the rights and immunities -of his imperial master—to the entire control of property and life -itself.</p> -<p>He used to head the army in time of war; make all appointments to -office; give audiences to the foreign ambassadors, receive and answer -their memorials; and he only, of all the ministers of the realm, had -free access to the royal presence. As he was amenable to no tribunal, -his only forfeit being his own <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb110" -href="#pb110" name="pb110">110</a>]</span>head, and his worldly -possessions, it was his policy to render the person of the sultan -inapproachable—between whom and his people, a mystic veil seemed -ever to depend. By degrees, the monarch, who should have been the -father of his people, removed from all intercourse with his subjects, -became only the shrine of their superstitious devotions, the deity of -their worship, the proxy of Allah; while the real administrator of the -realm, was the selfish, ambitious, scheming, and blood-thirsty Grand -Vezir. Even on Fridays, as his majesty appeared in public on his way to -the mosque, he was so surrounded by pomp and royal pageantry, as to be -almost invisible. But since the promulgation of the Tanzimat or -reformation, an entire change has been effected in the administrative -department, and a substantial check imposed upon the Grand Vezir, whose -former prerogatives and immunities have been much curtailed.</p> -<p>There is now a council attached to each department, which -deliberates upon the various measures proposed. A grand national -council, established on a somewhat European system, called the -Medjlissi-Wala, or senate, composed of the dignitaries and notables of -the nation, and presided over by a Reiss or chief of its own, controls -the affairs of the nation in general. Its duties are to prepare the -laws; establish or revise the basis of the taxation; regulate -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb111" href="#pb111" name= -"pb111">111</a>]</span>the revenues and expenditure of the government; -to draft the instructions for the governors of the provinces; to try -all treasonable acts and crimes committed against the state; to correct -the abuses of the functionaries; to attend to the complaints of -citizens brought against the different agents or authorities; to draw -up sentences for criminals, which are either maintained or modified by -his majesty, etc. etc.,</p> -<p>There is another council called the Medjlissi-Khass, or special -council, which, being composed of the ministers of the different -departments, may be termed a cabinet, or privy council.</p> -<p>The Grand Vezir, as prime minister, presides over this. These two -councils together, constitute what is termed and generally known as the -Baabu-Aali, or the Sublime Porte.</p> -<p>Baab is the Arabic word for gate, or <i>porte</i> in French. Ever -since Mordecai sat in the king’s gate, and perhaps long before -his time, all the places of public administration in the East, have -been designated by this term. For instance, Baabū-Sheik-ul-Islam, -is the Superior Court; Baabū-Serasker, the war department, and in -contradistinction to all the other courts or departments, the -government of the Ottoman empire is denominated the Baabū-Aali, or -the supreme gate or court; a term of similar significance, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb112" href="#pb112" name="pb112">112</a>]</span>with -the Court of St. James, the Tuileries, or the Government at -Washington.</p> -<p>Thus it will be perceived, that the original autocratic government -has now been reduced into a form of bureaucracy.</p> -<p>The vast empire of Turkey, partaking of the territories of no less -than three continents, is divided into thirty-seven Ayalets or -provinces; each Ayalet being sub-divided into Livas or counties; and -each Liva into Kazas or townships. These provinces, counties, and -townships, are respectively governed by Valis, Kaimakams, and -Müdirs.</p> -<p>The governors, etc., of these provinces, formerly enjoyed in their -respective domains the same absolute authority as the Grand Vezir, and -answered with the same forfeiture of their heads and property for their -misdemeanors. But of late years, the same check has also been put upon -their powers, as in the central government, by the establishment of -councils, &c.</p> -<p>All the ministers and governors of Provinces are now appointed by -the sultan, and the secondary places are filled by the appointment of -the Grand Vezir.</p> -<p>When his majesty designs to elevate a person <span class="corr" id= -"xd25e1855" title="Source: o">to</span> the office of minister of the -realm, one of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb113" href="#pb113" -name="pb113">113</a>]</span>chamberlains of the palace proceeds to -summon the individual to the royal presence, where he is invested in -his new office by the bestowal of the Nishani-Müshir or the badge -of rank in brilliants, which is suspended around the neck; and an -Iradé or Edict is granted him by the Sultan. He then proceeds -with much pomp and ceremony to the Porte, where he is immediately -recognized, according to the royal commands. He is met at the foot of -the stairway by the Grand Vezir in person, who bows to the edict -presented to him by the chamberlain with as much reverence as if it -were his royal master himself. Holding the document over his head, the -viceroy enters the grand council chamber, where he reads it in a loud -voice, and the ceremony is concluded by an extempore prayer, offered by -the mufty of the council—and the new minister is conducted to his -<i>gate</i>, or his own department.</p> -<p>When they are deposed from office, the royal chamberlain appears, -demanding the <i>Nishan</i> which is immediately relinquished. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb114" href="#pb114" name= -"pb114">114</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch9" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e290">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER IX.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The policy of the government has hitherto been -<i>centralization</i>, that is, to draw the mass of the people from the -frontiers to a common centre, in order the more readily to suppress any -rebellion; and by depopulating the borders, to prevent the approach of -foreign invasion.</p> -<p>Besides, even while consigning the inhabitants of the provinces to -the arbitrary control of the governors, a certain degree of awe and -ready submission might be inspired towards the central government, -which could, at pleasure and option punish, with one fell blow, the -very ruler who was regarded as omnipotent in his own territories.</p> -<p>Also, it was with ulterior designs, that such a degree of laxity was -tolerated. The distant and provincial authorities, in grasping all -within their reach, and oppressing the people under their control, were -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb115" href="#pb115" name= -"pb115">115</a>]</span>able to amass great possessions for themselves; -but they were amenable to the supreme power, which availed itself of -its prerogatives to judge and condemn, upon the slightest accusation, -and to confiscate and appropriate the spoils, with the semblance of -justice itself—as if avenging the wrongs of an injured -population.</p> -<p>Notwithstanding, there was often an assumption of independence in -many of the provincial authorities, who succeeded in maintaining the -dignity of Déré-Beys or Feudal Barons, such as -Tchapan-Oghlou, Tepelene, and Mehmed Aali.</p> -<p>The consequence has been, that as you receded from the seat of -government over the vast tracts of territory, the very limited internal -communications, combined with the independence and rapacity of the -governors of the distant provinces, produced anarchy, misrule and -misery, in frightful ratio. Some amelioration has been attempted of -late by the Tanzimat or reformation, and the establishing of roads and -post-offices, councils, &c.; but the spirit of centralization still -pervades with all its legitimate evils.</p> -<p>Another equally pernicious error in their policy, was the idea that -it was better to employ the heads and hands of the people in foreign -wars, with the view to keep them constantly occupied, and to maintain a -military ardor. Although this system contributed <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb116" href="#pb116" name= -"pb116">116</a>]</span>vastly to the extension of the empire, yet sad -experience has developed its injurious effects. For constant -acquisitions so enlarged their dominions and inflated the soldiery, -that the very sultan began to tremble on his throne, until the -destruction of the janissaries became indispensable for the -preservation of the empire.</p> -<p>This famous military body was created in the reign of Sultan Mourad, -the son and successor of Orkhan; and it was notorious for many -centuries, till they were at last destroyed by Mahmoud, the father of -the present sultan.</p> -<p>The janissaries are so interwoven with the past and present history -of Turkey, that it does not seem amiss to give here a slight sketch of -their origin and downfall. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb117" href= -"#pb117" name="pb117">117</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch10" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e300">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER X.</h2> -<h2 class="main">HISTORY OF THE JANISSARIES.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The Janissaries were first instituted for the -protection of the throne and person of the sultan; the army being then -composed of the victorious Turkomans, who had become turbulent, and -were ready to take the reins of government into their own hands. A new -militia was consequently instituted by Mourad, composed of young -prisoners of war, who were brought up in the Moslem faith: and, in -contradistinction to the existing army, were denominated Yeni-tcheri, -or new soldiers.</p> -<p>With the design of giving more solemnity to the new order, the -founder resorted to the aid of religion, and they were blessed by a -famous sheikh, Hadji-Bektash,<a class="noteref" id="xd25e1909src" href= -"#xd25e1909" name="xd25e1909src">1</a> who extending his arms over the -troops, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb118" href="#pb118" name= -"pb118">118</a>]</span>invoked the blessing of Allah, and predicted -their future victories, pronouncing these words:</p> -<p>“Let them be called Yeni-tcheries. May their countenance ever -be bright! their hand victorious! their sword keen! May their spear -always hang over the head of their enemies, and wheresoever they go, -may they return with a white face!”</p> -<p>Their uniform consisted of loose trousers, and long, flowing robes, -tucked up. Their head-gear, when in full dress, was very peculiar. A -round cap of grey felt, with a long piece of the same hanging behind, -in commemoration of the loose sleeve of the saint, which was suspended -over their heads when he extended his arms to bless their -institution.</p> -<p>They were armed with sabres, scimitars, pistols, yataghans, muskets, -constituting, as it were, a peripatetic model arsenal.</p> -<p>Their mode of warfare was quite primitive; each fighting on his own -responsibility.</p> -<p>From their earliest years, these Christian slaves snatched from the -bosom of their families, were inured to all sorts of hardships, and to -perfect resignation to the will of their superiors. They were -diligently trained in the art of war, and every trace of their parents -and native country being obliterated from their minds, their only aim -was to promote the interest and glory of their lord and sultan, and -they were, for many centuries, justly distinguished for the excellence -of their discipline, and for their indomitable courage.</p> -<p>But, owing to their constant successes, they at last began to -consider themselves invincible, and by degrees becoming insolent, -respected neither the laws nor even the sultan himself. They thus -turned <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb120" href="#pb120" name= -"pb120">120</a>]</span>that power, which was originally the defence and -glory of the country, to its ruin and destruction; and many were the -sultans who fell victims to their audacity and rebellion.</p> -<p>Sultan Selim III., in his attempt to reform them, was sacrificed to -their fury.</p> -<p>They were, in reality, the ruling power in the country: dethroning -sultans, and taking off the heads of ministers at their will. They were -upheld in all their excesses by the people, from a dread of their -vengeance, many of whom, from motives of personal safety, even enlisted -as honorary members of their corps. For, even the assassin could find a -secure asylum in their barracks, from which no power or authority could -claim him.</p> -<p>Nothing was sacred in their estimation; families dared not to -venture abroad without a janissary escort; and, on this account, the -different foreign embassies were always accommodated with two or three -of their number, which custom is still in vogue; though Kavasses, or -Turkish police officers, have been substituted for the janissaries of -former times.</p> -<p>Even the royal harem was not safe from them, and neither life nor -property were secure from their depredations.</p> -<p>Besides their regular rations, their pay was at the rate of from one -asper to twenty, according to their <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb121" href="#pb121" name="pb121">121</a>]</span>rank, per day. An -asper was, at that time, equal to one cent of Federal money. But they -had various ways of increasing their personal revenues.</p> -<p>They assumed a peculiar style of taxing the peaceable citizens, by -carelessly tossing their handkerchiefs at them, with an intimation that -their pockets needed replenishing, and none dared to return the -handkerchief without a tribute tied in one of its corners.</p> -<p>Those who were stationed in the city as metropolitan guards, -generally contrived to amass a quantity of mud before the guardhouse, -which they would ask all the rayahs who passed by, either to sweep -away, or contribute something for its removal.</p> -<p>The day of their revolt was most memorable, and our own janissary -boatman coolly put the number and mark of his regiment upon the -street-door of our residence, as an intimation to his comrades that the -house was already appropriated by one of the brotherhood.</p> -<p>Assassination was a matter of frequent occurrence in those days. The -father of the writer once narrowly escaped with his life.</p> -<p>He happened to be passing by a shop, where a janissary was examining -a yataghan with a view of purchasing it. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb122" href="#pb122" name="pb122">122</a>]</span></p> -<p>“Stop,” cried the janissary, to him, “come here, I -want to test this blade on you.”</p> -<p>He knew the character of those villains too well to suppose that the -rascal was joking—as a forlorn hope, he indifferently remarked, -“that it would be hardly worth the while to try such an exquisite -blade on my old tottering body,” at the same time suggesting, -that it would be better for his excellency to accept the sword as a -gift, with the view of trying it on some worthier subject, and throwing -the money to the merchant, the old gentleman very suddenly -disappeared.</p> -<p>Imbued with the wildest fanaticism, and with all the prejudices of -ancient times, and habituated to command rather than to obey, these -janissaries constituted the most effectual barrier to all progress or -national reform.</p> -<p>Indeed, their outrageous conduct was often the principal cause of -war with foreign nations—and a stigma upon their country.</p> -<p>Any monarch, then, who appreciated the real interest of his -subjects, and could anticipate the future downfall of his country, -would be impelled to annihilate this scourge.</p> -<p>Eternal gratitude is due to the illustrious Mahmoud, who at last, -accomplished this task. A man of remarkable energy and discernment, -more inspired <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb123" href="#pb123" name= -"pb123">123</a>]</span>with the spirit of civilization and modern -reform than any of his predecessors; with a determination and -perseverance unparalleled in the history of his country, Mahmoud -effected this <i lang="fr">coup d’état</i>, and has justly -been designated of “Glorious memory.”</p> -<p>He first gained over to himself the renowned Hüssein Pasha, who -was then the Agha or chief of the janissaries; then Kara-Jehennem or -Black-Hell, the chief of the artillery, and Bostangy-Bashi, the head of -the life-guards; with the co-operation of these personages a system of -military reform was ordered, requiring all the soldiery to be regularly -drilled, and to adopt a certain uniform better suited to military life, -than the flowing robes and cumbersome head gears they had hitherto -worn.</p> -<p>The artillery corps and the life-guards cheerfully submitted to this -order, but the janissaries considered this change of costume as an -innovation upon long established customs, and averse to any military -discipline, there arose great dissatisfaction among them; and, as -usual, they commissioned the Kool-Keahiassi, their representative, to -remonstrate with his majesty, upon whose refusal to listen to their -murmurs, they determined on rebellion.</p> -<p>Having no suspicions of their chief, Hüssein-Pasha, according -to his counsel and public proclamation, the janissaries all assembled -in their own barracks, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb124" href= -"#pb124" name="pb124">124</a>]</span>at the great square of Et-Meydan, -nearly in the centre of the city, to be in readiness to resist any -attempt on the part of the sultan, to enforce his edict.</p> -<p>The sultan being informed of this circumstance, he, on his part, -issued a proclamation that all good Mussulmans should repair to the -holy standard of the Prophet in the court of the seraglio.</p> -<p>This standard is never brought out except in cases of great -emergency, and no Mussulman would refuse to repair to it when summoned. -Accordingly all the Mussulman citizens, the artillery and the -life-guards, who hated the janissaries, assembled at the seraglio and -proceeded in a body to the great rallying point of the rebels, where -they met with a warm reception from the barrack windows of the -janissaries, who, confident in their own sheltered position, were sure -of a glorious victory.</p> -<p>But they were soon undeceived; for, by the order of Kara-Jehennem, -two field pieces had been slily transported to the very doors of the -barracks, whose first discharge shattered the gates and prostrated -hundreds of the rebels.</p> -<p>The janissaries now desperate, rushed to seize the cannon, which -were just reloading: and had it not been for the heroic action of -Kara-Jehennem at this critical emergency, all would have been lost. The -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb125" href="#pb125" name= -"pb125">125</a>]</span>brave general perceiving the nature of the -affair, and although wounded as he was in the thigh, promptly jumped -from his horse, and seizing the torch, instantly applied it to the -cannon, and thus baffling the attempts of the assailants, soon turned -the scale of fortune.</p> -<p>All resistance was now rendered futile by the barracks being set on -fire, when amidst shrieks of agony the miserable wretches were, on the -15th of June, 1826, destroyed. Many among them were allowed to effect -their escape, with the design of sparing the innocent. The most -dangerous of their number were afterwards arrested and sent to the -European castles on the Bosphorus, where their doom was sealed by the -bow-string, and thus perished this formidable scourge of the Ottoman -Empire.</p> -<p>Many censures and much opprobrium have been cast upon the memory of -Mahmoud for this act of consummate destruction. He has been stigmatized -as cruel and blood-thirsty, whereas his whole country was groaning -under a scourge of tremendous power, in the shape of an unlicensed -soldiery.</p> -<p>Day by day, the monster grew in strength, and threatened the utter -annihilation of both sovereign and people. What greater act of humanity -then, than to crush the Hydra with one fell blow.</p> -<p>By this act Mahmoud not only established his own <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb126" href="#pb126" name= -"pb126">126</a>]</span>sovereign authority, but bursting, for the first -time, the bonds of barbarism, made a bold stride towards the platform -of civilization, and the fraternity of the world. But for Mahmoud, -Turkey would, perhaps, have, ere this, been only a record of the -past.</p> -<p>The army was immediately re-organized, and the soldiers were trained -in European tactics, by distinguished foreign officers.</p> -<p>They attained great distinction as infantry and artillery-men, and -still greater progress would have been made in military science, had it -not been for the intrigues of Russia, who, just at that period, -availing herself of the forlorn condition of the country, found a -favorable opportunity for declaring war.</p> -<p>The Allies of the present day, not discerning the Muscovite cunning, -were quiet spectators of the affray, and became as it were silent -partners in the shameful treaty of Adrianople, for which they have -since paid so dearly.</p> -<p>But the janissaries were not the sole barriers to the civilization -of the country. The Ulema, or the expounders of the faith, have -exercised even greater influence over the minds of the superstitious -people, through their unlimited spiritual authority. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb127" href="#pb127" name="pb127">127</a>]</span></p> -</div> -<div class="footnotes"> -<hr class="fnsep"> -<div class="footnote-body"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= -"xd25e1909" href="#xd25e1909src" name="xd25e1909">1</a></span> Some -historians attribute the origin of the janissaries to Orkhan; at the -same time all agree that they were blessed by Hadji -Bektash—forgetting that the said sheikh was only contemporary -with Mourad, and not Orkhan. <a class="fnarrow" href= -"#xd25e1909src">↑</a></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch11" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e311">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XI.</h2> -<h2 class="main">SPIRITUAL BRANCH OF THE GOVERNMENT.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Turkey is a country where church and state are most -eminently combined. The standard of every measure or act is the Koran; -the administration of affairs, both civil and religions, must, -therefore, be in conformity with the precepts of that sacred book; but -since that book does not provide for all emergencies, and in many -instances is not even explicit, those who made the Koran their special -study have ever been consulted, and all matters referred to them for -examination and sanction.</p> -<p>The entire body of these ecclesiastics are denominated the -<span class="sc">Ulema</span>, or learned (in the Koran), and their -expositions are termed <i>Fetvas</i>. These Fetvas constitute, as it -were, the statutes of the state.</p> -<p>The sanction of these doctors in every measure being essential, each -civil tribunal is supplied with one of their number, in order that -their acts may be valid. Hence, even the Grand-Vezir, who only -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb128" href="#pb128" name= -"pb128">128</a>]</span>represents the sultan in temporal matters, is -associated with the chief of the Ulema, viz., the Sheikh-ul-Islam, who, -on his part, personifies his majesty in spiritual affairs. Bearing the -title of <i>Fetvayi-Pena</i>, or the Grand Expositor, his approval is -necessary even to the measures of the great viceroy himself, for no law -can be promulgated without his sanction.</p> -<p>Considering then the importance attached to the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb129" href="#pb129" name= -"pb129">129</a>]</span>study of the Koran, and the benefit derived from -a full knowledge of its spirit and contents, which constitute the basis -of the law and government, many have been induced to adopt it as a -profession.</p> -<p>There are no less than forty thousand of these Ulema in -Constantinople.</p> -<p>These men are of very low origin, and are generally the sons of poor -peasants. They come to Constantinople and enlist themselves as -<i>Softas</i>, or students of divinity or law, which are synonymous -terms, in one of the principal mosques, where they go through a regular -course of study.</p> -<p>They receive no salary, but are allowed one loaf of bread a day, and -partake of such food as is gratuitously distributed to the poor from -the <i>Imarets</i>, or charitable institutions, which are attached to -all the principal mosques.</p> -<p>When they are proficients in writing, they are allowed to copy the -Koran in the original Arabic, which it has hitherto been considered -sacrilege to print or translate. And by the sale of these copies they -gain a livelihood.</p> -<p>They are afterwards promoted either to the office of Imams, -officiating priests, or to that of Kadis and Mollahs, district judges, -or Muftis, or expounders of the law. The acme of their ambition is to -become either Molla-Hunkiar, chaplain to his majesty, Kazy-ul-Asker -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb130" href="#pb130" name= -"pb130">130</a>]</span>chief justice, or Sheikh-ul-Islam, high pontiff -of the realm. This latter personage is considered by the Mussulmans as -an undoubted oracle in all instances.</p> -<p>Though the sultan is the head of both church and state, yet the -Sheikh-ul-Islam being appointed for life, and exempted from capital -punishment, his authority, through the superstition of the people, has -been most arbitrary, and even sometimes controlled the actions of the -executive; and it has only happened in our day, that in order to assert -the entire supremacy of the sultan, the Sheikh-ul-Islam has, for the -first time in the annals of the nation, been deposed from his sacred -office, and another substituted in his place.</p> -<p>The Ulema are not supported by the government, but by the income of -the mosques, which are largely endowed by religious devotees. Those who -are in the civil employment, receive, however, fixed salaries from the -state, in addition to their own <span class="corr" id="xd25e2076" -title="Source: ecclesiastial">ecclesiastical</span> income.</p> -<p>The real estates owned by the mosques are immense and beyond -calculation. They are called <i>Vakuf</i>, in contradistinction to -other lands of the government, termed <i>mülk</i>. These vakuf -lands, which comprise more than two-thirds of the empire, are sold as -under a perpetual lease, with a yearly tax or rent, and all -improvements made on them are <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb131" -href="#pb131" name="pb131">131</a>]</span>considered to belong by right -to the land, and not allowed to be removed. In case of the death of a -proprietor leaving no <i>male</i> heirs, the property, with all the -improvements thereon, reverts to the mosque.</p> -<p>The documents by which these lands are held, are so carelessly -registered and transferred, that disputes are almost unavoidable. For -instance, a deed is thus drawn up, A B has purchased of C D a piece of -land, belonging to such a vakuf, said to contain <i>about</i> 156 acres -<i>more</i> or <i>less</i>; that is, it might range from 100 to 1,500 -or 2,000 acres, since its limits are not fixed by any actual survey, or -specified by a map; but the boundaries are described in the most -primitive style by sensible objects, viz., an apple tree on one side, a -ditch on the other, the property of so and so on the third, and the -main road on the fourth. This system has hitherto proved most -advantageous to the vakufs; the peculiar elasticity of such indefinite -boundaries, admitting of great territorial trespass upon adjoining -lands, until they have succeeded in absorbing two-thirds of the -empire.</p> -<p>Strangers are not allowed to own these lands, nor hold them in -trust, with the view to avoid litigation with the different foreign -embassies. There has not, therefore, been hitherto any inducement to -European emigration, to the introduction of foreign capital, nor -encouragement to internal improvements. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb132" href="#pb132" name="pb132">132</a>]</span></p> -<p>The mosques derive an immense revenue, both from the rents of these -estates, and the commission on sales, which is enormous; being no less -than 8 per cent. on each transfer.</p> -<p>With such a percentage, were the sale repeated fifteen times, the -original cost of the land would be doubled; so that there is an -effectual check upon land speculation. Apart from this, the vakuf -system is ruinous both to the community and to the government. If a man -wants to raise a sum of money, by mortgaging his property for three -months only, besides the customary interest of the country, which is 1 -per cent., he has to bear the enormous expense of the transfer and -retransfer, which amounts, as has been said, to 6 per cent. This added -to the 3 per cent., the interest for the three months, making -altogether no less than 9 per cent. for three months! This is not all. -The natives not being allowed the privilege of borrowing foreign funds, -by mortgaging their own property, are reduced to the necessity of -resorting to their own capitalists, who usually demand 2 or 3 per cent. -a month!</p> -<p>The whole of this vakuf land, or church property, occupied and -unoccupied, pays no taxes, so that a most profitable source of revenue -is unavailable to the government.</p> -<p>The immense incomes of the vakufs are partly <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb133" href="#pb133" name= -"pb133">133</a>]</span>appropriated to the erection of mosques, -hospitals, schools, fountains, baths, and other charitable -institutions; and above all to the support of the Ulema themselves. But -there is always an immense surplus, which lies dormant with previously -accumulated hoards, unless resorted to for the promotion of some of the -fanatical schemes and personal aggrandizement of the Ulema -themselves.</p> -<p>These men, thus rendered independent of the government, and -possessing unbounded influence over the minds of the superstitious -people, and being, in fact, the ultimatum of every hope and project, -have been the greatest barriers to national improvement; for, -surrounded by wealth, and themselves of the lowest origin, they attach -an undue value to worldly possessions; and trained in religious -bigotry, they resist all innovations as infringing upon their own -interests, temporal and spiritual; so that in destroying the -janissaries, and leaving the Ulema unmolested, Sultan Mahmoud did but -half the work of reform. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb134" href= -"#pb134" name="pb134">134</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch12" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e321">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The revenue of the government is about thirty-six -millions of dollars, and is thus divided:</p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="t12.1"> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft cellTop">Göshüre, -tithe</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight cellTop">$11,000,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft">Saliane, land tax</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">10,000,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft">Haradj, Poll tax on Christian -subjects (lately abolished)</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">2,000,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft">Geömrük, -customs</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">4,300,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft">Mirry and Ihtissab, indirect -tax</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">7,500,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Vergys, or tributes of Egypt</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">$1,000,000</td> -<td rowspan="4" class="rowspan xd25e2131 cellRight"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">Vergys,</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">or</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">tributes</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">of</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> -Wallachia</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">100,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">Vergys,</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">or</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">tributes</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">of</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> -Moldavia</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">50,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">Vergys,</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">or</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">tributes</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">of</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> -Servia</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">100,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"></td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">1,250,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft cellBottom"></td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight cellBottom"><span class= -"sum">$36,050,000</span></td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -<p>Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, though it -contains, including all its suburbs, a population of nearly a million -of inhabitants, is, owing to the system of centralization, exempt from -the direct tax, which is levied only in the provinces. Of late there -has, however, been a sort of an income tax established, requiring every -house-owner to register all contracts of rent at the Police, and pay a -fee <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb135" href="#pb135" name= -"pb135">135</a>]</span>thereon of two per cent. Besides this, they have -also introduced another tax on commercial and financial transactions, -such as stamped bills, &c.</p> -<p>Some of these taxes and revenues are collected by the agents of the -government on its own account; and others are farmed out at public -auction, with the view of avoiding the abuses and corruptions of the -officials; the benefit of which arrangement was illustrated, when the -custom-house was farmed out to the Armenian banker, Djezâyirly, -who bid double the amount which the treasury used to realize.</p> -<p>The expenditure of the government has usually been nearly within its -income; but of late years has exceeded it.</p> -<p>It includes the sultan’s personal expenses, and the civil and -military list.</p> -<p>The sultan receiving a salary of $300,000 per month; the Grand Vezir -$4,000, and the others $3,000 each.</p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="t12.1"> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop">Civil list</td> -<td class="cellTop">of the Sultan and his harem</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight cellTop">$4,100,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">Civil</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">list</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span></td> -<td><span class="ditto"><span class="s">of</span><span class= -"d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span><span class= -"ditto"><span class="s">the</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span> Army</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">15,000,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"></td> -<td><span class="ditto"><span class="s">of</span><span class= -"d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span><span class= -"ditto"><span class="s">the</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span> Navy</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">2,000,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"></td> -<td>Ordnance and Fortifications</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">1,500,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"></td> -<td>Pay of Functionaries</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">10,000,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"></td> -<td>Foreign Diplomatic Salaries</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">500,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"></td> -<td>Public Works</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">500,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"></td> -<td>Séhims or life annuities &c.</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">2,200,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"></td> -<td>Interest on Cayimés at 6 per cent.</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">450,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"></td> -<td>Bank subvention</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">1,000,000</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft cellBottom"></td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight cellBottom"><span class= -"sum">$37,250,000</span></td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb136" href="#pb136" name= -"pb136">136</a>]</span> -<p>The deficiency in the treasury is occasioned partly by arrears of -taxes, and partly by incidental expenses, such as bank subvention, -appropriations for internal improvements, etc.</p> -<p>With the view of enabling the treasury to carry on its operations, -the government has, for the past few years, been obliged to effect a -local loan of $8,000,000, in the shape of Kayemés, or Treasury -notes, bearing interest of 6 per cent per annum. Apart from this, it -has also contracted a foreign debt of £5,000,000—these two -are the only national debts.</p> -<p>The monetary market in every country is governed by its exports and -imports. The demand in Turkey for articles of foreign produce, having -gradually exceeded its former imports, the balance of trade has been -against the country, and a drain of specie has been the natural -consequence. Apart from this, the payment of the Russian indemnities, -having forced the government to demonetize its currency, the rate of -exchange became very fluctuating, and a fit subject to financial -operators; so that affairs assumed a frightful aspect.</p> -<p>To remedy this evil, the government was advised to establish a Bank, -in order to keep the foreign exchange at a more uniform par value; this -subvention has cost the government on an average $1,000,000 -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb137" href="#pb137" name= -"pb137">137</a>]</span>per annum; jet without any good success, for it -only served to enrich a few individuals, who were intrusted with its -management, without benefiting the country in general, and involved the -national treasury in greater difficulty. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb138" href="#pb138" name="pb138">138</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch13" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e331">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XIII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">ARMY AND NAVY.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p>The standing army of the Ottoman Empire is in <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb139" href="#pb139" name="pb139">139</a>]</span>time -of peace 120,000 men, and 180,000 during war. It consists of six -<i>ordoos</i> or divisions, viz.:</p> -<ul> -<li>Hassa, or Imperial Guards.</li> -<li>Der-y-Saadet, or Metropolitan Division.</li> -<li>Roumely, or European (Turkey) Division.</li> -<li><span class="corr" id="xd25e2337" title= -"Source: Anadalou">Anadolou</span>, or Asiatic, <span class= -"ditto"><span class="s">Division.</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span></li> -<li>Arabistan, or Arabian, <span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">Division.</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span></li> -<li>Irak, or <span class="corr" id="xd25e2350" title= -"Source: Messapotamian">Mesapotamian</span>, <span class= -"ditto"><span class="s">Division.</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span></li> -</ul> -<p>Every division comprises, three regiments of foot, two of horse, and -one of artillery, with 32 guns, the whole amounting to 30,000 men.</p> -<p>The soldiers in active service are called <i>Nizam</i>, and those in -reserve, <i>Redif</i>. They are raised by conscription, and formerly -used to serve all their lifetime, or as long as they were able, but by -a commendable measure recently introduced by Riza Pasha, a military -reform has been effected, by which they are now relieved at the end of -five years, when they go to their respective homes, subject however, to -certain military duties at stated times. By this measure, Turkey has -been enabled to raise a reserve of no less than 400,000 Redifs.</p> -<p>Both Nizams and Redifs are divided into two bodies, commanded by -Feriks (or Lieutenant Generals) and Livas (Brigadier General), and the -whole of every division by a Serdar or Field Marshal. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb140" href="#pb140" name="pb140">140</a>]</span></p> -<p>The entire army is subject to the orders of the Ser-Asker or the -Generalissimo, who is the minister of war.</p> -<p>The famous Omar Pasha who was one of the Serdars commanding the -Asiatic division, has lately been elevated to the post of Ser -Asker.</p> -<p>The rank and file of the Turkish army in composed of able-bodied and -well-drilled soldiers; but they are badly officered by illiterate men, -raised from the ranks, who are untarnished by modern reforms and imbued -with a due share of the popular national conceit. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb141" href="#pb141" name="pb141">141</a>]</span></p> -<p>It is only very recently, that a military school having been -established, the army is supplied with well instructed officers, among -whom may be found many of the sons of the grandees of the empire. There -is, however, a constant jealousy between these more enlightened young -commanders, and the old veterans of the <i lang="fr">ancien -régime</i>; the latter regarding the former as mere upstarts and -parvenus.</p> -<p>The Rayas, or Christian subjects have hitherto been exempt from -military service not because they are not fitted to become the -defenders of their country, equally with their Mohammedan compatriots, -but lest by coming into competition with them they should rise to high -posts in the army, and rank even above their Mussulman -subordinates.</p> -<p>The Turkish navy is comprised thus:</p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="t12.1"> -<thead> -<tr class="label"> -<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"></td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Ships.</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Guns.</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> -Men.</td> -</tr> -</thead> -<tbody> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Three-Deckers,</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">2</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">260</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">2700</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Two-Deckers,</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">8</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">668</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">9500</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Frigates,</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">14</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">788</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">5400</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Corvettes,</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">6</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">100</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">Indeterminate</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Brigs,</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">6</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">80</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight"><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">Indeterminate</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Schooners, cutters, &c.,</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">12</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">72</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight"><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">Indeterminate</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">War Steamers, &c.,</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">28</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">112</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight"><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">Indeterminate</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"></td> -<td class="xd25e2131"><span class="sum">76</span></td> -<td class="xd25e2131"><span class="sum">2080</span></td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight"><span class="sum">20 @ -25,000</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Destroyed at Sinope,</td> -<td class="xd25e2131">11</td> -<td class="xd25e2131"></td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"></td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellBottom"><span class="sum">65</span></td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellBottom"></td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight cellBottom"></td> -</tr> -</tbody> -</table> -</div> -<p>Many of the Turkish vessels of war are noble specimens of naval -architecture. For ever since the beautiful models built by Ekford and -his successors, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb142" href="#pb142" -name="pb142">142</a>]</span>Rhodes and Beeves, have floated upon their -waters, a wonderful impetus has been given to the navy of the -Osmanlis—and the prow of almost every vessel bears the impress of -American ingenuity.</p> -<p>Magnificent men of war, vessels of the line, frigates, sloops, -brigs, schooners, and cutters lie all along the Bosphorus, fully manned -and equipped. But so seldom are they in action, or so rarely do they -sail beyond the “ocean stream,” that the men are utterly -without the incitement of any real engagements, and unused to rougher -seas—so that if, perchance, they are called into active service, -more than half of them are confined to their hammocks.</p> -<p>Thus the lamentable occurrence at Sinope may be accounted for; the -squadron having been obliged to anchor there on its way to Batoum, -because nearly all the sailors were sea-sick.</p> -<p>The officers themselves are illiterate, and ignorant of the science -of navigation.</p> -<p>It is true that some few have been educated in the British navy, who -are now distinguished in the Turkish marine—and it is to be hoped -that many of the scholars of the new naval academy will hereafter -elevate the character of their nation on the seas; though there are not -the same incentives to maritime emulation as exist in England and -America, or even in France. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb143" href= -"#pb143" name="pb143">143</a>]</span></p> -<p>The general staff of the navy contains<span class="corr" id= -"xd25e2523" title="Source: .">,</span></p> -<ul> -<li>3 Admirals,</li> -<li>5 Vice Admirals,</li> -<li>8 Rear Admirals.</li> -</ul> -<p>The staff of a man-of-war of first rank, contains,</p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="t12.1"> -<tr> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellLeft cellTop">1</td> -<td class="cellTop">Commander—whose rank is equal to</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight cellTop">Lieutenant-Colonel.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellLeft">1</td> -<td>Second commander</td> -<td lang="fr" class="xd25e2131 cellRight">Chef de bataillon.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellLeft">1</td> -<td>Hodja</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">Major.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellLeft">16</td> -<td>Mulazims</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellRight">Lieutenants.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellLeft cellBottom">1</td> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellRight cellBottom">Physician, 2 -Surgeons, 1 Imam or chaplain, and from 800 to 900 men.</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -<p>The entire naval force is under the command of a Captain Pasha or -High Admiral, who is the Minister of the Navy.</p> -<p>The men, subalterns and even captains, both of the army and navy, -are most miserably paid. A common soldier at the rate of seventy-five -cents a month, and a captain eleven dollars and rations—so that -any deficiency in hospitality or style of living, is not to be -attributed to indifference on their own part. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb144" href="#pb144" name="pb144">144</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch14" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e341">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XIV.</h2> -<h2 class="main">COMMERCE.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The trade of Turkey, including that of Egypt and the -Danubian Principalities, amounted, in 1852, to</p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="t12.1"> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop">Imports,</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellTop">£11,828,300</td> -<td class="cellRight cellTop">Sterling.</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Exports,</td> -<td class="xd25e2131 cellBottom">10,644,450</td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span class="ditto"><span class= -"s">Sterling.</span><span class="d"><span class= -"i">,,</span></span></span></td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -<p>The Osmanlis, having no commercial marine except their own few -coasters—the whole foreign, and great part of the internal trade, -is carried on by 35,000 foreign vessels; whose aggregate tonnage -amounts to 5,000,000 annually, and they are admitted to her ports at -small charges.</p> -<p>The tariff of Turkey is but nominal; being only three per cent. on -all exports, and two per cent. additional as consumptive -duty—making altogether, five per cent. on their value.</p> -<p>This free-trade principle, is not, however, purely from liberal -motives, but the result of foreign compulsion, and their own ignorance -of political <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb145" href="#pb145" name= -"pb145">145</a>]</span>economy. For, in their anxiety to counterbalance -the deficiencies of the treasury, caused by unjust treaties extorted -from them by foreign powers, they have imposed a duty of no less than -thirteen per cent. on all their produce or exports, so that, when the -governmental tithe upon the raw material, the various other direct and -indirect taxes on the same, and the onerous export duty are together -taken into consideration, the cost of the produce is, in effect, raised -to about 30 or 35 per cent. above its original value.</p> -<p>Apart from this, if sheet iron, which is imported from England, and -upon which the usual duty of 5 per cent. is already levied, be -manufactured into stove pipes, or any other form, it is considered as -<i>home produce</i>, and a new duty of 13 per cent. collected -thereon!</p> -<p>The tariff is regulated every seven years, and the value of the -different articles is determined by a commission of merchants -representing the different nations, each of whom endeavors to maintain -his own interest. One of these gentlemen exultingly boasted, that his -own fortune was made, as he had succeeded in establishing a low -valuation on a certain article in which he dealt very largely.</p> -<p>America has hitherto had no representative in this body, though her -commerce has, especially of late, been rapidly increasing with this -part of the world. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb146" href="#pb146" -name="pb146">146</a>]</span>It has only been through ignorance of the -country and its resources, that American enterprise has made so little -progress in the East, or been confined to the interposition of English -and other houses.</p> -<p>Does this country present no inducements to the mercantile -community? Let the following table of Exports and Imports speak for -itself.</p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="t12.1"> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop cellBottom"> -<p class="first">EXPORTS.</p> -<ul> -<li>Corn.</li> -<li>Beans, peas, etc.</li> -<li>Wool.</li> -<li>Raw silk.</li> -<li>Opium.</li> -<li>Otto of roses, and other perfumes.</li> -<li>Angora hair.</li> -<li>Coffee (Mocha).</li> -<li>Canary seed.</li> -<li>Linseed.</li> -<li>Do. oil.</li> -<li>Rice.</li> -<li>Yellow berries.</li> -<li>Boxwood.</li> -<li>Madder root.</li> -<li>Tallow.</li> -<li>Valonea.</li> -<li>Gall nuts.</li> -<li>Fruits.</li> -<li>Drugs.</li> -<li>Soap.</li> -<li>Olives and olive oil.</li> -<li>Sponges.</li> -<li>Tobacco.</li> -<li>Cotton.</li> -<li>Sesame. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb147a" href="#pb147a" name= -"pb147a">147</a>]</span></li> -<li lang="de">Meerschaum.</li> -<li>Carpets.</li> -<li>Copper.</li> -<li>Hides and skins.</li> -<li>Bones.</li> -<li>Confections.</li> -<li>Helva.</li> -<li>Shawls.</li> -<li>Oriental manufactures.</li> -<li>Leeches.</li> -<li>Rags.</li> -<li>Cordials.</li> -<li>Cymbals.</li> -<li>Lumber.</li> -<li>Embroideries.</li> -<li>Hemp and Flax.</li> -<li>Salt.</li> -<li>Mastic.</li> -<li>Chibouks, Nargilles, and amber mouthpieces.</li> -</ul> -</td> -<td class="cellRight cellTop cellBottom"> -<p class="first">IMPORTS.</p> -<ul> -<li>Silk goods.</li> -<li>Cotton goods.</li> -<li>Woollen stuffs.</li> -<li>Linen.</li> -<li>Haberdashery.</li> -<li>Hardware.</li> -<li>Watches and clocks.</li> -<li>Jewelry.</li> -<li>Sugar.</li> -<li>Coffee, pepper, and spices.</li> -<li>Iron and nails.</li> -<li>Coal.</li> -<li>Stone ware.</li> -<li>Logwood.</li> -<li>Rum and wines.</li> -<li>Fancy goods.</li> -<li>Cochineal.</li> -<li>Tanned hides.</li> -<li>Glass ware.</li> -<li>Furniture.</li> -<li>Drugs and medicines.</li> -<li>Butter.</li> -<li>Kaviar.</li> -<li>Tar.</li> -<li>Ropes.</li> -<li>Cordage.</li> -<li>Chains. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb147b" href="#pb147b" name= -"pb147b">147</a>]</span></li> -<li>Corn.</li> -<li>Stoves.</li> -<li>Nicknacks.</li> -<li>Machinery, etc.</li> -<li>Furs.</li> -<li>Crockery.</li> -<li>Indigo.</li> -<li>Dye stuffs.</li> -<li>Paints.</li> -<li>Mirrors.</li> -<li>Millinery.</li> -<li>Musical instruments, etc.</li> -<li>Leather.</li> -<li>Boots and shoes.</li> -<li>Lead.</li> -<li>Paper.</li> -<li>Do. hangings.</li> -<li>Tea.</li> -<li>Books.</li> -<li>Carriages.</li> -<li>India rubber.</li> -<li>Mahogany and rose-wood.</li> -</ul> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb147" href="#pb147" name= -"pb147">147</a>]</span></p> -<p>If, then, such is the variety of items, more than sufficient to -command the attention of any mercantile community, it is somewhat -astonishing that the Americans should not have been attracted to the -advantages to be derived from an interchange of commerce, so jealous as -they are of commercial supremacy.</p> -<p>The territory is immense, teeming with undeveloped resources; the -population over 35 millions of souls to be supplied with the -necessities, and many <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb148" href= -"#pb148" name="pb148">148</a>]</span>of the superfluities of life. -England and France have fought for the freedom of <i>this</i> commerce, -America may spread her sails unstained by the blood of her citizens, -and be wafted into ports, where treasures and profit are in greater -profusion than either in China or Japan.</p> -<p>War having ceased, and so many new and salutary reforms soon to be -introduced, commerce and all the arts of peace and prosperity will -flourish with renewed vigor upon the Turkish soil. Internal -improvements are already projected and in progress, demanding the -genius and ingenuity of foreign climes. While then, England and France -are eagerly watching every opening, shall America remain blindfolded -and indifferent?—a country so productive of men of the rarest -energy and perseverance, so full of the brightest Yankee notions, and -the most curious and useful specimens of mechanical art and -manufactures! <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb149" href="#pb149" name= -"pb149">149</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch15" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e351">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XV.</h2> -<h2 class="main">JURISPRUDENCE.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">In Europe and America disputes often involve a process -of tedious litigation. It is not so in Turkey; although the Koran and -its voluminous commentaries decide every case “from a point of -faith to a right of gutter,” yet the form of trial is so simple -that it becomes quite expeditious. For all Turkish jurisprudence may be -condensed into these two principles, viz.,</p> -<p>1st. In every case of litigation the testimony of two witnesses is -required of the plaintiff, and</p> -<p>2d. In default of witnesses an oath is administered to the defendant -as the only alternative.</p> -<p>No written document, except judicial, is considered valid, or -recognized by the courts, unless it be substantiated by two -witnesses.</p> -<p>For instance, a banker had advanced to the treasury about $30,000 on -account of a certain pasha, who farmed a province from the government. -Before <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb150" href="#pb150" name= -"pb150">150</a>]</span>the year was out the pasha died, and the court -of chancery taking charge of the estate of the deceased, it became -necessary to examine and settle the banker’s account current with -the defunct. On examination it was found that the banker had paid to -the treasury the above mentioned sum in thirty-three different -installments, and received from the deceased only $18,000; so that -there was a balance due the banker of $12,000.</p> -<p>But the court of chancery would not recognize the disbursements of -the banker in behalf of the deceased, unless each of the installments -made by the banker to the government could be substantiated by two -witnesses; thus requiring no less than sixty-six witnesses for the -case. It was in vain the banker produced the vouchers of the government -regularly signed and sealed by the proper authorities. The judges would -admit nothing but the requisite witnesses, and in default of such -witnesses claimed from the banker the $18,000, the receipt of which was -avowed by him, and consequently due to the heirs.</p> -<p>Nor is this mode of justice, primitive as it is, ever used with -impartiality.</p> -<p>Witnesses are never subpœnaed by the courts, and no oath is -required of them for the truth of their depositions; also on account of -the spirit of fanatical animosity which exists mutually between the -Christians <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb151" href="#pb151" name= -"pb151">151</a>]</span>and Mohammedans, no unbiased testimony is to be -procured. Indeed, formerly, the Christians were not even allowed to -appear as witnesses.</p> -<p>The judges themselves being men of low birth and grovelling -principles, only hold their offices as sources of personal emolument, -as the wealth of various of these functionaries fully attests. The late -Sheikh-ul Islam, at his death, left the sultan, by bequest, nearly a -million of dollars!</p> -<p>Although strictly prohibited by the Koran, they are in the constant -habit of receiving bribes to any amount; notwithstanding the precepts -of their religion, which are ever and anon held up as barriers to all -reform, they are so corrupted, that their consciences are immediately -lulled, whenever the requisite bonus is slily slipped under the -cushions on which they sit, and the testimony of hired witnesses is -then winked at by them, and even supported, as their interest may -demand.</p> -<p>The only qualification requisite for a witness to appear before -these courts of justice, is to be omniscient, and never to utter the -fatal word <i>Bilmem</i>, I don’t know.</p> -<p>When conflicting interests occur, which induce the judges to take -side against the witnesses—and such occasions are by no means -rare, since justice is not only put up at auction, but a single -recommendation <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb152" href="#pb152" name= -"pb152">152</a>]</span>from a grandee suffices to turn the -scale—the scene is truly farcical, and its sketch worthy of the -pen of Dickens himself.</p> -<p>The Kadis adopt a singular method to disqualify the testimony. The -questions which are put in the cross-examination, are not only entirely -irrelevant to the subject matter in dispute, but would even puzzle the -“cutest Yankee” how to answer. Their object is to -disqualify the testimony by questions, no matter how ridiculous, but by -which the witnesses will be forced at last to utter the ominous word -<i>Bilmem</i>—I don’t know.</p> -<p>With a view to ascertain whether the witnesses are well acquainted -with the party in whose behalf they are testifying, they are asked, -“who was the grandfather of the plaintiff?” The usual and -formal answer in such cases is, “Abraham,” meaning the old -Patriarch. “His great grandfather?” “Adam,” -beyond whom he (the plaintiff), is not supposed to have any -ancestors.</p> -<p>On a certain occasion, a judge being very anxious to defeat the -testimony of a clever witness, after various ingenious interrogatories, -made the quaint inquiry, “who married Adam and Eve?” To -which the witness unhesitatingly replied, not, as it may be supposed, -“I don’t know,”—oh no, not so stupid as -that—but, “<i>I was not invited to the -wedding.</i>”</p> -<p>It was a maxim of the government and a profitable <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb153" href="#pb153" name="pb153">153</a>]</span>one -to its employés, that in the administration of justice, a speedy -infliction of punishment, even though unjust, was more desirable than a -tedious course of litigation, as the fear and awe thus infused into the -hearts of the people, rendered them submissive to the most irrational -commands, and terrified the mass into a dread of infringing the laws, -although some few might suffer unjustly.</p> -<p>This principle, though nominally abandoned by the government, is -still maintained by the judiciary; therefore, no pleading by lawyers is -allowed, and the sentence is passed with all possible dispatch, or -deferred at pleasure, as circumstances may require.</p> -<p>The whole of Turkey is divided into two separate judicial districts, -viz., Anadolou, and Roumely, or Asia and Europe, and there is a -Kazi-ul-Asker, or chief justice, appointed to each district, who -preside over their respective courts.</p> -<p>There, is, however, a supreme court called, Arz-Odassi, or court of -appeals, where the Grand Vezir and the Grand Mufty conjointly preside, -and there all cases, when appealed, are heard; but the sentences are -seldom reversed, as they wish to preserve the decisions of the -judiciary courts inviolable. When the injustice is too gross and -palpable, a new Ilam or sentence is granted by this court, without any -allusion to prior proceedings. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb154" -href="#pb154" name="pb154">154</a>]</span></p> -<p>It is true that the people have the right to appeal to his majesty -for redress, but as they are invariably referred to this court for -reconsideration, justice is seldom rendered to the appellants.</p> -<p>Foreigners are not tried before these courts. If the litigation is -between themselves, their cases are tried and settled by their -legations; but if with the natives, they are referred to a special -court of the ministry of commerce, called Medjlissy-Tidjaret, composed -of various merchants both natives and foreigners, and presided over by -the Minister of Commerce, or his deputy.</p> -<p>The code by which this body pretends to be governed, is the -“Code de Commerce” of Napoleon. How equitably it is applied -by them, may easily be perceived.</p> -<p>Imagine some twenty-five or thirty merchants, of different nations -and tongues, assembled together in the character of jurors, who not -only do not understand a word or syllable that is uttered in their -hearing, but often do not even possess the means of communicating their -ideas to each other.</p> -<p>The affair brought before them, being unintelligible to most of -them, it is generally conducted by the government officials, or some of -the members who are fortunate enough to know something of the language, -and their decisions imparted to the passive <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb155" href="#pb155" name= -"pb155">155</a>]</span>members, who usually give their sanction, taking -it for granted that all is right. The consequence is, that if one of -the litigants is so happy as to secure the good will and patronage of -an acting member, he is sure to come off successfully, no matter how -bad his case.</p> -<p>This body, like the other Turkish courts, admits not the pleading by -lawyers, for a good and simple reason, that its members being men of -business, and ignorant of law and legality, prefer to be governed by -their own judgment, and constitute themselves at once, judge, jury, and -prosecutors.</p> -<p>The interpreters of the foreign legations, are, however, required by -treaty to be present, who not only interpret for the parties, but are -bound to defend and protect their fellow citizens, to the best of their -ability, and report thereupon to their respective ambassadors. It is to -be regretted that the services of these individuals are not always -disinterested. Policy sometimes inclines them to side with this -serio-comical court, for the sake of keeping on good terms with the -officials and its members, and thus maintaining their own reputations -at the Porte as emissaries of foreign lands; while at the same time a -good <span class="corr" id="xd25e2935" title= -"Source: oportunity">opportunity</span> is offered them for the -gratification of any personal pique or prejudice against their clients; -so that a foreigner may either suffer injustice, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb156" href="#pb156" name="pb156">156</a>]</span>or -be injurious to the people of the country, without the knowledge of his -own ambassador. How true, then, the observation of Lord <span class= -"corr" id="xd25e2940" title="Source: Stradford">Stratford</span>, that -“the very atmosphere of Turkey is impregnated with -venality.”</p> -<p>The costs of lawsuits are always defrayed by the gainer of the -cause, as he is supposed to be better able to afford such expenses; but -the evident design is to induce people to go to law, since justice is -set aside, and every facility afforded by the suborning of witnesses. -Even the sentences are so carelessly, nay designedly worded, that at -any time flaws may be discovered, and a new trial demanded.</p> -<p>The equity of making the gainer of the cause pay the costs, was -ludicrously illustrated in the case of an Arnavout or Albanian, who was -accused of stealing a gimlet. When in the presence of the Kadi, he -pleaded not guilty. The plaintiff, according to law, was required to -substantiate his accusation, by producing two witnesses. The man was in -a dilemma, for he had no witnesses to produce; but, as usual, he was -relieved from the anxiety, by the prompt offer of those harpies, who -linger about <i>mehkemes</i>, or courts of justice, and tender their -benevolent services in such emergencies, for certain remuneration.</p> -<p>Moderate as was their demand, the trifling claim <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb157" href="#pb157" name="pb157">157</a>]</span>not -justifying much extra expense, he modestly declined availing himself of -this privilege, and pleaded to have no witnesses. The only alternative -then for the kadi was to administer the oath to the defendant; which -was unhesitatingly complied with; for the Arnavouts are generally noted -for their pliable consciences. Thus having been duly sworn, our hero -was pronounced the happy gainer of the cause, and <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb158" href="#pb158" name= -"pb158">158</a>]</span>requested to pay only the costs, which were ten -times more than the value of the article in question.</p> -<p>The Arnavout being somewhat of a speculative genius, after due -consideration of the pros and cons, in the case, coolly put his hand in -his bosom, and producing the disputed gimlet, threw it at his accuser, -saying, “There, have your gimlet, be you the gainer of the cause, -and pay the costs!”</p> -<p>As to criminal laws, they cannot be said to exist in Turkey; for -this form of justice being based upon the principle of retaliation, or -<i>kissass</i>, the prosecution is always on account of the injured -party, and not of the government; so that the release of a criminal is -at the option of an individual. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb159" -href="#pb159" name="pb159">159</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch16" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e361">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XVI.</h2> -<h2 class="main">EDUCATION.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Mohammed, who is the oracle on all subjects, having -declared, that “the ink of the learned and the blood of the -martyr are equal in the sight of God,” education is not so -entirely neglected by his followers, as is generally supposed. It may, -in one sense, be considered general; for every parent is obliged to -send his children, both male and female, to the schools which are -attached to the mosques, and supported by them. At Constantinople there -are no less than 396 mektebs, or primary free schools, attended by -22,700 children, both boys and girls. There are six other schools, for -more advanced studies, attended by 870 pupils.</p> -<p>The initiatory services to the Elif Bé, literature of the -young Moslems, are very imposing. The candidate, blooming with the -roses of six short summers, is decked in his best, and in the best of -the neighbors’ too; for there is great borrowing of jewelry -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb160" href="#pb160" name= -"pb160">160</a>]</span>and rich embroideries, when the parents cannot -afford to buy. The young tyro mounts a steed which vies with him in the -splendor of its caparison, and with his badge of honor, a beautiful and -glittering satchel slung over his shoulder, parades the streets. The -children of the school about to be honored by his attendance, are the -escort; and the good old <i>hodja</i>, or school-master, leads the -train, and the tune, as they wend their way, singing and chanting; the -boys and girls vociferating in full chorus, Ameen! Ameen!</p> -<p>When the children of the sultan are about to begin their literary -pursuits, the procession and rejoicings are, of course, in proportion -to the excelling importance of the royal progeny over all inferior buds -of humanity.</p> -<p>The public are thus duly notified, though the instruction of the -young sultans is by private masters.</p> -<p>The system of instruction in the Turkish schools is eminently -primitive, and the branches taught are very elementary.</p> -<p>They use neither quill nor desk, the peculiarity of the Turkish -characters requiring the stiffness of the reed; and the importance -attached to calligraphy is so great, that the paper is held on the palm -of the hand, in order to give the flexibility requisite for the -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb161" href="#pb161" name= -"pb161">161</a>]</span>formation of the letters. The lessons of the -children consist of spelling and writing; and the higher studies in -committing the Koran to memory. In order to understand this sacred -book, they are obliged to learn the grammar, in which proficiency is -seldom made. Hence very few, even of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb162" href="#pb162" name="pb162">162</a>]</span>officials, especially -of the <i lang="fr">ancien régime</i>, can read or write -correctly, all their correspondence being performed by keatibs, or -scribes. The general deficiency of education creates a great demand for -men of this profession, whose services are needed for all sorts of -letter writing, for petitions, obligatory notes, contracts, etc. These -persons are to be found in the court-yards of the mosques, in shops and -kahvés near the Porte, and in many other places.</p> -<p>To those who knew not how to affix their own names to any document, -a seal not only became a convenient substitute, but the universal style -of signature. All the grandees have their mëohurdar, or -seal-bearer, and the Sadrazam officiates in this capacity to the -sultan.</p> -<p>The common punishment at schools is the world renowned bastinado, or -falaka. The apparatus consists of a cylindrical piece of wood, about -five feet long, and one inch in diameter. Near the centre of this rod, -there is a loop of rope, sufficiently wide to hold both the feet of the -truant. The rod being turned the rope winds upon it, and thus secures -the feet, which are placed therein. The person is then thrown upon his -back, by the raising of the feet, upon the soles of which the blows are -applied with a cudgel by the schoolmaster. It is a rather painful -operation, as some can tell from sad experience, who, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb163" href="#pb163" name="pb163">163</a>]</span>like -other boys that are never naughty, had to go through with it in their -younger days.</p> -<p>The Turkish, originally Tartar, is at present composed of three -different languages, viz: Arabic, Persian, and Tartar, owing to the -different people with whom the Turcomans came in contact. The Koran -being their fundamental study, the Arabic has become the basis of the -language, as the Latin is of the European dialects.</p> -<p>It is written from right to left, like all other Oriental languages, -with the exception of the Armenian.</p> -<p>The Turkish has no capitals or Roman letters, but <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb164" href="#pb164" name= -"pb164">164</a>]</span>consists of italics—or in other words, the -written and printed characters have the same forms, nor have they any -punctuation. Their calligraphy may be divided into five different -styles.</p> -<p>The <i>Rika</i>, or ordinary hand-writing, the same being used for -printing.</p> -<p><i>Sülüs</i>, or enlarged writing, is used for -inscriptions, title-pages, or the headings of chapters.</p> -<p><i>Divany</i>, or the court script, which is an ornamental style of -writing, and only used at the Porte for firmans, or edicts.</p> -<p><i>Taalik</i>, or the Persian letters, is used in the judiciary -courts, and for poetry.</p> -<p><i>Siyakat</i>, or Turkish hieroglyphics, is only used for treasury -bonds.</p> -<p>The Turkish language is, in itself, most copious and expressive, -euphonious in sound, and capable of the greatest variety of expression, -and is well adapted to the composition of poetry. Although the Osmanlis -formerly possessed but little mathematical, philosophical, or -scientific learning, the Muses have never denied their inspiration to -them. Foreign literature has been much in vogue in latter times, and -many translations have been made into Turkish. The languages of Europe -are also cultivated to some extent, and many are now to be found at the -Porte, who speak the French and English quite fluently. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb165" href="#pb165" name="pb165">165</a>]</span></p> -<p>The present sultan has done much to elevate the system of public -instruction in his dominions. He has ordained a council to superintend -all educational affairs, and also has commenced the erection of a -magnificent public university, opposite the mosque of St. Sophia.</p> -<p>There exist already, the school of the mosque of Ahmed, that of -Suleiman, and one founded by the late Validé Sultan, for the -education of the young candidates for public offices. There are, also, -the medical, normal, and naval schools, and last of all, the -agricultural school at San Stefano, the direction of which was, once -upon a time, given to the celebrated <i>Turkey Jim</i>, of South -Carolina.</p> -<p>The sultan himself is present at the examinations of these various -colleges, with his retinue of Ulema, Ministers, and Pashas; his majesty -even propounds questions to the pupils, encouraging them by his -gracious condescension of manner.</p> -<p>There are as many as 80,000 books in the public libraries, written -or printed in the different Oriental dialects, Arabic, Persian, and -Turkish. These works treat of history, science, and theology; also -<span lang="fr">belles-lettres</span>, and good breeding, on which last -subject, the Osmanlis are extremely punctilious. The young men, and -even children, are exceedingly simple and unpretending, but at the same -time, intelligent and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb166" href= -"#pb166" name="pb166">166</a>]</span>polite in their demeanor. They -maintain a remarkable gravity of deportment, and in the absence of -their fathers, exercise the prerogatives of hospitality, with all the -dignity of the patriarchs themselves.</p> -<p>There are now twenty-one different newspapers and periodicals in the -country, viz. two Turkish, eight Armenian, three Greek, five French, -two Italian, and one Jewish. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb167" href= -"#pb167" name="pb167">167</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch17" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e371">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XVII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">MEDICINE.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Although the ancient Arabs were celebrated for their -medical knowledge, the Osmanlis have only of late years made some -advances in the study of medicine.</p> -<p>They are most credulous and superstitious in their notions upon this -subject, and ready to follow the advice of any empiric in the healing -art. They seem to know two diseases peculiar to themselves; one they -call Gelinjik, and the other Yelanjik. The first is used in a -comprehensive universality and signifies almost any ailment; the second -is applied to erysipelas and nervous pains in the face.</p> -<p>The art of curing the Gelinjik has long been possessed by a single -family, and descended in hereditary succession from one to another of -its members. There is a certain Meriem Kadun of this profession, who -once had the good fortune to cure the present sultan, with some of the -mysterious red nectar, which is the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb168" href="#pb168" name="pb168">168</a>]</span>principal medicine -administered for this malady. She has ever since had abundant practice -in the royal palace and everywhere else; and the famous Yelanjikgee has -a far-famed reputation.</p> -<p>A particular class of Emirs, or the descendants of Fatima, the -daughter of Mohammed, are supposed to possess the virtue of healing the -nervous diseases of the face called Yelanjik. They wear green turbans, -repeat certain prayers over the patient, and are supposed to possess a -charm in their fingers’ ends. The Emir lays his thumb on his -nose, breathes upon the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb169" href= -"#pb169" name="pb169">169</a>]</span>extended fingers, then lays it -upon the forehead of the patient, and pressing upon the nerves of the -face, utters a short prayer. Thus he often succeeds in dispelling the -malady in a few minutes—whether by his own medical skill or by -the credulity of his superstitious patients, may be questioned. Strange -to say, their only belief is, that when a cure is not effected, it is -not because of the inefficacy of the charmed fingers, but the disease -was not genuine Yelanjik, and therefore the holy Emir could not cure -it. When any disease fails to be cured by either of these characters, -the Gelinjikgee and Yelanjikgee, then in despair the other disciples of -the healing art are summoned, of whom there is no scarcity in -Constantinople, where the last comer is generally patronized, until -some new pretender succeeds him.</p> -<p>A person once exceedingly ill of typhus fever, called in one of -these medical gentlemen, who, although he considered the case quite -hopeless, prescribed for his patient and took his leave. The next day, -in passing by, he inquired of a servant at the door if his master was -not dead. “Dead? no. He is much better.” Whereupon the -doctor proceeded up stairs to obtain the solution of this miracle. -“Why,” said the convalescent, “I was consumed with -thirst, and I drank a pailful of the juice of pickled cabbage.” -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb170" href="#pb170" name= -"pb170">170</a>]</span></p> -<p>Wonderful! quoth the doctor—and out came the tablets, -whereupon was inscribed, “Cured of typhus fever, Mehemed Agha, an -upholsterer, by drinking a pailful of pickled cabbage juice.”</p> -<p>Soon after the worthy doctor was called to another patient, a -Yaghlikgee, or dealer in embroidered handkerchiefs, suffering from the -same malady. He forthwith prescribed “<i>a pailful of pickled -cabbage juice</i>.”</p> -<p>On calling the next day to congratulate his patient on his recovery, -he was astonished to be told, the man was dead!</p> -<p>The Oriental Esculapius, in his bewilderment as to these phenomena, -came to the safe conclusion, and duly noted it in his memoranda, that, -“Although in cases of typhus fever, <i>pickled cabbage juice</i> -is an efficient remedy, it is not, however, to be used unless <i>the -patient be by profession an upholsterer</i>!”</p> -<p>Fortunately for the community, this branch of science is improving -in Turkey, and there are numerous graduates from the medical college, -who are employed in the army, and by the inhabitants in general. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb171" href="#pb171" name= -"pb171">171</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch18" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e381">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XVIII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">WESTERN PREJUDICES, AND EASTERN TOLERATION.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The etiquettes and punctilious ceremonies of society -were doubtless unknown in the primitive condition of our race.</p> -<p>Modern civilization has put the world into fetters with its laws and -by-laws, which seem the result of some secret combination, as they are -generally known only to the initiated, while the less fortunate mass of -the communities become the laughing-stock of these wiseacres.</p> -<p>The true politeness and generosity which spring from good feeling -and common-sense, are little regarded by the aristocracy of society, -unless you have the open sesame to their doors, which is nothing less -than an entire conformity to their pre-conceived ideas.</p> -<p>A certain air and style, only perceivable to the critics themselves, -is to be maintained; a certain contour of costume rigorously to be -adopted, whether <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb172" href="#pb172" -name="pb172">172</a>]</span>agreeable to the wearer or not—an -unvaried and monotonous similarity must pervade the whole world, or -those venturing to differ, must suffer not only an exclusion from the -company of very agreeable people (barring their prejudices), but an -absolute persecution of ill-sounding epithets—such as vulgar, -conceited, independent, and even the moral character is often -libelled.</p> -<p>You must not attend the church of the Rev. ——, unless -your hat is black as a stove-pipe, and with a rim of approved -dimensions. The fastidious ladies of upper-tendom show symptoms of -nervous agitation, as you unwittingly mount their steps in your native -head-gear, which may chance to be a sombrero, or a Turkish -fess—what if a <span class="sc">TURBAN</span>!</p> -<p>The only occasion on which a foreigner might be permitted to appear -in his own every-day clothes, would be at some fancy ball, as if in -masquerade. All this may do among themselves, but why attempt to -renovate the habits of a life-time in others. Indeed, the Americans are -very exacting, for when did they ever conform to any other -nation’s mode of dress? while the moment you set foot on their -shores, you must turn American <i>in toto</i>, or you are no go.</p> -<p>The English are proverbial for their snobbism, and stiff -shirt-collars—yet in London, you may meet the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb173" href="#pb173" name= -"pb173">173</a>]</span>Hindostanee in his white robes and turban, the -Turk in his fess or red cap, and many others, as they are accustomed to -be at home. Still more common is this variety in Paris, and all over -Europe.</p> -<p>Americans, English, and French, traverse the East dressed as they -like, without creating either the sensation of disgust or astonishment -in the beholders. Why, then, this illiberality in the land of freedom? -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb174" href="#pb174" name= -"pb174">174</a>]</span>why force the Chinese, the moment they land, -into straight-jackets, or crown the Osmanli with a sombre stove-pipe, -the most uncouth machine, yclept the <i>hat</i>, which ever any -sensible people ventured to place in so honorable a position.</p> -<p><i lang="la">Nolens volens</i>, the Osmanli, on his arrival in the -land of “Independence,” must needs become a Pasha of two -tails, reversed however, as at home these emblems of rank are carried -before him; but now he becomes his own standard-bearer, parading his -honors and <i>entrée</i> to the fashionable world, in the shape -of the time-honored dress coat.</p> -<p>To those who have never visited foreign lands, one would suppose, -nothing would be more entertaining than to see an exhibition of habits -and customs of other peoples.</p> -<p>But we must take the world as it is.</p> -<p>Although the manners and dress of the Orientals were, and are still, -in many respects very different from those of their western neighbors, -yet they have displayed a degree of civilization, if we may so speak, -in their toleration of others as they chanced to meet them. English, -Spanish, Italians, Magiars, Greeks, Albanians, Croats, Bulgarians, -Persians, Kurds, and Arabs, walk their streets and enter their houses -without dreaming of changing their costume, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb175" href="#pb175" name="pb175">175</a>]</span>or -disguising their own nationality under any garb whatever.</p> -<p>Even the European or American travellers, making half-way attempts -at external conformity to those about them, although they become -perfect caricatures, have free scope to sport the travesties they make -of themselves, and are even treated with civility; yet, judging from -appearances, no one could conceive what parts of the world might claim -the honor of their nativity.</p> -<p>Indeed, the only occasion upon which we remember the Turks to have -taken umbrage at the European costume, was some time ago, when visitors -desired to present themselves before his imperial highness, their ideas -of decency compelled them to furnish each one with a long pelisse. So -far have they yielded their prejudices, as even to adopt the European -military and undress costume, only excluding the hat; though not -without a struggle, as was exemplified when Sultan Mahmoud ordered the -janissaries to doff their cumbersome head-gear, flowing robes, and -ample trowsers.</p> -<p>But alas for the robes and turbans! the cashmere girdles, and yellow -slippers! they are rapidly passing away. The audience-hall of the Grand -Signor, is now filled with an ordinary assemblage—the sultan -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb176" href="#pb176" name= -"pb176">176</a>]</span>and his minister are stripped of the mysterious -appendages of their gorgeous draperies—beneath which, there -seemed to breathe no common soul. How imposing the garb, as they were -wont to stand in the august presence, immovable, impenetrable; each -with his majesty of mien, flowing beard, and portentous silence.</p> -<p>We have seen a fac-simile of an ancient court, or, as it was scarce -thirty years ago, in the days of the father of the present sultan.</p> -<p>Mahmoud was seated on his throne upon an elevated platform; an -immense turban composed of innumerable folds of the purest and finest -white muslin covered his royal head, in the front of which was placed a -magnificent spray of brilliants; his robes of rich silk, were confined -by a girdle of Cashmere’s <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb178" -href="#pb178" name="pb178">178</a>]</span>softest and richest fabrics, -while over his shoulders hung a magnificent pelisse, lined throughout -with the best of Russia’s sables. Behind him stood his numerous -pages, all young, blooming, and beardless as the fairest maidens, -arrayed in robes of delicate tints.</p> -<p>The Silahdar holding his majesty’s sword upright, stood on the -right hand, while the Haznadar, or Lord Steward, was upon the other -side of the sultan.</p> -<p>The Ak-agha, or chief of the white eunuchs, was behind the chair, an -old, woman-like man, beardless and wrinkled. In the group were the -imperial cup bearer, Kahvegee Bashi, coffee server, Kaftan-aghassi, -gentlemen of the wardrobe, etc.</p> -<p>Below the platform, and in front of the sultan, stood in respective -rank, the different ministers of the realm, all robed to the feet in -rich and varied hues, and no two turbans alike. They seemed, indeed, to -be the movers and arbitrary controllers of the destinies of a vast -nation, the secret springs which kept the machine in motion.</p> -<p>A most interesting collection of illustrative models from life, is -carefully preserved at Constantinople, called the Elbisseyi -Atiké, and exhibited at the great square of At Meydan, or the -ancient Hippodrome, near St. Sophia. It is wonderfully true to nature, -and typical of Eastern life, recalling those <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb179" href="#pb179" name="pb179">179</a>]</span>very -characters with their various avocations, who but a few years ago were -all upon the scene, enacting the very reality of Orientalism.</p> -<p>The different grades of life, the officers under government, civil, -religious, and military, the various trades and callings, and -individuals of both sexes were formerly, each and all, designated by a -peculiar style and appearance. The janissaries were also habited in -various costumes, according to their ranks and employments.</p> -<p>Such was the past magnificence of Turkey, now rapidly losing its -former type of varied external beauty, as it merges from day to day in -the great stream of civilization. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb180" -href="#pb180" name="pb180">180</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch19" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e391">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XIX.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE SULTAN AND HIS PERSONNEL.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Rousseau has wisely observed, “<span lang= -"fr">Il faut étudier la société par les hommes, et -les hommes par la société</span>,” and as the tone -of society in all countries is derived from the courts and the wealthy, -so also in Turkey, the sultan and his court are the model of domestic -life and its institutions.</p> -<p>Sultan Abd-ul Medjid Khan, the Padishah of the Osmanlis, or the -reigning monarch of Turkey, was born May 6th, 1822, and succeeded his -father Sultan Mahmoud, July 1st, 1839, at the age of seventeen.</p> -<p>He has a brother and a sister, both younger than himself.</p> -<p>His brother, Aziz Efendi, lives in the same palace with him, having -apartments therein for his own use and accommodation.</p> -<p>His sister Adilé Sultan, who is married to Mehmed Aali Pasha, -the ex-Grand Vezir, resides in a separate palace on the Bosphorus. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb181" href="#pb181" name= -"pb181">181</a>]</span></p> -<p>The sultan has until now had nine children, two girls and seven -boys, but none of his children will succeed him while his brother is -living; for the law of the country requires that the eldest living -<i>male</i> member of the Imperial family shall ascend the throne.</p> -<p>The ceremony of the coronation consists simply in escorting the new -sultan in a state procession, to a particular mosque at Eyoub, at the -northern extremity of the city, where he girds on the sword of state -after suitable prayers, and is thus constituted Padishah.</p> -<p>The Princes Regent of Turkey, were formerly shut up at a place -called Kafes or Cage, within the old Seraglio, where they were watched -and closely guarded, and never allowed to go abroad—with a view -to avoid intrigue or civil commotion. But Sultan Mahmoud first broke -the unsocial chains of ancient usages; his successor has nobly followed -in his father’s footsteps, and allows his brother liberty to go -out when he wishes, but not without a formal application for -permission, which is enjoined upon him by court etiquette.</p> -<p>The two brothers differ very materially from each other, in -temperament and character. The sultan is of a mild and affable -disposition, and so willing and yielding is he on matters of state to -please his people, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb183" href="#pb183" -name="pb183">183</a>]</span>that he is more ready to be governed than -to govern. His brother, on the contrary, is very stern and passionate, -and has the same determined character as his father.</p> -<p>Abd-ul-Medjid is of medium stature, rather delicately formed. His -eyes are dark and heavy in expression, with lofty and arched eye-brows; -his beard and moustaches of a dark auburn hue, are carefully trimmed -and completely conceal the expression of his lower features.</p> -<p>His complexion is very pallid, and his whole air decidedly -<i>nonchalant</i>.</p> -<p>On all state occasions he appears in public on horseback, wearing -the national fess, ornamented with the royal aigrette in -brilliants.</p> -<p>His short Spanish cloak falls in graceful folds around his person, -the collar of which is also adorned with diamonds. In a word, his lofty -carriage and beautifully caparisoned steed quite realize the -picturesque ideas generally conceived of an Eastern monarch.</p> -<p>He never salutes any one in public or private, save by a single -glance of his eye.</p> -<p>His favorite residence is the palace of Tchiraghan on the European -shore of the Bosphorus, a few miles from the city.</p> -<p>In order to accommodate the numerous and peculiar <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb184" href="#pb184" name= -"pb184">184</a>]</span>retinue of an Osmanli sovereign, there is a -similarity in the internal arrangements of all the royal -residences.</p> -<p>These palaces, like all other Osmanli houses, are divided into two -compartments; the first is called the <i>Selamluk</i> or the place of -salutation, and is appropriated to the men; the second is the -<i>Harem</i>, which belongs exclusively to the ladies. Between these -two are the apartments of the sultan, called <i>Mabeyn</i>.</p> -<p>The <i>personnel</i> of a sultan formerly consisted of many -functionaries. Their number has of late been much reduced, though they -are still very numerous.</p> -<p>The principal honorary officer is the <i>Silahdar</i> or Imperial -sword-bearer, whose office being a sinecure, he only enters the -presence when specially summoned, or to make some official reports. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb185" href="#pb185" name= -"pb185">185</a>]</span></p> -<p>Those who are in the most constant communication with the sultan, -are his own <i>Sir-Kiatibs</i>, private secretaries, and the -<i>Mabeyngys</i>, or chamberlains, and he is always attended by one or -two of the latter, when he goes out. These gentlemen having the private -ear of his majesty, there is constant intrigue among the different -political parties to ensure their patronage, as the easiest means of -access to his sublime highness.</p> -<p>The <i>Enderoun Aghalery</i>, or <span class="corr" id="xd25e3315" -title="Source: gentleman">gentlemen</span> of the royal household, are -young men selected from among the slaves, and also from the families of -the citizens. They are trained from their earliest years to the usages -of the palace, and receive an education suited to their prospective -career. When they are fitted for attendance upon his imperial majesty, -they become <i>Itch-Oghlans</i>, or pages of the presence, and perform -the duties of cup-bearer, towel-bearer, gentlemen of the wardrobe, and -slippers, pipe and coffee bearers, ushers, etc. They are many of them -distinguished for their elegance of manner and intelligence.</p> -<p>From the rank of pages they are afterwards promoted to be -chamberlains, and often even attain the dignity of <i>Müshirs</i>, -or Ministers of State. The present Ministers Riza Pasha, and -Mehmed-Aali Pasha, the brother-in-law of the sultan, were both -Mahmoud’s pages. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb186" href= -"#pb186" name="pb186">186</a>]</span></p> -<p>The <i>mutes</i> are as indispensable as any of the palace -attendants; when the Grand Vezir goes alone, or in company with the -Grand Mufty, to the Imperial chamber, all the Mabeyngys and the -Enderoun Aghalery withdraw, and the deaf mutes remain in -attendance.</p> -<p>As on no occasion, not even during a grand council, when they -deliberate with closed doors, the Osmanlis can dispense with their -attendants, mutes are always very necessary appendages to them, both at -the palace and the Porte.</p> -<p>Although they have not the sense of hearing nor the faculty of -speech, they possess a remarkable quickness of comprehension, and have -a great tact in communicating their ideas, even to the divulging of -state secrets to their intimate friends and favorites.</p> -<p>They were formerly the executioners of the palace; no reason can be -assigned for their holding such an office, unless, being deaf and dumb, -they were not qualified to hear and pity the unfortunate victims.</p> -<p>There are also generally one or two dwarfs in the royal retinue, who -are a sort of court jesters. There is one now at the palace, who became -a very distinguished character during the reign of Mahmoud.</p> -<p>On one occasion, when the sultan was in high glee, he summoned this -man of small pretensions to the harem. His majesty wishing to test his -ingenuity, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb187" href="#pb187" name= -"pb187">187</a>]</span>proposed to him, that if he could kiss any one -of those girls (pointing to a group of tall and beautiful Circassian -slaves in attendance), he should have that very one for his wife.</p> -<p>At this novel and unexpected intimation, Sir Paynim raised his eyes -to survey the bewitching circle, apparently so far beyond his reach. -But such a chance could not be lost; at all hazards, he boldly advanced -to one of the fairest, and while she looked down upon him in dismay, -gave her tangible proofs of his attachment by a tremendous blow on her -stomach.</p> -<p>As she almost doubled with pain, her pigmy lover seized her around -the neck, imprinted his first kiss of love, and gained the royal prize -by this <i lang="fr">coup de main</i>.</p> -<p>At the threshold of the Mabeyn, you will meet the Enderoun Aghalery, -or the gentlemen of the household; passing by these personages, you -ascend the stairway, and enter a large hall. On all sides are many -curtained doorways, at one of which two guards are stationed. These are -the Perdegys, or curtain keepers to his majesty.</p> -<p>The peculiarity of their domestic habits, viz., the ladies occupying -separate apartments, leaves the entire Selamluk free and accessible to -all. Hence the necessity, when wishing to be retired, of having -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb188" href="#pb188" name= -"pb188">188</a>]</span>curtains suspended to the doorways, and guards -stationed to prevent the abrupt encroachment of visitors and -strangers.</p> -<p>The personal vanity of the Osmanlis is such, that no occasion is -neglected for its gratification, and munificence is always the -concomitant of rank and distinction; therefore the slightest service is -invariably compensated by a remuneration, technically called <i lang= -"tr">bakshish</i>. The <i lang="tr">keahyā</i> at the landing, who -holds your cayik while you disembark, or the ostler who holds your -horse, the <i lang="tr">pabouchjy</i>, who officiously arranges your -slippers as you leave the house, with the whole household retinue of -obsequious attendants, one and all expect the customary <i lang= -"tr">bakshish</i>.</p> -<p>So universal is this practice, that the grander the establishment, -the lower are the wages of the servants, who are sure to reap so good a -harvest from the numerous visitors, that they willingly compound for -the most trifling salaries; indeed, it may justly be said, that the -grandees support each other’s menials.</p> -<p>This system pervades all classes of the people, and even the palace -of the sultan.</p> -<p>An amusing story is told illustrative of the way in which these -Perdegys make their post available.</p> -<p>One of these guards seemed to be enjoying such extensive revenues -from his office, that he was reported to his majesty in a very -ludicrous manner. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb189" href="#pb189" -name="pb189">189</a>]</span></p> -<p>A certain wit, by name Indjyly-Tchavoush, a sort of an Oriental -Curran, occasionally used to visit the sultan; but never without paying -tribute to these keepers of the curtain.</p> -<p>Nettled at these exactions, and wishing to attract his -majesty’s attention to the subject, he one day entered the royal -presence with a large mackerel, the commonest fish in Turkey, in his -hand, as a present. The sultan was struck with the oddity of the gift, -and supposing that the expectations of the donor could only be realized -by some royal munificence, asked, “What he desired in -return?”</p> -<p>“Only 500 lashes, sire,” was the prompt reply. This -reply added to his majesty’s astonishment, “and why so -strange a request?” he demanded.</p> -<p>“Because, since, I am obliged to <i>share</i> all your -majesty’s gifts with your majesty’s curtain keepers, I wish -the rogues to have their share in this also!”</p> -<p>Judging from your benevolent countenance, that you are endowed with -generous impulses, the keepers allow you to pass within the curtained -door. You are now in a large apartment, on three sides of which are -windows, with a wide Turkish sofa at the end, some two feet high from -the floor, where the sultan is seated entirely alone, with a desk and -implements of writing before him, and a long and graceful chibouk, -mounted with a splendid amber mouth-piece <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb190" href="#pb190" name="pb190">190</a>]</span>ornamented with -diamonds, carelessly lying by his ride. He utters the simple word, -<span class="sc">Gel!</span> come! when several attendants appear as if -by magic, and stand before him with folded hands. At every command they -make the <i>temennah</i>, or Turkish salutation, which is done, not by -bending the person, and bringing their arms over their heads, as though -they were going to dive, as is often represented in theatres, but -simply by raising the right hand to the mouth, the fingers touching the -lips, then the right temple, and then carelessly dropping it down. This -temennah is performed without uttering a single word, and signifies -perfect comprehension of the royal orders.</p> -<p>An air of humility is always maintained in the presence of -superiors, and such signs of active existence, as coughing or sneezing, -are quite unallowable. The person feeling preliminary symptoms of these -actions, being obliged either to suppress them, or to withdraw from the -presence. Indeed the social etiquettes are very strict, even among -equals. Although tobacco is introduced on occasions of ceremony and -social intercourse—the chibouk and nargillé are not the -calumets of peace, but of hospitality—the disagreeable -concomitants of the weed so universal in America, are absolutely -unknown in Turkey. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb191" href="#pb191" -name="pb191">191</a>]</span></p> -<p>Spitting, then, is to the Osmanlis a most repulsive act, and their -horror may be imagined when, on a certain occasion, while in the -company of a grandee of the realm, the representative of the great -American nation (the New World), deliberately took his quid from his -pocket, and after cutting the requisite morsel, stored it carefully in -the corner of his mouth, and commenced the slow mastication so -characteristic of good tobacco chewers! The indulgence of such a luxury -having only made his excellency’s mouth water, and there being no -other accommodation at hand, in order to relieve his salivary glands, -he was obliged to aim at an open window close by!</p> -<p>His excellency, consequently, became a sort of a proverb among them, -and the question was repeatedly asked, “Does your American friend -still continue to enact the camel, or does he not weary of chewing the -cud?” Unlearned in classic lore, how should they know that the -poet once said—</p> -<div lang="la" class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“Tu tantum erucis imprime dentem.”</p> -</div> -<p class="first">No one is ever seated in the presence of the sultan, -nor are any of the customary rites of hospitality observed; such as the -introduction of pipes, coffee, sherbet, etc.<a id="xd25e3415" name= -"xd25e3415"></a></p> -<p>On the presentation of foreign ambassadors, the ceremony is so -arranged, that the minister plenipotentiary <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb192" href="#pb192" name="pb192">192</a>]</span>and -his sublime highness, enter the apartment simultaneously by opposite -doors; thus the sultan receives the representatives of foreign -potentates on foot, without condescending to rise from his seat.</p> -<p>After the audience is terminated, the royal guests are conducted -into the apartment of the Mabeyngys, where they are treated with true -Oriental hospitality and munificence.</p> -<p>Those persons who are not aware of the wonderful changes that have -taken place in Turkey, may fancy this monarch to be surrounded by a -group of robed, turbaned, and bearded Osmanlis; on the contrary, both -the sultan and his attendants now wear a European military frock coat -and pantaloons, with only the national <i>fess</i> for a -head-dress.</p> -<p>The moustache is universally worn, and it would seem as ridiculous -to an Osmanli to shave the eyebrows as the upper-lip. Indeed, nothing -excites the curiosity of the rising generation so much, as to see a man -without a moustache; especially an aged man, in whose case, it would -seem to them like an attempt at perpetual youth.</p> -<p>There is not a beard to be seen on any of the attendants of the -palace, for the beard is considered in Turkey as a mark of dignity and -freedom; consequently, no one in the personal service of the sultan -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb193" href="#pb193" name= -"pb193">193</a>]</span>is allowed this honor, except by special -permission of his majesty; which implies, that the individual is no -longer retained in the palace, but soon to be elevated to some superior -office. The beard, then, being indicative of rank and position, it is -preserved with a certain superstitious reverence; no Mussulman, -therefore, after the ceremony of allowing the beard to grow has been -once performed, ever again uses the razor; nevertheless it is not -permitted to assume the natural growth, but is carefully trimmed -according to the fashion of modern times.</p> -<p>Abd-ul-Medjid makes his appearance in the Mabeyn, early in the -morning; for it is a universal custom with the Osmanlis to rise early. -He generally spends his mornings in the perusal of local and foreign -newspapers, which are translated for him, and other general -reading.</p> -<p>He has lately acquired a taste for the French language, in which he -has made considerable progress. He is, according to the Turkish -acceptance of the term, well-educated; that is, well versed in Turkish -<i lang="fr">belles-lettres</i>, with a general acquaintance with the -history of his own country.</p> -<p>The science of mathematics has also engrossed some of his attention, -and he even condescended to receive instructions from Etem Pasha, a -young man of distinguished abilities and foreign education, who -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb194" href="#pb194" name= -"pb194">194</a>]</span>was taken into the royal retinue as colonel of -the body-guards; doubtless, however, with reference to his scientific -acquirements.</p> -<p>His majesty’s meals, according to the custom of the country, -are two; one in the morning between ten and eleven, the other at -sunset. They are served by the Tcheshnigear, whose duty it is to break -the seals of the different dishes intended for the sultan’s -repast, and after having tasted, to carry them into the royal -presence.</p> -<p>Although the Osmanlis are great epicures, their tastes are very -singular. Their dishes are very diversified and numerous, consisting -usually of twelve or fifteen, and sometimes even thirty courses; sweet -and meat dishes being introduced in alternate succession; the meal -commencing with soup, and ending with pilaf, or a preparation of rice -peculiar to Turkey. They have a species of pastry or <i>paklava</i>, -which is remarkably light and delicious; and the mohalleby, or Turkish -blanc-mange, is much liked, even by Europeans. Fruit, at -Constantinople, is very abundant and delicious, and is partaken of -frequently during a repast. Indeed, the grapes of Scutari, called -Tchavoush, are unrivalled, and even more delicious and delicate than -those of Madeira or Malaga.</p> -<p>The order in which a dinner is served is as follows: <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb195" href="#pb195" name= -"pb195">195</a>]</span>soup, kebab (or roast meat in small pieces), -entremet (or vegetables and meat cooked together), pastry, roast, fish, -entremet, mohalleby, entremet, maccaroni, fowls, jelly, etc., until at -last it winds up with the significative pilaf and sherbet, or -hosh-ab.</p> -<p>No wine or liquor is served at the table, but his sublimity -occasionally during the day visits the pantry, doubtless, “for -his stomach’s sake, and his often infirmities.” -Unfortunately, modern civilization has some vices as well as many -virtues; and the fashion <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb196" href= -"#pb196" name="pb196">196</a>]</span>of excessive drinking, has, among -others, lately crept into Turkey, to which some of the <i lang= -"fr">élégants</i> are becoming much addicted, and, ere -long, they may, perhaps excel even the paragon, John Bull.</p> -<p>Although many other innovations and attempts at reform have -succeeded in Turkey, yet the original style of eating has not been much -improved. They use neither chairs nor tables; but a low stool being put -in the middle of the room, a large circular copper tray is placed upon -it.</p> -<p>No such paraphernalia as cloths, napkins, knives, forks, plates, -glasses, etc., are essential; small loaves of bread, alternately with -small dishes of fruit, pickles, anchovies, cheese, etc., are -indiscriminately scattered around the edges of the tray, in the middle -of which the different preparations of food are successively placed by -the ayvaz or scullion, and the food is eaten <i>with the fingers</i>, -excepting the liquid dishes, for which wooden spoons are provided. -Around the tray, the company assemble, sitting with their legs under -them, and all eating from the dish in the middle; reminding us of the -customs of ancient times, when it was said, “It is one of the -twelve who dippeth with me in the dish.”</p> -<p>One long, narrow napkin is provided, which goes all round the tray, -and lies upon the floor; each person slipping under it as he sits down. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb197" href="#pb197" name= -"pb197">197</a>]</span></p> -<p>Their tables being accessible to their friends at all times, -dinner-parties are never given, except on state occasions; for, -hospitality being one of the characteristics of the East, and -especially enjoined by the Koran, no one is excluded from their board; -and when the number present is so large as not to allow them to sit -comfortably, they place themselves <i>side-wise</i>, or in a sort of -spoon fashion, as though they were leaning upon one another, and thus -illustrating the scene at the feast of the Passover.</p> -<p>In some of the houses of the wealthy, and especially of those whose -owners have visited Europe, the European mode of eating is imitated, -when the motley company, which is always assembled, sometimes presents -a most ludicrous scene.</p> -<p>Once, a Turk at such a table, wishing to conform to the customs of -civilized life, endeavored to use the fork. Failing in several attempts -to take a piece of meat, and determined to overcome his gaucherie, he -resolutely took hold of the morsel with his fingers, and placing one -end of the fork against his breast, stuck the meat upon it with an -immense effort, and then carried it to his mouth, quite contented with -his own success, amid the applause of the company. During the sacred -month of Ramazan, however, the European mode of eating is never -practised, even by the most enlightened and liberal. Knives, forks, -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb198" href="#pb198" name= -"pb198">198</a>]</span>tables and chairs, are then altogether set -aside, as being too profane.</p> -<p>His majesty usually breakfasts at the Mabeyn, and always quite -alone; for no one being equal to him, none can have the honor of his -company; and his evening repast is often taken, weather permitting, at -some beautiful watering-place.</p> -<p>The time between these two meals is usually occupied with some of -his ministers, or the audiences of the foreign ambassadors, and in -excursions on the Bosphorus or elsewhere.</p> -<p>Whatever transpires at the Porte, is reported to him every evening, -through the Ameddjy, or state chancellor, expressed in the most -beautiful and elegant style of which the Turkish language is capable. -In fact, the bureau of the Ameddjy is considered the best school for -polite literature, and those who have once served in that department, -invariably acquire a remarkable elegance of diction. The sultan reads -over these documents every evening, together with the Arzou-hals, or -petitions, which are presented to him on Fridays; and after giving his -imperial sanction or veto, returns them to the Porte, to be acted upon -accordingly.</p> -<p>The approval of the sultan is not expressed by the application of -any royal seal or cypher, but by a bold stroke of his majesty’s -reed, representing the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb199" href= -"#pb199" name="pb199">199</a>]</span>Arabic letter S, which is termed -<i>sah</i>, meaning correct or approved. And those which are rejected -are torn in one corner.</p> -<p>The sultan’s cipher, called <i>Toora</i>, is formed from the -names of the reigning monarch, and that of his father. It reads thus, -“Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid, son of Sultan Malmoud Khan, the sultan of -sultans.” This is the imperial seal, and Ottoman coat of arms, -and it is affixed to all royal edicts, engraved upon public buildings, -and stamped upon the various current coins of the empire.</p> -<p>When his evening occupations are over, the sultan retires to the -harem.</p> -<p>Such is the ordinary routine of the life of the Turkish sovereign; -but there are also many other public duties which occupy his time and -attention, and fully demonstrate that the post of sultan is by no means -a sinecure. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb200" href="#pb200" name= -"pb200">200</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch20" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e403">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XX.</h2> -<h2 class="main">PUBLIC DUTIES OF THE SULTAN.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The sultan is obliged to attend one of the public -mosques in person every Friday, which is the Mohammedan Sunday. One -reason of his public appearance is to set an example of religious -devotion; another, to assure the people by his actual presence, that he -is in the enjoyment of life and health; and a third, to give an -opportunity to any of his discontented subjects to appeal to him in -person; for, the right of appeal has never been denied in Turkey. This -is done by a paper, which is held in the extended hand of the -petitioner, and presented anywhere in the course of the royal -route.</p> -<p>It is received by his pages and reserved for the future perusal of -his majesty. His departure, both from the palace and the mosque, is -announced by a royal salute of 21 guns from the batteries, and the -ships of war.</p> -<p>These opportunities are eagerly embraced by all strangers who wish -to gaze on the great “<i>Tamer of <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb201" href="#pb201" name="pb201">201</a>]</span>Infidels and the -scourger of the unbelieving race of Christian vassals</i>.” There -are two other great state festivals, on which occasions the sultan and -the whole of the royal retinue combine to present one of the most -beautiful Oriental pageants.</p> -<p>These are the feasts of Bairam, one of which occurs at the end of -Ramazan or the long fast, and the other the Courban Bairam, or feast of -the sacrifice, sixty-eight days after.</p> -<p>There is a grand state procession. Surrounded by his numerous pages -in uniforms glittering with golden embroidery and plumed head-dresses, -attended by dignitaries of the realm in full court dress, all mounted -on Arabian steeds, splendidly caparisoned, the sultan enters the mosque -of Sultan Ahmed at the ancient Hippodrome. He alights upon a velvet -carpeting, which extends into the mosque, and is supported on each side -by chamberlains.</p> -<p>As he dismounts, the voice of the assembled multitude proclaims -“<span lang="tr">Allah Padishahumuza Oozoon eömürler -versin</span>,” Long live the king—God bless the -sultan.</p> -<p>The Padishah after the performance of prayers, returns to his palace -at the Seraglio Point, where the throne room is always preserved. There -he receives the compliments of the season from his ministers and -officers of state. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb202" href="#pb202" -name="pb202">202</a>]</span></p> -<p>The procession to the mosque being public, has been described by -many who have witnessed it; but from the reception at the palace all -foreigners are excluded.</p> -<p>The sultan is seated on a chair of state, with the princes and -younger princesses of the royal blood on each side.</p> -<p>Behind the throne, in a semicircle, stand the personnel of the royal -household.</p> -<p>Opposite the throne, at the farthest end of the hall, a band of -musicians is stationed, and as they perform the national airs, the -dignitaries enter the royal presence according to their respective -ranks, to pay homage to their sovereign.</p> -<p>As has already been described, the usual mode of salutation in the -east is the temennah, made by touching the hand to the lips and then to -the forehead, which signifies affection and humility. With the desire, -however, to be more respectful, they often bend down to the ground, as -if willing to take up the very dust upon which the honored feet have -rested, or attempt to kiss the hem of the garment. But all these -ordinary modes of salutation are insufficient at a royal reception; -when a beautifully embroidered rug is spread before the sultan, on one -end of which his feet rest.</p> -<p>As they present themselves, they slowly bend <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb203" href="#pb203" name= -"pb203">203</a>]</span>their persons and touch their lips and foreheads -to the border of the carpet, which ceremony is called the kissing of -the sultan’s feet; for, no one is allowed any actual proximity to -the royal person—thus guarding him from the assassin’s -dagger.</p> -<p>After kissing the end of the carpet they arrange themselves in two -opposite lines on each side of the sultan, to witness the homages of -the various pashas and other dignitaries. Those who take their stand in -the presence are only the heads of the departments, both civil and -religious.</p> -<p>After the ceremony is over, every one retires to hit own dwelling, -to <i>enact</i> the sultan to his subordinates.</p> -<p>The Courban Bairam is the great festival celebrated by the pilgrims -at Mecca, in commemoration of the offering up of Ishmael; and is -generally observed throughout the Mohammedan dominions,—on which -occasion every Mussulman must kill a sheep with his own hand, and -distribute the meat to the poor.</p> -<p>The sultan performs this sacrifice at his own palace before the -morning prayers. As he stands at the threshold, a ram with gilded horns -is laid at his feet, and girding himself with a silken towel, he -completes the sacrifice.</p> -<p>The solution of this act of devotion is, that they believe that the -faithful will be transported over the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb204" href="#pb204" name="pb204">204</a>]</span><i>surat</i> or -bridge of hair into paradise on the backs of these immolated -victims.</p> -<p>The old seraglio, which was the residence of so many sultans, and -the scene of the aggrandizement and downfall of so many good -Mussulmans; under whose latticed windows the Bosphorus <span class= -"corr" id="xd25e3583" title="Source: fiows">flows</span> so deeply as -to tell no tales of the hundreds of living and beautiful maidens that -have perished in the blue waves and left no sign of their sad -fate—the bloody and mysterious seraglio is now deserted, save on -such occasions as have been described—notwithstanding -travellers’ assertions to the contrary.</p> -<p>How many of the royal blood, even sultans themselves, within this -time-worn palace, have either drained the insidious and poisoned -potion, or been dispensed with by the surer cord, or assassin’s -dagger!</p> -<p>The last victim was Sultan Mustafa, or the uncle of the present -monarch; and Mahmoud himself was miraculously preserved by the -attachment and perseverance of his <i>lala</i> or eunuch, who concealed -him in the fire-place of the bath, until the fury of the mob had -subsided—thus saving him, whom Allah had reserved for the proud -distinction of being the savior and regenerator of his country.</p> -<p>No wonder, then, that the sultans of later times have recoiled from -such associations and built for <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb205" -href="#pb205" name="pb205">205</a>]</span>themselves other palaces on -the bright and smiling shores of the “ocean stream.”</p> -<p>Abd-ul-Medjid has just erected a magnificent residence opposite the -entrance to the Marmora, the palace of Dolma Bahché. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb206" href="#pb206" name= -"pb206">206</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch21" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e413">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXI.</h2> -<h2 class="main">ROMANCE OF THE EAST.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The ordinary course of events, the humdrum monotonous -tinkling of life’s daily and ever recurring necessities, is -wearisome to the soul. There is a longing for variety; the love of the -marvelous craves wherewith to slake its thirst, the imagination seeks -its food, and the beautiful, in fancy or reality, must sometimes -minister its soothing charms. Anything to escape from the physical, -cumbersome part of our nature, into the world of romance and visionary -exultation. War and its glory, its sudden vicissitudes of victory and -defeat, its brilliant arms and thundering voices excite the most -thrilling emotions in the bosoms of care-worn mortals. Love, with its -gentle wooing, its kind sympathies, and tender ministry, comes to the -heart, sick of itself, as the very balm of Gilead. Religion calls the -crushed and bleeding spirit to an unseen world, where fancy may -luxuriate in realms of ethereal anticipations, anon to <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb207" href="#pb207" name= -"pb207">207</a>]</span>become the realities of Faith, as the soul is -discharged from its mortal tenement.</p> -<p>It is, under any guise, a blissful attribute, this ability to soar -out of life’s dullness, into scenes of imaginary hope and -brightness: to escape from the real into the unreal, whether to deeds -of heroic valor, whose charm consists in the extravagance of the -excitement, or to linger in the enchantments of a tender passion, or to -listen to the tales of others’ woes or joys: all these kindle up -the enthusiasm of the soul. But is there ever any reality to what may -be termed romance?</p> -<p>If, as some would fain have us believe, the very objects which seem -so tangible to our senses, are no realities, what then of the vagaries -of the imagination? The moment you reduce the most thrilling incident -to mere matter of fact, or divest it of the garb in which fancy ever -delights to clothe its objects, the romance loses its charm. The more -remote the scene, the more unfettered by conventionalities the actors, -the more bewitching the tale of their adventures, and the more -impossible the achievements, the better prized. Even the aid of genii -and fairies wonderfully helps on this love of the marvelous. What was -Aladdin’s lamp more than any other old piece of copper ore, until -the slave of the lamp suddenly appeared. There has ever hung over -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb208" href="#pb208" name= -"pb208">208</a>]</span>the East, a veil of mystery; it may be from the -warmth of the Oriental imagination and its own extravagant creations, -or from the seclusiveness of the women, who, as they became unfamiliar -objects, seemed to be the very Venuses and Peris of the world of fable. -The reserve of the men themselves, leaving their better halves to an -obliviousness from all the world, is calculated to excite the curiosity -of the community at home, and the rest of the world abroad, and to -invest the fair sex with most improbable charms. The difficulty and -imminent danger of a single interview, excites the love of adventure. -Tottering old crones, themselves the genuine antidotes to all passion, -point with their bony fingers to the penetralia, where a goddess in -human form enshrines her charms. Even a transformation takes place, a -new complexion is produced, feminine draperies and a basket of wares, -and you pass the unsuspecting and smooth-faced guardian of the portal. -You love to linger in the sweetly perfumed halls, to toy with the -beautiful Circassian, as she listlessly lounges on her silken couch; -you love even the sense of danger, as you start at every step, and -again relax into forgetfulness of the external world. But sometimes -there is a sequel; you <span class="corr" id="xd25e3617" title= -"Source: fiy">fly</span> for life; your lovely companion bares her neck -to the bow-string, her beautiful form enters the mystic veil of the -lost <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb209" href="#pb209" name= -"pb209">209</a>]</span>woman; the coarse and heavy sack, her -coffin—her grave the blue and briny wave of the ocean stream.</p> -<p>All this is wild, romantic, thrilling, and tragic. But how rare the -occurrence; and of the multitude of adventure-loving, romance-seeking -beings that people earth’s surface, to whose lot shall we assign -the realization? All dream; but how few wake to the vision in -life’s action. All fancy; but when does not the broad sunshine of -earth’s glare dispel the wreathed and mistlike draperies of -imagination. The ideal has an existence only in the “mind’s -eye.”</p> -<p>There is, then, no more romance in the East than elsewhere; indeed -there is even more of natural life divested of all extravagance of -fiction. The very lack of education, which, in some respects, is -certainly to be lamented, tends to fasten their hearts together, in the -bonds of nature’s best affections. Home has joys enough for their -simple souls; so entirely devoid of that refined selfishness, which in -other lands seems to annihilate those sweet provisions for kindred -sympathies, which arise from the reciprocal affinities of parent and -child, brother and sister. There is little food then for morbid -imaginations, but much for natural pleasures and simple tastes. The -very externals of Orientalism are making their exit from the -world’s scene; soon there will not exist even the illusion of -characteristic and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb210" href="#pb210" -name="pb210">210</a>]</span>graceful forms. Ere long we shall realize, -that, divested of form and coloring, of tinsel and decoration, the -descendants of the great common ancestor of the human race, are all -alike in feature, nature, and spirit.</p> -<p>Indeed a general acquaintance with the different tribes and nations -under heaven only serves to convince the cosmogonist, that all are of -one family, have a common nature or origin, are but human, and liable -to human frailties and passions. The most powerful emotions are felt in -the bosoms of the savage and the polite. Ambition, love, hatred, -revenge, and a like train of absorbing impulses, rule and sway wherever -man has planted his footsteps. But how interesting to mark the -influence of circumstances, to define the latitudes and longitudes of -ideas and actions, to measure the rise and fall of the thermometer of -life, according to the various climes on earth’s broad surface, -to feel the pulse of the dissenting creeds and dogmas, in a word, to -observe the same faculties under such varied culture.</p> -<p>In comparing the different grades of education and civilization, it -is curious to observe how often an innate refinement of feeling equals, -if not supersedes, the greatest efforts of cultivation, or the -brightest results of philosophy. A lifetime spent in the schools often -leaves the man far behind one, whose early <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb211" href="#pb211" name= -"pb211">211</a>]</span>years have passed in shrewd observation, and -practical experience, for while the one is reasoning, abstracting, -ruminating, the other experiments, and lo! he enters the very -penetralia of the temple of wisdom. And where do we find the most -susceptible hearts, the most poetical fancies, the purest aspirations -of nature? Not among the dry and tutored reasoners of civilization, but -where the mind of man has been untrammeled by rules and etiquettes, -forms and ceremonies. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb212" href= -"#pb212" name="pb212">212</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch22" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e424">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE HAREM.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p>We cannot deny that habit is second nature—the axiom holds -good in every form of social existence; yet there is a universal -disposition to mutual criticism and condemnation, whether between -nations or neighbors. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb213" href= -"#pb213" name="pb213">213</a>]</span>There is always the vibrating why -and wherefore, and each, approves his own course of action, without -ceding to others the same privilege.</p> -<p>There is no doubt that the peculiar style of the toilet of the -Turkish ladies would be deprecated by the belles of modern Christendom. -Indeed, we have often heard these fastidious dames exclaim, in -regarding representations of their Eastern rivals, “most horribly -indecent,” while they turned their sensitive vision from the -offenders against all delicacy. And, on the other hand, we have heard -the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb214" href="#pb214" name= -"pb214">214</a>]</span>Osmanli Hanums and Efendis express equal honor -at the sight of a European lady, <i>en costume de bal</i>.</p> -<p>When the Marchioness of Londonderry presented herself at the palace -of the sultan, <i>en grand tenue</i> for a reception, the gentlemen in -waiting could scarcely persuade themselves to conduct her ladyship into -the royal presence, so astonished were they at the display of the fair -neck, shoulders, etc.</p> -<p>Both the Western and Eastern toilets may be styled <i lang= -"fr">décolletées</i>, the one a horizontal, the other a -longitudinal display of charms. But one thing may be said in favor of -the Orientals, that they never appear in public without covering their -necks and bosoms, and even veiling their features; they are only -permitted to appear uncovered at home, and even then only in the -presence of their nearest relatives. On the contrary, on the most -public occasions, at the operas, balls, soirées, and many other -grand assemblies, do the Western décolletées delight to -vie with each other in their various styles of full dress; they are -even so fastidious as to have no nomenclature but ankles, while they -willingly pay their dollars to see a full extension of these same -ankles on the stage.</p> -<p>The Turkish ladies with perfect indifference present their -unslippered and even unhosed feet to any shop-boy, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb215" href="#pb215" name="pb215">215</a>]</span>at -the same time carefully concealing their <i>shalvar</i>, or full -trowsers, which are fastened below the knee, and tucked up whenever -they sally forth for a <i lang="fr">promenade à pied ou en -voiture</i>.</p> -<p>As to the intrinsic merit or real modesty of these different styles, -peculiar tastes and prevailing modes can only decide; for habit is -strong in its sway, and imitation is a kindred principle. Therefore, -there is neither vice nor virtue in walking in the footsteps of our -predecessors, or each man or woman adopting the peculiar modes and -customs of their own people. As fertile a brain may throb beneath a -turban as a hat, as pure a form enshroud itself in a modest veil as -lurks beneath the shadow of a Parisian bonnet. What are externals but -whims and caprices; it is the virtue of domestic institutions and daily -habitudes that stamps the character of a people.</p> -<p>European or American ladies may grace their boudoirs, models of -beauty and excellence, and Turkish Hanums may, by the exercise of -domestic virtues, equally adorn and ennoble the precincts of their -Harems.</p> -<p>The word Harem is familiar to most persons, but how grossly -misunderstood. Some have considered it as unmentionable to ears polite; -while the votaries of pleasure, ever ready to indulge their longing -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb216" href="#pb216" name= -"pb216">216</a>]</span>fancies, have pictured it to themselves as the -earthly realization of the Paradise of Mohammed. Indeed many European -authors in describing the licentious and corrupted courts of their own -monarchs, have seemed to consider this term as the most distinguishing -compendium of immorality.</p> -<p>Strange perversion, that the very word which inspires every -Oriental, whether Mohammedan or Christian, with the greatest respect, -should suggest to the mind of a European only a system of concubinage -and licentiousness.</p> -<p>What then is <i>Harem</i>?</p> -<p>One peculiarity in the construction of society in its primitive -condition was that <i>might makes right</i>. This not only affected -personal property, but even the more domestic relations. If an enemy -strong enough felt the inclination, he might rob his neighbor of his -wife or family, of which there are instances on Biblical record.</p> -<p>To avoid any occasions of such unjust appropriation, it became a -policy to seclude the women from general observation.</p> -<p>The unbounded hospitality of those good old days when the worthy -patriarchs lived with open doors, and good cheer; when the three -virtues which made a man distinguished, were bravery, eloquence, and -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb217" href="#pb217" name= -"pb217">217</a>]</span>hospitality, or in the hyperbole of the times, a -sharp sword, a sweet tongue, and forty tables; in such an era of -benevolence it became necessary to separate the more precious and -defenseless portion of the family from the vulgar gaze.</p> -<p>The seclusion of women, then, has ever been one of the greatest -social <span class="corr" id="xd25e3711" title= -"Source: peculiarites">peculiarities</span> of the East, and does not -date its origin from modern times, nor even from the foundation of the -Moslem faith. In some forms, it existed in the times of the ancient -Jews; for, when Rebecca lifted up her eyes and saw Isaac, who had gone -out to meditate in the field at even tide, she said unto the servant, -“What man is this, who walketh in the field to meet -us?<span class="corr" id="xd25e3714" title= -"Not in source">”</span> and the servant said, <span class="corr" -id="xd25e3717" title="Not in source">“</span>It is my master, -<i>therefore she took a veil and covered herself</i>.”</p> -<p>“The mother of Sisera looked out at a window, and cried -through the <i>lattice</i>.”</p> -<p>The same institution existed among the Arabs from time immemorial, -so that Mohammed was not the originator of this separation of women -from general society, but rather the sustainer of an old and -established usage, which the condition of the community in his times, -rendered imperative.</p> -<p>“Speak unto the true believers, that they restrain their eyes, -and keep themselves from immodest actions. This will be more pure for -them, for God <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb218" href="#pb218" name= -"pb218">218</a>]</span>is well acquainted with that which they do; and -speak unto the believing women, that they restrain their eyes, and -preserve their modesty, and discover not their ornaments (personal -charms), except what necessarily appeareth thereof; and let them throw -their veils over their bosoms, and not show their ornaments, unless to -their husbands or their fathers, or their husband’s fathers, or -their sons, or their husband’s sons, or their brother’s -sons, or unto such as attend them and have no need of women, or unto -children who distinguish not the nakedness of men.”</p> -<p>Supposing then society were on a different basis, according to these -tenets, the women would be perpetually veiled, and the men ever -wandering with averted eyes. In order to remedy these evils, and -facilitate their seclusion, the houses are all divided into two sets of -apartments, the Selamluk, or men’s apartment, and the Harem, or -the sanctuary of the women, where no men are allowed to enter, except -those specified by the Prophet.</p> -<p>Now, it is evident that the principle upon which society is -constructed in the East, is the careful seclusion of women from the -gaze of the world.</p> -<p>The peculiar charm of modesty is known and acknowledged all over the -world, as the domestic arrangements of civilized society everywhere -demonstrate. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb219" href="#pb219" name= -"pb219">219</a>]</span></p> -<p>The Greeks of Homer’s day had their <span class="trans" title= -"gynaikeion"><span class="Greek" lang= -"grc">γυναικεῖον</span></span>, -the Romans, in imitation, their Gynæceum; and modern civilization -has created its <i>boudoir</i>; but none of these terms are as -expressive of the sanctity of the abode, as the word Harem of the -Orientals.</p> -<p>It is well known that the cities of Mecca and Medina are the holy -shrines of the Mohammedan faith. No other appellative is used in -speaking of them, but the same word Harem, which, when used in the -plural, in itself comprises these venerated cities. They say, -Hadjj-ul-Haremein, or pilgrim of the two harems, meaning the holy Mecca -and Medina. This word is applied to the temple itself at Mecca, which -is honored by the title of Mesjad-el-Harem, the sacred or inviolable -temple.</p> -<p>Thus some idea may be formed of the etymology of the term and its -sacred signification, when used by the Arabs and other Orientals, to -designate their firesides or family homes; the sanctity of which, not -only admits of no intrusion, but any summons or interruption to the -master of the family after he has once retired, is considered -indecorous.</p> -<p>Mohammed received a revelation regarding himself, while he was -engaged in his harem preparing the Koran.</p> -<p>Some persons had the rudeness to call him out. In order to reprove -them, and like sinners in all times to come, the following passage was -revealed: <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb220" href="#pb220" name= -"pb220">220</a>]</span></p> -<p>“The <i>interior</i> of thy dwelling is a sanctuary; they who -violate it by calling unto thee, are deficient in the respect which -they owe to the interpreter of heaven.”</p> -<p>This passage has not only rendered the interior of the dwelling, -viz. the harem, an inviolable asylum to the female portion of the -family, but it has made it a convenient place of refuge to pashas and -efendis, where they often seek repose from the multitude of unwelcome -visitors who infest, with perfect freedom, and at all hours, their -selamluks.</p> -<p>The frequent visits of the Osmanlis to their harems, are not always -indications of the attractions within, but other external motives may -impel them thither; nevertheless, the inviolability of these precincts -has induced the supposition that they contained naught but the shrine -of the fair Goddess of Beauty, and her sly coadjutor.</p> -<p>The upper part of a house in America, or those rooms appropriated to -the exclusive use of the ladies, are as sacred and inviolable as any -Oriental harem; and are not, as a matter of course, supposed to be the -scenes of mystery and intrigue. Indeed, it is fully evident that the -same spirit of deference to the comfort of the fair sex, exists in -America, where is seen over one of the principal entrances to the -general post-office, the announcement, “Exclusively <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb221" href="#pb221" name="pb221">221</a>]</span>for -Ladies,” which in Turkey would be intimated by the single and -expressive word <span class="sc">HAREM</span>.</p> -<p>Again the “Ladies’ Cabin” on board the steamers -would, in the East, be designated by the word Harem, written in golden -characters, which would at once indicate its sacred nature, and inspire -every Oriental with the respect due to the sex, which is even more -imperative in that clime than in other lands, where they make a glory -and boast of their excessive deference to the fairer portion of the -community.</p> -<p>Hence how erroneous the impression, that the harem is a species of -female prison, established by the tyranny of men, where the weaker sex -are forcibly shut up against their will.</p> -<p>If the Osmanli ladies were under no other restrictions, their own -sense of self-respect, based upon time-hallowed usage, and inculcated -by the precepts of their religion, would compel them to the same -seclusion. I one day happened to be in the dressing room of a pasha, -adjoining the harem; when he left the room for a moment. In the -interval, his daughter, supposing her father quite alone, suddenly -entered the apartment; but on seeing me there, instinctively covering -her face with the drapery of her sleeve, as suddenly disappeared. While -I myself as instinctively displayed my sense of the courtesy -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb222" href="#pb222" name= -"pb222">222</a>]</span>due to a lady, by looking as far as I could in -an opposite direction.</p> -<p>I heard her remarking to the slaves in the next room, that she was -so mortified, for, instead of seeing her father there stood -—— as large as life.</p> -<p>Her feeling at being seen without the precincts of the harem -<i>unveiled</i>, was the same as would be experienced by a lady of this -country, who should be surprised by the sight of a gentleman, when she -was <i lang="fr">en toilette de nuit</i>!</p> -<p>Nor is this seclusion entirely Mohammedan, but being an ancient -custom of the East, it is practised by all who dwell in that clime. The -families of the rayas, or non-mussulman subjects of the Porte, -consisting of the Armenians, Greeks, and Jews, are also under the same -social laws as their Mohammedan compatriots. It is true, that in -proportion as European customs have found their way into these -countries, the rigidity of the Christians has relaxed in this respect; -because the observance in question has never been incorporated with -their religion; whereas Mohammed, on the contrary, took special pains -to enforce the practice upon his followers.</p> -<p>The word harem being by courtesy applied also to its inmates, has -now become a general term to designate the female portion of the -family, and is by no means synonymous with polygamy, otherwise the -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb223" href="#pb223" name= -"pb223">223</a>]</span>same expression would not be used by the -Christian subjects in speaking of their domestic relations.</p> -<p>It would be said that a certain pasha or an Armenian banker had gone -to a distant place without his harem, or family.</p> -<p>An Osmanli lady, on being informed of the arrival of an American -minister in Constantinople, would naturally inquire whether he was -accompanied by his harem, or family. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb224" href="#pb224" name="pb224">224</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch23" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e435">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXIII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">CONDITION OF WOMEN.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">It is fortunate that the less enlightened members of -the human family are unconscious of their comparative -inferiority—and are ignorant of the bliss to which the more -sublimated specimens of humanity are constantly aspiring, and even -rendering themselves discontented with real life, as destiny has -accorded it to them.</p> -<p>The actual condition of women in the East is not then so much to be -lamented, as their ideal of happiness so essentially differs from that -of other portions of the fair sex in Europe or America. As no other -philosophy has yet crept into their minds, they dream not of -“woman’s rights,” “free love” or -“equality of the sexes,” and calmly content themselves with -the rights of nature, and the relative position which has ever existed -among their simple and patriarchal ancestors. The Osmanlis have not yet -deviated from the form of family government which nature dictated to -them. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb225" href="#pb225" name= -"pb225">225</a>]</span></p> -<p>The venerable father, who has guided his children through youth, and -even counseled them in maturer years, is the monarch in the family -circle—the Dei penates are no creations of myth—but are -embodied in the one and sacred title of <i lang="la">Pater -familias</i>.</p> -<p>Each son, as he succeeds to the paternal duties, is invested with -the robes of veneration and respect. Thus the male branches of the -household have a prior rank, which is unconsciously recognized by the -women and younger members of the family. The laws even allow to the son -double the share of inheritance that they do to the daughters, because -of the heavy responsibilities which may devolve upon him in future by -the death of the father.</p> -<p>There is not, therefore, the most distant suspicion in their -composition that females are equal to males, or girls to boys. It is as -if the members of the body should revolt, and the hands and feet -proclaim themselves superior, or even equal, to the head.</p> -<p>The women of Turkey know very well, and gracefully submit to facts, -which are stubborn things. They never think of denying that</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“Women first were made for men,</p> -<p class="line">Not men for them.”</p> -</div> -<p class="first">There are countries where the condition of woman is -indeed miserable, and where, also, they are unconscious <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb226" href="#pb226" name="pb226">226</a>]</span>of -their own degradation, and willingly toil and drudge in the service of -men; content with the slightest proofs of affection with which their -lords may honor them—indeed, any concession to their woman nature -is thankfully received.</p> -<p>To be bought and sold is a matter of course. In China, the purchased -wife is suddenly transported into the family of a man, whose name even -she has never heard. There she is the slave of the whole establishment. -The husband may beat her with impunity, reduce her to a state of -starvation, or hire her out, if he fancies to do so.</p> -<p>The Hindoo forces her to immolate herself on her husband’s -funeral pile—after having spent a lifetime in his slavery and -service.</p> -<p>Such barbarities are unknown in Turkey. For in no country in the -world are mothers more respected, wives more tenderly cherished, and -children more idolized. If, in the relative position of the sexes, men -rank above women, it is because the man is considered as the -<i>vital</i> principle, and the woman the <i>material</i>. Hence the -man loves and cherishes the woman, who in return regards him with -reverence and respect; and any deviation from these reciprocal -affections, would be considered as the greatest breach of decorum.</p> -<p>There are certain acts of politeness which devolve <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb227" href="#pb227" name= -"pb227">227</a>]</span>altogether upon the lords of creation in the -most exquisitely civilized regions of the world, which are however -sometimes reluctantly performed—but, as usual, such matters are -reversed in the East, where even the sun rises at a different hour. -There the Efendi graciously receives a glass of water at the hands of -his too happy Hanum; his pipe and his <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb228" href="#pb228" name="pb228">228</a>]</span>coffee are gracefully -served by some fair Hebe of a wife or sister, who naturally considers -herself as the helpmeet for her spouse, as did Eve, the first and -fairest of woman kind.</p> -<p>The reluctance they feel to have their ladies appear in general -society does not arise from any want of deference and respect on the -part of the men, but rather from an intuitive desire to guard and -protect them from public scandal.</p> -<p>As the Osmanlis enshrine the objects of their affection in the -recesses of their own hearts, so they love to guard them from all -contact of a selfish world. Indeed, Moore has beautifully expressed -their feelings in the warblings of the Peri,</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“No pearl ever lay under Oman’s green -water,</p> -<p class="line">More pure in its shell, than thy spirit in -thee.”</p> -</div> -<p class="first">They feel so sensitive on this score, that they do not -make their Harems a subject of conversation. Even the most distant -allusion to this part of their establishment would consequently be, not -only indelicate, but also an infringement of etiquette—so that -the ordinary questions, such as “how are madam and the -ladies,” or according to Irish vocabulary, “how’s yer -wife and the gals,” would cause the lord of the house to redden -with astonishment. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb229" href="#pb229" -name="pb229">229</a>]</span></p> -<p>As a further proof of the respect a man is supposed to feel for his -family, his enemy, when wishing to touch him to the quick, in cursing -him, only utters maledictions against his wife, mother, or sister.</p> -<p>A man may be publicly executed, but a woman is sacked, <i>entirely -out of respect</i>.</p> -<p>A Turkish lady is eminently queen of her own dominions, sometimes -even a despot—and most independent on all occasions, both public -and private.</p> -<p>It is not necessary for ladies to be attended by their husband or -any other gentleman when they go out; public sentiment entirely -protects them; for, if any one should accost them rudely, the commonest -citizen would immediately turn avenger. When the ladies are attended by -servants and eunuchs, they are only appendages of rank and -distinction.</p> -<p>They seem, indeed, to be a privileged class. Wherever they appear -the men must retire—and woe to the man who ventures upon a -warfare of words with a Turkish woman; for her tongue has no bounds, -and her slipper is a ready weapon of chastisement; and no man would -dare to repel the attack.</p> -<p>The convenience of the slipper as a ready means of self-defence, -seems to have been familiar in the days of the old classics, for, the -Roman poet says:</p> -<div lang="la" class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“Et soleâ pulsare nates,”</p> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb230" href="#pb230" name= -"pb230">230</a>]</span></p> -<p>And doubtless many of the rising generation can testify to its -abuse, even in these days of modern improvement.</p> -<p>The very whims and caprices which seem indigenous to the fair sex, -are tolerated as a matter of course with philosophic resignation, as -they are instructed by the Koran, “If ye be kind towards women -and fear to wrong them, God is well acquainted with what ye do.” -They have a proverb also which supplants all reasoning on such -occasions.</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“Satchi-ouzoun, Akli-Kissa.”</p> -<p class="line">Long hair, short brains.</p> -</div> -<p class="first">To salute a lady, or in any way accost her, in public -would be an act of consummate rudeness; even a husband would pass by -his wife and family with an air of affected indifference. Certainly -such a neglect of the fair sex would be unpardonable in Europe and this -country, but on the contrary, in the East, it only evinces the greatest -deference and respect.</p> -<p>Nevertheless, the Mohammedans have been most maliciously reported by -ignorant writers on the East, to hold that women have <i>no souls</i>; -or if they have, that they will perish like those of brute beasts.</p> -<p>This assumption is founded upon the promise of the Prophet, that the -faithful shall be provided with black-eyed Houris in Paradise. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb231" href="#pb231" name= -"pb231">231</a>]</span></p> -<p>If this excludes the Mussulman women from Paradise, we may -reasonably place the Christian ladies in the same category, for they -are assured in the Gospel that “there will be no marrying nor -giving in marriage in Heaven.”</p> -<p>On the contrary, Houris are but an addition to the earthly wives of -the Mussulmans, and the faithful are assured that “God promiseth -unto the true believers, <i>both men and women</i>, gardens through -which rivers flow, wherein they shall remain for ever,” and that -“whoso doth good works, whether he be <i>male</i> or -<i>female</i>, and is a true believer, shall be <i>admitted</i> into -Paradise, and shall not in the least be unjustly dealt with.” -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb232" href="#pb232" name= -"pb232">232</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch24" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e445">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXIV.</h2> -<h2 class="main">PERSONAL APPEARANCE AND COSTUME.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The first years of the life of every girl are spent -both in the Harem and Selamluk (or men’s apartment), -indiscriminately. The female children being then allowed free access to -the society of the men, they imbibe certain notions in their youth, -which are not always consistent with refinement.</p> -<p>As there is not in the Selamluk, the restraint which the presence of -ladies always imposes, the manners and conversation of the men are -often but ill calculated to nurture a sense of delicacy in the minds of -the children, who mingle so freely with them. Nevertheless, they seem -to possess an innate sense of propriety, and are never deficient in -politeness of deportment.</p> -<p>Every girl is permitted to attend either the public schools, or to -receive private instruction at home, until she is eight or ten years of -age, when she is no longer allowed the freedom of her childhood. Very -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb233" href="#pb233" name= -"pb233">233</a>]</span>little learning is acquired by them, the -language being difficult, and the mode of instruction altogether -unsystematical; so that for all future years they retain their -simplicity, and are but overgrown children.</p> -<p>Their minds having had no culture, the senses assume entire dominion -over them, and their time is spent either in adorning their persons, or -in etiquetical observances, by which they hope to render themselves -more bewitching to the lords of creation.</p> -<p>As in all other countries, fashion is regulated by the court, so at -Constantinople it is controlled by the ladies of the palace. Their -costume, according to the Oriental taste, always consisting of long -flowing robes, may be supposed to admit of no change; but on the -contrary, the ladies having little other occupation, delight in varying -the shape and style of their dress. Sometimes the hair is worn long, -again cropped short. A fess with flossy tassel is one day the mode, and -a fantastic turban is adopted the next morning. The sleeves are long -and wide, and again their drapery is dispensed with, and they are -confined at the wrist.</p> -<p>The <i>entary</i>, or dress, is invariably cut high, either closed -around the neck, or left open in front; it is made long, trailing about -a yard below the person; sometimes left open at the sides to the hips, -and at <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb234" href="#pb234" name= -"pb234">234</a>]</span>others, made wide, and sewed up as low as the -ankles.</p> -<p>The <i>shalvar</i>, or full trowsers, are made to match the dress, -and again of varied and contrasting hues.</p> -<p>There in a great variety in the fashion for trimming the dresses and -handkerchiefs, which generally are adorned with most exquisite -embroideries in silk or gold, as may suit the mode, or taste of the -wearer. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb235" href="#pb235" name= -"pb235">235</a>]</span>Sometimes an immense cashmere shawl is wound -round the waist; at others, a light gauze scarf, or belt of gold, with -a clasp adorned with brilliants, serves for a girdle. No Turkish lady -can dispense with jewelry, and even women of the lowest rank adorn -themselves with diamonds.</p> -<p>Abundant occupation is afforded to the jewellers by the constant -transformation of their <i>bijouterie</i>; for one day the capricious -beauties fancy a star or a crescent, and the next, nothing will suit -their toilet but a large spray of brilliants.</p> -<p>The number of the ladies in the royal palace and in other wealthy -harems, all of whom are bedecked in elegant and costly costumes, causes -a demand for the services of many merchants, through whom the last new -fashion is immediately promulgated.</p> -<p>Their beauty is such, however, that it might well afford to be -unadorned, for their complexions are generally exceedingly fair, and of -the most delicate softness; owing to the constant use of the bath, as -well as the protection of the <i>yashmack</i>, or veil, without which -they never go abroad.</p> -<p>Their features are very regular, and their almond shaped eyes, so -much sung by their poets, are dark and lustrous, and so valued for -their size, that the enjoyment of the great-eyed ladies is promised by -Mohammed as one of the sublimest joys of Paradise. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb236" href="#pb236" name="pb236">236</a>]</span>The -power of these electric and darkly beautiful orbs is so terrible, that -woe to those upon whom they are turned, for, as Pertev Pasha, one of -their celebrated poets, has described:</p> -<p class="first">“On the point of each ray that is darted from -those bright meteors, there is a bloody slaughter house,” or as -the French would expressively say, “<span lang="fr">un regard -assassin.</span>”</p> -<p>Exquisitely arched eyebrows are also so essential to their ideas of -beauty, that they are never contented, till by the repeated application -of artificial means, they raise their brows to a lofty semicircle.</p> -<p>Beauty spots, or moles, are considered of great value; and if nature -has proved niggard in this respect, art is brought into requisition to -produce the same contrasting effect between the tiny circle of jetty -hue and the surrounding fairness. The poet Hafiz has sung their value -in flowing numbers, offering the wealth of Semerkand and Bokhara for -the possession of the Indian mole on the cheek of the fair beauty of -Shiraz.</p> -<p>The tips of their fingers and toes are frequently stained with -<i>henna</i>, producing the roseate hue so much à la mode. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb237" href="#pb237" name= -"pb237">237</a>]</span></p> -<p>Their forms and movements are graceful, being under no artificial -restraints; and there is an exquisite charm about them as they -languidly lounge on their silken couches, or glide about from room to -room in long flowing robes, and slip-shod <i>shup-shups</i>.</p> -<p>Well has the illustrious bard portrayed the varied charms of the -Eastern houris:</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“Many and beautiful lay those around,</p> -<p class="line xd25e4020">Like flowers of different hue and clime, and -root,</p> -<p class="line">In some exotic garden sometimes found,</p> -<p class="line xd25e4020">With cost, and care, and warmth, induced to -shoot.”</p> -</div> -<p class="first">Considering their limited education, it is delightful -to listen to the melodious tone of their voices, as they speak with -remarkable purity the harmonious Turkish language. Notwithstanding -their lack of learning, there have been some among the ladies renowned -for their poetical productions, such as Leyla and Fitnett Hanums, -justly celebrated for their exquisite poetry. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb238" href="#pb238" name="pb238">238</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch25" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e455">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXV.</h2> -<h2 class="main">DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The interior arrangements of the Turkish apartments -and their furniture, are very peculiar, and quite unlike those of -European or American drawing rooms, being entirely adapted to the -habits and tastes of the Orientals. There is never any doubt or -hesitation as to the place suitable to be occupied by any one who may -happen to enter a room; nor is it possible to mistake the different -ranks of its occupants.</p> -<p>Generally there is a sofa on three sides of the room, sufficiently -ample to accommodate the ladies in their style of sitting, which is not -cross-legged as is usually represented in pictures, but with the limbs -folded under their persons and carefully concealed by the drapery of -their long robes; for to show these parts of the person while sitting, -is considered a great breach of etiquette. Hence no Osmanli lady is -ever to be seen perched on the very edge of the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb239" href="#pb239" name= -"pb239">239</a>]</span>sofa, but leaving her slippers on the floor, she -steps upon the couch and gracefully bending her knees, sits reclining -against the cushions behind her.</p> -<p>On the floor, at the foot of the sofa, are placed mattresses, -furnished with cushions, and these are called <i lang="tr">erkean -mindery</i> or seats of homage, where humbler visitors or members of -the family are allowed to place themselves. The angles or corners of -the sofa, are regarded as the seats of honor, and the places on either -side, rank in regular succession down to the seat of homage; but the -most honorable person in the company may, at her or his option, occupy -any part of the couch, when the rest place themselves on each side -according to their own rank. The servants are always present, and stand -in a row at the lower end of the room, their arms humbly folded on -their girdles, attentive to the slightest nod of their superiors.</p> -<p>There are several windows on each of the three sides of the room, so -as to permit a full view of the surrounding scenery, while they are -seated; for the Osmanlis are very fond of sunlight and the beauties of -nature. The windows of the harem are all furnished with close lattices, -permitting those within to see without being seen.</p> -<p>The more modernized <i>salons</i>, have only a sofa on one side, -European couches, chairs, tables, and <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb240" href="#pb240" name="pb240">240</a>]</span>mirrors, being -substituted for the other sofas. They also endeavor to imitate the -Europeans in the style of the window draperies, which are often of the -most brilliant hues.</p> -<p>There is one peculiarity in the Oriental houses. You may wander from -one end to the other and not see a single bed-room or any of its -appurtenances—which has induced many persons to report them as -sleeping on the sofas, and never dressing or undressing. It would, -however, seem more natural to suppose, that the Osmanlis never had any -but day dreams.</p> -<p>The fact is, that the beds are all packed away in large closets -during the day-time, and spread upon the floor at night. In the houses -of the wealthy, the mattresses and coverlets are made of the richest -materials, and the sheets of beautiful silk gauze, manufactured in -Broossa. The whole appearance of the bed, so brilliant in hue, and rich -in ornament, is very different from the style of a European couch.</p> -<p>Every house has an infinite number and variety of extra beds and -bedding, to be spread on the floors of any of the apartments, for the -accommodation of visitors—hospitality being one of the most -religious precepts and observances of the Orientals.</p> -<p>In the sultan’s palace, however, and in the families -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb241" href="#pb241" name= -"pb241">241</a>]</span>of the wealthy, especially of those pashas who -have resided in Europe, bedsteads have been introduced.</p> -<p>Upon rising, the person claps her hands, as the apartments are never -furnished with bell ropes, and immediately the attendants -appear—one holding the basin, another the ewer, and a third -presenting the towel, richly embroidered at the ends.</p> -<p>The usual method of warming the houses, is by the <i>mangal</i> and -<i>tandur</i>. The mangal is generally made of brass highly polished, -somewhat in the form of an hour-glass, about a foot and a half high, -and two, or two and a half in diameter; and contains a large pan of -ignited charcoal.</p> -<p>The tandur consists of a wooden frame about the height and size of a -table, lined with tin, under which a pan of fire is placed, and the -whole is covered with a thickly wadded quilt. This is surrounded by -sofas, and they sit with their legs and feet under the covering.</p> -<p>More cozy than any capacious arm-chair, or softly yielding fauteuil, -is this same tandur. The genial warmth excites a wonderful sympathy in -its occupants. They warm to each other, and to the world in general, -and never neglect to take cognizance of their neighbor’s affairs -and doings. From the palace of the sultan to the cottage of the crone, -they benignantly travel, bestowing on each and all a blessing, or -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb242" href="#pb242" name= -"pb242">242</a>]</span>when necessary, even a cursing. The ups and -downs of pashas, probable and accomplished—whispers of the -sultan’s favorites, or of the efendi’s coquettish -ladies—the style of Adilé Sultan’s feradjé, -or the grand vezir’s fess, are each and all passed in review, -until you wonder how ever a set of miserable imprisoned women should be -such arrant gossips. Ah! one cannot believe the fair sex so unjust to -themselves, even in Turkey, as to neglect the observation of those -interesting little items of public or retired life, which become great -and weighty affairs, when discussed by ruby lips, and in the cadence of -sweet-toned voices.</p> -<p>They possess a most lady-like love of chit-chat, and so little do -they covet repose for their delicate jaws, that should conversation -lag, they keep them in motion by the use of mastic, which is always in -readiness, preserved in little jewelled boxes.</p> -<p>It is only of late years, that those hot, repelling machines called -<i>stoves</i>, have been introduced; but they have by no means -superseded the social and old-fashioned tandur, whose warmth, and -luxurious cushions, often beguile its occupants to slumber, during -which the fire is overturned, and thus occur many of the conflagrations -so frequent in Turkey.</p> -<p>There are two occasions when the still air resounds with the echoes -of human voices. The chant of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb243" -href="#pb243" name="pb243">243</a>]</span>Muezzin from the -minaré, slowly and musically vibrating through the atmosphere, -enticing all to linger at the casement or in the thoroughfare to catch -its melodious accents; and the terrible cry of <i lang="tr">yangun -var!</i> Fire! Fire! accompanied by the reverberations of the -watchman’s club striking upon the pavement.</p> -<p>A thrill of horror pervades every heart, for there are no bounds to -the devouring element.</p> -<p>There are two towers, one at the Seraskér’s in the city -itself, and the other on the Galata hill, which command an extensive -isometrical view of the whole metropolis and its suburbs.</p> -<p>Here guards are stationed, who descry the first indications of fire, -and immediately give, from the top of the towers, the requisite signal, -by hoisting, in the day-time, an immense globe, painted red, and at -night by producing a bright and steady light—these signals remain -until the fire is extinguished.</p> -<p>At Candilly, on the Asiatic shore of the Bosphorus, and half way up -the stream, there are a battery and a flag-staff stationed on the -mountain top called <i lang="tr">Kenan-tepessy</i>; as soon as the -signals are seen, the fire globe ascends the flag-staff, and the -battery discharges a certain number of guns, according to the locality -of the conflagration.</p> -<p>From the towers, detailed officers, <i lang= -"tr">Neöbetgees</i>, are <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb244" -href="#pb244" name="pb244">244</a>]</span>dispatched to the different -ministers, and guard houses, where the engines are kept, who create a -tremendous sensation, as they rush wildly about, brandishing their -batons of office, and with a protracted yell, warning every one to -clear the way. The different <i lang="tr">Bekgees</i> or district -watchmen, now take up the cry—striking their iron-shod clubs on -the pavement and repeating with all the power of their lungs <i lang= -"tr">yangun-var! Stambolda!</i> or there is fire at Stamboul.</p> -<p>The firemen assemble at their respective quarters, and shouldering -their engines, rush to the scene. These firemen receive no pay, but are -exempt from taxes and allowed certain other privileges—yet they -always manage to extort certain compensations for their services, from -the victims of the devastating element. The engines are small and -portable, on account of the narrowness and steepness of the streets, -nor is there any connexion-hose attached to them, the water being -supplied with buckets; yet it is astonishing how much they effect even -with such inadequate means.</p> -<p>The inflammable materials of which the houses are constructed, the -narrow streets, winding up the hillside like foot-paths, the irregular -and projecting dwellings, from which the people could shake hands with -their opposite neighbors, if it were only the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb245" href="#pb245" name= -"pb245">245</a>]</span>fashion in Turkey, contribute to make a most -desirable promenade for the Fire-King when he sallies forth.</p> -<p>The flames leap from house to house; the burning cinders fly in all -directions, and the fire kindles at many and distant points; so that in -less than half an hour, a large district is often wrapt in flames.</p> -<p>The general panic is so intense, that the whole community is roused; -the pashas desert their couches, and even the sultan himself sometimes -repairs to the scene, to animate, by his presence, the efforts of the -desperate firemen. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb246" href="#pb246" -name="pb246">246</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch26" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e465">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXVI.</h2> -<h2 class="main">SOCIAL INTERCOURSE.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">It seems something of an anomaly that a race of beings -so distinguished for selfishness, should be so exceedingly social in -their inclinations.</p> -<p>Birds of a feather flock together, and man loves his fellow, though -he loves himself better.</p> -<p>To prevent the inroad of this extreme selfishness, certain forms and -ceremonies are established in every community where there is any -interchange of mutual civilities.</p> -<p>Oriental life has many distinguishing peculiarities and -characteristic forms of politeness, but unlike other parts of the -globe, etiquette in the East is permanent and general. The mental -accomplishments being but few, wealth seems to constitute the only -aristocratic distinction, while the poorest and the richest are equally -well versed in the established routine of civility.</p> -<p>It is curious to observe the native refinement even <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb247" href="#pb247" name="pb247">247</a>]</span>of -the lower classes in Turkey. There is no <i>gaucherie</i>, no -reluctance in any one to do the right thing in the right way and place; -no fear of being unlike other distinguished personages in manners and -customs; for there is no doubt as to the prescribed and most elegant -style of conduct; even the salutations, compliments and congratulations -are most carefully worded, and any deviation from the formula would -destroy the intended effect.</p> -<p>There is, consequently, no lack of social etiquette among the -Osmanlis. A visitor is received according to her station in life, and -after being announced, is met by the lady of the house with her suite, -at the head of the staircase, or at the door of the saloon, or -sometimes by merely stepping down from the sofa, as may be demanded by -the rank of the guest.</p> -<p>There is no ceremony of introducing one person to another, nor is -there any shaking of hands. The company salute each other without any -regard to previous acquaintance; and the younger members of society -always kiss the hem of the garment, or the hands of their superiors in -rank and age.</p> -<p>The manner of salutation varies—those of equal rank endeavor -to kiss the hem of each other’s garments, or only exchange -<i>temennas</i>.</p> -<p>The temenna, which has already been described, is a graceful -salutation, and is used as frequently as <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb248" href="#pb248" name="pb248">248</a>]</span><i>thank you</i> by -the English; serving as an acknowledgment for all compliments and kind -inquiries.</p> -<p>When one thinks of the innumerable occasions on which this -expressive temenna is called into action, it seems as if a whole -chapter would scarcely suffice to describe them all. But we will -content ourselves with its demonstration upon the arrival of a guest -among a company of some fifteen or twenty persons.</p> -<p>As soon as the visitor is seated, the lady welcomes <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb249" href="#pb249" name="pb249">249</a>]</span>her -guest by a temenna—which is acknowledged by the same signal, and -reiterated by each person in the company successively, according to her -rank.</p> -<p>Now another round commences. The lady of the house makes a new -temenna, which signifies, “How do you do?” Another temenna -from the visitor, is equivalent to an acknowledgment of thanks, who -with the same gesture, intimates a desire to know the state of her -hostess’s health.</p> -<p>The whole company then in succession follow suit, to each of whom -the visitor replies in the same way.</p> -<p>This Quaker-meeting style of receiving company, might be ludicrously -illustrated in American society, by substituting bows for -temennas—if, indeed, the ladies could be expected to preserve the -requisite silence and gravity of demeanor.</p> -<p>In Turkey, every attention or compliment, brings its train of -temennas, and it is much to be regretted that no mathematician has yet -arisen in Turkey, capable of producing a regular formula for their -exact computation.</p> -<p>The <i>Meddahs</i>, however, or the famous story-tellers of the -East, who are the best critics, sometimes endeavor to exhibit the -danger of too great an excess in this act of politeness.</p> -<p>They say there was once a worthy <i lang="tr">Hodja</i> or -schoolmaster, who was very punctilious. Desirous that all <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb250" href="#pb250" name="pb250">250</a>]</span>his -scholars should realise the importance of true politeness, he insisted -that when he drank water, not a single one of them should omit to -exclaim with a respectful temenna, <i lang="tr">afiyet olsoun hodja -efendy</i>, or may it do you much good, respected master—and when -he sneezed, they were all to clap their hands, and vociferate <i lang= -"tr">hayr ola hodja efendy</i>, or good luck to the master.</p> -<p>The means employed by this worthy schoolmaster to enforce his -lessons, may be readily guessed by others of the same profession; but -that the desired effect was produced, there is no doubt.</p> -<p>There was a deep well, from which the scholars had to draw water for -their own use.</p> -<p>One day, it was reported to the teacher that the bucket had fallen -in the well, who, after many vain attempts to fish it up, resolved to -descend by means of a rope, and the scholars were called upon to assist -in his descent and ascent.</p> -<p>The hodja was accordingly lowered down into the well, and at a given -signal, the boys began to pull him up. But as he approached the mouth -of the well, the change of the atmosphere titillating his nostrils, -unfortunately made him <i>sneeze</i>; when the well-trained pupils, -instinctively making the temenna, and clapping their hands, let go the -rope and shouted, “<i lang="tr">hayr ola hodja efendy</i>,” -good luck to the master. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb251" href= -"#pb251" name="pb251">251</a>]</span></p> -<p>But, <span lang="fr">retournons nous à nos -moutons</span>.</p> -<p>After the visitor is seated, and the usual temennas are exchanged, -long chibouks with amber mouthpieces, set in diamonds, are offered by -the <i lang="tr">halayiks</i> or slaves; after which, sweetmeats are -served upon a silver tray, with goblets of water, and then coffee.</p> -<p>This beverage is served in small porcelain cups, in stands of silver -or gold, sometimes enamelled and set in diamonds—which ceremony -is thus poetically described by Lord Byron:</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“And mocha’s berry, from Arabia pure,</p> -<p class="line">In small fine china cups, came in at last;</p> -<p class="line">Gold cups of filagree, made to secure</p> -<p class="line">The hand from burning, underneath them -placed.”</p> -</div> -<p class="first">Although there are certain ceremonies which are never -omitted as matters of form, their intercourse with each other is most -unsophisticated. Mutual criticism, and inspection of toilets, -catechising about prices, etc., are indulged in as matters of course, -and if by chance the guest is a European lady, the scrutiny is the more -intense; so that those who desire to visit Turkish harems, must go -prepared to undergo the most thorough examination with smiles and good -humor; the only satisfaction being a genuine retaliation upon the fair -hanums, who would feel exceedingly flattered thereby, and by no means -dream of being offended<span class="corr" id="xd25e4245" title= -"Not in source">.</span> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb252" href= -"#pb252" name="pb252">252</a>]</span></p> -<p>The whole establishment is shown to visitors, as one way of -entertaining them; and frequently they get up a dance among themselves, -or call in the dancing girls with their castanets.</p> -<p>Upon intimation of departure, sherbet is served; after which the -visit is terminated, and the guest reconducted in the same manner in -which she was<span class="gap" title= -"Missing text, for the following reason: Missing in source..">[<i>missing -text</i>]</span> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb253" href="#pb253" -name="pb253">253</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch27" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e475">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXVII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">POLYGAMY.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">It is true that a Harem is generally composed of an -assemblage of women, but <i>not</i> such as the public usually -imagine.</p> -<p>Although the Mussulmans are allowed by the Koran to have several -wives, there are few who have more than one, especially at the present -day; a fact not to be, however, attributed to any new code of morality, -but rather to the coercion of circumstances.</p> -<p>It was the practice of the Arabs to have eight or ten wives, whom -they were seldom able to maintain. Mohammed, wishing to remedy this -evil, and not altogether to abolish ancient usages, limited the -number—“Take in marriage of such women as please you, two, -or three or four, and not more. But if ye fear that ye cannot act -equitably to so many, marry <i>only one</i>, or the slaves which ye -shall have acquired.” They were allowed to marry a greater number -of slaves, as their dowry was much smaller, and they were maintained in -a very different style from the free women. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb254" href="#pb254" name="pb254">254</a>]</span></p> -<p>As the Osmanlis have a remarkable love of offspring, it often -happens that a man having had no children by a wife, and unwilling to -divorce her, which is considered discreditable, takes a second one in -imitation of Abraham and Jacob and many other patriarchs of old, whose -practices were but the type of the habits of all Oriental people, even -those of the present day. But such a step being often the source of -domestic difficulty, the substitution of a slave in the place of a -second wife is generally preferred—and such slaves are retained -in the harem with the appellation of <i>Odaluk</i> or handmaid, like -Hagar, Bilhah, and Zilpah. When these Odaluks become mothers, by right -of their maternity, they acquire their freedom and are considered -second wives.</p> -<p>A man may, however, be induced to contract a second marriage either -from mercenary or ambitious motives.</p> -<p>When circumstances or selfish inclinations induce the Mussulmans to -have several wives, they are obliged to assign to each one private -apartments and attendants. These ladies, although often living under -the same roof, visit each other with all the etiquette of perfect -strangers, and require an expenditure for retinue and accommodations, -which can only be sustained by wealth.</p> -<p>Besides all partiality being out of the question, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb255" href="#pb255" name= -"pb255">255</a>]</span>there is great cause for jealousy among the -different members of such establishments—and the less favored -being ever ready for intrigue, conspire to render the husband most -miserable and the sanctuary a perfect bedlam, and the ambition of a -second wife sometimes can only be satisfied by the sacrifice of her -rival.</p> -<p>Fethi Ahmed Pasha was so favored by the sultan that his majesty -bestowed his sister upon him in marriage. Notwithstanding this alliance -with royalty, the wife and children of his humbler fortunes retained -their place in his memory; but he could only visit them in secret.</p> -<p>The author has, on several occasions, assisted to his incognito, as -he left his state barge and proceeded <i lang="fr">en bourgeois</i> in -a small cayik, to visit the house of his affections.</p> -<p>There is, therefore, every reason to believe that our Mussulman -friends will soon come to the conclusion, that,</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“Polygamy may well be held in dread,</p> -<p class="line">Not only as a sin, but as a <i>bore</i>:”</p> -</div> -<p class="first">Notwithstanding then the toleration of polygamy by the -Prophet, it is evident that circumstances have combined to restrict -this practice; and most particularly the abolition of the Circassian -slave-trade, to a certain extent, has created an effectual check to the -use of Odaluks—thus increasing the necessity of <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb256" href="#pb256" name= -"pb256">256</a>]</span>alliances between the members of different -families which were formerly avoided; because the wife being surrounded -and supported by her own relations, attained an undue share of domestic -power and influence.</p> -<p>Especially when alliances are formed with royalty, the circumstances -are most aggravating. The husband then becomes an abject slave, and has -tacitly to submit to the caprices of his spouse.</p> -<p>He cannot enter the harem of his sultana unless especially sent for; -nor can he postpone his attendance to her summons no matter what his -circumstances or occupation may be.</p> -<p>The sultan’s brother-in-law has often been seen, sleeping in a -corner of a sofa at the Selamluk, till two or three o’clock in -the morning, awaiting the pleasure of his royal mistress—while -she on her part was amusing herself in the harem with dancing girls, -music, &c.</p> -<p>The pasha’s embarrassment has also been very evident when he -has been obliged to leave the company abruptly; no apology being -necessary on such occasions; the entrance of the sable messenger, with -a single temenna intimating the absolute command of the royal wife, who -generally dismisses her train of ladies and slaves before he makes his -appearance.</p> -<p>It is with the desire to avoid such petticoat government -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb257" href="#pb257" name= -"pb257">257</a>]</span>that the young men do not contract alliances -with ladies of rank and distinction; preferring to marry their own -slaves, or to content themselves with the Odaluks which their mothers -bestow upon them to keep them within the home circle, and out of -mischief.</p> -<p>Sometimes they are forced to a second marriage by the bestowal of a -bride from a superior in power whose orders they cannot refuse.</p> -<p>A great number of women then in any harem is by no means a sure sign -of the uxorious disposition of its master, but is rather an indication -of his personal rank and wealth.</p> -<p>For the Osmanlis men and women are proverbially fond of display, -they say “Sense belongs to Europe—wealth to India, beauty -to Georgia—but show and display are the attributes of the -Osmanlis alone.”</p> -<p>They therefore delight in all the appendages of luxury, and surround -themselves with crowds of attendants. This Oriental propensity has even -been sustained by the Prophet himself, who says, that “the very -meanest in Paradise will have 80,000 servants,” &c. While, -then, the gentleman in the selamluk, has his steward, treasurer, -cup-bearer, pipe bearer, etc., the Hanum on her part, has her own -appropriate suite, which is in many instances more numerous than that -of her Efendy. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb258" href="#pb258" name= -"pb258">258</a>]</span></p> -<p>This is particularly true with regard to the sultanas or sisters and -daughters of the sultan, whose husbands are not allowed to behold the -faces of any of the fair maidens in the royal train, except by special -permission of the sultanas themselves. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb259" href="#pb259" name="pb259">259</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch28" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e485">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXVIII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Marriage is considered “honorable in all,” -but most especially among the Osmanlis, who enter into this condition -as they arrive at the age of puberty. The independent state of -bachelorship is therefore unknown among them, or if such an accident -should happen, the unfortunate gentleman is styled <i lang= -"tr">beekear</i><span class="corr" id="xd25e4345" title= -"Source: .">,</span> or useless member of society, which stigma it is -needless to say they by no means covet; as for old maids, there is not -a word in the language descriptive of that class of women.</p> -<p>The preliminaries of all marriages are effected by the parents, who -not only thus spare their children much trouble and embarrassment, but -use all their own wisdom and experience of genuine terrestrial -happiness in providing for their own offspring. Besides, parental -authority is supreme, and filial obedience equally innate, hence it -never enters into the calculations of the young to weary themselves -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb260" href="#pb260" name= -"pb260">260</a>]</span>with the anticipatory illusions of love, though -sometimes when old enough they join in the matrimonial -deliberations.</p> -<p>Marriage is not a religious, but rather a civil contract among the -Mussulmans, and the ceremony is as simple as in Protestant -countries.</p> -<p>This ceremony which is called <i>Nikeah</i>, is effected by proxies, -and there is always a fixed sum settled upon the bride, according to -the condition of the party. This <i>Nikeah</i> constitutes the legal -marriage, but the bride does not go to her husband’s home until -three or four months have elapsed, at which time the friends assemble -to partake of the nuptial festivities, which continue during four days, -and always end on Thursday, as the following day is the Turkish -sabbath.</p> -<p>Upon her arrival, the bride is met at the door of the harem, and -conducted into the room by the bridegroom himself, who carries her up -stairs in his arms, and placing her in the most honorable part of the -sofa, raises her veil of tinsel, and takes the liberty, for the first -time, to gaze upon the features of his beloved.</p> -<p>Separate establishments are almost unknown in Turkey. The bride goes -to the house of her husband’s parents, so that the family circle -often becomes very numerous. It occasionally happens <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb261" href="#pb261" name="pb261">261</a>]</span>that -by special request, the bridegroom enters the family of his -wife’s parents; which, however, is considered a misfortune, for -they say, “<i lang="tr">Itch guveyeeden halludja</i>” or -any condition is preferable to that of a man married into a family.</p> -<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">DIVORCE.</h3> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Voltaire has observed, “<span lang="fr">Le -divorce est probablement de la même date à peu près -que le mariage; je crois, pourtant, que le mariage est de quelques -semaines plus ancien; c’est à dire qu’on se querella -avec sa femme au bout de quinze jours, qu’on se battit au bout -d’un mois, et qu’on s’en sépara après -six semaines de cohabitation.</span>”</p> -<p>If such be a true picture of human nature, it is not too highly -drawn for a country where polygamy is practised, since it is no hard -matter for a man to part with one wife, when he has several others. The -privilege of divorce would be somewhat tyrannical if allowed only to -the men, but in Turkey, the women themselves may exercise this -prerogative, if they are maltreated, or not properly provided for, with -at least the requisite “bread and candles.”</p> -<p>A man may put away his wife merely by uttering in the hearing of a -third party, the ominous word “bosh,” <span class="corr" -id="xd25e4383" title="Source: nul">null</span>, void, which even if -carelessly spoken <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb262" href="#pb262" -name="pb262">262</a>]</span>renders the man and wife strangers to each -other, the lady feeling obliged to assume her veil, and conceal her -charms; and in case of reconciliation, a second marriage ceremony is -necessary. The woman, on her part, has the privilege of leaving her -husband, by declaring before the Cadi, <i lang="tr">Djanum azad, -nikeahum helal</i>—I forfeit my dowry, and claim my freedom.</p> -<p>It is fortunate that divorce is very disreputable, and is seldom -practised by either party if they have any respect for public opinion, -or regard for themselves; otherwise, wives and husbands would be -constantly changing hands, as was the practice among the old Arabs, in -the time of Mohammed.</p> -<p>This custom was decried by the Prophet, “It shall not be -lawful for thee to take other women to wife hereafter, nor to exchange -any of thy wives for them.”</p> -<p>The moral effect of a facility of divorce is to keep both parties on -their good behavior, but at the same time a spirit of extreme -selfishness is induced in the women. For being in constant apprehension -of a sudden separation, they look upon their husbands as a means of -revenue, and endeavor to store up as much jewelry, clothing etc., as -possible, to be ready in case of emergency. The display of shawls and -diamonds upon the persons of women, even of the poorest classes, is not -from a feeling of vanity, but rather an <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb263" href="#pb263" name="pb263">263</a>]</span>exhibition of the -extent of the personal wealth they have extorted from their lords and -masters.</p> -<p>In case of separation, the children are supported until they are -seven years old, by the father; after which the boys remain under the -paternal care, and the girls belong to the mother; unless some other -arrangement is made by mutual consent.</p> -<p>The most unjust stigma of illegitimacy, is almost unknown in Turkey; -the children by slaves being as respectable and legitimate as those by -the regular wives, and it is only when the father cannot be discovered -that they are regarded as bastards. Such principles are certainly -right, and more humane than those of Christian lands, where the -innocent are taunted all their lifetime with the immoralities of -others, for whose actions they are as irresponsible as “the babe -unborn.” <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb264" href="#pb264" name= -"pb264">264</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch29" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e495">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXIX.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE SULTAN’S HAREM.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Although there are more than 2,000 women in the -palace, but five of these hold the rank of <i>kaduns</i>, or wives.</p> -<p>Mussulmans, in general, are allowed to have four wives, but sultans -can have <i>seven</i>.</p> -<p>Their superiority to ordinary men is thus attested, and the chance -made surer of an heir to the throne.</p> -<p>It will, therefore, be perceived that polygamy, in the case of a -sultan, is a matter of policy, and not choice; for even should he -content himself with one wife, the State would interfere.</p> -<p>The design of limiting his majesty’s wives to seven, is to -spare the State the enormous expense attendant upon the maintenance of -so many ladies of royal rank.</p> -<p>The present sultan, however, in asserting his prerogative, has -limited the number to five, which, while it shows his power to exceed -the restrictions <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb265" href="#pb265" -name="pb265">265</a>]</span>upon other Mussulmans, at the same time, -displays an inclination not to burden the State too heavily with his -private expenses.</p> -<p>It is true he has had children by several others, whom custom -requires to be elevated to the rank of kaduns, but he has retained them -under the title of <i>ikbals</i>, or favorites, for the sake of sparing -the State the additional expense which the dignity of kaduns would -require.</p> -<p>The sultan being above all law, cannot submit to any matrimonial -bondage; he is not, therefore, <i>legally</i> married to any of his -wives, but those who are selected by him to share his affections, are -pronounced by him <i>Kaduns</i>, or ladies, and not sultanas; for none -but those of the royal blood can enjoy that title, except the mother of -the reigning sultan, who on her son’s accession to the throne, -takes, by courtesy, this title, and is called Validé Sultan.</p> -<p>The title Sultan is equally applied to males and females, with this -difference only, that it precedes the name of the male, and follows -that of the female: thus, they say Sultan Abd-ul-Medjid, but for his -sister, Adilé Sultan.</p> -<p>When it is used by itself, it always implies the female branch of -the royal family, and never his majesty, who is known by the title of -Padishah, or Hünkear, or, in common parlance, Efendimiz—our -Lord. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb266" href="#pb266" name= -"pb266">266</a>]</span></p> -<p>His majesty never forming an alliance with any of his subjects, all -his kaduns are originally Georgian or Circassian slaves, who are -selected for this distinguished honor and presented to him by his -mother or sisters, on <i>Kadir Gedjessy</i>, or the night in which the -Koran descended from Heaven.</p> -<p>They have each their separate establishments and retinue in the -palace, and live as much apart as if in different dwellings, seldom -seeing each other, except on occasions of state ceremony and -etiquette.</p> -<p>The princes of the royal blood also reside in the same palace, who, -if of age, have their own odaluks, attendants, etc.</p> -<p>It may be supposed, that in such a royal establishment, the rising -generation is well represented; but on the contrary, few of them are -allowed to prolong their lives, while many more never see the -light.</p> -<p>This premature destruction of life, though strictly prohibited in -the Koran, is very prevalent in Turkey. In some cases from -<i>State-Policy</i>, lest the heirs to the crown should become too -numerous, and in others, from a false desire in the ladies to preserve -their beauty and freshness from the toils and trial of maternity.</p> -<p>But very often the better feelings of their natures are sorely -tried, and two of the sisters of the present sultan pined away in -sorrow, and at last died, because <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb267" -href="#pb267" name="pb267">267</a>]</span>their infant sons were -sacrificed upon the altar of state-policy!</p> -<p>Abd-ul-Medjid himself, in his younger days, was not exempt from -trials of this sort. For just before coming to the throne, he had a -favorite odaluk, to whom he was much attached. But as the princes are -not permitted to become fathers, she fell a victim in the attempt to -frustrate the probable birth of an heir, when a single week’s -delay would have elevated her to the rank of first kadun to the -reigning monarch; for sultan Mahmoud died a few days after she was -sacrificed.</p> -<p>Whenever a child is born to the sultan, or any other Oriental -father, the tidings are immediately communicated to him and the family -relatives, and the messenger handsomely rewarded. Among the Mussulmans -the father himself pronounces the future name of his offspring at the -moment of its birth.</p> -<p>A certain man, having scarce passed the honeymoon, for he had only -been married three months, one day, while he was in the bath, was -suddenly apprised of the birth of a son and heir. As soon as he -recovered from his surprise at such an unexpected event, he ordered him -to be named <i>Tchapgun</i> or racer, because, said he, he has -accomplished in three months, the customary labor of nine.</p> -<p>They have a singular notion that the reason a <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb268" href="#pb268" name= -"pb268">268</a>]</span>child cries as soon as it is born is, because -his satanic majesty being of course present, cruelly <i>pinches</i> the -tender offshoot of humanity; the only exception on record, being the -Virgin Mary and Jesus Christ, who were protected from the touch of the -devil by a veil, so placed by Allah himself; thus, doubtless, -accounting for the Immaculacy of the Holy Virgin.</p> -<p>The children, at their birth, are rubbed down with salt, and nicely -bandaged. They are placed in a cradle and secured there. The hands and -feet are bound in, so that the child cannot move. The poor little -victim becomes black and blue under this treatment, and is occasionally -relieved from its fetters to be re-enveloped in swaddling clothes; and -when the toilet is completed, it very much resembles a little Egyptian -mummy.</p> -<p>The child is nursed while lying down, the mother bending over it, -and tilting the cradle, until she attains the requisite position.</p> -<p>Owing to the bandages in which the infants are constantly enveloped, -the circulation of the blood is impeded, and they are obliged to be -relieved by occasional scarifications, and the writer still wears the -honorable scars of this traditional practice.</p> -<p>When the sultan wends his steps from the Mabeyn to the Harem, the -black gentlemen on guard at the door of the ladies’ apartments, -proceed immediately <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb269" href="#pb269" -name="pb269">269</a>]</span>to announce his majesty’s approach to -the <i>Haznadar-Ousta</i>, or the lady treasuress.</p> -<p>This personage, is a very important character in the royal -household; being the keeper of all the jewels and other treasures, and -the mistress of ceremonies; she is, in a word—</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“That dame who keeps up discipline among</p> -<p class="line">The general ranks, so that none stir or talk</p> -<p class="line">Without her sanction on their she-parades:</p> -<p class="line">Her title is, the mother of the maids.”</p> -</div> -<p class="first">There is always one of these Haznadars attached to the -harems of the wealthy; and the individual who fills this office, has -been the nurse of the head of the family in infancy; so that this -“mother of the maids” feels almost a maternal interest in -his majesty’s happiness.</p> -<p>The Haznadar-Ousta immediately proceeds to the <i>salon</i>, where -she awaits the entrance of the sultan, who, after receiving her -salutations, in the course of conversation, inquires after the health -of one of the Kaduns, which is taken as an indication that her company -is desired by his majesty.</p> -<p>This Kadun now enters the royal presence alone, or perhaps with one -of her children, while her train of attendants remain within call. Like -all other Orientals, the Padishah delights in the company of his -children, and they are often seen in public with him, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb270" href="#pb270" name="pb270">270</a>]</span>or -in the royal Mabeyn. His first-born was a daughter, and lately married -to Aali-Ghalib Pasha, the son of Reshid.</p> -<p>The children of the sultan precede their mother in rank, for they -are of royal blood, while she is but a slave.</p> -<p>Hence the mother always takes a secondary position in cayiks, -carriages, or in the saloon of reception. This apparent superiority -never elates the children, nor in any way lessens the respect which -they feel for their mothers. For whilst they are flattered and -worshipped as <i lang="tr">Shah-zadés</i> and <i>Sultans</i>, or -Princes and Princesses, the general deference paid to their mothers is -undiminished. They have a proverb which is very expressive of their -feelings on this subject,</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<div lang="tr" class="lg"> -<p class="line">“Dagh kadar babam olajaghina,</p> -<p class="line">Yüksük kadar anam ola.”</p> -</div> -<div class="lg"> -<p class="line">“Rather than a father the size of a mountain,</p> -<p class="line">Give me a mother, small as a thimble.”</p> -</div> -</div> -<p class="first">The late Validé-Sultan, or mother of the -sultan, was one of the most powerful individuals in the realm, and her -patronage most assiduously courted.</p> -<p>His majesty and his harem are frequently entertained with the -graceful movements and merry castanets of the dancing girls. The -Osmanlis are <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb271" href="#pb271" name= -"pb271">271</a>]</span>very fond of dancing, but consider it -inconsistent with their own dignity; they always have beautiful young -slaves trained in this accomplishment, and also made proficient in the -music of the country.</p> -<p>Turkish music is very unlike that of European countries, where there -is a general similarity. Although the Orientals have very good ears for -music, and treat the subject scientifically, yet it is strange that -they do not understand the harmony of sounds—for all their -concerts, both vocal and instrumental, consist of <i>solos</i>, that -is, they all sing and play only the air or tenor, and never the bass -and contralto, etc.</p> -<p>The natural tones of their voices are very sweet; and of late years -the military music having been arranged in European style, they have -made great proficiency in this art.</p> -<p>The opera house in Pera is also very attractive to the Turkish -gentlemen, and much frequented by them. The sultan has his <i>loge</i>, -or box there, and sometimes honors the house by his royal presence.</p> -<p>Recently the piano has also become very fashionable among them, and -it is to be heard incessantly jingling in all the harems. The sultan -being himself an amateur, frequently plays on that instrument, and has -also an Italian Opera attached to his palace for the entertainment of -his ladies, where many of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb272" -href="#pb272" name="pb272">272</a>]</span>female slaves are trained to -sing and act <i lang="fr">à la Italienne</i>, in the costumes of -both sexes.</p> -<p>The ladies of the palace are also amused with other exhibitions, -which they witness through latticed partitions.</p> -<p>From the preceding sketch, it will be readily understood, that all -the ladies in the royal palace, are in reality <i>slaves</i> from the -regions of Circassia, but they are always well treated, and even -addressed by the title of Hanums, or ladies; and we may say their -greatest hardship is being lightly clothed all seasons of the year; -their feet without stockings, and their dresses made of the lightest -fabrics, from which fact many of them fall easy victims to -consumption.</p> -<p>These ladies are not allowed to go abroad as freely as Turkish -hanums in general, on account of the restrictions of court etiquette; -this confinement is also very injurious to their health, and their -ennui is often insupportable. Sometimes, after a due warning to all the -gardeners and other gentlemen to quit the premises, they are allowed to -stroll in the palace gardens, and occasionally the Validé Sultan -takes pity on some of them, and permits them to enjoy a promenade in -her own train, when the exuberance of their spirits often tempts them -to the most childish acts of coquetry. Indeed, so great is their -longing to encounter the lords of creation, that a feigned sickness -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb273" href="#pb273" name= -"pb273">273</a>]</span>affords an occasion of seeing a doctor, and -their favorite remedy for all ailments is bleeding, or the -<i>bleeder</i>!</p> -<p>These beautiful girls having no other ambition than to be as -fascinating as possible, and such aspirations sometimes seem to be felt -in more enlightened bosoms, they do not like to waste their sweetness -on the desert air; as they are consequently a little mischievous, the -practice of locking up each one in her own apartments has been deemed -advisable. When the muezzin proclaims the hour of evening prayer, the -disconsolate ladies are severally consigned to a state of security by -the sable turnkeys of the palace.</p> -<p>This is not, however, so dismal a fate, when we remember that a -short time ago, all the inhabitants of Stamboul were obliged to be -within their own domiciles, about two hours after sunset; and awhile -since, there was the curfew bell even in good old England. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb274" href="#pb274" name="pb274">274</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch30" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e505">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXX.</h2> -<h2 class="main">CIRCASSIAN SLAVES.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">Although the slave trade has been nominally abolished -in Turkey, and the public mart formally closed to this traffic, yet the -practice of buying and selling has not been, nor will it ever be -altogether abandoned, because the slave constitutes an essential -element in the composition of their domestic institutions.</p> -<p>There are two kinds of servitude in every house; one, the ordinary -labor of domestic service; the other that of personal attendance; -neither of which the free Mussulman women are willing to perform, -because they will thereby be more or less brought in contact with men, -which is proscribed by the Koran. The slave service, therefore, becomes -necessarily indispensable with the Mussulmans, whose houses have -hitherto been supplied with Circassian and Nubian slaves, the former -being a species of ladies <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb275" href= -"#pb275" name="pb275">275</a>]</span>in waiting, and the latter -performing the menial services of the household.</p> -<p>The average price of the slaves is, according to the tariff of the -Custom-house, $500 for the white, and $100 for the black. They bring -these prices when they arrive fresh from their native lands. Those of -the Circassian, who are, however, brought into the country in -childhood, and carefully educated and trained in accomplishments, -attain so rare a style of beauty and delicacy of appearance that they -are frequently sold for $6,000 or $8,000.</p> -<p>Though the restrictions upon the trade have forced Turkish families -to employ Greek and Armenian women in their houses, yet there is always -a demand for slaves.</p> -<p>The Armenians having the same institution as the Mussulmans, viz., -the harem, their maidens are prevented from entering any family as -servants; it is only the old women, whose charms have all faded and -gone, who are willing to expose themselves in this way. The Greeks, -though not so scrupulous, are generally ignorant of the Turkish -language, and altogether uncongenial in their habits and ideas, so that -they are unpopular.</p> -<p>Slaves are still more indispensable in the palace, for the Mussulman -prejudice is opposed to the introduction of any of the subjects who -would thus come <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb276" href="#pb276" -name="pb276">276</a>]</span>in contact with royalty. Besides, is his -majesty to form an alliance with his subjects?</p> -<p>The Circassian parents so long accustomed to the benefits derived by -the advancement of their daughters to positions of comparative ease, -will always be ready and anxious to supply the metropolis; and the -traffic, notwithstanding the formal prohibition, is still continued at -private houses in Top-hané. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb277" -href="#pb277" name="pb277">277</a>]</span></p> -<p>Circassian slavery in Turkey, is not a condition of servitude. All -the children who are born from odaluks are free, and they also render -their mothers free; an odaluk may be sold alone, but never after she -has become a mother.</p> -<p>Besides the maids of honor or ladies in waiting, at the palace, are -often bestowed in marriage upon pashas and other dignitaries, who thus -consider themselves in some sense allied to royalty. One of their -number was a slave to Validé Sultan. She was married to Mehmed -Bey, the brother of the sultan’s brother-in-law, with the idea of -ameliorating her condition; but being very ill-treated by her husband, -she had a petition written and presented it to her royal patroness, -whereupon the validé summoned the husband, and reprimanded him -in such a manner that he became exasperated, and having intoxicated -himself with <i>racky</i>, or Turkish brandy, rushed into the harem, -and plunged his dagger into the breast of the unfortunate wife.</p> -<p>Sultan Mahmoud lost his favorite wife, and was so much grieved by -her death, that he ordered her apartments to be locked up, and that no -one should enter them; he only, spent some time there every day in -solitary meditation upon his lost favorite.</p> -<p>There was a slave girl fourteen or fifteen years old, whose duty was -to clean the bath belonging to these <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb278" href="#pb278" name="pb278">278</a>]</span>apartments. She was -so curious to know why these rooms were always locked up, that she one -day found herself on an exploring expedition by means of the private -staircase. Finding the door open, she ventured to enter the apartment, -when, lo! and behold! there was the awful Mahmoud himself.</p> -<p>He said, “how dare you venture here; do you not know my -express commands?”</p> -<p>The terrified girl fell at his majesty’s feet, and craved -pardon.</p> -<p>She was so bewitching in this posture, that the sultan not only -pardoned her, but invited her to meet him every day in the same place, -till at last, he ordered that the apartments should be appropriated to -her, and she became the Fifth Kadun, and the mother of the present -sultan!</p> -<p>It is the idea of aspiring to such honors and stations, near even -royalty itself, which induces the Circassian parents so readily to sell -their daughters to Mussulmans, when nothing could induce them to barter -their offspring to Christians.</p> -<p>No wonder that each simple peasant of the Caucasus fancies slavery -in the metropolis, to be a translation from poverty to an earthly -elysium, when tales, and true tales too, not the enchantments of -Aladdin’s wonderful lamp, are so common in Oriental life!</p> -<p>Therefore, even if the traffic is formally prohibited, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb279" href="#pb279" name="pb279">279</a>]</span>the -Circassian parents will force their offspring into the market, not only -to ameliorate their condition, but to secure favorable alliances for -themselves; so that if the legal sum be not hereafter realized as -purchase money, their children will still be apprenticed in some way or -other. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb280" href="#pb280" name= -"pb280">280</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch31" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e515">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXXI.</h2> -<h2 class="main">WATERING PLACES.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p>There is a prevalent impression that the Turkish ladies are always -imprisoned at home; but nothing <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb281" -href="#pb281" name="pb281">281</a>]</span>is more erroneous. For, since -the destruction of the janissaries, who molested every one in public, -they are to be seen everywhere, and on all occasions.</p> -<p>The only requisite for their appearance is to be veiled, and to wear -the Feradjé, or cloak.</p> -<p>Thus accoutred, they wander through the bazaars, frequent all rural -places of resort, visit the baths, and scarcely a day passes when they -stay at home. Nor <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb282" href="#pb282" -name="pb282">282</a>]</span>is it to be supposed that they are closely -muffled, as they were formerly. The ancient out-door costume was most -hideous; they were enveloped in an immense white sheet, a little piece -of horse-hair gauze being suspended over the eyes. But the -<i>yashmak</i> or veil, is, at the present day, composed of the -lightest India mull, and has little power of concealing their charms, -but on the contrary, serves to heighten their beauty by its gossamer -transparency.</p> -<p>The arched eyebrows, through this deceptive veil, seem more -delicately curved; the large and lustrous eyes shine more darkly from -its snowy folds; and the delicate and peach-like hue of the complexion -is rendered tenfold more lovely.</p> -<p>The texture of the yashmak is now so exquisitely fine, that the two -square yards of muslin which compose it do not weigh more than a single -drachm!</p> -<p>The feradjé or cloak is an ample outer garment, made of fine -colored bombazine or Thibet, lined with silk, and the edges are trimmed -with embroidery.</p> -<p>Their feet are clothed with yellow <i>chedik</i>, or morocco -buskins, over which <i>paboudj</i>, or slippers of the same color, are -worn in the street.</p> -<p>So great is the force of habit and education, that not even the -oldest woman ever appears in public unveiled, although the Koran -pronounces furrows <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb283" href="#pb283" -name="pb283">283</a>]</span>and wrinkles to be all-sufficient disguises -for faded charms; yet, in Turkey, as well as all over the world, the -maxim doubtless is popular, that beauty never dies.</p> -<p>Even the dames of ebony hue, dreading the display of darkness -visible, are most punctilious in covering their charms, thus affording -more distinguished specimens of the wonderful effects of light and -shade.</p> -<p>During visits of ceremony, when the feradjé and yashmak are -taken off, a long strip of white muslin is left hanging from the top of -the head down the back, for the purpose of covering the face in case of -sudden emergency. But such accidents seldom occur, as the gentlemen of -the family are informed, as soon as they enter the vestibule of the -harem, that there are strangers within.</p> -<p>Thus equipped, the Osmanli ladies are the most independent creatures -in the world.</p> -<p>As no one dares to look them in the face, from a sense of respect, -it has been customary for them slightly to encourage their timid -admirers by a few furtive glances, if not positive attacks; so that, on -all public occasions, an attentive observer may detect them in some of -the wiles of coquetry, or unmeaning flirtation.</p> -<p>Ladies of distinction are attended by black <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb284" href="#pb284" name= -"pb284">284</a>]</span>eunuchs, who protect them from the too familiar -approach of any witless knight, who may ignorantly trespass the limits -of Oriental decorum.</p> -<p>These ebony gentry, from the nature of their position, had become -insolent and overbearing, under the plea of protecting the ladies, and -a native always avoided a collision with them, since they were -sustained by public opinion. But their own extravagant conduct has put -an end to their pretensions and power.</p> -<p>Kizlar Aghassy, or the head black eunuch of the palace, was formerly -so influential a personage as to rank among the ministers of state; but -at the present time, the eunuchs have lost all their pristine -greatness, and are mere domestics of the household.</p> -<p>The carriage generally used by the ladies is called an <i>araba</i>, -which is often very richly ornamented and gilded, and well cushioned in -the inside. The top is covered with a crimson or green <i>ehram</i> or -shaggy cloth, manufactured in Albania, and fringed with gold. This -spacious conveyance, capable of accommodating six or eight persons, has -no springs, and is drawn by a couple of oxen, whose heads are gaily -tricked out, and furnished with a charm against the Evil-Eye. The ends -of the tails are tied to a cluster of red tassels, which are fastened -to a hoop set in the yoke, and gracefully arched over their backs. This -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb285" href="#pb285" name= -"pb285">285</a>]</span>arrangement is to prevent the animals from -spattering the mud with their tails.</p> -<p>The araba is entered by means of a small temporary ladder at the -back. There is a conductor, or arabagee, who leads the oxen by a chain -attached to their heads, and a yanashma, or boy, who walks by the side, -and goads them on.</p> -<p>But many of the families are now to be seen in public, in European -carriages, and they delight in excursions on the water in their -beautiful <i>cayiks</i>.</p> -<p>Nature has been so lavish in her gifts to the land of the Osmanlis, -that they have every temptation to linger for hours in some one of the -many lovely spots which are to be found all along the Bosphorus. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb286" href="#pb286" name= -"pb286">286</a>]</span></p> -<p><i lang="tr">Boghas-itchy</i> or the Bosphorus, is the most -magnificent stream in the world. Its winding way, its shores -besprinkled with palaces, mosques and minaré’s, in the -peculiar picturesque style of the East; the gradually sloping hills, -here and there studded with airy and pretty dwellings, and decked out -in green array—all combine to enchant the eye and delight the -mind.</p> -<p>There is nothing so exquisite as the <i>cayiks</i> of the Bosphorus. -Their forms are as slender as the canoe’s, and certainly more -graceful than the gondola’s, defying any other aquatic conveyance -rowed by men. They are always propelled by long <i>sculls</i> of one, -two, or three pair, fastened on the gunnels at about midships, to pins, -by leather bands.</p> -<p>The hold is allotted to the accommodation of passengers; there you -recline amid downy cushions, and noiselessly glide along, with the -measured oars of the boatmen, who look like very sea-nymphs, in their -snow-white robes.</p> -<p>By moonlight, the shores, with their latticed and <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb287" href="#pb287" name= -"pb287">287</a>]</span>irregular buildings, seem to be some fantastic -realms in the distance; and the blue waters reflecting back the silvery -stars, almost tempt one to plunge beneath their glassy surface. No -wonder, then, that the Osmanlis should spend most of their time, when -the summer sun cheers and invigorates, in loitering among such scenes -as these.</p> -<p>The sultan has numerous <i>kiosks</i> of his own; on the most lofty -summits of the hills, in the most sweetly embosomed valleys, by the -margin of the briny sea, where wave after wave has “noiselessly -rolled up the beach” ever since the waters which were above the -firmament were divided from those below—in the midst of plains, -by the roadside, and in the noisy populous streets of the metropolis, -are these tasteful pleasure bowers ever to be met with, but carefully -guarded from profane footsteps. Generally, however, in the spots thus -consecrated by royal pleasure, are to be found coffee shops, and mats -or low stools, for the accommodation of other classes of this -nature-loving multitude, where at all times the most lovely groups of -men, women, and children are collected.</p> -<p>There are some places of resort more frequented than others. The -Kehat-hané, or as it is commonly known to Europeans the -“Sweet-waters of Europe,” at the head of the Golden Horn, -Fener-Bahchessy, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb288" href="#pb288" -name="pb288">288</a>]</span>or, the garden of the Light House, and Moda -Bournou, or the Fashionable Point, on the Marmora, the Geök-Souyou -or the Heavenly Waters of Asia, on the Bosphorus, Hunkear-Iskellesy or -the Sultan’s Valley—and Kalender on the opposite shore.</p> -<p>To all of these places, the people flock in cayiks and carriages, -and spreading their carpets upon the green sward, recline with true -Oriental nonchalance and comfort. The chibouk adds its curling fumes to -the scene, the narghillé bubbles in unison, the favorite -kahvé is handed round in tiny cups, the wild notes of the -<i>Lahouta</i> and <i>Kementché</i> are re-echoed by the verdant -hills, while an entire lamb on a spit sheds <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb289" href="#pb289" name="pb289">289</a>]</span>its -fragrant odors, predicting a pic-nic <i lang="fr">champêtre</i>. -The itinerant seller of bon-bons plants his tray before you, and you -cannot refuse to partake of its luscious contents—wandering -gipsies present you wild flowers, and proffer their services in -unfolding the pages of destiny. Group after group glides along in the -fanciful costumes of Stamboul, and all are joyous and contented.</p> -<p>Thus the Osmanlis enjoy that sensation of delight, their -indescribable <i>Kief</i>, when for the moment all care and trouble are -forgotten, amid the scenes of beauty which nature so freely lavishes -upon all, rich and poor.</p> -<p>Especially on a Friday, or the Mohammedan Sunday, there are -congregated thousands of persons, people from every clime, and of every -rank—Persians in their peaked <i>papakhs</i>; Albanians with -their fustanels; Circassians in their woolly caps; Zeybeks, or Turkish -mountaineers, in gay costumes and lofty head-gear, and armed from head -to foot; strange men on horse-back, who seem to be made up of gold -embroidery and cashmere shawls; Turkish soldiers, and ebony negroes on -milk-white steeds; the representatives of the different western powers -in their elegant carriages, with their own ladies and families; -European travellers and book-making authors, mingle in the crowd. The -imported beauties of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb290" href="#pb290" -name="pb290">290</a>]</span>Circassia, sit on their embroidered -cushions, sable guards patroling around, while their lords and masters -keep at a respectful distance.</p> -<p>The Osmanli ladies seem all to be beautiful, especially in their -white and delicate veils, and costumes of such varied hues, with -brilliant diamonds glittering <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb291" -href="#pb291" name="pb291">291</a>]</span>upon their heads, necks, -arms, and fingers—in a word, a Turkish watering-place would -eclipse even Broadway itself in recherchées toilettes and -unparalleled beauty; while the charm of such an endless variety -furnishes a study for the artist, and leaves nothing to be desired to -complete a picture exquisitely perfect.</p> -<p>Amid such scenes as these, the blue heavens for a canopy, with -nature’s emerald carpeting, the tall and majestic trees bearing -the impress of unnumbered seasons, more beautiful in their leafy -verdure than the most exquisitely carved and marble columns of the -palaces of kings; while the tuneful songsters of the grove trill their -plaintive notes—are displayed the simple tastes and habits of -this people, so inaccessible when they are once within the precincts of -their own domiciles.</p> -<p>Here may the stranger, who for the first time treads the shores of -the Eastern world, perceive the real spirit of Oriental society and -manners, as exhibited in the exchange of mutual intercourse and the -etiquettes of life.</p> -<p>The group just before you may be the harem of an Armenian banker. -Though composed of many ladies, yet the Armenians being Christians, by -virtue of their religion, they are not allowed to number more than -<i>one</i> wife in their harems. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb292" -href="#pb292" name="pb292">292</a>]</span></p> -<p>Again, under the shadow of yonder tree, are two lovely Mussulman -girls, surrounded by a train of halayiks, or female slaves, and -attended by black eunuchs. Stay your footsteps, for it is the harem of -—— Efendy—a Redjal or grandee of the realm.</p> -<p>This distinguished man had the misfortune to lose his interesting -and beloved wife; and so strong was her memory upon his heart, that he -never sought to replace her loss; consoling himself with these two -beautiful pledges of her love, and lavishing upon them all his -affection and indulgence.</p> -<p>These young ladies alone now constitute <i>the harem</i> of a man -who has perfect freedom to number as many as <i>four</i> lawful -wives!</p> -<p>Thus it may be perceived, how far from being synonymous are the two -words Harem and Polygamy. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb293" href= -"#pb293" name="pb293">293</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch32" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e525">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXXII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE BAZAARS.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The bazaars of Constantinople are built of stone, and -lighted from the top. They seem like long streets covered with arched -roofs, each street being appropriated to some particular merchandise; -thus, there are the spice bazaar, where all kinds of condiments, drugs, -and dye stuffs are sold; the perfumery bazaar, containing the most -delicious perfumes of the East, the otto of roses, Tcherkess-souyou, -and many other essences, also the fragrant pastilles, which are placed -upon the pipe bowls, filling the atmosphere with their delicious scent, -and the singular rat’s tails which emit a perfume like musk, and -retain their odor for any length of time; the silk bazaar, the calico -bazaar, the shoe bazaar, depots of most varied and exquisite -embroideries; the jewelry bazaar, the pipe bazaar, where are displayed -the beautiful and costly mouthpieces studded with gems, the long and -graceful stems of jessamine, or cherry, <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb294" href="#pb294" name="pb294">294</a>]</span>and the gilded and -delicately modelled red clay bowls.</p> -<p>The space occupied by these bazaars is equal to the whole of the -sixth ward in the city of New York, and the internal arrangements are -entirely unlike the shops of this country. There are no front windows, -nor counters. The entire façade of the streets being shelved for -the display of wares and goods, presents a whole front with the -appearance of a vast library, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb295" -href="#pb295" name="pb295">295</a>]</span>not of books, but of -merchandise. A sort of elevated platform, about five or six feet wide, -and two feet from the ground, extends the whole side, on which both -merchants and customers sit, thus serving the double purpose of counter -and seats. The shops are divided by elbow boards, and a small room is -attached behind each for the storage of goods, etc.</p> -<p>The ends of the streets are furnished with immense gates, which are -closed every evening about an hour before sunset, and are opened again -in the morning about eight.</p> -<p>The whole effect is very interesting; the fanciful wares, the great -number and proximity of the stalls or shops, and the varied costumes of -the venders and purchasers, combine to create rare and beautiful groups -for the pencil of the artist. Carriages, horses, and foot-passengers, -are continually passing and re-passing in crowds.</p> -<p>Occasionally the owners of the shops are obliged to leave their -merchandise for a short time, and during their absence, a covering of -net-work suspended across the front of the stall, is sufficient to -indicate the absence of the proprietor, and also to protect the -property from all depredation.</p> -<p>These bazaars are the favorite resort of the Turkish ladies of all -ranks, and there is no little coquetry displayed by the fair -purchasers, when the unusually <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb296" -href="#pb296" name="pb296">296</a>]</span>handsome appearance of the -merchant tempts them literally to ransack his whole establishment for -the most trifling article. These occasions are also made available for -the purposes of flirtation, assignation, and all other romantic -amusements. It is amusing to observe the ladies as they fit themselves -with their peculiarly colored and shaped chaussure, for they make no -scruple of displaying their beautiful ankles, which are generally -divested of every semblance of hosiery.</p> -<p>The method of buying and selling is peculiar to the country, and -doubtless very entertaining to strangers. The system of Prix-Fix, is -unknown in Turkey, for, as they go on the principle “each one for -himself,” no one is content with any price except his own -valuation. Besides, the people are so conceited that any concession on -the part of the merchant is flattering to their vanity. He, therefore -enjoys the privilege of being beaten down, merely as complimentary to -his customers. So the merchant always demands an exorbitant price, -which he has no idea of receiving, in order to give his customer a fair -chance to gratify his vanity, and also to exercise his judgment.</p> -<p>As London has its “Whitechapel Road,” Paris its -“Temple,” and New York its “Chatham street,” so -Constantinople has its “Bit-Bazaar,” emphatically so -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb297" href="#pb297" name= -"pb297">297</a>]</span>denominated from the vermin which infest old -clothing.</p> -<p>Infinite diversity pervades the garments here displayed, and as -people’s clothes always look something like themselves, so the -empty garments seem to tell tales of their good or bad fortunes, -whether the former owners died of plague or small pox, were solitary -occupants of the robes, or shared them with other animalculæ.</p> -<p>At the auction, which occurs every day in these purlieus, poverty -may find a momentary relief by the disposal of its surplus wardrobe, or -may even don the cast off rags of some less fortunate victim of -misery.</p> -<p>There is a more respectable auction at the <i lang="tr">Bezesten</i> -every day except Friday, until noon, where jewelry, embroideries, -carpets, arms, and all sorts of superior second-hand garments are -disposed of. Here the humblest citizen may at least enjoy the semblance -of grandeur, as he invests himself in the same <i>setry</i> which the -Efendi discarded the day before; or an ambitious mother may procure the -same <i lang="fr">toilette de noces</i> as graced the form of a -beautiful Hanum.</p> -<p>The Bezesten is a large quadrangular stone building, surmounted by a -cupola, in the centre of the bazaars, and serves not only as a place of -public <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb298" href="#pb298" name= -"pb298">298</a>]</span>auction, but for the safe deposit of valuable -property, either money, shawls, or jewelry.</p> -<p>There are numerous <i>khans</i> in the city, which are constructed -in the form of a hollow square, and are two or three stories in height. -The various rooms are occupied as offices, by jobbers, wholesale -merchants, and bankers.</p> -<p>Goods are sold in wholesale, usually at two or three installments of -31 days each, which are seldom liquidated in less than 6 or 8 -months.</p> -<p>The trades are divided into different guilds, called <i lang= -"tr">esnafs</i>; each one governed by its own laws and officers. The -chiefs of these guilds are always Mussulmans, and appointed out of the -corps of superannuated palace attendants, such as boatmen, cooks, and -scullions, who are thus pensioned off. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb299" href="#pb299" name="pb299">299</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch33" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e536">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXXIII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">KAHVÉS.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">We have desires to which we are impelled by nature, -and their attainment is indispensable to the continuation of life; but -we have desires also which are the results of acquired tastes, and -which habit often makes as impulsive as our natural wants. Thus are -created the luxuries of life, and to increase the delight which we -derive from such sources of enjoyment, we endeavor to refine, to -etherealize their forms, and to divest them of all sensual and grosser -accompaniments.</p> -<p>Among such luxuries, coffee and tobacco are pre-eminent, which are -made even the basis of hospitality and the bond of social intercourse -by all the Osmanlis. Tobacco, when imbibed in its exquisite forms, is -the source of the most refined enjoyments, creating those reveries and -dreamy sensations which float for the moment about our listless senses, -beclouding with a silvery vapor some of life’s dull realities. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb300" href="#pb300" name= -"pb300">300</a>]</span></p> -<p>Tobacco, ever since its first introduction to the civilized world, -has become so indispensable an item of consumption that it has long -been ranked among the staple commodities of life, and seems to claim -the double title of a natural and artificial taste. Yet, no form of -pleasure and exhilaration has ever been the subject of so much study, -as the ways and means of enjoying this fragrant weed.</p> -<p>All the world are well aware of the different forms in which tobacco -is used, viz., inhaling in the form of smoke, titillating the nostrils -by its powder called snuff, or imbibing the juice into the system by -the process of mastication. The two latter forms of enjoying this -luxury, seem to admit of no refinement, as time has rolled on, and -snuffing and chewing yet remain in their pristine state of -simplicity.</p> -<p>On the contrary, no ingenuity has been spared to invent, improve or -remodel the various vehicles by which the more exquisite and graceful -practice of smoking may be enjoyed.</p> -<p>Although tobacco may have been indigenous to America, yet we have -the assertion of Professor Beckman to corroborate the fact, that this -plant was known to the Tartars long before the discovery of America. As -early as the year 1610 a native Turk was paraded through the streets of -Constantinople with a pipe transfixed through his nose, as the penalty -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb301" href="#pb301" name= -"pb301">301</a>]</span>of indulging in the pastime of smoking, which -was then in great disrepute.</p> -<p>Indeed, if we may credit tradition, Mohammed himself predicted -“that in times to come there should be men, bearing the name of -Mussulmans, but not really such, who should smoke a certain weed called -<i>Dükhan</i>, or Tobacco.<span class="corr" id="xd25e4928" title= -"Not in source">”</span></p> -<p>Tobacco was introduced into England soon after the discovery of -Columbus, by Sir Walter Raleigh, and thence found its way into Europe; -but not until fifteen years after do we hear of it among the Turks, -whence it seems that the Orientals must have acquired their knowledge -of this plant through some other channel, most probably from their -Tartar neighbors. But from whatever clime we first derived this -fragrant weed, there is no doubt that the earliest method of using it -was in a <i>pipe</i>, and not in the form of cigars, or by imbibing the -juice by chewing—which latter practice was unknown to the early -lovers of tobacco, and is unpractised by the Orientals even at this -day.</p> -<p>As the aromatic plant by degrees became essential to the happiness -of mankind, even including the fair sex, doubtless the inconvenience of -the pipe suggested the idea of a more portable form, whence the -invention of cigars.</p> -<p>In Holland, in 1570, they smoked out of conical <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb302" href="#pb302" name= -"pb302">302</a>]</span>tubes, made of palm-leaves plaited together; and -subsequently the leaf of the plant was rolled up, and the present form -of cigars adopted. The only recommendation to the form of cigars is -their convenience; but many amateurs pretend that they thus attain a -stronger relish of the tobacco than from pipes. The cigar is certainly -strong in its fumes, but whether the <i>relish</i> is greater is a -matter to be questioned, and in this form the injurious and even -poisonous properties of the plant are imparted to the system. Besides, -there is the close proximity of the fire to the mouth and teeth; -secondly, the condensation of the essential oil on the lips, leaving a -yellow tinge around the mouth; thirdly, the gradual dissolving of the -end of the cigar in the mouth, producing, by its nicotine property, -irritation of the gums and the salivary glands; fourthly, there is the -necessity of always holding the cigar, which in the course of time -imparts a dingy hue to the fingers; fifthly, the danger of injuring the -clothes and furniture by the constant falling of the ashes; sixthly, -the eyes suffer from their proximity to the heated fumes; and last, but -not least, there is the satisfaction of imbibing the nectar-juice of -some black mouth, for the black nymphs who are employed in this -manufacture, always salivate their handiwork, by way of giving it a -smooth and handsome finish. Surely, <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb303" href="#pb303" name="pb303">303</a>]</span>could our amateurs -but witness the manufacture of their favorite Havanas, they would -forever eschew that form of the aromatic weed.</p> -<p>But apart from all these considerations, the very <i>convenience</i> -of the cigar becomes an objection; for being always at hand, the too -frequent use of it has converted the pleasure into an evil—such a -constant craving being excited that even the health is injured. -Doubtless this perverted taste, in circumstances where smoking has not -been permitted, as on board ships, behind counters, in offices, etc., -has induced the pernicious practice of chewing.</p> -<p>Those nations who retain the original, natural, and simplest mode of -enjoying the weed, have never relinquished the pipe, but have varied -the form of this implement, and much beautified and improved it. The -people who have retained the use of the pipe, are the Dutch, Irish, -English, Scotch, Germans, Russians, Turks, Persians, and all Orientals. -In the perfection of the art of smoking the Persians may rank first, -then the Osmanlis, Russians, Hungarians, Dutch, English, and last of -all the Germans.</p> -<p>The Persians rank high in this respect, because they have studied -the philosophy of enjoying the fumes of tobacco in their greatest -purity. This they have attained by passing the smoke through water, and -thus purifying it from the essential oil of the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb304" href="#pb304" name= -"pb304">304</a>]</span>plant. The kaleon of the Persians, the hookah of -Hindostan, the shishé of the Arabs, or the narghillé of -the Turks, is an air-tight vessel partially filled with water, on the -top of which is a bowl to contain the ignited tobacco. From this bowl a -tube descends into the water, and the long and flexible pipe is -inserted into the vessel above the level of the water. When the smoker -begins to draw through the pipe, a partial vacuum is created in the -vessel, which occasions the pressure of the external air to force the -smoke of the tobacco downward through the small tube above mentioned -into the water beneath, where, after losing its solid particles, it -bubbles up into the vacant space above, and thence through the pipe to -the mouth of the smoker.</p> -<p>But ever since the peculiar and agreeable properties of this -fragrant plant have been known, the ingenuity of its votaries has been -excited to invent and improve the ways and means of obtaining the -greatest amount of satisfaction from its use.</p> -<p>In the earliest stages the pipe was made of one entire piece of -clay, but soon the fact was established that this substance became so -heated as to decompose the tobacco. Metallic and other pipes were -tried, but still the same evil existed; until wood became the most -popular material. But that being combustible, the flavor of the tobacco -was deteriorated; and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb305" href= -"#pb305" name="pb305">305</a>]</span>at last the arrangement was made -of a stem of wood with a bowl of clay attached to it, to contain the -ignited plant. The wood was a nonconductor of heat, capable of being -constructed of any length, and moreover, easily cleaned, so that this -was pronounced the great desideratum.</p> -<p>The Turks have displayed the greatest refinement and taste in the -manufacture of their long and beautiful chibouks or pipe-stems, to -which they attach the amber mouth-piece, so agreeable to the lips and -free from all impurities.</p> -<p>A peculiar species of clay was discovered in Turkey so remarkably -argillaceous as to supersede all other substances for the construction -of pipe-bowls; and these Oriental and philosophic smokers have -displayed their wisdom and science in the peculiar form into which they -have molded them. The form of a <i lang="tr">lüllé</i>, or -Turkish pipe-bowl, is that of an inverted cone, the base of which, when -filled with tobacco, forms the surface. The design of this form is to -present a greater surface of exposure to the atmosphere, and to bring a -smaller body of tobacco in contact with the bowl, which is made as thin -and delicate as the nature of the material will permit, so as to -possess the least quantity of body, and thus less power of retaining -heat. The pipe should be lighted in the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb306" href="#pb306" name="pb306">306</a>]</span>centre of the bowl, -not with a piece of <i>paper</i>, which would scorch the surface of the -tobacco, but with a small piece of spunk. At each inhalation the -ignited circle enlarges and extends toward the edge of the bowl, and as -the combustion takes place <span class="corr" id="xd25e4977" title= -"Source: proportionably">proportionally</span> downward, it is evident -that all the tobacco is consumed without the assistance of -<i>fingering</i> it, as the Germans are in the habit of doing.</p> -<p>The stem is always of wood, but great care is used in its selection. -Jasmine is cultivated expressly for pipe-stems, and carefully trained -so as to increase in length and uniform thickness. Cherry-stems are -much prized and more durable than the jasmine, and there is a species -of wild fruit tree called germeshek, peculiar to Turkey, remarkably -suited for the use of tobacco, and very generally used. These -pipe-stems are never less than four or five feet long, and perfectly -straight. The object gained by the length is that the smoke arrives at -the lips comparatively cool, having deposited its more solid particles -in the stem, which being perfectly straight is easily cleansed; for it -is an essential point that the pipe should, contrary to German -philosophy, be kept pure. Still another advantage gained by the length -is that the pipe may be easily disposed of for the moment, resting by -the side or against a table without deranging the tobacco <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb307" href="#pb307" name="pb307">307</a>]</span>in -the bowl, which should always have a small brass tray beneath it to -protect the floor from any accident.</p> -<p>Certainly, then, a Turkish chibouk is unequalled as an implement for -smoking. The pure amber mouthpiece often glittering with brilliants, -the long stem, one unbroken length of slender jasmine, and the delicate -and beautifully-gilded bowl, seem to constitute the very essence of -refinement in the luxury of smoking; and no wonder that the Osmanlis -recline for hours on their silken cushions, and puff and puff again -“ambrosial gales.”</p> -<p>One reason of the luxury displayed in the Turkish pipe is, that the -chibouk is an indispensable appendage of hospitality, always presented -to the guests, and constantly changed and replaced by another, each -successive pipe exceeding its predecessor in beauty and value, until -the visit is terminated.</p> -<p>The chibouks and narghillés are symbols of luxury and wealth -among the Osmanlis, as services of silver are appendages of elegant -life to the Europeans, and there is great ambition to excel each other -in the costliness of their appurtenances of smoking. Many of the pashas -and other men of wealth, possess chibouks to the value of $50,000, -ranging from $10 upwards.</p> -<p>Sultan Mahmoud was forced to issue an edict <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb308" href="#pb308" name= -"pb308">308</a>]</span>forbidding the hosts to present them to -visitors, and ordering that every one should provide his own chibouk. -Hence the appendage to all gentlemen of rank of a Chibouk-gy, who -always accompanies his master.</p> -<p>The narghillés or hookahs are also very popular, and often of -exquisite workmanship; but pipes being more portable and handy, are -generally preferred. The effort necessary to draw the smoke from the -narghillé is, by some, considered as objectionable, but a little -practice soon habituates to its use, and certainly with this instrument -we have the smoke in its greatest purity.</p> -<p>But it is not only the utility and beauty of the long chibouk which -constitute the Osmanlis the best and most philosophical smokers. There -is no tobacco in the world so delicious as the Turkish; so varied in -its degrees of narcotic strength, or so carefully prepared, and a taste -once being acquired for this species of the plant, all other varieties -become intolerable. A growing taste for this tobacco has of late been -acquired in America, and the increasing demand for this article has -induced speculators to flood the market with spurious imitations or -adulterations both imported and of home manufacture. Even in Turkey the -greatest connoisseurs can, with difficulty, procure the best species; -there are so many varieties <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb309" href= -"#pb309" name="pb309">309</a>]</span>offered for sale; the very worst -kind, of which so much is exported to America, being from Smyrna and -its immediate neighborhood. The tobacco most valued, and justly so, for -its pure and aromatic flavor, is only raised in a small district of -Thessaly, in European Turkey, and is called Yenijé tobacco, from -the name of the region where it is cultivated.</p> -<p>There has been concocted a peculiar kind or brand of the plant under -the title of <i>scafarlatti</i>, which seems to have gained great -celebrity in the United States as being the genuine Turkish article. -This appellation is as yet unknown in Turkey, and must have sprung from -the inventive brain of some one of the Barnum race, who would even -enlarge the Turkish vocabulary at the expense of the <i lang= -"la">lingua Italiana</i>.</p> -<p>Not to notice the Western nations, who, with their clay pipes, have -remained <i lang="la">in statu quo</i> in the art of smoking, the -Germans deserve some criticism: for they have made many attempts to -arrive at perfection.</p> -<p>The material of which the German pipe-bowls are made, poetically -called <i lang="de">meerschaum</i>, is ill adapted for the purpose, and -the forms of their stems and mouth-pieces imply entire ignorance of the -science of smoking.</p> -<p>The <span lang="de">meerschaum</span>, or froth of the sea, is a -native <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb310" href="#pb310" name= -"pb310">310</a>]</span>rock formation of Turkey, and is excavated about -two or three hundred miles from the sea of Marmora. Every particle is -exported to Vienna, and it is never used by the natives, because it is -a calcareous substance, and when in contact with fire undergoes a -process of combustion to a sufficient degree to decompose the tobacco. -This fact is well attested by the circumstance that a <span lang= -"de">meerschaum</span> pipe-bowl is greatly enhanced in value when by a -long and tedious process it has lost all its combustible properties, -and is thus rendered incapable of deteriorating the tobacco. But why -select a substance which requires so long an apprenticeship, when -nature furnishes one well suited for the purpose? and why esteem an -article for its power of absorption and then prize it the more for -having lost it by time and use? German philosophy only can explain!</p> -<p>Apart from the unfitness of <span lang="de">meerschaum</span> for -the bowl, the form in which it is modelled shows how little the nature -of tobacco is understood by those sturdy people; for the form of an -elongated cylinder only serves to surround the weed by a heavy body of -combustible material capable of containing an excessive degree of heat, -and thus decomposing the tobacco. But the main object of these amateurs -of the <i>mere-sham</i> seems to be to deteriorate the fume of the -narcotic plant as much as possible—for to cap <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb311" href="#pb311" name="pb311">311</a>]</span>the -climax of their absurdity, a metallic cover is nicely fitted to those -exquisite pipe-bowls, and thus the favorite <span lang= -"de">meerschaum</span> is converted into a perfect retort for the -manufacture of tobacco-gas!</p> -<p>Their stems are generally made of the most ordinary wood, short and -curving, and the mouth-piece of the minutest dimensions. The object in -having such small mouth-pieces is to imitate the process by which -infants are nourished, by introducing them into the mouth and regularly -sucking up the smoke instead of inhaling it, as the Osmanlis do, by -merely resting their lips upon the large and oval surface of the amber. -The introduction of the piece into the mouth immediately excites the -saliva, which in part passes into the pipe, and is otherwise discharged -by spitting—a most disgusting practice unknown among the -Orientals. Notwithstanding also the shortness of the pipe, owing to its -curved form and the diminutive mouthpiece, it is almost impossible to -keep it clean. But it seems to be a sort of German philosophy not only -to have their pipes in a most filthy state, but to delight in and value -them the more in proportion to their antiquity and impurity. Truly -there is no accounting for taste, nor is it any longer a matter of -wonder that pigs delight to wallow in the mire.</p> -<p>If, then, the nations of the East, the Persians and <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb312" href="#pb312" name= -"pb312">312</a>]</span>Osmanlis, are behind the age in other matters of -civilization, they have surely attained the acme of refinement in this -delight.</p> -<p>Nature, too, has favored them in the peculiar quality of their -tobacco, and the very indolence of their habits has led them to -meditate more diligently on their favorite luxury. Hence the palm in -this matter is to be given to their musical gurgling narghillé, -purifying and cooling the fragrant fumes, and to the long and graceful -chibouk, which a little care will keep always pure and ready for use. -These are well worth the adaptation of other nations. Some have, -however, objected to the chibouk as not being portable and convenient -during a promenade, as if there were a municipal law requiring all good -citizens to smoke in the streets. If the good taste of the community -should render the use of these chibouks and narghillés popular, -there is no doubt that all the places for public refreshment would be -provided with them, as they now are in Turkey and all over the -East.</p> -<p>The coffee plant is well known to be a native of Arabia; it was used -as a drink in that part of the world as early as the ninth century of -the Hegira, and was gradually introduced into the countries of the -Levant; it was many times declared unlawful by the followers of the -Koran, as being of the class of inebriating liquors so often condemned -by Mohammed; <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb313" href="#pb313" name= -"pb313">313</a>]</span>but the Eastern nations are so addicted to its -use, that they say, “A cup of coffee and a pipe of tobacco are a -complete entertainment!” It seems that this beverage was made -fashionable in Paris about the year 1668, by a Turkish ambassador. -“The elegance of the equipage recommended it to the eye, and -charmed the women; the brilliant porcelain cups in which it was poured, -the napkins fringed with gold, and the Turkish slaves on their knees, -presenting it to the ladies seated on the ground on cushions, turned -the heads of the Parisian dames. This elegant introduction made the -exotic beverage a subject of conversation; and in 1672, an Armenian at -Paris, at the fair time, opened a coffee house.” This -establishment was much frequented by the literati, until the proprietor -added the sale of wine and beer to its attractions.</p> -<p>A similar attempt was made in New York in 1855, but soon -relinquished; notwithstanding the proverbial fondness of the Americans -for good coffee and tobacco. The fact is, their temperament is too -nervous, and their habits are too restless to allow them quietly to sip -their coffee and smoke their pipes as the Orientals do.</p> -<p>Besides, the style of preparing the coffee in Turkey is decidedly -superior to any known in Europe or America, and has met with the -approbation of those <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb314" href="#pb314" -name="pb314">314</a>]</span>who have tasted it either in New York, or -in the sultan’s dominions.</p> -<p>“Coffee is found on chemical analysis to contain a highly -nutritious element, known as caffein. This component part of all good -coffee is found to contain a larger proportion of nitrogen than any -other vegetable principle, and in this respect equals some of the most -highly animalized products, rendering it nutritious as a -drink.”</p> -<p>The essential oil of the berry is so volatile, that the greatest -care and skill are requisite in its roasting and pulverization; for if -too much burnt, the aroma is destroyed, if underdone, the water fails -to absorb or extract the nutritious material, and if not properly -pulverized, a perfect chemical combination of the particles in solution -is not effected.</p> -<p>There is no doubt a desire among the Americans, to obtain this -beverage in its purity and excellence, as evince the many machines and -contrivances they use; yet they seldom if ever succeed in their -attempts.</p> -<p>The mixture from the grocers, and the ingredients they mingle at -home, such as eggs, isinglass, etc., render it impossible to secure a -pure, unadulterated, fragrant solution of this berry.</p> -<p>The commercial competition is so great that in order to be able to -undersell each other, all sorts of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb315" -href="#pb315" name="pb315">315</a>]</span>cheaper substitutes are mixed -with the coffee, such as chicory, beans, peas, etc.; thus annihilating -the really nutritive properties of the genuine plant.</p> -<p>In a word, those who have never tasted a cup of good Turkish coffee, -are yet in unhappy ignorance of the peculiar aroma and deliciousness of -coffee as a beverage.</p> -<p>Coffee being the universal and favorite beverage in Turkey, the -first ideas of an Osmanli, upon opening his eyes in the morning, are -associated with his <i>kahvé</i> and <i>chibouk</i>, or coffee -and pipe, which in reality constitute his only breakfast, and are not -only used upon rising, but at all hours during the day, and at the very -moment of his retiring.</p> -<p>These luxuries are invariably offered to visitors, and their -omission is regarded as a breach of hospitality.</p> -<p>Their universal use has given rise to the establishment of numerous -kahvés, which are the resort of persons of all ranks and -condition. They are to be met with in all parts and quarters of the -city, each having its own set of customers, and constituting, in -reality, the only casinos or club houses, where politics are discussed, -business transacted, and the news of the day freely circulated; in fact -the only Bourse or Exchange in Constantinople, was a coffee house at -Pershembé-Pazar, in Galata: and it is only of late years that a -regular Exchange has been erected. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb316" -href="#pb316" name="pb316">316</a>]</span></p> -<p>Many of these kahvés are very beautifully constructed, and -adorned with pillars and fountains, with gardens attached to them, -where visitors are entertained with sweet strains of music; and crowds -assemble to listen to the extravagant fictions of the <i>Meddahs</i>, -or professed story-tellers, or otherwise to wile away the time; -smoking, sipping the fragrant <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb317" -href="#pb317" name="pb317">317</a>]</span>berry, and playing -backgammon, <i>dama</i>, or <i>mangala</i>.</p> -<p>All games of chance are played by the Osmanlis, only for amusement, -and gambling is not generally practised by them.</p> -<p>The moral effect of these establishments upon the community is very -evident; for though wine is forbidden by the Koran, there are many -<i>mey-hanés</i>, or grog-shops, to be found in Turkey, which -are not generally frequented by people of any pretensions to -respectability; indeed drunkenness is a very uncommon vice, doubtless -owing to the numerous kahvés, which afford the habitual -refreshments of pipes and coffee to the people, with every facility for -social intercourse.</p> -<p>On entering the coffee shop, there is an elevated platform on the -three sides, which is furnished with cushions or mats for the -accommodation of visitors. On the sides of the wall are various -grotesque pictures, and also shelves, where the implements of shaving -and toilette are so fantastically displayed as to create a somewhat -comic appearance, and one altogether peculiar to Turkey. At one of the -remotest corners is an elevated fire-place for the preparation of -coffee, which is served in very small cups. The diminutive quantity of -this beverage was so unsatisfactory to one of the sailors of the -English <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb318" href="#pb318" name= -"pb318">318</a>]</span>fleet at Constantinople, that upon tasting it he -observed, “This is excellent; just bring me a dozen.”</p> -<p>Surrounding the fire-place are shelves, upon which stand the -graceful narghillés, with their brazen and polished mountings, -attractive and pleasing to the eye. But the most active and busy -personage in this <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb319" href="#pb319" -name="pb319">319</a>]</span>establishment is the <i>Berber</i>, or -barber, who is not only the shaver, hair-dresser, and trimmer in -general, but extends the province of his sharp profession to bleeding, -cupping, leeching, and tooth-drawing; the results of which avocations -are displayed at the door, fantastically strung and diversified with -colored beads.</p> -<p>Barbers always follow in the train of doctors, and even precede -them, for bleeding is a universal remedy in Turkey, whether the patient -is sick of fever or fright. Indeed, it is the custom for every body to -be bled once a year, generally in the spring, in order to purify the -system. Add to this the frequent application of leeches, -scarifications, and cupping, and it may be easily conceived that this -branch of industry is very profitable; still more so when it was the -custom to shave the whole head, for the convenience of frequent -ablutions. Many, in conformity with European civilization, now allow -the hair to grow, but those who oppose other reforms are equally -unyielding in this respect, and “calculating even to a -hair.” <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb320" href="#pb320" name= -"pb320">320</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch34" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e546">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXXIV.</h2> -<h2 class="main">HAMAM, OR BATH.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">In the East there is one source of comfort and -enjoyment which is more essential than all else, and that is the use of -the <i>bath</i>, which follows all other pleasures, when excess has -wearied the system, and precedes and prepares for anticipated luxuries -physical or mental. This process of purifying and refreshing the body, -is eagerly sought for as soon as the traveller arrives at -Constantinople; indeed seems to be second only in his mind to the -impressions of an entrance to the magnificent harbor.</p> -<p>The baths of classic memory, where the heroes of ancient Rome were -wont to prepare their sinews for the athletic games, and where the -patrician dames of Pompeii resorted, to add fresher and more glowing -tints to their fair charms, were all conducted on the same principle as -those of Stamboul at the present day.</p> -<p>It is wonderful that modern civilization should not <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb321" href="#pb321" name="pb321">321</a>]</span>yet -have adopted the refinements of olden times, when they are so essential -to real health and comfort.</p> -<p>As by some mishap this desideratum exists, it would not be -mal-a-propos to describe the real charm and merit of these -institutions. The object of all bathing is to free the skin from the -deposits of insensible perspiration. This idea has been much in vogue -of late, as testify the water-cures, vapor-baths, medicated, -sulphurated, etc., being in reality rather vehicles for disease than -remedies. But the peculiar substance which closes up the pores of the -skin, cannot be removed by simple immersion in soap and water, for, -like all other greasy substances, it is composed of solid and liquid, -or stearine and olein, the liquid part of which may, in a chemical -combination, be absorbed by the water, but the skin will still remain -clogged up. Seeing the futility of the process of immersion, many have -supposed that a profuse perspiration excited by fumigation, -vaporization, etc., would carry off these deposits, by which processes, -however, the liquid portion only would be removed, and the system -reduced to a state of perfect exhaustion. The Turkish baths are neither -immersion nor vapor baths; but the atmosphere is heated by means of -flues through the walls, to a temperature suited to induce a free -perspiration, without causing over-exhaustion; for the interior is so -arranged that <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb322" href="#pb322" name= -"pb322">322</a>]</span>the bather, in passing from one apartment to -another, gradually becomes acclimated to the heat.</p> -<p>These baths, unlike many other institutions in the East, are -perfectly accessible to all, both natives and foreigners, and are the -more attractive on account of their entire dissimilarity from all -establishments for the same purpose in Europe or America.</p> -<p>Frequent ablutions, and the greatest personal cleanliness being -strictly enjoined upon all true believers, by the precepts of the -Koran, it is considered an act of piety to erect edifices and public -fountains for those purposes, either during life-time, or by personal -bequest; consequently, such instances of benevolence are by no means -rare, nor are the structures deficient in architectural beauty. They -are built of stone, and adorned with cupolas, besprinkled with globular -glasses, which transmit a softened light to the interior.</p> -<p>The interior is divided into three compartments; the saloon, the -tepidarium, and the bath itself.</p> -<p>The saloon, where the visitors dress and undress, is a large -apartment surrounded on three sides by elevated platforms, on which are -placed mattresses and cushions for the comfort and accommodation of -those who frequent the bath. In the centre of this room there is -usually a marble fountain, whose trickling waters soothe the ear, and -add beauty to the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb323" href="#pb323" -name="pb323">323</a>]</span>scene, dispensing a delicious coolness to -the atmosphere. On his entrance to this saloon, the visitor is -immediately greeted with <i>Bouyourun</i>, (you are welcome), from the -attendants, who conduct him to one of the mattresses on the platform, -where he is undressed, within a temporary screen, made by holding up a -towel to prevent exposure of the person; for the Osmanlis are -sensitively modest, and feel a feminine delicacy in this respect, so -that none ever bathe in public without being suitably invested.</p> -<p>His watch, ring, and purse, are handed over to the Hamamgy for safe -keeping, and his apparel being carefully folded in a shawl, and -designated by his own head-gear, which is placed upon it, is deposited -by the side of the mattress, now appropriated to his exclusive use.</p> -<p>Notwithstanding all these precautions, very ludicrous mistakes -sometimes occur, as happened recently to a certain soldier, who was -anxious to abandon the ranks, and possessing no other means of changing -his uniform for a citizen’s dress, entered the bath <i lang= -"fr">en militaire</i>; where, after having performed his ablutions, he -committed the very slight error of appropriating to himself a -neighbor’s mattress, with its accompanying wardrobe, and thus was -enabled to make an honorable retreat <i lang="fr">en bourgeois</i>.</p> -<p>Being now undressed, enveloped in large towels, and mounted on -<i>nalluns</i>, or wooden pattens, to protect his feet from the hot -marble and the water, the bather is conducted into the <i>Halvet</i>, -or tepidarium, which is heated to a degree a little above temperate, -where he reposes on cushions until he is gradually acclimated to the -atmosphere.</p> -<p>When the pores of the skin are opened, and perspiration excited, the -visitor proceeds to the inner room to go through the process of -bathing.</p> -<p>The <i>Hamam</i>, or bath itself, whose temperature is <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb325" href="#pb325" name= -"pb325">325</a>]</span>raised to any requisite degree by means of flues -constructed within, and all along the walls, so as to allow the flames -to circulate freely in every direction, is in many of these -establishments, exceedingly beautiful; the dome being supported on -magnificent columns, and the walls and doors inlaid with large slabs of -marble, and adorned with finely chiselled fonts on all sides, which are -furnished with double ornamented brass cocks, for the supply of warm -and cold water.</p> -<p>There is an elevated marble platform in the middle, where the -bathers lie at full length, for the purpose of having their sinews -relaxed, and joints examined. Both the apartment, and this process in -particular, have been most ridiculously described, and, either through -malice or ignorance, most egregiously exaggerated by travellers; for -example, the public are informed that, “A dense vapor sometimes -so fills the saloon, that he (the bather), sees nothing distinctly, but -figures flit before him like visions in a mist. Having walked, or sat -in this heated mist, till a profuse perspiration bursts out, the -<i>tellak</i> again approaches, and commences his operations. He lays -the bather on his back or face, and pins him to the ground by kneeling -heavily on him, and having thus secured him, he handles him in the -rudest and most painful manner. He twists and turns the limbs, so as to -seem to dislocate every joint. The sufferer feels as if the very spine -was separated, and the vertebræ of the back torn asunder. It is -in vain he complains of this treatment, screams out in anguish and -apprehension, and struggles to extricate himself. The incubus sits -grinning upon him, and torturing him, till he becomes passive from very -exhaustion.”</p> -<p>In the first place, there is no dense vapor in a Turkish bath, but -the heat is produced by the flues in the walls; true, there is -sometimes the appearance <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb327" href= -"#pb327" name="pb327">327</a>]</span>of mist, which is only created -momentarily by the quantity of hot water poured over the bathers, and -is soon dispersed by ventilation, for such an atmosphere is never -tolerated by the natives.</p> -<p>Now, as to the bather <i>being pinned to the ground in the rudest -and most painful manner</i>, <i>etc.</i>, there is more of a spirit of -ridicule than simple truth in this description; it being only resorted -to in cases of rheumatism, and the like maladies, when the patient is -extended on the marble platform, and all his joints examined and rubbed -by the <i>tellak</i>, or assistant, who, owing to the relaxed condition -of the nervous system, easily discovers the seat of any local pain, and -proceeds to dispel it by friction.</p> -<p>Many having experienced decided relief from this mode of treatment, -it is very frequently resorted to in Turkey. No such treatment, -therefore, ever occurs on ordinary occasions, unless the farce is got -up by special request, and for the benefit of strangers or travellers, -who, not content with the usual <i>modus operandi</i>, insist upon the -realization of their own extravagant ideas.</p> -<p>A native of Constantinople had to stop at Smyrna on his way to -America. Being anxious to enjoy the luxury of a bath once more, he -repaired to one of the establishments. As he wore a hat, the attendants -mistook him for a regular Frank or European, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb328" href="#pb328" name="pb328">328</a>]</span>and -he resolved to maintain the joke by pretending utter ignorance of all -the languages of the country. After having experienced many -absurdities, all novel to a native, he was at last stretched full -length upon his stomach on the marble platform of the bath. The -<i>tellak</i> kneeling by his side commenced a regular process of -pommelling him, and, at the same time, of cracking his joints. The -<i>incubus</i>, as though not satisfied with his own exertions, now -called for assistance from another tellak, who came and placed himself -on the opposite side, when both commenced in the rudest manner to push -their victim from one to the other. The sufferer, astonished at this -extraordinary treatment, was ready to split his sides with laughter, -which one of the tellaks taking as an indication of uneasiness, -observed to the other not to be so rude in his manipulations. He was, -in return, assured “this is the way the Franks like, the harder -the better; also, they must not be allowed to think they haven’t -had their money’s worth!”</p> -<p>Doubtless an Osmanli would not only be much amused, but astonished, -could he behold the victim of a European vapor bath, as he sits boxed -up, and enveloped in blankets to his throat, parboiled with steam, and -suffocated by the fumes of brimstone; surely he would believe he had by -mistake got into the regions of Eblis. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb329" href="#pb329" name="pb329">329</a>]</span></p> -<p>When the person is in a state of free perspiration, he is seated by -the side of one of the fountains, beneath which are marble basins to -receive the water, both hot and cold, as it flows from the ornamented -cocks, for no Osmanli ever uses the tub, water which has once been in -contact with the body, having imbibed its impurities, is deemed unfit -for further use; therefore, on all occasions, their ablutions are -performed with flowing water, for they do not delight to wallow and -splash in a solution of their own dirt.</p> -<p>The tellak having upon his right hand a <i>kesse</i>, or bag made of -raw silk, commences a <i>gentle rubbing</i> (for they cannot bear any -rude or rough treatment, for which reason the delicate hands of boys -are employed), over the surface of the body, by which the deposits of -insensible perspiration are disengaged from the pores of the skin, and -combining together fall from the person like fibres of paste, which, to -the uninitiated, might seem like the peeling off of the outer pellicle -itself.</p> -<p>In this process consists the real virtue of a Hamam, and to it alone -is to be attributed the peculiar velvet-like softness of the skin of an -Oriental, which even gives them an air of effeminacy.</p> -<p>Immediately after the process of shampooing or rubbing, the marble -font having been filled with <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb330" href= -"#pb330" name="pb330">330</a>]</span>water of the desired temperature, -it is poured over the person of the bather from the brass <i>tass</i>, -or bowl, used for the purpose by the attendant. The person is now -thoroughly washed with perfumed soap, again water is poured over him in -abundance, and he is finally enveloped in the <i>havlous</i>, or large -napped towels, manufactured in the country expressly for the purpose, -and admirably adapted to absorb moisture.</p> -<p>Now perfectly purified, with a sensation of languor, the bather -proceeds to the dressing saloon, where, as he reclines upon luxurious -cushions, his whole being seems momentarily lost in that dreamy repose -of half-conscious existence, which is the true <i>kief</i> of an -Oriental.</p> -<p>He is only awakened to real life by the assiduities of his -attendants, some gently fanning him, and others presenting sherbet, -coffee, pipes, etc.</p> -<p>The fatigue and languor gradually pass away, as, with a sensation of -renovated existence, he reposes until the heat of his body is reduced -to its natural temperature. His toilette being completed, he surveys -himself in a small enamelled mirror which is offered to him, and after -depositing upon it the amount of money compatible with his own station -in life, he quits the precincts of this luxurious establishment, light, -joyful, and contented. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb331" href= -"#pb331" name="pb331">331</a>]</span></p> -<p>The Hamams being altogether charitable institutions, there is no -fixed price demanded from visitors, for the use of the bath -itself—it being entirely left to their own option. But the -personal services of the attendants, and the wear and tear of the -splendid bathing paraphernalia not being included in the same category, -an adequate remuneration is of course expected. This also is left to -individual generosity; in ordinary cases, from half to three quarters -of a dollar is sufficient, but there may be no limit to a -person’s munificence, nor to the attentions bestowed upon -him.</p> -<p>A gentleman of rank once visited a bath where he was an entire -stranger, and although he was not treated with even ordinary -politeness, he left on his departure a sum of money far beyond the -expectations of the attendants, which, opening their eyes, forced them -to make a thousand apologies for their remissness, and protestations -for the future. The gentleman soon after gave them an opportunity to -retrieve their former errors, and contrary to their excited hopes -rewarded them with a couple of piasters (about 8 cents) observing, -“This is what you merited on my first visit, and what you then -received is the equivalent for your present services.”</p> -<p>The money collected at the bath is divided into two portions; one of -which is for the Hamamgy, or <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb332" href= -"#pb332" name="pb332">332</a>]</span>proprietor, and the other is -shared among the attendants.</p> -<p>Many of the public bathing houses are divided into two parts, one -for men, and the other for women, and when the establishment is not a -double one, Fridays and Sundays only are reserved for men, and the rest -of the week allotted to the ladies.</p> -<p>There are always exquisite specimens of these Hamams attached to the -houses of the wealthy; and their friends and neighbors are often -invited to partake with them of this amusement.</p> -<p>As the Osmanli ladies very seldom enjoy the excitement and bustle of -a crowd, they consider the occasion of <i>going to bathe</i> as one of -the greatest festivity; and they always carry with them every article -necessary for comfort or luxury, the Hamamgy not furnishing mattresses, -towels, etc., as in the case of the gentlemen.</p> -<p>Besides the opportunity of displaying embroidered cushions, napkins, -etc., they find rare and ample amusement in the discussion of scandal, -moral and political, as well as general domestic gossip.</p> -<p>The <i lang="fr">tout ensemble</i> of a lady’s bath is one -altogether peculiar, and of course more enchanting to the eye than the -ablutions of their lords and masters.</p> -<p>The following description of a visit to a bath by a lady long a -resident in Constantinople, may be <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb333" -href="#pb333" name="pb333">333</a>]</span>interesting as the result of -personal observation and experience.</p> -<p>“My first Turkish bath—shall I describe it, -dear?—We were a large party. The mother, her three daughters, -three maids, and my humble self. You would have supposed we were -arranging our wardrobes for a long season of travel—except that -the garments would be rather unpresentable on ordinary occasions. Very -peculiar nappy towels, large as sheets, issued forth from their repose -in the vast closets, white and colored, embroidered and fringed; -head-gear of the same style; curious-looking yellow woollen mittens, to -rub with, they told me; innumerable shining bowls; tremendous -stilt-like clogs for the feet, great bars of soap, precious packages of -dyes, paints, capillary antidotes, perfumes, essences, mirrors in -embroidered frames, and a thousand other etceteras of Oriental -toilette, in due order entered the vast bundles which were in -preparation. Next appeared a beautiful rug or carpet, a rich silken -mattress and cushions, and a large piece of crimson woollen, shaggy -material, to envelope the cushions, such as I have frequently seen -spread in the beautiful cayiks. Really one would have supposed we were -to be deposited in some unfurnished dwelling with all this -paraphernalia.</p> -<p>“Then came the private wardrobe of each individual -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb334" href="#pb334" name= -"pb334">334</a>]</span>neatly folded in a separate envelope—and -last but not least; the most refreshing array of fruit, sherbets, and a -curious machine, some five stories high, in whose different -compartments were packed various specimens of Turkish cookery. I began -to wonder if we were ever to return from this bathing pic-nic, so vast -were the preparations; but every one was gay, and nothing was tiresome. -Besides we always go to bathe in this style, at least once a month.</p> -<p>“Our carriage waited at the door, a grand spacious one, -covered with crimson shag, the ends trimmed with deep fringes of -gold—no seats, but plenty of cushions, and two milk-white oxen -were our steeds.</p> -<p>“Having duly veiled ourselves, that our -‘ornaments’ or charms might not be displayed to the eyes of -the unprivileged, we ascended the steps at the end of our araba, and -were seated according to our respective ranks. The old lady and myself -occupying the honorable places in the front, just behind the tails of -the oxen, which were fortunately looped up, so that they could neither -switch us, nor themselves. There is a decided advantage in this seat, -the view being unobstructed by any coachman, as that dignitary always -walks before the head of the animals. Next to us were the three Hanums, -behind whom were the maids and bundles, and the large pannier was slung -underneath full of its creature comforts. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb335" href="#pb335" name="pb335">335</a>]</span></p> -<p>“I felt as if I had suddenly been transformed into a houri, as -they all declared that the <i>Yashmak</i> converted me into a real -Circassian beauty. In due time we arrived, and descended from our airy -vehicle. As we entered the outer hall of the bath, each one made a -polite <i>temennah</i> to the <i>Hamamgy-Kadun</i>, or the lady -proprietress, who was squatting on her cushions in a corner. This -salutation she returned, to all genuine Turkish ladies (myself -included) with the same polite gesture—but the unfortunate -giavours only received a slight nod, no matter how profound their -selams. It is well to be queen somewhere, even of a bathing -establishment.</p> -<p>“The maids, Eleny, Maria, and Sophy, spread out our cushions -in one of the niches upon the elevated platform, and as they modestly -held up a towel as a screen, we proceeded to reduce ourselves to a -state of nature. Enveloped from head to feet in our bathing -habiliments, which hung about us in just such folds as they drape the -statues—we willingly thrust our pedestrial extremities into the -great clogs, inlaid with mother of pearl, entered the antechamber of -the bath, and sat down on the marble platform to acclimate ourselves. -Here we take a <i lang="fr">coup d’œil</i> of the strange -scene.</p> -<p>“Old women without any charms to conceal, spare themselves the -effort, and multitudes of naked cherubs <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb336" href="#pb336" name="pb336">336</a>]</span>patter about. Yonder -sits a victim to paints and dyes—her hair now white, suddenly -becomes beautifully black, and the colour streaming over her body -bedecks her for the moment <i lang="fr">à l’Indienne</i>. -But that was all washed off, and they proceeded to rub a sort of mud -all over her body, to take out the pains. Then she underwent a process -of pommelling, as she was stretched out on the marble floor—poor -thing, she had both rheumatism and grey hairs, and was a fit subject -for the most special and extra efforts of the attendants of the bath. -But the children! such victims, of all ages, from one month upwards, -were screaming to the highest pitch of their little voices, as they -were unmercifully rubbed and lathered from the crown of their heads to -the soles of their feet. ‘Rough up and smooth down,<span class= -"corr" id="xd25e5346" title="Source: ”">’</span> seemed to -be no part of the nursery creed of their unmerciful mothers, but rough -all ways. Amid these infantile yells and agonies, the girls, young and -pretty, walked up and down, pattering with their clogs, and chanting -their wild native melodies, as if to put out all other noises, and the -great marble halls did their best to re-echo all these floating -sounds.</p> -<p>“Was I in Paradise or Pandemonium; were these peris or demons, -I could not tell; everything was so bewildering. I was duly rubbed, and -washed like the rest—then it was proposed to take lunch. Our -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb337" href="#pb337" name= -"pb337">337</a>]</span>party <i lang="fr">en déshabillé -de-pechetemal</i>, which means, crimson faces and napkin drapery, with -long and dripping hair, sea nymphs—maids of the mist—seated -themselves on the marble platform in the cooler room, and the large -round tray made its appearance.</p> -<p>“How delicious the iced sherbet, the little balls of rice -covered with delicate vine leaves—the artichokes <i lang= -"fr">à l’huile d’olive</i>, the kebab, the -helva—in a word, spite of the strange table, strange costume, and -general humidity, we all had tremendous appetites.</p> -<p>“Then, came a chibouk to the old lady, little cigarettes to -the young maidens—a delicious cup of coffee, and we all raised -our voices in a sweet Turkish song, about loves, jessamines, güle -and bülbüls.</p> -<p>“Being thus recruited, we were able to undergo the last -ablutions, and with a complete investment of pure white and delicately -perfumed towels, we proceeded to our first niche in the great -dressing-room, and laid us down to dream, or listlessly to watch the -innumerable toilettes of the devotees to <i>Venus</i> and Love.</p> -<p>“Some, all fair and rosy, were reclining luxuriously like -ourselves, enveloped in fine white drapery, richly embroidered and -fringed with gold, while their beautiful slaves, whose charming figures -were not so carefully concealed, were combing, braiding, and perfuming -the long silken tresses of the fair hanums. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb338" href="#pb338" name="pb338">338</a>]</span></p> -<p>“After we had amused ourselves at the indifference of the -really beautiful, and the minute and strenuous efforts of others to -appear so, we again sipped our coffee and completed our toilette, ready -at any time, to spend another day in such delightful aquatic luxuries. -I could not help contrasting my sensations with those I had often felt -on leaving one of the bathing establishments in my own country. -<i>There</i>, a solitary closet, a tub, from which perhaps some dirty -wench had just emerged, a hook or two, a dirty flesh brush for general -service, etc. True, the warm water was agreeable, and for the moment -caused an oblivion of all antecedents, the hook convenient, and the -brush need not be used. After an immersion of perhaps half an hour, you -hurry on your apparel, and hurry home, all <i lang="fr">à -l’Américaine</i>. But here, in this Turkish bath, how -imperceptibly a whole day had passed away, how entertaining the scene, -how beautiful the fair handmaidens of Nature, so soft and pure, after -their watery festivities. Their skin so white, their lips so red, the -delicate rosy tinge of their cheeks so tempting; even old age seemed to -bloom again, while a universal exhilaration took possession of us all. -A delicate tissue of softness seemed to envelop my body, and a -wonderful feeling of amiability and love for all the race of human kind -glowed within my breast. Every motion gave <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb339" href="#pb339" name="pb339">339</a>]</span>me -pleasure, and I could scarce recognize myself. Alas! for American -ladies, they can never feel the true <span class="corr" id="xd25e5381" -title="Source: oriential">oriental</span> <i>Kief</i> in bathing; for -they have no cushions to repose upon, no softly murmuring fountains to -lull their senses, nor any such relaxation from all external and -internal woes, as follows a Turkish bath. In vain they tinge their -complexions, powder, and wash, they cannot attain this <span class= -"trans" title="to kalon"><span class="Greek" lang="grc">τό -καλον</span></span> of beauty, nor be -electrified by this wand of enchantment, which renders the humblest -Cinderella of the Orient lovely as a princess, and says avaunt to all -the modern mysteries of the toilette.<span class="corr" id="xd25e5396" -title="Not in source">”</span> <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb340" href="#pb340" name="pb340">340</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch35" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e556">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXXV.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE RAYAS OR NON-MUSSULMAN SUBJECTS.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE ARMENIANS.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The whole population of Turkey may be estimated at -over 35,000,000 of souls, including the principalities and other -tributary states, which, if deducted, leaves 27,000,000 in Turkey -proper, half of whom are Mohammedans, and the rest Christians and -Jews.</p> -<p>The Christians are of various denominations, each denomination -constituting a separate community, governed by their own municipal -regulations, and guided by their respective spiritual heads.</p> -<p>Hitherto the Europeans have regarded the Greeks as the predominating -Christian population of the East; the truth is, among the different -communities the Armenians stand most prominent, because not only next -to the Bulgarians they rank high in numbers, but in reality supersede -all others, politically and morally, in their relations with -Turkey.</p> -<p>Although the Bosnians, Bulgarians, and the Greeks profess the same -religion, they do not surrender their <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb341" href="#pb341" name="pb341">341</a>]</span>respective -nationalities. The Greeks themselves are not, therefore, so numerous as -is generally supposed, but have erroneously been confounded with the -others.</p> -<p>The Armenians, of whom there are 3,500,000 in Turkey, like other -nations, have evinced their pride in national pedigree, by tracing -their origin to Haig, the grandson of Noah, and they call themselves -Haiks even at the present day.</p> -<p>In the year of the creation of the world, 1757, Jewish chronology, -soon after the flood, and even during the lifetime of Noah, Haig, or -Haicus, with his sons and daughters, resided in the country of Senaar, -in Mesapotamia.</p> -<p>While they lived in those regions, the famous Tower of Babel was -erected, and the Babylonian Empire was founded by Belus.</p> -<p>Haig, unwilling to submit to the authority of Belus, returned with -his family, of about 300 persons, to the country of Ararat, where he -incorporated himself with the earliest settlers in those regions, who -had never wandered thence, and retained all the undisciplined habits -and freedom of their utter seclusion from the progress of -civilization.</p> -<p>It is more than probable that he and his descendants continued to -speak the language of their father Noah, and in that case there is no -more ancient tongue than the Armenian. Besides, while the descendants -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb342" href="#pb342" name= -"pb342">342</a>]</span>of Shem and Ham emigrated to other lands, those -of Japhet who begat Gomer who begat Togarmah, the father of Haig -remained in the vicinity of Ararat, and there is no reason to suppose -ever changed their language. The Biblical history records the confusion -of languages of those who were in the land of Shinar.</p> -<p>The Armenians are as ancient as the Jews, and have ever remained as -separate a people; and even amid all their vicissitudes have preserved -their nationality with equal tenacity.</p> -<p>But Haig was not left long in quiet, for Belus, fearing that he -would become too powerful a rival, marched against him with his -warriors all clad in iron armour. Yet destiny was about to found a -great nation, and the small band of Haig proved victorious—an -arrow from the bow of Haig, transfixed the proud Belus as he was -retiring. Thus was the first impetus given to this embryo empire.</p> -<p>Victory and the spoils of war inflamed their breasts and -strengthened their resources; cities were erected, one on the very spot -of this battle.</p> -<p>Haig was a man of noble appearance, and superior intellect, which -must have had a perfect development during his long life of five -hundred years.</p> -<p>His immediate descendants built fortified towns, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb343" href="#pb343" name= -"pb343">343</a>]</span>adorned with palaces, and caravanserais. A very -beautiful city was built by Semiramis, the queen of Babylon, which -occupied 12,000 workmen and 600 architects. She was enamored of Arah, -the Armenian king, who was surnamed the Handsome, and being a widow -wished to marry him. But he, disgusted at her demonstrations of -excessive fondness, refused the alliance. The consequence was, that she -determined to take him by force, and marched with her troops into his -dominions.</p> -<p>But all she obtained was the dead body of the beautiful young -Armenian prince, which she endeavored to restore to life by magical -incantations.</p> -<p>The beauty of the country and her own romantic associations, -inspired her with the desire to erect a monument of her magnificence, -and she founded the city of Shamiram, now called Bitlis, on the borders -of Lake Van, which became ever after her summer residence.</p> -<p>The Armenians enjoyed a long period of prosperity, waging successful -wars with the Syrians, Medes, Persians, and other neighboring nations, -until they were at last conquered by Alexander the Great, and remained -tributary to him for 176 years, under governors appointed by him and by -his successors the Seleucidæ.</p> -<p>They now changed masters, and enjoyed great <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb344" href="#pb344" name= -"pb344">344</a>]</span>prosperity under the Arsacidæ or Parthians -who freed them from the Seleucian yoke.</p> -<p>Their prosperity lasted for 580 years, until internal dissensions -rendered them easy victims to the intrigues of the Greeks and Persians, -who eventually divided this beautiful domain between them. Oppression -of all sorts, spiritual and temporal, now pervaded the once peaceful -and happy homes of this fated race.</p> -<p>Royal blood could not quench the fire of its rage, profusely shed by -the princes, in defence of their people and religion. Idolatry was -enshrined upon the altars, and the priesthood sacrificed to fire and -tortured upon the rack.</p> -<p>A temporary relief was afforded to the country by the rise of the -Bagratian princes, who were the descendants of Abraham, and who first -came into Armenia during the captivity of the Jews under -Nebuchadnezzar.</p> -<p>Bagarat, the founder of this Jewish line of princes, was -distinguished in the reign of <span class="corr" id="xd25e5462" title= -"Source: Valarsaces">Valarsace</span>, and was appointed by him to the -hereditary office of placing the crown upon the king’s head, and -all his descendants were known as the Bagratians. Now it happened that -Ashot, one of their number, so pleased the caliph in his administration -of the affairs of his own tribe, that in the year 859 A. D., he -appointed him <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb345" href="#pb345" name= -"pb345">345</a>]</span>governor of Armenia, and dispatched Aali-Ermeny, -an apostate Armenian, to invest him with magnificent robes of state. -Although the nation was again restored to comparative tranquillity -under this race of princes, yet internal disunion and foreign -oppression did not cease to harass the country, and the Greeks finally -destroyed the Bagratian monarchy. But Melik-Shah, of Persia, regained -his sway over Armenia, and the power of the Greeks was thenceforth -annihilated.</p> -<p>The Armenian princes of the line of Reuben now governed the country, -and it was during their reign that the Crusaders took Jerusalem; and -while they were besieging Antioch, Constantine, the second of these -Armenian princes, supplied the army with provisions. He was in return -made a marquis, and received the order of knighthood, besides many -valuable presents. This line of princes was extirpated by the -Egyptians, who poured an immense and devastating army into their -country, and after besieging Leo, the last king, for nine months, took -him and all his family to Cairo, with all the royal treasures.</p> -<p>They remained in prison seven years, because they refused to -renounce Christianity. By the intervention of king Juan, of Spain, they -were set at liberty, and received from him many valuable possessions, -such as houses and lands. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb346" href= -"#pb346" name="pb346">346</a>]</span></p> -<p>King Leo even appealed to England and France to assist him in -regaining the throne of Armenia, but without any good success. He died -in Paris, A. D. 1393, and was buried in the convent of Celestine.</p> -<p>His wife Mary, who belonged to the family of Lewis Charles, king of -Hungary, died at Jerusalem.</p> -<p>The Armenians next fell into the power of the Ottomans; with their -last king their glory perished.</p> -<p>The sunrise over Mount Ararat, the meridian brightness over the -fairest portion of Asia, and the last departing rays shed over the -regions of Silicia, are all merged into the dark pages of -history—where but few ever seek to read the tale.</p> -<p>The ancient religion of the Armenians was that of the Magi, but the -introduction of Christianity among them was coeval with Christ.</p> -<p>Abgar, one of their kings, having had occasion to send ambassadors -to the Roman general Marinus, in Syria, upon the return of his -messengers, was apprised of the wonderful and miraculous performances -of the Messiah.</p> -<p>Giving a ready credence to the report that this was indeed the Son -of God, a second embassy was sent to entreat the great healer of the -sick to visit the king Abgar, who was laboring under a distressing -malady.</p> -<p>The letter was as follows: “I have heard that the Jews murmur -against you, and seek to destroy you. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb347" href="#pb347" name="pb347">347</a>]</span>I have a small but -beautiful city, which I offer you to partake with me. It is sufficient -for us both.”</p> -<p>It is said that the Saviour received this embassy with much -satisfaction, and dictated to the Apostle Thomas this remarkable -reply,—“When I shall rise to my glory, I will send you one -of my disciples, who shall remove your pains, and give life to you and -those around you.”</p> -<p>After the Ascension of Christ, according to his request, Thaddeus, -one of the seventy, was sent to Edessa, who, having instructed the king -in the true faith, baptized him and the citizens of that -metropolis.</p> -<p>The seeds of Christianity were thus early sown in Armenia, still but -little progress was made until the appearance of Gregory of Cesarea, -three centuries later, who created such a revival of this faith, that -he was called the Illuminator, and his followers, the Gregorians.</p> -<p>The Armenian resembles the Greek church in some respects. They are -both Episcopal in their government. Both acknowledge the Trinity, and -the Immaculacy of the Holy Virgin, and perform the ceremony of the -Lord’s supper, or the mass, with even more pomp than the -Catholics. The Armenians believe the divine and human nature of Christ -to be so blended as to form but one; whereas the Greeks <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb348" href="#pb348" name= -"pb348">348</a>]</span>declare them to be entirely separate. Therefore -the former, in administering the Eucharist, use only wine, and -unleavened bread, and the latter mingle water with the wine, and use -leaven in the bread. The Armenians, in case of necessity, partake of -the holy sacrament in other Christian churches, whereas the Greeks -acknowledge no church ceremonies as canonical but their own; always -re-baptizing those who may wish to come under their spiritual -jurisdiction. Their manner of signing the cross even differs, the one -making it from left to right, and the other from right to left. They -celebrate the church festivals on different days, and find many other -occasions on which to disagree.</p> -<p>The Armenians are not, therefore, to be confounded with the Greeks, -nor with that sect called <i>Arminians</i>, or the followers of -Arminius, but as a distinct people, originally inhabiting the country -about Mount Ararat, and professing Christianity at an early period.</p> -<p>The reason why they are known to the Western nations as the -Armenians, and not by their proper name, Haiks, is, that when Aram, one -of their early kings, and the father of Ara the Handsome, succeeded to -the throne of Armenia, he, by his wisdom and policy, so greatly -extended his dominions, that the power and valor of the nation was -acknowledged <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb349" href="#pb349" name= -"pb349">349</a>]</span>from Mount Caucasus to Mount Tauris. This prince -first raised his people to any degree of renown, both by the exercise -of arms and the cultivation of the arts of peace; so that contemporary -nations, in making mention of the actions performed by his subjects, -called them the deeds of the Aramians, or the followers of Aram, a name -which has been corrupted into Armenians; the country which these people -originally inhabited was called by them Haikastan, or Hayasdan, and -those regions which were added to their territories by the conquest of -Prince Aram were called <i>Aramia</i>, or in contradistinction to each -other, the former were called the Greater, and the latter the Lesser -Hayasdan, which the Western nations transcribed as Armenia Major and -Minor.</p> -<p>It will be perceived that they were at one time a very powerful and -flourishing nation, and were the envy of all the neighboring tribes; -facts well authenticated even by Roman historians.</p> -<p>In the reign of Tigranes, many unfortunate princes, who had fallen -prisoners to the Armenian king, were obliged to stand in his presence -in an attitude of Oriental deference, with arms folded on their -breasts, in token of perfect submission. Four of these wretched -monarchs had also to attend him constantly in their regal robes, and -when he appeared in public <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb350" href= -"#pb350" name="pb350">350</a>]</span>on horseback, his royal captives -preceded him on foot.</p> -<p>Mithridates, the uncle to the king Tigranes, rendered himself no -less glorious. He extended his dominions even to the borders of -Scythia. His subjects and tributaries comprised twenty-two nations; and -it is related that this prince conversed with equal fluency in all the -languages spoken by those peoples. Even Hannibal, the great -Carthaginian general, found an asylum in Armenia.</p> -<p>In the time of their greatest prosperity, they amounted to -30,000,000 of souls, but constant wars, with their attendant train of -famine, disease, and death, have sadly diminished their numbers, and -reduced them to less than five millions.</p> -<p>The depopulated condition of their provinces, and the internal -dissension of their princes, favored the depredatory invasions of -various nations, Romans, Greeks, Persians, Saracens, and Scythians, or -Turks. These last finally crossing over the Caspian Mountains in -hordes, subjugated them, and took possession of their immense -territories, and have ever since held them in bondage.</p> -<p>The Armenians were the first Christians who were subjugated by the -Mussulmans, and as they were the earliest Christian subjects, they -became, in their mutual relations, the model or measure for all -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb351" href="#pb351" name= -"pb351">351</a>]</span>succeeding conquests; for the Turks, profiting -by their first experience, ever after practised accordingly.</p> -<p>The conquerors, imbued with a spirit of Islamism, added to their -barbarities a system of religious persecution. The cruelties which they -committed on the inhabitants were horrible in the extreme. Aged men and -women were often tied in pairs, and then together cut in halves. -Pregnant women were frequently ripped open, and their unborn babes -wantonly thrown into the air; infants sucking at the breast were torn -from the arms, and massacred before the eyes of their distracted -mothers, so that human blood flowed in torrents throughout the country, -and well may the Osmanlis of the present day regard the very name of -Turk opprobrious, as it reminds them of former barbarities.</p> -<p>At last these persecutions and cruelties ceased; for perceiving the -advantages which they might derive from this hardy and industrious -race, and finding them also strong and enthusiastic in their faith, the -persecutors moderated their religious ardor, and adopting a more -politic course, opened negotiations with the Armenians, and willingly -compromised by making them tributaries, with the payment of -<i>Kharadj</i>, or poll tax, as recommended by the Koran; and by kind -promises for the future, their servitude was rendered more tolerable. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb352" href="#pb352" name= -"pb352">352</a>]</span></p> -<p>Besides, with the design of ruling them through religions -prejudices, the Armenians were granted the privilege of being governed -by one of their own priesthood, to whom they gave the title of -<i>Patrik</i>, or Patriarch.</p> -<p>The people being now deprived of all civil rights, regarded this -Patriarch as the sole bond of national unity.</p> -<p>The Turks, on their part, finding it an easy policy to govern the -mass through one individual, allowed <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb353" href="#pb353" name="pb353">353</a>]</span>great privileges to -this office, and the free exercise of the principles of their own -religion in its administration.</p> -<p>The power of the Patriarch was so unlimited, that he could even levy -taxes, punish any person with the bastinado, imprison, or send into -exile.</p> -<p>National enthusiasm and the politic tolerance of their conquerors, -in the course of time, led the Patriarchs into the abuse of their -privileges.</p> -<p>Cloaked though they were under the mantle of religion, their -despotism was not always exempt from impunity. For the people, long -accustomed to regard the church apart from temporal authorities, could -not brook such conduct in their high priest, and therefore there has -always been a strife between them and the priesthood.</p> -<p>The government has sometimes sustained the popular will, and at -others, the rights of the pontiff, as interest or policy required.</p> -<p>This community constitutes the very life of Turkey, for the Turks -long accustomed to rule rather than serve, have relinquished to them -all branches of industry. Hence the Armenians are the bankers, -merchants, mechanics, and traders of all sorts in Turkey.</p> -<p>Besides, there exists a congeniality of sentiment and community of -interest between them and the Mussulmans. For, being originally from -the same <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb354" href="#pb354" name= -"pb354">354</a>]</span>region, they were alike in their habits and -feelings; therefore, easily assimilating themselves to their -conquerors, they gained their confidence, and became and still are the -most influential of all the rayas. There is not a pasha, or a grandee, -who is not indebted to them, either pecuniarily, or for his promotion, -and the humblest peasant owes them the value of the very seed he sows; -so that without them the Osmanlis could not survive a single day.</p> -<p>This is a fact so well attested, that Russia, with the design of -undermining Turkey, always endeavored to gain over this part of the -population, and in 1828, when she took possession of Erzeroum, she -enticed the Armenians of that place to acts of violence and revenge -against the Turks, so that when the Russians retired, the Armenians -were obliged to emigrate with them.</p> -<p>Besides, in the demarcation of her boundaries with Turkey, she so -managed as to embody <i>Etchmiadzin</i>, the see of the high pontiff of -the Armenians, within her own territories, for the express purpose of -governing them through their spiritual head.</p> -<p>Even the correspondent of the <i>London Morning Post</i>, in -speaking of the corruptions of the country, in his ribaldry, termed the -Armenians the <i>cloaca</i> of Turkey, accusing them of being the means -through whom all the filth passed. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb355" -href="#pb355" name="pb355">355</a>]</span></p> -<p>Naturally endowed with a brave and warlike spirit; of noble and -intelligent appearance, and great athletic vigor, their services have -ever been invaluable to the country; it has only been their protracted -servitude which has reduced them to the timid and cautious temperament -that they now possess.</p> -<p>Some have even distinguished themselves as statesmen, patriots, and -faithful servants. Had it not been for the good advice and diplomacy of -Abro, or, as he is commonly known to Europe, of Boghos Bey, Mehmed Aali -could not have secured to his heirs the independence of Egypt.</p> -<p>Again, at the conclusion of the last war with Russia, when Sultan -Mahmoud was writhing under his inability to meet the peremptory demands -of his enemy, an Armenian came to his rescue.</p> -<p>Kazaz Artyn was a most noted personage of the Armenian nation. -Having risen from the lowest rank in life, he finally became the head -of the Royal Mint, and the friend and factotum of his majesty Sultan -Mahmoud, who never passed a day without seeing him.</p> -<p>He was so much beloved by his imperial master, that although he was -a giavour, his majesty visited him at his last hours. This -condescension was not only remarkable in the king, but more wonderful -in a Mussulman; for the Koran forbids all intimacy with <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb356" href="#pb356" name= -"pb356">356</a>]</span>Christians. “O true believers, take not -the Jews or Christians <i>for your friends</i>; they are friends the -one to the other; but whoso among you taketh them for his friends, he -is surely one of them.” This passage explains the antipathy of -the Mohammedans to all Christians, as well as to the institutions of -Christianity.</p> -<p>Sultan Mahmoud being of an imperious nature, waived such religious -considerations when impelled by gratitude, and no one of the ministry -dared to breathe a censure against the imperial will; for as sultan, he -was not only above the law, but the law <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb357" href="#pb357" name="pb357">357</a>]</span>itself. Besides, -every one knew the extent of Kazaz Artyn’s services to his royal -master.</p> -<p>At the end of the last war, when the Russian indemnities were to be -paid, there was not a single piaster in the treasury.</p> -<p>The sultan, in despair, shut himself up, and forbade any one to -approach him; but, reckless of consequences, Kazaz Artyn rushed into -the royal presence, and anxiously begged to be informed the cause of -his majesty’s grief. “The Muscovite giavours are insisting -upon their indemnities, and I am told the treasury is empty.” -Whereupon Kazaz Artyn assured his majesty that their demands should be -met, even on the very next day.</p> -<p>He accordingly summoned all the bankers, and collected the necessary -funds, which were transmitted to the Russian Embassy to their utter -astonishment, in the course of twenty-four hours. This money remained -at the Russian Embassy, out of which they were accustomed to pay the -salaries of the whole legation, etc. The bankers were afterwards repaid -in <i lang="tr">beshliks</i>, a species of spurious coin, which are now -being redeemed by the present sultan.</p> -<p>The cultivation of the arts and sciences were of an early origin -with the Armenians.</p> -<p>In the reign of <span class="corr" id="xd25e5623" title= -"Source: Valarsaces">Valarsace</span>, the Parthian, 150 B. C. the -archives of Nineveh were searched by Maribas, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb358" href="#pb358" name="pb358">358</a>]</span>and -made to contribute to the literature of the nation; and during -Arsaces’ reign, the city of Armavir was embellished with several -pieces of beautiful statuary, which were taken from the Greeks. Three, -in particular, those of Diana, Hercules, and Apollo, well executed, -brazen and gilt, were from the hands of the celebrated Cretan artists -Scyllis and Dipænus.</p> -<p>Duin, Ani, Edessa, and several other cities, were noted for their -architectural beauties, and, considering that Armenia is coeval with -the Babylonian Empire, there is no reason to doubt, that researches -into its territories would be as interesting, as those of Mossoul.</p> -<p>The Armenians having no alphabet of their own, adopted the -characters of other nations, viz., the Syriac in religious writings, -the Greek in scientific works, and the Persian for statutes of law. But -at the commencement of the 5th century, a monk, Mesrop by name, -invented the present characters, which have been in use ever since. -They are neat in appearance, and capable of representing any articulate -sound; thirty nine in number, and styled by Lord Byron, a Waterloo of -an alphabet.</p> -<p>There is no doubt that they early possessed some literature of their -own, prior to the invention of their alphabet, for even the writings of -Eusebius <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb359" href="#pb359" name= -"pb359">359</a>]</span>were originally discovered in the archives of -the Armenians. Many very eminent works, generally in MSS. on -martyrology and the affairs of the church, are still extant, and it is -reported that the old monasteries in Armenia contain records of -history, which, if brought to light, would prove great additions to the -annals of very ancient times.</p> -<p>They boast of classic authors, to whom Lord Byron alludes in -eulogistic terms, and the works of Moses of Khoren, which have been -translated, are highly appreciated by the literati of Europe.</p> -<p>The Armenians of the present day are also many of them distinguished -for their acquisitions in both Armenian and Turkish literature; and so -great is their aptitude for acquiring languages, that they are often -well versed in the various dialects of Europe. Even the children are in -the daily habit of speaking three different languages, viz., Turkish, -Armenian, and Greek.</p> -<p>In their domestic relations, living in constant intercourse with the -Osmanlis, and the lapse of time throwing the veil of oblivion over -their past sufferings, all their habits of life and general ideas have -become assimilated to those of their masters, with those distinctions -only, which result from the tenets of their faith. Self-respect has -forced them to seclude their women from the public, and hence they have -the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb360" href="#pb360" name= -"pb360">360</a>]</span>same domestic arrangements, style of dress, -etc., as those of the Osmanlis.</p> -<p>Their social institutions, like other Orientals, are very -patriarchal, every man being a monarch in his own family, and the -children are educated to observe the greatest deference and respect to -their parents. No son or daughter ever dreams of contracting a marriage -on their own responsibility, but the destined bride is selected by the -mother and her friends, and is thankfully accepted by the happy -son.</p> -<p>The betrothal having been arranged with all due ceremony, the -wedding takes place at the appointed <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb361" href="#pb361" name="pb361">361</a>]</span>time. The marriage -ceremonies are celebrated both at the house of the bride and of the -bridegroom during three days.</p> -<p>The bride is conducted by the bridegroom and his friends to the -house of her intended husband, and the ceremony is performed on Sunday -at midnight.</p> -<p>The bride, muffled and tinselled, is conducted to a carpet in the -middle of the saloon, where she is placed opposite to the chosen -bridegroom. Their right hands are joined by the officiating priest, and -they are severally demanded whether they will “love, cherish, and -honor each other.” The man is also asked, as he stands opposite -to this mass of shawls and tinsel, “will you take this girl, -whether she be lame, or deaf, or humped, or blind,” to which he -responds with due resignation, “even so I will take her.” A -silken cord, twisted of two colors, is now tied round the head of each, -and after a long service, reading of prayers and chanting, the happy -pair are pronounced man and wife! The bride, over whose varying -emotions during the interesting ceremonies an impenetrable veil was -suspended, is now led by two attendants to a corner of the sofa, where -she is temporarily enthroned on a cushion.</p> -<p>The propitious moment has at last arrived, and the legalized husband -may ascertain for himself the measure of charms to which he is allied. -While the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb362" href="#pb362" name= -"pb362">362</a>]</span>agitated maiden sits, oppressed by shawls and -tinsel, and internal anxiety as to the effect she may produce upon her -future lord, he slowly approaches, pale and tottering—for he has -sworn to have her, blind or hump-backed. With such alternatives, even a -moderate share of good-looks, or the mere absence of actual deformity, -would almost constitute beauty.</p> -<p>The attendant bridemaids exultingly raise the veil, and the new -husband ventures to take one look of love and admiration, in return for -which he places a valuable ring on her finger, and slowly retreats to -muse upon his fate, which is not often so deplorable, for the Armenian -girls are generally pretty. At all events, he submits with the best -grace, for, unlike his Mohammedan compatriots, he has no retrieve or -door of escape, but must abide by his bargain “till death us do -part.”</p> -<p>The veil is again dropped, and the bride left to her own -meditations.</p> -<p>She receives presents from all the guests, so that the tickets of -admission to an Armenian wedding are no trivial affairs to one’s -pockets.</p> -<p>Three days after the ceremony, the newly married couple are at -length left to a better acquaintance, unmolested by veils or -spectators.</p> -<p>The Sunday following, the bridegroom proceeds to his -father-in-law’s house, to acknowledge his gratitude <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb363" href="#pb363" name="pb363">363</a>]</span>for -the possession of such a charming treasure, etc., all which is -expressed by the ceremony of kissing the hands of the parents of the -maiden, and this Sunday is called, par excellence, the -“<i>Kissing Sunday</i>.”</p> -<p>These are the real Armenians; but about a hundred and fifty years -ago there was a secession in favor of Catholicism. The Catholic -Armenians, of whom there are about fifteen thousand in the metropolis, -and seventy-five thousand throughout Turkey, although distinct from the -Roman Catholics, have assimilated themselves, in many respects, to -European habits; forgetting their nationality and language, and aping -customs and usages they do not even understand; so much so, that a very -amusing work has been written in Armeno-Turkish under the title of -Acaby, as a burlesque upon such inclinations. They are not, therefore, -to be confounded with the orthodox Armenians. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb364" href="#pb364" name="pb364">364</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch36" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e568">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXXVI.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE GREEKS.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The Greeks, who sent the trophies of their versatile -genius, their graceful architectural adornings, and exquisite paintings -to the temples at Rome, and over the western world, whose classic lore -is yet the theme and model of the learned, once gloried in the -possession of the proud Stamboul.</p> -<p>About a century after its foundation by Constantine, it is said to -have possessed “a capital, a school of learning, a circus, two -theatres, eight public and one hundred and fifty-three private baths, -fifty-two porticoes, five granaries, eight aqueducts of water, four -spacious halls of justice, fourteen churches, fourteen palaces, and -four thousand and three hundred and eighty-eight houses, which, for -their size and beauty, deserved to be distinguished from the multitude -of plebeian habitations.”</p> -<p>The magnificent temple <i>Ayia-Sophia</i>, dedicated to the Goddess -of Divine Wisdom, rose like a Phœnix <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb365" href="#pb365" name="pb365">365</a>]</span>from -its ruins, under the liberal patronage of Justinian, and the assiduous -labors of ten thousand workmen during five years, eleven months, and -ten days.</p> -<p>This was the shrine of the Greek Faith, and those walls glittering -with golden mosaic and precious stones, re-echoed the <span class= -"trans" title="Kyrie eleēson"><span class="Greek" lang= -"grc">Κυριε -ελεησον</span></span> of -the adoring Christians. The magnificent altar of precious metals and -glittering gems witnessed the prostrations of patriarchs and their -acolyths—and the impenetrable veil was suspended before the Holy -of Holies.</p> -<p>The great city was the arena for the sports of the pleasure-loving -Greeks; sometimes in the race of wild beasts with each other, and again -in the more terrible contests of the gladiators.</p> -<p>The Bosphorus was alive with human freight, youths and maidens, -wooed by its blue and sparkling waves, delighted to dream of love as -they glided over the gently-heaving waters.</p> -<p>The shores were gay and gladsome, as the enamored throng tripped -through the mazes of their fantastic Romaica to the tinkling music. But -the Grecian prince is hurled from his throne, and the grave and sombre -Moslem sits there, the despot and bloody conqueror. The great temple, -which rivalled even that of Solomon, is suddenly divested of the -symbols of a Christian faith. Its mosaics of the saints which adorn the -walls are obliterated, its cherubim are <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb366" href="#pb366" name="pb366">366</a>]</span>torn down, its altar -demolished, and nothing left of all the gorgeous decorations. The bare, -unadorned niche—the mihrab or index to the temple of Mohammed, is -instituted, and “Allah-il-Allah,” is henceforth the cry of -the Faithful.</p> -<p>Yet, they say, the distant chant of the last officiating priest of -the Greek religion still lingers within the walls, from whence he will -issue when the edifice is restored to its original worship.</p> -<p>Sports are over—maidens and youths are coy of their charms, -for a change has come over the spirit of their dreams.</p> -<p>The liberty of woman is shackled, and the dominion of seclusion -established. Certain quarters of the city are assigned to the Greek -subjects—and externally their very dwellings assume the dusky -tints of bondage and ruin.</p> -<p>Truly their glory has departed, and their name as a nation is only -sustained by the shades of their ancient heroes, who even after their -last degenerate descendant has mouldered into dust, will continue to -flit around the civilized world, scattering the scintillations of early -genius amid earth’s darkness. Yet, as it is their nature to -boast, they point into the past, and even one day hope to sit on the -throne of their ancestors <span class="trans" title= -"eis tin polin"><span class="Greek" lang="grc">εις -τιν πολιν</span></span> of -yore.</p> -<p>There are no less than a million and a half of <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb367" href="#pb367" name= -"pb367">367</a>]</span>Greeks in the Turkish dominions, of whom -150,000<a id="xd25e5739" name="xd25e5739"></a> live in the capital. At -the time of their conquest, the Turks allowed them the same municipal -immunities and privileges as they had done to the Armenians.</p> -<p>As the Greeks seemed to approximate more nearly to the western -nations in their habits, than any of the other rayahs, the Osmanlis -supposed them more fitted to act as intermediaries between themselves -and the European states; they therefore became the first interpreters -of the Divan. Many of their number have thus risen to wealth and -distinction, and after long services they even succeeded to the -government of the Danubian Principalities—yet the Osmanlis have -never felt the same sympathy and confidence towards them as for the -Armenians, who, though not so advanced in civilization, possess better -stamina of character, greater honesty, and more congeniality of -temperament. Many Greeks, even now, occupy places of trust, which are -confided to them rather from political motives than as marks of -peculiar confidence. The office of saraf or banker, which is equivalent -to <i lang="fr">homme de confiance</i>, has never been successfully -filled by them, though attempts have been made to do so; this post has -invariably been assigned to the Armenians.</p> -<p>It is customary with the Osmanli grandee, when <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb368" href="#pb368" name= -"pb368">368</a>]</span>appointed to some high station in the provinces, -before their departure, to leave with their banker a certain number of -<i>blanks</i> to be filled by him whenever occasion should require -their use. And many even entrust their personal property to the sarafs -on their pilgrimage to Mecca, for safe keeping.</p> -<p>One of the principal dignitaries of the present day, who is reputed -for his irascible temper, was some years ago involved in a dilemma. One -of his attendants was found to be guilty of a <i>liaison</i> with a -slave in his harem. The circumstances were aggravating, and his pride -could not be satisfied, save by dire revenge; and the two, instead of -being married, according to the custom of the country, fell victims to -his fury. But after the commission of the rash act, he repented, and -began to fear the disgrace which would probably fall on himself.</p> -<p>In his perplexity he sent for his old Armenian saraf, and when -closeted with him, poured his sorrows into the bosom of his confidant, -relating to him the whole circumstance, weeping bitterly for his act, -and asking advice and consolation.</p> -<p>Now, no Osmanli has as yet evinced such confidence and sympathy -towards the Greeks.</p> -<p>Besides, the pride of the Mussulmans is not compromised in -associating with the Armenians, who are so much like their masters in -manners and language, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb369" href= -"#pb369" name="pb369">369</a>]</span>that often it is impossible to -detect any difference<span class="corr" id="xd25e5766" title= -"Source: ,">.</span> On the contrary, although some of the Greeks have -distinguished themselves in Oriental literature, especially Yacobaky, -in his History of Russia, written in elegant Turkish, yet they have -never been able to speak the language of the country correctly.</p> -<p>The moment they open their mouths, out leaps the native accent. This -is equally true of the French and other languages, and even their own -beautiful Hellenic can scarce ever be heard in Stamboul, a miserable, -mongrel island dialect being the substitute.</p> -<p>The character of the Greeks of Constantinople is thus admirably -portrayed by the author of Anastasius, the best work extant on -Turkey.</p> -<p>“The complexion of the modern Greek may receive a different -cast from different surrounding objects; the core still is the same as -in the days of Pericles. Credulity, versatility, and thirst of -distinction, from the earliest periods formed, still form, and ever -will continue to form, the basis of the Greek character; and the -dissimilarity in the external appearance of the nation arises, not from -any radical change in its temper and disposition, but only from the -incidental variation in the means through which the same propensities -are to be gratified. The ancient Greeks worshipped a hundred gods, the -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb370" href="#pb370" name= -"pb370">370</a>]</span>modern Greeks adore as many saints. The ancient -Greeks believed in oracles and prodigies, in incantations and spells; -the modern Greeks have faith in relics and miracles, in amulets and -divinations. The ancient Greeks brought rich offerings and gifts to the -shrines of their deities, for the purpose of obtaining success in war, -and pre-eminence in peace; the modern Greeks hang up dirty rags round -the sanctuaries of their saints, to shake off an ague, or propitiate a -mistress. The former were staunch patriots at home, and subtle -courtiers in Persia; the latter defy the Turks in Mayno, and fawn upon -them at the Fanar. Besides, was not every commonwealth of ancient -Greece as much a prey to cabals and factions as every community of -modern Greece? Does not every modern Greek preserve the same desire for -supremacy, the same readiness to undermine, by every means, fair or -foul, his competitors, which was displayed by his ancestors? Do not the -Turks of the present day resemble the Romans of past ages in their -respect for the ingenuity, and at the same time, in their contempt for -the character of their Greek subjects? And does the Greek of the Fanar -show the least inferiority to the Greek of the Piræus in -quickness of perception, in fluency of tongue, and in fondness for -quibbles, for disputation, and for sophistry? Believe me, the very -difference between <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb371" href="#pb371" -name="pb371">371</a>]</span>the Greeks of time past and of the present -day arises only from their thorough resemblance, from that equal -pliability of temper and of faculties in both, which has ever made them -receive, with equal readiness, the impression of every mould, and the -impulse of every agent. When patriotism, public spirit, and -pre-eminence in arts, science, literature, and warfare were the road to -distinction, the Greeks shone the first of patriots, of heroes, of -painters, of poets, and of philosophers. Now that craft and subtlety, -adulation, and intrigue, are the only paths to greatness, these same -Greeks are—what you see them!”</p> -<p>Although the Armenians have borne the first impetus of Mussulman -fanaticism, and consequently suffered more than any other Christian -subjects, yet the Greeks excel them in their animosity towards their -conquerors.</p> -<p>This is owing to their excessive bigotry, and it is recorded that -even while the enemy was before the gates of Constantinople, they were -discussing the great question, whether the Holy Ghost proceeded from -the Father or the Son.</p> -<p>This disposition to cavil on religious points, has made them a ready -prey to the domineering priesthood who have completely swayed the -multitude. These priests being a mean and grovelling set, utterly -indifferent to the moral elevation of their people, are <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb372" href="#pb372" name="pb372">372</a>]</span>ever -ready to make traffic of the sins of those who are still more ignorant -than themselves; the consequence is, that lying, cheating, stealing, -and other immoralities to any extent, are very common among this -community, for a few piastres, or even paras, cancel the crime and lull -the conscience.</p> -<p>The whole community suffers from such a system, as business and -other necessities bring them into constant contact.</p> -<p>The servants are generally Greek, and there is no virtue in lock and -key in any house. You suddenly find your wardrobe emptied by -imperceptible degrees, and the jars of preserves gradually diminish, as -they are repeatedly licked and sleeked over again.</p> -<p>Divorces are easily obtained, or they are granted after the priest -has extorted the last para he can from the applicant.</p> -<p>The corruption of the masses through their spiritual leaders is -painfully evident. The most dire superstition rules every mind, and the -veriest knaves, and even prostitutes, follow their injurious callings -without compunction, if under the patronage of one of their saints. -<i>Christos kai Panayiaumo</i> is an expiatory charm, and the dingy -portrait of any saint in the calendar annihilates the bad effects of -every crime. The most abandoned class of women are generally Greeks; -and while they perform the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb373" href= -"#pb373" name="pb373">373</a>]</span>obscene rites of Bacchus and -Venus, they watch with holy trembling the twinkling taper which burns -night and day before the anointed picture of their guardian angel. This -flame, like the Vestal fire, is never suffered to go out, if perchance, -<i lang="la">Dii avertite omen!</i></p> -<p>The Greek islands furnish a miserable set of men and women to the -population of Turkey, who come to gather spoils in the metropolis, and -then return to enjoy them at home. Robberies, and even assassinations -are committed by them, which, if they are detected, are either -protected by the Greek legation, or punished by a short imprisonment, -and then the miscreants are again let loose, hardened in crime, and -thirsting to revenge their temporary detention.</p> -<p>It is only within the last two years, that a famous bandit, in the -vicinity of Smyrna, has been captured. <i>Katurjy Yanny</i> and his -merry men had long infested the neighboring mountains, detaining -gentlemen on their travels, carrying them blindfolded to their den, and -only liberating them upon the receipt of a handsome ransom from their -friends. The eagle of the mountain was at last caged in the humble -prison of Smyrna. While other miserable victims were peeping through -their latticed and iron bound casements, whining out a feeble cry for -alms, he, the proud chieftain, sat upon a sofa, dressed in the -picturesque costume of the Greek mountaineer, his eyes flashing -defiance, and his lofty bearing all princely, as he puffed his -narghillé, and chatted with those about him. But he must now -feel somewhat crest-fallen, as day succeeds day, and he still dwells -within the awful precincts of the Bagnio, whence, like the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb375" href="#pb375" name="pb375">375</a>]</span>rest -of its miserable occupants, the once proud Katurgy Yanny, sometimes -emerges, broom in hand, and chained to his fellow, to sweep the streets -of the metropolis.</p> -<p>The restless temperament and fanaticism of the Greeks have ever made -them the most turbulent of the Ottoman subjects, and ready instruments -in the hands of Russian diplomatists for sowing the seeds of discord -and confusion in the Turkish empire. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb376" href="#pb376" name="pb376">376</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch37" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e580">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXXVII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE JEWS.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The Jews of Turkey, of whom there are about 170,000, -are by no means exempt from the sorrows and curses of their race. As if -conscious that there is no escape from the contempt of the rest of the -world, they are willing to undertake the meanest of earth’s -callings, literally to “eat the dirt” of their Moslem -masters.</p> -<p>Content to appear like the refuse of humanity, they strive to -accumulate the miser’s hoards, and receive the buffetings and -cursings of their neighbors as if they were choice -blessings—usury of all sorts, whether upon sequins or old -clothes, peddling the meanest of wares in the streets, rag-picking, and -filth-gathering in general, are their means of earning a -livelihood.</p> -<p>The venerated names of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, are almost -needless, or seldom heard—for the one comprehensive word Yahoudy -(Jew) is the nomenclature <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb377" href= -"#pb377" name="pb377">377</a>]</span>of the whole remnant of the chosen -people. Yahoudy come, and Yahoudy go, are the summons and -dismissal—while the rabble boys mockingly shout <i>Tchefut</i>, -and snatch some fragment of their tattered garments.</p> -<p>Public sentiment having stigmatized them as utterly depraved, they -have no incentive to honesty, and not daring enough to commit any -atrocious crime, they become more expert in petty larcenies and like -misdemeanors. They are even accused of stealing a Christian child once -a year, in order to mingle its blood in their festivals, as a -retaliation upon the Christians in general.</p> -<p>This, of course, refers to the mass, who, victims as they are to -misery of all sorts, cannot be expected to practice the kindlier -virtues which distinguish those among them to whom a better fate has -been allotted.</p> -<p>There was a celebrated Armenian banker, Tcharazly, who, having -fallen under the displeasure of a certain Turkish grandee, was suddenly -one day seized and hung before the door of his own dwelling; his -property confiscated, and his only son cast into prison.</p> -<p>A certain Jewish banker, Shabgee by name, had long been the friend -and neighbor of this family; and now, in the time of their trouble, he -spared nothing for the liberation of the unfortunate young man, -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb378" href="#pb378" name= -"pb378">378</a>]</span>the son of his friend; which, he not only -succeeded in obtaining, but reinstated him in all the honors of which -he was the lawful heir.</p> -<p>The Jews are to be found in many villages on the Bosphorus, though -their principal quarter is at Balat, on the Golden Horn. They live also -in other parts of the city, but as may naturally be inferred, in such -places as no one else would inhabit.</p> -<p>Their houses are like bee-hives, literally swarming with human life; -even one single room serves for the only home of several -families—and the streets of their quarters are almost impassable, -from the collection of garbage and all sorts of refuse, which are -indiscriminately thrown from the windows of their dwellings. Their -misery may partly be attributed to their practice of very early -marriages, as before a man is twenty-one years of age he is burdened -with the care and support of a numerous family, which reduces him to -such poverty, that even the meanest economy can scarcely enable him to -support his own existence and that of the helpless beings dependent on -him. The exactions of the <i>Khakhams</i> or priests, which are very -great, help also to impoverish this pitiable people. It is no wonder, -then, that they appear in rags and tatters—and herd together in -styes—yet it is most amusing to see them on a Jewish Sabbath. The -filthy gabardines which they wore <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb379" -href="#pb379" name="pb379">379</a>]</span>in the week, as they -exercised their various callings, being laid aside, and bright and -gaudy finery substituted, in which they strut about the streets, -seeming to be other beings, and to have no relation to the wretches of -yesterday. But, of course, in such a population there will be various -grades of misery, and a few families of wealth are to be found among -them.</p> -<p>They have some of the domestic institutions of the Osmanlis, and the -women wear thick white veils, but without concealing the features, as -in the case of the Turkish ladies. The young virgins are allowed to -wear their hair long and flowing—but after marriage it is -carefully concealed beneath a towering and cumbersome headgear, which -is a wonderful illustration of the tenacity with which this singular -race adheres to ancient usages. It recalls to mind the days of Pharaoh -and the people of Israel, for the similarity is perfect between their -present head-dress and that of the mummies who have reposed in their -tombs ever since the family of Joseph “took their cattle and -their goods, which they had gotten in the land of Canaan, and came into -Egypt, Jacob and all his seed with him.”</p> -<p>As they were originally from Spain, their language is still a -mongrel dialect of that country.</p> -<p>They are very strict in the observance of their religious rites and -ceremonies—never transacting any business on the Sabbath, nor -performing any domestic duties. Even their lamps on Sabbath evenings -must be lighted by some one of their Christian neighbors—and -should a conflagration occur on that day, their helplessness is truly -pitiable, for they will see all their property consumed without making -one effort to save it. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb381" href= -"#pb381" name="pb381">381</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch38" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e590">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXXVIII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">PERA AND THE PEROTES, OR FRANKS.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">At the time that the Turks took Constantinople, there -was a colony of Genoese Venetians established in a suburb of the city, -called Galata, who were allowed to retain this quarter, which occupies -the declivity of the hill with the summit called Pera, where the -European emigrants, attracted by commerce and other motives, as well as -the foreign dignitaries, have ever since continued to reside. The -warehouses of the merchants are at Galata, which is connected with the -city by a floating bridge across the Golden Horn.</p> -<p>A little above Galata, on the Bosphorus, is a Turkish quarter called -Top-hané, or the department of ordnance, through which access is -usually obtained to Pera. The most busy and varied scene is constantly -presented to the eye at this quay. The graceful cayiks with their -delicately pointed prows lie on all <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb382" href="#pb382" name="pb382">382</a>]</span>sides, some waiting -for the convenience of passengers, and others engaged in disembarking -their living freight. It is wonderful to observe the dexterity of -cayikgees. Now, a single boatman pushes up his slender craft, and -succeeds in gaining just space enough to slip in, so closely packed are -the boats all around. It may be some lonely veiled woman who is safely -landed. Anon arrives the large omnibus cayik, as completely stored with -live stock as the New York avenue cars on a Sunday.</p> -<p>The boatmen vociferate, and shove alongside in spite of all their -competitors; the motley group of passengers, Mussulmans, Armenians, -Greeks, Jews, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb383" href="#pb383" name= -"pb383">383</a>]</span>Franks, all huddled together, move not, speak -not, but fasten their eyes upon the shore, with the firm conviction, -that as they were safely landed the day before, they will be equally -successful to-day. A prolonged, shrill musical cry, <i>ya-lu-nuz!</i> -hushes every other sound; there is a simultaneous movement among the -cayiks, a moment’s pause in the hurrying crowd on shore, as way -is made for the embassy boat with its gilded prow, flying colors, and -five pair of oars. The Eltchy-Bey! is whispered from ear to ear.</p> -<p>Even the beautiful canopied boat of the sultan sometimes passes this -way; propelled by twenty-eight men, it rapidly glides over the waters, -with the regular music of the plashing oars. The cannon peals forth a -royal salute from the shore, and the landing of Top-hané resumes -its bustling appearance.</p> -<p>Thousands of men, women, and children, are daily landed here, of -every rank and clime, and doubtless, in each bosom one similar emotion, -for a moment displaces all others: gratitude for the footing gained; -then rushes in the vast tide of human hopes, cares and anxieties. The -platform upon which they step, is wretchedly out of repair; the -<i>keahya</i>, who gains a slender pittance by holding the boats from -which so many are safely landed, is invariably a trembling old man; and -as the crowd necessarily jostle each other, it is astonishing that -there are so few accidents. But <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb384" -href="#pb384" name="pb384">384</a>]</span>Oriental self-possession has -its careful measured gait, and it is rarely that any stumble, though -Turkish indifference leaves cracks, crevices, and chasms in yawning -boldness. There is a large open area, just after you land; apparently -Nature’s great warehouse, solid ground for a foundation and the -vault of heaven for a roofing. Along the shore lie numberless small -coasters, whose crews and cargoes are alike begrimed with darkness, for -they have come down from the Black Sea to supply the city with -charcoal, the ordinary fuel; and immense piles of wood proclaim the -demolition of forests of trees.</p> -<p>There, too, is a great market place, or rather a centre of -attraction to the venders of various merchandise, whom time and custom -have established in their prerogatives, for there is no building -whatever for the convenience or protection of this sort of commerce. -Here, then, in the open air, are butchers, green-grocers, fishmongers, -bakers, fruiterers, and basket-makers, an epitome of practical life. -But here too, is the mosque, the minaré, and the fountain, -carrying away in its limped flowing, impurities both spiritual and -physical.</p> -<p>This fountain is a beautiful specimen of Oriental architecture. It -is an edifice about 30 feet square, built of pure white marble. Beneath -the cornice which surrounds the roof is a border of arabesque -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb385" href="#pb385" name= -"pb385">385</a>]</span>characters, richly gilt, and from each side the -water flows into a marble basin.</p> -<p>Not far from this fountain is a cluster of small shops, for the sale -of Kebabs, tobacco, bonbons, and also many small Kahvés.</p> -<p>The Kebabs are small pieces of mutton, passed on iron skewers, and -roasted over fires of ignited charcoal, and, though the establishments -are small, they are constantly filled with groups, who surrounding the -copper dishes, seem to attest the excellence of the viands. After -satisfying the more imperative calls of nature, a visit to the -tetune-gee, or tobacco merchant, is inevitable; for not to mention the -almost hourly use of the far-famed weed, this luxury must always -succeed every other repast. Then a moment of kief at the coffee shop, -the fumes of the chibouque, a sip of mocha’s berry, a little -neighborly chit-chat, or it may be a business rendezvous, and you are -ready to proceed up the steep hill to Pera. Some mount their own -horses, which the grooms hold in attendance, others avail themselves of -the more jaded looking animals who are waiting to be hired, and -sometimes the Turkish ladies,—rather antiquities of the species, -deliberately mount the leather hunch on the Hamal’s back, and -they too ride up, while others still are obliged, either from a lack of -a like independence, or other stringent motives, to go on Shank’s -mare. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb386" href="#pb386" name= -"pb386">386</a>]</span>Those who do not ascend the hill, disperse in -various directions through the many narrow by-ways which diverge from -the great area.</p> -<p><span class="sc">Pera</span> is the Elysium of shop-keepers, the -very essence of à la Franga, the Bey-oghlu or dwelling-place of -Princes, the rendezvous of Ministers Plenipotentiary, Ministers -resident, Consular dignitaries, secretaries of Legations, Dragomans, -Attachés, and all the <i>élite</i> of society—a -swarming hive of Diplomacy—only get inside of the hive, even as -drone, and you are <i lang="fr">comme il faut</i>. There is a certain -imposing, mysterious, impenetrable air about every member of this -<i lang="fr">haute noblesse</i>—each one is full of importance, -each one is condescending to the other; all are on the <i lang="fr">qui -vive</i> for a stray word, an echo of the all-important diplomatic -measures of their rivals; all are cautious not to betray by look or -action any embryo intrigues or manœuvres. Thus social intercourse -consists of gracious words, unmeaning civilities, and mutual distrust -and suspicion.</p> -<p>Those who have been born in Pera, and others who have been bred -there, have one and all become so very diplomatic that conversation -ordinarily dwindles into monosyllables, general inquiries after health, -and prognostics of the weather.</p> -<p>The simplest question is regarded by them as an inquisitive -intrusion upon their prerogatives and <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb387" href="#pb387" name="pb387">387</a>]</span>peculiar sphere, so -that, not to exceed the bounds of decorum, absolute silence becomes the -only alternative. But when any sudden change takes place in the Turkish -administration, or a new public measure is adopted, there is a jubilee -in this social clique—for the discussion of the pros and cons, -probabilities and possibilities, are talked over until the original -theme is lost sight of, and all the excitement subsides—unless -something else turns up at the Porte.</p> -<p>Intermarriage has produced a race of Perotes who never having had -the benefit of finding their proper level by contact with a more -elevated and extended sphere, consider themselves the very salt of -civilization, and are even more afraid than the members of the -Legations themselves, of mingling in general society.</p> -<p>The honorable distinction of being a Perote, does not only depend -upon birth, but a still more essential point is allegiance to the -Catholic religion. For the embassies under whose wings these colonies -first sheltered themselves were the representatives of Catholic -nations. The Oriental principle that religion and nationality are -synonymous, had its effect even on this mongrel race; who, by degrees -came to consider Catholicity as also identical with Europeanism.</p> -<p>Enjoying peculiar immunities as protégés of these -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb388" href="#pb388" name= -"pb388">388</a>]</span>embassies, in their imagined superiority, as -Catholics, to all around them, they regarded the rest of their fellow -citizens with even greater contempt than the Mohammedans felt towards -the Giavours. This <i lang="fr">soi-disant</i> aristocracy is not -confined to Pera, but is to be found scattered throughout the Levant, -at Smyrna and other commercial ports.</p> -<p>Ignorance of the language of the country where they are born is -considered only a proof of their superiority to the other nations; but -for their ignorance of all languages and miserable mongrel dialect -called <i lang="la">lingua Franca</i>, we can find no excuse either -aristocratic or diplomatic.</p> -<p>This <span lang="la">lingua Franca</span> is a corrupted dialect of -the Greek language, interlarded with French and Italian; and in writing -the Roman characters are substituted for the Hellenic, as being more -distingués. Even family names have been modified so as to ignore -any traces of parentage—such as Sazan Oghlou into Salsani, and -Zipgy Oghlou into Zipcy, etc.</p> -<p>When the foreign ambassadors first became residents of Pera, as long -ago as the days of Suleyman, they found this mixed people apparently a -connecting link between the East and the West; and being themselves -then ignorant of Oriental peculiarities, and the languages of Stamboul, -they were glad to receive these Perotes as employés, dragomans, -etc. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb389" href="#pb389" name= -"pb389">389</a>]</span></p> -<p>Thus, by degrees, they became a sort of necessary evil to the -foreign diplomatists.</p> -<p>Greater familiarity with the country, and still more, a just -appreciation of these aspirants to aristocratic honors and functions, -has, however, of late years, opened the eyes of the foreign -representatives; and each embassy is now furnished with employés -from the home government—consequently, the <i>Perotes</i> are now -decidedly below par.</p> -<p>Adventurers, who, in their own lands, would never be heard of, in -Pera become the guests of ambassadors and statesmen, and aping the airs -and manners of their distinguished patrons, manage to pass current. -Women at every other word murdering their mother tongues, are -transformed into ladies of quality in the palaces of the -representatives of their respective sovereigns.</p> -<p>But these are trifling matters. The outcasts of European society -here find a safe retreat, and are even protected in their outrages, -while the various protégés of the different Legations, -natives and foreigners, constitute a privileged community.</p> -<p>Russia has endeavored to increase her own power by inducing the -rayas to adopt her protection, in order to secure any claims whatever -against either Turks or Christians.</p> -<p>“The most desperate ruffians of Southern Europe <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb390" href="#pb390" name="pb390">390</a>]</span>are -in Turkey under British, Austrian, French, or Greek protection. The -English give impunity to Ionians and Maltese; Austria has her Croats; -French passports screen a crowd of Levantines, whose professed -attachment to Catholicism is allowed to be the cloak to any knavery; -while Greece and Naples send a contingent whose character may be easily -imagined. While the worst of them have protection for delinquencies, -the whole enjoy immunities of the most unjust kind.</p> -<p>“They can only be sued in the consular courts of their own -country. They pay less taxes than their neighbors, and in some places -none at all. They are wholly beyond the jurisdiction of the Porte, -while for all claims on the government, or on Turkish subjects they can -bring into play the whole machinery of their embassy. Each -representative is almost bound to make every private complaint an -affair of state, and, in fact the real or nominal Austrian, Briton, or -Frenchman, practically turns the diplomatists of his sovereign into his -own special attorneys whenever he pleases.”</p> -<p>This picture is not too highly drawn, and shows that if the -Mussulmans need reforms, the nominal Frank population are in a somewhat -<span class="corr" id="xd25e5987" title= -"Source: similiar">similar</span> category.</p> -<p>The effect which has been produced upon the minds <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb391" href="#pb391" name="pb391">391</a>]</span>of -the Osmanlis by such specimens of civilized Europeans has certainly not -been favorable; and it is to be hoped that more extended intercourse -with Europe will counteract these influences.</p> -<p>The Diplomatic corps and the Perotes, though the Upper Tendom, and -codfish aristocracy of Pera, are by no means the greater part of the -population.</p> -<p>English, Americans, French, Germans, Greeks, Armenians, and even -Moslems, reside there, preferring the bustle and public amusements -which are to be secured, to the quiet atmosphere of Stamboul. The opera -house and the fashionable emporiums of commerce have their attractions. -On a Friday, it is amusing to see the crowds of Turkish women in the -different shops, relentlessly handling the merchandize to the infinite -annoyance of the proprietors themselves, who are not so patient as the -merchants of the Bazaars. Often the most extravagant prices are paid -for trifling articles of luxury, by the Osmanlis of wealth, who, even -in this sort of trade, seem to feel that everything <i lang= -"fr">à la Franca</i> must cost them dear.</p> -<p>The <i>modistes</i> have grown rich by selling them feathers, -flowers, and haberdashery, and the <i>confiseurs</i> have exchanged -their honeyed stores for bags of Turkish gold. There is a great -fondness for dress in the population of Pera, and the balls, soirees -and reunions are so numerous that many shopkeepers, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb392" href="#pb392" name= -"pb392">392</a>]</span>having reaped a rich harvest, have retired from -business. Feast days and holidays, which are so frequent, require their -appropriate garb, and the Carnival, its masquerades and costumes de -bal.</p> -<p>All the people, high and low, are determined to dress well, and -display their toilets, so that the marts of fashion and luxury are -never deserted.</p> -<p>The great rendezvous for these happy souls, when their supremest -efforts in outward adorning are accomplished, is the <i>Grand champ des -Morts</i>. Whither they resort in crowds, and sit among the verdure -that springs from the dust of their ancestors, the white tombstones, -the only records of those who once walked in their midst! Occasional -funeral trains, slowly moving towards the newly opened graves, and the -mournful strains of the requiems of the dead, do not distract the -thoughts of those who are bent in chasing the shadows of Time, even -while the realities of Eternity are passing in review before them, and -the very spectres of the tombs seem ready to burst their cerements, and -start up in mocking derision. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb393" -href="#pb393" name="pb393">393</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch39" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e600">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XXXIX.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE ARISTOCRACY AND THE PEOPLE.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">As in every country there ate two classes, viz., the -aristocracy and the people, so in Turkey, there are the <i>Kibars</i> -and the <i>Nass</i>.</p> -<p>Aristocracy may everywhere be sub-divided into the aristocracies of -birth, of letters, wealth and position.</p> -<p>In Turkey, all hereditary rank is vested solely in the person of the -sultan; titles are conferred at his sovereign will and pleasure, and -they do not descend from father to son.</p> -<p>There is not, therefore, a regular or systematic aristocracy, and -the spirit of democracy is there very evident.</p> -<p>Although the Osmanlis hold all learning in great respect, yet -Turkish literature having hitherto been confined to the Koran and its -commentaries, the aristocracy of letters has consequently been -constituted by the expounders of the faith, who arrogate to themselves -the modest appellative of <i>Ulema</i>, or savans. Nevertheless, the -people have the greatest <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb394" href= -"#pb394" name="pb394">394</a>]</span>reverence and consideration for -<i>Zadés</i>, or those who are the descendants of illustrious -and enlightened parents.</p> -<p><i lang="fr">L’argent fait tout</i> is known and acknowledged -by all the world; and wealth is everywhere the great highway to power -and distinction; elevating its possessor above the common herd. But the -love of riches usually begets the love of power; for, <i lang= -"fr">N’est on que riche, on veut être grand</i>, this is -most evident in a country where the great tenure by which individual -wealth is preserved and personal respect commanded, is official -authority. Hence no Osmanli is contented, however great his wealth, -without some civil function by which he can avert the overbearing -disposition of his rivals. Indeed, so great is their ambition for -supremacy, that wealth and everything else is but secondary in their -estimation.</p> -<p>Therefore the only aristocracy in Turkey is that of wealth combined -with position.</p> -<p>It is not generally merit that raises a man to power in any part of -the world, but still less in Turkey. No matter what his previous -avocations, or utter ignorance, it is supposed that when Allah, or his -proxy, the Padishah, gives the office, that within the turban of -distinction lie all the sense and wit needed for the post! Hence, what -if the cobbler become the pasha, or the shop-boy Grand Vezir, Allah -Kerim! <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb395" href="#pb395" name= -"pb395">395</a>]</span></p> -<p>This a country where versatility of talent is very remarkable, if -not great depth of genius; for one day a man may be head cook to his -majesty, the next a captain pasha, or minister of finance! Thus are -often realized the tales of the Arabian Nights, and the humblest -subject may dream of greatness, and wake to find himself a Redjal, or -grandee of the realm.</p> -<p>Indeed the only real statesmen and true patriots may be reduced to -few individuals, all told, viz., Reshid, Aali, Fuad, Riza, Rifaat, and -Omer Pashas.</p> -<p>Besides, those who have been long employed as servants of the -palace, or have proved themselves cunning buffoons, or able intriguers, -are rewarded by some official post instead of a royal pension, provided -they are of the Faithful. For elevation to office is the privilege of -the Mussulmans only, who, considering themselves lords of the soil, as -they are the proprietors, are unwilling to consign their rights to -their rayas, on the principle that “to the victors belong the -spoils.”</p> -<p>The very existence of the rayas has rendered the Osmanlis proud and -arrogant in their peculiar right as Mussulmans; and, though holding all -high places themselves, they have been willing to call in the -assistance of their subjects in secondary employments. The rayas thus -employed, are, of course, but <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb396" -href="#pb396" name="pb396">396</a>]</span>a small proportion of the -whole; to all the rest life dwindles into a tinkering, jobbing -affair.</p> -<p>This mushroom aristocracy, which was formerly ephemeral, like -Jonas’ gourd, springing suddenly into existence, coming to -maturity in an incredibly short space of time, then perishing ere the -sun of its glory arrived at meridian height, has now, by virtue of the -Tanzimat, which secures the enjoyment of life and property, attained a -sort of permanency.</p> -<p>These officials being originally of the people, it may be supposed, -would feel some sympathy for them; but the moment they come into power, -they become an exclusive class. Because in Turkey the patriarchal idea -that everything belongs to the sovereign, has led them to regard the -government as not made for the people, but the people for the -government; they think, therefore, that all advantages should accrue -not to the governed but to the governing, thus reducing the mass into -the state of individual nonentities, or mere conduits for the resources -of the empire. The persons in authority seek, therefore, only the -prosperity of the government, and constitute, as it were, a sort of -<i>fiscal</i> administration, rather than one mindful of the good of -the commonwealth. Hence, whenever a project of public utility is -proposed, the first idea that crosses the mind of a Turkish -functionary, is what direct advantage may accrue to <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb397" href="#pb397" name="pb397">397</a>]</span>the -government? With such perverted ideas, the aristocracy, who are termed -par excellence the <i>Kibars</i>, though few in numbers, are like -leaven to the whole mass; domineering, exciting, and often corrupting -the best materials; and as men are creatures of circumstances, their -moral and temporal conditions are but the results of the good or bad -government under which they live. The evils, corruptions, and miseries -existing in a community, are not therefore to be attributed to the mass -<i>indiscriminately</i>, but rather to the influences that surround -them.</p> -<p><i lang="tr">Baluk bashdan Kokar</i> is a common proverb with the -Osmanlis, or as is the fountain so will be the streams which flow from -it; therefore a government which exercises its prerogatives to revenge, -not to punish; to remove the offender, not to benefit others by making -an example of him; to deal death-blows to all who stand in the way; to -encourage self-aggrandizement rather than study the wants of the -community; to prefer the intriguant before the patriot; to patronize -the buffoon rather than the statesman; such a government cannot fail to -stamp its sanguinary and arbitrary character upon its subjects.</p> -<p>A country where the insidious poison is ever at hand, and where the -innocent and new-born infant <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb398" href= -"#pb398" name="pb398">398</a>]</span>who may endanger the heirs to the -throne is forced to yield the life it has but just received; in such a -land the same scenes will be enacted in its darkest corners, and the -peasant will mimic the lord as far as he dares.</p> -<p>The selfish and corrupt principles of the government have naturally -had their pernicious effects upon all its agents, and through them, -upon the people.</p> -<p>The sultan is the great sun of the system—around whom the many -lesser orbs revolve. While the pashas and dignitaries are themselves -planets of no small lustre, attended by innumerable satellites of their -own.</p> -<p>The grandee holds the cable of power upon which tremblingly cling a -numerous train, from its summit to its lowest extremity—all -sustained, as long as the rope is firm; all crushed, when it slips from -the hand of its supporter.</p> -<p>Indiscriminate patronage being a principle, favoritism and -corruption become of necessity a natural consequence. Indifferent men -are therefore raised to places of trust, to perform duties which can -never occupy their minds or engross their intellect, but the want of -money is their first and their keenest necessity; for -“<span lang="fr">N’est on que grand? On veut être -riche. Est on et grand et riche? On veut être plus grand et plus -riche.</span>” <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb399" href="#pb399" -name="pb399">399</a>]</span></p> -<p>Thus all patriotism is subverted—and individual interest and -position are made the <span lang="la">sine quâ non</span> of -existence.</p> -<p>Before they were enervated by conquest and the possession of vast -tributary states, which intoxicated them with sudden wealth, the Turks -were brave in battle, faithful to their friends, and generous to their -enemies. But being inured to war and excitement, peace and tranquillity -only reduced them to a state of sloth and idleness, and inspired them -with conceit and arrogance to all around them. Content with being the -lords of the realm, ignorant and unfitted for the arts of peace, all -their affairs were consigned to their rayas.</p> -<p>The titles of Vali, Pasha, Mussellim, etc., were enjoyed by them -while their provinces and Pashaliks were either farmed out to -subordinates or managed by their Armenian sarafs or bankers—who -received and disbursed their incomes; so that the Osmanli grandee had -nothing to do but lounge listlessly in his Keosk and puff his long -chibouk—varying his life by occasional official visits to the -Porte, or in the softer seclusion of his harem.</p> -<p>The enviable condition of indolence, and the desire to be surrounded -with the trappings of wealth, created a rivalry among them, not to -attain high and honorable posts as the champions of their -country’s welfare, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb400" href= -"#pb400" name="pb400">400</a>]</span>but to ensure the means of luxury -and display—and to excel each other in supremacy.</p> -<p>Hence they have arrived at the acme of perfection in the arts of -adulation, servility, deceit, and intrigue. Real virtue is of no avail, -where successful vice only is admired, and the most insidious and -faithless ever the favorites of fortune. Indeed, ingratitude is stamped -upon their character, for an Osmanli raised to power, would turn the -enemy even of his patron, should he dare to cross his schemes. This is -so proverbial that they have a saying—<i lang="tr">Bir Osmanli -bir piré itchin koss kodja yorgani yakar!</i> an Osmanli would -burn up an entire coverlet to rid himself of a single flea! or in other -words, no consideration would deter him from any sacrifice that would -promote his own interests—examples of which are of daily -occurrence in their political machinations.</p> -<p>In such a malarious atmosphere, it would be supposed that every -moral virtue would perish, and only noisome weeds choke the -soil—but such is by no means the case. As the richest fruits and -most fragrant flowers often grow from the very putrefactions that lie -on the surface of the earth, so the <i>people</i> in Turkey, surrounded -by such a depraved and corrupted court, are themselves often specimens -of nature’s best handiwork. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb401" -href="#pb401" name="pb401">401</a>]</span></p> -<p>The native honesty of the Turks is proverbial, and in illustration -thereof the following story has been widely circulated.</p> -<p>An Englishman having landed a cargo of goods at one of the -custom-houses in the East, was unwilling to leave them at the wharf -<i>unguarded</i>; when he was told by the officer, that there was no -need for apprehension, as there was not another <i>Englishman</i> -within fifty miles!</p> -<p>Whatever may be the truth of this statement, it may be observed, -that some of the Osmanlis of the present day have so far advanced in -civilization as to even excel in this respect their present honorable -Allies! For, the idea that to rob the treasury of the sultan is not -defrauding the people, has led the officials into all the wiles of -corruption and systematic cheating—so that cheating and bribery -may be considered as the corner stones of this vast edifice.</p> -<p>In the purchase of government supplies there is a display of honesty -on the part of the officials, and also of the European merchants, who -endeavor to underbid each other in prices, which may be considered by -an outsider as ruinous, but on the contrary, always proves profitable -to the co-partners in the speculation.</p> -<p>On a certain occasion 780 pieces of cotton cloth <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb402" href="#pb402" name="pb402">402</a>]</span>were -palmed off upon the government by a European merchant for 78,000 -pieces! for which amount the Treasury gave a note.</p> -<p>Such instances are not of rare occurrence, nor confined only to -officials—they pervade all classes. Hence the scullion cheats the -cook; the cook the steward; the steward the master; the master the -efendy; the efendy the pasha; and the pasha the sultan; and why not? -Where the strife for aggrandizement and power is so great, and the -battle not to the brave and good, but to the wealthy and intriguing, -there is little or no inducement to honesty and good faith.</p> -<p>Russia seems to understand our people better than any other -Europeans, owing perhaps to her natural proximity; also since “a -fellow feeling makes us wond’rous kind,” she knew where to -touch the sensitive Osmanlis, when she provided Prince Menschikoff, on -his late mission to Constantinople, with a surplus fund of 300,000 Paul -Imperials, or over a million of dollars!</p> -<p>It is not, however, only in Turkey that bribery and corruption -prevail—even Europe, France and England, the very centres of -civilization, have furnished sad examples of personal aggrandizement, -under the garb of patriotism.</p> -<p>Nevertheless, it is eminently true, that those of the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb403" href="#pb403" name= -"pb403">403</a>]</span>people who have retained their primitive -simplicity are truly honest and confiding; while others have become -contaminated by the corruption of the court, and the grasping spirit of -European adventurers.</p> -<p>Many of the peasants remove to the metropolis, with the hope of -bettering their condition. Some of them become <i>hamals</i>, or -porters, <i>Tellaks</i>, or attendants of the baths; <i>cayikjys</i>, -or boatmen, common laborers, venders in general, and others, domestics -in private houses.</p> -<p>A certain Armenian, native of Van, immediately upon his arrival in -Constantinople, was engaged as a scullion.</p> -<p>In course of time, he complained to his companions that he was not -doing a good business on such a salary as he received, and he wondered -at their apparent prosperity.</p> -<p>His simplicity was, of course, ridiculed at first, and through -compassion, he was initiated into the tricks of the trade. He was told -that he must always add to his account the customary <i>Khamin</i> of -20 or 30 per cent., a technical term, expressing overcharge, or -cheating, not understood by novices.</p> -<p>So the next day, when this simple son of Armenia presented his -account to his master, at the foot of the bill there was an item, which -seemed not quite intelligible to him. He therefore called for an -explanation; <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb404" href="#pb404" name= -"pb404">404</a>]</span>when the servant, in all his native simplicity, -informed him that, <i>that item</i> was the Khamin, or the <span class= -"corr" id="xd25e6189" title="Source: som">sum</span> total of his -cheating, which his companions assured him was customary, and allowed -to all servants in their daily purchases! How fortunate and consoling -it would be, if, instead of being drugged in small doses, we could thus -be informed of the sum total of all the cheatings to which we are -subjected!</p> -<p>The most unlimited confidence is stamped upon all their reciprocal -transactions, and they intrust each other with any amount of goods, -without demanding a receipt, check, or counter check. In the exercise -of their avocation as hamals, they are often intrusted with bags of -money untold; they are generally the watchmen or guardians to the -stores and mercantile houses of the Franks, and in any deficiency or -robbery, their character and integrity are never questioned or -suspected.</p> -<p>The Osmanlis possess the domestic virtues of kindness and affection -in a remarkable degree; their love of offspring is very great, and -their patient endurance of the whims and caprices of their women quite -exemplary.</p> -<p><i>Merhamet</i>, or compassion, is an essential component in their -character, and induces them to extend a most unlimited patronage even -to the lower orders <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb405" href="#pb405" -name="pb405">405</a>]</span>of creation. Hence the streets in Turkey -swarm with dogs, the roofs of the houses with cats, and the domes of -the mosques with venerated pigeons, which, one and all, are objects of -special charity.</p> -<p>The thousands of cayiks that ply up and down the Bosphorus, acting -as aquatic omnibuses, besides their designated load of passengers, make -a point to carry one or more boys <i>gratuitously</i>, as an act of -charity; and how astonished would they be at the cry of “cut -behind,” which so often greets the ears of beggars in more -eminent Christian lands, who mistaking wishes for horses might -otherwise chance to ride.</p> -<p>Yet a Turk is a singular being, apparently composed of -contrarieties, of savage traits, as well as domestic virtues, and this -contrariety is to be attributed solely to his fanaticism. Social and -humane until you touch his religious prejudices, when he becomes -implacable.</p> -<p>It has been the interest of the clergy to nurture a fanatical -conceit, by which the great principle of human nature, -self-glorification, has well sustained, and the Mussulmans been led to -consider themselves the very salt of the earth, and the rest of the -human family as contemptible Giavours.</p> -<p>Hence they will not honor a Christian with the Mohammedan -salutation, <i lang="tr">Selamin Aleküm</i>, “<span lang= -"la">Pax <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb406" href="#pb406" name= -"pb406">406</a>]</span>vobiscum</span>,” nor will they observe -any one in the company, until they have looked for a true believer, to -whom, however humble he may be, is offered the Arabic, or orthodox -salutation; and on the Christians present, however great in their own -estimation, will afterwards be bestowed as their due, a simple <i lang= -"tr">Sabahlar-Hayr Olsoon</i>, or good morning, in plain Turkish.</p> -<p>Though they have been subdued into a certain degree of external -deference by the progress of civilization, yet in the exchange of -social etiquettes, there is always a meaning slight cast upon their -unbelieving friends, which is well understood and appreciated among -themselves.</p> -<p>Even the humblest Mohammedan will appropriate to himself the best -position in a public conveyance, or in any promiscuous assembly, -considering himself as fully entitled to such privileges, by the simple -guarantee of his faith, which elevates him above all humanity.</p> -<p>In the medical school, where some of the scholars belong to the -families of the rayas, this Mussulman conceit is most evident, and even -tolerated and encouraged by the government at the present day; for -regardless of actual merit, it has hitherto been a principle with the -faculty always to place a Mussulman boy at the head of the class!</p> -<p>It may be a matter of wonder to see such bigoted <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb407" href="#pb407" name= -"pb407">407</a>]</span>characters adopting the very garb of the -contemptible giavours. But the change of costume was effected by the -invincible Mahmoud, who, to liberate his people from the thraldom of -the janissaries, and the superstitions of darker ages, feared neither -priest or Koran, and at all hazards resolved to make a daring stride -towards civilization and reform.</p> -<p>Therefore this change of costume was not effected through any -relaxation of religious bigotry, but by the force of the supreme power -of the sultan; and the Ulema themselves were obliged to compromise, by -wearing a fez, with a simple turban around it, with some other slight -modification of their flowing robes.</p> -<p>Reform in dress having become an essential principle of the -government, those connected with the court and all public officers, -were obliged to conform to the established style, and the young -<i lang="fr">élégans</i> of Stamboul now vie with the -Parisian exquisites in their recherchées toilettes.</p> -<p>But beyond the circle of court etiquette and fashion, the artisans -and peasants still preserve all the varieties of costumes identified -with Orientalism.</p> -<p>Religious fanaticism in the East, is not confined to the Mussulmans -alone. It seems to have a universal sway in this climate, pervading -every community.</p> -<p>The Mussulman would feel callous at the sight of the decapitation of -a Christian, and a Christian would <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb408" -href="#pb408" name="pb408">408</a>]</span>experience a secret -exultation at the death of a Mussulman.</p> -<p>Some years ago, I had the misfortune to meet with an accident; my -carriage was lost in the Bosphorus, and my horse and hostler were -drowned. Near the spot of this occurrence, there was a Greek coaster -lying at anchor, and the sailors soon came to my call for assistance; -but perceiving that the drowning man was dressed in Turkish costume, -and taking him for a Mussulman, they instinctively exclaimed, -<span class="trans" title="Tourkos eine, Tourkos eine"><span class= -"Greek" lang="grc">Τουρκος -εινε, -Τουρκος -εινε</span></span>, he is a Turk, he is a Turk, -left him to his sad fate. It was in vain that I proclaimed that he was -a Greek and co-religionist of their own.</p> -<p>The Mussulman is fanatical, because he has thereby been goaded on to -victory, and attributes all his successes to the banner of the -Prophet—and the Christian is bigoted, because his religion is the -only thing left him—his church is the cradle of his -superstitions, and the badge of his nationality.</p> -<p>Even a Turk designates his nationality by his religion; for if you -ask him, Of what nation are you? his answer will invariably be, -<i lang="tr">El-hamd-ullah Mussulmanem</i>, or Thank God I am a -Mussulman.</p> -<p>Indeed, religion in the East is so pre-eminent, that a declaration -of faith is equal to an allegiance of fealty, and the Mohammedan -formula of La-Illah-Illallah, etc., is the only oath of naturalization, -which, if once <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb409" href="#pb409" name= -"pb409">409</a>]</span>pronounced, fully entitles the individual to all -the privileges and immunities of Turkish citizenship.</p> -<p>Neither is there a community of sentiment among the Christians -themselves—who, all abhorring Islamism, hate none the less each -other through their religious differences.</p> -<p>An Armenian, native of Angora—whose inhabitants are reputed -for their religious bigotry—and a Roman Catholic by persuasion, -had occasion to visit Trieste on some commercial business. On his -arrival there, he was asked by the officer of the quarantine what -nation he belonged to! His unsophistical and prompt answer was -“Catholic.” The officer, somewhat puzzled at this novel -nationality, reminded him that they were also all Catholics there, but -called themselves Austrians or Italians—now, what is your nation? -thereupon our worthy friend unflinchingly reiterated that he was a -Catholic; nothing else but a Catholic; for they now had, through the -interference of the French Ambassador, a Patriarch of their own, and -were recognized as a nation! meaning a community.</p> -<p>If a Greek mendicant happen to call at your door, and you ask his -co-religionist who it is, his answer will surely be <i>Christianos</i> -or a Christian; but if the applicant for charity should chance to be of -any other creed, his only title would be <i>ztiyanos</i>, or beggar. -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb410" href="#pb410" name= -"pb410">410</a>]</span></p> -<p>Apart from the religious fanaticism, which is universal, the people, -uncontaminated by a depraved and corrupted court—unlike the -enervated and luxurious Osmanlis of the metropolis, are simple-minded, -brave, robust, temperate, intelligent, active and industrious.</p> -<p>The Mussulmans formerly taught that apostasy should be punished with -death; but now a new system of instruction, on this and other points, -proceeding from supreme authority, is as readily received by the -credulous multitude.</p> -<p>Their bravery has been attested by the late massacre of Sinope, when -one and all preferred death to an ignominious surrender. The events of -the recent war have established the fact, that there are no better -soldiers than the Turks.</p> -<p>We have the testimony of a distinguished American who</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line xd25e6295">“Stood</p> -<p class="line">Among them, but not of them.”</p> -</div> -<p class="first">He says that “we had an agreeable conversation -with General Omar Pasha’s staff surgeon …. Among -other things, he said the Turks had long been extremely anxious to -unite with their Allies in a direct assault upon Sebastopol. I was -somewhat surprised at this intimation, knowing their considerate -nature, and general inclination to conservative <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb411" href="#pb411" name= -"pb411">411</a>]</span>views.” Yet, notwithstanding, they have -been accused of cowardice for the desertion of the batteries daring the -battle of Balaklava, which could not well have been avoided under the -circumstances. The triumphs of Silistria, Tchetate and Kars, afford -ample refutation of such calumnies.</p> -<p>The Orientals are strong and athletic men, capable of enduring the -greatest bodily fatigue.</p> -<p>The <i>hamals</i> or porters, both Mussulman and Armenian, have been -known to carry on their backs <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb412" -href="#pb412" name="pb412">412</a>]</span>immense weights; and one of -these Oriental Hercules has been seen carrying, on a wager, a load of -no less than a <i>thousand pounds</i> to a distance of a quarter of a -mile!</p> -<p>The heavier hardens are suspended from long poles, the number of -which increases in proportion to the weight. And when the contents are -of glassware, instead of being marked <i>Fragile</i>, a full size -representation of a bottle is painted upon the package. The ends of -these poles rest on the shoulders of the hamals, and they walk in a -steady and measured soldier-like step. One of them once accidentally -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb413" href="#pb413" name= -"pb413">413</a>]</span>slipped and fell, and the end of the pole -striking him on the chest, he became senseless. His companions raised -him up, whilst one of their number stood back to back with the injured -man, and locking his arms within those of his comrade, repeatedly -raised him from the ground, thus expanding the chest, until he -recovered his breath, when, to the astonishment of the bystanders, the -man, after taking one or two long inspirations, smiling at the funny -incident, shouldered his pole and marched on as if nothing had -happened!</p> -<p>These very men live habitually on the simplest diet, consisting of -the coarsest brown bread, in the middle of which they make a cavity, -and fill it with equal proportions of olive oil and molasses, and it is -really a pleasure to see them enjoy their simple meals with a relish -that would kill all dyspepsia doctors from sheer envy.</p> -<p>The native intelligence of the people is evinced by their aptitude -in acquiring the arts of civilized life; for after a residence of a -couple of years in the metropolis, the <i>rudest peasants</i> become -accomplished soldiers and skillful artisans.</p> -<p>The facility with which they have adapted themselves to the European -style of music is very remarkable, and certainly implies much talent or -cleverness. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb414" href="#pb414" name= -"pb414">414</a>]</span></p> -<p>Indeed, many of those who have risen to the higher ranks of society, -evince no signs, in their general deportment, of plebeian origin, save -the peculiar brogue of local rusticity.</p> -<p>Nothing is more erroneous and unjust than the idea that the -Orientals are indolent or inactive.</p> -<p>The <i lang="tr">tabys</i> or garçons of the Kahvés -even excel their Parisian competitors in alertness and general -ubiquity—serving scores of customers at once with coffee, -chibouk, and narghillés.</p> -<p>The boatmen, who transport the pashas and others to their homes, -after the adjourning of the Porte, and closing of the Bazaars, delight -to compete with each other in speed, and linger on their course until -they meet with an antagonist, when the race sometimes extends the whole -length of the Bosphorus.</p> -<p>Their sports and national games, consisting of horsemanship, -wrestling, chasing, cricket, etc, all tend to show their love of -activity.</p> -<p>There is none of the bustle, or American go-a-headism, in the -Oriental character and habits; none of that nervous excitement which -has so much the air of great progress, too often, like the whirlwind -among the natural elements, creating prodigies of human noise and -commotion, which subside and leave no sign; or it may be, only havoc -and destruction. In all the machineries of Eastern life, public or -domestic, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb415" href="#pb415" name= -"pb415">415</a>]</span>steady and quiet perseverance rules the motion, -the oil of gentleness falling drop by drop upon the rolling wheels, -suffices for the friction; while in the land of modern adventure, by -increasing the pressure to a tremendous degree, the whole structure is -often crushed to atoms. This giddy rushing to a certain point is too -apt to wear out human energy, and most surely annihilates -self-possession, which is the keystone to success. Leave then, we say, -the Oriental sometimes to sit amid the fumes of his favorite chibouk; -for while external things are beclouded, often a mighty scheme is in -conception, and the sunshine of matured judgment suddenly bursts upon -the dim atmosphere, in full power and glory, ready to fructify and -yield all manner of increase.</p> -<p>The apparent idleness which some persons have attributed to the -natives of this country, is more the effect of a spirit of resignation -to external circumstances, than of a desire to be unemployed.</p> -<p>Taking for a basis the idea that the interest of the people is but -secondary, and under the pretence of increasing the revenue of the -country, and thus benefiting the state as it were, but with the secret -hope of self-aggrandizement, all advantageous projects are seized upon -by the officials; thus an effectual check is thrown upon all private -and public enterprise.</p> -<p>The writer was the first to propose to the Turkish <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb416" href="#pb416" name= -"pb416">416</a>]</span>government the establishment of a railroad from -the capital to Adrianople. Not succeeding in this, a line of post -coaches was suggested, for which, after great exertion, a Firman was -granted. But no sooner were the advantages of the project understood, -than several persons in authority began to intrigue, until they -succeeded in appropriating the Firman to themselves, which had been -obtained at so much expense and toil by another.</p> -<p>But as usual, it proved to them more ruinous than profitable, -because of the numerous contenders for the <i>spoils</i>.</p> -<p>No internal improvements are dreamt of, and no motive left for -speculation, and as there is no mutual confidence between the -government and the people, the formation of corporate companies, which -require united action, is out of the question, or, if attempted, they -are sure to fall through by official exactions. Thus, a country teeming -with mines and minerals, is left unexplored, and all other internal -resources lie dormant.</p> -<p>Some attempts have of late been made by the government at internal -improvements, such as the post-road from Trebizond to Erzuroum; but the -over-exertions of those intrusted with the work soon exhausted the -appropriations, and the road was but half completed. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb417" href="#pb417" name="pb417">417</a>]</span></p> -<p>The coal mines at Heraclea have shared a <span class="corr" id= -"xd25e6381" title="Source: similiar">similar</span> fate. Indeed, no -undertaking can be prosperous in the lands of the officials—and -if any such privilege be granted to private individuals, it is -invariably under the patronage of some grandee.</p> -<p>A permission was obtained from government by an individual to light -the streets of Pera. In the course of six months the lamps were -demolished by the citizens, because they were heavily taxed to fill the -pockets of the speculator, without any advantage to -themselves—the streets for the most part, being as dark as -before.</p> -<p>All innovations are, therefore, in disrepute, not that they are not -appreciated, but because they invariably prove to be mere schemes for -individual advantage, and never <span lang="la">pro bono -publico</span>.</p> -<p>Hence it is also that the streets, even in the metropolis, are ill -paved, filthy, and not lighted—each person carrying his own -lantern, and getting along as best he can.</p> -<p>Public enterprise being at so low an ebb, a spirit of indifference -pervades the country and if you once pass the aristocracy, the actual -necessities of the community are but few. They have no idea therefore -of bettering their condition. If you offer them any new invention, they -admire its ingenuity, and dryly tell you they have no need of -it—consequently <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb418" href= -"#pb418" name="pb418">418</a>]</span>there is no need of patent rights -for new inventions.</p> -<p>This indifference is not to be construed into a love of -inactivity—but is rather the result of selfishness—each -man’s interests being circumscribed by the sphere in which he -moves. In case of any emergency they are most indefatigable and -persevering. It needs only to cite the fact that Pera, one of the -suburbs of the city, has, in the course of twenty years, been destroyed -by fire <i>four</i> times, and entirely rebuilt by native industry. -Indeed, <i>inactivity</i> is against the spirit of the country, for -there, there are no <i>Rentiers</i>—but every one must have a -calling—even the sultan is traditionally supposed to belong to -the <i>tooth-pick trade</i>!</p> -<p>Since the abolition of capital and summary punishments and the -monopolies, by the promulgation of of the Tanzimat, which was an -attempt at reformation, not without some beneficial results, a new -impulse has been given to the activity of the population. In a word, -give but the necessary impetus, and as much genuine go-a-headism may be -found in Turkey, as in Yankee-land itself.</p> -<p>With such a population, and so many internal resources, it may be -deemed a matter of wonder that this empire should be in so ruinous a -condition. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb419" href="#pb419" name= -"pb419">419</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch40" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= -"#xd25e610">Contents</a>]</span> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">CHAPTER XL.</h2> -<h2 class="main">THE FUTURE OF TURKEY.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The survey that has been taken of the Turkish empire, -political and social, will furnish the component parts of this -wonderful structure of human power and religious fanaticism. Owing to -the remarkable sway attained by the sword of the Prophet, the various -ingredients mingled by the power of conquest, have all been brought -together, like so many antagonistic elements, to be wrought into some -degree of unity of spirit and purpose, and to be rendered subservient -to one great potentate, absolute and despotic.</p> -<p>The dread power of the Turk, ravaging and blood-thirsty, has only of -late years ceased to inspire terror to the world in general, and to -hold in trembling awe the subjects over which it domineered. Suddenly -the dark cloud of barbarism began to disperse from this vast clime of -the Orient, as Mahmoud, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb420" href= -"#pb420" name="pb420">420</a>]</span>seizing the torch of civilization, -scattered the light of science and reform over the land.</p> -<p>Ever since his day, the struggling beams of knowledge and truth have -been casting a mistlike glow over these dominions, sometimes almost -bursting into a blaze of brightness, and again subsiding into the -obscurity of olden times and religions bigotry.</p> -<p>The principles of progress, and the maintenance of ancient and long -established usages were now at war; the former supported by the -semi-enlighted portion of the people, and the latter by the formidable -body of the ulema or the Mohammedan clergy.</p> -<p>The Rayas, or Christian subjects, hitherto quiescent and despairing, -now saw the star of hope and comparative liberty in their horizon, and -were ready to grasp at any straw of deliverance from the storms of -oppression and tyranny. The mass is in commotion—Mussulman power -trembles at the vision of the emancipation of its victims. Oppressed -and suffering humanity even dares to utter one vast groan, and to raise -a furtive glance towards the glorious temple of liberty, and the -equality of man with man.</p> -<p>Mahmoud, the bold champion of his country, is surrounded by -intrigues, both foreign and domestic, and becomes entangled in the web -of turbulence and opposition, until his soul can endure no longer, and -wings its flight from the terrible field of battle. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb421" href="#pb421" name="pb421">421</a>]</span></p> -<p>But the iron gates of barbarism had been unlocked; and even the -extreme youth of the succeeding Sultan, Abd-ul-Medjid, bringing with -him a sort of regency, could not refasten the heavy bolts.</p> -<p>Thus we find this empire only advancing in progress, the more -wonderful since there has been comparatively so little reform in the -actual government. Even the Sultan has abrogated his absolute and -despotic sway; the once powerful viceroy still sits at his right hand, -but no longer unfettered; and the various religious and civil -functionaries, although the same as the creatures of yesterday, are -themselves amenable to the tribunal of justice and reform, where the -spirit of Mahmoud seems to linger as a reproving and condemning -monitor.</p> -<p>The opposing influences to all innovations were strong; the very -soil rank with bigotry, conceit, and prejudice, and the powers in -actual possession of the commonwealth self-willed and cunning. Hitherto -a comparative isolation had created natural walls, within which -despotism had its unmitigated sway. But as distance became annihilated -throughout the world’s dominions, as oceans dwindled into lakes, -rivers into little rills, and broad acres into mere pleasure gardens, -before the mighty achievements of modern invention, all natural -barriers disappeared.</p> -<p>As in ancient times the walls of the great city of <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb422" href="#pb422" name= -"pb422">422</a>]</span>Jericho fell at the blast of the trumpets of -Joshua, no sooner did the echoes of the shrill whistle of the mighty -steamship reverberate along the shores and among the seven hills of -Stamboul, than were annihilated the frontiers of a barbarous and -spiritual despotism, in the stronghold of the Mussulmans. Civilization -from Europe was no longer stayed, but boldly stepped into this natural -garden of the world. To stem the current would be to perish in an -overwhelming vortex; and the very government was obliged to conform, to -compromise, and to make treaties of peace with this new element, social -and political progress.</p> -<p>Not only in Turkey, but universally, the spirit of domination has -been pre-eminent, until the march of human improvement awakened the -community to a sense of their own power and individual rights. Thus the -elements of democracy have been arrayed in opposition to the -oppressions of despotism, threatening its utter annihilation, and -forcing the ruling powers to terms of capitulation. The Reformation -checked the authority of the Pope, a charter was granted to the -English, and their colonies in America soon grew to a great and -independent state.</p> -<p>Though the European states cannot boast of that degree of -independence they have ofttimes struggled for, yet their rulers and -potentates have ever <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb423" href="#pb423" -name="pb423">423</a>]</span>been, and are still, forced to don the -mantle of Liberty, and maintain the guise of Justice in their various -administrations; thus proving the supremacy of the spirit of -democracy.</p> -<p>But despotism, fostered in the bosom of the little dukedom of -Moscow, has maintained its unbroken sway, and spread over the vast -territories now known as the Russian dominions.</p> -<p>It has engulphed Finland, Crimea, Poland, Bessarabia, Circassia, -Georgia and many other provinces, and by its continued and systematic -encroachments upon Turkey, even threatened to overwhelm Europe itself. -Local circumstances have combined to favor her designs, and render her -aggressions successful.</p> -<p>The remarkable spirit of Mohammedan fanaticism led the Turks on to -conquest. The neighboring countries were all subjugated, until the -thirst for war enticed them into Europe, where victory still followed -their banner. But the very nations that they conquered, many of whom -were induced, by force or otherwise, to make their abode in the Turkish -dominions, tended by degrees to undermine their power. With them came -various religions and creeds, conflicting with each other, and creating -the bitterest animosities. Apart from this, the vast extent of their -territories, without any of the modern facilities of intercourse, -rendered the empire unmanageable <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb424" -href="#pb424" name="pb424">424</a>]</span>by an unenlightened and -barbarous government. The army was numerous and powerful, but turbulent -and refractory, usurping the power of governing to themselves, as -attests the well known history of the Janissaries, who could only be -subdued by the bold daring of the illustrious Mahmoud. A new army was -organized, on European principles, and various civil reforms attempted, -but without any beneficial result; for the neighboring nations, -especially the formidable power of Russia, the inveterate enemy of -Turkey, were anxiously regarding the waning decline of Ottoman -supremacy.</p> -<p>Russia, who never missed an opportunity to expedite the rain of this -rival empire, has at various times waged war upon the most trifling -pretexts. Upon the termination of the Greek insurrection, and -immediately after the destruction of the Janissaries, a most aggressive -and iniquitous war was commenced, in which the European powers acted as -sleeping partners. The Albanian, Servian, Egyptian and Kürdish -rebellions were each successively instigated by Russian and Austrian -emissaries, or secret agents, until the whole country became the arena -of party intrigue, and the direst confusion, thus realizing the plans -of its enemy, and rendering it an easy prey to Moscovite cunning.</p> -<p>To Europe, now awakened to a sense of her own <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb425" href="#pb425" name= -"pb425">425</a>]</span>impending danger, the division of Turkey seemed -the only alternative, since that empire showed evident symptoms of -decay and inability to resist so powerful an enemy as Russia.</p> -<p>Reshid Pasha, one of the ablest and oldest statesmen and a true -patriot, was at this time in Europe as representative of the Porte. On -hearing of this proposed division of his country, he hastened home to -offer his counsels to the young sultan who had just ascended the -throne. By his representations and suggestions, his majesty was induced -to issue a proclamation called the Tanzimat, or reformation, by which -it was hoped that the country would be regenerated, and the world -convinced that Turkey could maintain itself.</p> -<blockquote> -<div class="body"> -<div class="div1 chapter"> -<div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">THE TANZIMAT.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first"><i>Translated from the Turkish.</i></p> -<p>In the former days of the Ottoman empire, as every one knows, the -glorious precepts of the Koran and the laws of the monarchy were -universally observed; and consequently the empire increased both in -power and size, and all subjects, without exception, attained the -highest degree of ease and prosperity. For one hundred and fifty years -a succession of accidents and of divers causes have put an end to this -obedience to the sacred code of the laws, <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb426" href="#pb426" name="pb426">426</a>]</span>and to the rules -which spring from it, and our former power and prosperity have been -changed into weakness and poverty; for an empire loses all stability -when the laws cease to be observed.</p> -<p>These considerations are constantly present to our mind, and from -the day of our accession to the throne, the idea of the public welfare, -the amelioration of the state of the provinces, and condolence with the -people, have been its sole occupations. Now, when we consider the -geographical position of the Ottoman empire, the fertility of the soil, -the aptitude and intelligence of the inhabitants, we are convinced that -by applying ourselves to discover suitable means, the result, which by -the aid of God we hope to attain, may be obtained in the space of a few -years. Thus, then, full of confidence in the Most High, and relying -upon the intercession of our Prophet, we have judged proper to seek by -new institutions to procure for the provinces composing the Ottoman -empire the benefit of a good administration.</p> -<p>These institutions must bear principally upon three points, to wit; -1st. The pledges which insure to our subjects a perfect security of -life, honor and fortune. 2d. A regular mode of assessing and levying -the taxes. 3d. A mode equally regular, for the levy of soldiers, and -the duration of the service. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb427" href= -"#pb427" name="pb427">427</a>]</span></p> -<p>And are not life and honor truly the most precious goods which -exist? What man, however base his situation, if his character adapt him -for violence, could be prevented from having recourse to it, and thus -doing injury to his government and the country, if his life and honor -are endangered? If, on the contrary, he enjoys, in this respect, a -perfect security, he will not wander from the paths of loyalty, and all -his acts will concur to the prosperity of the government, and of his -brethren. If his fortune be not secured to him, each remains cold to -the voice of the prince and the country; no one is occupied with the -progress of public fortune, absorbed as every one must be in his own -inquietudes. But if, on the other hand, the citizen possess in -confidence his property of every kind, then full of ardor in his -business, the circle of which he seeks to enlarge in order to extend -that of his pleasure, he finds each day redoubled in his heart the love -of his prince and country, and devotion to her cause; these sentiments -become in him the source of the most praiseworthy actions.</p> -<p>As to the regular assessment and establishment of the taxes, it is -very important that this matter should be regulated, for the State that -is driven to various expenses for the defense of its territory, can -procure the money necessary for its armies and other services only by -the contributions levied upon the subjects. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb428" href="#pb428" name= -"pb428">428</a>]</span>Although, thanks be to God, those of our empire -have for some time been delivered from the scourge of monopolies, -improperly regarded in former times as a source of revenue, an -injurious custom still exists, and which cannot but have disastrous -consequences, I mean that practice of venal concession known as the -Iltizam. By this system the civil and financial administration of a -locality is delivered to the arbitration of a single man, and sometimes -to the iron hand of the most violent and base passions, for if this -farmer of the revenue be not good, he will only have regard to his own -advantage.</p> -<p>It is requisite, then, that this time forward each individual of the -Ottoman society be taxed his quota of his established impost, in the -ratio of his fortune and possessions, and nothing farther can be -required of him. Special laws too must fix and limit the expenses of -our armies by sea and land.</p> -<p>Although, as we have said, the defense of our common country is an -important matter, and although it is the duty of all the inhabitants to -furnish soldiers to that effect; laws must now be established to -regulate the proportion that each locality shall furnish upon the -necessity of the moment, and to reduce to four or five years the term -of military service. For it is both acting unjustly, and giving a death -blow to agriculture and industry, to take, without regard to -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb429" href="#pb429" name= -"pb429">429</a>]</span>the respective population of the districts, from -one more, and from another fewer, than they can supply; while it -reduces the soldiers to despair, and contributes to the depopulation of -the country to retain them all their life-time in the service.</p> -<p>To resume, without these different laws, the necessity for which we -have just seen, the empire can possess neither power, riches, happiness -nor tranquillity; while all these blessings may be obtained from the -existence of the new laws. Therefore, from this time forward the cause -of every accused will be publicly judged conformably to our own divine -law, after thorough inquest and examination, and so long as the regular -judgment is not interrupted, no one will be able in secret, or in -public, to put another to death by poison, or any other punishment.</p> -<p>No one will be permitted to attaint the honor of another. Each -individual will possess his property, of every kind, and will dispose -of it with the most entire liberty, without the opposition of any one; -thus, for example, the property of a criminal shall not be confiscated -to his innocent heirs.</p> -<p>These imperial concessions, extending to all our subjects, of -whatever religion or sect they may be, shall by them be enjoyed without -exception. A perfect security is thus granted by us to the inhabitants -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb430" href="#pb430" name= -"pb430">430</a>]</span>of the empire in their lives, honor, and -fortunes, as the sacred text of our law demands.</p> -<p>Upon all other points, as they must be regulated by the agreement of -enlightened opinion, our Council of Justice (augmented by new members -when it shall be necessary), to which will be joined, on certain days -by us appointed, our Ministers and the Notables of the Empire, will -assemble for the purpose of establishing regular laws, for the security -of life and fortune, and the imposition of taxes. In these assemblies -each man will freely express his ideas and give his opinion.</p> -<p>The laws for the regulation of the military service will be fixed by -the military council, to hold its sessions at the Palace of the -Seraskier.</p> -<p>As soon as a law is fixed to be forever available and executory, it -shall be presented to us, and we will give it our sanction, which we -shall write at the head with our own imperial hand.</p> -<p>As the present institutions have for their aim but the establishment -of religion, government, the nation and the empire, we pledge ourselves -to do nothing contrary to them. In pledge of our promise we will, after -having placed them in the hall in which is kept the glorious mantle of -our Prophet, in presence of all the ulema and grandees of the empire, -make oath by <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb431" href="#pb431" name= -"pb431">431</a>]</span>the name of God, and afterwards the ulema and -grandees shall also swear. And if, after this, any one among the ulema, -or grandees of the empire, or any other person whatsoever, shall -violate these institutions, he shall undergo, without regard to rank, -consideration, or credit, the penalty annexed to his well-proved crime. -To this effect a penal code will be re-enacted.</p> -<p>As all the functionaries of the empire at the present day receive -suitable salaries, and as the appointments of those, whose duties are -not sufficiently well remunerated as yet, will be regulated, a vigorous -law will be enacted against the traffic of favor and of charges -(richvet), which is reproved by the divine law, and which is one of the -principal causes of the decadence of the empire.</p> -<p>These dispositions, above stated, being an alteration, and a -complete renovation from the ancient usages, this imperial edict will -be published at Constantinople, and in all the other cities of our -empire, and will be communicated officially to all the Ambassadors of -<span class="corr" id="xd25e6524" title= -"Source: frienldy">friendly</span> powers residing at Constantinople, -that they may be witnesses of the alteration in our institutions, -which, if it please God, shall ever endure.</p> -<p>To this may God have us all in his holy and worthy keeping.</p> -<p>May those who are guilty of an act contrary to the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb432" href="#pb432" name= -"pb432">432</a>]</span>present institutions, be the object of divine -malediction, and be forever deprived of every kind of happiness.</p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</blockquote> -<hr class="tb"> -<p>This document, which is an official acknowledgment of the existing -evils and corruptions, was read at Gül-hané, on the 3d of -November, 1839, with the greatest solemnity, before a vast concourse of -people, and in the presence of the foreign representatives.</p> -<p>In order to commemorate the occasion, and enforce these new -principles, it was proposed to erect a magnificent public monument, the -plans and designs of which were confided to the writer; but before the -foundations could be laid, a complete</p> -<div class="lgouter"> -<p class="line">“Change came o’er the spirit of their -dreams.”</p> -</div> -<p class="first">The great Napoleon has wisely pronounced that -“Constantinople is the key to all Europe, and designed to be the -capital of the world.” Turkey may, therefore, be divided and -subdivided, but Constantinople, the great bone of contention, being -indivisible, the <i>partition of Turkey</i> becomes an impossibility, -and political equilibrium will not permit any one power to usurp its -possession.</p> -<p>It was fortunate that it fell accidentally into the hands of the -Turks, who were incapable of availing <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb433" href="#pb433" name="pb433">433</a>]</span>themselves of its -advantages; and for the same reason it is desirable they should retain -it. Hence the maintenance, or diplomatically speaking, the -<i>integrity</i> of Turkey became an essential element in the polity of -Europe.</p> -<p>The proclamation of the above Hatti Sherif, or Royal Edict, was -therefore hailed with general satisfaction by the European states, and -hopes were awakened that the impending danger would be averted by such -an entire change in the administrative government.</p> -<p>But the Turks of the <i lang="fr">ancien régime</i>, -perceiving no threatening attitude in their European neighbors, and -highly offended at the ultra-liberal measures of the reform party, who -even dared to insult their Mussulman prejudices, and coolly inform them -that “the council chamber was not a theological school for the -discussion of religious polemics, nor convertible into a mosque,” -resolved to resist to the utmost, and re-establish their own party. -They, therefore, in a body, protested to the sultan, who, in such a -dilemma, could do nothing but dismiss the actual ministry, and organize -a new one.</p> -<p>Rendered bold by success, the new ministry, at whose head was placed -Riza Pasha, soon began to adopt fanatical measures, whereby to modify -the Tanzimat, which it did not suit their policy to nullify -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb434" href="#pb434" name= -"pb434">434</a>]</span>altogether; for, by it additional security of -life and property was granted even to themselves.</p> -<p>Besides, the lords of the realm, who only existed by the -“cohesive power of public plunder,” foresaw that the -Tanzimat secured equality of civil and political rights to the -Christians, especially to the Armenians, who, being better educated and -more enlightened than they themselves were, and in fact the ruling -spirits, would soon have preceded them in all the departments, and -taken the lead in the control of the country.</p> -<p>Schemes of oppression were formed to deprive the Rayas of their -newly acquired privileges. Even the external semblance of equality was -no longer tolerated. To distinguish them from the true followers of the -Prophet, their dress being the same, an order was issued, that the -giavours should wear a certain mark on their fesses, a piece of black -tape. Even the grandees of the Christian community were stigmatized by -a mock badge of honor, made of gold, to be also worn on the side of the -fess. They carried their fanaticism so far as even to defy Europe in -the decapitation of Ovagim, an Armenian apostate, who had abjured -Mohammedanism.</p> -<p>Though his life was promised to Lord Stratford, no sooner had the -secretary of legation, Mr. Alison, left the Porte, than the unfortunate -victim was led forth <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb435" href="#pb435" -name="pb435">435</a>]</span>and beheaded. Whatever may have been the -cause of the sudden reversal of their merciful intentions, it is well -known that Prince Handgery, the Russian Dragoman, was also at the -Porte, and did not leave until the consummation of the sentence. His -body was exposed in the streets of Constantinople at Baluk-Bazaar, the -head placed between his legs, as was customary, with the European cap -which he wore, upon it, as an extra insult to all Europe.</p> -<p>The bodies of state criminals were formerly exposed in public for -three days, but the weather being at this time excessively warm, the -late Sheikh-ul-Islam was advised that injurious effects might result -from such a long exposure; who sagely remarked, that “the fact -was indeed so, but the sad results would be still more palpably felt -three years hence.” Strange to say the prediction has been fully -verified by recent events.</p> -<p>Thus Mussulman fanaticism brought on a retrograde movement, and -threatened the entire ruin of the country; and the rapacious and -ambitious dispositions of those who lived on the fat of the land, by -degrees so consumed its vitality that it justly merited the cognomen of -the <span class="sc">SICK-MAN</span>.</p> -<p>The Eagle and the Vulture were hovering over the expiring empire, -and Humanity and Civilization demanded that it should be watched over, -with the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb436" href="#pb436" name= -"pb436">436</a>]</span>hope either of prolonging its existence, or at -least of giving it a decent burial.</p> -<p>Russia and Austria, who thought that the propitious moment had -arrived to pounce upon their victim, resolved to accomplish their own -plans by one sudden and effective coup-de-main, as the insulting -conduct and threatening attitude of their respective emissaries fully -demonstrated.</p> -<p>But their expectations were not to be realized; for, notwithstanding -the corrupt character of those in power, the spirit of regeneration was -not wholly extinct in the country. The liberal party, some of whom had -retired from public life in disgust, and others, who, giving up all -hope of reform, had abandoned their favorite project, and joined the -powers that be, in such an emergency, like true patriots, whose moral -influence had been silently exerted over the people, came to the -rescue; resisting every form of bribery and fearless of menaces, they -boldly took up the gauntlet, and war was declared.</p> -<p>The interests of Europe being involved in the fate of Turkey, -“foreign interference” became inevitable. Fortunate it is -not only for Turkey, but for Europe in general, that this event -happened at a time when such interference was available, otherwise -Turkey, like Poland, would have been ingulphed by Russia and Austria. -The result is known to the world. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb437" -href="#pb437" name="pb437">437</a>]</span></p> -<p><span class="corr" id="xd25e6595" title= -"Source: Athough">Although</span> the battle has been fought, the -Russian bear been driven to his den, and the congress of nations at -Paris has adopted the Osmanlis into their fraternity, still the -“Eastern question,” or the maintenance of Turkey, as a -barrier between Russian despotism and European liberty, is far from -being settled. For the problem is not solved, in as much as the ways -and means for the future permanence of this empire are not proclaimed -to the world.</p> -<p>Turkey is apparently secured from Russian animosities, but unless -the country be set on a new basis, and rendered capable of maintaining -itself, the future of Turkey will inevitably be only a repetition of -the past, if not indeed far worse.</p> -<p>This difficult subject will, no doubt, engross the wisdom of Europe, -but the present is the moment to be seized, while the indebtedness of -the Osmanlis to their allies is fresh in their memories, and the gates -of their vast empire stand open to civilization and reform.</p> -<p>Will the Allies again content themselves with mere scrolls, -parchments, and state papers like the Tanzimat of 1839? Shall the -patriots of the state again be left subject to the sway of a conceited -bigotry and blind fanaticism? In a word, shall the country be permitted -to feed upon its own vitals until it consumes itself?</p> -<p>The time has arrived when fictitious progress can <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb438" href="#pb438" name="pb438">438</a>]</span>no -longer be tolerated, and a wholesome reaction most take place.</p> -<p>Turkey and its inhabitants have suffered not only from external -aggressions, but internal discord has maintained an empire of -misrule.</p> -<p>Religious animosity and party spirit have reigned supreme. Greeks -and Christians hating each other, Christians denouncing Christians, and -the Grand Mufti pouring out the anathemas of the Prophet upon the whole -host of giavours. Whence then, in such a population, can any unity of -feeling or of action spring? <i lang="la">Amor patriæ</i>, -philanthropy, progress are all merged in sectarianism and the rage for -religious supremacy. Hitherto, Mohammedanism filling the places of -authority, and possessing the only permanent foothold upon the -territory itself, has left the Christian population without incentive -to competition of any sort. Even in the earliest conflicts of -Mohammedanism, three proposals were always made to those whose -territories were invaded—to join the standard of the Prophet; to -adhere to their own religious tenets as tributaries; or the trial by -combat; thus evincing a wonderful spirit of liberality in a conquering -power, whether the antagonism was that of conquest or propagandism.</p> -<p>Religious toleration was only a wise policy of the Ottoman -government, for as long as the rayas were of various creeds and -conflicting with each other, the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb439" -href="#pb439" name="pb439">439</a>]</span>Mussulmans were in no danger. -As in union is strength, so in the disunion of the subjects was the -safety of the rulers. The rayas, as has been said, losing their own -nationality in their condition of servitude, clung to the tenets of -their respective creeds, and knew no country, no nationality but that -of religion. In Turkey all classes of Christians and Jews have always -had freedom of religions worship with the free exercise of their -peculiar rites and observances, public and private.</p> -<p>The proof may daily be witnessed in their funeral processions with -torches, crosses, and chanting priests, preceded by kavasses or police -officers, as the pages of the “Missionary Herald of the American -Board for Foreign Missions” amply testify. Besides it is a well -known fact that all the Christian churches are privileged to hold -vakufs of their own, on the same footing as those of the mosques; the -very existence of so many differing creeds, and their constant free -discussions, is proof of a great degree of religious toleration.</p> -<p>Even the recent war was the result of this tolerance; for it is well -known that the original matter of debate was whether Russia or France, -or, in other words, whether the Greek church or the Catholic should -control the holy places of Jerusalem!</p> -<p>These holy places not only are in the dominions of the Sultan, but -are the objects of religious veneration <span class="pagenum">[<a id= -"pb440" href="#pb440" name="pb440">440</a>]</span>to the Mussulmans -themselves, who reverently style them Coods-u-Sherif, or Holy -Jerusalem; yet with a remarkable spirit of conciliation, their -jurisdiction was conceded to the Christians.</p> -<p>Travellers who have chanced to be in Jerusalem during the -festivities of Easter, may remember, that when the Christians are -quarrelling and contending with each other, the Mussulmans are forced -to interfere to keep peace and tranquillity!</p> -<p>It is true that the Ottoman government has frequently refused -permission to the Christians to erect or repair churches, etc. This, -however, is not from a spirit of intolerance, for it soon was -understood that a liberal sum might be obtained for these privileges, -and the officials could not resist such occasions for increasing their -revenues. The same advantage is taken of the party intrigues, at the -time of the election of the new patriarchs of the Armenians and -Greeks.</p> -<p>In the days of ignorance, this election cost the Armenians 40,000 -piasters, but years of experience have raised the value of the -Sultan’s sanction to 200,000 piasters, and the Greeks, amongst -whom party strife is far greater, pay between two and three millions -for the installation of their spiritual head.</p> -<p>Hence it is evident that religious toleration is a principle of the -government, and the contrary an incidental abuse for the advantage of -those in power. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb441" href="#pb441" -name="pb441">441</a>]</span>This very abuse has had its origin among -the Christians themselves, who were ready to bribe the ruling power to -any amount, in order to gain their own ends.</p> -<p>Nevertheless, Russia has endeavored to mislead the whole world, and -especially the Christian population of Turkey, with the plausible -pretence of a “Guarantee of Liberty of Worship to all classes of -Christians in Turkey;” while her conduct at home belies her -sincerity.</p> -<p>The cross upon the Armenian church at Odessa was, not long ago, -removed by order of the government, lest the population should be -misled by the impression that the edifice belonged to the established -church. And in the case of intermarriage, the law orders that the -children should invariably be educated in the Russian faith.</p> -<p>The adage “nearer the church, farther from God,” is -peculiarly applicable to Russia; for we are told by Gibbon, that long -before the Turks were in Constantinople, the Russians made several -attempts to capture this fated city, and were only driven away by the -flood discharged from the batteries. Were the Greeks of that time -Mohammedans, or was there any suffering Christianity, that these -philanthropic Muscovites were impelled to come to the rescue of the -Christian faith?</p> -<p>There are some strange records in history which <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb442" href="#pb442" name= -"pb442">442</a>]</span>conflict materially with political hypocrisy! -The fact is, under the pretence of being the champion of the Cross, the -real object of Russia has ever been to avail herself of the existing -religious fanaticism of the East, and by fanning the flames of -Christian ardor, to institute a crusade of the nineteenth century!</p> -<p>Nations are not, however, governed by sympathy, but by interest, and -the Christians have had too bitter experience of Russian protection to -be again caught in the same net.</p> -<p>The Armenians of Erzuroum were induced to emigrate into the Russian -land of Canaan, which, they were assured, flowed with milk and honey; -but when they drank these honeyed waters, they found them only wormwood -and gall, and all who could, eagerly burst their fetters, and returned -to Turkey, preferring Moslem oppression to Moscovite despotism and -systematic serfdom.</p> -<p>The Greeks, who were so clamorous against the Turks, when they -succeeded in obtaining their independence, by raising the standard of -the Cross against the Crescent of the Prophet, showed very little -preference for the Hellenic government, since after a while they -returned by thousands into Turkey!</p> -<p>The effect of Turkish policy has been such, that there is a -prevalent desire among the Rayas to escape from their allegiance to -such a government, and place <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb443" href= -"#pb443" name="pb443">443</a>]</span>themselves under foreign -protection, not from any fear of religious intolerance whatever, but -merely to obtain comparative liberty and justice. Indeed, what -incentive have the people in general, either Turks or Rayas, to -patriotism, or what care they for national prosperity, when they are -forced to regard themselves as mere tenants of their own houses and -lands?</p> -<p>Missak, the late Armenian banker, did not escape into Russia from -any fear of religious oppression, but to avoid the vindictive -persecutions of the Minister of Finance.</p> -<p>It is not, then, religious freedom that the Christians of Turkey -require, but <i>political franchise and unbiased justice</i>.</p> -<p>The past has sadly proved that the Mohammedans are incapable even of -self government, or at best, Mohammedan domination has had a -demoralizing tendency over half, if not the entire population.</p> -<p>Is the country, then to be ruled by the other half of the -inhabitants viz., the Christian population?</p> -<p>This is another impossibility; for this population is like a house -divided against itself, and besides their incapacity in other respects, -they, having so long felt the bitterest animosity towards their -Mussulman masters, would in their turn become even greater oppressors -than the Mohammedans themselves, as was evinced by the conduct of the -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb444" href="#pb444" name= -"pb444">444</a>]</span>Armenians of Erzuroum during the last war with -Russia.</p> -<p>The “Eastern question” is not, however, one of -propagandism, either of Christianity or of Mohammedanism, but demands, -while granting perfect liberty of conscience to all classes, how -political and civil equality may be maintained throughout the Ottoman -dominions. <i>Fusion</i>, then, is the only policy that can resuscitate -the Turkish Empire.</p> -<p>The Tanzimat was the beginning of a reform, but there were no -coercive measures put into play, to overthrow the power of ancient -usages, so that the proclamation soon became almost a dead letter. The -blind bigotry of the people and the absolute power of the heads of -government, imbued as they are with a spirit of favoritism and -corruption, have hitherto excluded the unfortunate subjects of the -sultan from the justice and protection which are the sacred rights of -every son of Adam. There has been no security for property nor any -inducement to honesty in Turkey.</p> -<p>A man has, under the existing laws, every temptation to injure his -neighbor to any extent, and the innocent have no other means of -protecting themselves and their interests, than by resorting to counter -dishonesty. For instance, if a man is unjustly accused of a debt of one -hundred dollars, it would naturally be inferred that he would at once -deny the accusation, and call for proof. But such an honest -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb445" href="#pb445" name= -"pb445">445</a>]</span>procedure would not answer in the Turkish courts -of justice, for it would immediately give the plaintiff the desired -privilege of producing two hired witnesses, by whose testimony the -<span class="corr" id="xd25e6686" title= -"Source: defendent">defendant</span> would, beyond a doubt, be -condemned to pay the pretended debt.</p> -<p>The only alternative, in such instances, is to verify the principle -“set a rogue to catch a rogue” by acknowledging the debt, -at the same time declaring that it has already been paid; thus the -accuser is deprived of the privilege of suborning witnesses, and the -defendant avails himself of that prerogative.</p> -<p>Therefore the moral sense of the community is corrupted, and -self-preservation impels the people only to strive to excel each other -in roguery. In such a poisoned atmosphere, no salutary influence can be -exercised until the axe is laid at the root of the evil. In order, -then, to give a fresh stamina to this fading empire—</p> -<p>1. A new and complete code of justice is needed, consistent with -progressive civilization, and suited to the necessities of these -heterogeneous peoples.</p> -<p>2. To overthrow the sceptre of oppressive bigotry, the next thing to -be effected is an entire separation of church and state, so as to -prevent the interference of the ulema in the administration of justice. -Thus also the aristocracy of religion being abolished, the animosity -existing between the Moslems and Christians <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb446" href="#pb446" name="pb446">446</a>]</span>will -be annihilated, and the hitherto excluded portion of the subjects of -the sultan acknowledged as members of the great Ottoman family.</p> -<p>The identity of religious faith and nationality long swayed even the -European states, but in those countries, this idea is now obsolete, and -must of necessity become so in Turkey, since she has entered their -confederacy.</p> -<p>3. A mixed administration must be formed, composed of -representatives of the different communities, and Mussulman supremacy -no longer tolerated. The mutual benefit of this combination is evident; -for while the Christians, in sharing the supreme power, would lose -their former incentives to cunning and self-interest, the Mussulmans, -on their part, would make rapid strides in the true science of -government.</p> -<p>The tenure by which this mutual authority is to be held, must be -supported and confirmed by a superior tribunal, as it were, consisting -of the powers of Europe, who, having constituted themselves the -champions of Turkey, and shed their blood in her defense, are entitled -to become the guardians of her interests, which are, henceforth, so -identified with their own.</p> -<p>4. The resources of the country must be developed, and a system of -internal improvements established, by which the ruinous principle of -centralization will <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb447" href="#pb447" -name="pb447">447</a>]</span>be counteracted, and the beneficial effects -of this regeneration felt in the uttermost corners of the land.</p> -<p>A general and accurate survey of the country is indispensable, -defining the exact boundaries of both public and private lands, and the -idea that the natural treasures of the soil, belonging to individuals, -appertain to the government, must be abandoned. Hitherto much of the -wealth of the country has lain dormant, because there was no incentive -to exploration of any sort.</p> -<p>5. The Vakuf system must be abolished, and the accumulated wealth -devoted to internal improvements, thus depriving the Ulema of their -great arm of power. It is true, the government has in some measure -controlled these revenues, and established a Bureau of all the Vakufs, -called <i lang="tr">Evkaf</i>, but it has never dared to appropriate, -or to touch any portion of this income for its own purposes.</p> -<p>6. Equal taxation should be levied on property, and the tariff -equitably regulated.</p> -<p>7. A limited free press must be established as the only means of -bringing into publicity the corruptions and abuses to which the -officials have hitherto been addicted.</p> -<p>These are the most apparent means of the preservation and -regeneration of Turkey.</p> -<p>Broad principles may be laid as the foundation, <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb448" href="#pb448" name="pb448">448</a>]</span>but -the edifice is to be raised and the master builders must not desert -their work. For, unless these salutary reforms are accomplished by the -aid and influence of the European Powers, there is no hope of the -preservation of Turkey, nor is there any security for the peace of all -Europe and the world in general.</p> -<p>The only question is, <i>Can these reformations be effected in -Turkey?</i></p> -<p>The nature of the Mohammedan religion is not essentially in -opposition to reform. Modern times have proved the Koran of a more -elastic nature than was once supposed, as was exemplified in the -establishment of quarantine regulations; when it was pretended, that it -was blasphemous to interfere with the decrees of Allah to protect human -life; but as it was proved that the Koran allowed self-protection, the -measure was sanctioned by the expounders of that sacred book, and -accepted by the Mussulmans.</p> -<p>Apostasy from Islamism was formerly punished with death; but when -Lord Stratford de Redcliffe interfered in behalf of humanity in the -case of poor Ovagim, who was beheaded in 1843, the Koran was found to -be on his side. The same lenity was manifested by the Mohammedans of -Hindoostan, only a few months ago, towards an apostate, on the plea -that the country was now under British jurisdiction. <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb449" href="#pb449" name="pb449">449</a>]</span>The -reason is, that the principles of Islamism are so very simple that they -can be adapted to any degree of modification and reform, especially -under the pressure of circumstances—besides, necessity knows no -law, not even the Koran itself.</p> -<p>But it may be said that the government thus remodelled will no -longer be Turkish or Mohammedan.</p> -<p>Surely the aim of the friends of this falling empire is not to -re-instate a decaying faith, but to enable the Turks and all the -inhabitants of the land, to gird up their strength and stand before the -world a united and powerful people, freed from bigotry and -superstition, a great Ottoman nation.</p> -<p>Turkey has been admitted into the fraternity of Europe; not as a -Mohammedan power, but as one of the powers that rule the earth’s -domains.</p> -<p>The sultan has a voice among the potentates of his times—not -the voice of Mohammed the Prophet, but of the civilized and regenerated -friend of his own people and the world in general.</p> -<p>A new era has dawned upon Mohammedanism; for, if the Christian world -has for the first time received into its confederation an -anti-Christian empire, the Mohammedans, by entering such a -confederation, have also for the first time placed themselves on an -equality with the former Giavours, whom the precepts of the Koran have -proscribed, and doomed to the sword of the Faithful. Here then -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb450" href="#pb450" name= -"pb450">450</a>]</span>is a bold stride beyond the confines of a faith -only suited to barbaric days, and well calculated to sway the minds of -a superstitious multitude on to conquest. As consanguinity with -civilization is strengthened, who can trace the pathway of the -Mussulman nation through the world’s history!</p> -<p>The genius of the country and the condition of the people are not in -opposition to the progress of reform.</p> -<p>The past history of this nation has been the progress of -Mohammedanism—its conquests and its laws. As Moses was both the -spiritual and temporal law-giver to the Jews, so has Mohammed been to -the Turkomans. Such laws suited the exigencies of the times; but the -sword is sheathed, and in its sheath too, must abide the darkness and -barbarity of past ages.</p> -<p>Besides Mohammedanism in Turkey is not the same as in Arabia or -Bokhara, where Imams and priests predominate. The Turkomans had, -previous to embracing Islamism, a civil government of their own; and in -making the Koran the rule of faith and conduct, they never lost the -idea of Sovereignty independent of Religion. Hence the Turkish has -never been like the Papal government, where cardinals and bishops -represent all the departments of the pontifical state. The very -existence of two distinct representatives of the Sultan, the Grand -Vezir and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb451" href="#pb451" name= -"pb451">451</a>]</span>the Sheikh-ul-Islam, are evidences of a -separation of church and state. If the ecclesiastical has hitherto -superseded the civil power, it has been through the superstitions of -the people, and the chicanery of the officials.</p> -<p>The only real union is in the person of the Sultan, who is the proxy -of Allah, and the supreme Ruler of his people. His will and his edicts -are regarded by them with superstitious reverence.</p> -<p>The natural relations of this empire with the rest of the world, as -well as its new ties of consanguinity with civilization, must, of -necessity, bring about a revolution of policy as well as of action.</p> -<p>His majesty has already introduced many measures of -reform—such as the abolishing of capital punishment—the -promulgation of a new constitution, with the privilege of free -deliberation in the national councils, etc.; and besides all these, he -has already commenced, even in his own person and household, a -renovation, which is, in reality, only a conformation to the habits of -civilized life. He has become himself a salaried executive, diminished -his own retinue, etc.</p> -<p>The Sultan well understands the imitative nature of his own people, -and is aware that he is the model to the Grand Vezir and the various -Pashas, who, in their turn, are the channels of his majesty’s own -movements to the rest of their fellow citizens. Constantinople -<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb452" href="#pb452" name= -"pb452">452</a>]</span>is the city where the game is played by high and -low, “So does the Grand Mufti.”</p> -<p>Indeed, the very monkeys of India cannot excel them in their -disposition to imitate each other. For, it is said that a merchant once -carrying a large bale of fesses, or red caps on a speculation, opened -his goods on the way, with the view to examine them; and taking one out -and putting it upon his head laid down to repose a while under a tree. -What was his astonishment on waking, to find his stock of caps had -taken wings. He looked around in dismay, but happening to cast his eyes -upwards, he beheld a whole colony of monkeys each sporting one of his -caps! It seemed a hopeless case to catch each one of them and force him -to surrender the cap. In his anger and bewilderment he seized his cap -and in a passion threw it to the ground; when the whole tribe of these -mimicking creatures of the grove, instinctively, with the same -vehemence, divested themselves of their head-gear!</p> -<p>In imitation of Sultan, Pashas, and Efendi, the people in the East -have already doffed their robes and turbans; and are ready for other -reforms, if derived from the same honored projectors; crosses now adorn -the breasts of statesmen, and his majesty, the Sultan, displays on his -person the insignia of the garter. Indeed much good may be anticipated -from the liberal sentiments and benevolent dispositions of <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb453" href="#pb453" name="pb453">453</a>]</span>the -Sultan, were he but rightly advised and sustained in the exercise of -his absolute power; with the requisite protection against inimical -intrigues and aggressions, both foreign and domestic.</p> -<p>Besides, the government itself is already divided into two parties, -the liberal, who are ready to throw off the yoke of ancient prejudices, -and the church party, who not only with a blind zeal, but with hopes of -self-aggrandizement, are resolved to maintain the rule of superstition. -Now as the advancement, the maintenance of the country is dependent on -the one, its retrogradation and downfall involved in the other, so -Europe necessarily holds out its strong arm to the one, and leaves the -other not only unsupported but threatened. The wisest of the Turkish -statesmen are therefore prepared for changes; indeed, they feel -themselves bound to certain compromises with their friends the Allied -Powers, who engaged in the war, as they well know, not with the view to -reinstate Mussulman oppression and bigoted misrule, but to set the -country on a new footing—by raising the Christian population to a -level with the Mussulman. Considering the almost equal proportion of -the Christians to the Mohammedans, it is but just, there should at -least be an equality of national rights and privileges. For in -civilized countries, even a <span class="sc">MINORITY</span> is -protected and their rights respected; how much more then should this be -the case where there is not <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb454" href= -"#pb454" name="pb454">454</a>]</span>only no disproportion in -numbers—but decided superiority in civilization.</p> -<p>Besides, should the Mohammedans resist the required -concessions—the great Christian population of Turkey is ready to -join their western <span class="corr" id="xd25e6785" title= -"Source: coreligionists">co-religionists</span> in any movement. -Therefore it is only a wise policy in the Mohammedans, making a virtue -of necessity, to submit to circumstances, rather than by opposing, to -work their own ruin.</p> -<p>The great essential is a community of interest, which has already, -in some cases, produced a legitimate action. The corps of firemen is -composed of both Mussulmans and Christians, who not only unite in a -common effort for mutual good, but call each other brothers, carouse -together, shed their blood in each other’s defense, and never -seem to remember their characteristic dissimilarities.</p> -<p>There is already an indisposedness towards the tenacity of religious -fanaticism, which is so hostile to moral and social progress. Many of -the distinguished men of Turkey having resided abroad, and acquired -foreign languages, have imbibed a taste for the literature of Europe. A -familiarity with the works of such authors as Voltaire, Volney, and -Rousseau, has made many of them free-thinkers. Indeed, most of the -younger members of the Porte are men of liberal sentiments.</p> -<p>They pay external deference to the religion of the <span class= -"pagenum">[<a id="pb455" href="#pb455" name= -"pb455">455</a>]</span>state rather from motives of self-interest than -from any moral conviction.</p> -<p>Nevertheless, some of these very men, so long habituated to power -and the spoils of office, may, under the guise of religious enthusiasm, -become the instigators of opposition through the superstitions of the -multitude.</p> -<p>Hence the gazettes will occasionally report hostile demonstrations, -and even bloodshed; but any attempts at insurrection must prove futile; -for, with the destruction of the Janissaries, the spirit of rebellion -perished in Turkey. Besides, recent events having brought the -superiority and power of Europe within the immediate vision of the -whole population, they have been forced to call to mind their own -proverb, that “the elephant is greater than the camel,” and -doubtless they will henceforth arrive at a juster appreciation of their -own capabilities.</p> -<p>Much more might be written on so extended a theme as <span class= -"sc">The Sultan and His People</span>, and an abler pen portray the -condition of this interesting Eastern empire, just emerging from -barbarism into civilization. Yet it may be hoped that these humble -efforts will awaken some sympathy in behalf of a country and its -inhabitants, who so much need the interest and assistance of other -lands; at a moment, too, when the question is of <i>life</i> or -<i>death</i>; of free progressive life, under the shelter of the broad -wings of civilization, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb456" href= -"#pb456" name="pb456">456</a>]</span>or of a suffering death within the -claws of the rapacious Vulture of despotism and oppression.</p> -<p>It may be objected that Turkey has been represented -“<span lang="fr">en couleur de rose.</span>” If that -roseate hue has been given, the odorous flower has been presented with -all its thorns, divested of the verdure which might have concealed -their bristling points.</p> -<p>But the sweetest rose may preserve its pure essence and odor, even -while growing amid wild and poisonous roots; and if the noxious weeds -can be uprooted, Turkey may, with the requisite culture, become one of -the fairest gardens which adorn our beautiful planet.</p> -<p>It is to be hoped, that the morning twilight is already casting its -softening beams over this land of the Orient; and that the noon-tide -glory of the sun of peace and regeneration, will, ere long, irradiate -with its glorious effulgence, this ancient and interesting Empire!</p> -<p class="trailer xd25e6823">THE END.</p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="back"> -<div class="transcribernote"> -<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2> -<h3 class="main">Availability</h3> -<p class="first">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no -cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give -it away or re-use it under the terms of the <a class="seclink xd25e43" -title="External link" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/license" rel= -"license">Project Gutenberg License</a> included with this eBook or -online at <a class="seclink xd25e43" title="External link" href= -"https://www.gutenberg.org/" rel="home">www.gutenberg.org</a>.</p> -<p>This eBook is produced by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team -at <a class="exlink xd25e43" title="External link" href= -"http://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>.</p> -<p>Scans for this book are available from the Internet Archive (Copy -<a class="tialink xd25e43" title="Link to the Internet Archive" href= -"https://archive.org/details/sultanandhispeo01oscagoog">1</a>, -<a class="tialink xd25e43" title="Link to the Internet Archive" href= -"https://archive.org/details/sultanandhispeo00oscagoog">2</a>, -<a class="tialink xd25e43" title="Link to the Internet Archive" href= -"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.546486">3</a>).</p> -<p>The following reviews of this work can be found on-line: <a class= -"exlink xd25e43" title="External link" href= -"http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=putn;%20cc=putn;rgn=full%20text;idno=putn0009-5;didno=putn0009-5;view=image;seq=%2000556;node=putn0009-5%3A1"> -<i>Putnam’s Monthly Magazine of American Literature, Science and -Art</i> Volume 9 Issue 53 (May 1857) p. 550</a>, <a class= -"exlink xd25e43" title="External link" href= -"http://www.jstor.org/stable/25107144?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents"><i>The -North American Review</i> Vol. 85, No. 176 (Jul., 1857), pp. -257-258</a> .</p> -<h3 class="main">Metadata</h3> -<table class="colophonMetadata"> -<tr> -<td><b>Title:</b></td> -<td>The Sultan and His People.</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>Author:</b></td> -<td>C. Oscanyan</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>Language:</b></td> -<td>English</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>Original publication date:</b></td> -<td>1857</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -</table> -<h3>Catalog entries</h3> -<table class="catalogEntries"> -<tr> -<td>Related Library of Congress catalog page:</td> -<td><a href="https://lccn.loc.gov/05009264" class= -"seclink">05009264</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Related WorldCat catalog page:</td> -<td><a href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2962957" class= -"seclink">2962957</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Related Open Library catalog page (for source):</td> -<td><a href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL6953427M" class= -"seclink">OL6953427M</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td>Related Open Library catalog page (for work):</td> -<td><a href="https://openlibrary.org/works/OL7848534W" class= -"seclink">OL7848534W</a></td> -</tr> -</table> -<h3 class="main">Encoding</h3> -<p class="first"></p> -<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3> -<ul> -<li>2015-09-20 Started.</li> -</ul> -<h3 class="main">External References</h3> -<p>This Project Gutenberg eBook contains external references. These -links may not work for you.</p> -<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3> -<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p> -<table class="correctiontable" summary= -"Overview of corrections applied to the text."> -<tr> -<th>Page</th> -<th>Source</th> -<th>Correction</th> -<th>Edit distance</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e393">vii</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">,</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e656">12</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">every day</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">everyday</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e752">22</a>, -<a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1233">56</a>, <a class="pageref" href= -"#xd25e5987">390</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd25e6381">417</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">similiar</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">similar</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e803">25</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">ever</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">even</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e856">29</a>, -<a class="pageref" href="#xd25e2523">143</a>, <a class="pageref" href= -"#xd25e4345">259</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">.</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">,</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e871">30</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Mahommed</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Mohammed</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e891">31</a>, -<a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1221">56</a>, <a class="pageref" href= -"#xd25e3714">217</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd25e4928">301</a>, -<a class="pageref" href="#xd25e5396">339</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">”</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1183">53</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">terrestial</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">terrestrial</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1186">53</a>, -<a class="pageref" href="#xd25e3717">217</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">“</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1287">61</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">witheld</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">withheld</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1463">77</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">comparision</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">comparison</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1524">83</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">days,</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">days’</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1613">90</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">distinguised</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">distinguished</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1658">93</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Abubeker</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Abubekir</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1772">103</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">circumsion</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">circumcision</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e1855">112</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">o</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">to</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e2076">130</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">ecclesiastial</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">ecclesiastical</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e2337">139</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Anadalou</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Anadolou</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e2350">139</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Messapotamian</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Mesapotamian</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e2935">155</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">oportunity</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">opportunity</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e2940">156</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Stradford</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Stratford</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e3315">185</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">gentleman</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">gentlemen</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e3415">191</a>, -<a class="pageref" href="#xd25e5739">367</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">,</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e3583">204</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">fiows</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">flows</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e3617">208</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">fiy</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">fly</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e3711">217</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">peculiarites</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">peculiarities</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e4245">251</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">.</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e4383">261</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">nul</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">null</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e4977">306</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">proportionably</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">proportionally</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e5346">336</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">”</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">’</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e5381">339</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">oriential</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">oriental</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e5462">344</a>, -<a class="pageref" href="#xd25e5623">357</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Valarsaces</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Valarsace</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e5766">369</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">,</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">.</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e6189">404</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">som</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">sum</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e6524">431</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">frienldy</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">friendly</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e6595">437</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Athough</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">Although</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e6686">445</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">defendent</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">defendant</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd25e6785">454</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom">coreligionists</td> -<td class="width40 bottom">co-religionists</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -</div> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Sultan and his People, by C. 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