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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Gothic Architecture, by Édouard Corroyer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: Gothic Architecture
+
+Author: Édouard Corroyer
+
+Editor: Walter Armstrong
+
+Release Date: May 10, 2017 [EBook #54701]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by deaurider, Karin Spence and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL
+  FROM A DRAWING BY A. BRUNET-DEBAINES]
+
+
+
+
+                                GOTHIC
+                             ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+                                  BY
+
+                           ÉDOUARD CORROYER
+
+           ARCHITECT TO THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT AND INSPECTOR
+                         OF DIOCESAN EDIFICES
+
+                              EDITED BY
+
+                           WALTER ARMSTRONG
+
+             DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF IRELAND
+
+
+           _With Two Hundred and Thirty-Six Illustrations_
+
+
+                               NEW YORK
+                          MACMILLAN AND CO.
+
+                                 1893
+
+
+
+
+                           EDITOR'S PREFACE
+
+
+The following pages, which have been translated under my supervision
+by Miss Florence Simmonds, give such an account of the birth and
+evolution of Gothic Architecture as may be considered sufficient for
+a handbook. Mons. Corroyer writes, indeed, from a thoroughly French
+standpoint. He is apt to believe that everything admirable in Gothic
+architecture had a Gallic origin. Vexed questions of priority, such as
+that attaching to the choir of Lincoln, he dismisses with a phrase,
+while the larger question of French influence generally in these
+islands of ours, he solves by the simple process of referring every
+creation which takes his fancy either to a French master or a French
+example, here coming, be it said, into occasional collision with his
+own stock authority, the late Mons. Viollet-le-duc. The Chauvinistic
+tone thus given to his pages may be regretted, but, when all is
+said, it does not greatly affect their value as a picture of Gothic
+development. Mons. Corroyer confines himself in the main to broad
+principles. He travels along the line of evolution, pointing out how
+material conditions and discoveries, and their consequent social
+changes, brought about one development after another in the forms
+and methods of the architect. In a treatise so conceived, the fact
+that the field of observation is practically restricted to France,
+the few excursions beyond her frontier being made rather with a view
+to displaying the extent of her influence than with any desire for
+catholicity of grasp, is of no great moment. The English reader for
+whom this translation is intended, will get as clear a notion of how
+Gothic, as he knows it, came into being, as he would from a more
+universal survey, while he has the advantage of some echo, at least,
+of the vivacity, which inspires a Frenchman when his theme is "one of
+the Glories of France."
+
+    W. A.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+    INTRODUCTION                                                     1
+
+
+                                PART I
+
+                        RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
+
+    CHAP.
+
+     1. THE INFLUENCE OF THE CUPOLA UPON SO-CALLED GOTHIC
+          ARCHITECTURE                                               11
+
+     2. THE ORIGIN OF THE INTERSECTING ARCH                          16
+
+     3. THE FIRST VAULTS ON INTERSECTING ARCHES                      24
+
+     4. BUILDINGS VAULTED ON INTERSECTING ARCHES                     32
+
+     5. THE ORIGIN OF THE FLYING BUTTRESS                            41
+
+     6. CHURCHES AND CATHEDRALS OF THE TWELFTH AND FOURTEENTH
+          CENTURIES                                                  51
+
+     7. CATHEDRALS OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY                         67
+
+     8. CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES FROM THE TWELFTH TO THE FOURTEENTH
+          CENTURY                                                    85
+
+     9. CHURCHES OF THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES IN
+          FRANCE AND IN THE EAST                                    105
+
+    10. TOWERS AND BELFRIES--CHOIRS--CHAPELS                        128
+
+    11. SCULPTURE                                                   153
+
+    12. PAINTING                                                    179
+
+
+                               PART II
+
+                        MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE
+
+    CHAP.                                                          PAGE
+
+    1. ORIGIN                                                       205
+
+    2. ABBEYS OF CLUNY, CITEAUX, AND CLAIRVAUX                      215
+
+    3. ABBEYS AND _CHARTREUSES_ OR CARTHUSIAN MONASTERIES           227
+
+    4. FORTIFIED ABBEYS                                             247
+
+
+                               PART III
+
+                        MILITARY ARCHITECTURE
+
+    1. RAMPARTS OF TOWNS                                            269
+
+    2. CASTLES AND KEEPS                                            291
+
+    3. GATES AND BRIDGES                                            309
+
+
+                               PART IV
+
+                          CIVIL ARCHITECTURE
+
+    1. BARNS, HOSPITALS, HOUSES, AND "HÔTELS" OR TOWNHOUSES OF
+         THE NOBILITY                                               333
+
+    2. TOWN-HALLS, BELFRIES, AND PALACES                            360
+
+
+
+
+                            ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+    Canterbury Cathedral. By A. Brunet-Debaines          _Frontispiece_
+
+    FIG.                                                           PAGE
+
+     1. Plan of a cupola of the Abbey Church of St. Front at
+          Périgueux                                                  17
+
+     2. Pendentive of a cupola of the Abbey Church of St. Front
+          at Périgueux                                               18
+
+     3. Diagonal section of a pendentive                             19
+
+     4. Plan of a cupola of Angoulême or Fontevrault                 20
+
+     5. Section of a bay of the cupolas of Angoulême                 20
+
+     6. Section of a bay in the Church of St. Avit-Sénieur           21
+
+     7. Plan of vault on intersecting arches                         21
+
+     8. Section of an intersecting arch                              22
+
+     9. Plan of a bay in the nave of St. Maurice at Angers           24
+
+    10. Transverse section of the nave of St. Maurice at Angers      25
+
+    11. Plan of a bay of the nave. Ste. Trinité, Laval               26
+
+    12. Section of two bays of the nave. Ste. Trinité, Laval         27
+
+    13, 14. Comparative sections of Churches of Angoulême and
+          Angers                                                     28
+
+    15. View in perspective of nave vault. St. Maurice at Angers     29
+
+    16. Plan of a summer of the nave vault. Ste. Trinité, Laval      30
+
+    17. Plan of one of the nave piers. Ste. Trinité, Laval           30
+
+    18. Plan of the nave, St. Maurice, Angers                        33
+
+    19. Plan of La Ste. Trinité, Angers                              34
+
+    20. Section of a bay. Ste. Trinité, Angers                       35
+
+    21. Transverse section of a bay. Ste. Trinité, Angers            37
+
+    22. Section of a single-aisled Church vaulted on intersecting
+          arches with buttresses                                     38
+
+    23. Section of a three-aisled Church vaulted on intersecting
+          arches with flying buttresses                              39
+
+    24. Durham Cathedral. Transverse sections                        43
+
+    25. Abbey Church at Noyon. Plan                                  44
+
+    26. Transverse section of Noyon Church                           45
+
+    27. Church of Tournai, Belgium. Exterior view of north transept
+          towards the Scheldt                                        46
+
+    28. Monastery Church at Moissac. Vault of the hall known as
+          the _Salle des Capitaines_ above the porch                 47
+
+    29. Church of Tournai, Belgium. Interior of north transept       47
+
+    30. Soissons Cathedral, south transept. Section of flying
+          buttress                                                   48
+
+    31. Perspective view of south transept, Soissons Cathedral       49
+
+    32. Cathedral of Laon. Plan                                      52
+
+    33. Cathedral of Laon. Interior of the nave                      54
+
+    34. Cathedral of Laon. Main façade                               55
+
+    35. Cathedral of Laon. The east end                              57
+
+    36. Cathedral of Laon. Section of the nave                       58
+
+    37. Notre Dame de Paris. Plan                                    59
+
+    38. Notre Dame de Paris. Section of the nave                     60
+
+    39. Notre Dame de Paris. Flying buttresses and south tower       61
+
+    40. Sens Cathedral. Plan of a bay                                62
+
+    41. Sens Cathedral. Section of a bay of the nave                 63
+
+    42. Sens Cathedral. Interior                                     64
+
+    43. Bourges Cathedral. Section of the nave                       65
+
+    44. Rheims Cathedral. Plan                                       68
+
+    45. Rheims Cathedral. Section of the nave                        70
+
+    46. Rheims Cathedral. Flying buttresses of the choir             71
+
+    47. Amiens Cathedral. Plan                                       72
+
+    48. Amiens Cathedral. Section through the nave                   73
+
+    49. Beauvais Cathedral. Apse                                     75
+
+    50. Beauvais Cathedral. North front                              76
+
+    51. Beauvais Cathedral. Transverse section                       77
+
+    52. Chartres Cathedral. Rose window of north transept            78
+
+    53. Mans Cathedral. Plan                                         80
+
+    54. Mans Cathedral. Flying buttresses of the apse                81
+
+    55. Mans Cathedral. Section of the choir                         82
+
+    56. Coutances Cathedral. North tower                             83
+
+    57. Rodez Cathedral. West front                                  86
+
+    58. Bordeaux Cathedral. Choir and north front                    87
+
+    59. Lichfield Cathedral. West front                              88
+
+    60. Lincoln Cathedral. Plan                                      91
+
+    61. Lincoln Cathedral. West front                                92
+
+    62. Lincoln Cathedral. Transept                                  94
+
+    63. Lincoln Cathedral. Apse and chapter-house                    95
+
+    64. Brussels Cathedral (Ste. Gudule). West front                 97
+
+    65. Cologne Cathedral. South front                               99
+
+    66. Burgos Cathedral. West front                                101
+
+    67. Cathedral or Duomo of Siena. West front                     102
+
+    68. Church of St. Francis at Assisi. Apse and cloisters         103
+
+    69. Church of St. Ouen at Rouen. Central tower and apse,
+          south front                                               106
+
+    70. Albi Cathedral. Plan                                        108
+
+    71. Albi Cathedral. Section of the nave                         111
+
+    72. Albi Cathedral. Apse                                         113
+
+    73. Albi Cathedral. Donjon tower and south front                114
+
+    74. Church of Esnandes. A fortified church                      116
+
+    75. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Flying buttresses of the choir    118
+
+    76. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan of the choir                 119
+
+    77. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Details of the apse               120
+
+    78. Alençon Cathedral. West front                               122
+
+    79. Façade of the Cathedral of St. Sophia. Island of Cyprus     123
+
+    80. Cathedral of St. Nicholas. Island of Cyprus                 124
+
+    81. Cathedral of St. Nicholas. Island of Cyprus                 126
+
+    82. Church of St. Sophia. Island of Cyprus. Ruins               127
+
+    83. Steeple, Vendôme                                            129
+
+    84. Giotto's Tower at Florence                                  130
+
+    85. Bayeux Cathedral. Towers of the west front                  132
+
+    86. Senlis Cathedral. South tower of west front                 133
+
+    87. Salisbury Cathedral. Steeple                                135
+
+    88. Church of Langrune (Calvados). Steeple                      136
+
+     89. Church of the Jacobins at Toulouse. Tower                  138
+
+     90. Church of St. Pierre at Caen. Tower                        140
+
+     91. Church of St. Michel at Bordeaux. Tower                    141
+
+     92. Cathedral of Freiburg-im-Breisgau                          142
+
+     93. Antwerp Cathedral                                          143
+
+     94. Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front                    154
+
+     95. Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front                    155
+
+     96. Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front                    156
+
+     97. Rheims Cathedral. Principal door. Statue and ornament      157
+
+     98. Rheims Cathedral. Principal door. Statue and ornament      158
+
+     99. Notre Dame de Paris. Principal door. Running leaf pattern  159
+
+    100. Notre Dame de Paris. Principal door. Running leaf pattern  160
+
+    101. Chartres Cathedral. Statues of north porch                 161
+
+    102. Chartres Cathedral. Statues of south porch                 162
+
+    103. Amiens Cathedral. Central porch of west front              163
+
+    104. Amiens Cathedral. Statues in the south porch               164
+
+    105. Amiens Cathedral. Choir stalls. Carved ornament            165
+
+    106. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Ornament of cloisters            166
+
+    107. Wooden Statuette (thirteenth century). _Ateliers_ of La
+           Chaise Dieu, Auvergne                                    167
+
+    108, 108_a_. Two ivory statuettes. School of Paris         168, 169
+
+    109. Wooden Statuette (fourteenth century). School of Paris     170
+
+    110, 110_a_. Two ivory diptychs (fourteenth century). School
+           of the Ile-de-France                                     171
+
+    111, 111_a_. Ivory diptych and plaque (fourteenth century).
+           School of the Ile-de-France                         172, 173
+
+    112. Head in silver gilt repoussé. _Ateliers_ of the
+           Goldsmith's Guild of Paris                               174
+
+    113. Group carved in wood (fifteenth century). School of
+           Antwerp                                                  175
+
+    114. Wooden statuette, painted and gilded (fifteenth century)   176
+
+    115. Wooden statuette, painted and gilded (sixteenth century)   177
+
+    116. Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. Horizontal projection of
+           the cupola                                               180
+
+    117. Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. One of the prophets in the
+           cupola                                                   182
+
+    118. Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. Fragment of central frieze
+           of cupola                                                184
+
+    119, 120. Painted windows of the early twelfth century. From
+           St. Rémi, Rheims                                         187
+
+    121. Painted window of the twelfth century. Church of
+           Bonlieu, Creuse                                          188
+
+    122. Painted window of the thirteenth century. Chartres
+           Cathedral                                                189
+
+    123. Painted window of the thirteenth century. Chartres
+           Cathedral                                                190
+
+    124. Painted window of the thirteenth century. Church of St.
+           Germer, Troyes                                           191
+
+    125. Painted windows of the fourteenth century. Church of St.
+           Urbain, Troyes                                           193
+
+    126. Painted glass of the fourteenth century. Cathedral of
+           Châlons-sur-Marne                                        194
+
+    127. Painted window of the fifteenth century. Évreux Cathedral  195
+
+    128. Enamel of the eleventh century. Plaque cover of a MS.      196
+
+    129. Enamel of the thirteenth century. Plaque cover of an
+           Evangelium                                               198
+
+    130. Enamel of the twelfth century. Reliquary shrine of St.
+           Thomas à Becket                                          199
+
+    131. Enamel of the sixteenth century. Our Lady of Sorrows       200
+
+    132. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Cloister (thirteenth century)    206
+
+    133. Abbey of Cluny. Gateway                                    216
+
+    134. Abbey of Cluny. Plan                                       219
+
+    135. Abbey of Cluny. Door of the Abbey Church                   221
+
+    136. Abbey of St. Étienne at Caen. Façade                       228
+
+    137. St. Alban's Abbey (England)                                230
+
+    138. Abbey of Montmajour. Cloisters                             231
+
+    139. Abbey of Elne. Cloisters                                   232
+
+    140. Abbey of Fontfroide. Cloisters                             233
+
+    141. Abbey of Maulbronn (Wurtemberg). Plan                      235
+
+    142. Abbey of Fontevrault. Kitchen                              236
+
+    143. Cathedral of Puy-en-Velay. Cloisters                       237
+
+    144. Abbey of La Chaise Dieu (Auvergne). Cloisters              239
+
+    145. _Chartreuse_ of Villefranche de Rouergue. Plan             242
+
+    146. _Chartreuse_ of Villefranche de Rouergue. Bird's-eye view  243
+
+    147. _Grande Chartreuse._ The Great Cloister                    244
+
+    148. _Grande Chartreuse._ General View                          245
+
+    149. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. General View                     248
+
+    150. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the
+           entrance                                                 249
+
+    151. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the
+           lower church                                             250
+
+    152. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the
+           upper church                                             252
+
+    153. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Section from north to south      253
+
+    154. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Section from west to east        254
+
+    155. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Crypt known as the _Galerie
+           de l'Aquilon_                                            256
+
+    156. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. North front                      257
+
+    157. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The almonry                      258
+
+    158. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. A tympanum of the cloisters      259
+
+    159. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The cellar                       260
+
+    160. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Refectory                        262
+
+    161. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Hall of the knights              263
+
+    162. St. Michael's Mount, Cornwall                              264
+
+    163. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Gate-house                       270
+
+    164. City of Carcassonne. South-east ramparts                   273
+
+    165. City of Carcassonne. North-west ramparts                   274
+
+    166. Fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn. Section                        277
+
+    166_a_. Fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn. General view                278
+
+    167. City of Carcassonne. Plan of the thirteenth century        279
+
+    168. City of Carcassonne. Ramparts, south-west angle            280
+
+    169. Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes, north and south                 281
+
+    170. Ramparts of Avignon. Curtain and towers                    282
+
+    170_a_. Machicolations                                          283
+
+    171. Ramparts of St. Malo                                       284
+
+    172. Mont St. Michel. South front                               287
+
+    173. Mont St. Michel. As restored on paper                      288
+
+    174. Castle of Angers                                           292
+
+    175. Carcassonne. Citadel                                       293
+
+    176. Loches Castle. Keep                                        294
+
+    177. Falaise Castle. Keep                                       297
+
+    178. Lavardin Castle. Keep                                      298
+
+    179. Keep of Aigues-Mortes                                      299
+
+    180. Provins Castle. Keep                                       300
+
+    181. Castle, Chinon                                             302
+
+    182. Castle, Clisson. Keep                                      303
+
+    183. Castle. Villeneuve-les-Avignon                             304
+
+    184. Castle of Tarascon                                         305
+
+    185. Vitré Castle                                               307
+
+    186. City of Carcassonne. Castle gate                           310
+
+    187. City of Carcassonne. Gate of the Lists                     312
+
+    188. City of Carcassonne. Gate known as the _Porte Narbonaise_  313
+
+    189. Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes. Drawbridge                      314
+
+    190. Ramparts of Dinan. Gate known as the _Porte de Jerzual_    315
+
+    191. Vitré Castle. Gate-house                                   317
+
+    192. Ramparts of Guérande. Gate known as the _Porte St.
+           Michel_                                                  318
+
+    193. Ramparts of Mont St. Michel. Gateway known as the
+           _Porte du Roi_                                           320
+
+    194. Entrance to the Port of La Rochelle                        322
+
+    195. Bridge at Avignon                                          323
+
+    196. Bridge of Montauban                                        325
+
+    197. Bridge of Cahor                                            326
+
+    198. Bridge of Orthez                                           327
+
+    199. Fortified bridge. Mont St. Michel                          328
+
+    200. Town-hall at St. Antonin (Tarn et Garonne)                 334
+
+    201. Barn at Perrières (Calvados)                               335
+
+    201_a_. Barn at Perrières (Calvados). Section                   336
+
+    201_b_. Barn at Perrières (Calvados). Plan                      336
+
+    202. Tithe-barn at Provins                                      337
+
+    203. Granary of the Abbey of Vauclair                           338
+
+    204. Hospital of St. John, Angers                               339
+
+    205. Abbey of Ourscamps (Oise)                                  340
+
+    206. Lazar-house at Tortoir (Aisne)                             341
+
+    207. Hospital at Tonnerre. Section                              343
+
+    208, 208_a_. Houses at Cluny                               347, 348
+
+    209, 210. Houses at Vitteaux and at St. Antonin                 349
+
+    211, 212. Houses at Provins and at Laon                    350, 351
+
+    213. House at Cordes. Albigeois                                 352
+
+    214. House at Mont St. Michel                                   354
+
+    215, 216. Wooden houses at Rouen and at Andelys            355, 356
+
+    217. Hôtel Lallemand at Bourges                                 357
+
+    218. Jacques Cœur's house at Bourges                         358
+
+    219. Town-hall of Pienza, Italy                                 361
+
+    220. Town-hall and belfry at Ypres                              363
+
+    221. Market and belfry at Bruges                                365
+
+    222. Town-hall of Bruges                                        366
+
+    223. Town-hall at Louvain                                       368
+
+    224. Belfry of Tournai (Belgium)                                370
+
+    225. Belfry of Ghent (Belgium)                                  371
+
+    226. Belfry at Calais (France)                                  374
+
+    227. Belfry of Béthune (France)                                 376
+
+    228. Belfry of Évreux (France)                                  377
+
+    229. Belfry of Avignon (France)                                 378
+
+    230. Belfry gate known as _La Grosse Cloche_, Bordeaux          379
+
+    231. Cloth hall known as _La Loge_, Perpignan                   381
+
+    232. Bishop's Palace at Laon                                    382
+
+    233. Archbishop's Palace at Albi. Plan                          383
+
+    234. Archbishop's Palace at Albi. General view                  384
+
+    235. Palace of the Popes at Avignon. Plan                       385
+
+    236. Palace of the Popes at Avignon. General view               387
+
+
+
+
+                         GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+
+
+                             INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The term _Gothic_, as applied to the architectural period dating from
+the middle of the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century, is
+purely conventional.
+
+The expression is clearly misleading as indicating the architecture
+of the Goths or Visigoths; for these tribes were vanquished by Clovis
+in the sixth century, and left no monumental trace of their invasion.
+Hence, their influence upon art was _nil_. The term is radically
+false both from the historical and the archæological point of view,
+and originates in an error which demands the strenuous opposition
+due to persistent fallacies. By a strange irony of fate the term
+_Gothic_, used in the last century merely as the opprobrious synonym
+of _barbaric_, has been specialised within the last sixty years in
+connection with that polished epoch of the Middle Ages which sheds
+most lustre upon our national art. And this, in spite of its Germanic
+origin.
+
+Romanesque architecture, or to be exact, that architecture which,
+by virtue of the archæologic convention of 1825, we agree to label
+Romanesque, undoubtedly borrowed its essential elements from the
+Romans and Byzantines, modifying and perfecting them by the genius
+of Western Europe; but the architectural period which began in the
+middle of the twelfth century, and is so unjustly dubbed _Gothic_, was
+of purely French birth; its cradle was the nucleus of modern France.
+Aquitaine, Anjou, and Maine were the provinces in which it first took
+root. The royal domain, and notably the Ile-de-France, witnessed its
+most marvellous developments, and it was from the very heart of France
+that its splendour radiated throughout Europe.
+
+But the tyranny of usage leaves us no choice as to the title of this
+volume. We are compelled to style it _Gothic Architecture_, though we
+would gladly have registered our protest by naming it _French Mediæval
+Architecture_.[1]
+
+[1] This idea, which has recently found support in quarters which
+might have been considered free from such _chauvinism_, is based
+upon a narrow and peculiarly modern view of art. Art activities in
+the Middle Ages were as instinctive and unconscious as speech. The
+forms of architecture were invented and elaborated much in the same
+way as language. For the purpose of the historian of architecture,
+the northern half of France, the three southern quarters of Great
+Britain, and the districts threaded by the Rhine, form a single
+country, a single _foyer_ of art. They all pressed on from similar
+starting-points to similar goals; and if the French went ahead in
+one direction, they fell astern in another. It may be allowed that,
+on the whole, the architects of the _Ile-de-France_ did better than
+their rivals. Gothic architecture is pre-eminently logical, and logic
+is pre-eminently the artistic gift of the Frenchman. So that its more
+scientific development in the "French royal domain" was only to be
+expected. That success of this kind gives a right to call the whole
+development "French mediæval architecture" cannot be allowed.--ED.
+
+The term _Gothic_ is, however, purely arbitrary, as is also that
+of _pointed_, which has been introduced by writers who admit the
+principle of the broken arch as the characteristic of so-called Gothic
+architecture.
+
+The broken or pointed arch, which is formed by the intersection of
+two opposite curves at an angle more or less acute, was known to
+architects long before its systematic application. It occurs in
+buildings of the ninth century in Cairo, and was used prior to this
+in Armenia, and still earlier in Persia, where indeed it superseded
+all other forms of span from the times of the last of the Sassanides
+onwards. It is an expedient which gives increased power of resistance
+to the arch by diminishing its lateral thrusts.
+
+The pointed arch is a form which admits of infinite variations. The
+one law which governs its construction is expediency. It frankly
+abandons those rules of classic proportion which are the canons, so
+to speak, of the round-headed arch. Thus we shall find the pointed
+approximating to the round-headed form in the twelfth century, only
+to diverge from it more widely than before, till, towards the close
+of the thirteenth and throughout the fourteenth century, it took on
+the acute proportions necessitated by a perilous disposition to prefer
+loftiness to solidity.
+
+Fundamentally, it is of little moment whether the architecture of the
+twelfth to the sixteenth century be termed Gothic or pointed, when
+we recognise these terms as equally inexact. The point to be really
+insisted upon is that the filiation we have already demonstrated in
+our book on Romanesque Architecture continued slowly, but surely, in
+the wake of civilisation, of which architecture is ever one of the
+most striking manifestations.
+
+So-called Gothic architecture was not the product of a single
+generation; it was the continuous logical development of the
+Romanesque movement, just as the latter in its time had been the
+outcome of a gradual adaptation of old traditions to new-born
+exigencies. Thus our Aquitainian forbears, by their successful
+translation into stone of the eastern cupola, prepared the way for
+the groined vault, the embryo of which is clearly traceable in the
+pendentives of the dome at St. Front.
+
+The great churches which, towards the middle of the twelfth century,
+rose throughout the rich Western provinces that cluster about
+Aquitaine, were all constructed with groined vaults. In these examples
+we can discern no halting, tentative application of newly adopted
+principles. The work is that of consummate architects, who brought
+to their labours the assurance born of experienced skill, and in the
+later part of the twelfth century, the new system had replaced all
+others for the construction of vaults throughout Western Europe.
+
+The architects of the royal domain, and notably those of the
+Ile-de-France, had been the first to adopt the groined vault. Towards
+the close of the twelfth century their assimilation of the new
+principles, their native ingenuity, and professional hardihood alike
+urged them to its further development. They became the inventors of
+the flying buttress.
+
+The substitution of the groined vault for its parent, the cupola,
+was the direct consequence of the old tradition. The development
+was merely a stage in the march of ideas, a consummation logically
+arrived at in the track which the Romans, constructors not less
+bold though more prudent than their artistic progeny, had marked
+out for them. The groined vault, in short, is simply the growth
+of Roman principles perfected by continuous experiment. But the
+flying buttress, or rather the system of construction based on its
+use, caused a radical change in the art of building of the twelfth
+century. Stability, which in the ancient buildings was ensured by
+solid masses at the impost of vaults and arches, was replaced by the
+balance of parts. From this daring system some of the most marvellous
+of architectural effects have been won; but the innovation had a
+dangerous inherent weakness, inasmuch as it involved the exterior
+position of those essential vital organs for whose preservation the
+ancients had wisely provided, by keeping them within the building.
+
+It is therefore not surprising that though fifty years after its
+introduction the groined vault was generally adopted throughout
+Western Europe, and even in the East, the success of the flying
+buttress was infinitely more gradual and restricted. Thus, in the
+North, the multiplication of great religious monuments built, or even
+rebuilt on the new lines, was simultaneous with the construction in
+the South of vast churches on the old principles. The adventurous
+builders of the North had eagerly adopted the new division of churches
+into several aisles, all with groined vaults, the vault of the great
+central nave relying upon exterior flying buttresses for resistance to
+its thrust.
+
+In the South, on the other hand, architects were prudent, either
+through instinctive resistance to, or deliberate reaction from, the
+innovating influence, or by way of fidelity to an ancient tradition.
+They built with a single aisle, wide and lofty; the vaults were
+indeed supported by ribs, but their thrusts were received by powerful
+buttresses inside the walls, the projections thus formed being further
+utilised for the construction of chapels in the intervals.
+
+This latter system, which has the incontestable merit of perfect
+solidity, recalls the construction of the Basilica of Constantine,
+or of the tepidarium in the Baths of Caracalla. The stability of the
+edifice was ensured by the resistance of masses at the imposts, and
+the whole principle of construction formed, as it were, a protest
+against the miracles of equilibrium so much in favour among the
+Northerners.
+
+The new system of vaults supported by flying buttresses made
+very slight way in the South. It appears but rarely, and in the
+few instances where it is used has entirely the air of a foreign
+importation. Even in the cradle of its origin, it took root slowly
+and with difficulty, for its first applications were not without
+disaster. Lacking that mathematical knowledge which is the mainstay
+of the modern architect, the experimental skill shown by the
+thirteenth-century builder in constructing his vaults, and then
+in neutralising their thrusts by flying buttresses reduced to
+the legitimate function of permanent struts, was little short of
+miraculous. For it must be borne in mind that the thrust of these
+vaults, and the strength of the flying buttresses, varied of necessity
+according to their span, and the resisting powers of their materials.
+It was only by dint of long gropings in the dark that the necessarily
+empirical formulæ of the innovators were gradually transformed into
+recognised rules, and this knotty problem of construction received
+no positive solution till the last years of the thirteenth, or more
+emphatically, the first years of the fourteenth century. While even
+then the solution could claim no universal acceptance, for what was
+comparatively easy in countries where stone abounds became difficult,
+if not impossible, in districts where such a material as brick was the
+sole resource of builders.
+
+Nevertheless, the growth of Gothic architecture was rapid, so rapid
+that even in the fourteenth century it began to show symptoms of that
+swift decadence which is the Nemesis of facile success. The abuse of
+equilibrium, the excessive diminution of points of support--defects
+often aggravated by insecurity of foundation and exaggerated loftiness
+of structure--the poor quality of materials, and the faulty setting
+thereof due to empirical methods, the over-rapidity of execution
+caused by mistaken emulation, the dearth of funds consequent on
+social and political convulsions complicated by the miseries of
+war,--all these things joined hands for the extinction of a once
+resplendent art. But the initial cause of its ruin must be sought in
+its abandonment of antique traditions. These traditions had persisted
+uninterruptedly throughout the so-called Romanesque period, only to
+pave the way for a seductive art in novel form, which, casting aside
+the trammels of the past in obedience to the dictates of the moment,
+fell on decay as rapidly as it had risen to eminence. Dawning in the
+France of Louis the Fat, it reached its apogee under St. Louis, and
+was in full decadence before the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+The narrow limits assigned to us forbid not only detailed discussion
+of our great monuments, but even a summary of the most famous. We must
+be content to work out that theory of evolution already put forward by
+us in _L'Architecture Romane_. We propose merely to offer a synthesis
+of that architectural development which succeeded the so-called
+Romanesque epoch, from its birth in the twelfth to its extinction in
+the fifteenth century.
+
+And as the groined vault is, broadly speaking, the essential
+characteristic of so-called Gothic architecture, and the flying
+buttress one of its most interesting manifestations, we shall make
+a special study of their origin, their modifications, and their
+principal applications in connection with religious, monastic,
+military, and civil architecture. We shall dwell more particularly
+upon religious architecture as presenting the grandest and most
+obvious evidences of artistic progress, not in its admirable buildings
+alone, but in those masterpieces of painting and sculpture to which it
+gave birth in France.
+
+
+
+
+                                PART I
+
+                        RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I
+
+    THE INFLUENCE OF THE CUPOLA UPON SO-CALLED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
+
+   _The cupola, in its symbolic aspect, was the germ, whence sprang
+   an architectural system the revolutionary action of which upon
+   art can scarcely be over-estimated._[2]
+
+[2] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Quantin, Paris, 1888.
+
+So-called Gothic architecture was no spontaneous and miraculous
+manifestation. Like all human activities, its end is easy to
+determine; but it is difficult to fix even an approximate date for
+its beginning. The traces of its origin are lost in that period of
+architectural activity which preceded it, and prepared its way by a
+train of unbroken evolution.
+
+The cupola of St. Front, which we may reasonably call the mother
+cupola of France, was not an imitation of that of St. Mark at
+Venice, for both were based upon the church built by Justinian at
+Constantinople, in honour of the Holy Apostles. But the form thus
+imported into Aquitaine received such modification and development, as
+to make it virtually an original achievement. One of the knottiest of
+architectural problems was solved in the process, and that admirable
+constructive principle was established which consists in concentrating
+the thrust of a vault upon four points of support strengthened by
+pendentives.
+
+The construction of such a cupola as that of St. Front in dressed
+stone was an event of great moment in a district which still preserved
+the Gallo-Roman tradition in its integrity, and was commonly reputed
+the fatherland of our architecture. Its immediate consequences were
+shown before the close of the eleventh century by the erection of
+large abbey churches on the model of St. Front in various neighbouring
+provinces.
+
+But while accepting the new principle, the architects of the period
+directed their energies to its perfectibility. Their efforts, and
+even their successes, in this direction are manifest so early as the
+first years of the twelfth century. The churches of Angoulême and
+of Fontevrault may be cited in proof. "We here recognise the main
+preoccupation of the Romanesque builders--namely, how best to reduce
+the immense masses of churches built with the primitive cupola by a
+more deliberate and judicious distribution of thrust and resistance.
+We further see how the adoption of these principles led to the
+emphasising of critical points by buttresses, which now began to
+project from the exterior walls."[3]
+
+[3] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Quantin, Paris, 1888.
+
+The new system spread rapidly, notably in Anjou and Maine, its growth
+being marked by an ever-increasing refinement and perfection. The
+architects of the rich abbeys of these provinces, the importance of
+which was aggrandised by their strong attachments to the all-powerful
+religious organisation of the period, gave a further development
+to the Aquitainian method. They transformed the pendentives of the
+cupolas into independent arches which performed exactly the same
+functions, thus logically working out an architectonic principle of
+amazing simplicity, the success of which was so rapid that, by the
+middle of the twelfth century, it was systematically applied to the
+construction of great churches at Angers, Laval, and Poitiers.
+
+The works of the Angevin architects were of course known to their
+Northern brethren, who, in common with all the builders of the day,
+had long been seeking the final solution of the great problem of
+the vault. The architects of the Ile-de-France at once appropriated
+the Angevin system with that special professional ingenuity which
+characterised them, and applied it to the construction of innumerable
+churches, large and small, all of them built on the basilican
+plan--that is to say, with three, or even five aisles.
+
+Thus the Aquitainian cupola of dressed stone exercised an absolutely
+direct influence upon Gothic architecture, since it gave birth to the
+_intersecting arch_, which is the main feature of so-called Gothic.
+This influence was first manifested in the general arrangement of
+single-aisled churches vaulted upon intersecting ribs, the earliest
+departure from the original cupola. It was then more grandiosely
+demonstrated in vast abbey or cathedral churches, built in accordance
+with the basilican tradition, and all vaulted on the new principle.
+
+Angers and Laval are primitive examples of churches whose square
+compartments carry groined vaults, which thenceforth took the place of
+cupolas with pendentives.
+
+The abbey church of Noyon shows the application of this principle,
+novel in the twelfth century, to the several-aisled churches of the
+Northern architects. The _original_ vaults of Noyon[4] were planned in
+square. The intersecting arches united the principal piers diagonally,
+the strain being relieved by a subordinate or auxiliary arch which
+rested upon secondary piers, indicated on the exterior by buttresses
+less salient than those of the main piers, and on the interior by a
+column receiving the lateral archivolts which united the chief piers.
+
+[4] The original disposition of the vaults built about 1160 is
+indicated by the spring of the arches above the capitals, and by the
+base plan of the principal piers. The present vaults on rectangular
+plan were built after the fire of 1238, in accordance with prevailing
+fashions.
+
+This system of construction, the principle of which was logically
+developed at Noyon, for instance, no longer exists, save in its
+traditional state in the great churches of Laon, and in the cathedrals
+of Paris, Sens, and Bourges, to name but the principal, without regard
+to the innumerable churches built on these principles throughout
+Western Europe. In these great buildings the vaults were all square on
+plan down to the adoption in the first half of the thirteenth century
+of equal bays, vaulted on a rectangular plan, and marked inside and
+out by equal piers and projections, as at Amiens, Rheims, and many
+other churches of the period.
+
+Hence we see how incontestable was the influence of the cupola
+upon so-called Gothic architecture. This truth is demonstrated by
+monuments yet in existence, lapidary documents above suspicion. It
+cannot be insisted upon too strongly, not merely for the satisfaction
+of archæeologic accuracy, but more especially as yet another proof
+that the filiation between the art of the ancients and that of the
+so-called Romanesque architects is no less evident than that which
+links together the Romanesque and the so-called Gothic. Of this latter
+filiation we have a direct proof in the Aquitainian cupola, the parent
+of those of Angoumois, which in their turn gave birth to the Angevin
+intersecting arch, and so prepared the way for the flying buttress,
+which again was to mark a new departure.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+                 THE ORIGIN OF THE INTERSECTING VAULT
+
+
+So early as the eleventh century churches were built with one or
+several aisles, and in this latter case the side aisles only had
+ribbed vaults, the nave being covered by a timber roof. The next step
+was to vault all three aisles, buttressing the barrel-vaulted nave by
+continuous half-barrel vaults or ribbed vaults over the aisles, and
+further strengthening it by projecting transverse arches, or _arcs
+doubleaux_, the whole being crowned by a roof which embraced the side
+aisles. These cumbrous and timidly constructed buildings were merely
+imitations of the Roman basilicas. To ensure their solidity they had
+perforce to be narrow; and the necessary abolition of top lighting
+made them gloomy. We find then that, before the appearance of the
+cupola, mediæval architects were perfectly acquainted both with the
+barrel vault and the ribbed vault, the latter formed, on traditional
+principles, by the interpenetration of two demi-cylinders. They had
+even attempted to improve upon the construction by strengthening the
+line of penetration with a salient rib, giving an elliptic arch. But
+this rib was purely decorative, for in the Roman vault the stones
+at the line of intersection, whether ribbed or not, were in complete
+solidarity with the filling on either side in which they were buried.
+
+It follows that we shall seek in vain in the Roman ribbed vault the
+germ of the intersecting arch, with its essentially active functions.
+
+For the origin of the intersecting arch we must turn to the eleventh
+century. We shall find it in the dressed stone cupola of St. Front,
+and more especially in its pendentives.
+
+Fig. 1 gives the plan of one of the cupolas of St. Front. It is
+composed of four massive transverse arches, the thrusts of which are
+received upon four piers united by pendentives (Figs. 2 and 3) passing
+from the re-entering angles at the spring of the arches to the base
+of the circular dome itself, each of the concentric courses bearing
+upon the keys of the _arcs-doubleaux_, and transmitting to them, and
+therefore to the piers by which they are supported, the weight of the
+cupola itself.
+
+  [Illustration: 1. PLAN OF A CUPOLA OF THE ABBEY CHURCH OF ST. FRONT AT
+  PÉRIGUEUX]
+
+  [Illustration: 2. PENDENTIVE (MARKED A) OF A CUPOLA OF THE ABBEY
+  CHURCH OF ST. FRONT]
+
+  [Illustration: 3. SECTION OF A PENDENTIVE ON THE DIAGONAL A TO B IN
+  PLAN, FIG. 1]
+
+Fig. 3 is a section through one of the pendentives of St. Front,
+following the line A B in Fig. 1. It shows that the first six courses
+are cut so as to make what is called a _tas de chargé_; the upper
+surfaces are horizontal, the faces curved to the radius of the dome
+itself. After the sixth course the voussoirs are cut normally to the
+curve of the arch. The vaulting of religious buildings having long
+been the crux of mediæval architects, the construction of the St.
+Front cupolas must have been an event much noised abroad, for towards
+the close of the eleventh century a large number of churches with
+cupolas were built in imitation of the mother church at Périgueux.
+
+The construction of the churches of Angoulême and Fontevrault in the
+first years of the twelfth century shows that the architects were
+attempting to cover spaces of ever-increasing span on the Aquitainian
+model, while at the same time they set themselves to lighten their
+vaults, and consequently to reduce their points of support.
+
+Fig. 4 gives the plan of one of the cupolas of Angoulême or of
+Fontevrault, both being built on precisely similar plan, with the
+exception of the number of bays to the nave.
+
+  [Illustration: 4. PLAN OF A CUPOLA OF ANGOULÊME OR FONTEVRAULT]
+
+Fig. 5 gives the section of a bay in one of these churches, and
+illustrates the considerable difference already existing between
+the mother cupola of St. Front and its offspring. The cupola on
+pendentives begins to show a certain attenuation, and we shall
+presently note a fresh step forward towards the solution of that
+problem so persistently grappled with by the mediæval architect--how
+to reduce the weight of the vault.
+
+  [Illustration: 5. SECTION OF A BAY OF THE CUPOLAS OF ANGOULÊME]
+
+The Church of St. Avit-Sénieur furnishes a most instructive example.
+
+The cupola of this building is strengthened by stiffening ribs. It
+becomes an annular vault, formed of almost horizontal keyed courses,
+sustained by transverse and diagonal ribs, which act the part of a
+permanent centering.
+
+The Church of St. Pierre at Saumur marks a further step onwards in the
+construction of vaults derived from the cupola.[5]
+
+[5] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer.
+
+Finally, the architects of Maine and Anjou achieved the long-desired
+consummation. Under their treatment the pendentives resolved
+themselves into their actively useful elements, the visible signs of
+which were diagonal or intersecting arches, salient and independent,
+set in precisely the same manner as the pendentives of the cupola
+(Fig. 3), and performing identical functions (Fig. 8).
+
+  [Illustration: 6. SECTION OF A BAY IN THE CHURCH OF ST. AVIT-SÉNIEUR]
+
+  [Illustration: 7. PLAN OF VAULT ON INTERSECTING ARCHES]
+
+The vault proper is no longer formed of concentric courses, as in the
+mother cupola. It consists thenceforward of voussoirs cut normally to
+the curve, and filling the triangles (A, B, C, D, Fig. 7) determined
+by the longitudinal, the diagonal or intersecting, and the transverse
+arches. These arches form a stone skeleton, no less solid though far
+less ponderous than the cupola pendentives, and sustain the vault by
+distributing its thrusts over four points of support.
+
+The triangular fillings no longer imprison the ribs, or, more exactly
+speaking, the intersecting arches, nor do they any longer neutralise
+their active functions. These fillings, on the other hand, have, like
+the intersecting arch, gained a new independence. They now contribute
+to the elasticity of the divers organs of the vault, a most essential
+element in its solidity. The peculiar arrangement of the intersecting
+arches in the nave of Angers gives incontrovertible proof of the
+direct filiation of this building to the Aquitainian cupola. The
+voussoirs of the intersecting arches are about equal in horizontal
+section to those of the transverse arches, while their vertical
+section equals the thickness of the filling plus the internal salience
+which marks their function. They look in fact like slices cut from
+the pendentives of a cupola (A, Fig. 8). It must be remarked, too,
+that at Angers the stones of the filling do not yet rest upon the
+extrados of the ribs, in the fashion adopted some years later in the
+Ile-de-France and elsewhere (see B, Fig. 8), but embrace them (as at
+A).
+
+  [Illustration: 8. SECTION OF AN INTERSECTING ARCH]
+
+The identity of function in the pendentive and in the Gothic
+intersecting arch, both constructed, as they are, of stones dressed
+normally to their curves, shows that they sprang from a common origin,
+which is as much as to say that the Aquitainian cupola begat the
+intersecting vault.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III
+
+                       THE FIRST GROINED VAULTS
+
+
+The first application of the system of intersecting vaults appears in
+the great churches of Angers and Laval.
+
+It is probable that the new methods propagated by the religious
+architects of Aquitaine and neighbouring provinces had excited the
+emulation of the Northern builders, more especially those of the
+Ile-de-France. Evidences to this effect are to be found in certain
+subordinate portions of their buildings at this period, such as side
+aisles or apsidal chapels. Their timid arrangement seems, however,
+reminiscent of the Roman system of ribbed vaulting, with a slightly
+increased prominence of the ribs superadded, rather than of the
+revolution that had been effected in church vaulting generally.
+
+  [Illustration: 9. PLAN OF A BAY IN THE NAVE OF ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS]
+
+  [Illustration: 10. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF ST. MAURICE AT
+  ANGERS]
+
+But, if we except perhaps Laval, nowhere shall we find the new system
+of vaulting upon intersecting arches more mightily demonstrated than
+at Angers, the aisles of which measure 54 feet across. The grandeur
+of the architectural composition, no less than the admirable technical
+skill shown in the details, gives proof of the consummate mastery
+arrived at by the builders of these noble structures so early as the
+middle of the twelfth century. The plan of these churches resembles
+that of Angoulême and Fontevrault. It is in no way allied to the
+Northern buildings.
+
+  [Illustration: 11. PLAN OF A BAY OF THE NAVE IN THE CHURCH OF LA STE.
+  TRINITÉ AT LAVAL]
+
+They are constructed with single aisles, like the cupola churches,
+with a series of bays, square on plan; but the arrangement of the
+vaults has been perfected by the logical use of intersecting arches in
+the place of pendentives, the architects of the day having realised
+by this time the progress we have explained and demonstrated in the
+preceding chapter.
+
+These vast aisles, vaulted on intersecting arches, are of course
+allied to the cupolas; they recall their general outline, but the
+arrangement of the vaulting is different. The intersecting ribs are
+no longer merely decorative features; they have taken on all the
+active functions of the _arc-doubleau_ and the formeret. Their union
+constitutes an elastic ossature, the weight being concentrated upon
+four points of support, which receive the impost of the arches, and
+compose a stone skeleton, each unit of which has been cut and dressed
+to fill the exact place it occupies in the whole.
+
+  [Illustration: 12. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF TWO BAYS IN THE NAVE OF LA
+  STE. TRINITÉ AT LAVAL]
+
+If we compare the sections (Figs. 13 and 14) of the churches of
+Angoulême and Angers, we may clearly trace the filiation between these
+buildings, the one dating from the first years of the twelfth century,
+the other from some thirty or even forty years later. We shall also
+note the advance made by the Angevin architects in the construction of
+groined vaults in the place of domes with pendentives, a development
+worked out by the more perfect and reasoned application of the same
+architectural principle.
+
+  [Illustration: 13 AND 14. COMPARATIVE SECTIONS OF THE CHURCHES OF
+  ANGOULÊME AND ANGERS]
+
+  [Illustration: 15. VIEW IN PERSPECTIVE OF THE NAVE VAULT OF
+  ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS]
+
+The Church of Laval, built simultaneously with that of Angers,
+or only a few years later, shows a further advance, not merely in
+the matter of form, but in the increased science and ingenuity of
+combinations, and the methodical accuracy of the execution.
+
+  [Illustration: 16. PLAN OF A SUMMER OF THE NAVE VAULT OF LA STE.
+  TRINITÉ AT LAVAL]
+
+  [Illustration: 17. PLAN OF ONE OF THE PIERS OF THE NAVE OF LA STE.
+  TRINITÉ AT LAVAL]
+
+The arches which compose the ossature of the vaults become independent
+in their functions, as at Angers, immediately upon leaving the abacus,
+an essential characteristic of the new system. The lateral points of
+support are composed of piers proper and of clustered columns, crowned
+by corbelled capitals, which, by prolonging them, mark the formerets,
+the diagonal, and the transverse arches as they fall upon the abaci.
+It is easy to see in this arrangement the origin of those clustered
+shafts so generally and even excessively used in the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries, the main object of which was to conceal as far
+as possible the points of support.
+
+These details, and the section (Fig. 12) showing the mode of
+construction in the vaults, demonstrate sufficiently that at Laval, no
+less than at Angers, a direct filiation exists between the dome upon
+pendentives and the groined and ribbed vault.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+
+              BUILDINGS VAULTED UPON INTERSECTING ARCHES
+
+
+The new system derived from the domes upon pendentives, so brilliantly
+applied in Anjou and Maine in the first half of the twelfth century,
+was thenceforth the normal method of the religious architect. The
+admirable simplicity of the new method and its adaptability to every
+class of building, from the great abbey church to the modest chapel,
+sufficiently accounts for its rapid dissemination throughout Western
+Europe, where religious bodies had founded innumerable abbeys, large
+and small, of varying rules and orders, but all welded together by one
+mighty organisation.
+
+A long array of churches on the Angevin model rose, not only in the
+neighbouring provinces--as Ste. Radegonde at Poitiers, Notre Dame de
+la Coulture and the nave of St. Julien at Mans,--but farther afield
+towards the south. To name only the most important--the charming
+Church of Thor, dedicated to Ste. Marie du Lac, between Avignon and
+the fountain of Vaucluse; that of St. Sauveur at St. Macaire, near
+Bordeaux; the nave of St. André at Bordeaux, begun in 1252 on the
+cupola plan, but modified and finally crowned with a groined and
+ribbed vault; St. Caprais at Agen, which shows the same modifications,
+and lastly, the immense brick nave of St. Étienne at Toulouse,
+which measures 64 feet--all demonstrate the progression of the new
+principles in the second half of the twelfth century.
+
+  [Illustration: 18. PLAN OF THE NAVE, ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS]
+
+Towards the North the advance was no less general. Various buildings
+show to what excellent account contemporary architects had turned the
+system of vaults on intersecting arches, recognising its admirable
+adaptability to different climates, and to the most diverse materials.
+But it was reserved for Angers, the cradle of its birth, to give an
+added perfection to this ingenious system.
+
+The Church of the Ste. Trinité, on the right bank of the Maine, built
+by the sons or pupils of those architects who had planned St. Maurice
+for the hill on the opposite shore, marks a fresh advance in the
+construction of these vaults. Like St. Maurice, it has but a single
+aisle, which is divided into three bays, each as nearly as possible
+square on plan. The system of vaulting takes on a greater elegance by
+the insertion of a transverse arch, with its supporting shafts, in the
+centre of each bay. This divides the bay into two equal parts, and,
+cutting the diagonal ribs at their intersection, supports them at the
+critical point.
+
+Fig. 19 gives the plan of these vaults, the system of which was
+eagerly seized upon by the Northern architects, and the great abbey
+church of Noyon appears to have been the first-fruits of this new
+development of the Angevin idea.
+
+  [Illustration: 19. PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF LA STE. TRINITÉ AT ANGERS]
+
+  [Illustration: 20. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A BAY OF LA STE. TRINITÉ AT
+  ANGERS]
+
+The great abbey churches and immense cathedrals which were built from
+the second half of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth century
+attest the importance of the development carried out at Angers by
+the arrangement of their own vaults in square compartments. For we
+now find this system adopted in the construction of the churches or
+cathedrals of Noyon, Laon, Notre Dame at Paris, Sens, and Bourges, to
+name only acknowledged masterpieces of so-called Gothic.
+
+  [Illustration: 21. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A BAY OF LA STE. TRINITÉ AT
+  ANGERS]
+
+The influence of the cupola, which we established in our first
+chapter, was both direct and consecutive. It was direct in churches
+built with one aisle and vaulted on intersecting arches, and
+consecutive in the so-called Romanesque churches, which were either
+completed or modified on the new lines by the substitution of vaults
+on intersecting arches of dressed stone for timber roofs. A large
+number of buildings in England, Normandy, Germany, Northern Italy,
+Switzerland, the Rhine Provinces, and those of Northern France bear
+testimony of the highest interest to the transformations consequent on
+the invention of the groined vault and its universal application.
+
+Architects who had been trained in the great abbey schools, emboldened
+by the successes of their forerunners and their own individual
+experience, raised on every hand vast cathedrals, in which every known
+development of the system was essayed with unequalled daring. Going
+on from strength to strength, they eventually abandoned the antique
+traditions, and disregarding the statical conditions which ensured
+the solidity of the ancient buildings, they invented a system of
+construction which is, as it were, merely a skeleton in stone, a stone
+version of the timbered roof; its characteristic expression was the
+permanent strut known as the _flying buttress_; its governing idea
+was equilibrium, for which it provided by architectural stratagems
+ingenious in the highest degree, but also extremely precarious. Its
+existence or stability depends for the most part on the quality of the
+materials and their degrees of resisting power, the essential organs,
+by which I mean those vital _weight-carrying_ portions, the failure
+of which would involve the ruin of the whole, being _outside_ the
+building, and therefore exposed to all those deteriorating influences
+from which the _load_ they bear, that is to say, the vaults, are
+protected by walls and roof.
+
+  [Illustration: 22. SECTION OF A SINGLE-AISLED CHURCH VAULTED ON
+  INTERSECTING ARCHES WITH BUTTRESSES]
+
+  [Illustration: 23. SECTION OF A THREE-AISLED CHURCH VAULTED ON
+  INTERSECTING ARCHES WITH FLYING BUTTRESSES]
+
+The great buildings constructed on these new principles consisted of
+a central nave with two, or even four side aisles. The huge structure
+depended for its light first upon low windows in the collateral
+portions, secondly, upon windows at a much higher level. Hence it
+became necessary to raise the vault of the central nave, and to
+give it an abutment in the form of _detached semi-arches_ or flying
+buttresses. The crowns of these semi-arches impinged the piers at the
+planes of greatest pressure and received the collective thrust of
+all the ribs, formerets, transverse and diagonal arches. Their bases
+rested upon abutments, the strength of which was calculated according
+to the thrust they had to meet.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V
+
+                    ORIGIN OF THE FLYING BUTTRESS
+
+
+The primitive method of vaulting adopted in the central provinces of
+France in the construction of churches with three aisles rendered such
+buildings of necessity low and heavy. The main aisle being covered by
+a barrel vault, supported on either side by a continuous half-barrel
+vault, the sole means of lighting lay in the windows of the side
+aisles, so that the nave was always gloomy in the extreme. The
+Norman architects had avoided this difficulty, first in their native
+province, and afterwards in England, by vaulting the subordinate
+aisles only, and by raising the lateral walls of the nave high enough
+to allow a line of windows to be introduced between the lean-to roofs
+of the side aisles and the nave roof, the latter being an open timber
+construction instead of a vault.
+
+The lateral gallery in the first story of Norman churches built on the
+basilican model is merely a development of the ancient tradition.[6]
+It bears the name of triforium because--or so we are told--each
+compartment of such an interior gallery between the main piers of the
+nave was originally divided into three by pillars supporting lintels
+or by small columns supporting an arcade.
+
+[6] See _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Maison Quantin,
+Paris, 1888, chaps. i. iii. and iv.
+
+Towards the close of the eleventh century Norman architects on both
+sides of the Channel were raising vast churches, the side aisles of
+which bore above their ribbed vaults galleries after the fashion
+of the primitive basilicas. These galleries in their turn were
+covered by open timber roofs like that of the nave. The bays were
+emphasised in the nave and in the side aisles by transverse arches,
+or _arcs-doubleaux_, which served as buttresses to those of the main
+vault. But after the adoption, towards the middle of the twelfth
+century, of the Angevin method of vaulting for religious buildings,
+the functions of the lateral walls and of the supporting arches became
+better defined, for these walls and arches had now to meet the thrusts
+of the transverse as well as that of the diagonal arches, which,
+meeting in bundles, as it were, at each pier, gathered their energies
+at well-marked points.
+
+It was thus that the cross walls or _arcs-doubleaux_ of the side
+aisles were gradually modified till they became detached semi-arches
+concealed beneath the outer roof of the side aisles.
+
+We have traced this modification in the Abbaye aux Dames at Caen.[7]
+
+[7] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison Quantin,
+88, chap. xvii.
+
+Fig. 24 shows us an English example. It may be followed out in a
+number of other churches in England, at Pavia in Italy, at Zurich in
+Switzerland, and at Basle on the Rhine, to name but a few of the
+churches in which the modification of the vaults was long posterior to
+the construction of the building itself.
+
+  [Illustration: 24. DURHAM CATHEDRAL. TRANSVERSE SECTIONS]
+
+In France we shall find no example more deeply interesting than
+Noyon, which at the date of its construction (the last quarter of
+the twelfth century) formed, as it were, an epitome of the advance
+so far made by the architects of the Ile-de-France. In this curious
+building we find a fusion of the antique tradition developed by the
+Normans in their triforiums, and of the Angevin methods, as manifested
+in the groined vaults derived from domes: methods further perfected
+by the example of La Ste. Trinité at Angers; in other words, by the
+adoption of intersecting arches planned on a square, the thrusts of
+all being received on the main piers, reinforced by an intermediate
+transverse arch. And we note the appearance of the detached semi-arch
+beneath the roofing of the inferior aisles merging at its springing
+into the lateral _arc-doubleau_, and so resisting the thrust of the
+intersecting arches and transverse arches of the nave.
+
+  [Illustration: 25. ABBEY CHURCH AT NOYON. PLAN]
+
+  [Illustration: 26. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF NOYON CHURCH]
+
+It has been said that Noyon was suggested by Tournai, doubtless on
+account of their superficial affinities. But the likeness is merely in
+general aspect, the methods of construction being wholly different. At
+Tournai the apsidal transepts are vaulted upon transverse arches of
+great strength, and upon radiating semi-arches united where they meet
+by a ring of voussoirs set horizontally, and at their springing by
+vaults keyed into their mass, an ingenious arrangement which recalls
+the vaulting of the _Salle des Capitaines_ over the porch of the
+monastery church at Moissac.
+
+The combination of these _arcs-doubleaux_, which, in addition to the
+solidity of their independent structure, are strongly reinforced by
+the massive circular courses of the walls, is very peculiar, for it
+dispenses altogether both with auxiliary arches and with abutments.
+Tournai, therefore, cannot be held to have begotten Noyon, for here
+we have groined vaults, the intersecting arches of which demand the
+reinforcement of abutments either concealed or apparent to sustain
+the thrust of these vaults over the lateral _arcs-doubleaux_. The
+ingenious arrangement above cited had in no sense modified the methods
+of abutment followed by the architects of the twelfth century even
+after the adoption of the vault on intersecting arches. These, as will
+be remembered, consisted in buttressing the walls and piers of the
+nave by cross walls or by arches concealed beneath the roofing of the
+side aisles.
+
+  [Illustration: 27. CHURCH OF TOURNAI, BELGIUM. EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE
+  NORTH TRANSEPT TOWARDS THE SCHELDT]
+
+We find at Soissons the first application of an architectural system,
+the special feature of which is the _flying buttress_.
+
+  [Illustration:28. MONASTERY CHURCH AT MOISSAC. VAULT OF THE HALL KNOWN
+  AS THE HALL OF THE CAPTAINS ABOVE THE PORCH]
+
+  [Illustration: 29. CHURCH OF TOURNAI, BELGIUM. INTERIOR OF THE NORTH
+  TRANSEPT]
+
+The south transept of Soissons Cathedral was evidently suggested by
+Noyon. This is apparent in the adoption of the two-storied side aisle
+and in the semi-circular plan. But the method of vaulting common to
+both churches has a greater refinement at Soissons. Reduced to its
+simplest expression of strength by the attenuation of its skeleton,
+the vault still exercises its full thrust on those parts which rise
+above the upper gallery.
+
+The architect of Soissons was not content, like his brother of Noyon,
+to support the vault laterally by interior arches collaborating with
+the _arcs-doubleaux_ of the triforium, and reinforced by an abutment
+impinging on the wall of the central nave. To him the idea occurred of
+detached semi-arches in open air, springing from above the roof of the
+triforium and its buttresses and marking each bay. Thus was born the
+_flying buttress_, a feature frankly emphasising its special aim and
+function, namely, to meet the thrust of the main vault at its points
+of concentration.
+
+  [Illustration:30. SOISSONS CATHEDRAL. SOUTH TRANSEPT. SECTION OF
+  FLYING BUTTRESS]
+
+  [Illustration: 31. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF SOUTH TRANSEPT, SOISSONS
+  CATHEDRAL[8]]
+
+[8] These flying buttresses, in themselves insufficient for the task
+laid upon them, and worn by the destructive action of the weather,
+were pushed entirely out of shape by the constant pressure from
+within, the thrust of the vault being aggravated by the circular
+plan of the building, while the vaults themselves became dislocated
+by reason of their insufficient abutments. It became necessary to
+reconstruct the buttresses in 1880, to avert the total collapse of the
+south transept.
+
+The reconstruction of these flying buttresses, and of many others of
+the same period, furnishes us with a criticism _ad hominem_ upon the
+system.
+
+The flying buttress, in combination with the intersecting arch,
+gave birth to a new system of construction, a system on which
+were raised vast buildings which compel our admiration and demand
+our careful study, but should not invite our imitation. They are
+monuments to the ingenuity of the twelfth and thirteenth century
+architect, but no less are they beacons warning against the perils of
+a rationalism--more apparent than real--which their authors carried to
+its extreme limits, casting to the winds all traditional principles,
+and consequently all authority.
+
+It would seem as though the architects of this period, emboldened by
+such achievements as the churches of Noyon, Soissons, Laon, Paris,
+Sens, and Bourges, and spurred by professional emulation, went on from
+one feat of daring to another, passing from the triumphs of Rheims,
+Amiens, and Mans to the supreme architectural folly of Beauvais, and
+creating monuments no less amazing in dimension than in the statical
+problems grappled with, if not always solved.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI
+
+   CHURCHES AND CATHEDRALS OF THE TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The study of mediæval architecture is one of the most fascinating of
+pursuits, but it is one beset with difficulties. The obscurity in
+which the origin of our great monuments is buried is profound and
+often impenetrable.
+
+A fertile cause of error is the confusion which in many cases has
+arisen between the dates of foundation and of consecration. Very often
+a church was built and afterwards considerably modified, rather than
+actually reconstructed, on the same consecrated site.
+
+Lightning was the most frequent cause of the destruction, total or
+partial, of mediæval churches. Striking the steeple, the tower, or the
+roof, it fired the timber superstructure of the nave. This in itself
+would not have been an irreparable disaster; but as the timbers gave
+way the calcined beams charred the piers, and so prepared the downfall
+of the whole building, which was then either restored or reconstructed
+in the fashion of the day. Hence, whether we base our deductions upon
+more or less trustworthy records or upon contemporary readings of
+existing data, the result is too often a confusion among vanished
+monuments, or a contradiction between the buildings as they now exist
+and the historic records which relate to them.
+
+  [Illustration: 32. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. PLAN]
+
+  [Illustration: 33. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. INTERIOR OF THE NAVE]
+
+Nothing is easier for interested theorists than to post-or ante-date
+the structure of a building. They have nothing to fear from the
+testimony of writers, and, with very few exceptions, it is difficult
+to assign a precise date to the construction of great churches and
+cathedrals or to point with certainty to their architects. The
+obscurity of these great artists is perhaps to be accounted for by
+the fact that they were ecclesiastics. As such the honour of their
+achievements belonged not to the individual, but to the corporate
+body, the _order_ of which they were members, and members moreover who
+had, in most cases, taken the vow of humility.
+
+Modern science, architectural and archæological, has failed to throw
+much positive light on this subject. It contents itself for the most
+part with ingenious hypotheses and learned deductions which leave
+us still in doubt as to precise dates. But we shall at least find
+some sort of foothold in a careful architectural survey of buildings
+themselves. This should be, of course, supplemented by study of
+historic records, and such a study will convince us that art in the
+Middle Ages, as in all epochs, obeyed the immutable laws of filiation
+and transformation. We shall follow the artist step by step, observing
+his research, his hesitation, his errors, and even his corrections.
+
+These are trustworthy documents in which to study the origin of a
+building and to note its successive transformations, which latter were
+far more frequent than total reconstructions. For it was not until the
+beginning of the thirteenth century that great cathedral churches in
+any considerable numbers were conceived and continuously executed.[9]
+
+[9] It is possible, if not easy, to trace the architectural
+development of the Middle Ages in a good many cathedrals and
+churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. We have, however,
+confined ourselves, for the purposes of our present synthesis, to
+the churches and cathedrals of the royal domain, and more especially
+of the Ile-de-France, not only because they served as models for the
+architects of their day, but because they illustrate in a remarkable
+degree the various transitions we desire to study.
+
+  [Illustration: 34. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. MAIN FAÇADE]
+
+The great abbey churches founded towards the close of the twelfth
+century in the royal domain, but continued and finished in the early
+years of the thirteenth, still preserved a more ancient tradition.
+
+Laon, which is derived from Noyon and from the south transept of
+Soissons, consists of a nave with transepts, and of two-storied side
+aisles vaulted upon intersecting arches, above which, as at Soissons,
+rise flying buttresses, which meet the thrust of the main vault.
+
+This arrangement of the side aisles proves the continuity of the
+Norman formulæ, just as the method of construction adopted in the main
+vault demonstrates the persistent influence of the dome.[10]
+
+[10] See chap. i., "The Influence of the Cupola on Gothic
+Architecture."
+
+The admirably constructed main vault is square on plan, each square
+containing two transverse compartments, after the Angevin method as
+derived from the Aquitainian dome. Here we find indications that,
+if the builders of the Church of Laon had fully assimilated this
+method, their minds were nevertheless not altogether at rest as to
+the functions of the flying buttress. This was, of course, essential
+to the piers which received the united thrust of both transverse
+and diagonal arches. But it was far from logical to reinforce the
+intermediate piers supporting nothing but the auxiliary transverse
+arches by abutments identical with those of the main piers.
+
+The illogicality so striking at Laon is absent from Noyon. There,
+on the contrary, the architects--of the original construction--had
+emphasised the functions of the main piers by buttresses of greater
+projection and solidity than those accorded to the secondary piers.
+
+  [Illustration: 35. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. THE EAST END]
+
+  [Illustration: 36. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. SECTION OF THE NAVE]
+
+Notre Dame de Paris was begun towards the close of the twelfth
+century, and finished, save for the chapels, in the first half of
+the thirteenth. As at Laon, the Norman tradition is observed in the
+arrangement of the upper galleries of the side aisles, while the
+influence of the dome is again to be traced in the sex-partite
+groining. The same illogical system of abutments obtains as at Laon.
+
+This vast building, consisting of a nave and double side aisles of
+equal height sweeping round the semi-circular choir, seems to be one
+of the first five-aisled cathedrals; its grandiose arrangement, the
+boldness of its combinations, and the perfection of its detail mark
+the considerable progress made by the architects of the Ile-de-France.
+
+  [Illustration: 37. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. PLAN]
+
+The method of construction here adopted has a peculiar significance.
+The upper internal galleries, vaulted on diagonal arches, and raised
+considerably above the level of the second side aisle, the boldness of
+the flying buttress, which at one span embraces the two side aisles
+and forms the abutments of the main vault--alike prove that the
+architects of Notre Dame de Paris had adopted the newly discovered
+systems even to excess, and were applying them with unparalleled skill
+and ingenuity.
+
+  [Illustration: 38. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. SECTION OF THE NAVE]
+
+The Norman tradition which had obtained in the Ile-de-France
+passed away in the first years of the thirteenth century. At
+Châlons-sur-Marne the nave is flanked by two-storied side aisles. But
+the upper gallery, vaulted and greatly reduced in size, shows that the
+conventional arrangement was fast dying out.
+
+The influence of the dome was longer lived, as is shown in the
+construction of vaults at this period. We may still trace it at
+Langres in the domed form of the vaults, which, in spite of their
+rectangular plan, seem to be a reduced copy of the Angevin naves.
+
+  [Illustration: 39. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. FLYING BUTTRESSES AND SOUTH
+  TOWER]
+
+The naves of Sens and of Bourges are also vaulted in square
+compartments. The thrust of the vaults is carried by the diagonal
+arches to each alternate pier, the intermediate one receiving only the
+auxiliary transverse arch already fully described. Yet here again the
+exterior flying buttresses are all of equal solidity in spite of the
+varying strain. This arrangement, prudent if illogical, shows once
+more with what distrust architects had adopted that system of exterior
+abutment, the characteristic of which is a detached arch exposed to
+all the vicissitudes of weather, and yet responsible for the stability
+of the whole edifice.
+
+The Cathedral of Sens marks a new phase of development by its
+suppression of the upper gallery over the side aisles. These are now
+vaulted and covered by a lean-to roof; a flying buttress of single
+span receives the thrust of the main vault. The building is perfectly
+solid; its construction shows research, though it is as illogical as
+that of Laon or of Paris; for the exterior flying buttresses are all
+of equal strength, and so fail to proclaim their true functions, the
+interior thrusts varying considerably.
+
+  [Illustration: 40. SENS CATHEDRAL. PLAN OF A BAY. VAULT IN SQUARE
+  COMPARTMENTS OF TWO BAYS]
+
+  [Illustration: 41. SENS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF A BAY OF THE NAVE]
+
+  [Illustration: 42. SENS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR VIEW OF LATERAL BAYS]
+
+The arrangement at Bourges, which appears to have been mainly built,
+if not actually finished, in the first half of the thirteenth
+century, differs from that of Sens. The structure is one of five
+aisles, and in plan recalls Notre Dame de Paris, but the details are
+very dissimilar. The inner side aisles no longer support a gallery,
+nor are they of equal height with the outer aisles; they are raised
+so as to afford space for lighting (see Fig. 43). The main vault is
+sex-partite planned on squares; but the same illogicality exists
+here which we have already pointed out, and in connection with which
+we will risk appearing somewhat insistent, in the hope of directing
+special attention to it. It is more glaring here than elsewhere, the
+flying buttresses themselves being of exaggerated dimensions and of
+double span, embracing the two side aisles.
+
+  [Illustration: 43. BOURGES CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE]
+
+Both at Bourges and Sens the space between the summit of the
+archivolts and the bases of the upper windows, known as the frieze,
+or, in modern parlance, the triforium, becomes a purely decorative
+feature. It consists of a narrow arcaded corridor, occupying in the
+interior of the building that portion of the wall space which in the
+exterior has been appropriated by the lean-to roof of the side aisles.
+At Sens there is merely a single gallery; at Bourges it becomes
+double, through the stepped arrangement of the side aisles (see Fig.
+43), a variation in which we may trace an ingenious blending of the
+systems of Anjou and Poitiers with those of the Ile-de-France.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VII
+
+               THE CATHEDRALS OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
+
+
+The Cathedral of Rheims, which was begun soon after the destruction of
+the original building by the fire of 1211, is a supreme expression of
+the fusion of the three systems--those of Aquitaine, of Anjou, and of
+the Ile-de-France. It may be taken as the most perfect manifestation
+of persistent efforts to establish a method of construction based on
+equilibrium--the equilibrium, that is to say, of a building vaulted
+on intersecting arches, the thrusts of which are received by exterior
+flying buttresses.
+
+The temerity, and even the dangers of such a system, are sufficiently
+demonstrated in the wonderful works of the thirteenth-century
+architects themselves. For, notwithstanding the skill and beauty of
+their many admirable combinations, they were unable to reduce their
+methods to scientific formulæ. The statical power of their structures
+remained an uncertain quantity, determined by the durability of the
+material and its exposure or non-exposure to the weather, the interior
+skeleton being formed of the same material as the exterior.
+
+  [Illustration: 44. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. PLAN]
+
+The perils inherent in such a system are more apparent at Rheims than
+elsewhere, because of the colossal proportions of the building. The
+arrangement of the flying buttresses, however, is more logical than
+at Laon, Paris, Sens, and Bourges, by reason of the quadripartite
+arrangement of the main vault. The thrusts being equally distributed
+among the supporting piers, each flying buttress performs an identical
+office; their equal strength and solidity is therefore perfectly
+appropriate and logical. But though theoretically correct in its
+disposition of flying buttresses of equal strength to meet thrusts of
+equal strength, the method is vitiated by its inherent weakness as a
+system of abutment. The fragility of the flying buttress exposed it
+to two grave dangers, active and passive; active, taking into account
+the constant strain upon it as an abutment; passive, in regard to the
+gradual reduction of its solidity by exposure to weather. In support
+of this statement, it is only necessary to refer to the restorations
+which it has been found necessary to make within the last few years,
+to preserve the nave. The flying buttresses have been strengthened
+from below, a proceeding without which the collapse of the huge
+building would have been inevitable.
+
+But we shall find much to call for unqualified admiration at Rheims in
+the grandiose conception of the work and in its powerful execution, in
+the magnificent arrangement of its eastern façade, and in the perfect
+harmony of the ornamentation, where sculpture, capitals, friezes,
+crockets, and floriations are so many types of mediæval decorative art
+at its best.
+
+The Cathedral of Amiens, which dates from about 1220, and is one of
+the largest as well as one of the most admired of Gothic masterpieces,
+is directly founded upon that of Rheims. The plan is on the same
+lines, with this exception, that at Amiens the choir is of greater
+importance relatively to the nave, and that the piers and points of
+support are weaker and much more lofty.
+
+  [Illustration: 45. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE]
+
+  [Illustration: 46. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE CHOIR]
+
+The Rémois architects, while exercised by the problems of equilibrium
+which their system involved, sought to minimise its dangers, which
+they recognised no less fully than their predecessors, by prudently
+avoiding all false bearings. It will be easily seen by a comparison
+of the two sections (Figs. 45 and 48) that the builders of Amiens
+were troubled by no such misgivings, or that they were at least more
+venturesome if not more accomplished. They did not hesitate to base
+the columns which received the crowns of the flying buttresses on a
+corbel arrangement which had no solid bearing, as may be seen by
+following the direction of the dotted line X in Fig. 48. The boldness,
+or rather the imprudence of such an arrangement is patent, for the
+failure of anyone of the courses, or the decay of any part of the pier
+into which the corbels are keyed, would necessarily involve a rupture
+in the flying buttresses, on which the stability of the main vault
+depends. The disintegration of the whole building and its total ruin
+could be the only result. The perils of such combinations, or rather
+such _tours de force_ of equilibrium, are exemplified at Beauvais.
+The architects who built the choir, about the year 1225, basing it on
+that of Amiens, determined to raise a monument which should surpass,
+both in plan and elevation, all the structures of their epoch. They
+increased the breadth of the choir and of its bays, raising, in the
+latter, intermediate piers on the crowns of the lower archivolts, thus
+dividing the upper bays, and at the same time strengthening the vault
+by auxiliary transverse arches. They exaggerated the height of the
+archivolts and of the large windows, and diminished their thickness,
+in order to give greater elegance and lightness, and the main vault
+rose to a height of more than 160 feet above the ground level. This
+tremendous elevation, the exaggeration of which in proportion to the
+width of the nave is striking, necessitated a complicated system of
+flying buttresses surpassing in boldness all that had gone before.
+The section in Fig. 51 will give some idea of what has been justly
+described as an architectural folly. It is astonishing that the
+structure should have stood as it has done, taking into account the
+false bearings of the intermediate piers, here again shown by the
+dotted line X (Fig. 51).
+
+  [Illustration: 47. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. PLAN]
+
+  [Illustration: 48. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. SECTION THROUGH THE NAVE]
+
+These rest for half of their thickness on off-sets from the piers,
+which, proving unequal to the strain, have been temporarily stayed,
+and must eventually be consolidated.
+
+The choir, however, was finished about 1270, and stood for several
+years. But dislocations then declared themselves. The forces so
+elaborately balanced lost their equilibrium, and on the 29th November
+1284 the vault fell, dragging down with it the flying buttresses, and
+carrying havoc through the rest of the building. In the reconstruction
+which followed it was thought imperative to double the points of
+support in the arcades both of the main and side aisles, and to
+reinforce the flying buttresses by iron chains.
+
+  [Illustration: 51. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. TRANSVERSE SECTION]
+
+During the thirteenth century a number of cathedrals were raised all
+over Europe on the model of the great buildings of Northern France,
+and more especially of Amiens, which seems to have roused a great
+enthusiasm; these were, however, of far more modest dimensions. They
+had neither the exaggerated height nor the structural audacities
+of their exemplars. Few of these churches and cathedrals, the
+reconstruction of which on the new system generally began with the
+choir, which was added to the primitive nave, were completed by
+those who initiated their erection. The most highly favoured in this
+respect were finished in the course of the fourteenth century; but in
+the greater number of cases the work dragged slowly on, and reached
+its end some two centuries after its inauguration. Reconstructive
+undertakings were constantly impeded by wars or social convulsions,
+which either hampered or entirely cut off the resources of bishops and
+architects, their promoters. Such interruptions were of great service
+to modern archæological study, offering as they do distinct evidence
+of the various transformations which were successively accomplished
+from the so-called Romanesque period to the Gothic.
+
+  [Illustration: 49. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. APSE]
+
+  [Illustration: 50. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. NORTH FRONT]
+
+  [Illustration: 51. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. TRANSVERSE SECTION]
+
+  [Illustration: 52. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. ROSE WINDOW OF NORTH TRANSEPT]
+
+The majority of these great buildings, which show traces of the
+vicissitudes through which they passed, bear a strong likeness to
+each other, and vary only in detail, according to the skill of their
+constructors.
+
+The peculiar interest of Chartres centres in its remarkable statuary;
+it has, however, other features which command attention, such as
+the rose window of the north, transept and the design of the flying
+buttresses. These consist of three arches, one above the other, the
+two lower ones being connected by colonnettes, radiating from a
+centre, so that the lower arch is related to the upper, as the nave of
+a wheel is to the felloes, the colonnettes forming the spokes.
+
+At Mans the arrangement of the choir is so far more remarkable in that
+it is extremely unusual, or indeed, in its way unique. The flying
+buttresses are planned in the form of a Y (see A on the plan Fig. 53),
+thus affording space for windows in the exterior wall, to light the
+vast circular ambulatory, which at Mans is of unusual importance, and
+surrounds the choir with a double aisle. The flying buttresses which
+rise above the _arcs-doubleaux_, bi-furcated (B on the plan), are
+over-attenuated in section; their exaggerated height and proportionate
+slenderness threaten to make them spring, so that it has been found
+necessary to bind them together by ties and iron chains. Such
+expedients are a sufficient criticism of the ingenious but precarious
+system adopted by the architects of Mans.
+
+  [Illustration: 53. MANS CATHEDRAL. PLAN]
+
+  [Illustration: 54. MANS CATHEDRAL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE APSE]
+
+  [Illustration: 55. MANS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE CHOIR]
+
+The influence of the Ile-de-France in Normandy is manifest in the
+arrangement of choirs and apsidal chapels in Norman cathedrals of
+the thirteenth century. The Cathedral of Coutances, a monument
+of the eleventh century, was rebuilt in the early years of the
+thirteenth century under the impulse given by Northern France to the
+architecture of the period. It is in the choir that we clearly trace
+this influence, in the double columns of the apse, and the ingenious
+disposition of its collateral vaults. But the façade is purely Norman,
+not merely in general design, but in the details of the composition,
+facsimiles of which may be found in England.
+
+  [Illustration: 56. COUTANCES CATHEDRAL. NORTH TOWER]
+
+The Cathedral of Dol in Brittany, one of the great churches of the
+thirteenth century, seems to have escaped the influences of the
+Northern innovation. Its general plan, its square apse lighted by
+large windows, the details of its architecture and ornamentation,
+all proclaim its affinity to the great churches which rose
+contemporaneously with it on either side of the Channel, in Normandy,
+and in England. It is very probable that it was built by the same
+architects or their immediate disciples, working on the more ancient
+methods of the Norman schools founded by Lanfranc at Canterbury
+towards the close of the eleventh century, on the model of those he
+had established in France at the famous Abbaye du Bec.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VIII
+
+  CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES OF THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES
+
+
+The Cathedrals of Rheims, Amiens, and Beauvais excited extraordinary
+enthusiasm in their time, not only in the provinces of France, but
+among neighbouring nations, notably in England, Belgium, Germany,
+Sweden, Spain, and Italy.
+
+This enthusiasm was less fervid in the provinces farthest from
+the royal domain; but even in these outlying districts several
+remarkable buildings rose in the first half of the thirteenth century,
+constructed on the new lines.
+
+In 1233 the Cathedral of Bazas was begun, and, unlike the majority of
+such undertakings, was carried through and finished in a comparatively
+short time.
+
+  [Illustration: 57. RODEZ CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT]
+
+  [Illustration: 58. BORDEAUX CATHEDRAL. CHOIR AND NORTH FRONT]
+
+  [Illustration: 59. LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT]
+
+The Cathedral of Bayonne, a contemporary building, shared the fate
+of Meaux, Troyes, and Auxerre. It was completed, with one tower
+only, in the sixteenth century. In 1248 the foundations of Clermont
+Cathedral were laid. The plan provided for six or seven towers, but
+the choir was the only portion finished in the thirteenth century. The
+transept and four towers, together with a portion of the nave, were
+completed in the following century, and the work was then abandoned
+until the reign of Napoleon III., who caused it to be again taken
+up. The Cathedral of Limoges was begun in 1273, under the direct
+inspiration of Notre Dame at Amiens. Down to our own times it has had
+to content itself with a choir, a transept, and the suggestions of a
+nave, the last of which has lately been completed. At Rodez a greater
+perseverance was shown, and the work went steadily on from 1277 until
+the Renascence, at which period, however, the two western towers were
+left unfinished, notwithstanding a contemporary description of their
+magnificence, which, in a truly Gascon vein, compares them to the
+Egyptian pyramids, among other world-renowned marvels.
+
+"In 1272 Toulouse and Narbonne entered the lists against Amiens,
+imitating its plan, and proposing to at least equal it in dimensions.
+Neither of these undertakings proved happy. Archbishop Maurice of
+Narbonne died the same year the works were begun; his successors took
+but a lukewarm interest in their progress. In 1320 the sea retreated,
+leaving the port on which the wealth of the inhabitants mainly
+depended high and dry. Fortunately the choir with its noble vault 130
+feet high was already completed, but the transept walls were left to
+fall into ruins. At Toulouse Bishop Bertrand de l'Isle-Jourdain lived
+just long enough to carry the work above the triforium of the choir;
+it was then abandoned till the fifteenth century. His successors
+squandered the revenues of their vast diocese so shamelessly in
+pleasures and display that Popes Boniface VIII. and John XXII.,
+scandalised at their disorders, dismembered their territory and
+subdivided it into four bishoprics, granting to the Bishop of Toulouse
+the title of archbishop by way of compensation. But this compensation
+was of small avail to future zealous prelates for the carrying out of
+Bertrand's projects, and the choir of Toulouse was never finished.
+It falls short of its predestined height of 130 feet by 90, and the
+transept was not even begun.
+
+"The Cathedrals of Lyons, of St. Maurice at Vienne, and of St.
+Étienne at Toul have affinities more or less direct with the great
+architectural movement. At Bordeaux the building of a great cathedral
+was contemplated at the time of the English occupation; but the choir
+would never have been finished but for the liberality of King Edward
+I. and of Pope Clement V., who had formerly been archbishop of the
+town."[11]
+
+[11] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_; Paris
+Hachette and Co., 1884.
+
+The great cathedrals constructed in England in the thirteenth century
+bear witness to the expansion of French art on the lines already laid
+down in the preceding century by the teaching and achievements of the
+Norman monkish architects who had followed William the Conqueror to
+Great Britain.[12]
+
+[12] This is a very summary way of dismissing the vexed question of
+French influence upon English architecture. The undeniable fact that
+wherever a French architect can be identified as the author of an
+English building--William of Sens at Canterbury, for instance--the
+work he did differs entirely in character from contemporary English
+work is enough to refute much of the claim made for France. The
+principles of Gothic architecture were the common property of the two
+countries, and by each were developed according to their lights.--ED.
+
+English builders assimilated the constructive principles of the
+architects of Anjou and of the Ile-de-France. In the numerous
+cathedrals they raised from the thirteenth to the close of the
+fifteenth century it is easy to trace the original characteristics of
+French art throughout all the transformations or adaptations by which
+its methods were modified in accordance with British usages and ideas.
+
+This influence is very apparent in the Cathedrals of York, Ely,
+Wells, Salisbury, and Canterbury, the last of which was constructed
+from the plans of an architect or master-mason, known as William of
+Sens; in that of Lichfield, where the spires of the façade recall
+those of Coutances in Normandy, and above all, at Lincoln, one of
+the most beautiful of English cathedrals. Here we have perhaps the
+most strongly-marked instance of the steady and continuous filiation
+between the buildings of France and England during the so-called
+Gothic period. It is quite possible that they were the work of the
+same architects, as they certainly were carried out by pupils or
+disciples of the same master-builders.[13]
+
+[13] It is difficult to believe that Mons. Corroyer is in earnest
+in comparing the spires of Lichfield to those of Coutances, or the
+central tower of Lincoln to that of the same French cathedral. Mons.
+Corroyer appears to be unacquainted with the line of filiation between
+English spires and towers, and so looks, as a matter of course, for a
+French mother to such as strike his fancy.--ED.
+
+Lincoln Cathedral, founded in the eleventh century, and finished in
+1092, shared the fate of so many other timber-roofed buildings of
+the period. The greater part of it was destroyed by fire in 1124.
+It was rebuilt and enlarged by St. Hugh in accordance with the new
+ideas he had brought with him from France, a very natural consequence
+of his supervision, when we take into account that as mandatory of
+Pope Gregory VII. he had been Bishop of Grenoble. The church was
+again partly destroyed by an earthquake in 1185. It was then rebuilt,
+enlarged, and completed by Bishop Grossetête, an Englishman by birth,
+who had, however, been educated and brought up in France in the early
+part of the thirteenth century, and had carried over with him to his
+native land the essence of the grand and noble inspirations which
+marked that marvellous era.
+
+  [Illustration: 60. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. PLAN]
+
+  [Illustration: 61. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT]
+
+The lantern-tower at the intersection of the western transept,
+which had fallen in 1235, was either rebuilt or finished by Bishop
+Grossetête about 1240. In its general outline and in detail it recalls
+the great lantern-tower of Coutances in Normandy, which seems also to
+have served as model for that of St. Ouen at Rouen in the fourteenth
+century.
+
+The vast and magnificent Cathedral of Lincoln is an admirable subject
+for comparative study. Its architecture combines most strikingly the
+characteristics of the two nations. It blends in one harmonious whole
+the massive solidity of English structure overlaid with detail, formed
+by lines vertical, rigid, dry, and hard as iron, and the mingled
+grace and strength of French architecture, which may fitly be compared
+with gold, in its union of the supple and the durable, of solidity
+and power of resistance equal to those of the less precious metal,
+with an adaptability to artistic ends far greater.
+
+  [Illustration: 62. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. TRANSEPT]
+
+  [Illustration: 63. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. APSE AND CHAPTER-HOUSE]
+
+In the façade and the west towers English characteristics predominate,
+but the choir and the apse are French in composition, and most
+probably in execution, as is also the presbytery, in which both the
+arrangement and the details of the bays recall those of the lateral
+façades of Bourges.[14] All three are veritable masterpieces, worthy
+of the most brilliant period of French mediæval architecture.
+
+[14] Here Mons. Corroyer directly traverses the opinion of
+Viollet-le-duc, who could see no ground whatever for ascribing a
+French origin to the choir of Lincoln. Indeed, the conception of that
+choir, and nearly all its details, are not only unlike, they are
+opposed to those of French contemporary examples. Here are the words
+of the great French architect: "After the most careful examination I
+cannot find, in any part of the Cathedral of Lincoln, neither in the
+general design, nor in any part of the system of architecture adopted,
+nor in the details of ornament, any trace of the French school of
+the twelfth century (the lay school, from 1170 to 1220), so plainly
+characteristic of the Cathedrals of Paris, Noyon, Senlis, Chartres,
+Sens, and even Rouen.... The construction is English, the profiles of
+the mouldings are English, the ornaments are English, the execution of
+the work belongs to the English school of workmen of the beginning of
+the thirteenth century."--_Gentleman's Magazine_ for May 1861--Letter
+to "Sylvanus Urban." The date of Lincoln choir is known. It belongs to
+the last years of the twelfth century, and so anticipates such French
+work as can show analogies with it, Le Mans, for instance, where the
+work in question dates from 1210-1220.--ED.
+
+In Belgium French influence manifested itself so early as the first
+half of the thirteenth century in the building of the remarkable
+Church of Ste. Gudule at Brussels. Up to this period the methods
+of the Rhenish schools had obtained in the Low Countries, and the
+setting aside of these methods in favour of the new system of France
+is significant of the high repute of the latter throughout Western
+Europe. Further evidence to this effect is to be found in the great
+churches of Ghent, Tongres, Louvain, and Bruges among others, which
+were either built between 1235 and 1300, or at any rate begun during
+this period, to be completed in the fourteenth century and even later.
+
+  [Illustration: 64. BRUSSELS CATHEDRAL (STE. GUDULE). WEST FRONT]
+
+Ste. Gudule at Brussels was begun about 1226; but only the choir
+and the transept were finished by 1275. The nave was built in the
+fourteenth century, together with the towers of the west front, which,
+however, were not finally completed till the following century, or
+perhaps the sixteenth. Several chapels, the windows of which are
+filled with magnificent painted glass, date from the same period as
+these towers.
+
+French influence is no less patent at Cologne, which is undoubtedly
+the daughter of Amiens. The opinion of a German writer is of special
+interest on this point.
+
+  [Illustration: 65. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. SOUTH FRONT]
+
+"The famous Cathedral of Cologne, one of the masterpieces of the
+German School, is a direct emanation from French tradition. The choir
+is a replica of that of Amiens; it was dedicated in 1322, after which
+the work of nave and transepts was carried on continuously; the nave
+measures 43 feet in width, and 140 in height; the total length of
+the church is 503 feet. The two towers of the west front have been
+completed in our own times--from the original designs, it is said.
+The general effect, whether of interior or exterior, is certainly not
+equal to that of the finest French cathedrals, but the style is rich
+and pure, and touches perfection in the treatment of details."[15]
+
+[15] W. Lübke, _Essai d'Histoire de l'Art_.
+
+In Scandinavian countries French art, which had already manifested
+itself at Ripen in Jutland during the so-called Romanesque period,
+gives us a fresh instance of its expansive power in an important
+Swedish building which dates from the end of the thirteenth century.
+The Cathedral of Upsala has this peculiarity, that it was designed and
+even begun by a French architect, one Estienne de Bonneuil, who, on
+30th August 1287, received the royal authority to betake himself to
+Upsala to construct the cathedral.[16]
+
+[16] Charles Lucas, _Les Architectes français à l'Étranger_ (from the
+journal, _L'Architecture_).
+
+In Spain the chief monuments of thirteenth-century Gothic architecture
+which betray the influence of France are the great five-aisled Church
+of Toledo, the cathedral at Badajoz, and the front of St. Mark's
+at Seville. French influence again is manifest in the cathedrals
+of Léon, of Palencia, of Oviedo, of Pampeluna, of Valencia, and of
+Barcelona, founded at the end of the thirteenth century and continued
+in the fourteenth, as well as in the churches of Torquemado, Bilbao,
+Bellaguer, Monresa, and Guadalupe, all dating partly from the
+fourteenth century.
+
+The Cathedral of Burgos, begun in the first half of the thirteenth
+century, shows a striking analogy with French buildings of about the
+same period in the plan and construction of its flying buttresses
+and windows as well as in the decorative sculpture of its portals.
+The lower stories of the west front seem to date from the fourteenth
+century, but the openwork spires which crown it were not finished
+until the fifteenth. In this curious building we find elements taken
+from France, mingled with decorative passages of pure Italian, and
+with others characteristically Spanish in their use of motives only to
+be explained by the vitality of the Saracenic traditions.
+
+  [Illustration: 66. BURGOS CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT]
+
+Innumerable churches were built in Italy during the so-called Gothic
+period, principally towards its conclusion. Not to speak of the
+famous Cathedrals of Milan and Florence, nor of S. Anthony, nor of
+the Cathedral of Padua, the Cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto seem
+especially to lean away from antique and Lombard traditions towards
+those of France, a characteristic especially notable in the decorative
+details of their west fronts, which recall in many ways the work of
+French architects during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
+
+  [Illustration: 67. CATHEDRAL OR DUOMO OF SIENA. WEST FRONT]
+
+  [Illustration: 68. CHURCH OF ST. FRANCIS AT ASSISI. APSE AND CLOISTERS]
+
+It is the opinion of some archæologists that the true parent of
+the Cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto was the Church of St. Francis
+at Assisi, which is not far distant. Now St. Francis of Assisi is
+undeniably French in origin. This church, which was founded in 1228
+to receive the remains of St. Francis who died in 1226, was possibly
+completed as to the lower structure in the thirteenth century; but it
+is improbable, to say the least, that this completion should have been
+the work of a German, for at this period Gothic architecture was still
+in embryo in Germany, while in France it had reached its most glorious
+development. The upper church seems to be later in date by a century;
+we may clearly trace its affinities with French art in the system of
+construction, which has all the characteristics peculiar to that which
+prevailed in the south of France at the close of the thirteenth and
+the beginning of the fourteenth century. Of this system the Church
+of Albi is the most finished type.[17] Assisi, in its single aisle,
+in its buttresses, both as to their interior projections and their
+exterior half-turreted forms, shows a complete analogy with the French
+Albigeois church.
+
+[17] See chap. ix. "Albi," etc.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX
+
+ CHURCHES OF THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES IN FRANCE AND IN
+                               THE EAST
+
+
+"The thirteenth century was so prolific in religious architecture as
+to leave little scope to those which followed. But even had the growth
+of great religious monuments been less rapid at this period, the wars
+which convulsed France in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries would
+have paralysed such undertakings as the building of great cathedral
+churches. The religious buildings actually completed in the fourteenth
+century are rare; still rarer are those which date from the fifteenth.
+In those stormy days enterprise was confined to the completion of
+unfinished churches, and the modification, restoration, or enlargement
+of twelfth and thirteenth century buildings. It was not until the
+close of the fifteenth and opening of the sixteenth century, when
+France was beginning to recover its former power, that a fresh impulse
+was given to religious architecture; even then, however, the Gothic
+tradition persisted, though in a corrupt and bastard form. Many of the
+great cathedrals were finished, and a number of small churches, which
+had been destroyed during the wars, or had fallen into decay through
+long neglect, consequent on the poverty of the community, were either
+rebuilt or restored. The movement was, however, presently arrested
+by the Reformation, when war, fire, and pillage again destroyed or
+mutilated most of the newly completed religious buildings. The havoc
+wrought by this last upheaval was in its nature irrevocable, for when
+order once more reigned at the close of the sixteenth century, the
+Renascence had swept away the last traces of the national art; and
+though superficially the system of construction which prevailed in
+French churches of the thirteenth century still obtained, the genius
+which had presided at their construction was extinct and its memory
+despised."[18]
+
+[18] Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné de l'Architecture
+française_, etc., vol. i.
+
+  [Illustration: 69. CHURCH OF ST. OUEN AT ROUEN. CENTRAL TOWER AND
+  APSE, SOUTH FRONT]
+
+The Church of St. Ouen at Rouen, except for the west front and its
+towers, which are modern, is a typical example of the rare religious
+buildings constructed in the north of France during the fourteenth
+century. The arrangement of these churches varies, inasmuch as,
+while in general they follow the methods of construction adopted by
+the Northern architects of the thirteenth century, their special
+characteristic is a refinement or rather an attenuation of the piers,
+less by actual reduction of their section than by a diminution of
+their apparent bulk. This was effected by multiplying the clustered
+shafts, the slenderness of which was still further exaggerated by
+the prodigality of the mouldings, and the over-hollowness of their
+profiles. These profiles and mouldings rise from the base to the
+summit, and in the fourteenth century mark the spring of the arches
+by rings of sculpture, crowned with rudimentary abaci. These latter
+details were the last traces of a tradition which was to finally
+disappear in the fifteenth century. Thenceforward the lines of
+the intersecting arches of the vault, as of the longitudinal and
+transverse arches, run down without interruption to the base of the
+piers, where we find a complex faggot of mouldings crossing and
+recrossing, and showing little beyond the technical dexterity of the
+carver.
+
+The main preoccupation of the architects of this period seems to
+have been the reduction of solid surfaces so as to give full play
+to the soaring effect of their airy shafts and vaults. The walls
+disappear, save below the windows, which now occupy the entire space
+of each bay. The triangular divisions of the vault are concealed by
+a serried network of supplementary ribs, for the most part useless
+save as decorations. But it must in justice be remembered that to this
+exaggeration of the window spaces we owe the growth of the beautiful
+art of painting on glass. This art, the admirable fitness of which
+for decorative purposes can hardly be over-estimated, had already
+manifested itself in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In the
+interval from that period to the Renascence it produced its grandest
+masterpieces.[19]
+
+[19] See chap. xii. "Decorative Painting on Walls and Glass."
+
+It must be borne in mind that the great constructive and
+reconstructive movement which had manifested itself throughout Western
+Europe, and notably in the north of France, by great buildings, the
+distinguishing characteristics of which are vaulted roofs and flying
+buttresses, had made little progress in Southern France. The few
+exceptions of importance are--Bazas, Bayonne, Auch, Toulouse, and
+Narbonne. The Southern architects, as we have already stated, adhered
+to the ancient tradition, whether influenced by impulses of reaction,
+resistance, or defiance. Their conservatism is comprehensible
+enough in view of the strong Gallo-Roman tendencies which governed
+architectural activity throughout the district. The builders of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries did indeed accept the Angevin
+intersecting arch, an invention the admirable simplicity of which was
+its own recommendation. But this concession was without prejudice to
+their broad principles. In the general arrangement of their religious
+buildings they still adhered to Roman usage, and to such models
+as the Basilica of Constantine and the tepidarium of the Baths of
+Caracalla.[20]
+
+[20] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison Quantin,
+chaps. iii. and vii.
+
+Towards the close of the thirteenth, and throughout the fourteenth
+century, a large number of churches were built in the South,
+consisting of a single wide and lofty aisle, vaulted on intersecting
+arches, the thrusts of which were received by buttresses of great bulk
+and prominence in the interior of the building, but very slightly
+indicated on the exterior. The spaces between the massive interior
+buttresses, on either side of the aisle, were occupied by a series of
+chapels, supporting disconnected tribunes or a continuous corridor.
+The two great churches of the Cordeliers and of the Jacobins at
+Toulouse were built in the brick of the country in the second half
+of the thirteenth century. These have two aisles, according to the
+Dominican usage of the period, but the exterior arrangement is the
+same as in the one-aisled churches. The Churches of St. Bertrand
+at Comminges, and those of Lodève, Perpignan, Condom, Carcassonne,
+Gaillac, Montpezat, Moissac, etc., were built in the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries on the single-aisled plan. That of Perpignan has
+this peculiarity; its vaults, though supported on intersecting arches,
+are built in accordance with Roman methods, which further prevail
+both in the forms of the terra-cotta materials, and in the manner of
+their application. The reins of the vault, which measures some 53 feet
+across, are ornamented by terra-cotta jars embedded in an admirably
+prepared lime mortar of great durability. The actual roof lies without
+the support of any intervening structure of timber upon the extrados
+of the vault. This consists of voussoirs of Roman brick, retained
+by a layer of terra-cotta upon which the tiles, also of the antique
+Roman form, are laid. This arrangement protects the vault from any
+infiltration of water due to the rupture of the tiles, an absolutely
+necessary precaution, if the former was to retain its stability.
+
+  [Illustration: 70. ALBI CATHEDRAL. PLAN]
+
+  [Illustration: 71. ALBI CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE]
+
+The Cathedral of Ste. Cécile at Albi is a monumental type of the
+single-aisled system. It is one of the largest and most important of
+Southern buildings constructed on the traditional principles of the
+ancient Romans. The vast single aisle, some 60 feet wide, is built
+entirely of brick, with the exception of the window tracery, the choir
+screen, and the south porch. Here we may study constructive principles
+no less simple than sagacious, combining all the necessary conditions
+of stability. The points of support and abutments of the vault on
+intersecting arches are all enclosed by the outer wall; they are thus
+protected from the accidents of climate, and their durability is
+almost indefinitely assured.
+
+  [Illustration: 72. ALBI CATHEDRAL. APSE]
+
+  [Illustration: 73. ALBI CATHEDRAL. DONJON TOWER AND SOUTH FRONT]
+
+The foundations of the cathedral, which was dedicated to St. Cecilia,
+were laid in 1282, on the ruins of the ancient Church of Ste. Croix.
+The main building was finished towards the close of the fourteenth
+century, and the whole as it now stands was completed in the last
+years of the fifteenth and early part of the sixteenth century, by
+the addition of the baldacchino of the southern porch, or principal
+entrance, of the stone rood loft, and choir screen, the stalls
+of carved wood, and the fresco decorations which adorn the whole
+building. This varied workmanship renders Albi one of the most
+instructive of studies in connection with French decorative art,
+the successive developments being marked by monumental examples of
+the highest order, inspired or created by divers influences. The
+architecture is of the Southern French type, as far as the main
+building is concerned; in essentials, the same type prevails in the
+magnificent porch known as the _baldaquin_, in the choir screen,
+and in the rood loft; but in these later additions the inspiration
+of Northern art at the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the
+sixteenth century is also perceptible. The statuary and sculptured
+ornaments of wood and stone are Flemish; the paintings indicate their
+Italian origin by their crudity of colour and vulgarity of motive.
+
+The Cathedral of Albi has a special interest as being one of the most
+curious examples of Southern Gothic architecture in the fourteenth
+century. It has a further peculiarity, inasmuch as it was not only a
+church, as it still is, but a fortress. Such a combination is readily
+accounted for by a study of the epoch following on the fierce struggle
+which ended in the extermination of the Albigenses, and of the social
+and political events resulting therefrom.
+
+The interior is purely ecclesiastical, of the most beautiful type of
+its time; the grandeur of its dimensions, its structural perfection,
+and the magnificence of its decoration, are unsurpassed in their way.
+
+The exterior is that of a fortress. Its intention is proclaimed by the
+buttresses rising from the glacis of the base to form, as it were,
+flanking towers; by the arrangement of the bays, or rather curtains,
+crowned by an embattled machicolated parapet, which unite these
+towers, and by the grandiose military character of the architecture.
+The formidable aspect of the building is much enhanced by the western
+tower, in effect a donjon keep, completing the system of defence by
+its connection with the fortifications of the archbishop's palace,
+which in their turn are carried on to ramparts, crowning the
+escarpments which, to the north, rise from the Tarn.[21]
+
+[21] See "Civil Architecture," Part IV. chap. ii.
+
+A few fortified churches still exist--such, for example, as Les Stes.
+Maries (Bouches du Rhone), which dates from the thirteenth century.
+Albi was not a solitary instance of this usage. The Churches of
+Béziers, Narbonne, and many others of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+century had been surrounded by defensive outworks rendered necessary
+by religious strife. The buildings thus transformed into strongholds
+served the further purpose of sheltering fugitive populations in times
+of panic.
+
+One of the most interesting of such examples is the Church of
+Esnandes, not far from Rochelle, on the creek of Aiguillon, a building
+which dates from the twelfth century. It was fortified at the
+beginning of the fifteenth century to resist the incursions of the
+English.
+
+  [Illustration: 74. CHURCH OF ESNANDES (CHARENTE INFÉRIEURE). A
+  FORTIFIED CHURCH OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY]
+
+As we have already remarked on the authority of a learned writer,
+the buildings of the fifteenth century are less numerous than those
+of the fourteenth. Those concerned in such undertakings were content
+to finish churches begun at an earlier period, or to attempt their
+reconstruction, frequently on plans which it was impossible to carry
+out, so that many buildings were left incomplete. We may instance a
+very famous monument, the Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The Romanesque
+choir fell into ruins in 1421, during the Hundred Years' War. In 1452
+Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville undertook the reconstruction of the
+church on a scale so considerable that the choir only was completed
+during the first years of the sixteenth century.[22] This part of
+the church shows the effect of the decadence of which there had been
+indications so early as the close of the thirteenth century. Certain
+of the arrangements are very ingenious, notably that of the triforium,
+which rests on the reins of the lower vault, and forms, as seen from
+outside, a series of small apses standing out from the main wall. But
+the mason's work is negligent, especially in the flying buttresses,
+which were so carefully treated by the architects of the thirteenth
+century. The lines are attenuated by a multiplicity of mouldings to an
+almost threadlike slenderness; the spring of the arches is undefined
+by capitals, and the complicated network of the fenestration adds to
+the wire-drawn effect, and further diminishes the proportions of the
+building. There is little to admire but the extreme manual dexterity
+of the carvers. The carving of the granite, the only stone used at
+Mont St. Michel[23] save for the arcadings of the cloister, is very
+remarkable, as is also the ornamental sculpture; this is executed
+with extreme skill, in spite of the excess of detail with which it is
+loaded.
+
+[22] _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et des ses Abords_,
+by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877.
+
+[23] See Part II., "Monastic Architecture."
+
+  [Illustration: 75. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE
+  CHOIR (LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY). FROM A DRAWING BY THE AUTHOR]
+
+  [Illustration: 76. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN OF THE CHOIR ABOVE
+  THE LOWER CHAPEL]
+
+  [Illustration: 77. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. DETAILS OF THE APSE
+  (LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+The decadence of Gothic architecture was manifest even at the close of
+the thirteenth century in such _tours de force_ as the choir of St.
+Peter at Beauvais, and the Church of St. Urbain at Troyes. During the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries buildings or parts of buildings
+were constructed with remarkable skill, but the noble simplicity which
+was the strength of thirteenth-century architecture was no more. By
+the close of the fifteenth century a studied mannerism had taken
+its place. The western doorway of Alençon Cathedral is a typical
+example of this development, the defects of which were still further
+accentuated in the following century.
+
+  [Illustration: 78. ALENÇON CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+"The qualities of the architecture of the decadence must be sought
+not in the construction, but in the decoration of churches; here we
+may freely admire the happy detail and patient execution which mark
+the work of carvers and limners during the last two centuries of the
+Middle Ages."[24]
+
+[24] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_; Paris,
+1884.
+
+Gothic architecture put forth its expansive force at the close of the
+twelfth and during the thirteenth century, not only throughout Western
+Europe, but even in Eastern countries, where monuments still survive
+of the highest interest to us as the work of monkish architects who
+came from France in the wake of the first Crusaders. The modifications
+and enlargements of famous buildings in the Holy Land towards the
+close of the twelfth century show evident traces of their influence,
+which is further manifested in certain structures of Rhodes and
+Cyprus from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, in which Western
+and more especially French types have served as models.
+
+  [Illustration: 79. FAÇADE OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. SOPHIA AT NICOSIA
+  (ISLAND OF CYPRUS)]
+
+"It will hardly be disputed that the prolonged sojourn of the
+Crusaders in the Levant, the teachings of their architects, and
+the contemplation of their works, were considerable factors in the
+development of Arab art. There was a reaction of the West upon the
+East; sometimes indeed such a direct influence is perceptible as to
+astound and perplex the observer. To understand the part played by the
+Crusaders in the East, and to appreciate its Western and independent
+character, we must cast a rapid glance at the monuments constructed by
+them in Cyprus and Rhodes after their expulsion from Syria. We shall
+find the movement which originated in the twelfth century progressing
+throughout the following centuries on the same lines; in other words,
+drawing a continuous inspiration from France.[25]
+
+[25] Melchior de Vogüé, _Les Églises de la Terre Sainte_.
+
+"The island of Cyprus was conquered in 1191 by Richard Cœur de
+Lion; in the following year it was ceded to Guy de Lusignan, in whose
+family it remained until the close of the fifteenth century. Catherine
+Cornaro, the widow of the last of the Lusignans, gave it in 1489 to
+the Venetians, who retained possession of it till its conquest by
+the Turks in 1571. Throughout the thirteenth century Cyprus was a
+refuge for successive remnants of the Christian colonies of Syria.
+French predominance was at its height in the fourteenth century.
+The religious monuments of this period are very numerous and of
+great variety of structure. Art had emerged from the cloister, and
+had ceased to be the monopoly of monastic bodies. In Cyprus we no
+longer find that scholastic uniformity which characterises the Latin
+churches of the Holy Land. The new blood of secularism had entered
+into Romanesque architecture and led to a fresh development of the
+art in Cyprus as in France Architects applied the thirteenth-century
+methods, fully recognising their consequences. They sacrificed to
+local exigencies by the substitution of flat roofs for timber ones,
+but this modification in nowise affected the general arrangement of
+their buildings.
+
+  [Illustration: 80. CATHEDRAL OF ST. NICHOLAS AT FAMAGUSTA (ISLAND OF
+  CYPRUS). FAÇADE]
+
+  [Illustration: 81. CATHEDRAL OF ST. NICHOLAS AT FAMAGUSTA (ISLAND OF
+  CYPRUS)]
+
+
+"The most considerable monument of the thirteenth century is the
+Cathedral of Nicosia, built between 1209 and 1228, and dedicated to
+St. Sophia (see Fig. 79). This large three-aisled church has all the
+characteristics of French cathedrals of the period."[26]
+
+[26] Melchior de Vogüé, _Les Églises de la Terre Sainte_.
+
+The Churches of St. Catherine and of the Armenians, the mosques
+of Emerghié and of Arab Achmet also date from the close of the
+thirteenth century. Among the more numerous buildings of the
+fourteenth century the most noteworthy are the Cathedral of St.
+Nicholas at Famagusta (Figs. 80 and 81), with its three portals
+and two towers; the Church of St. Sophia at Famagusta (Fig. 82),
+the Premonstrant Monastery of Lapaïs, remarkable for the beauty
+and nobility of its abbatial buildings, which comprise a large
+three-aisled chapel, and several religious buildings at Paphos and
+at Limasol. At Rhodes there are a number of churches built in the
+fifteenth century after French models, which had no less a vogue
+for dwelling-houses than for religious and military architecture;
+in a word, architecture--civil, religious, or military--was French
+in all its manifestations. "The guns of the order still point from
+the embrasures of the towers, Soliman's stone cannon balls strew
+the neighbouring ground; sculptured on the house fronts are the
+blazons, and in many cases the French names, of their bygone owners.
+Involuntarily the mind travels back by the space of three centuries,
+reincorporating these forgotten worthies, and repeopling their
+dwelling-places. One half expects to see the emblazoned doors thrown
+open, to give egress to knightly owners, mustering for the last time
+under the banner of St. John."[27]
+
+[27] Melchior de Vogüé, _Les Églises de la Terre Sainte_.
+
+  [Illustration: 82. RUINS OF THE CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA AT FAMAGUSTA
+  (ISLAND OF CYPRUS)]
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER X
+
+                 TOWERS AND STEEPLES--CHOIRS--CHAPELS
+
+
+The first steeples were round, on the model of the Greek and Byzantine
+cupolas, and modest in diameter, so that the bells they contained can
+only have been small ones. These bells were suspended from the summit
+of the tower, the portion of wall surrounding them being pierced by
+arcaded openings, and crowned by a long pyramidal roof.[28]
+
+[28] _Encyclopédie de l'Architecture et de la Construction_, article
+"Clocher," by Ed. Corroyer.
+
+Such towers were very frequently isolated from the body of the church.
+A large number of Italian churches, dating from all periods of the
+Middle Ages, have steeples at a considerable distance from the main
+building.
+
+Force of habit determined the application of the round form to towers
+of the twelfth century; but it is evident that a square plan was
+preferred, even so early as the tenth century, and such a form was in
+course of time rendered necessary by the development of the founder's
+art, and the increase in the dimensions of bells at the beginning of
+the twelfth century. Besides the great bells which proclaimed the
+hour of prayer to a distant flock, small bells were in use to regulate
+the religious exercises of the clergy. They are called in the Latin
+texts _signum_, _schilla_, _nola_; in French _sin_, _esquielle_,
+_eschelitte_; from the beginning of the tenth century they were placed
+in the campaniles which crowned the domes.
+
+The Italian word _campanile_ has the force of the French terms _tour_,
+_clocher_, _beffroi_ (or the English tower, steeple, belfry). But the
+denomination _clocher_ has a general application to all pyramidal
+structures rising above the roof of a church.
+
+The belfry was a tower, in most cases isolated, which contained the
+bell destined to sound the curfew and tocsin, and to call the burghers
+to civic assemblies.
+
+Like the belfry, the Italian campanile is generally an isolated
+building, but it is usually placed in the near neighbourhood of a
+church. Among the most famous _campanili_ are those of Florence--begun
+in the fourteenth century, on the plans of Giotto,--of Padua, of
+Ravenna, and the famous leaning tower of Pisa.
+
+  [Illustration: 83. STEEPLE, VENDÔME (TWELFTH CENTURY)]
+
+In France the term campanile has a more general application, and is
+given to the little pierced arcaded turrets which, in many churches,
+crown the walls of the façade and shelter small bells.
+
+  [Illustration: 84. GIOTTO'S TOWER AT FLORENCE]
+
+The most ancient belfries of the original provinces of France have
+great analogies with Byzantine monuments as to form, even when
+differing in detail. One of the most remarkable of these is the tower
+of St. Front at Périgueux, which seems to date from the first years
+of the eleventh century. It marked the sepulchre of the Saint, and
+apparently embraced two bays of the original three-aisled Latin church
+of the sixth century, evident traces of which have been discovered to
+the west of the great domed building of later times.
+
+The tower of St. Front is composed of three square stories,
+diminishing on plan as they rise, and crowned by a conical dome,
+resting upon a circular colonnade, the columns of which vary in
+height and diameter, and owe their origin to Roman examples in the
+neighbourhood.[29]
+
+[29] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison Quantin,
+1887.
+
+The influence of this remarkable building was very considerable. It
+served as a model to architects of the neighbouring provinces. The
+type was improved upon in the tower of the Abbey Church of Brantôme
+by the avoidance of the false bearings which mar the structure of St.
+Front, while at St. Léonard, near Limoges, a very original feature was
+superadded in the octagonal form of the crown or roof. The Auvergnat
+architects further perfected the construction by introducing internal
+piers for the support of the recessed walls of the upper stories, as
+at Puy.[30]
+
+[30] _Ibid._ 1888.
+
+It is worthy of note that, in spite of the importance given to
+these buildings, the space allotted to the bells themselves was
+comparatively limited, which seems to indicate that the towers were
+destined for other purposes than the reception of bells. In the
+eleventh century the tower bore the same relation to the cathedral or
+abbey as did the donjon to the feudal castle. It was, in fact, the
+symbol of power. As abbots and bishops enjoyed the same rights as the
+nobles, it will be readily understood that the costliness of such
+emblems would be governed solely by the resources of their authors.
+The number of towers built at about the same period in connection with
+cathedrals and abbeys, and the importance of such as were attached
+even to simple parish churches may be explained if we consider
+them mainly as denoting the status of an enfranchised commune. The
+rivalries in connection with neighbouring towers undoubtedly had their
+origin in conditions such as these.
+
+  [Illustration: 85. BAYEUX CATHEDRAL. TOWERS OF THE WEST FRONT]
+
+  [Illustration: 86. SENLIS CATHEDRAL. SOUTH TOWER OF WEST FRONT]
+
+Towards the close of the eleventh century and throughout the twelfth
+many towers were built at an angle with the door, or in front of it,
+so as to form a porch, as at St. Benoît-sur-Loire and Poissy; or above
+it, as in the Churches of Ainay and of Moissac.
+
+Later on immense towers with spires were built at each angle of the
+western façade, the gable of the nave rising between them.
+
+At the Abbey Church of Jumiéges a large projecting porch filled the
+central bay of the ground story between the bases of the towers, but
+more frequently the towers were in one plane with the chief porch, and
+were themselves pierced with lateral porches, the three doors, with
+their richly sculptured voussoirs, forming one vast decorative whole.
+
+The architects of the so-called Romanesque period built their towers
+at the intersection of the transepts; but avoiding the constructive
+audacities of the tower of St. Front, which was one of the most
+generally accepted models of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, they
+ensured the solidity of their central tower by placing the more or
+less conical cupola which crowned the structure upon a square base,
+carefully loaded and abutted at each angle.
+
+At the close of the twelfth century the architects of the
+Ile-de-France adopted a square form for the body of the tower, and in
+imitation of Oriental and Rhenish builders, reserved the octagonal
+plan for the spire, ensuring the solidity of the angles by a variety
+of ingenious combinations.
+
+The great central towers of the Norman churches built in England and
+Normandy from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century were not always
+merely belfries, as at Salisbury or Langrune, for instance; in many
+cases they were lanterns, their functions being to light the centre
+of the church and to form a magnificent decorative feature at the
+intersection of transepts, nave, and choir in cruciform structures,
+such as St. Georges, Bocherville, Coutances, etc. Of all the French
+provinces Normandy clung most persistently to the lantern tower, and
+that of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of the most interesting examples.
+
+  [Illustration: 87. SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. STEEPLE]
+
+  [Illustration: 88. CHURCH OF LANGRUNE (CALVADOS). STEEPLE]
+
+In other provinces, notably Picardy, Champagne, Burgundy, and the
+Ile-de-France, lantern towers were superseded by timber _flèches_
+cased in lead, which rose at the intersection of the roofs of nave and
+transepts.
+
+Among the most remarkable towers of the twelfth century in the
+Northern provinces we may mention those of Tracy-le-Val (Oise), of
+the Abbey Church of the Ste. Trinité at Vendôme, and of Bayeux; those
+of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes at Caen; the old tower of the Cathedral of
+Chartres, and that of St. Eusèbe at Auxerre.
+
+In the thirteenth century the height and decorative richness of these
+structures had increased to an extraordinary degree. The tower of
+Senlis (Fig. 86) is a most elegant example of the first years of a
+century which witnessed the birth of so many marvels of architecture.
+
+In Burgundy several remarkable towers were built by the monks of
+Cluny, who were free from the asceticism introduced by St. Bernard
+among their brethren of Citeaux. The most notable of their structures
+are perhaps the towers of the Church of St. Père, near Vézelay, built
+about 1240.
+
+In the South various original developments in Gothic architecture were
+logically brought about by a judicious use of the materials of the
+country, such as brick. Most interesting examples of such development
+are to be found in the tower of the Jacobin Church at Toulouse, which
+dates from the close of the thirteenth century, and the donjon tower
+of Albi, the characteristics of which we have already discussed.
+
+  [Illustration: 89. CHURCH OF THE JACOBINS AT TOULOUSE. TOWER]
+
+Examples of isolated towers are hardly to be found of later date than
+the thirteenth century. Bordeaux perhaps offers an exception. But
+the general usage after this period was to include the towers in the
+composition of the façade; their actual functions as belfries became
+apparent only above the level of the vaults. A beautiful example of
+this treatment may be studied in the noble composition of Notre Dame
+de Paris.
+
+Its contemporary, the Cathedral of Laon, has four towers, terminating
+in octagonal belfries, the angles of which are flanked by two-storied
+openwork pinnacles; on the second of these stories are placed colossal
+bulls, the effect of which is very striking.
+
+The towers of Rheims, which date from the second half of the
+thirteenth century, are of secondary importance in the splendid
+façade; but they are marked by a feature which was a novelty at
+the time. The interior of the belfry is built with a cage to allow
+free play to the bells, and space for the timbers by which they are
+supported, while the exterior forms an octagonal tower flanked by
+important pinnacles.
+
+Rheims may be said to mark in Gothic architecture the boundary which
+separated its period of perfection from that of exaggeration and
+mannerism. The mania for lightness and the desire to dazzle and
+astound soon seduced its artists into a dangerous path which led
+inevitably to decadence. Such effects first manifested themselves more
+especially in the provinces of the German frontier, and the spire of
+Strasburg, built in the fourteenth century, is a famous example of
+these mistaken tendencies.
+
+Throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries towers adhered to
+the plan and general arrangement adopted by the later architects of
+the thirteenth century, diverging chiefly in the marvellous profusion
+of detail and of sculpture, and in the excessive lightness of design.
+The points of support were attenuated, and the mass of ornament
+seemed designed to conceal them as far as possible. In France the
+misfortunes of the times tended largely to perpetuate these dangerous
+foibles; for a number of churches which were founded at the close of
+the thirteenth century remained unfinished till the fifteenth and
+sixteenth, when Gothic art was in full decadence.
+
+  [Illustration: 90. CHURCH OF ST. PIERRE AT CAEN. TOWER]
+
+But we must not pass over unmentioned certain buildings famous for
+boldness of construction and magnificence of decoration, if not for
+purity of style. The following are perhaps the most important:--In
+France the tower of St. Pierre at Caen, which shows strong traces
+of that analogy, or family likeness, so to speak, uniting Norman
+edifices; and the tower of St. Michel at Bordeaux, the spire of which
+was destroyed by a hurricane in 1768, and has lately been restored
+to its primitive height of 365 feet; in Austria the tower of St.
+Stephen, one of the most important of such buildings in that country,
+finished in 1433; the tower of the Cathedral of Freiburg-im-Breisgau
+(grand-duchy of Baden), one of the most beautiful and important
+examples. It was mainly constructed towards the close of the
+fourteenth century, but the openwork spire was added about the middle
+of the following century.
+
+  [Illustration: 91. CHURCH OF ST. MICHEL AT BORDEAUX. TOWER]
+
+The Cathedral of Antwerp in Belgium was begun in the middle of the
+fourteenth century; the nave and the four side aisles were not
+completed till a century later. The façade is said to have been begun
+in 1406 by a Boulognese master-mason, one Pierre Amel; but of the
+two belfry towers only that on the north was completed in 1518. Its
+principal merit lies in its boldness of construction and its unusual
+height of 410 feet, rather than in purity of style or beauty of
+detail, the latter being a conglomerate made up from every period of
+Gothic.
+
+  [Illustration: 92. CATHEDRAL OF FREIBURG-IM-BREISGAU (GRAND-DUCHY OF
+  BADEN). TOWER]
+
+
+_Choirs._--In Christian churches the choir[31] proper was an
+institution long before the chapels.[32]
+
+[31] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison Quantin,
+1888.
+
+[32] _Encyclopédie de l'Architecture et de la Construction_, article
+"Chœur-Chapelle," by Ed. Corroyer.
+
+  [Illustration: 93. ANTWERP CATHEDRAL]
+
+At the extremity of the basilica, in the centre of the chalcidium or
+transept which gave to the basilican plan the form of a T or Tau--a
+figure venerated by the Christians as symbolising the Cross--were
+placed the altar, the sanctuary, and the precincts occupied by the
+deacons and sub-deacons. The altar stood in the midst, between the
+hemicycle or apse and the nave arch. The hemicycle or apse which
+formed the Pagan tribunal was by the Christians reserved for ordained
+priests, hence its name, _presbyterium_. A semi-circular bench
+(_consistorium_), interrupted in the middle by a seat higher than the
+rest, on either side of which sat the inferior clergy, surrounded the
+apse, the raised seat (_suggestus_) being the throne of the bishop or
+his representative.
+
+This portion of the basilica underwent a later modification; from
+the _presbyterium_ it became the _martyrium_, or shrine in which was
+placed the body of the patron saint of the basilica or the relic to
+which the devotion of the faithful was specially addressed. This usage
+had been established even before the year 500 in the first basilica of
+St. Martin at Tours.
+
+The primitive apse was lighted only from the nave or transept. After
+its transformation into the _martyrium_ it was not only pierced with
+windows, but, according to some authors, was provided with openings
+along its base, or even arcaded, so as to give access to a low gallery
+running round it. If this be so, the characteristic arrangement of
+mediæval churches dates from the fifth century.
+
+In later times when it became customary to place the altar at the
+back, against the wall of the apse, seats for the bishops, priests,
+and choristers--_the choir_--were arranged between the altar and the
+nave. In monastic churches, built after the Latin tradition, the choir
+was generally in the crossing, or where there were no transepts,
+in the nave itself. It was separated from the congregation by a low
+enclosure of stone or marble. There are a few examples of churches
+with _two_ choirs, one at the east, the other at the west.
+
+In the first churches of the Romanesque epoch the choir was confined
+to the space between the piers of the crossing; it soon, however, made
+considerable advances. In monastic churches the choir or sanctuary was
+cut off from the surrounding spaces by barriers of stone or wood, and
+towards the nave was closed by a _jubé_, or rood screen and loft, the
+upper part of which was accessible to the monks for the reading of the
+epistle and gospel. Bishops, on the other hand, being free from the
+necessity of closing the choirs of their cathedrals, made a point of
+providing their flocks with wide spaces, in which ceremonies could be
+afforded a liberal development.
+
+At the end of the twelfth century and beginning of the thirteenth
+these ideas governed the construction of important churches. Changes
+continued to be made, however, and from the reign of St. Louis we find
+the choirs of great cathedrals arranged on the exclusive principles
+of the monastic churches. The arcades surrounding them were filled
+with high stone walls, against the inner sides of which the stalls of
+the clergy, with their lofty and richly carved wooden canopies, were
+securely fixed.
+
+Among the more famous choirs we may quote those of Notre Dame de
+Paris, of Amiens, of Beauvais, of Auch, of Lincoln, of Canterbury, of
+Spires, of Worms, of Burgos, etc. In order to satisfy the laymen whose
+view of the ceremonies performed in the choir was intercepted by
+these enclosures, the sanctuary was surrounded by chapels contrived in
+the wall of the apse, and in the side aisles of the nave.
+
+
+_Chapels._--From the end of the tenth century, according to M. de
+Caumont, we shall sometimes find aisles running entirely round the
+choir or sanctuary and communicating with it by an arcade. Even at
+this early period there must have been chapels in such aisles. In the
+twelfth century the disposition to elongate the choirs of important
+churches became general, and brought with it certain modifications of
+the plan. The Church of Vignori, which dates from the tenth century,
+has an apse divided into three chapels, recalling in its arrangement
+that of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem.
+
+The Church of St. Servan, built in the eleventh century, has five
+chapels round the choir, and the Auvergnat churches--Notre Dame du
+Port at Clermont, and St. Paul at Issoire among others,--which date
+from the beginning of the twelfth century, also show in this respect
+some interesting peculiarities. The importance given to the apse by
+these rings of chapels can scarcely be too much insisted on.
+
+On plan these apsidal chapels are, for the most part, round-ended.
+They are pierced with one or more round-headed windows, and have
+segmental vaults. On the outside they are often ornamented by
+mouldings, modillions, and even by variations in the colour of their
+stones. Chapels between the buttresses of the nave are rare in several
+aisled churches of the Romanesque period, but in many such buildings
+they were added at a later time.
+
+The great revolution which took place in the art of building towards
+the end of the twelfth century had, for one of its results, the
+multiplication of chapels in the numerous great churches dating from
+that epoch. The principle of that revolution being to replace the
+inert masses which had previously resisted the various thrusts by
+comparatively slender points of support upon which those thrusts could
+be collected, stability being secured by a scientific calculation
+of forces, it led, as a natural consequence, to a considerable
+augmentation of disposable surfaces in the interior. These surfaces,
+mere curtains between the points of support, were ornamented with
+vast networks of stone, embracing panels of painted glass, on which
+the principal events of the Old and New Testaments, and the scenes
+so vividly outlined in the traditions of the time, were traced with
+admirable art. Room was found for chapels of considerable size, not
+only in the walls, or rather between the piers of the apse, but also
+in those of the side aisles, the bounding walls of which were carried
+out to the external faces of the buttresses receiving the thrust of
+the main vault, which buttresses now formed the lateral walls of a
+continuous line of chapels.
+
+The veneration paid to the relics of saints increased greatly after
+the year 1000, in consequence of the pilgrimages to the Holy Land
+which preceded the Crusades. Each religious community established a
+patron, and demanded a special oratory dedicated to him, and it was a
+point of honour to make such a shrine excel that of the neighbouring,
+and, in most cases, rival corporation. The demand for these shrines
+increased to such an extent at the close of the fourteenth and
+throughout the fifteenth century that, though chapels were constructed
+in all the available spaces of the vast cathedrals, they were found
+insufficient, and sanctuaries, which in earlier times had been
+the special property of particular bodies, were shared by several
+confraternities.
+
+The Lady Chapel, or chapel dedicated to the Virgin, was generally in
+the apse, and in the thirteenth century, especially at its close, had
+been so considerably developed as to give great importance to the
+portion of the apse allotted to it. Very curious examples of this
+development are to be studied in the Cathedrals of Bourges, Amiens,
+Meaux, and Rouen, among others.
+
+In many cathedrals and churches of the Middle Ages lateral chapels
+or annexes were built to serve some subsidiary purpose; such were
+chapter-houses, muniment rooms, treasuries, or even mortuaries, as
+the presbytery of Lincoln, the circular chapel at Canterbury, known
+as Becket's Crown, containing the tomb of Thomas à Becket, and Henry
+VII.'s chapel at Westminster.
+
+A most interesting example of this species of structure dating from
+the end of the twelfth century is to be seen at Soissons Cathedral; a
+two-storied vaulted building is connected by openings with the upper
+galleries of the round-ended south transept, and contains a funeral
+chapel, with a vaulted chamber above for a treasury.
+
+In many countries small ancient buildings are to be found, known
+as baptisteries or chapels; these latter are doubtless the little
+rural churches which were built in great numbers in the first
+centuries of the Christian era, and are designated _capella_ in texts
+of the time of Charlemagne, or perhaps oratories, such as it was
+customary to attach to the charnel-houses of towns or great religious
+establishments.[33]
+
+[33] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison Quantin,
+1888.
+
+The use of private chapels dates from the earliest days of
+Christianity; great personages who had embraced the new faith followed
+the example of the Romans who constructed private basilicas in their
+palaces. The custom was perpetuated, and the splendid Palatine Chapel
+of Aix is one of the most magnificent of its results. In later times
+kings and great nobles built themselves sanctuaries within their
+castles. In the time of Charles V. the Louvre owned an important
+chapel; the feudal castles of Coucy and Pierrefonds, among others,
+contained large chapels, the arrangement of which is very curious.
+Archæologists cite as of special beauty among seignorial chapels
+the ancient oratory of the Dukes of Bourbon at Moulins, the Chapels
+of Chenonceaux, Chambord, and Chaumont, and the Chapel of Jacques
+Cœur's _hôtel_ at Bourges. Many episcopal palaces have very
+remarkable chapels, such as that of the archbishop's palace at Rheims.
+
+Refuges, hospitals, madhouses, and prisons also had chapels more or
+less important.
+
+The term _Sainte Chapelle_[34] was applied in the Middle Ages to
+buildings raised over spots sanctified by the martyrdom of a saint, or
+destined to enshrine relics of peculiar holiness. The most famous was
+the royal oratory, built by Pierre de Montereau between 1242 and 1248
+on the south side of the royal palace, now the _Palais de Justice_,
+Paris, to receive the Crown of Thorns, the pieces of the true Cross,
+and other relics brought by the royal founder, St. Louis, from the
+Holy Land.
+
+[34] The plans and elevations of these chapels are so well known, and
+have been so frequently published, that we abstain from reproducing
+them in the present work.
+
+The distinguishing feature of the _Ste. Chapelle_ of Paris is its
+division into two stories--the upper chapel, which communicated with
+the royal apartments, and the lower chapel on the ground floor, which
+may have been open to the public. Its construction is remarkable no
+less for the happy boldness with which the whole of the spaces between
+the buttresses were utilised for the introduction of immense painted
+windows, than for the perfection of execution and the beauty of the
+sculptures, and this in spite of the rapidity with which the work was
+carried out. An annexe, which has now disappeared, adjoined the apse
+on the north, and consisted of three stories serving as sacristies and
+muniment rooms. The spire, a wooden structure cased in lead, dating
+from the time of Charles VII., was destroyed by fire in 1630; it was
+shortly restored, only to be again demolished at the close of the
+eighteenth century, and was finally replaced by the architect Lassus,
+who restored the building.
+
+The _Ste. Chapelle_ of St. Germain-en-Laye must have been built some
+years before that of the royal palace of Paris. It is remarkable for
+certain peculiarities of structure which show a greater architectural
+skill; the piers which sustain the vault have a greater interior
+projection; the formerets are disengaged from the wall, and the square
+windows occupy the whole space between the buttresses, and rise to
+close beneath the cornice. This most original and learned arrangement
+gives the building a very graceful aspect, and brings out its elegant
+proportions.
+
+The _Ste. Chapelle_ of Vincennes, begun by Charles VI., was not
+completed until the reign of Henry II. In construction it is akin to
+that of Paris. The two-storied annexes which formed the sacristies and
+treasury were finished towards the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+After the example of kings and princes the great abbeys began to
+raise important oratories independent of their conventual churches.
+The Abbey of St. Martin des Champs at Paris founded two large chapels
+about the middle of the thirteenth century,--one dedicated to the
+Virgin, and the other to St. Michael.
+
+Pierre de Montereau was commissioned to build, in addition to the
+_Ste. Chapelle_ of the palace, a chapel dedicated to the Virgin,
+within the precincts of the Abbey of St. Germain des Prés; the plan
+of the vaults differs here from that of the Ste. Chapelle of the
+palace. According to a drawing by Alexander Lenoir, made before the
+destruction of this chapel of the Virgin, the pointed arches comprised
+two bays, in imitation of the vaults on intersecting arches in Notre
+Dame of Paris, the origin of which we discussed in chapter vi.
+
+The Abbey of Châalis, near Senlis, founded by Louis the Fat in 1136,
+which was one of the most important abbeys of the Cistercian order
+in the thirteenth century, possessed an abbey church of five aisles,
+over 330 feet long. Towards the middle of the thirteenth century
+it nevertheless founded a _Ste. Chapelle_, known as the Chapelle
+de l'Abbé. The building has undergone various vicissitudes, and
+the ribbed vaults which date from the reign of St. Louis were once
+decorated with frescoes, attributed to Primaticcio. The building
+still exists, however, almost in its entirety. It illustrates the
+considerable influence exercised by the Ste. Chapelle of Paris from
+its very foundation on the great nobles, more especially the heads of
+rich abbeys eager to parade their immense power and wealth.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI
+
+                              SCULPTURE
+
+
+In the Middle Ages all the arts were auxiliary to architecture. The
+architect traced the details of his conception in the workshop, and
+superintended the construction; he directed stone-carvers, masons,
+sculptors, illuminators, painters, and glass-stainers, and laid his
+_imprimatur_ on every branch of the work of which he was the creator.
+
+Thus the connection between the allied arts was very close. The
+history of sculpture is that of architecture, for the diverse
+influences which marked their origin and modifications were common to
+both. Each reached its apogee in the brilliant manifestations of the
+thirteenth century, and each followed the same path to decadence less
+than two centuries later.
+
+Statuary and ornamental sculpture were inseparable, being executed by
+the same artists in pursuance of the same idea: the study of nature.
+
+In obedience to the law of increasing development they abandoned the
+hieratic forms imposed by religious tradition, but only to give a new
+expression to these very traditions, which were still preserved and
+venerated.
+
+Roman inspiration, and even direct imitation of Roman sculpture,
+is clearly traceable in the first half of the thirteenth century.
+Rheims, which may be accepted as the masterpiece, the last word, so to
+speak, of Gothic architecture, illustrates this influence in certain
+magnificent examples of the western porch.
+
+  [Illustration: 94. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT. CENTRAL
+  PORCH]
+
+  [Illustration: 95. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT]
+
+  [Illustration: 96. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT]
+
+The architects of the thirteenth century were pre-eminently the
+children of their generation. Ignoring their Latin descent they
+followed in the paths of the innovators so far as monumental structure
+was concerned; but they in their turn inaugurated a new departure
+by abandoning the Byzantine convention in statuary and sculptured
+ornament which had prevailed throughout the preceding century, in
+favour of the more ancient Roman tradition. In this one respect they
+made a salutary return upon those antique principles which they
+afterwards definitively abandoned.
+
+  [Illustration: 97. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF PRINCIPAL DOOR.
+  STATUE AND ORNAMENT]
+
+  [Illustration: 98. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF PRINCIPAL DOOR.
+  STATUE AND ORNAMENT]
+
+The influence of Roman art upon French mediæval sculpture is
+unquestionable. Its course may be traced through the relations
+existing between North and South long before the Crusades, principally
+by means of the great religious communities, and even more manifestly
+in the countless monuments raised in Gaul on Roman models, or in those
+constructed by Gallo-Romans for several centuries. Many of these
+survived the incursions of the barbarians.
+
+The origin of ornamental sculpture is no less venerable.
+Superficially, it would seem to have drawn its inspiration mainly from
+the Romanesque epoch; but according to modern _savants_[35] its source
+must be looked for in much remoter periods. Oriental art, imported
+into Scandinavia, and there barbarised, was introduced into Ireland
+in the early centuries of our era. The Irish monks, whose power was
+very great, and who seem to have been the principal agents in the
+Renascence of the days of Charlemagne, created, or at any rate greatly
+influenced Carlovingian art by their manuscripts and miniatures. From
+Carlovingian art that of the so-called Romanesque period was born, and
+this was in its turn the parent of the ornamental sculpture of the
+thirteenth century. In the admirably decorative character of this
+art we recognise the influence of an ancient tradition handed on from
+generation to generation, to be finally rejuvenated, invigorated, and
+transformed as to detail by a close study of nature, precisely as had
+happened in the allied development of statuary.
+
+[35] M. A. de Montaiglon, Professor at the _École des Chartes_.
+
+The architects of the Ile-de-France, like those of Rheims,
+assimilated the principles of the new art with the supple skill which
+characterised them, such assimilation bearing rich fruit at Notre Dame
+de Paris in the sculptured figures of the west porch, and no less in
+their accessory ornaments.
+
+  [Illustration: 99. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. PRINCIPAL DOOR. RUNNING LEAF
+  PATTERN]
+
+  [Illustration: 100. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. RUNNING LEAF PATTERN ON
+  ARCHIVOLTS OF NORTH DOOR]
+
+A most instructive comparative study is furnished by the north and
+south porches of Chartres Cathedral. Here we find, in one building,
+examples of sculptures inspired by the hieratic tradition of
+Byzantium, and of those which had been transformed and naturalised by
+a return to antique ideals.
+
+  [Illustration: 101. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF THE NORTH PORCH]
+
+At Amiens again certain of the sculptures were influenced by the new
+principles. But in the greater part there is a prodigality of motive
+and looseness of execution which indicate decline no less surely than
+the mistaken ingenuity of the structural details.
+
+  [Illustration: 102. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF THE SOUTH PORCH]
+
+Mediæval sculpture followed the fortunes of architecture, both in
+its rise and fall. In its first beginnings it was characterised by
+a purity of style not unworthy of Rome in her most glorious days,
+but rapidly losing touch with the antique ideal, it lost measure and
+proportion in its development. The wise laws of simplicity, essential
+to all greatness in art, were set aside in favour of an unruly
+exuberance which ran riot in details, and was the immediate cause of
+a decline perceptible even in the fourteenth century, and absolute
+in the fifteenth. "Sculpture was at its zenith. We are astounded by
+the activity and fertility of thirteenth-century artists, who peopled
+façades and embrasures with figures from seven to ten feet in height,
+and animated every tympanum with countless statuettes. The façade of
+Notre Dame, by no means one of the richest, has sixty-eight colossal
+statues, for the most part of the highest excellence; at Chartres and
+at Amiens there are over a hundred to each porch. The famous figure of
+Christ at Amiens is a masterpiece; bas-reliefs work out the details of
+the main subject, and enrich the story with innumerable pictures of
+amazing vigour and originality."
+
+  [Illustration: 103. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. CENTRAL PORCH OF WEST FRONT]
+
+  [Illustration: 104. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. STATUES IN THE SOUTH PORCH]
+
+  [Illustration: 105. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. CHOIR STALLS. CARVED ORNAMENT]
+
+The favourite themes of the thirteenth century had something in
+common with those of the Romanesque epoch, though there is a sensible
+difference of treatment and considerable progress in composition,
+which exhibited more of taste and learning and less of eccentricity.
+But the satiric power and delight in caricature of our forefathers
+still demanded an outlet. These found expression in many a caustic
+gibe at clergy, princes, and rich burghers, and took substance in many
+a quaint gargoyle. A luxuriant system of ornamentation, adapted from
+the vegetable kingdom, was auxiliary to statuary. The main subject was
+enframed by it, or relieved against it; while often the composition
+itself was enriched by its introduction to complete the decorative
+effect. Or such a system of decoration was the only sculpturesque
+motive employed; it was then used with the utmost elaboration, and
+developed at the expense of statuary. Such was the case in Burgundy
+and Normandy, in which provinces the latter art was of slow growth.
+The Byzantine character of the scrolls, carved bands, and fantastic
+foliage of Romanesque art disappeared; ornament took on a new
+independence, and began to seek its types among native plant forms.
+
+The carved leafage (Fig. 106) of the cloister arcades in the Abbey of
+Mont St. Michel strikingly illustrate this departure. The very plants
+which inspired the thirteenth-century sculptors still flourish at the
+foot of the ancient abbey walls.
+
+  [Illustration: 106. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CLOISTERS OF THE
+  THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CARVED ORNAMENT OF INTERIOR SPANDRILS]
+
+  [Illustration: 107. WOODEN STATUETTE (HEIGHT 23⅝ IN.) THIRTEENTH
+  CENTURY. ATELIERS DE LA CHAISE DIEU, AUVERGNE]
+
+  [Illustration: 108. IVORY STATUETTE (HEIGHT 9⅞ IN.) THIRTEENTH
+  CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS]
+
+Thus the flora of our own fields was applied in lithic form to the
+elements of our church architecture. But the breadth proper to
+architectural sculpture was still preserved by means of ingenious
+combinations.
+
+It was not until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that the
+imitation of natural forms became servile, tedious, and over-minute,
+and that the beauty of the whole was sacrificed to exaggerated
+faithfulness of detail.[36]
+
+[36] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_; Paris,
+Hachette and Co., 1884.
+
+  [Illustration: 108A. IVORY STATUETTE (HEIGHT 9½ IN.) FIFTEENTH
+  CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS]
+
+It should be noted that the decadence which manifested itself in
+monumental sculpture was far less rapid in the more intimate art which
+may be distinguished as _imagery_. In the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries all sculptors were _image-makers_; but towards the close of
+the latter, and during the fifteenth, the term was specially applied
+to carvers of images in wood, ivory, etc. Art still flourished in
+their ateliers in all its beauty, notably that of the goldsmiths,
+who carved images in high or low relief in precious metals, and who,
+thanks to the severely paternal regulations of the _maîtrise_, were
+enabled to bring French decorative art to the highest degree of
+perfection. The beautiful carved wooden stalls of Amiens, Auch, and
+Albi, to name but the most famous, testify to the vigorous talent of
+the fourteenth and fifteenth-century image-carvers.
+
+  [Illustration: 109. WOODEN STATUETTE (HEIGHT 10 IN.) FOURTEENTH
+  CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS]
+
+  [Illustration: 110. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 6⅜ IN.) FOURTEENTH
+  CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS]
+
+  [Illustration: 110A. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 2¾ IN.) FOURTEENTH
+  CENTURY. SCHOOL OF THE ILE-DE-FRANCE]
+
+  [Illustration: 111. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 4¾ IN.) FOURTEENTH
+  CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS]
+
+Flemish _ateliers_, which were kept up by the severe rules of the
+guilds, exercised a salutary influence upon the Burgundian craftsmen.
+This is more especially true of the great workshops of Antwerp
+and of Brussels, and perhaps also of those of Southern Germany.
+Burgundian influences reacted in their turn upon the artists of the
+Ile-de-France, notably in Paris (that brilliant centre of all artistic
+activities in the fourteenth century), and stirred them to emulation.
+The union of these various elements brought about the revival of the
+fine tradition of the thirteenth century, and towards the close of
+the fifteenth century paved the way for a French Renascence, which
+heralded that more famous movement of the sixteenth, the credit of
+which is usually given to the Italians, who, however, such was the
+infatuation of the times, contributed rather to the debasement than to
+the regeneration of French national art.
+
+  [Illustration: 111A. IVORY PLAQUE (HEIGHT 6-11/16 IN.) COVER OF AN
+  EVANGELIUM. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF THE ILE-DE-FRANCE (SOISSONS)]
+
+  [Illustration: 112. HEAD IN SILVER GILT REPOUSSÉ. HALF-LIFE SIZE.
+  THIRTEENTH CENTURY. ATELIERS OF THE GOLDSMITH'S GUILD OF PARIS]
+
+  [Illustration: 113. GROUP CARVED IN WOOD (HEIGHT 10-1/4 IN.) FIFTEENTH
+  CENTURY. SCHOOL OF ANTWERP]
+
+The remarkable sculptures that owe their origin to the _ateliers_ of
+Antwerp are distinguished by one of the quarterings of the civic arms,
+a severed hand burnt in with a red-hot iron. Those of Brussels are
+branded in like fashion. The images of wood, ivory, and _vermeil_,
+that we figure as illustrating the art of the image-carvers from the
+thirteenth to the fifteenth century, show that the old tradition was
+still cherished in this community. Their artists were so far swayed
+by iconographic convention that a certain hieratic sentiment is
+perceptible in their works; but this is never allowed to outweigh
+fitness of action and expression, and their masterpieces are so
+instinct with taste and delicacy, composed with so much skill and
+executed with such freedom, that they are the admiration of modern
+artists.[37]
+
+[37] The statuettes, diptychs, etc., in wood, ivory, and _vermeil_, or
+silver-gilt, figured from No. 107 to No. 115, belong to the author.
+
+  [Illustration: 114. WOODEN STATUETTE, PAINTED AND GILDED (HEIGHT
+  19-11/16 IN.) FIFTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF BRUSSELS]
+
+  [Illustration: 115. WOODEN STATUETTE, PAINTED AND GILDED (HEIGHT
+  19-11/16 IN.) SIXTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF MUNICH]
+
+These essentially French qualities they owe, primarily, of course,
+to the genius of their creators, but in a scarcely inferior degree
+to the fostering care of the _maîtrises_, institutions which only
+require a certain modification by the progressive leaven of today, to
+become models for the imitation of all whose function it is to develop
+national art.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XII
+
+                               PAINTING
+
+
+The origin of painting dates from remote antiquity, and the art had
+already passed through many developments before it was applied by
+Gothic architects to the decoration of their buildings.
+
+"In the thirteenth century the architectonic painting of the Middle
+Ages reached its apogee in France. The painted windows, the vignettes
+of manuscripts, and the mural decorations of this period all denote
+a learned and finished art, and are marked by a singular harmony of
+tones, and a corresponding harmony with architectural forms. It is
+beyond question that this art was developed in the cloister, and was a
+direct product of Græco-Byzantine teachings."[38]
+
+[38] Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné_, vol. vii.
+
+From the archæological point of view, however, it is important to bear
+in mind the considerable influence exercised upon continental art by
+the manuscripts and miniatures of Irish monks, so early as the reign
+of Charlemagne.
+
+  [Illustration: 116. PAINTINGS IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. HORIZONTAL
+  PROJECTION OF THE CUPOLA WITH FORESHORTENED FIGURES AND THEIR
+  ARCHITECTURAL FRAMEWORK]
+
+Towards the close of the twelfth century sculpture and painting alike
+entered on a new phase, resulting from that process of architectural
+evolution we have been considering. The hieratic tradition was set
+aside for the direct teaching and inspiration of nature. But as the
+mastery of the painter increased, the mural spaces available for
+the application of his new methods diminished rapidly, till, by the
+thirteenth century, the only wall surfaces left to him were those
+beneath the windows, and some few triangular spaces in the vault,
+where the interlacing network of arches became gradually closer and
+closer. Finding themselves thus practically excluded from the new
+Gothic buildings, the painters of the day turned their attention with
+entire success to the decoration of ancient monuments by the new
+naturalistic methods. The domes of great abbey churches such as St.
+Front (Périgueux) offered immense bare surfaces, the concave forms
+of which they utilised with extraordinary skill, adorning them with
+compositions in which figure and ornament are so adroitly combined,
+that they seem to be of normal proportions, in spite of their really
+colossal size (Fig. 117).
+
+  [Illustration: 117. PAINTING IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. FRAGMENT OF ONE OF
+  THE EIGHT SECTORS OF THE CUPOLA. THE PROPHET EZEKIEL]
+
+Thanks to a discovery of mural paintings made in the Cathedral of
+Cahors in 1890, of the greatest archæological importance, we are able
+to verify these statements.
+
+During the progress of certain works undertaken for the preservation
+of the two domes, some paintings of great interest were laid bare on
+the removal of several coats of whitewash from the western cupola.
+Traces of similar decoration were found on the eastern cupola and its
+pendentives, but these it was found impossible to preserve, the action
+of the air causing them to peel at once from the surfaces. But the
+western composition is intact, and though the brilliance of the colour
+has no doubt suffered from time, we can still appreciate the learning,
+vigour, and firmness of hand perceptible in the design, which is
+outlined in black.
+
+This western cupola, which is ovoid, and some fifty-three feet in
+diameter, like that of the east, is divided by its pictorial scheme
+into eight sectors, separated by wide bands of boldly-designed fruits
+and flowers. Fig. 116 gives an exact idea of the general arrangement.
+Eight colossal figures of prophets, varying in height from fifteen to
+sixteen feet approximately, form the chief motives of the decoration.
+David, the prophet king, and the four great prophets: Daniel to
+the left of David; then in order, Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Ezekiel on
+the right, towards the choir of the church, and the three minor
+prophets--Jonah, Esdras, and Habakkuk--are painted in modulated tones,
+the dark outline forming a setting, on a background varying from tawny
+to deep red. The figures are enframed in a firmly-drawn architectural
+setting. This architecture is painted in gray against the masonry,
+the courses of which are indicated by double lines of brown upon the
+pale ochre of the general surface. Each prophet holds a phylactery
+or banderole inscribed with his name in beautiful thirteenth-century
+characters.
+
+The floriated bands which divide the sectors terminate above in a
+circular frieze surrounding the crown of the cupola. The latter
+represents a starry sky, the centre painted with the apotheosis of
+St. Stephen, the patron of the cathedral. The frieze is painted
+with scenes from the trial and stoning of the Saint; the life-size
+figures are full of expression and grouped with great variety. In
+these paintings there are evident leanings towards the naturalistic
+evolution; and though the figures of the prophets are still hieratic
+in certain respects, the poses, heads, and details all point to
+evident research in the matter of physiognomy. This research is
+carried very far in the figures of the circular frieze, where the
+hands have evidently been carefully studied from nature.
+
+  [Illustration: 118. PAINTINGS IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. FRAGMENT OF THE
+  CENTRAL FRIEZE OF THE CUPOLA]
+
+Technically speaking, these paintings are not frescoes. "The medium
+employed seems to have been egg, the white and yolk mixed, and the
+method very analogous to that of water-colour painting.... The red
+tones were laid over a bed of deep orange, the effect being one of
+extraordinary vigour and brilliance, taking into account the means at
+command. The use of a prepared ground was systematic, and was resorted
+to whenever intensity of the tones or colour effects was desired.
+Evident efforts in the direction of modelling are noticeable,
+though these have been neutralised to a great extent by a lack of
+concentration in the lights, and if it were not for the thick outline
+in which each figure is set, there would be much in common between
+the methods of these paintings and those renderings of diffused light
+affected by our modern _plein-airistes_. The general tone is that of
+the simpler paintings of the thirteenth century, that is to say, of
+those in which no gold was used. The effect is warm and brilliant, the
+dominant hue orange, heightened by reds of various tints."[39]
+
+[39] From the technical notes of M. Gaïda.
+
+According to the archæological records derived from various works of
+the historians of Le Quercy, these paintings in the west cupola of
+Cahors were carried out under the direction of the Bishops Raymond de
+Cornil, 1280-93, Sicard de Montaigu, 1294-1300, Raymond Panchelli,[40]
+1300-1312, or Hugo Geraldi, 1312-16, the friend of Pope Clement V. and
+of Philip IV. of France, who was burnt alive at Avignon, or perhaps
+even of Guillaume de Labroa, 1316-24, whose residence was at Avignon,
+and who governed the diocese of Cahors through a procurator. From this
+period onwards there was no further question of decorative works, the
+successors of these bishops being fully occupied in maintaining the
+struggle against the English invaders.
+
+[40] Raymond Panchelli, or Raymond II., who in 1303 began to build the
+Bridge of Valentré at Cahors.
+
+It seems reasonable therefore to infer that the Cahors paintings
+date either from the end of the thirteenth century or the beginning
+of the fourteenth. In any case, these decorations are of very great
+artistic merit, and of the highest interest as an unique example of
+French decorative art at the finest period of the thirteenth century,
+when Gothic architecture had reached its apogee, and was producing
+masterpieces which served as models for contemporary artists, and even
+more notably, for those of the early fourteenth century.
+
+That vigilant guardian of our beautiful cathedrals and historic
+monuments, the _Administration des Cultes_, has taken measures which
+do it infinite honour in this matter. No attempt has been made to
+restore the paintings, but all necessary steps have been taken to
+ensure their preservation as they stand, so as to leave intact the
+archæological value of these convincing witnesses to the genius of our
+French mediæval painters.
+
+The mural spaces available for fresco decoration having been gradually
+suppressed, and decorative painting limited to the illumination of
+certain subordinate members of the structure, the mediæval artists
+began to apply themselves to the decoration of the great screens of
+glass which, with their sculptured framework of stone, now filled
+the entire spaces between the piers. In this new art, or rather this
+incarnation of the spirit of decoration under a new form, we find a
+fresh illustration of that supple assimilative genius which already
+distinguished the French artist.
+
+  [Illustration: 119, 120. PAINTED WINDOWS OF THE EARLY TWELFTH CENTURY.
+  FROM ST. RÉMI AT RHEIMS[41]]
+
+[41] Drawings lent by M. Ed. Didron, painter upon glass.
+
+"It is in the nature of the material used, that painted windows
+should greatly affect the character of the building they decorate.
+If their treatment is injudicious, the intended architectural
+effect may be greatly modified; if, on the other hand, they
+are intelligently applied, they tend to bring out the beauty of
+structural surroundings.... As is the case with all architectonic
+painting, stained glass demands simplicity in composition, sobriety
+in execution, and an avoidance of naturalistic imitation. It should
+aim neither at illusion nor perspective. Its scheme of colour should
+be frank, energetic, comprising few tints, yet producing a harmony
+at once sumptuous and soothing, which should compel attention, but
+seeks not to engross it to the detriment of the setting. Like a mural
+mosaic, an Eastern carpet, or the enamelled goldsmith's work of the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a truly decorative window has no
+affinities with a picture, a scene or landscape gazed at from an open
+window, where the interest concentrates itself upon a particular
+point, and where the illumination is not equally diffused throughout.
+The fundamental law of decorative painting rests on a convention the
+aim of which is the satisfaction of the eye, which finds its pleasure
+to a far greater degree in the logical decoration of some structural
+or useful object than in its realisation of natural phenomena.
+Between painted windows and pictures a great gulf is fixed; and the
+modern school, the heir of the Italian Renascence, seeking to bridge
+it over, has seduced decorative art from the safe paths of sound
+judgment."[42]
+
+[42] _Le Vitrail à l'Exposition de 1889_, by Ed. Didron; Paris, 1890.
+
+[Illustration: 121. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. CHURCH OF
+  BONLIEU (CREUSE)]
+
+  [Illustration: 122. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CHARTRES
+  CATHEDRAL]
+
+The true functions of stained glass were never more admirably
+understood than in the twelfth century. The artists of that day
+had a perfect comprehension of those colour-harmonies, the subdued
+splendour of which best accorded with the simple and vigorous forms
+of Romanesque architecture. Upon his glass of various tints the
+painter first outlined his figure or ornament in black. This outline
+he supported with a flat half-tint which supplied a rough modelling
+and allowed the forms expressed to make their fullest effect from a
+distance. When, in the thirteenth century, the extreme austerity
+of religious buildings began to relax, the splendour of the painted
+windows increased proportionately; but the coloration, though it
+increased in glow and vigour, still preserved its complete harmony
+with its surroundings. An additional richness is perceptible in
+work of the fourteenth century, at which period red glass began to
+be used with a certain prodigality. The system of execution remains
+unchanged so far; but the black outline is considerably attenuated,
+and the half-tone which emphasises it loses much of its importance.
+The figures, in place of the hieratic repose of an earlier period,
+affect a certain grace and animation which herald a tendency towards
+realistic imitation. These germs of naturalism soon bore fruit. At
+the close of the fourteenth century the discovery of how to obtain
+yellow from salts of silver, and the facility with which it could be
+used to warm the grayer tones of glass by the help of the muffle,
+caused a revolution in the art of glass-painting, and prepared the way
+for polychromatic enamelling. This discovery, eminently useful when
+discreetly applied, was to lead to regrettable exaggerations.
+
+  [Illustration: 123. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.
+  CHARTRES CATHEDRAL]
+
+  [Illustration: 124. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CHURCH
+  OF ST. GERMER, TROYES]
+
+In the fifteenth century the figures of saints were usually drawn
+upon glass so tinted as to be of a soft white tone; the hair, beards,
+head-dresses, jewels, trimmings, and embroideries were painted in
+yellow. The figures stood out in bold relief against a background
+of blue or red, and were divided by a damasked drapery of green or
+purple. Vast architectural motives were introduced enframing the
+figures and filling up the immense window spaces of the latest period
+of mediæval art. The transformation was radical. It is of interest to
+note that the final development of the Gothic style ought logically
+to have brought about a recrudescence of vigour in the coloration
+of stained glass; but the exact reverse was the case; and a marked
+modification took place in the glowing effects won by a diversity of
+strong tints. The sort of _camaïeu_ which was the result obliged the
+painter to insist more strongly on the modelling of the figures, and
+to give less importance to the black outline, which was eventually
+suppressed altogether.
+
+  [Illustration: 125. PAINTED WINDOWS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. CHURCH
+  OF ST. URBAIN AT TROYES]
+
+In the sixteenth century painted glass became to a certain extent
+translucent pictures, in which architectural fitness was no longer
+respected. Composition lost its simplicity. A subject spread from
+panel to panel, regardless of the intervening tracery. Nevertheless,
+we forget the defects of this luxuriant development, and cease to
+wonder at its popularity, in view of that broad and vigorous execution
+and beauty of colour which give it a special decorative value of its
+own.
+
+  [Illustration: 126. PAINTED GLASS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. HEAD OF
+  ST. PETER. CATHEDRAL OF CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE]
+
+Enamelling is so closely allied to glass-painting as to claim a
+word for itself. Here, again, the decorative art of the Middle Ages
+was characteristically displayed, and though the process is more
+specially applicable to the ornamentation of goldsmith's work than to
+the decoration of large surfaces, it is one of the most brilliant and
+exquisite of the auxiliary arts.
+
+  [Illustration: 127. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. ÉVREUX
+  CATHEDRAL]
+
+The earliest enamels are _champlevé_ and _cloisonné_. By the
+_champlevé_ process a hollow, the edges of which outlined the
+figures or ornaments, was cut in the field or ground of metal for
+the reception of the fusible enamel; for _cloisonné_, _cloisons_, or
+slender walls of metal were fixed upon the field to separate flesh
+from draperies, and one tint generally from another. The background,
+the _cloisons_, and the flesh were gilt and burnished; details were
+defined by engraved lines, so that the draperies only were enamelled.
+
+  [Illustration: 128. ENAMEL OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. PLAQUE COVER OF A
+  MS. HEIGHT 4-3/4 IN., WIDTH 2-9/16 IN.]
+
+Fig. 128 reproduces an enamel of the close of the eleventh century, in
+which these various characteristics may be studied. The inscriptions
+on either side of the cross are formed by letters vertically
+superposed, which read downwards.
+
+From the beginning of the thirteenth century enamels were executed by
+the process known as _taille d'épargne_. By this method the ground
+was cut out, as described above, for the reception of the various
+ingredients which, after undergoing the process of firing, formed
+the enamel; the draperies, hands, and feet of the figures which were
+_épargnés_ (_spared_ or left) were modelled and chased in very low
+relief; but the central figure, such as the Christ, and the heads of
+the subordinate personages or attendant angels, were always in high
+relief, vigorously modelled, and chased.
+
+Fig. 129, a plaque forming the cover of an evangelium, is a
+characteristic example of this class of enamel. It dates from the
+early thirteenth century, and is a production of the _ateliers_
+founded at Limoges by the monks of Solignac.
+
+  [Illustration: 129. ENAMEL OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. PLAQUE COVER OF
+  AN EVANGELIUM. HEIGHT 7-2/16 IN., WIDTH 6-11/16 IN.]
+
+The reliquary figured No. 130 is also a work of the Limousin
+enamellers. The methods employed are identical, but the carving of the
+figures is less delicate, indeed almost rudimentary, the modelling
+being replaced by hasty strokes of the graver. The lower panel of this
+reliquary represents the martyrdom of Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the upper part his apotheosis. It is crowned by a ridge
+roof of two sides.
+
+  [Illustration: 130. ENAMEL OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. RELIQUARY SHRINE
+  OF ST. THOMAS À BECKET]
+
+As is well known, Thomas à Becket was canonised two years after his
+tragic death, which had aroused general reprobation throughout
+Christendom. The universal feeling expressed itself at Limoges by
+the manufacture of a great number of reliquaries destined to receive
+relics of the sainted martyr.
+
+In the details of the draperies and hands of those portions of
+Fig. 129 which are carved in low relief, we may trace the germs of
+those low-relief enamels known as translucent, or to be more exact,
+transparent enamels. This process originated in Italy, and was
+commonly employed in France, and even in Germany throughout the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, more especially the latter.
+These enamels could only be executed on gold and silver. The method
+consisted in modelling the design in very low relief on the face of
+the plate, which was then covered with a transparent enamel of few
+colours. The process was a slow and difficult one; the pieces were
+consequently very costly, and the demand for them proportionately
+restricted.
+
+  [Illustration: 131. ENAMEL OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. OUR LADY OF
+  SORROWS]
+
+The enamellers of the sixteenth century, especially those who
+flourished at its beginning, were evidently inspired by these
+low-relief enamels to seek the same brilliant opalescence of effect
+by more scientific and less costly methods. But the simplification of
+the process degenerated into vulgarisation, and its original qualities
+gradually faded out. Fig. 131, representing Our Lady of Sorrows, and
+signed I. C. (Jehan Courteys or Courtois), gives some idea of the
+design, at least, of the painted enamels executed by the Limousin
+artists of the early sixteenth century.
+
+Gothic architecture, more especially in its religious manifestations
+from the twelfth to the fifteenth century, made its prolific influence
+felt, not only by the structural qualities of its vast and numerous
+buildings, but by those various arts created, perfected, or at least
+developed, for their decoration. We have traced a bare outline of
+its activities, regretting that space fails us to make an exhaustive
+study of their various manifestations. The priceless fragments which
+illustrate these offshoots of an art essentially French are now the
+chief ornaments not only of French, but of all European museums.
+They take rank as factors of the first importance in art education,
+pointing the way to fresh masterpieces of French genius.
+
+
+
+
+                               PART II
+
+                        MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I
+
+                  MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE: ITS ORIGIN
+
+
+The origin of monastic architecture is of no greater antiquity than
+the fourth century of the Christian era. The hermits and anchorites of
+the earliest period made their habitation in the caves and deserts of
+the Thebaïd; their sole monument is the record of their virtues, which
+have outlived any buildings they may have raised during their years
+of solitude. But the first Christians who banded themselves together
+under a common rule, and discarded anchoritism for the cenobitic life,
+marked their worldly pilgrimage by monuments, traces of which are
+still to be found in historic records or fragmentary remains.
+
+The history of abbey churches is identical with that of
+cathedrals.[43] The architectural evolutions and transformations
+which succeeded each other in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
+manifested themselves in both. Like the cathedrals, the abbey churches
+were the creation of monkish architects, and were carried out either
+under their immediate direction or that of their pupils.
+
+[43] See Part I., "Religious Architecture."
+
+But a kindred field of study offers itself in the abbeys themselves,
+their organisation and adaptation to the domestic needs of their
+be-frocked inmates.
+
+  [Illustration: 132. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CLOISTER (THIRTEENTH
+  CENTURY. FROM A DRAWING BY ED. CORROYER)]
+
+Monastic institutions date from the Roman era. The first abbeys were
+those established in France in the fourth century, by St. Hilary of
+Poitiers and St. Martin of Tours. These religious associations or
+corporations, which eventually became so powerful, by reason not only
+of their numbers, but of the spirit which animated them, must be
+reckoned as among the most beneficent forces of the Middle Ages. Even
+from the philosophical side alone of the religious rule under which
+they flourished, by virtue of which enlightened men wielded supreme
+power, they were admirable institutions.
+
+To instance one among many, the so-called _Rule_ of St. Benedict
+is in itself a monument, the basis of which is _discipline_, the
+coping-stone _labour_. These are principles of undying excellence, for
+they are the expression of eternal truths. And from them our modern
+economists, who so justly exalt the system of co-operation, might even
+in these latter days draw inspiration as useful and as fruitful as
+that by which men were guided in the days of Benedict.
+
+Three great intellectual centres shed their light on the first
+centuries of the Middle Ages. These were Lérins, Ireland, and Monte
+Casino. Their most brilliant time was from the fourth century to
+the reign of Charlemagne, by which period they may be said to have
+prepared the way for successive evolutions of human knowledge, by
+assiduous cultivation of the sciences and arts, more especially
+architecture, in accordance with the immutable laws of development and
+progress.
+
+
+_Lérins._--St. Honoratus and his companions, when they landed in the
+archipelago, built on the principal island a chapel surrounded by the
+cells and buildings necessary for a confraternity. This took place
+about 375-390 A.D. The members of the budding community were learned
+monks, who had accepted the religious rule which had now become their
+law. They instructed neophytes sent them from the mainland, and their
+reputation grew so rapidly that Lérins soon took rank as a school of
+theology, a seminary or nursery whence the mediæval church chose the
+bishops and abbots best fitted to govern her.
+
+The school of Lérins was so esteemed for learning that it took
+an active part in the great Pelagian controversy which agitated
+Christendom at the time,[44] and zealously advocated the doctrines of
+semi-pelagianism, but this tendency was finally subdued by St. Vincent
+of Lérins, whose ideas were more orthodox. The theological teaching of
+Lérins seems to have dominated, or at least to have directed religious
+opinion in Gaul down to the sixth century.
+
+[44] _Pelagianism_ was the heresy of the monk Pelagius, who flourished
+in the fourth century. He contested the doctrine of original sin,
+as imputed to all mankind from the fall of Adam, and taught that
+the grace of God is accorded to us in proportion to our merits.
+_Semi-pelagianism_ taught that man may begin the work of his own
+amelioration, but cannot complete it without Divine help.
+
+
+_Ireland._--So early as the sixth century Ireland was the centre
+of art and science in the West. The Irish monks had followed the
+oriental tradition as modified by its passage through Scandinavia;
+they exercised a considerable influence on continental art by their
+manuscripts and illuminations, and prepared the way for the renascence
+of the days of Charlemagne, to which such importance was given by the
+monuments of the Romanesque movement.
+
+St. Columba was a monk of the seminary of Clonard in Ireland,
+whence towards the close of the sixth century he passed over to
+the continent, founding the Abbeys of Luxeuil and Fontaine, near
+Besançon, and later that of Bobbio, in Italy, where he died in 615.
+His principal work was the _Rule_ prescribed to the Irish monks who
+had accompanied him, and those who took the vows of the monasteries he
+had founded. In this famous work he did not merely enjoin that love of
+God and of the brethren on which his _Rule_ is based; he demonstrated
+the utility and beauty of his maxims, which he built upon Scriptural
+precepts, and upon fundamental principles of morality. The school
+of Luxeuil became one of the most famous of the seventh century,
+and, like that of Lérins, the nursery of learned doctors and famous
+prelates.
+
+
+_Monte Casino._--In the sixth century St. Benedict preached
+Christianity in the south of Italy, where, in spite of Imperial
+edicts, Paganism still prevailed among the masses. He built a chapel
+in honour of St. John the Baptist on the ruins of a temple of Apollo,
+and afterwards founded a monastery to which he gave his _Rule_ in 529.
+This was the cradle of the great Benedictine order.
+
+The number of St. Benedict's disciples grew apace. He had imposed on
+them, together with the voluntary obedience and subordination which
+constitute _discipline_, those prescriptions of his _Rule_, which
+demanded the partition of time between prayer and work. He proceeded
+to make a practical application of these principles at Monte Casino,
+the buildings of which were raised by himself and his companions.
+Barren lands were reclaimed and transformed into gardens for the
+community; mills, bakehouses, and workshops for the manufacture of
+all the necessaries of life were constructed in the abbey precincts,
+with a view to rendering the confraternity self-supporting; auxiliary
+buildings were reserved for the reception of the poor and of
+travellers. These, however, were so disposed that strangers were kept
+outside the main structure, which was reserved exclusively for the
+religious body.
+
+The great merit of St. Benedict, apart from his philosophical
+eminence, lies in his comprehension of the doctrine of labour. He was
+perhaps the first to teach that useful and intelligent work is one
+of the conditions, if not indeed the sole condition, of that moral
+perfection to which his followers were taught to aspire. If he had no
+further title to fame, this alone should ensure his immortality.
+
+"The apostles and first bishops were the natural guides of those who
+were appointed to build the basilicas in which the faithful met for
+worship. When at a later stage they carried the faith to distant
+provinces of the empire, they alone were able to indicate or to mark
+out with their own hands the lines on which buildings fitted for
+the new worship should be raised.... St. Martin superintended the
+construction of the oratory of one of the first Gallic monasteries
+at Ligujé, and later of that of Marmoutier, near Tours, on the banks
+of the Loire. In the reign of Childebert, St. Germain directed the
+building of the Abbey of St. Vincent--afterwards re-named St.
+Germain-des-Près--in Paris. St. Benedict soon added to his _Rule_ a
+decree providing for the teaching and study of architecture, painting,
+mosaic, sculpture, and all branches of art; and it became one of the
+most important duties of abbots, priors, and deans to make designs for
+the churches and auxiliary buildings of the communities they ruled.
+From the early centuries of the Christian era down to the thirteenth
+century, therefore, architecture was practised only by the clergy, and
+came to be regarded as a sacred science. The most ancient plans now
+extant--those of St. Gall and of Canterbury--were traced by the monks
+Eigenhard and Edwin.... During the eleventh and twelfth centuries
+there rose throughout Christendom admirable buildings due to the art
+and industry of the monks, who, bringing to bear upon the work their
+own researches, and the experience of past generations, received a
+fresh stimulus to exertion in this age of universal regeneration, by
+the enthusiasm with which their kings inspired them for the vast ruins
+of the ninth century."[45]
+
+[45] Albert Lenoir, _L'Architecture Monastique_; Paris, 1856.
+
+From the earliest centuries of the Christian era communities both male
+and female had been formed with the object of living together under
+a religious rule; but it seems evident that the greater number of
+monasteries owed their fame and wealth, if not their actual origin,
+to the reputation of their relics. These attracted the multitude.
+Pilgrimages became so frequent, and pilgrims so numerous, that it was
+found necessary to build hospices, or night-refuges, in various towns
+on their routes. A confraternity of the _Pilgrims of St. Michael_ was
+formed in the beginning of the thirteenth century in Paris, where the
+confraternity of _St. James of Pilgrims_ had already built its chapel
+and hospital in the Rue St. Denis, near the city gate.
+
+From the seventh to the ninth century important abbeys flourished
+in nearly all the provinces now comprised in modern France. Later,
+under the immediate successors of Charlemagne, great monasteries were
+founded in all the countries which made up his dominions. Charlemagne
+himself had greatly contributed to the development of religious
+institutions by his reliance on the bishops, and more especially the
+monks who represented progress, supported his policy, and enforced
+his civilising mission. But after his death the study of art and
+science declined so rapidly that a radical reform became necessary in
+the tenth century, a reform which seems to have had its birth in the
+Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, established in Burgundy about the year 930.
+
+From this hasty sketch of monastic organisation some idea may be
+gathered of the importance of religious institutions in the eleventh
+and twelfth centuries, and of the immense services they had rendered
+the State by diligent and useful toil, among the chief fruits of which
+must be reckoned the revival of agriculture, and the development of
+the sciences and arts, more especially architecture.
+
+Monastic architecture exercised a great and decisive influence upon
+national art by its vast religious buildings, the precursors of our
+great cathedrals.
+
+Until the middle of the twelfth century science, letters, art,
+wealth, and above all, intelligence--in other words, omnipotence on
+earth--were the monopoly of religious bodies. It is bare historic
+justice to remember that the Middle Ages derived their chief title to
+fame, and all their intellectual enlightenment, from the abbeys, and
+that the great religious houses were in fact schools, the educational
+influence of which was immense. It must be borne in mind that if the
+great cathedrals of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were not
+actually constructed by the monks, their architects were nevertheless
+the pupils of monks, and that it was in the abbey schools, so
+generously opened to all, that they imbibed the first principles of
+the art they afterwards turned to such marvellous account.
+
+The study of architecture in particular was not merely theoretical. It
+was demonstrated by the monks in their important monastic buildings,
+the crowning point of which was the abbey church, a structure often
+larger and more ornate than contemporary cathedrals.
+
+On the plan commonly adopted, the cloister, a spreading lawn adorned
+with plants, adjoined the church on the north, and sometimes on the
+south. An open arcade surrounded the cloister, by means of which
+communication with all the necessary domestic offices was provided.
+Of these the principal were: the refectory, generally a fine vaulted
+hall, close to the kitchens; the _chapter-house_, a building attached
+to the church, the upper story of which was the dormitory of the
+monks; the vaulted cellars and granaries, above which were the
+lodgings provided for strangers; the storerooms were connected with
+stables, cattle-stalls, and various outdoor offices, often of great
+extent. All these dependencies for the service of the community were
+kept strictly separate one from another, thus all necessary measures
+were taken to provide for the needs and duties of hospitality without
+any disturbance of the religious routine.
+
+The abbeys of the Romanesque period were largely used as models in
+their day. They were modified by lay architects or monkish builders
+who, however, were careful to abate nothing of their perfection; they
+partook of the developments which marked the middle of the thirteenth
+century, and were subjected to that progressive transformation, the
+great feature of which was the adoption of the Angevin intersecting
+arch, the distinguishing characteristic of Gothic architecture.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+                THE ABBEY OF CLUNY--CISTERCIAN ABBEYS
+
+
+The Benedictines, the Cistercians, the Augustinians, the
+Premonstrants, and notably the congregation of Cluny were all
+energetic builders, and the vast and magnificent structures of their
+creation were reckoned the most perfect achievements of their day. The
+study of their buildings--the church, the dwelling-places of abbot and
+monks, with all their dependencies--is most instructive. It fills us
+with admiration for the learning and judgment of the monkish builders
+who, accepting the limitations imposed by climate, locality, material,
+the numbers of their inmates, and the resources of their order, turned
+them all to account as elements of beauty and harmony.
+
+The architects of the first abbeys undoubtedly adopted the
+constructive methods of the period, and built in the Latin, Roman,
+or Gallo-Roman manner. The double gateway of the Abbey of Cluny, the
+architect of which was probably Gauzon, sometime Abbot of Beaune,
+who laid the foundations of the famous monastery, is an interesting
+proof of this assertion. But monastic architecture underwent the same
+modifications to which ecclesiastical architecture had been subjected
+under those various influences which manifested themselves in the
+glorious monuments built from the eleventh to the thirteenth century,
+when Gothic architecture reached its apogee.
+
+The abbots of the many abbeys of various orders built throughout
+this period were too enlightened to disregard the progress of their
+contemporaries, and they promptly applied the new principles to the
+construction or embellishment of their monasteries.
+
+  [Illustration: 133. ABBEY OF CLUNY. GATEWAY]
+
+The Abbey of Cluny was founded in 909 by William, Duke of Aquitaine,
+and declared independent by Pope John XI., who in 932 confirmed
+the duke's charter. Its rapid development and growth in power is
+sufficiently explained by the social and political circumstances of
+its origin. At the beginning of the tenth century Norman invasions
+and feudal excesses had destroyed the work of Charlemagne. Western
+Christendom seemed to lapse into barbarism after the havoc made by
+the Saracens and Northern pirates among towns and monasteries. Civil
+society and religious institutions had alike fallen into the decay
+born of a conflict of rights and a contempt of all authority.
+
+Cluny rapidly became a centre round which all the intelligence which
+had escaped submersion in the chaos of the ninth century grouped
+itself. Its school soon attained a distinction equal to that which
+marked the first great seats of learning at the beginning of the
+Middle Ages. Thanks to the _Rule_ of St. Benedict, on which the
+Benedictines of Cluny had grounded their community, the abbey
+developed greatly in extent and wealth. Throughout the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries it seems to have been the prolific nursery-ground
+whence Europe drew not only teachers for other monastic schools,
+but specialists in every branch of science and of letters, notably
+architects, who aided in the expansion of Cluny and its dependencies,
+and further practically contributed to the construction of the
+numerous abbeys founded by the Benedictines throughout Western Europe,
+and even in the East, the cradle of Christianity.
+
+While this struggle of intelligence against ignorance was in progress,
+a social revolution had accomplished itself by the enfranchisement of
+the communes, a development of the utmost importance in its relation
+to science, art, and material existence, in a word, to the whole
+social system.
+
+Architecture, that faithful expression of the social state which had
+its origin in Pagan civilisation, became Christianised by its culture
+in the abbeys, and in its new development rose to that pre-eminence
+the marvels of which we have already studied in the first part of this
+work. But though the successes achieved by the architecture of this
+period were rapid and dazzling, its decadence was profound, for it was
+induced by too radical an emancipation from antique principles, the
+superiority of which had been established in the first centuries of
+the Middle Ages.
+
+The Abbey of Cluny soon became too small for the increasing number of
+monks. St. Hugh undertook its reconstruction in the closing years of
+the eleventh century, and the monk Gauzon of Cluny began the works in
+1089 on a much more extensive plan, indeed on a scale so magnificent
+that the church of the new abbey was esteemed the first in importance
+among Western buildings of the kind.
+
+The plan (Fig. 134) shows the arrangement of the abbey at the close
+of the eleventh century, when the monastic buildings had been
+reconstructed some time previously. The ancient church was intact; the
+choir had been begun in the time of St. Hugh, but the building had not
+been consecrated till 1131. The chapel which precedes it on the west
+was completed so late as 1228 by Roland I., twentieth abbot of Cluny.
+
+  [Illustration: 134. ABBEY OF CLUNY. PLAN]
+
+At A on the plan stood the entrance, the Gallo-Roman gateway which
+still exists. At B, in front of the church, a flight of steps led
+up to a square platform, from which rose a stone cross; a flight of
+broad steps gave access to the chapel entrance at C, an open space
+between two square towers. The northern tower was built to receive the
+archives; that on the south was known as the Tower of Justice. The
+ante-church or narthex at D seems to have been set apart for strangers
+and penitents, who were not allowed to enter the main building. Their
+place of worship was distinct from the abbey church, just as their
+lodging was separated from the buildings reserved for the brotherhood,
+who were permitted no intercourse with the outer world. At E was the
+door of the abbey church, which was only opened to admit some great
+personage whose exceptional privilege it was to enter the sanctuary.
+
+At Cluny, as at Vézelay, one of the dependencies of Cluny, the
+Galilee, which is found in all Benedictine abbeys, was built
+with aisles and towers on the same scale as an ordinary church.
+It communicated with the buildings set apart for guests over the
+storehouses of the abbey to the west of the cloister at F on the
+plan. From the Galilee access to the abbey church was obtained at
+E, by means of a single doorway, which from descriptions seems to
+have resembled the great door of the monastery church at Moissac in
+arrangement and decoration.
+
+  [Illustration: 135. ABBEY OF CLUNY. INTERIOR OF NARTHEX, WITH DOOR
+  LEADING INTO ABBEY CHURCH]
+
+The special characteristic of the Abbey Church of Cluny is its double
+transept, an arrangement we shall find reproduced in the great abbey
+churches of England, notably at Lincoln. According to a description
+written in the last century, the Abbey Church of Cluny was 410 feet
+long. It was built in the form of an archiepiscopal cross, and had
+two transepts: the first nearly 200 feet long by 30 feet wide; the
+second, 110 feet long and wider than the first. The basilica, 110
+feet in width, was divided into five aisles, with semi-circular
+vaults supported on sixty-eight piers. Over three hundred narrow
+round-headed windows, high up the wall, transmitted the dim light that
+favours meditation. The high altar was placed immediately beyond the
+second transept at G, and the retro-choir and altar at H. The choir,
+which had two rood screens, occupied about a third of the nave. It
+contained two hundred and twenty-five stalls for the monks, and in
+the fifteenth century was hung with magnificent tapestries. A number
+of altars dedicated to various saints were placed against the screens
+and the piers of nave and side aisles. At a later period chapels were
+constructed along the aisles and on the eastern sides of the two
+transepts.
+
+Above the principal transept rose three towers roofed with slate; the
+central, or lantern tower was known as the lamp tower, because from
+the vaults of the crossing below it were suspended lamps, or coronas
+of lights which were kept burning day and night over the high altar.
+
+To the south of the abbey, at F on the plan, was a great enclosure,
+surrounded by a cloister, some vestiges of which still remain. K and
+L mark the site of the abbatial buildings which were restored in the
+fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; M and N the structures raised last
+century over the primitive foundations. To the east lay the gardens
+and the great fish-ponds which still exist, with portions of their
+enclosures. Another surviving fragment is a building of the thirteenth
+century, said to be the bakery, and marked O on the plan.
+
+The abbots who succeeded St. Hugh were unable to preserve the
+primitive conditions of the foundation. The excessive luxury resulting
+from over-prosperity brought about demoralisation, and by the end of
+the eleventh century discord was rife at Cluny.
+
+Peter the Venerable, who was elected abbot in 1112, restored order
+for a time, and established a chapter general, consisting of two
+hundred priors and over twelve hundred other monks. In 1158, at the
+time of Peter's death, these numbers had increased by more than four
+hundred, and the order had founded monasteries in the Holy Land and at
+Constantinople.
+
+
+_The Abbey of Citeaux._--The reform of the Benedictine orders became
+a pressing necessity, and St. Robert, Abbot of Solesmes, entered upon
+the task about 1098. St. Bernard continued it, after having quitted
+his abbey, with twenty-one monks of the order, to take refuge in
+the forest of Citeaux, given him by Don Reynard, Vicomte of Beaune.
+His main achievement was reorganisation of such a nature as to deal
+effectually with the decay of primitive simplicity throughout the
+order, which had completely lost touch with monastic sentiment.
+
+"Frequent intercourse with the outside world had demoralised the
+monks, who attracted within their cloister walls crowds of sightseers,
+guests, and pilgrims. The monasteries which, down to the eleventh
+century, were either built in the towns, or had become centres of
+population in consequence of the Norman and Saracen invasions,
+retained their character of religious seclusion only for a certain
+number of monks, who devoted themselves to intellectual labours.
+Besides which, the brethren had become feudal lords, holding
+jurisdiction side by side with the bishops, and St. Germain-des-Près,
+St. Denis, St. Martin, Vendôme, and Moissac owned no over-lordships
+but that of the Pope. Hence arose temporal cares, disputes, and even
+armed conflicts, among them. The greed and vanity of the abbots at
+least, if not of their monks, made itself felt even in religious
+worship, and in the buildings consecrated thereto."[46]
+
+[46] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_.
+
+St. Bernard, in an address to the monks of his day, reproves their
+degeneracy, and censures the exaggerated dimensions of the abbey
+churches, the splendour of their ornamentation, and the luxury of
+the abbots. O vanity of vanities! he exclaims, and folly great as
+vanity! The Church is bedecked in her walls, but naked in her poor!
+She overlays her stones with gold, and leaves her children without
+raiment! The curious are given distractions, and the miserable lack
+bread! It was to suppress such abuses that the Cistercian order was
+founded by St. Robert and St. Bernard, and also to put an end to
+the disputes arising from ecclesiastical jurisdiction by making the
+new abbeys dependencies of the bishoprics. They were to be built in
+solitary places, "and to nourish their inmates by agriculture. It
+was forbidden to found them over the tombs of saints, for fear of
+attracting pilgrims, who would bring worldly distractions in their
+train. The buildings themselves were to be solid, and built of good
+freestone, but without any sort of extraneous ornament; the only
+towers allowed were small belfries, sometimes of stone, but more
+usually of wood."[47]
+
+[47] _Ibid._
+
+The Cistercian order was founded in 1119, and St. Robert imposed
+the _Rule_ of St. Benedict in its primitive severity. To mark his
+separation from the degenerate Benedictines, whose dress was black, he
+gave his monks a brown habit. After determining their religious duties
+he gave minute instructions as to the arrangement of the buildings.
+The condition chiefly insisted upon was that the site of the monastery
+should be of such extent and so ordered that the necessaries of life
+could be provided within its precincts. Thus all causes of distraction
+through communication with the outside world were removed. The
+monasteries, whenever possible, were to be built beside a stream or
+river; they were to contain, independently of the claustral buildings,
+the church and the abbot's dwelling, which was outside the principal
+enclosure, a mill, a bakehouse, and workshops for the manufacture of
+all things requisite to the community, besides gardens for the use and
+pleasure of the monks.
+
+The Abbey of Clairvaux was an embodiment of the reforms brought about
+by St. Robert, and later by St. Bernard. The general arrangement and
+the details of service were almost identical with those of Citeaux,
+just as Citeaux itself had been modelled upon Cluny in all respects,
+save that a severe observance of the primitive Benedictine rule
+was insisted upon in the disposition of the later foundation. All
+superfluities were proscribed, and the rules which enjoined absolute
+seclusion as a means towards moral perfection were sternly enforced.
+
+The result is undoubtedly interesting as a religious revival; but we
+may be permitted to regret that the intellectual impetus given to art
+progress by the great Benedictine lords spiritual of Cluny should have
+been checked by the frigid utilitarianism to which architecture--then
+an epitome of all the arts--was reduced by the purists of Citeaux in
+its application to the monasteries of the reform.
+
+The Cistercian monuments are not, however, wanting in interest.
+
+Of Clairvaux and Citeaux little remains but fragments embedded in
+a mass of modern buildings, for the most part restorations of the
+last century. As records these are less to be relied upon than the
+historical and archæological documents which guided Viollet-le-Duc
+in his graphic reconstruction of famous Cistercian abbeys, an essay
+not to be bettered as a piece of lucid demonstration (see his
+_Dictionary_, vol. i. pp. 263-271).
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III
+
+                  ABBEYS AND CARTHUSIAN MONASTERIES
+
+
+In the eleventh century a large number of monasteries had been built
+throughout Western Europe by monks of various orders, in imitation
+of the great monastic schools of Lérins, Ireland, and Monte Casino.
+Among the famous abbeys of this period may be mentioned "Vézelay and
+Fécamp, sometime convents for women, afterwards converted into abbeys
+for men; St. Nicaise, at Rheims; Nogent-sous-Coucy, in Picardy; Anchin
+and Annouain, in Artois; St. Étienne, at Caen; St. Pierre-sur-Dives,
+Le Bec, Conches, Cerisy-la-Forêt,[48] and Lessay, in Normandy; La
+Trinité, at Vendôme; Beaulieu, near Loches; Montierneuf, at Poitiers,
+etc."[49]
+
+[48] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer, chap. iii. part ii.
+
+[49] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_.
+
+The Abbeys of Fulda, in Hesse, and of Corvey, in Westphalia, the
+latter founded by Benedictine monks from the Abbey of Corbie, in
+Picardy, were in their day the chief centres of learning in Germany.
+
+In England St. Alban's Abbey, in Hertfordshire, was built in 1077 by a
+disciple of Lanfranc, the illustrious abbot of the famous Abbey of Le
+Bec, in Normandy. A large number of monasteries were founded later
+on by various orders, notably the Benedictines--Croyland, Malmesbury,
+Bury St. Edmund's, Peterborough, Salisbury, Wimborne, Wearmouth,
+Westminster, etc., not to mention the abbeys and priories which had
+existed in Ireland from the sixth century.
+
+  [Illustration: 136. ABBEY OF ST. ÉTIENNE AT CAEN. FAÇADE]
+
+The mother abbey of Citeaux gave birth to four daughters--Clairvaux,
+Pontigny, Morimond, and La Ferté.
+
+The importance of Clairvaux was much increased in the first years
+of the twelfth century by the fame of her abbot, St. Bernard, that
+most brilliant embodiment of mediæval monasticism. His influence was
+immense, not alone in his character of reformer and founder of an
+important order, but as a statesman whom fortune persistently favoured
+in all enterprises tending to the increase of his great reputation.
+
+St. Bernard distinguished himself in the theological controversies
+of his century at the Council of Sens in 1140, and in successful
+polemical disputations with Abélard, the famous advocate of free will,
+and other heterodox philosophers who heralded the Reformation of the
+sixteenth century. Somewhat later he took an active part in promoting
+the hapless second Crusade under Louis VII., and in 1147, a few years
+before his death, he entered vigorously into the Manichæan controversy
+as a strenuous opponent of the heresy which was then agitating the
+public mind and preparing the way for the schism which, at the
+beginning of the thirteenth century, brought about the terrible war of
+the Albigenses, and steeped Southern France in blood.
+
+The monastic fame of St. Bernard was established not only by the
+searching reforms he instituted at Clairvaux among the seceding monks
+of Cluny and Solesmes, but by the success of the Cistercian colonies
+he planted in Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Denmark, to the number of
+seventy-two, according to his historians.
+
+  [Illustration: 137. ST. ALBAN'S ABBEY (ENGLAND)]
+
+  [Illustration: 138. ABBEY OF MONTMAJOUR (PROVENCE). CLOISTERS]
+
+During his lifetime the poor hermitage of the _Vallée d'Absinthe_
+(which name he changed to Claire-Vallée, Clairvaux) had become a vast
+feudal settlement of many farms and holdings, rich enough to support
+more than seven hundred monks. The monastery was surrounded by walls
+more than half a league in extent, and the abbot's domicile had become
+a seignorial mansion. As the fount of the order, and mother of all
+the auxiliary houses, Clairvaux was supreme over a hundred and sixty
+monasteries in France and abroad. Fifty years after the death of St.
+Bernard the importance of the order had become colossal. During
+the thirteenth century, and from that time onwards, the Cistercian
+or Bernardine monks built immense abbeys, and decorated them with
+royal magnificence. Their establishments contained churches equal in
+dimension to the largest cathedrals of the period, abbatial dwellings
+adorned with paintings, and boasting oratories which, as at Chaâlis,
+were _Stes. Chapelles_ as splendid as that of St. Louis in Paris. The
+very cellars held works of art in the shape of huge casks elaborately
+carved.
+
+  [Illustration: 139. CHURCH AT ELNE IN ROUSSILLON. CLOISTERS]
+
+Thus, by a strange recurrence of conditions, the settlements founded
+on a basis of the most rigorous austerity by the ascetics who had
+fled from the splendours of Solesmes and Cluny to the forest, became
+in their turn vaster, richer, and more sumptuous than those the
+magnificence of which they existed to rebuke. With this difference,
+however: the ruin brought about by the luxury of the Cistercian
+establishment was so complete that nothing of their innumerable
+monasteries was spared by social revolution but a few archæologic
+fragments and historic memories.
+
+  [Illustration: 140. ABBEY OF FONTFROIDE (LANGUEDOC). CLOISTERS]
+
+The influence of the Cistercian foundation extended to various
+countries of Europe. It was manifested in Spain, at the great Abbey of
+Alcobaco, in Estramadura, said to have been built by monkish envoys
+of St. Bernard; in Sicily, in the rich architectural detail of the
+Abbey of Monreale; and in Germany, in the foundation of such abbeys
+as those of Altenberg in Westphalia, and Maulbronn in Wurtemberg. In
+1133 Everard, Count of Berg, invited monks of Citeaux to settle in
+his dominions, and in 1145 they founded a magnificent abbey on the
+banks of the Dheen, which was held by the Cistercian order down to the
+period of the Revolution, when it shared the fate of other religious
+houses.
+
+The Cistercian Abbey of Maulbronn is the best preserved of those
+which owed their origin to St. Bernard throughout the twelfth and
+thirteenth centuries. The abbey church, the cloister, the refectory,
+the chapter-house, the cellars, the storerooms, the barns, and the
+abbot's lodging, the latter united to the other buildings by a covered
+gallery, still exist in their original condition. More manifestly
+even than Altenberg does the Abbey of Maulbronn prove that simplicity
+marked the proceedings of the Benedictines during the first years
+of the twelfth century, under the rule or influence of St. Bernard.
+From this period onward Cistercian brotherhoods multiplied with great
+rapidity in the provinces which were to form modern France.
+
+In the Ile-de-France the ruins of Ourscamp, near Noyon, of Chaâlis,
+near Senlis, of Longpont and of Vaux-de-Cernay, near Paris, bear
+witness to the monumental grandeur of once famous and important
+abbeys. The monasteries and priories of the twelfth century are
+numerous in Provence; we may name Sénanque, Silvacane, Thoronet, and
+Montmajour, near Arles, at the extremity of the valley of Les Baux.
+Among the abbeys founded in the thirteenth century were Royaumont,
+in the Ile-de-France; Vaucelles, near Cambrai; Preuilly-en-Brie;
+La Trappe, in Le Perche; Breuil-Benoît, Mortemer, and Bonport, in
+Normandy; Boschaud, in Périgord; l'Escale-Dieu, in Bigorre; Les
+Feuillants, Nizors, and Bonnefont, in Comminges; Granselve and
+Baulbonne, near Toulouse; Floran, Valmagne, and Fontfroide, in
+Languedoc; Fontenay, in Burgundy, etc.
+
+  [Illustration: 141. CISTERCIAN ABBEY OF MAULBRONN (WURTEMBERG). PLAN]
+
+Towards the close of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth
+century other fraternities had been formed in the same spirit as
+that of Citeaux; "in the first rank of these was the Order of the
+Premonstrants, so named from the mother abbey founded in 1119 by St.
+Norbert at Prémontré, near Coucy."[50]
+
+[50] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_.
+
+To this order the monastery of St. Martin at Laon, and others in
+Champagne, Artois, Brittany, and Normandy owed their origin.
+
+  [Illustration: 142. ABBEY OF FONTEVRAULT. KITCHEN]
+
+  [Illustration: 143. CATHEDRAL OF PUY-EN-VELAY. CLOISTERS]
+
+In the early part of the twelfth century Robert d'Arbrisselles founded
+several double monasteries for men and women, on the model of those
+built in Spain in the ninth century; that of Fontevrault was not
+more successful as a monastic experiment than the rest, but it gave
+rise to a number of superb buildings. The abbey itself contributed
+in no slight degree to the progress of architecture, which developed
+in Anjou at the dawn of the twelfth century, and manifested itself
+principally at Angers in works the supreme importance of which we have
+dwelt upon in the early part of this volume.
+
+The episcopal churches also owned claustral buildings for the
+accommodation of the cathedral clergy who lived together in
+communities according to the ancient usage which obtained down to the
+fifteenth century. The Cathedrals of Aix, Arles, and Cavaillon, in
+Provence, of Elne, in Roussillon, of Puy, in Velay, of St. Bertrand,
+in Comminges, still preserve their cloisters of the twelfth century.
+
+The Abbey of La Chaise Dieu, in Auvergne, founded in the eleventh
+century, was one of the monastic schools which rose to great
+importance, mainly through the talents of its monkish architect and
+sculptor, Guinamaud, who established its reputation as an art centre.
+By the close of the twelfth century La Chaise Dieu was turning out
+proficients in sculpture, painting, and goldsmith's work.
+
+The buildings of La Chaise Dieu were reconstructed in the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries.
+
+The order of preaching friars, founded by St. Dominic in the early
+part of the thirteenth century, is noted rather for its intellectual
+than for its architectural achievements; the fame of the Dominicans
+rests upon their preaching and writings, not upon the number or
+magnificence of their monasteries.
+
+About the same period St. Francis of Assisi founded the order of minor
+friars, who professed absolute poverty--a profession which, however,
+did not prevent their becoming richer at last than their forerunners.
+These two orders--preaching and mendicant friars, apparently formed
+in protest against the supremacy of the Benedictines--were strongly
+supported by St. Louis, who also protected other orders, such as the
+Augustinians and Carmelites, by way of balancing the power of the
+Clunisians and Cistercians.
+
+  [Illustration: 144. ABBEY OF LA CHAISE DIEU (AUVERGNE). CLOISTERS]
+
+To the preaching friars St. Louis granted the site of the Church of
+St. Jacques, in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris--whence the name _Jacobin_
+as applied to monks of the Dominican order,--and here they built in
+1221 the Jacobin monastery, the church of which, like those of Agen
+and Toulouse, has the double nave peculiar to the churches of the
+preaching friars.
+
+From the thirteenth century onwards the arrangement of the abbeys
+diverges more and more from the Benedictine system in the direction
+of secular models. The daily life of the abbots had come to
+differ but little from that of the laymen of their time, and as a
+natural consequence, monastic architecture lost its distinguishing
+characteristics.
+
+The Rule of the Carthusian Order, founded towards the close of the
+eleventh century by St. Bruno, was of such extreme austerity, and
+was so persistently adhered to down to the fifteenth century, at
+least, that we need not wonder to find no vestiges of buildings
+erected by this community contemporaneously with those of other great
+foundations. The Carthusians clung longer than any of their brethren
+to the vows of poverty and humility which obliged them to live like
+anchorites, though dwelling under one roof. Far from living in common,
+on the cenobitic method, after the manner of the Benedictines and
+Cistercians, they maintained the cellular system in all its severity.
+Absolute silence further aggravated the complete isolation which
+encouraged them to scorn all that might alleviate or modify the
+rigours of their religious duties.
+
+In time, however, the Carthusians relaxed something of this extreme
+asceticism in their monastic buildings, if not in their religious
+observances. Towards the fifteenth century they did homage to art by
+the construction of monasteries which, though falling short of the
+Cistercian monuments in magnificence, are of much interest from their
+peculiarities of arrangement.
+
+The ordinary buildings comprised the gate-house, giving access by a
+single door to the courtyard of the monastery, where stood the church,
+the prior's lodging, the hostelry for guests and pilgrims, the
+laundry, the bakehouse, the cattle sheds, storerooms, and dovecote.
+The church communicated with an interior cloister, giving access to
+the chapter-house and refectory, which latter were only open to the
+monks at certain annual festivals. The typical feature of St. Bruno's
+more characteristic monasteries is the great cloister, on the true
+Carthusian model--that is to say, rectangular in form, and surrounded
+by an arcade, on which the cells of the monks open. Each of these
+cells was a little self-contained habitation, and had its own garden.
+The door of each cell was provided with a wicket, through which a lay
+brother passed the slender meal of the Carthusian who was forbidden to
+communicate with his fellows.
+
+The Rule of St. Bruno, as is commonly known, enjoins the life of an
+anchorite; the Carthusian must work, eat, and drink in solitude;
+speech is interdicted; on meeting, the brethren are commanded to
+salute each other in silence; they assemble only in church for certain
+services prescribed by the Rule, and their meals, none too numerous at
+any time, were only taken in common on certain days in the year.
+
+The severity of these conditions explains the extreme austerity of
+Carthusian architecture. It had, as we have already said, no real
+development until the fifteenth century, and then only as regards
+certain portions of the monastery, such as the church and its
+cloister, which were in strong contrast with the compulsory bareness
+of the great cloister of the monks.
+
+The ancient _Chartreuse_ of Villefranche de Rouergue, either built
+or reconstructed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, still
+preserves some remarkable features. The plan, and the bird's-eye view
+(Figs. 145 and 146) from _L'Encyclopédie de l'Architecture et de la
+Construction_, gives an exact idea of the monastery. Some of the cells
+are still intact, also the refectory, and certain other portions of
+the primitive structure.
+
+  [Illustration: 145. CHARTREUSE OF VILLEFRANCHE DE ROUERGUE. PLAN]
+
+In spite of the rigidity of the _Rule_ of St. Bruno certain
+foundations of his order became famous, notably the monastery
+established by the Carthusians on the invitation of St. Louis in the
+celebrated castle of Vauvert, beyond the walls of Paris, near the
+_Route d'Issy_. The castle was regarded with terror by the Parisians,
+who declared it to be haunted by the devil, whence the popular
+expression: _aller au diable Vauvert_, which later was corrupted
+into _aller au diable au vert_. The Carthusians, nevertheless, took
+up their quarters in the stronghold, and enriched it with a splendid
+church built by Pierre de Montereau, the foundation stone of which
+was laid by St. Louis in 1260. The _Chartreuse_ of Vauvert developed
+greatly, and became one of the most famous of the order. It was in
+the lesser cloister of this monastery that the artist Eustache Le
+Sueur painted his famous frescoes from the life of St. Bruno in the
+beginning of the seventeenth century.
+
+  [Illustration: 146. CHARTREUSE OF VILLEFRANCHE DE ROUERGUE.
+  BIRD'S-EYE VIEW]
+
+  [Illustration: 147. GRANDE CHARTREUSE. THE GREAT CLOISTER]
+
+The most famous Carthusian monasteries of Italy are those of Florence,
+which dates from the middle of the fourteenth century, and is
+attributed in part to Orcagna, and of Pavia, founded at the close of
+the fourteenth century by Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti.
+
+  [Illustration: 148. GRANDE CHARTREUSE. GENERAL VIEW]
+
+The French Carthusian monasteries of greatest interest after Vauvert,
+which had the special advantage of royal protection, are those of
+Clermont, in Auvergne, Villefranche de Rouergue (Figs. 145 and 146),
+Villeneuve-lez-Avignon, and Montrieux, in Var. The _Chartreuse_ of
+Dijon is one of the most ancient, not only as to its buildings, which
+are the work of the Duke of Burgundy's architects, but in respect of
+its famous sculptures of the tomb of Philip the Bold, and his wife,
+Margaret of Flanders, and those of the _Well of Moses_, carved by the
+Burgundian brothers, Claux Suter, who flourished at the close of the
+fourteenth century, and had much to do with the revival of art at that
+period.[51]
+
+[51] See Part I., "Sculpture."
+
+But the most imposing of all, and the most famous, if not the most
+beautiful, is that in the mountains near Grenoble, universally known
+as _La Grande Chartreuse_.
+
+The original monastery is said to have been founded by St. Bruno. It
+consisted merely of a humble chapel and a few isolated cells, which
+are supposed to have occupied the site in the _Desert_, on which the
+Chapels of St. Bruno and St. Mary now stand. The existing buildings
+were reconstructed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in the
+manner of the day, of which the arcades of the great cloister are good
+examples. The present church, which is extremely simple in design, has
+preserved nothing of its sixteenth-century decoration but the choir
+stalls. The great cloister consists of an arcaded gallery, on which
+the sixty cells of the monks open. It is arranged in strict accordance
+with the Rule of St. Bruno as regards its connection with the main
+buildings, the chief features of which we have already pointed out.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV
+
+                           FORTIFIED ABBEYS
+
+
+The monasteries built throughout the twelfth century were provided
+with outer walls, by means of which the claustral buildings, offices,
+workshops, and even farms of the community were enclosed. Thus all
+the necessaries of life were produced within the precincts, and all
+communication with the outside world was avoided.
+
+But by the end of the century the great abbeys had become feudal
+castles; and fortified walls were raised around them, often embracing
+the town which had grown up under their protection and shared their
+fortunes. This was the case at Cluny, and the town acknowledged its
+obligations to the monks by the payment of tithes.
+
+In the reign of Philip Augustus and St. Louis the abbots were not
+only the heads of their monasteries but feudal chieftains, vassals
+of the royal power, and as such obliged to furnish the sovereign
+with men-at-arms in time of war, and to maintain a garrison when
+required.[52]
+
+[52] See Part III., "Military Architecture," Abbey of Mont St. Michel.
+
+The Abbey of Tournus was, like Cluny, surrounded by walls connected
+with the city ramparts.
+
+The Abbey of St. Allyre, in Auvergne, near Clermont, was defended
+by walls and towers, which seem to have been added to the original
+structure of the ninth century at some period during the thirteenth,
+when such fortification of religious houses became necessary.
+
+  [Illustration: 149. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GENERAL VIEW FROM THE
+  ROCKS OF COUESNON, TAKEN IN 1878, BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE DYKE]
+
+In many other monasteries a system of defence more or less elaborate
+was adopted; but the most famous of all the abbeys built by the
+Benedictines was unquestionably Mont St. Michel, which, for boldness
+and grandeur of design, is unique among military and monastic
+monuments from the eleventh to the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+  [Illustration: 150. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF THE
+  GUARD-ROOM, ALMONRY, AND CELLAR
+
+   _Key to Plan._--A. Tower known as the _Tour Claudine_. Ramparts.
+   B. Barbican. Entrance to the abbey. B´. Ruin of the stairway
+   known as the _Grand Degré_. C. Gate-house. D. Guard-room known
+   as _Bellechaise_. E. Tower known as the _Tour Perrine_. F.
+   Steward's lodging and Bailey. G. Abbot's lodging. G´. Abbatial
+   buildings. G´´. Chapel of St. Catherine. H. Courtyard of the
+   church, great stairway. I. Courtyard of the _Merveille_. J,
+   K. Almonry, cellar (of the _Merveille_). L. Formerly the
+   abbatial buildings. M. Gallery or crypt known as the _Galerie
+   de l'Aquilon_ (of the North Wind). N. Hostelry (Robert de
+   Thorigni). O. Passages connecting the abbey with the hostelry.
+   P, P´. Prison and dungeon. R, S. Staircase. T. Modern wall of
+   abutment. U. Garden, terraces, and covered way. V. Body of rock.]
+
+  [Illustration: 151. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF
+  THE LOWER CHURCH, THE REFECTORY, AND THE CHAPTER-HOUSE, OR KNIGHTS'
+  HALL.--_For Key to Plan see opposite page._
+
+   _Key to Plan._--A. Lower church. B, B´. Chapels beneath the
+   transepts. C. Substructure of Romanesque nave. C, C´, and C´´.
+   Charnel-house or burying-place of the monks, and substructure
+   of south platform. D. Formerly the cistern. E. Formerly the
+   claustral buildings. Refectory. F. Formerly the cloister or
+   ambulatory. G. Passage communicating with the hostelry. H,
+   I. Hostelry and offices (Robert de Thorigni). J. Chapel of
+   hostelry (St. Étienne). K, K´, L, M. Refectory. Tower known
+   as the _Tour des Corbins_ (Tower of Crows). Chapter-house, or
+   hall of the knights, Galilee or narthex (_Merveille_). N. Hall
+   of the military executive, or hall of the officers. O. Tower
+   known as the _Tour Perrine_. P. Battlements of the gate-house.
+   Q. Courtyard of the _Merveille_. R, S. Staircase and terrace
+   of the apse. T. Courtyard of the church. U. Fortified bridge
+   connecting the lower church with the abbey buildings. V, X.
+   Abbot's lodging. Accommodation for guests. Y, Y´. Cisterns of
+   the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Z. Body of rock.]
+
+The Abbey of Mont St. Michel was founded in 708 by St. Aubert,
+according to tradition. At the close of the tenth century it was
+restored by Richard Sans Peur, third Duke of Normandy, with the help
+of the Benedictine monks from Monte Casino, whom he had installed at
+St. Michel in 966. It increased greatly in wealth and extent in the
+eleventh century, and by the end of the twelfth was in the full tide
+of its prosperity. Its buildings, however had not yet that importance
+to which they attained in the following century.[53] In the twelfth
+century they consisted of the church, which was built between 1020
+and 1135[54] and the monastic buildings proper (_lieux réguliers_),
+with lodgings for servants and guests to the north of the nave, at
+G, G´, and F on the plan, Fig. 152. To these, which were restored
+or reconstructed in a great measure by the Abbot Roger II. at the
+beginning of the twelfth century, additions were made on the south and
+south-east by Robert de Thorigni from 1154 to 1186.
+
+The monastery was not then fortified.
+
+[53] _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel_, by Ed. Corroyer;
+Paris, 1877. This work was crowned by the Institute in 1879, at the
+_Concours des Antiquités Nationales_.
+
+[54] See _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison
+Quantin, 1888.
+
+  [Illustration: 152. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF THE
+  UPPER CHURCH, THE CLOISTERS, AND THE DORMITORY
+
+     _Key to Plan._--A, A´, A.´´ Church, choir, and transepts. B,
+     B´, B´´. Three first bays of nave, destroyed in 1776. C, C´,
+     C´´. Towers and porch (Robert de Thorigni). D. Tomb of Robert
+     de Thorigni. E. Formerly the terrace in front of the church.
+     F. Formerly the chapter-house. G, G´. Formerly the claustral
+     buildings. Dormitory. H. Platform at the southern entrance
+     of the church. I. Ruin of the hostelry (Robert de Thorigni).
+     J. Infirmary. K. Dormitories of the thirteenth century
+     (_Merveille_). K´. Tower, known as the _Tour des Corbins_
+     (thirteenth century, _Merveille_). L, L´. Cloister and archives
+     (thirteenth century, _Merveille_). M. Vestry (thirteenth
+     century, _Merveille_). N. Abbot's lodging. O. Accommodation for
+     guests. P. Courtyard of the _Merveille_. P´. Terrace of the
+     apse. Q. Courtyard of the church and great staircase.]
+
+Built on the summit of a rock, the impregnable steepness of which
+provided a natural rampart north and west, it depended solely upon
+the advantages of its position for defence. Its situation in the
+midst of a treacherous sandy plain--a position which gave rise to the
+mediæval name, _Le Mont St. Michel au Péril de la Mer_--secured it
+against attempts at investiture, and even to a great extent against
+sudden assaults. Enclosures of stone or wooden fences surrounded it at
+those points on the east where the less rugged nature of the surface
+rendered access comparatively easy, and where stood the entrance,
+with the various habitations which had grouped themselves round it.
+The so-called _town_ had been founded in the tenth century by a few
+families decimated by the Normans, in their raids upon Avranches and
+its neighbourhood after the death of Charlemagne. In the thirteenth
+century it consisted of a small number of houses which, by way of
+security against the vagaries of the sea, were built upon the highest
+point of the rock to the east.
+
+In 1203 the greater part of the abbey, the church excepted, was
+destroyed during the wars between Philip Augustus, King of France, and
+John, King of England.
+
+Historic records prove conclusively that the abbey had no defensive
+works properly so-called in the twelfth and early part of the
+thirteenth century.
+
+From this period onwards abbeys, more especially those of the
+Benedictine orders, were transformed into regular fortresses capable
+of sustaining a siege. The abbots, in their character of feudal lords,
+fortified their monasteries to ensure them against disasters such as
+had marked the early years of the thirteenth century. Mont St. Michel
+is one of the most curious examples of such fortification.
+
+The original architects of the abbey seem to have been unwilling to
+diminish the height of the mount by levelling. Resolving to detract in
+no degree from the majesty of so splendid a base for their church,
+they set about their work on the same principle as the pyramid
+builders. Our illustrations show how the buildings were raised partly
+on plateaux circumscribing the apex of the mount, partly on that apex
+itself. The result is that the monastery, as we see it, has a core of
+rock rising at its highest point to the very floor of the church. The
+ring of lower stories rests upon walls of great thickness, and upon
+piers united by vaults, the whole forming a substructure of perfect
+solidity.
+
+The section made through the transept (Fig. 153) gives an exact idea
+of the portion which dates from the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
+and of the buildings which gradually grouped themselves round this
+nucleus, such as the so-called _Merveille_ (Marvel) to the north, and
+the abbot's lodging to the south.
+
+  [Illustration: 153. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. TRANSVERSE SECTION, FROM
+  NORTH TO SOUTH[55]]
+
+[55] _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de ses Abords_, by
+Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877.
+
+  [Illustration: 154. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. LONGITUDINAL SECTION,
+  FROM WEST TO EAST]
+
+The longitudinal section (Fig. 154) shows the crypt, or lower church.
+This was not, as has been frequently asserted, actually hollowed
+out of the rock; it was, however, very ingeniously contrived in the
+fifteenth century over the ruins of the Romanesque church in the
+space between the declivity of the mount and the artificial plateau
+of the earlier architects. The substructures of the Romanesque church
+which were enlarged by Robert de Thorigni in the thirteenth century
+are indicated in this diagram. They are of gigantic proportions,
+especially towards the west.
+
+Fig. 155 shows the so-called _Galerie de l'Aquilon_ (Gallery of the
+North Wind), one of the upper stories of the claustral buildings to
+the north of the church constructed by Roger II., eleventh abbot
+(1106-1122).
+
+  [Illustration: 155. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GALERIE DE L'AQUILON
+  (GALLERY OF THE NORTH WIND)]
+
+  [Illustration: 156. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL, NORTH FRONT. GENERAL
+  VIEW FROM THE SEA]
+
+  [Illustration: 157. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. THE ALMONRY. PERSPECTIVE
+  VIEW LOOKING WEST. THE CELLAR BEYOND]
+
+After the fire of 1203, when the abbey had become a feof of the royal
+domain, the Abbot Jourdain and his successors rebuilt it almost
+entirely, with the exception of the church.
+
+As the peculiarities of the site made it impossible to adhere strictly
+to the Benedictine system of direct communication between the main
+buildings and the church, the _lieux réguliers_, or accommodation
+reserved for the monks, were disposed above the magnificent building
+to the north of the church, which, from the time of its foundation,
+was known as _La Merveille_ (the Marvel).
+
+  [Illustration: 158. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. NAMES OF THE ARCHITECTS
+  OR SCULPTORS OF THE CHOIR]
+
+  [Illustration: 159. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CELLAR. PERSPECTIVE VIEW
+  FROM WEST TO EAST. THE ALMONRY BEYOND]
+
+This vast structure fairly takes rank as the grandest example of
+combined religious and military architecture of the finest mediæval
+period.
+
+The _Merveille_ consists of three stories, two of which are vaulted.
+The lowest contains the almonry and cellar; the intermediate story
+the refectory and the knights' hall; the third the dormitory and
+cloister. The building consists of two wings running east and west;
+the apartments are superposed as follows:--In the east wing the
+almonry, the refectory, and the dormitory; in the west the cellar, the
+knights' hall, and the cloister.[56]
+
+[56] _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de ses Abords_, by
+Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877.
+
+This splendid structure is built entirely of granite. It was carried
+out by one continuous effort, under the inspiration of an incomparably
+bold and learned design of the Abbé Jourdain, to which his successors
+religiously adhered.
+
+The undertaking was entered upon in 1203 and finished in 1228, the
+final achievement being the cloister, the architects or sculptors of
+which are commemorated by an inscription in the spandril of one of the
+arcades in the south walk.
+
+  [Illustration: 160. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. REFECTORY]
+
+  [Illustration: 161. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CHAPTER-HOUSE, CALLED
+  THE HALL OF THE KNIGHTS]
+
+To fully appreciate this stupendous monument, we must realise the
+extraordinary energy which enabled its architects to complete it in
+the comparatively short space of twenty-five years. We must take
+into account the conditions of its growth, its situation on the very
+summit of a rugged cliff, cut off from the mainland at times by
+the sea, at other times by an expanse of treacherous quicksand. We
+must consider the enormous difficulties of transporting materials,
+seeing that all the granite used was quarried by the monks from the
+neighbouring coast. It is true that an unimportant quota of the stone
+was dug from the base of the rock itself. But though the passage
+across the sands was by this means avoided, the difficulties of
+raising great masses of stone to the foot of the _Merveille_, the
+foundations of which are over 160 feet above the sea-level, had still
+to be met. It seems certain that the east and west buildings of which
+the _Merveille_ consists were built at the same time, for though
+certain differences are perceptible in the form of the exterior
+buttresses, they evidently result from the interior formation of the
+various apartments. A study of the plans, sections, and façades of the
+buildings is convincing on this head, and the general arrangements,
+notably that of the staircase, all point to the same conclusion. This
+staircase is a spiral in the thickness of the buttress which, with its
+crowning octagonal turret, forms the point of junction between the two
+buildings. It winds from the almonry of the eastern ground-floor to
+the knights' hall on the west, passing through the dormitory of the
+eastern block to terminate in the northern embattlement above.
+
+  [Illustration: 162. ST. MICHAEL'S MOUNT, CORNWALL]
+
+The eastern and northern façades of the _Merveille_ are models of
+severe and virile beauty; a massive grandeur characterises them,
+especially striking and impressive in the northern front as viewed
+from the sea. The vast walls of granite (the material used throughout,
+save in the inner walk of the cloister) are pierced with windows
+varying in shape according to the character of the rooms they light.
+Those of the dormitory are very remarkable. They are long and narrow,
+and affect the aspect of loopholes, deeply splayed outwards; the
+peculiar form of the honeycombed window-heads suggests a reminiscence
+of Arab types seen by the French Crusaders in Palestine. The
+thrusts of the interior vaulting are met on the exterior by massive
+buttresses, the vigorous profiles of which contribute greatly to the
+nobility of the general effect.
+
+These formidable façades were practically fortifications, but the
+_Merveille_ was further defended to the north by an embattled wall,
+flanked by a tower which served as a post for watchmen, to which the
+covered ways running round the base of the western buildings converged.
+
+In the middle, on a level with the north-west angle of the
+_Merveille_, a _châtelet_, or miniature keep, now destroyed, guarded
+the rugged passage between embattled walls which led to the Fountain
+of St. Aubert, and was known as the _Passage du Degré_ (passage of the
+stairway).
+
+The various buildings of the abbey which were added in the fourteenth
+century, after the construction of the _Merveille_, are: the abbot's
+lodging, with its offices on the south, and certain military works
+which completed the defensive system. In the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries these were gradually extended to the walls of the town, as
+we shall see in Part III., "Military Architecture."
+
+
+
+
+                               PART III
+
+                        MILITARY ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I
+
+                       CIRCUMVALLATION OF TOWNS
+
+
+The distinctive character of military architecture in the Middle Ages
+must be sought in defensive fortification. In all other respects
+its constructive methods were identical with those employed in
+architectural works generally. The few ornamental features of military
+buildings, as, for instance, the interior vaults and the profiles of
+consoles and cornices, diverge but slightly from the accepted types of
+such features in the churches, monasteries, and domestic structures of
+the period.
+
+The Latin, Roman, Gallo-Roman, Romanesque, and Gothic architects
+were versed in every department of the art they practised. The same
+architect was called upon to construct the church and the fortress,
+the abbey, and the ramparts which were often its necessary complement,
+the donjon, and castle, the town hall, the hospital, the rural
+barn, and the urban dwelling. He was responsible not only for the
+inception of every class and form of building, but for its successful
+elaboration; on him alone the responsibility of its execution rested;
+no scientific specialist checked his conclusions and verified his
+calculations as in our own time. The system by which the architect and
+the engineer have each their separate functions and responsibilities
+in the construction of the same building was unknown. The builder, or
+mason, as some would have him called, was an architect in the fullest
+sense; he himself traced the diagrams of his conceptions, and directed
+the execution of every detail, careful alike of stability and beauty.
+
+  [Illustration: 163. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GATE-HOUSE]
+
+It is a curious and disheartening phenomenon that such a direct
+contravention of the principles of mediæval art as the modern
+system of divided responsibility implies, should obtain only
+among the French, the very people to whom Western Europe owes its
+initiation into those principles. In England, in Belgium, in Holland,
+Switzerland, and Germany the architect is also the engineer; the
+science and the art of his craft are inseparable. "This intimate
+union of qualities gives an individuality to certain productions of
+these nations which we might well lay to heart and make the subject
+of serious comparative study. We must needs admit to begin with that
+we ourselves have become disciples rather than pioneers in a great
+movement."[57]
+
+[57] "L'Art à l'Exposition," _L'Architecture_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris.
+_L'Illustration_, for 25th May 1889.
+
+The one preoccupation of the modern engineer seems to be the
+satisfaction of imperious necessity. He is inclined to neglect all
+that mathematics cannot give him. And yet he has brought about a very
+sensible progress by his mathematical application of modern science.
+He has unquestionably excelled in industrial masterpieces perfectly
+adapted to the needs of the moment, if wanting in the qualities
+that make for immortality. We accept with qualified admiration
+his marvellous bridges and kindred works in metal--marvellous yet
+ephemeral; but we accept them merely as a temporary substitute for the
+more solid if less showy stone bridges of our early architects.
+
+We would not have the servant of yesterday the master of to-morrow.
+We protest against the degradation of the architect from his high
+and noble estate to the rank of a mere decorator, however skilful.
+We would not witness the extinction of the ancient French traditions
+which inspired so many masterpieces, and to which we look as the
+source of many yet to come.
+
+It appears, moreover, that the general acceptation of the word
+_ingénieur_ (engineer) is a totally mistaken one. It is derived from
+the mediæval term _engigneur_, which was very differently applied.
+
+The architect and the engineer of our own day are both _constructors_,
+but with a difference. The architect loves and cultivates his art; the
+engineer, with few exceptions, despises, or affects to despise, his.
+
+In the Middle Ages their functions were perfectly distinct. The
+architect constructed what the _engigneur_ used his utmost cunning
+to destroy. The architect built ramparts and strengthened them with
+towers; the _engigneur_ undermined them if attacking, or countermined
+them if defending. It was his business to invent or direct the use of
+engines of war, such as rams, mangonels, arblasts, and machines for
+the slinging of enormous projectiles, or grenades. He constructed the
+portable wooden towers which the besieging party brought up against
+the walls for an escalade, directed the sappers who undermined them,
+and, in fact, superintended the manufacture of all such offensive
+engines as were necessary in the conduct of a siege, a process
+which, before the invention of firearms, necessitated preparations
+as prolonged and tedious as they were complicated and uncertain.
+In short, the architect was the constructor of fortifications, the
+_engigneur_ their assailant or defender. It was not until the time
+of Vauban that military engineers were called upon to exercise
+functions so much more extensive. At an earlier period there were,
+however, specialists in construction who undertook such works as the
+circumvallation of Aigues-Mortes, but their labours had little in
+common with those of modern engineers.
+
+  [Illustration: 164. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. RAMPARTS TO THE SOUTH-EAST]
+
+Before the feudal period the fortifications of camps consisted
+either of earthworks, of walls built of mud and logs, or of
+palisades surrounded by ditches, in imitation of the Roman methods
+of castrametation. The _enceintes_ of towns fortified by the Romans
+were walls defended by round or square towers. These walls were built
+double; a space of several yards intervened, which was filled up with
+the earth dug from the moat or ditch, mixed with rubble. The mass was
+levelled at the top and paved to form what is technically known as a
+covered way, or terrace protected by an embattled wall rising from the
+outer curtain.
+
+That portion of the _enceinte_ of Carcassonne which was built by the
+Visigoths in the sixth century is thus constructed on the Roman model.
+"The ground on which the town is built rises considerably above that
+beyond the walls, and is almost on a level with the rampart. The
+curtains[58] are of great thickness; they are composed of two facings
+of dressed stones cut into small cubes, which alternate with courses
+of bricks; the intervening space is filled not with earth, but with
+a concrete formed of rubble and lime."[59] The flanking towers which
+rise considerably above the curtains were so disposed that it was
+possible to isolate them from the walls by raising drawbridges. Thus
+each tower formed an independent stronghold against assailants.
+
+[58] The wall space between the towers.
+
+[59] Viollet-le-Duc, _La Cité de Carcassonne_.
+
+Fig. 165 shows a portion of the north-west ramparts of the city of
+Carcassonne, with the first round tower; to the left of the drawing is
+the Romano-Visigothic tower, flanking right and left the curtains of
+the same period.
+
+  [Illustration: 165. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. NORTH-WEST RAMPARTS.
+  ROMANO-VISIGOTHIC TOWER (FIRST ON THE LEFT)]
+
+In accordance with the Roman tradition the _enceinte_ of a town,
+formed, as we have seen, of ramparts strengthened by towers, were
+further defended by a citadel or keep, of which we shall have more to
+say in the following chapter. This keep commanded the whole place,
+which was usually situated on the slope of a hill above the bank of
+a river. The bridge which communicated with the opposite bank was
+fortified by a gate-house or _tête de pont_, to guard the passage.
+
+The circumvallation of towns often consisted of a double enclosure,
+divided by a moat. By the close of the twelfth century architects had
+caught the inspiration of the great military works of the Crusaders in
+the East, and military architecture had progressed on the same lines
+as religious and monastic architecture.
+
+The territories, conquered by the Crusaders in the course of
+establishing the Christian supremacy in the East, had been divided
+into feofs as early as the twelfth century. These soon boasted
+castles, churches, and monastic foundations, of the Cistercian and
+Premonstrant orders among others.
+
+According to G. Rey, the following abbeys and priories were built in
+the neighbourhood of Jerusalem at this period:--The monasteries of
+Mount Sion, Mount Olivet, Jehoshaphat, St. Habakkuk, and St. Samuel,
+etc., and in Galilee, those of Mount Tabor and Palmarée. The military
+organisation was regulated by the _Assises de la haute Cour_ (Assizes
+of the Supreme Court), which determined the number of knights to be
+furnished by each feof for the defence of the kingdom, and in like
+manner, the number of men-at-arms required from each church and each
+community of citizens.... The middle of the twelfth century was the
+period at which the Christian colonies of the Holy Land were most
+flourishing. Undeterred by the wars of which Syria was the theatre,
+the Franks had promptly assimilated the Greek and Roman tradition as
+manifested in Byzantine types of military architecture. The double
+enclosure flanked by towers, one of the main features of Syrian
+fortresses built by the Crusaders, was borrowed from the Greeks.
+Many of their strongholds, notably Morgat, the so-called _Krak_ of
+the knights, and Tortosa, were of colossal proportions. They may be
+divided into two classes. In the first, the buildings are of the
+Frankish type, and seem to be modelled on the French castles of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries. The flanking towers are nearly always
+round; they contain a defensive story, while their summits and those
+of the intervening curtains are crowned with battlements in the French
+fashion. Other features subsequently introduced were: the double
+_enceinte_, borrowed from the Byzantines, the inner line of which
+commanded the outer, and was sufficiently near to allow its defenders
+to engage, should assailants have carried the first barrier;
+secondly, stone machicolations in place of the wooden _hourds_ or
+timber scaffoldings which were retained in France till the close of
+the thirteenth century; and finally, the talus, a device by which
+the thickness of the walls was tripled at the base, thus affording
+increased security against the arts of the sapper and the earthquake
+shocks so frequent in the East.
+
+  [Illustration: 166. FORTRESS OF KALAAT-EL-HOSN IN SYRIA (KRAK OF THE
+  KNIGHTS). SECTION, AS RESTORED BY M. G. REY.]
+
+  [Illustration: 166A. FORTRESS DE KALAAT-EL-HOSN IN SYRIA (KRAK OF THE
+  KNIGHTS). AS RESTORED BY M. G. REY]
+
+The buildings of the second class belong to the school of the Knights
+Templars. Their characteristic features are the towers, invariably
+square or oblong in shape, and projecting but slightly from the
+curtains. The fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn,[60] or _Krak_ of the
+knights, commanded the pass through which ran the roads from Homs
+and Hamah to Tripoli and Tortosa, and was a military station of
+the first importance. Together with the castles of Akkar, Arcos, La
+Colée, Chastel-Blanc, Areynieh, Yammour, Tortosa, and Markab, and the
+various auxiliary towers and posts, it constituted a system of defence
+designed to protect Tripoli from the incursions of the Mahometans,
+who retained their hold on the greater part of Syria.... The _Krak_,
+which was built under the direction of the Knights Hospitallers, has a
+double _enceinte_, separated by a wide ditch partly filled with water.
+The inner wall forms a reduct, and rising above the outer enclosure
+commands its defences. It also encompasses the various dependencies of
+the castle, the great hall, chapel, domestic buildings, and magazines.
+A long vaulted passage, easy of defence, was the only entrance to the
+place. To the north and west the outer line consisted of a curtain
+flanked by rounded turrets, and crowned by machicolations, which
+formed a continuous scaffolding of stone along the greater part of the
+_enceinte_.
+
+[60] _Étude sur les Monuments de l'Architecture Militaire des croisés
+en Syrie_, by G. Rey; Paris, 1871.
+
+  [Illustration: 167. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. PLAN (THIRTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+The action of the East upon the West was manifested in the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries by the application to the fortification of
+Carcassonne and Aigues-Mortes of methods in use among the Crusaders in
+Syria.
+
+This oriental influence is apparent at Carcassonne in the double
+_enceinte_ borrowed from Syrian fortresses.
+
+The city of Carcassonne stands upon a plateau commanding the valley
+of the Aude, the site of an ancient Roman _castellum_. In the sixth
+century it fell into the hands of the Visigoths, who fortified it.
+It increased considerably in extent during the tenth, eleventh, and
+twelfth centuries, but in the time of Simon de Montfort (1209) and of
+Raymon de Trancavel (1240) the _enceinte_ was not nearly so important
+as it became under St. Louis. By the middle of the thirteenth century
+the king had begun the construction of defensive works on a vast
+scale, and built the outer _enceinte_, which still exists, as may
+be seen on the plan (Fig. 167) taken from Viollet-le-Duc's _Cité de
+Carcassonne_.
+
+  [Illustration: 168. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. RAMPARTS. SOUTH-WEST ANGLE]
+
+The primary object of the _enceinte_ was to secure the place against
+a sudden attack during the completion or enlargement of its interior
+defences. The additions of St. Louis, which were carried on by Philip
+the Bold, rendered Carcassonne impregnable in the general estimation.
+"As a fact, it was never invested, and did not open its gates to
+Edward the Black Prince till 1355, when all Languedoc had submitted to
+him."[61]
+
+[61] Viollet-le-Duc, _La Cité de Carcassonne_.
+
+  [Illustration: 169. RAMPARTS OF AIGUES-MORTES, NORTH AND SOUTH]
+
+Oriental influences are equally evident at Aigues-Mortes. The Genoese
+Guglielmo Boccanera, who constructed the _enceinte_, was apparently
+familiar with the system of fortification adopted by the Crusaders in
+Syria. The machicolations which here make their first appearance in
+Languedoc (in the reign of Philip the Bold), proclaim the filiation
+of Aigues-Mortes to the Syrian fortresses. Italian influences are
+also perceptible in the square plan of the flanking towers. French
+architects had always preferred the round tower, as more solid in
+itself, and less open to attack from sappers, who, in advancing
+against a building of this form, were fully exposed to the missiles of
+the defenders from the curtains adjoining; while, on the other hand,
+the angles of the square tower gave a certain protection to assailants
+advancing against its front.
+
+  [Illustration: 170. RAMPARTS OF AVIGNON. CURTAIN, TOWERS, AND
+  MACHICOLATIONS]
+
+The ramparts of Avignon, which date from the fourteenth century, seem
+to have been constructed on Italian methods. The curtains are flanked
+by square towers, open towards the town, and surmounted by embattled
+parapets corbelled out from the walls, and machicolated so as to
+command their bases.
+
+In the thirteenth century walls and towers were provided with movable
+wooden scaffoldings, as shown at A in the figure. Spaces were left
+in the masonry of the walls for the insertion of wooden beams, which,
+projecting from the curtain, supported an overhanging gallery. This,
+being pierced with traps or apertures in the flooring, commanded
+the base of the wall, and was an important element in defensive
+operations. But as it was found that these timber galleries were
+easily set on fire by assailants, they were replaced in the fourteenth
+century by stone machicolations, as shown at B, consisting of corbels,
+supporting an embattled parapet. Between the inner face of the parapet
+and the outer face of the curtain the supporting corbels alternated
+with openings for the defence of the base, as already described. This
+arrangement, among the earliest examples of which are the square
+towers of Avignon, was soon generally adopted by architects in the
+construction of city ramparts.
+
+  [Illustration: 170A. MACHICOLATIONS]
+
+"The art of fortification, which had made great advances at the
+beginning of the thirteenth century, remained almost stationary to
+the end of it. During the Hundred Years' War, however, it received a
+fresh impetus. When order had been restored in the kingdom, Charles
+VII. set about the restoration or reconstruction of many fortresses
+recaptured from the English. In the defensive works of such towns
+and castles, and in various new undertakings of a like nature,
+we recognise the method and regularity proper to an art based on
+well-defined principles, and far advanced towards mastery."[62]
+
+[62] Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire_, vol. i.
+
+In the Abbey of Mont St. Michel the successive modifications applied
+to military _enceintes_ from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century,
+are illustrated in the fullest and most interesting manner.
+
+  [Illustration: 171. RAMPARTS OF ST. MALO (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+Of the fourteenth century fortifications, which surrounded the
+original town at the summit of the rock, connecting the ramparts with
+the _Merveille_ on the north, and the abbey buildings on the south,
+some fragments still remain. The tower on the north is intact. The
+walls are crowned with machicolations, in accordance with the then
+novel system of massing the defences at the top of the ramparts.
+The gate of the _enceinte_ was to the south-east, judging from the
+miniatures in the _livre d'heures_ of Pierre II., Duke of Brittany,
+which show the arrangement of the original _enceinte_ at the close of
+the fourteenth century.
+
+The abbey was at this time governed by Pierre Le Roy, one of its
+ablest abbots and most famous constructors. He rebuilt the summit of
+the _Tour des Corbins_ (_merveille_), restored, and re-roofed the
+abbey buildings to the south of the church, which, begun by Richard
+Justin in 1260, were carried on at intervals by his successors till
+they were partially destroyed by the fire of 1374. He completed the
+eastern defences by the addition of the square tower at O on the plan
+(Fig. 151), in which he built several rooms for the accommodation of
+his soldiers. The tower is known as the _Tour Perrine_, in memory of
+its author. We have seen that the abbots gradually became great feudal
+chieftains; the Abbot of Mont St. Michel was further commandant of the
+place for the king; and he was empowered to bestow feofs on the nobles
+of the province, who bound themselves in return to keep guard over the
+mount in certain contingencies, enumerated in the following rendering
+of a Latin text:--[63]
+
+[63] Ed. Corroyer, _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de
+ses Abords_.
+
+"The tenure of these vavassories was by faith and fealty, and their
+holders were bound to furnish relief and thirteen knights, each
+of whom was to come in person to guard the gate of the abbey when
+necessary--that is to say, in time of war; each to keep guard for
+the space of the ebb and flow of the sea--that is to say, during
+the rising and falling of the tide; and each to be provided with
+gambeson, casque, gauntlets, shield, lance, and all requisite arms;
+and further to present themselves thus armed yearly at the feast of
+St. Michael in September."
+
+In the early years of the fifteenth century he built the gate-house
+and crenellated curtain which connects it with the _Merveille_, to
+the north of the guard-room, _Bellechaise_ (see Fig. 163, beginning
+of this chapter). The gate-house was placed in front of the northern
+façade of _Bellechaise_ (D, Fig. 150); an open space between this and
+the south wall of the new structure formed a wide _machicoulis_ for
+the protection of the north gate (that of _Bellechaise_), which, by
+the erection of the new building, had been transformed into a second
+interior entrance. The gate-house or _châtelet_ is a square structure,
+flanked at the angles of the north front by two turrets, corbelled out
+upon buttresses. In general appearance they resemble a pair of huge
+mortars standing on their breeches. Between the pedestals of these
+turrets was the doorway and the inclined vault over the staircase
+leading to the guard-room. This entrance was defended by a portcullis
+worked from within on the first story, and by three _machicoulis_
+at the top of the curtain, between the battlements of the turrets.
+For the further protection of the gate-house Pierre Le Roy built the
+barbican which covers it to the east and north, and also commands
+the great staircase (_Grand Degré_) on the north. He modified the
+ramparts by the addition of the tower known as the _Tour Claudine_ at
+the north-east angle of the _Merveille_. In the lower story of this
+tower he constructed a guard-room, the postern of which communicated
+with the _Grand Degré_, and by a series of ingenious and unique
+combinations was so contrived as to command all the approaches.[64]
+
+[64] Ed. Corroyer, _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel_, etc.;
+Paris, 1877.
+
+  [Illustration: 172. MONT ST. MICHEL. SOUTH FRONT (AS IT WAS IN 1875)]
+
+In 1411 the Abbot Robert Jolivet was nominated lord of the abbey by
+Pope John XXIII. After his election by the monks he was made captain
+of the garrison by the king, but continued to live in Paris. In
+1416, however, he hastened to his abbey, which was threatened by the
+English, who had possessed themselves of Lower Normandy after the
+battle of Agincourt in 1415. Whilst the English were busy fortifying
+Tombelaine, Robert Jolivet completed his walls and certain towers
+round about the town, which still exist. To meet the expenses of
+his undertaking the abbot obtained a grant from the king of fifteen
+hundred _livres_ from the revenues of the Viscounty of Avranches,
+besides a subsidy from the Master of the Mint at St. Lô.
+
+  [Illustration: 173. MONT ST. MICHEL. FORTIFICATIONS OF THE FOURTEENTH
+  CENTURY (AS RESTORED BY ED. CORROYER)]
+
+At the time when Robert Jolivet was building the new ramparts, from
+about 1415 to 1420, the town had greatly increased towards the south,
+and even setting aside the dangerous proximity of the English at
+Tombelaine, some more extensive system of defence than that afforded
+by the fortifications of the fourteenth century was imperatively
+needed to secure the place against attack. Robert Jolivet incorporated
+his new walls on the east with those of the preceding century, which,
+following the escarpments of the cliff, descend to the beach, and
+are protected by the northern tower. These walls he flanked with an
+additional tower projecting considerably from the surface, which was
+destined to command the adjoining curtains and protect the main line
+of his defences. He then carried his walls round to the south of the
+rock and strengthened them by five other towers. The last of these,
+known as the _Tour du Roi_, forms the south-eastern projection of the
+place, and commands the western gate of the town.
+
+The walls and their sloping bases are defended by stone machicolations
+above, the consoles of which support open crenellated parapets.
+Several of the towers were roofed, and afforded shelter for the
+defenders of the ramparts. After leaving the _Tour du Roi_ the
+walls turn off at a right angle and unite themselves to the abrupt
+declivities of the rock by means of a series of steps and covered
+ways, commanded by a fortified guard-room. Even the inaccessible peaks
+of the rock itself are fortified and connected with the defences of
+the abbey on the south.
+
+At the beginning of the fifteenth century, and still more notably
+towards its close, firearms had been successfully used in various
+sieges, and had made such rapid progress that the whole system of
+attack and defence was transformed. Towers gave way to bastions, the
+terraces of which became batteries, while the battlements of the
+earlier mode were replaced by epaulments. Machicolations which were
+now merely a traditional decoration at last disappeared altogether,
+and military science gradually took the place of architecture, for
+which there was henceforth little scope in this particular field.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+                    CASTLES AND KEEPS, OR DONJONS
+
+
+The first French castles of the mediæval period seem to have been
+built for the purpose of arresting invasion and affording shelter to
+communities decimated by the raids of the Normans. They consisted of
+simple intrenchments more or less extensive. Surrounded by a _fossé_
+or ditch formed of earthworks, the scarp of which was defended by
+a palisade, they had much in common with the camps of the ancient
+Romans. In the centre of the enclosure rose the _motte_ (mote or
+mound), a conical elevation, either natural to the ground, or
+artificially formed on the model of the Roman _prætorium_. This was
+surmounted by a building, generally of wood, which served as a post of
+observation and a retreat less accessible than the _enceinte_ itself.
+
+In these rudimentary dispositions we recognise the germ of those
+feudal keeps and castles which were such important features of
+mediæval architecture, notably during the Gothic period.
+
+  [Illustration: 174. CASTLE OF ANGERS]
+
+Defensive works of this nature sprang up at various points of the
+royal domain which were exposed to the incursions of the Scandinavian
+pirates; but the temporary concessions of Charles the Bald were
+claimed as definitive by those to whom they had been made. "When,
+therefore, that feeble monarch proclaimed the heredity of the feofs
+at Quierzy-sur-Oise in 877, he did but sanction that which was
+already an accomplished fact.... When the feudal system was firmly
+established, the nobles turned their attention to the maintenance
+of their usurpations alike against the kings of France, strangers,
+and neighbours. To this end they carefully chose the best strategic
+positions in their territories, and fortified them in the most durable
+fashion at their command. The imposts they levied were considerable,
+and their serfs were subject to endless exactions."[65] Stone castles
+were accordingly built which, in general arrangement, adhered to
+primitive models. In 980 Frotaire had raised no less than five around
+Périgueux, his episcopal town.
+
+[65] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_.
+
+In 991 Thibault File-Étoupe built a fortress on the hill of Montlhéry,
+near the royal residences of Paris and Étampes, which was very
+formidable to the first five kings of the house of Capet. Later, when
+it became a royal possession, it was one of the chief bulwarks of the
+city.
+
+  [Illustration: 175. CARCASSONNE; CITADEL. VIEW FROM THE NORTH-EASTERN
+  ANGLE. (SEE PLAN, FIG. 167)]
+
+In the Middle Ages the castle bore the same relation to the fortified
+town as did the keep to the feudal castle, and the history of one is
+bound up in that of the other.
+
+In a fortified town the castle was the lodging of the leader and his
+soldiers. It was connected with the ramparts of the place, and had one
+or more special outlets; it was further provided with defences on the
+side of the town itself, so that upon occasion it became an isolated
+stronghold.
+
+The Castle of Carcassonne is a famous example of such offensive and
+defensive fortification. It was built in the first years of the
+twelfth century, and is composed of various lodgings for the chief and
+his garrison, defended east and north, on the side towards the city,
+by towers and curtains (Fig. 175). At the south-west angle independent
+reducts and towers guard the courtyards and approaches. The west front
+overlooks the open country, and here was placed the gate, which was
+defended by a series of formidable devices so ingenious as to preclude
+all possibility of surprise.
+
+  [Illustration: 176. LOCHES CASTLE. KEEP]
+
+During the Romanesque and Gothic periods the castle was a miniature
+town, with its own fortified _enceinte_, composed of walls reinforced
+by towers which served as refuges at various points of the
+circumference, and formed so many reducts for the arrest of assailants.
+
+The keep was the citadel of this miniature town, the temporary
+lodging of the lord whose vassals lived in the internal offices, and
+whose soldiers occupied the gate-house buildings and the towers of
+the ramparts. The noble sought to give his special habitation the
+most formidable aspect possible, and thereby to strike terror to the
+beholder, a very necessary device in those days of conflict when the
+friend of night was often the implacable foe of morning. "In times of
+peace the keep was the receptacle for the treasure, arms, and archives
+of the family; but the lord did not lodge there; he only took up his
+quarters in the keep with his wife and children in time of war. As
+it was not possible for him to defend the place alone, he surrounded
+himself with a band of the most devoted of his followers who shared
+his dwelling. From thence he exercised a scrupulous surveillance over
+the garrison and its approaches, for the keep was always placed at
+the most vulnerable point of the fortress, and he and his bodyguard
+held the horde of vassals and retainers in due subservience; as they
+were able to pass in and out at all hours by secret and well-guarded
+passages, the garrison was kept in ignorance of the exact means of
+defence, the lord, as was natural, doing all in his power to make them
+appear formidable."[66]
+
+[66] Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire_, vol. v.
+
+Castles and keeps of stone were generally built upon the natural scarp
+of some spur commanding two valleys and near the banks of a river; the
+primitive mounds of the feudal fortresses were abandoned; as we have
+already remarked, these were in many cases artificial, and would have
+been quite inadequate to the support of the huge masses of masonry of
+the new architecture.
+
+"By the close of the tenth century and the opening years of the
+eleventh, Foulques Nerra was raising castles throughout his own
+territories in Anjou, and on every available point of vantage he could
+wrest from his neighbour, the Count of Blois and Tours; the latter
+built fortresses to resist the aggressor and complete the network of
+strongholds begun by his father, Thibault the Trickster, one of the
+most turbulent nobles of his day."[67]
+
+[67] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_.
+
+The keep of Langeais, on a precipitous hill overlooking the Loire,
+was founded by Foulques Nerra at the close of the tenth century;
+the walls, which are still standing on three sides, show traces of
+Gallo-Roman methods of construction; the dressed stones are of small
+size, and brick and stone are used conjointly for the voussoirs of the
+window arches.
+
+A large number of castles and keeps were built in the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries, among others those of Plessy, Grimoult, Le Pin,
+and La Pommeraye, the last on a mound surrounded by deep moats
+which separate three lines of circumvallation from each other;
+Beaugency-sur-Loire, the vast keep of which was four stories high;
+and Loches, which is ascribed to Foulques Nerra, but which seems
+to belong rather to the twelfth century, at which period military
+architecture had made a great advance. The keep of Loches is perhaps
+the finest of all such structures in France; in height it is nearly
+100 feet; the ramparts seem to date from the thirteenth century; the
+form of the towers on plan is a pointed arch, a shape adopted as
+offering greater resistance at the part most frequently attacked by
+the sapper.
+
+  [Illustration: 177. FALAISE CASTLE. KEEP]
+
+At Falaise, where the castle like that of Domfront is built on
+a rugged promontory, the ramparts are later than the keep, the
+architectural details of which point to the twelfth century. This
+hypothesis is supported by a passage in the Chronicle of Robert du
+Mont, quoted by M. de Caumont. In 1123 Henry II. rebuilt the keep and
+ramparts of Arques, and carried out similar restorations at Gisors,
+Falaise, Argentan, Exmes, Domfront, Amboise, and Vernon.
+
+  [Illustration: 178. LAVARDIN CASTLE. KEEP]
+
+  [Illustration: 179. KEEP OF AIGUES-MORTES. TOUR DE CONSTANCE]
+
+Other keeps of equal interest in point of situation, plan, or details
+of construction are:--Ste. Suzanne, Nogent-le-Rotrou, Broue, L'Islot,
+Tonnay-Boutonne, Pons, Chamboy, Montbazon, Lavardin, Montrichard,
+and Huriet in the Bourbonnais. All these, in common with those first
+described, are square or rectangular on plan. From the end of the
+twelfth century onwards the cylindrical form predominates in the plan
+of keeps and towers. On the whole, it offered the best resistance to
+the mediæval assailant. The convex surface was of equal strength all
+round, and as we have seen in the preceding chapter, the circular
+trace for towers gave the garrison the best chance of defending their
+bases from the curtain, and of opposing the work of sappers and miners.
+
+  [Illustration: 180. PROVINS CASTLE. KEEP]
+
+The great advance made in architecture by the general adoption
+of an expedient so simple and easy of execution as the vault on
+intersecting arches manifested itself very strongly in military
+structures. The heavy wooden floors of the earlier keeps, which were
+so apt to catch fire, were replaced by less ponderous vaults, binding
+the circular walls firmly together, and forming a flooring for the
+various stories less unsteady and infinitely more durable than the
+huge beams and joists of earlier days.
+
+A further improvement was the pointed roof, round on plan, now
+generally adopted as better calculated to withstand projectiles or
+combustibles which shattered the angles of the roof in the old square
+towers, and set fire to the timbers.
+
+The form of keeps, however, varied considerably throughout the
+twelfth century. At Houdan the keep is a great tower strengthened by
+four turrets; at Étampes it is composed of four clustered towers,
+forming a quatrefoil on plan; the vaulted stories are marked by many
+curious features, among others a deep well, the opening of which is
+in the second floor. Some historians date this building from the
+eleventh century; there are indications, however, in the details of
+the architecture and sculptures, which point to the early part of the
+reign of Philip Augustus.
+
+The keep of Provins, which belongs to the twelfth century, has certain
+very original features. It rises from a solid mound of masonry, and
+has a circular _enceinte_. The base of the keep itself is square, and
+is flanked at each angle by a turret. An octagonal tower surmounts
+the square base, and is connected with the flanking turrets by flying
+buttresses. The keep of Gisors is also octagonal in form, one of its
+octagons being at a tangent to the circular _enceinte_ which crowns
+the feudal _motte_ or mound. It was built in the twelfth century, and
+was considerably augmented by the line of walls and square towers
+which Philip Augustus drew round the mound.
+
+The _Château Gaillard_, built at the close of the twelfth century
+on an eminence commanding the Seine at Les Andelys, has several
+peculiarities of arrangement. The round keep is first enclosed by a
+circular _enceinte_, or rather by a square, the angles of which have
+been rounded. This in its turn is surrounded by an elliptic enclosure
+connected with the defences of the castle, and consisting of a series
+of segmental towers united by very narrow curtains. In this massive
+structure the art of the architect manifests itself only in the
+robust solidity of the masonry. It is the keep in its purely military
+character. No trace of decoration mitigates its austerity.
+
+  [Illustration: 181. CASTLE OF CHINON. SOUTH FRONT]
+
+Philip Augustus, having possessed himself of the Château Gaillard,
+fortified Gisors on the same formidable scale, and proceeded to build
+the castle of Dourdan as well as his own palace fortress of the
+Louvre, in Paris. Upon the death of the king, Enguerrand III. began
+to build a fortress at Coucy, which he completed in less than ten
+years (1223-1230). Its grandiose proportions and formidable system of
+defence surpassed everything that had gone before. Coucy was, in fact,
+the architectural manifestation of that haughty ambition to which
+Enguerrand is said to have given free expression during the minority
+of his sovereign.
+
+  [Illustration: 182. CASTLE OF CLISSON. KEEP]
+
+Next in importance to the castles and keeps of the thirteenth century,
+already enumerated, are the following:--The White Tower of Issoudun;
+the Tower of Blandy; the octagonal keep of Châtillon-sur-Loing,
+Semur; the royal fortresses of Angers, built by St. Louis;
+Montargis, Boulogne, Chinon, and Saumur; the _Tour Constance_ or
+keep of Aigues-Mortes, ascribed to St. Louis; the castle of Najac,
+built by his brother, Alphonse of Poitiers; the castles of Bourbon
+l'Archambault and Chalusset, and the castle of Clisson, rebuilt or
+begun by Olivier I., Lord of Clisson, after his return from the Holy
+Land, etc.
+
+  [Illustration: 183. VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON. CASTLE OF ST. ANDRÉ]
+
+In the fourteenth century military architecture developed chiefly
+on reconstructive lines. Ancient fortresses were reorganised in
+accordance with the new methods of attack and (consequently) of
+defence, and the weak points brought to light by recent sieges
+were dealt with. The same process was applied to the construction
+of towers which had hitherto been furnished with several rows of
+loopholes, an excellent expedient for the defence of curtains and
+approaches, but subject to this drawback, that it directed attention
+to the most vulnerable points. The first effect of the use of cannon
+in warfare was to increase the thickness of the walls; subsequently,
+such structural modifications were adopted as were required by the
+novel method of massing all the defences at the summit of machicolated
+walls. The principal castles of this period were Vincennes, near
+Paris, built by Philip of Valois and Charles V., and the vast
+fortified palace at Avignon, constructed by the Popes Benedict XII.,
+Clement VI., Innocent VI., and Urban V., of which we shall have more
+to say in Part IV. Gaston Phœbus, Count of Foix and Béarn, built
+square keeps in the _Bastide_ of Béarn, at Montaner, and at Mauvezin,
+besides circular keeps at Lourdes and at Foix.
+
+  [Illustration: 184. CASTLE OF TARASCON]
+
+Among keeps and castles completed or entirely built in the fourteenth
+century, Anthyme St. Paul enumerates those of Roquetaillade,
+Bourdeilles, Polignac, Briquebec, Hardelot, Rambures, Lavardin (the
+foundations of which were laid in the twelfth century), Montrond,
+Turenne, Billy, Murat, and Hérisson, the curious keep of Montbard, the
+keeps of Romefort, Pouzauges, Noirmoutier, and many others.
+
+At the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth century
+Louis of Orleans, son of Charles V., took advantage of the madness
+of his brother Charles VI. to fortify various positions on which he
+relied for the furtherance of his ambitious schemes. In 1393 and the
+years immediately following he acquired various estates in Valois:
+Montépilloy, Pierrefonds, and La Ferté-Milon, the castle of which he
+rebuilt entirely. He also bought the domain of Coucy in 1400, after
+the death of the last male descendant of Enguerrand III.
+
+Coucy, Pierrefonds, and La Ferté-Milon have been so exhaustively
+described in special works, notably those of Viollet-le-Duc, that we
+need not reproduce them here. We have cited them as characteristic
+types of those colossal fortresses and keeps, admirable alike in
+grandiose proportion and refinement of detail which are the supreme
+expression of feudal power.
+
+  [Illustration: 185. VITRÉ CASTLE]
+
+Several other castles were built in Albigeois, Auvergne, Limousin,
+Guyenne, La Vendée, and Provence, notably at Tarascon. The keeps of
+Trèves in Anjou also date from this period.
+
+Important castles sprang up all over Brittany in the fifteenth
+century. Such were Combourg, Fougères, Montauban, St. Malo, Vitré,
+Elven, Sucinio, Dinan, Tonquédec, etc.
+
+Many of these buildings which date from the close of the century
+were remarkable for their ingenuity of arrangement and richness of
+decoration. But though worthy of all attention from the artistic point
+of view, they do not come within the scope of our present study--that
+of _military_ architecture in the Gothic period.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III
+
+                          GATES AND BRIDGES
+
+
+Though confining ourselves to a brief historical abstract of the
+so-called Gothic period in architecture, without reference to Roman
+examples, we have said enough in the foregoing studies on castles
+and keeps, and the circumvallation of towns, to give some idea of
+the importance attached by architects to the gates which secured the
+_enceintes_, and the bridges which afforded an approach.
+
+
+_Gates._--Following the example of those Frankish architects whose
+works in Syria after the first Crusade seem to have exercised such
+far-reaching influence, French builders of the reigns of Philip
+Augustus and St. Louis reduced the entrances of fortresses and
+fortified _enceintes_ to the smallest number practicable. Their
+construction was based upon a system calculated to repulse any
+ordinary attempt to carry the place by direct attack; as a rule,
+fortresses were taken rather by ruse, surprise, or treason than by
+regular siege.
+
+  [Illustration: 186. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. GATE-HOUSE OF THE CASTLE]
+
+During the twelfth, and more especially the thirteenth century, the
+gates were the points most strongly fortified. They were approached
+over a bridge, by raising a movable portion of which, however,
+entrance might be barred on the very threshold. The narrow gateway
+passage was defended by two projecting towers pierced with loopholes,
+and connected by a curtain. The whole structure formed a fortified
+gate-house, known as a _châtelet_, which had to be carried before an
+assailant could penetrate to the fortress beyond. The passage was
+further defended by a single or double portcullis, a grated timber
+framework like a harrow, cased with iron, the uprights of which were
+spiked at the bottom. The passage was also defended by machicolations
+or holes in the roof, through which the garrison could hurl down
+missiles on the heads of their enemies, should the latter have forced
+the gate.
+
+The castle-gate of Carcassonne which was built about 1120 still
+exists, and is a good example of such arrangements.
+
+The minute precautions adopted by architects to guard against surprise
+are very manifest in this example. A sudden attempt was often
+successful, especially if favoured by traitors among the defenders
+themselves.
+
+The difficulties of passage were increased by the multiplication of
+portcullises, the windlasses of which were worked from different
+stories of the tower, so as to prevent collusion between different
+parties of the garrison, which was often composed largely of
+mercenaries. In the gate-house of Carcassonne the first portcullis
+was raised or lowered by means of chains and counter-weights worked
+from a windlass on the second floor; the second portcullis was worked
+in like manner from the first floor, in a place entirely cut off from
+communication with that above, to which access could only be obtained
+by a wooden staircase in the castle courtyard.
+
+In the thirteenth century military architects further provided
+against surprises by defensive outworks. The gate of Laon, at Coucy,
+so admirably described by Viollet-le-Duc, is a famous example. These
+outworks, which were called barbicans, were designed to protect the
+great gate and its approaches.
+
+  [Illustration: 187. CARCASSONNE. GATEWAY OF THE LISTS, KNOWN AS THE
+  _PORTE DE L'AUDE_]
+
+Around the walls of the city of Carcassonne a second line of ramparts
+had been drawn by St. Louis, in which only a single opening gave
+access to the _lists_ (Fig. 187)--that is to say, the space between
+the inner and outer enclosures. He afterwards built a huge tower,
+known as the _Barbican_, to the west of the castle, with which it
+was connected by crenellated walls, and by inner cross-walls, so
+arranged in a kind of echelon that the open spaces on one side were
+masked by the projections on the other (see plan, Fig. 167). The
+tower was destined to cover sorties from the garrison, and to keep
+open communication by the bridge across the Aude. It was rather an
+outwork than a barbican such as Philip the Bold built before the
+_Porte Narbonaise_, on the east of the city, towards the close of the
+thirteenth century.
+
+  [Illustration: 188. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. GATE KNOWN AS THE _PORTE
+  NARBONAISE_]
+
+The _Porte Narbonaise_ bears a general resemblance to the main
+gate of the castle, subject, however, to the great advance made in
+military architecture in the course of a century. The gateway towers
+are provided with spurs, an invention directed against the attack of
+miners, which had the further advantage of interfering with the action
+of a battering-ram, by exposing those who worked it to missiles from
+the adjacent parts of the curtain. The gate opened immediately upon
+the lists; it was defended by the crenellated semi-circular barbican,
+which was united on either side to the embattled parapet of the lists.
+Access to the barbican was obtained only by a narrow passage preceded
+by a bridge, the latter easily defended by a redan which adjoined the
+postern of the barbican.
+
+The gate itself was provided with two portcullises like those of the
+castle gate; behind the first were massive folding-doors, and over it
+a wide machicolation.
+
+The constructive methods employed in the building of fortified gates
+were modified as military architecture progressed on lines already
+considered by us in the first chapter of this section, when dealing
+with defensive methods generally, which, in the fourteenth century,
+seem to have been in advance of those of attack. A steady improvement
+in details went on until the invention of gunpowder came in to
+profoundly modify the conditions alike of defence and assault.
+
+  [Illustration: 189. RAMPARTS OF AIGUES-MORTES. GATE KNOWN AS THE
+  _PORTE DE LA GARDETTE_. DRAWBRIDGE. (TO THE RIGHT OF THE DRAWING THE
+  _TOUR CONSTANCE_, BUILT BY ST. LOUIS)]
+
+The gateways of fortified _enceintes_ were modified in the
+fourteenth century not only by alterations in the plan of towers,
+the substitution of stone machicolations for the wooden _hourds_ or
+scaffoldings of parapets, the addition of portcullises, folding-doors,
+and the _machicoulis_ of the vaulted passage, but further by the
+invention of the drawbridge. A drawbridge, it may be hardly necessary
+to say, consisted of a wooden platform suspended by chains to
+cross-beams poised on uprights on the principle of a see-saw; when
+lowered, the bridge afforded a passage across the moat. It was raised
+by depressing the inner ends of the lever-beams which pivoted upon a
+fulcrum, and thus brought the platform up vertically against the front
+of the building, where it formed an outer door which an attacking
+party had either to batter in or to bring down by cutting the chains.
+
+  [Illustration: 190. RAMPARTS OF DINAN. GATE KNOWN AS THE _PORTE DE
+  JERZUAL_]
+
+It will be readily perceived that such a bridge was infinitely more
+effectual and more to be depended upon than the portable bridge
+mentioned in our description of the castle gate of Carcassonne.
+The latter had to be raised piece by piece, a prolonged operation
+impossible of execution in case of a sudden surprise.
+
+Aigues-Mortes seems to have been one of the first fortresses to
+which the new methods were applied. The gates east, west, and south
+are constructed on the twelfth-century system, as exemplified at
+Carcassonne. But the northern gate, known as the _Porte de la
+Gardette_, which was either made or altered in the fourteenth century,
+still shows the grooves for the beams of the drawbridge, and the
+pointed arch of the doorway is enframed by a square rebate destined
+for the platform when raised.
+
+The use of drawbridges became very general in the fourteenth century,
+and gave rise to various ingenious combinations. The gate at Dinan,
+known as the _Porte de Jerzual_, which probably dates from the close
+of the century, is a curious example. It is not placed between
+two towers in the manner then usual, but is pierced through the
+actual face of a tower. In this case, the inner prolongation of the
+lever-beams formed a solid panel like the platform of the bridge
+itself. It was worked through a hole in the roof of the entrance
+archway, being raised with the help of a chain, and falling through
+its own preponderant weight. The horizontal pivot on which it turned
+rested on the brackets shown in Fig. 190; the external sections of the
+lever-beams sank in the usual manner into the vertical grooves above
+the arch, and when the bridge was up, the solid panel joining the
+inner ends of the levers doubled the protection it gave. In case of
+alarm, the chain had simply to be let go, and the panel falling by its
+own weight, the bridge rose, and the barricade was complete.
+
+  [Illustration: 191. VITRÉ CASTLE. GATE-HOUSE]
+
+By the fifteenth century drawbridges were in universal use; an
+interesting development was the result. This was the introduction of a
+smaller gate or postern in the curtain between the towers, by the side
+of the great gateway. Each of the two apertures was furnished with its
+own drawbridge. That of the centre, which was reserved for horsemen
+and vehicles, was worked by two beams or arms, as we have seen, while
+the smaller footbridge of the postern was raised by means of a single
+beam, the chain of which was attached to a forked upright.
+
+  [Illustration: 192. ENCEINTE OF GUÉRANDE. GATE OF ST. MICHEL]
+
+The castle of Vitré, which was built, or at least completed at the
+close of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth century,
+illustrates the system in the gateway of its _châtelet_.
+
+The gate-house, known as the _Porte St. Michel_, at Guérande, which
+was built together with the _enceinte_ by John V., Duke of Brittany,
+in 1431, still preserves the lateral grooves which indicate the shape
+and arrangement of the postern drawbridge.
+
+When raised, the two drawbridges closed the apertures of gateway and
+postern, while the open gulf of the great ditch, either empty, or full
+of water, cut off the approach to the entrance.
+
+The Abbey of Mont St. Michel, which we have already studied under
+various aspects, has further information to give us with regard to the
+construction of fortified gateways. In accordance with contemporary
+usage, the Abbot Pierre Le Roy built a gate-house or _bastille_
+(Fig. 163), the entrance of which was guarded by a portcullis and a
+wide _machicoulis_; he masked this gate-house by a barbican, which
+was connected north and south with the great stairway leading to
+the abbey. The northern staircase is rendered specially interesting
+by the ingenious arrangement of its gates, which opened within
+the barbican. The apertures were filled by a panel which worked
+horizontally, on a system necessitated by the exceptional situation of
+the abbey, where the military, as well as the domestic buildings, were
+superposed, communicating with each other only by an elaborate series
+of staircases and inclines. The doors pivoted upon horizontal axes.
+Resting upon salient jambs in the embrasures of the doorways, they
+opened in a direction parallel with the slope of the steps, and could
+be shut at the least alarm, being carried into place by their own
+weight. They were kept fastened by lateral bolts, the slots of which
+still exist in the jambs.[68]
+
+[68] Ed. Corroyer, _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de
+ses Abords_; Paris, 1877.
+
+  [Illustration: 193. RAMPARTS OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GATEWAY KNOWN AS THE
+  _PORTE DU ROI_]
+
+The main gate of the ramparts, which was built between 1415 and 1420,
+is to the west of the place, in the curtain flanked by the tower
+known as the _Tour du Roi_. This gate and the lateral postern gave
+access to the town, their drawbridges forming a passage across the
+moat when lowered, and when raised, an initial barrier to assailants.
+Above the gates was the warder's lodging, beneath which the vaulted
+passage and the postern communicated directly with an outer guard-room
+in the ground-floor of the _Tour du Roi_. In addition to the first
+barrier, formed by the raised platform of the drawbridge, the main
+entrance was secured by double doors, and by an iron portcullis, which
+still remains in its lateral grooves. The great arch is crowned by a
+tympanum, on which the united arms of the king, the abbey, and the
+town were carved.
+
+The works designed for the defence of rivers flowing through fortified
+towns, or of the inlets of harbours, are closely allied to the
+military architecture of gates. At Troyes the river arches in the
+town ramparts were guarded by gratings or portcullises of iron. At
+Paris the passage of the Seine was barred by chains stretched across
+the river from wall to wall, and upheld in the middle of the stream
+by piles or firmly anchored boats. At Angers the walls of the town
+abutted on two towers known as the _Haute Chaîne_ and the _Basse
+Chaîne_ (the Higher and Lower Chains), containing windlasses for the
+chains, which at night were stretched across the Maine at its passage
+through the _enceinte_.
+
+Seaports were defended at the mouth by towers on either shore,
+between which chains, worked from within, could be stretched to bar
+the passage. The harbour of La Rochelle is thus protected. According
+to some archæologists of authority, the tower known as the _Tour
+de la Chaîne_ (to the left of the drawing) is older than that of
+St. Nicholas (on the right), which is supposed by them to have been
+built in the sixteenth century on the foundations of an earlier tower
+contemporary with that on the other side of the Channel. The piles
+upon which these towers stand seem to have given way in part, and to
+have caused a perceptible inclination of the Tower of St. Nicholas.
+
+  [Illustration: 194. ENTRANCE TO THE PORT OF LA ROCHELLE. TOWER OF ST.
+  NICHOLAS, AND TOWER CALLED _TOUR DE LA CHAÎNE_. BEFORE THE
+  RESTORATION]
+
+The suggestion made in a very fanciful modern design, that the two
+towers were once united by a great arch, is wholly without foundation.
+Such a useless structure would have entailed defensive works equally
+useless, seeing that a chain stretched from tower to tower at high
+tide--at low tide the harbour was inaccessible--would have been
+perfectly effectual against any vessels of that period attempting to
+force a passage.
+
+
+_Bridges._--As is the case with all other architectural buildings,
+the origin of bridges dates back to the Romans, by whom they were
+often decorated with triumphal arches. The bridge of St. Chamas in
+Provence, known as the _Pont Flavien_ (Flavian Bridge), is an example
+which seems to date from the first centuries of the Christian era.
+
+The triumphal arches were in later times replaced by fortifications;
+they became _têtes de pont_, _bastilles_, or crenellated gate-houses,
+the function of which was not, like that of the arches, the decoration
+of the structure or the glorification of its founder, but the defence
+of the passage across the river, and the protection of the fortress
+with which it communicated.
+
+  [Illustration: 195. BRIDGE AT AVIGNON. RUINS OF THE BRIDGE KNOWN AS
+  THE PONT DE ST. BÉNÉZET]
+
+Among the bridges constructed by mediæval architects, that of St.
+Bénézet, the Bridge of Avignon, seems to be the most ancient. This
+bridge, which was begun about 1180, and completed some ten years
+later, is equally remarkable for its architectural details, and the
+structural problems solved by its builders. It crosses, or rather
+used to cross, the Rhone--for though the arm towards the _Rocher des
+Doms_ is the narrower, it is the deeper--on nineteen arches, extending
+from the foot of the Doms, on the Avignonese bank, to the Tower of
+Villeneuve, on the right bank, after a slight deflection southward.
+
+The gate-house on the left bank, some fragments of which still remain,
+is said to have been built by the Popes in the fourteenth century, for
+the purpose of levying tolls, a perquisite shared by them with the
+King of France.
+
+The Bridge of Avignon seems to have been one of the first constructed
+by the fraternity of the _Hospitaliers pontifs_, which was founded
+in the twelfth century for the double object of building bridges
+and succouring travellers. The head of the order at the time of the
+building of the Rhone bridge was St. Bénézet. It must have numbered
+architects of ability among its members, for the construction of the
+Bridge of Avignon is very remarkable. Each of the elliptical arches
+is composed of four independent arches in simple juxtaposition one
+with another. This device ensures elasticity, and as a consequence
+stability. The solidarity of the whole is rendered complete by the
+masonry of the spandrils, which recall the architectural portions of
+the aqueduct, known as the _Pont du Gard_; its width is about 16 feet.
+The arches spring from piers furnished on either face with acute spurs
+designed to break the force of the stream and the impact of floating
+ice in the winter.
+
+The spandril above each pier is pierced with a round arch, to
+give free passage to the water during those floods which at times
+completely submerge the piers.
+
+The bridge in its present ruined condition has only four arches. On
+the pier nearest to the left bank the ancient chapel, dedicated to
+St. Nicholas, is still standing. Access to it is obtained by means
+of a flight of corbelled steps rising from the foundation to the
+entrance, and by an overhanging landing-stage, resting at one end
+against the pier, at the other against the flank of the arch.
+
+  [Illustration: 196. BRIDGE OF MONTAUBAN, KNOWN AS THE _PONT DES
+  CONSULS_]
+
+The old bridge at Carcassonne seems to be contemporary with that of
+Avignon, but its arches are semi-circular, their keystones are bound
+into the intrados, and their piers are spurred to the level of the
+platform, where they form recesses or refuges, which the narrowness of
+the bridge rendered very necessary.
+
+Among bridges of the thirteenth century we may mention that at
+Béziers, where the arches, both pointed and semi-circular, resemble
+those of Carcassonne in construction; but here the piers only rise
+above the summers of the arches by the height of two or three courses,
+and their spandrils are pierced to give free passage to the current
+during floods.
+
+The bridge which spanned the Rhone at St. Savournin du Port, known as
+the _Pont St. Esprit_, was the work of a Clunisian abbot about 1265.
+It resembled the Bridge of Avignon in the construction of the piers
+with their pierced spandrils; the arches, however, were semi-circular.
+The platform, which is some 16 feet across, was barred at either end
+by toll-gates; that nearest to the little town was connected with
+the _tête de pont_, which, in after times, was incorporated with the
+fortress commanding the course of the Rhone above the bridge.
+
+  [Illustration: 197. BRIDGE OF CAHORS, KNOWN AS THE PONT DE VALENTRÉ]
+
+The question of tolls was an important one in those days, and gave
+rise to frequent disputes. The towers and gate-houses of bridges were
+toll-bars as well as defensive outworks.
+
+The bridge at Montauban, known as the _Pont des Consuls_, which was
+begun at the close of the thirteenth century, remained unfinished
+till the beginning of the fourteenth, when Philip the Fair gave such
+help as was needed for its completion, on condition that he should
+be allowed to raise three towers on the bridge, with a view to the
+appropriation of the tolls.
+
+The Bridge of Montauban is built entirely of brick. It consists of
+seven pointed arches, resting on spurred piers, which are pierced
+with arches, also pointed, and rising to the same height as the main
+arches, to provide for the frequent floods of the Tarn.
+
+The Bridge of Cahors is one of the most beautiful of
+fourteenth-century examples. It is still of great interest in spite of
+the various restorations it has undergone, chiefly of late years.
+
+  [Illustration: 198. BRIDGE OF ORTHEZ]
+
+This bridge, which is known as the _Pont de Valentré_, was begun in
+1308 by Raymond Panchelli, Bishop of Cahors from 1300-1312, and cannot
+have been finished before 1355. It consists of six slightly pointed
+arches; the piers, which rise to the level of the parapet, forming
+lateral refuges, are triangular above bridge and square below. At each
+end the bridge was commanded by a crenellated structure, forming a
+gate-house or _tête de pont_ on either bank. In the middle rose a
+lofty tower with gates, by means of which passage might be barred and
+assailants checked in the event of a surprise of either gate-house.
+
+  [Illustration: 199. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. FORTIFIED BRIDGE
+  CONNECTING THE LOWER CHURCH WITH THE ABBEY]
+
+The Bridge of Orthez has strong affinities with that of Cahors. It
+must date from about the same period, and there is every reason to
+suppose it was defended, not only by the central tower, but by _têtes
+de pont_, one of which at least must have been destroyed to make way
+for the railroad from Bayonne to Pau.
+
+Bridges were of great importance in the Middle Ages, both as public
+highways and military outworks. At certain points, notably at the
+confluence of two rivers, they were strongly reinforced by very
+considerable defences, as at Sens, Montereau, etc.
+
+At Paris, Orleans, Rouen, Nantes, and a large number of other towns
+traversed by rivers, bridges were not only important as military
+defences, but of great interest as architecture.
+
+Mont St. Michel shall furnish us with our last example, a bridge
+of the fifteenth century. Though it spans no stream, it is none
+the less remarkable. In the details of this bridge--its embattled
+platform uniting the lower church to the abbey, its machicolated
+parapet guarding the inner passages--we recognise an art consummate as
+that which stirs our enthusiasm in the vast proportions and perfect
+execution of the splendid choir, the whole proclaiming the versatile
+genius of those great builders who welded into one noble monument a
+triad of masterpieces--religious, monastic, and military.
+
+
+
+
+                               PART IV
+
+                          CIVIL ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I
+
+           BARNS, HOSPITALS, DWELLING-HOUSES, AND "HÔTELS"
+                    OR TOWNHOUSES OF THE NOBILITY
+
+
+Civil architecture could boast no special characteristics before
+the close of the thirteenth century. Its earlier buildings bore the
+impress of religious and monastic types, as was natural at a period
+when architecture was practised almost exclusively by monks and by the
+lay disciples trained in their schools.
+
+It was not until the following century that domestic architecture
+threw off the trammels of religious tradition, and took on the
+character appropriate to its various functions. Artists began to seek
+decorative motives in the scenes and objects of daily life, no longer
+borrowing exclusively from sacred themes, and convention in form and
+detail was abandoned in some degree for the study of nature.
+
+
+_Barns._--Throughout the Romanesque and Gothic periods, barns,
+hospitals, and houses were constructed in the prevailing style. We
+propose, of course, to deal only with buildings possessing real
+architectural features.
+
+  [Illustration: 200. TOWN-HALL AT ST. ANTONIN (TARN ET GARONNE). THE
+  UPPER PART OF THE BELFRY WAS REBUILT ABOUT 1860]
+
+The barns or granaries of mediæval times were rural dependencies of
+the abbeys, but were built outside the enclosure of the monastery
+proper, and formed part of the _priory_ or farm. The entrance of the
+barn was a large door, opening upon the yard in the centre of the
+front gable end; access was also obtained by means of smaller doors
+in the side walls, and often a postern was constructed beside the
+main entrance for ordinary use. The great central doors were then
+only thrown open for the passage of carts, which, entering at the
+front, passed out through a similar door in the opposite gable end, as
+at the barn of Perrières, which, though situated in Normandy, was a
+dependency of the Abbey of Marmoutier, near Tours.
+
+  [Illustration: 201. BARN AT PERRIÈRES (CALVADOS). END OF TWELFTH
+  CENTURY. (AFTER CAUMONT)]
+
+Such barns were generally large three-aisled buildings, the central
+aisle divided from those on either side by an arcade, or pillars of
+wood or stone, which supported the pointed timber roof covering the
+whole.
+
+  [Illustration: 201A. BARN AT PERRIÈRES. SECTION]
+
+In some of these barns it was the practice to pile wheat, barley, or
+rye in the centre and in one of the side aisles; in others the central
+aisle was kept free for passage, and the grain was stored in the sides.
+
+The façades differ only in unimportant details. They consist of vast
+gable ends, following the lines of the roof, and strengthened by
+pilasters. A large doorway, with a small postern to the side of it,
+occupies the centre of the base, and the apex is pierced with narrow
+openings to light, or rather to ventilate, the interior.
+
+  [Illustration: 201B. BARN AT PERRIÈRES. PLAN]
+
+Tithe-barns were very generally constructed on this plan. When large
+and important they had two stories, as at Provins.
+
+These were not as a rule vaulted, but the granaries, or _greniers
+d'abondance_, were often built with three stories, that of the
+ground-floor, and even the one above it, being vaulted. The granary of
+the Abbey of Vauclair, in the department of Aisne, built towards the
+close of the twelfth century, is a very interesting example of such
+structures.
+
+  [Illustration: 202. TITHE-BARN AT PROVINS]
+
+  [Illustration: 203. GRANARY OF THE ABBEY OF VAUCLAIR]
+
+Some idea of the importance of religious establishments at this period
+may be gathered from the foregoing details. The great abbeys were
+miniature towns, and their dependencies, the priories, consisted of
+vast farms, round which large villages soon grew up. The cultivators
+of these great holdings combined agricultural labours with their
+religious exercises, and the priors in especial were not only priests,
+but perhaps even in a greater degree stewards or bailiffs, whose duty
+it was to collect payments in kind, such as tithes or other revenues,
+to store these, together with the crops of their own raising, and
+finally to administer the wealth of every description--lands, woods,
+rivers, and ponds--belonging to the abbey.
+
+
+_Hospitals._--A large number of charitable institutions, called in
+the Middle Ages _maisons dieu_, _hôtels dieu_, hospices, hospitals,
+and lazar-houses, were founded in the eleventh century, and greatly
+developed in the twelfth and thirteenth.
+
+A hospital was attached to most of the large abbeys or their
+dependencies. The cities also owned hospitals founded or served by
+monks.
+
+Lazar-houses had multiplied throughout Western Europe by the end of
+the twelfth century, from Denmark to Spain, from England to Bohemia
+and Hungary; but these buildings gave little scope to the architect.
+They consisted merely of an enclosure surrounding a few isolated
+cells, and a chapel, attached to which were the lodgings of the monks
+who tended the lepers.
+
+  [Illustration: 204. HOSPITAL OF ST. JOHN AT ANGERS (TWELFTH CENTURY).
+  GREAT HALL, AS RESTORED BY A. VERDIER]
+
+But many of the hospices or hospitals built from the end of the
+twelfth to the fourteenth century are magnificent buildings, in
+general arrangement much resembling the great halls of the abbeys.
+
+It must be borne in mind that hospitality in the Middle Ages
+was obligatory; each monastery, therefore, had its eleemosynary
+organisation, which included special buildings for the accommodation
+of monks whose business it was to tend the sick and to distribute alms
+to them and other travellers and pilgrims.
+
+  [Illustration: 205. ABBEY OF OURSCAMPS (OISE, THIRTEENTH CENTURY).
+  HOSPITAL. AS RESTORED BY A. VERDIER]
+
+We learn from Viollet-le-Duc that so early as the Carlovingian
+period taxes were levied in aid of the poor, the sick, and pilgrims.
+Charlemagne had enjoined hospitality in his ordinances and
+capitularies, and it was forbidden to refuse shelter, fire, and water
+to any suppliant.
+
+  [Illustration: 206. LAZAR-HOUSE AT TORTOIR (AISNE, FOURTEENTH
+  CENTURY). FROM DRAWINGS BY A. VERDIER]
+
+The communes vied with kings, nobles, abbots, and citizens in the
+discharge of such duties. Hospices and hospitals were founded on
+every hand, either in deserted buildings, or in specially constructed
+edifices.
+
+Refuges were also built on roads much frequented by pilgrims to
+shelter belated travellers, and hospices were constructed outside the
+walls and close to the city gates.
+
+Pilgrimages were much in vogue in the Middle Ages, especially
+throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The sanctuaries
+of St. Michael in Normandy, and of St. James of Compostella in Spain,
+were the most frequented. At the beginning of the thirteenth century
+a hospice was founded outside Paris, near the Porte St. Denis, which
+was dedicated to St. James. This hospice, with its chapel, was served
+by the confraternity of _St. Jacques aux Pèlerins_ (St. James of
+Pilgrims), and offered gratuitous shelter each night to pilgrims bound
+for Paris. Its buildings covered two acres; they included a great hall
+of stone, vaulted on intersecting arches, and measuring some 132 feet
+by 36, for the accommodation of the sick.
+
+In a file of accounts of the fifteenth century, concluding with
+an appeal for funds, it is stated that, for the convenience of
+pilgrims--_y a lieu pour ce faire XVIIJ liz qui depuis le premier jour
+d'aoust MCCCLXVIIJ jusques au jour de Mons. S. Jacques et Christofle
+ensuivant on estés logés et hebergés en l'hospital de céans_ XV^m VI^c
+IIII^{xx}X _pèlerins qui aloient et venoient au Mont Saint Michel et
+austres pèlerins. Et encore sont logés continuellement chascune nuict
+de XXXVI à XL povres pèlerins et austres povres, pourquoy le povre
+hospital est moult chargé et en grant nécessité de liz, de couvertures
+et de draps._[69]
+
+In the first years of the fourteenth century several hundreds of
+_hôtels dieu_, hospitals, and lazar-houses received help from the
+King of France. St. Louis founded the _Hospice des Quinze-Vingts_ for
+the blind, and in many towns hospitals were erected for the insane,
+the old, and the infirm, in addition to the usual lazar-houses.
+Special hospitals had already been established for women in labour,
+and a chapel was founded for their benefit in the crypt of the _Ste.
+Chapelle_ of Paris, dedicated to Our Lady of Travail, of Tombelaine,
+in Normandy.[70]
+
+[69] "Eighteen beds have been in use, and from the first day of
+August 1368 to the feast of SS. James and Christopher following (July
+25, 1369) this hospital has lodged and sheltered 16,690 pilgrims
+journeying to or from St. Michael's Mount, besides others. And it
+has further given shelter each night to some thirty-six to forty
+poor pilgrims and other needy persons, whereby the poor hospital is
+heavily burdened and in sore straits for lack of beds, sheets, and
+blankets."--Ed. Corroyer, _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel
+et de ses Abords_; Paris, 1877.
+
+[70] _Idem._
+
+  [Illustration: 207. HOSPITAL AT TONNERRE. SECTION OF THE GREAT HALL]
+
+Several hospitals of the Gothic period still exist. That of St. John
+at Angers is one of the most remarkable. It comprises a great hall,
+divided into three aisles, and vaulted on intersecting arches, and
+a chapel dating from the close of the twelfth or beginning of the
+thirteenth century. The fine barn at Angers is of the same period;
+the plan and details of construction are very curious, and resemble
+those of the barns and granaries already described.
+
+The _Hôtel Dieu_ of Chartres dates from about the same period.
+
+The hospital of Ourscamps, near Noyon, is very similar as to the
+scheme of construction which seems to have been one generally adopted
+by the religious architects of the twelfth, and more notably of the
+thirteenth century. The grandiose proportions of the vast building
+recall the great vaulted halls of contemporary abbeys, such as those
+of St. Jean des Vignes at Soissons, and of the _merveille_ at Mont
+St. Michel. Certain individual features characterise it as a hospice
+specially designed for the sick, the poor, and pilgrims.
+
+The Hospice of Tonnerre appears to have been rebuilt in the fourteenth
+century. The vast design is very impressively carried out. The great
+hall, over 60 feet wide by some 300 long, is covered with an open
+timber roof, boarded in so as to form a semi-circular vault, which is
+singularly effective.
+
+The internal arrangements are very ingenious. A wooden gallery in the
+half-story commanded a view into each unceiled cubicle, by means of
+which it was possible to keep constant watch over the patients without
+disturbing them.
+
+The hospital of Beaune has been so often described as to call for
+little comment. The painted timber vault of the great hall seems to
+have been imitated from that of Tonnerre. Its distinctive character
+has unfortunately been destroyed by the construction of a ceiling,
+the joists of which rest on the tie-beams of the original skeleton.
+But the inner court is intact, with the arcade and well and wash-house
+so familiar from descriptions and illustrations. Another picturesque
+and often described feature is the great roof on the south side, with
+its double row of dormer windows surmounted by a rich ornamentation of
+hammered lead.
+
+In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the practice of vaulting the
+great halls of hospitals with stone was abandoned. It became usual in
+France and in Flanders to cover the vast aisles with timber roofs, the
+boarded vaults of which were either pointed or barrel-shaped.
+
+The term _maladrerie_ was applied to the small lazar-houses, numbers
+of which were built in France in the neighbourhood of abbeys or of
+priories remote from towns and great religious centres.
+
+The _Maladrerie du Tortoir_, not far from Laon, on the _Route de la
+Fère_, is a type of such rural hospitals. Both in plan and in the
+details of construction it recalls the hospital of Tonnerre, more
+especially in the ingenious arrangement of the interior.
+
+In the planning of these charitable institutions mediæval architects
+exhibited the same skill and ingenuity which distinguished their
+treatment of religious monuments. Viollet-le-Duc has pointed out
+the strange illogicality of such a theory as that which would make
+artists who showed extraordinary subtlety in religious buildings
+responsible for so much coarseness in civil structures. We must not
+hold them accountable for the destruction of their well-planned
+hospitals from the sixteenth century onwards, and the substitution of
+buildings, the main preoccupation of whose architects was to provide
+accommodation for as many patients as possible. Louis XIV. endowed the
+hospitals built in his reign with the revenues of the lazar-houses
+and _maladreries_, for which there was no further occasion, leprosy
+having disappeared from his dominions. But his hospitals leave much to
+be desired from the hygienic point of view; the mediæval hospitals,
+on the other hand, have a monumental simplicity of appearance, and
+offer a liberal supply of light, air, and space to their patients. We
+do not assert the superiority of the cellular system commonly adopted
+in hospitals from the twelfth to the fifteenth century, over that of
+the open wards of our own times, but we may be permitted to point out
+its great moral advantages. And, as our learned authority remarks, the
+system owed its adoption to a noble delicacy of charitable feeling in
+the mediæval founders and builders of our _maisons dieu_.
+
+
+_Houses and Hôtels, or Town-Houses of the Nobility._--The history
+of human habitations is a subject of such interest that to treat it
+adequately a special work would be necessary. Such an undertaking has,
+moreover, been admirably carried out by a famous architect.[71]
+
+[71] Ch. Garnier, Member of the Institute, whose picturesque
+embodiment of research, in his reconstruction of human habitations
+from the lacustrine period to our own times, attracted so much
+attention at the Exhibition of 1889.
+
+We must refrain from discussion of prehistoric or Merovingian
+dwellings, or of those rural hovels, the typical variations of
+which, in different countries and climates, offers so wide a field
+for study. To keep within the limits assigned us by the arbitrary
+term Gothic Architecture, we must confine our rapid sketch to the
+architectural period which dates from the middle of the twelfth to the
+close of the fifteenth century.
+
+  [Illustration: 208. HOUSE AT CLUNY (TWELFTH CENTURY)]
+
+Nothing remains of habitations constructed in France before the
+twelfth century, save the vague and scanty records of ancient texts,
+manuscripts, and bas-reliefs. But we may reasonably infer that the
+houses of the period were built of wood, as was natural in a country
+containing great tracts of forest. We know that most of the important
+buildings were timber structures, which explains the fact that numbers
+of twelfth-century churches were founded on the sites of earlier
+buildings destroyed by fire.
+
+Roman, Gallo-Roman, and Merovingian houses were arranged to suit the
+habits of the times; they were lighted by windows opening upon an
+inner courtyard, in accordance with the ancient custom of separating
+the women's apartments from the rest of the habitation.
+
+  [Illustration: 208A. HOUSE AT CLUNY (TWELFTH CENTURY)]
+
+But by the end of the twelfth century the urban dwelling was adapted
+to the needs of a family. The doors and windows of the house were made
+to overlook the street. The building consisted generally of a hall
+or shop, in which a handicraft was carried on, or manufactured goods
+were offered for sale. It was lighted by a wide arcade of round or
+pointed arches, and was either on a level with the street, or raised
+above it by the height of some few steps. A back room, opening upon
+a courtyard, served for kitchen and dining-room. To the left of the
+façade a little door gave access to a staircase which led to the
+first floor, where was a large _solar_ or living-room and an apartment
+overlooking the courtyard. Above these were the chambers occupied by
+the inmates of the house.
+
+  [Illustration: 209, 210. HOUSES AT VITTEAUX (CÔTE D'OR), AND AT ST.
+  ANTONIN (TARN ET GARONNE, THIRTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+The architecture of such houses varies according to the climate,
+the materials of the country, and the customs of the inhabitants.
+The houses had no special individuality as long as the windows were
+treated merely as apertures for the admission of light; but directly
+these began to take on a certain elaboration, and such features as
+mouldings or sculptures were introduced in the façades, a system of
+decoration was borrowed from the neighbouring churches or abbeys of
+monkish architects, a consequence either of the far-reaching influence
+of monastic schools, or of the spirit of imitation and force of habit.
+
+Certain houses at Cluny, which date from the twelfth century,
+exemplify the style. They are built almost entirely of stone. The
+arcading recalls various details of monastic buildings which the
+constructors very naturally took as models.
+
+  [Illustration: 211. HOUSE AT PROVINS (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+  [Illustration: 212. HOUSE AT LAON (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+  [Illustration: 213. HOUSE AT CORDES. ALBIGEOIS (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+The same may be said of the other houses, of which we give drawings
+as illustrating the urban type of the thirteenth and fifteenth
+centuries. It is easy to trace the successive developments of
+religious and monastic architecture in the domestic buildings of the
+period.
+
+It is not until the close of the fourteenth century, and more notably
+in the fifteenth, that such influences gradually die out, and change,
+if not progress, becomes evident in the altered form of the arcades,
+which no longer resemble those of cloisters or churches, but have
+elliptic or square apertures. These, in the windows, are no longer
+subdivided by a stone tracery of ornamental cusps and foliations, but
+merely by plain mullions and transoms, forming square compartments
+which it was possible to fill with movable glazed sashes of the
+simplest construction.
+
+The façades are generally of durable materials, such as stone or
+brick, and the use of wood is restricted to the floors and the roofs.
+
+Houses of the fifteenth century in the Northern departments, where
+stone is scarce, were built mainly of wood, the more solid material
+being used only on the ground-floor. The overhanging upper stories
+were of timbers, the interstices being filled in with brick. The
+principal members, such as corbel tables, beams, ledges, and
+window-frames, were decorated with mouldings and sculptures. The
+façade usually terminated in a gable, the projecting pointed arch of
+which followed the lines of the timber roof. In other cases it was
+crowned by richly decorated dormer windows. In rainy districts the
+roof was covered with slates or shingles.
+
+  [Illustration: 214. HOUSE AT MONT ST. MICHEL (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+  [Illustration: 215. WOODEN HOUSE AT ROUEN (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+  [Illustration: 216. WOODEN HOUSE AT ANDELYS (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+It was usual in the North to detach each house at the upper story,
+even when it was not practicable to allow a narrow passage or space
+between. This was not merely a concession to the vanity of the
+citizen, to his desire to make his independent gable a feature of
+the street. It was also a precautionary measure against fires, which
+were frequent and disastrous in cities built mainly of wood, and
+possessing but very rudimentary appliances wherewith to meet such a
+catastrophe.
+
+  [Illustration: 217. HÔTEL LALLEMAND AT BOURGES (END OF THE FIFTEENTH
+  CENTURY)]
+
+The fifteenth and notably the sixteenth centuries were marked by
+the building of a new class of dwellings, the _maisons nobles_,
+or town-houses of the nobles, who, down to this period, had lived
+entirely in their fortified castles. These great seignorial mansions
+differ essentially from the houses of the citizens. The _hôtel_
+occupied a considerable space, in which a courtyard and even gardens
+were included. The house of the citizen or merchant was built flush
+with the street, whereas the _hôtel_ was placed in an inner court,
+often richly decorated, and the street-front was devoted to stables,
+coach-houses, servants' lodgings, and the great entrance which gave
+access to the court and the main building.
+
+  [Illustration: 218. JACQUES CŒUR'S HOUSE AT BOURGES. VIEW FROM THE
+  PLACE BERRY (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)]
+
+The names at least of some famous Parisian _hôtels_ of the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries have survived, such as the _hôtels_ des
+Tournelles, de St. Pol, de Sens, de Nevers, and de la Trémoille, the
+last destroyed in 1840. The Hôtel de Cluny, which dates from 1485, is
+a very curious example, and of remarkable interest, as having been
+preserved almost intact.
+
+Several great houses of the same period still exist at Bourges. Among
+others, the Hôtel Lallemand, built towards the close of the fifteenth
+century, the inner court of which is especially noteworthy, and the
+still more famous _hôtel_ or _château_ of Jacques Coeur.
+
+This beautiful structure dates from the second half of the fifteenth
+century, and is built in part on the ramparts of the town. It is so
+well known that it will be unnecessary to describe or illustrate the
+famous portals and inner court. But the façade on the Place Berry,
+though less sumptuous, is hardly less interesting. Here we have the
+two great towers of the fortified _enceinte_, with their Gallo-Roman
+bases, and between them the _corps de logis_ or main buildings of the
+mansion, which retain many features of the feudal castle, and bear
+witness to the wealth and power of Charles VII.'s ill-used favourite,
+the famous banker, whose splendid fortunes suffered such undeserved
+eclipse.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II
+
+                    TOWN-HALLS, BELFRIES, PALACES
+
+
+The social evolution which resulted in the enfranchisement of
+the communes had its origin in the eleventh century, though the
+consummation of this great political change was of much later date.
+
+Down to the fourteenth century the efforts of the communes to exercise
+the rights conferred on them in charters wrung from their feudal lords
+received incessant checks. The opposition they encountered is hardly
+to be wondered at, seeing that every concession in their favour tended
+to diminish the despotic authority of those from whom it had been won.
+No sooner, therefore, was a charter rescinded and a commune abolished
+than the instant demolition of the town-hall and belfry was demanded.
+Hence very few town-halls of earlier date than the fourteenth century
+have survived.
+
+
+_Town-halls._--A few of the great Southern cities owned town-halls so
+early as the twelfth century, among them Bordeaux, where the building
+was of the Roman type, and Toulouse, whose town-hall was practically a
+fortalice.
+
+  [Illustration: 219. TOWN-HALL OF PIENZA, ITALY (END OF THE FOURTEENTH
+  CENTURY)]
+
+But by far the greater number of the infant communes were sunk in
+poverty, and so overwhelmed with dues and taxes that they had no
+margin for communal buildings.
+
+In the fourteenth century even the commune of Paris could boast only
+the most modest of town-halls. In 1357 Étienne Marcel, provost of
+the merchants, bought from the collector of the salt-tax a small
+two-gabled building which adjoined several private dwellings. We may,
+therefore, conclude that down to this period the town-hall was in
+nowise distinguished from an ordinary habitation.
+
+At the close of the century Caen possessed a town-hall of four stories.
+
+During the thirteenth century many new towns and communes had been
+founded by the Crown, the nobles, and the clergy, the depositaries of
+power in the Middle Ages.
+
+In the North, Villeneuve le Roi, Villeneuve le Comte, and Villeneuve
+l'Archevêque owed their existence, material and communal, to these
+powers respectively.
+
+In the South the war of the Albigenses had devastated and even
+destroyed many cities. The authorities recognised the necessity of
+repeopling the districts so cruelly decimated. The great nobles,
+spiritual and temporal, reconcentrated the scattered population by
+grants of lands for the building of new towns, and sought to establish
+them permanently by apparently liberal concessions in the form of
+communal franchises.
+
+According to Caumont and Anthyme St. Paul, these new towns or
+_bastides_ may be identified by their names, or by their regularity of
+plan, or by both combined.
+
+Certain names indicate a royal foundation or dependency, as Réalville
+or Monréal; others point to privileges conferred on the town, as
+Bonneville, La Sauvetat, Sauveterre, Villefranche, or even La Bastide,
+and Villeneuve.
+
+  [Illustration: 220. TOWN-HALL AND BELFRY AT YPRES (BELGIUM)]
+
+A third class borrow the names of French and occasionally of foreign
+provinces or towns. Anthyme St. Paul gives a list of such in the
+_Annuaire de l'archéologie française_,--Barcelone or Barcelonnette,
+Beauvais, Boulogne, Bruges, Cadix, Cordes (for Cordova), Fleurance
+(for Florence), Bretagne, Cologne, Valence, Miélan (for Milan), La
+Française and Francescas, Grenade, Libourne (for Leghorn), Modène,
+Pampelonne (for Pampeluna), etc.
+
+A new town or _bastide_ is usually rectangular in plan, and measures
+some 750 by 580 feet. Sauveterre d'Aveyron is an example. In the
+centre is a square, into which a street debouches on each side,
+thus dividing the town into four parts. The square is surrounded by
+galleries or cloisters, of round or pointed arches, covered with a
+timber roof or vault, with or without transverse arches, whence the
+term _Place des Couverts_, still common in some Southern towns.
+
+In the centre of the square stood the town-hall, the ground-floor
+of which was used as a public market. Montréjeau is one of the
+towns in which this regularity of construction is observed, also
+Montpazier, the streets of which are lined with wide arcades of
+pointed arches. Other examples are to be found at Eymet, Domme, and
+Beaumont, Libourne, Ste. Foy, and Sauveterre de Guyenne, Damazan,
+and Montflanquin, Rabastens, Mirande, Grenade, Isle d'Albi, and
+Réalmont, etc. Several _bastides_ in Guyenne were founded by the
+English. Finally, the lower town of Carcassonne, founded in 1247, and
+Aigues-Mortes, founded in 1248, also belong to the class of _bastides_
+or new towns.[72]
+
+[72] See Part III., "Military Architecture."
+
+"The series of Southern _bastides_, inaugurated in 1222 by the
+foundation of Cordes-Albigeois, was brought to a close in 1344 by
+a petition of the town-councillors of Toulouse, in answer to which
+the king forbade any further settlements. Two hundred at least of
+the _bastides_ still exist in Guyenne, Gascony, Languedoc, and the
+neighbouring districts. Several of these were unprosperous, and are
+still small villages. In some cases their close proximity tended
+greatly to their mutual disadvantage."[73]
+
+[73] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_.
+
+  [Illustration: 221. MARKET AND BELFRY AT BRUGES (BELGIUM)]
+
+  [Illustration: 222. TOWN-HALL OF BRUGES (BELGIUM)]
+
+It is worthy of remark that civil architecture had so greatly
+developed by the fifteenth century as to react in its turn upon
+the religious art to which it owed its birth. It gave to religious
+architecture certain new forms, such as the elliptic arch, adopted at
+the close of the fifteenth and throughout the following century, at
+which period civil architecture reached its apogee.
+
+The Southern communes preserved their franchises till the sixteenth
+century, that disastrous era of religious warfare which involved the
+destruction of innumerable buildings.
+
+The town-hall of St. Antonin (Tarn et Garonne) is perhaps the only
+surviving one of the period. With the exception of the belfry, it
+is an almost perfect type of the architecture of this class in the
+thirteenth century, to which date it may probably be assigned (Fig.
+200).
+
+The little town of St. Antonin, which had obtained its communal
+charter in 1136, suffered much for its fidelity to Raymond VI., Count
+of Toulouse. During the war of the Albigenses it was twice taken by
+Simon de Montfort, whose son, Guy de Montfort, sold it to St. Louis in
+1226. It was at this period, no doubt, that the present building was
+erected. It has the characteristic feature of the civic monument, the
+_belfry_, which, in the Middle Ages, was the architectural expression
+of municipal authority and jurisdiction.
+
+The building is a simple rectangular structure, over which the square
+tower rises to the right. The ground-floor is a market, communicating
+with an adjoining market-place, and with the narrow street which
+passes under the belfry. The _grande salle_ or municipal hall
+occupies the first story, together with a smaller apartment in the
+tower. The second story is divided in the same manner.
+
+  [Illustration: 223. TOWN-HALL AT LOUVAIN (BELGIUM)]
+
+We have already called attention to the far-reaching influence of
+French art as manifested in religious architecture so early as the
+close of the twelfth century. Such influences were no less paramount
+in developments of civil architecture, and we find municipal
+buildings of the fourteenth century in Italy--at Pienza and other
+towns--in which not only analogies but points of identity with the
+thirteenth-century example of St. Antonin are distinctly traceable.
+
+The municipal buildings of the North, the most perfect types of which
+are those of Germany and Belgium, are nearly uniform in plan. A belfry
+rises from the centre of the façade, flanked right and left on the
+first story by the great civic halls. The ground-floor is a market for
+the sale of merchandise.
+
+The cloth-hall of Ypres (so named since the construction of a new
+town-hall in the seventeenth century) is one of the most beautiful of
+such examples. The building was begun in 1202, but was not completed
+till 1304. The façade measures 440 feet in length, and has a double
+row of pointed windows. It terminates at each angle in a very graceful
+pinnacle, and the centre is marked by a noble square belfry of vast
+size, the oldest portion of the building, the foundation-stone of
+which was laid by Baldwin IX. of Flanders in 1200.
+
+The belfry of Bruges, which was begun at the close of the thirteenth
+century, and completed some hundred years later, is another most
+interesting example of the civic buildings of its period.
+
+The structure consists of a market and the usual municipal halls,
+crowned by the lofty belfry, the original height of which was 350 feet.
+
+  [Illustration: 224. BELFRY OF TOURNAI (BELGIUM)]
+
+  [Illustration: 225. BELFRY OF GHENT (BELGIUM)]
+
+The _hôtel de ville_ or town-hall of Bruges, which replaced an
+earlier municipal building in the _Place du Bourg_, dates from
+between 1376 to 1387. Its architectural character differs entirely
+from that of the belfry. Its elegant design and the richness of its
+ornamentation give it the appearance rather of a sumptuously decorated
+chapel than of a civic building.
+
+We may close the list of Belgian town-halls of the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries with that of Louvain. The design and general
+scheme of elaborate decoration are akin to those of the hall of
+Bruges, and it bears the same ecclesiastical impress.
+
+It was built between 1448 and 1463 by _Mathieu de Layens, master
+mason of the town and its outskirts_, and is a rectangular building
+of three stories. The gable ends are pierced with three rows of
+pointed windows, and adorned with a rich profusion of mouldings,
+statues, and sculptured ornament. The steep roof has four tiers of
+dormer-windows. The angles are flanked by graceful openwork turrets,
+with delicate pinnacles, and similar turrets receive the ridge of the
+roof at either end. The lateral façades are adorned with three rows of
+statues and allegorical sculptures, covering the whole with a wealth
+of exquisite tracery. Its lace-like delicacy has suffered considerably
+from the action of weather, and it was found necessary to renovate a
+considerable portion of the ornament in 1840.
+
+
+_Belfries._--In the early days of the enfranchisement of the communes,
+it became customary to call the community together by means of bells,
+which at that period were confined to the church towers, and which it
+was unlawful to ring without the consent of the clergy. It may easily
+be conceived to what incessant broils the new order gave rise, the
+clergy as a body being strongly opposed to the separatist tendency
+of measures which attacked their feudal rights. The municipalities
+finally put an end to internecine warfare in this connection by
+hanging bells of their own over the town-gates, a custom which was
+superseded towards the close of the twelfth and beginning of the
+thirteenth century by the erection of towers for the civic bells. Such
+was the origin of the _belfry_, the earliest material expression of
+communal independence.
+
+The structure usually formed part of the town-hall, but was sometimes
+an isolated building. The isolated belfry was a great square tower of
+several stories, crowned by a timber roof protected either by slates
+or lead. The great bells hung in one story, and above them the little
+bells of the carillon.
+
+A lodging, opening upon a surrounding gallery, was constructed in the
+upper story for the accommodation of the watchman, whose duty it was
+to warn the inhabitants of approaching danger and to give notice of
+fires. The bells rang at sunrise and curfew.
+
+The chimes (_carillon_) marked the hours and their subdivisions, and
+at festival seasons mingled their joyous notes with the deep and
+solemn voice of the great bell.
+
+The custom of tolling the great bell to give notice of a fire still
+obtains in many villages of the North, the greater number of which
+have preserved their belfries in spite of the modifications they have
+undergone at different periods.
+
+The belfry tower usually contained a prison, a hall for the
+town-councillors, a muniment room, and a magazine for arms. It was
+long the only town-hall of a commune.
+
+  [Illustration: 226. BELFRY AT CALAIS (FRANCE)]
+
+We shall find examples of these early municipal buildings among the
+isolated belfries of Belgium, such as that at Tournai, founded in
+1187, and rebuilt in part at the close of the fourteenth century, and
+that of Ghent, the square tower of which dates from the end of the
+twelfth century. Its spire is a modern addition.
+
+A few buildings of this particular class still exist in France.
+Such is the belfry of Calais, the square tower of which was built
+during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It is crowned by an
+octagonal superstructure, begun at the close of the fifteenth century,
+and completed in the early years of the seventeenth. The belfry of
+Béthune, which dates from the fourteenth century, is another. It
+consists of a square tower reinforced at three of its angles by a
+hexagonal turret, corbelled out from the wall. The fourth turret is
+of the same shape, but here the projection is carried up from the
+ground-floor, and contains the spiral staircase which communicates
+with the various stories of the tower, and terminates on the embattled
+parapet above. The building is completed by a pyramidal spire of great
+elegance, crowned by the watchman's tower. The plan and details of
+this superstructure proclaim it the source whence the gable turrets
+of Louvain were derived. The great bells hang in the uppermost story,
+the smaller ones of the carillon in the story below. On each façade at
+the summit of the tower a great dial marks the hours, as was customary
+from the fourteenth century onwards, when town-clocks first came into
+general use.
+
+The towns of Auxerre, Beaune, Amiens, Évreux, and Avignon still
+possess their belfries.
+
+To the belfry of Amiens, which dates from the thirteenth century, a
+square dome was added some hundred years ago. But the great bell of
+the fourteenth century has been preserved.
+
+  [Illustration: 227. BELFRY OF BETHUNE (FRANCE)]
+
+  [Illustration: 228. BELFRY OF ÉVREUX]
+
+The belfry of Évreux retains its fifteenth-century character almost
+in its entirety. That of Avignon, a monument of the close of the
+fifteenth century, was happily spared when the town-hall was replaced
+by a modern structure.
+
+  [Illustration: 229. BELFRY OF AVIGNON]
+
+The gate-house of the _hôtel de ville_ at Bordeaux, known as the
+_grosse cloche_, is an example of the more ancient usage. Here we
+find the bell hung over the gateway, as already described. The belfry
+of Bordeaux, which appears to date from the fifteenth century, is
+very remarkable. It consists of two towers connected by a curtain
+through which is an arched passage. A second arch protects the great
+bell in the upper story, and the whole is surmounted by a central
+roof, flanked right and left by the conical crowns of the lateral
+turrets.
+
+  [Illustration: 230. BELFRY GATE AT BORDEAUX, KNOWN AS _LA GROSSE
+  CLOCHE_]
+
+Markets, warehouses, and exchanges were often annexes of the
+town-halls. A few examples of such buildings have been preserved, but
+those of the third class are extremely rare. A specimen, remarkable
+both for construction and decoration, which recall the Spanish
+architecture of the fourteenth century, still exists at Perpignan. It
+is a house known as _La Loge_, built in 1396, which originally served
+as exchange to the cloth merchants of French Catalonia and Roussillon.
+
+
+_Palaces._--In the Middle Ages the name palace was given to the
+dwelling of the sovereign. Its chief feature was the basilica or
+judgment-hall.
+
+The great nobles followed the royal example and constructed palaces in
+the capitals of their feofs, as at Dijon, Troyes, and Poitiers, which
+are the most important of such examples.
+
+The town-houses of archbishops and bishops were also called palaces.
+
+The courts, parliaments, and tribunals of the executive were held
+in the palace of the suzerain or the bishop, where certain of the
+buildings were open to the public. The important feature, the great
+hall (_grand salle_), occupied a vast covered space in which the
+plenary courts were held, the vassals assembled, and banquets were
+given. It communicated with galleries or ambulatories. A chapel was
+always included in the plan of the palace, which consisted of the
+lodging of the lord and his followers; offices, often of great extent;
+rooms for the storing of archives; magazines, prisons, and innumerable
+auxiliary buildings, divided by courtyards, and in some cases by
+gardens.
+
+  [Illustration: 231. CLOTH HALL AT PERPIGNAN, KNOWN AS _LA LOGE_]
+
+In Paris the palace proper, which was in the Île de la Cité, consisted
+of buildings constructed from the time of St. Louis to the reign of
+Philip the Fair. From the reign of Charles V. it was specially devoted
+to the administration of justice.
+
+The only remains of the buildings of St. Louis are the _Ste.
+Chapelle_, the two great towers with their intervening curtain on the
+_Quai de l'Horloge_, and the square clock tower at the angle of the
+quay.
+
+The best examples of seignorial castles are: Troyes, which was built
+by the Counts of Champagne, and inhabited by them till they removed
+to Provins in the thirteenth century; and the palace of the Counts of
+Poitiers at Poitiers, one of the most interesting of such buildings;
+it was burnt by the English in 1346, and repaired or rebuilt at the
+close of the fourteenth century by the brother of Charles V., Jean,
+Duke of Berry, to whom we owe, among other architectural works, the
+curious fireplace of the great vestibule, called the _Salle des Pas
+Perdus_, in the _Palais de Justice_.
+
+  [Illustration: 232. BISHOP'S PALACE AT LAON]
+
+The bishops' palaces were differently planned. They usually adjoined
+the cathedrals, with which they communicated either on the north
+or the south, according to the facilities afforded by the site.
+The characteristic symbol of episcopal power which, in the earlier
+centuries of the Middle Ages, claimed jurisdiction both in spiritual
+and temporal matters, was the great hall, in later days the synod
+house and the council chamber of the executive. The bishop's palace in
+Paris, rebuilt by Maurice de Sully in 1160, preserved this mediæval
+feature, which is even more conspicuous at Sens, in the magnificent
+annexe known as the _salle synodale_ (synod house).
+
+  [Illustration: 233. ARCHBISHOP'S PALACE AT ALBI. PLAN]
+
+The canons' lodgings were also in close proximity to the cathedral,
+but on the side opposite to the bishop's palace. They were surrounded
+by an enclosure, the gates of which were fastened at night. It was
+the duty of the canons to aid the bishop in his ministrations. They
+lived together in annexes which communicated with the cathedral by
+means of galleries and cloisters.[74]
+
+[74] See Part II., "Monastic Architecture," the cloisters of
+Puy-en-Velay and Elne in Roussillon.
+
+The bishops' palaces were often remarkable for their elaborate
+construction. Fragments of the primitive buildings are still preserved
+in the palaces of Beauvais, Angers, Bayeux, and Auxerre.
+
+  [Illustration: 234. ARCHBISHOP'S PALACE AT ALBI. GENERAL VIEW]
+
+The ancient episcopal palace of Laon[75] marks a development in
+thirteenth-century architecture. It is a good example of that system
+of construction by which the palace was connected with the city
+ramparts and formed a secondary line of defence.
+
+[75] The episcopate was transferred to Soissons in 1809.
+
+This system was also adopted at Narbonne. At the close of the
+thirteenth and during the fourteenth century the palace was
+transformed into a fortress, the importance of which bore witness
+to the power of its bishops. After Avignon, it is perhaps the most
+imposing of episcopal dwellings.
+
+From this time onward the bishops' palaces increased greatly in size,
+their dimensions extending proportionately with those of the great
+cathedrals of the period. The importance of the episcopal buildings
+and their dependencies was on a par with the wealth and power of
+their owners. Some idea of their magnificence may be gathered from
+the private chapel of the archbishop at Rheims, which dates from the
+middle of the thirteenth century.
+
+  [Illustration: 235. PALACE OF THE POPES AT AVIGNON. PLAN]
+
+The archbishop's palace at Albi has all the character of a feudal
+castle. Its buildings are protected by a keep, and encircled by walls
+and towers connected both with the ramparts of the city, and with
+that more important fortalice, the cathedral itself, the tower of
+which is, in fact, a formidable keep.[76]
+
+[76] See Part I., Cathedral of Albi, Figs. 70-73.
+
+The transformation of church and palace into fortresses by an
+elaborate system of defence was necessitated by the wars which ravaged
+the district, and from which Albi suffered more cruelly than any other
+town.
+
+The palace of the popes at Avignon which Pope Benedict XII. began to
+build in the fourteenth century, and the bishop's palace at Narbonne,
+are among the finest specimens of ecclesiastical fortification in the
+Middle Ages.[77]
+
+[77] For the Palace of the Popes, see Albert Lenoir and Viollet-le-Duc.
+
+The Popes, having established themselves at Avignon in the fourteenth
+century, built a huge mansion on the rock known as the _Rocher des
+Doms_, which overlooks the Rhone. In 1336 Benedict XII., having
+destroyed his predecessor's palace, laid the foundations of the
+immense fortified pile now in existence. The plans were the work of
+the French architect, Pierre Obrier. The building was added to by
+the successors of Benedict XII., Popes Clement VI., Innocent VI.,
+and Urban V., and was completed, or at any rate made efficient for
+defence, by 1398, when Pedro de Luna, who became pope under the title
+of Benedict XIII., sustained a memorable siege therein.
+
+The whole building, which covers a very considerable area, was
+completed in less than sixty years. Its formidable mass was further
+strengthened by the fortified _enceinte_ of the town, some three
+miles in circumference.
+
+In general conception, in the architectural skill of its construction,
+and in its tasteful decoration, the Palace of the Popes at Avignon
+bears away the palm from all contemporary buildings in Germany and
+Italy, where French influences were paramount.
+
+  [Illustration: 236. PALACE OF THE POPES AT AVIGNON. GENERAL VIEW]
+
+This noble monument is absolutely and entirely French. No finer
+combination of religious, monastic, military, and civil types could
+be desired in illustration of the art we have agreed to term _Gothic
+Architecture_, but which might be more truly entitled: _Our National
+Architecture in the Middle Ages_.
+
+Justice indeed demands this tardy homage. Our vast churches, our
+superb cathedrals, our mighty castles and palace fortresses, the
+masterpieces that fill our museums--manifestations of artistic
+power which should move us, not to servile imitation but to fruitful
+study,--all were the creations of _native_ architects.
+
+That expansive force which made our national art the great civilising
+medium of the Middle Ages was derived from our own early architects,
+civil and religious. The principles and practice of monumental art
+were carried by French architects into all countries, though the
+results of their teaching are more conspicuous in Italy and Germany
+than elsewhere. Native builders and artists established the supremacy
+of French art throughout Western Europe, and even in the East. And
+though the foreign evolution, which marked the sixteenth century, did
+indeed exercise a transient influence in France, it must be remembered
+that the way had been prepared for this apparently novel movement by
+those French artists who have carried the fame of our beloved country
+throughout the civilised world.
+
+
+                               THE END
+
+
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+                        THE SCOTTISH PAINTERS
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+   "We hope this book will find its way into the hands of all
+   young engineers. All the information has been carefully
+   gathered from all the best sources, and is therefore perfectly
+   accurate."--_Engineering Review._
+
+THE AFGHAN WARS OF 1839-1842 AND 1878-1880. By ARCHIBALD
+FORBES. With Portraits on Copper, of Sir Frederick Roberts,
+Sir George Pollock, Sir Louis Cavagnari and Sirdars, and the Ameer
+Abdurrahman; and with Maps and Plans.
+
+   "Gives a spirited account both of the earlier and later
+   campaigns in Afghanistan."--_St. James's Gazette._
+
+*THE DEVELOPMENT OF NAVIES DURING THE LAST HALF-CENTURY. By Captain
+EARDLEY WILMOT. With many Illustrations.
+
+   "An admirable summary and survey of what is, perhaps, the
+   greatest series of changes in the methods and instruments of
+   naval warfare which the world has ever witnessed in a similar
+   period of time."--_Times._
+
+
+       Of Volumes so * marked there will be no Library Edition.
+
+
+         LONDON: SEELEY & CO., LIMITED, ESSEX STREET, STRAND.
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+ 1. All obvious spelling and punctuation errors have been corrected, also
+    hyphenation and accentuation.
+
+ 2. Text in italics is shown as _text_.
+
+ 3. Superscripts are represented using the caret character, e.g. D^r.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Gothic Architecture, by Édouard Corroyer
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE ***
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+
+
+/* Transcriber's notes */
+.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA;
+    color: black;
+     font-size:smaller;
+     padding:0.5em;
+     margin-bottom:5em;
+     font-family:sans-serif, serif; }
+
+
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Gothic Architecture, by �douard Corroyer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: Gothic Architecture
+
+Author: �douard Corroyer
+
+Editor: Walter Armstrong
+
+Release Date: May 10, 2017 [EBook #54701]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by deaurider, Karin Spence and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_frontispiece_s"
+   src="images/i_frontispiece_s.png"
+   width="422"
+   height="580"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL FROM A DRAWING BY A. BRUNET-DEBAINES</p>
+   </div>
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h1 class="font">GOTHIC<br />
+<br />
+ARCHITECTURE</h1></div>
+
+<p class="center sm p4">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center lg p2">�DOUARD CORROYER</p>
+
+<p class="center xs p1">ARCHITECT TO THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT AND INSPECTOR<br />
+OF DIOCESAN EDIFICES</p>
+
+<p class="center sm p3">EDITED BY</p>
+
+<p class="center lg p2">WALTER ARMSTRONG</p>
+
+<p class="center xs p1">DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF IRELAND</p>
+
+
+<p class="center sm p4"><i>With Two Hundred and Thirty-Six Illustrations</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="center smcap p4">New York</p>
+<p class="center p1">MACMILLAN AND CO.</p>
+
+<p class="center p1">1893</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>EDITOR'S PREFACE</h2></div>
+
+<p>The following pages, which have been translated under my supervision
+by Miss Florence Simmonds, give such an account of the birth and
+evolution of Gothic Architecture as may be considered sufficient for
+a handbook. Mons. Corroyer writes, indeed, from a thoroughly French
+standpoint. He is apt to believe that everything admirable in Gothic
+architecture had a Gallic origin. Vexed questions of priority, such as
+that attaching to the choir of Lincoln, he dismisses with a phrase,
+while the larger question of French influence generally in these
+islands of ours, he solves by the simple process of referring every
+creation which takes his fancy either to a French master or a French
+example, here coming, be it said, into occasional collision with his
+own stock authority, the late Mons. Viollet-le-duc. The Chauvinistic
+tone thus given to his pages may be regretted, but, when all is
+said, it does not greatly affect their value as a picture of Gothic
+development. Mons. Corroyer confines himself in the main to broad<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span>
+principles. He travels along the line of evolution, pointing out how
+material conditions and discoveries, and their consequent social
+changes, brought about one development after another in the forms
+and methods of the architect. In a treatise so conceived, the fact
+that the field of observation is practically restricted to France,
+the few excursions beyond her frontier being made rather with a view
+to displaying the extent of her influence than with any desire for
+catholicity of grasp, is of no great moment. The English reader for
+whom this translation is intended, will get as clear a notion of how
+Gothic, as he knows it, came into being, as he would from a more
+universal survey, while he has the advantage of some echo, at least,
+of the vivacity, which inspires a Frenchman when his theme is "one of
+the Glories of France."</p>
+
+<p class="r1">W. A.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2></div>
+
+<table class="toc" summary="">
+  <tr>
+  <th></th>
+  <th></th>
+  <th class="pag">PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="left smcap" colspan="2">Introduction</td>
+     <td class="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td></td>
+     <td class="header lg">PART I</td>
+     <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td></td>
+     <td class="header2">RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE</td>
+     <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <th class="chap">CHAP.</th>
+     <th></th>
+     <th></th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">1.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Influence of the Cupola upon so-called Gothic Architecture</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">2.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Origin of the Intersecting Arch</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">3.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The First Vaults on Intersecting Arches</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">4.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Buildings Vaulted on Intersecting Arches</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">5.</td>
+    <td class="cht">The Origin of the Flying Buttress</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">6.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Churches and Cathedrals of the Twelfth and Fourteenth Centuries</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">7.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Cathedrals of the Thirteenth Century</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">8.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Cathedrals and Churches from the Twelfth to the Fourteenth Century</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">9.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Churches of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries in France and in the East</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">10.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Towers and Belfries&mdash;Choirs&mdash;Chapels</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">11.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Sculpture</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">12.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Painting</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td></td>
+     <td class="header lg">PART II</td>
+     <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td></td>
+     <td class="header2">MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></td>
+     <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">1.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Origin</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">2.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Abbeys of Cluny, Citeaux, and Clairvaux</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">3.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Abbeys and <i>Chartreuses</i> or Carthusian Monasteries</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">4.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Fortified Abbeys</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_247">247</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td></td>
+     <td class="header lg">PART III</td>
+     <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td></td>
+     <td class="header2">MILITARY ARCHITECTURE</td>
+     <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">1.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Ramparts of Towns</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">2.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Castles and Keeps</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">3.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Gates and Bridges</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td></td>
+     <td class="header lg">PART IV</td>
+     <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td></td>
+     <td class="header2">CIVIL ARCHITECTURE</td>
+     <td></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">1.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Barns, Hospitals, Houses, and "H�tels" or Townhouses of the Nobility</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="chn">2.</td>
+    <td class="cht">Town-halls, Belfries, and Palaces</td>
+    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_360">360</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2></div>
+
+<table summary="contents">
+  <tr>
+
+     <td class="left1" colspan="2">Canterbury Cathedral. By A. Brunet-Debaines</td>
+     <td class="right"><a href="#i_frontispiece_s"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="xs center nmb">FIG.</td>
+     <td></td>
+     <td class="xs right">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">1.</td>
+     <td>Plan of a cupola of the Abbey Church of St. Front at P�rigueux</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p017">17</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">2.</td>
+     <td>Pendentive of a cupola of the Abbey Church of St. Front at P�rigueux</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p018_s">18</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">3.</td>
+     <td>Diagonal section of a pendentive</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p019_s">19</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">4.</td>
+     <td>Plan of a cupola of Angoul�me or Fontevrault</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p020a">20</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">5.</td>
+     <td>Section of a bay of the cupolas of Angoul�me</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p020b_s">20</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">6.</td>
+     <td>Section of a bay in the Church of St. Avit-S�nieur</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p021a_s">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">7.</td>
+     <td>Plan of vault on intersecting arches</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p021b_s">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">8.</td>
+     <td>Section of an intersecting arch</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p022">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">9.</td>
+     <td>Plan of a bay in the nave of St. Maurice at Angers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p024">24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">10.</td>
+     <td>Transverse section of the nave of St. Maurice at Angers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p025_s">25</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">11.</td>
+     <td>Plan of a bay of the nave. Ste. Trinit�, Laval</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p026">26</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">12.</td>
+     <td>Section of two bays of the nave. Ste. Trinit�, Laval</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p027_s">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">13, 14.</td>
+     <td>Comparative sections of Churches of Angoul�me and Angers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p028a_s">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">15.</td>
+     <td>View in perspective of nave vault. St. Maurice at Angers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p029_s">29</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">16.</td>
+     <td>Plan of a summer of the nave vault. Ste. Trinit�, Laval</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p030a">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">17.</td>
+     <td>Plan of one of the nave piers. Ste. Trinit�, Laval</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p030b">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">18.</td>
+     <td>Plan of the nave, St. Maurice, Angers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p033_s">33</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">19.</td>
+     <td>Plan of La Ste. Trinit�, Angers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p034_s">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">20.</td>
+     <td>Section of a bay. Ste. Trinit�, Angers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p035_s">35</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">21.</td>
+     <td>Transverse section of a bay. Ste. Trinit�, Angers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p037_s">37</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">22.</td>
+     <td>Section of a single-aisled Church vaulted on intersecting arches with buttresses</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p038_s">38</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">23.</td>
+     <td>Section of a three-aisled Church vaulted on intersecting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span> arches with flying buttresses</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p039_s">39</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">24.</td>
+     <td>Durham Cathedral. Transverse sections</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p043_s">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">25.</td>
+     <td>Abbey Church at Noyon. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p044_s">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">26.</td>
+     <td>Transverse section of Noyon Church</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p045_s">45</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">27.</td>
+     <td>Church of Tournai, Belgium. Exterior view of north transept towards the Scheldt</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p046_s">46</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">28.</td>
+     <td>Monastery Church at Moissac. Vault of the hall known as the <i>Salle des Capitaines</i> above the porch</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p047a_s">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">29.</td>
+     <td>Church of Tournai, Belgium. Interior of north transept</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p047b_s">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">30.</td>
+     <td>Soissons Cathedral, south transept. Section of flying buttress</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p048_s">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">31.</td>
+     <td>Perspective view of south transept, Soissons Cathedral</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p049_s">49</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">32.</td>
+     <td>Cathedral of Laon. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p052_s">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">33.</td>
+     <td>Cathedral of Laon. Interior of the nave</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p054_s">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">34.</td>
+     <td>Cathedral of Laon. Main fa�ade</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p055_s">55</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">35.</td>
+     <td>Cathedral of Laon. The east end</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p057_s">57</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">36.</td>
+     <td>Cathedral of Laon. Section of the nave</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p058_s">58</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">37.</td>
+     <td>Notre Dame de Paris. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p059_s">59</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">38.</td>
+     <td>Notre Dame de Paris. Section of the nave</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p060_s">60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">39.</td>
+     <td>Notre Dame de Paris. Flying buttresses and south tower</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p061_s">61</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">40.</td>
+     <td>Sens Cathedral. Plan of a bay</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p062_s">62</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">41.</td>
+     <td>Sens Cathedral. Section of a bay of the nave</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p063_s">63</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">42.</td>
+     <td>Sens Cathedral. Interior</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p064_s">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">43.</td>
+     <td>Bourges Cathedral. Section of the nave</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p065_s">65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">44.</td>
+     <td>Rheims Cathedral. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p068_s">68</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">45.</td>
+     <td>Rheims Cathedral. Section of the nave</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p070_s">70</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">46.</td>
+     <td>Rheims Cathedral. Flying buttresses of the choir</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p071_s">71</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">47.</td>
+     <td>Amiens Cathedral. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p072_s">72</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">48.</td>
+     <td>Amiens Cathedral. Section through the nave</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p073_s">73</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">49.</td>
+     <td>Beauvais Cathedral. Apse</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p075_s">75</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">50.</td>
+     <td>Beauvais Cathedral. North front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p076_s">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">51.</td>
+     <td>Beauvais Cathedral. Transverse section</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p077_s">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">52.</td>
+     <td>Chartres Cathedral. Rose window of north transept</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p078_s">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">53.</td>
+     <td>Mans Cathedral. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p080_s">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">54.</td>
+     <td>Mans Cathedral. Flying buttresses of the apse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p081_s">81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">55.</td>
+     <td>Mans Cathedral. Section of the choir</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p082_s">82</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">56.</td>
+     <td>Coutances Cathedral. North tower</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p083_s">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">57.</td>
+     <td>Rodez Cathedral. West front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p086_s">86</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">58.</td>
+     <td>Bordeaux Cathedral. Choir and north front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p087_s">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">59.</td>
+     <td>Lichfield Cathedral. West front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p088_s">88</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">60.</td>
+     <td>Lincoln Cathedral. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p091_s">91</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">61.</td>
+     <td>Lincoln Cathedral. West front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p092_s">92</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">62.</td>
+     <td>Lincoln Cathedral. Transept</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p094_s">94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">63.</td>
+     <td>Lincoln Cathedral. Apse and chapter-house</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p095_s">95</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">64.</td>
+     <td>Brussels Cathedral (Ste. Gudule). West front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p097_s">97</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">65.</td>
+     <td>Cologne Cathedral. South front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p099_s">99</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">66.</td>
+     <td>Burgos Cathedral. West front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p101_s">101</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">67.</td>
+     <td>Cathedral or Duomo of Siena. West front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p102_s">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">68.</td>
+     <td>Church of St. Francis at Assisi. Apse and cloisters</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p103_s">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">69.</td>
+     <td>Church of St. Ouen at Rouen. Central tower and apse, south front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p106_s">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">70.</td>
+     <td>Albi Cathedral. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p108_s">108</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">71.</td>
+     <td>Albi Cathedral. Section of the nave</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p111_s">111</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">72.</td>
+     <td>Albi Cathedral. Aps</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p113_s">113</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">73.</td>
+     <td>Albi Cathedral. Donjon tower and south front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p114_s">114</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">74.</td>
+     <td>Church of Esnandes. A fortified church</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p116_s">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">75.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Flying buttresses of the choir</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p118_s">118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">76.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan of the choir</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p119_s">119</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">77.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Details of the apse</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p120_s">120</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">78.</td>
+     <td>Alen�on Cathedral. West front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p122_s">122</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">79.</td>
+     <td>Fa�ade of the Cathedral of St. Sophia. Island of Cyprus</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p123_s">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">80.</td>
+     <td>Cathedral of St. Nicholas. Island of Cyprus</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p124_s">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">81.</td>
+     <td>Cathedral of St. Nicholas. Island of Cyprus</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p126_s">126</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">82.</td>
+     <td>Church of St. Sophia. Island of Cyprus. Ruins</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p127_s">127</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">83.</td>
+     <td>Steeple, Vend�me</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p129_s">129</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">84.</td>
+     <td>Giotto's Tower at Florence</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p130_s">130</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">85.</td>
+     <td>Bayeux Cathedral. Towers of the west front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p132_s">132</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">86.</td>
+     <td>Senlis Cathedral. South tower of west front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p133_s">133</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">87.</td>
+     <td>Salisbury Cathedral. Steeple</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p135_s">135</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">88.</td>
+     <td>Church of Langrune (Calvados). Steeple<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p136_s">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">89.</td>
+     <td>Church of the Jacobins at Toulouse. Tower</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p138_s">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">90.</td>
+     <td>Church of St. Pierre at Caen. Tower</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p140_s">140</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">91.</td>
+     <td>Church of St. Michel at Bordeaux. Tower</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p141_s">141</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">92.</td>
+     <td>Cathedral of Freiburg-im-Breisgau</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p142_s">142</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">93.</td>
+     <td>Antwerp Cathedral</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p143_s">143</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">94.</td>
+     <td>Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p154_s">154</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">95.</td>
+     <td>Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p155_s">155</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">96.</td>
+     <td>Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p156_s">156</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">97.</td>
+     <td>Rheims Cathedral. Principal door. Statue and ornament</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p157_s">157</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">98.</td>
+     <td>Rheims Cathedral. Principal door. Statue and ornament</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p158_s">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">99.</td>
+     <td>Notre Dame de Paris. Principal door. Running leaf pattern</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p159_s">159</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">100.</td>
+     <td>Notre Dame de Paris. Principal door. Running leaf pattern</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p160_s">160</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">101.</td>
+     <td>Chartres Cathedral. Statues of north porch</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p161_s">161</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">102.</td>
+     <td>Chartres Cathedral. Statues of south porch</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p162_s">162</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">103.</td>
+     <td>Amiens Cathedral. Central porch of west front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p163_s">163</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">104.</td>
+     <td>Amiens Cathedral. Statues in the south porch</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p164_s">164</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">105.</td>
+     <td>Amiens Cathedral. Choir stalls. Carved ornament</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p165_s">165</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">106.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Ornament of cloisters</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p166_s">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">107.</td>
+     <td>Wooden Statuette (thirteenth century). <i>Ateliers</i> of La Chaise Dieu, Auvergne</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p167_s">167</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">108, 108<i>a</i>.</td>
+     <td>Two ivory statuettes. School of Paris</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p168_s">168</a>,
+                     <a href="#i_p169_s">169</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">109.</td>
+     <td>Wooden Statuette (fourteenth century). School of Paris</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p170_s">170</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">110, 110<i>a</i>.</td>
+     <td>Two ivory diptychs (fourteenth century). School of the Ile-de-France</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p171a_s">171</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">111, 111<i>a</i>.</td>
+     <td>Ivory diptych and plaque (fourteenth century). School of the Ile-de-France</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p172_s">172</a>,
+                     <a href="#i_p173_s">173</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">112.</td>
+     <td>Head in silver gilt repouss�. <i>Ateliers</i> of the Goldsmith's Guild of Paris</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p174_s">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">113.</td>
+     <td>Group carved in wood (fifteenth century). School of Antwerp</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p175_s">175</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">114.</td>
+     <td>Wooden statuette, painted and gilded (fifteenth century)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p176_s">176</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">115.</td>
+     <td>Wooden statuette, painted and gilded (sixteenth century)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p177_s">177</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">116.</td>
+     <td>Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. Horizontal projection of the cupola</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p180_s">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">117.</td>
+     <td>Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. One of the prophets in the cupola<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p182_s">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">118.</td>
+     <td>Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. Fragment of central frieze of cupola</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p184_s">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">119, 120.</td>
+     <td>Painted windows of the early twelfth century. From St. R�mi, Rheims</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p187_s">187</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">121.</td>
+     <td>Painted window of the twelfth century. Church of Bonlieu, Creuse</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p188_s">188</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">122.</td>
+     <td>Painted window of the thirteenth century. Chartres Cathedral</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p189_s">189</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">123.</td>
+     <td>Painted window of the thirteenth century. Chartres Cathedral</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p190_s">190</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">124.</td>
+     <td>Painted window of the thirteenth century. Church of St. Germer, Troyes</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p191_s">191</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">125.</td>
+     <td>Painted windows of the fourteenth century. Church of St. Urbain, Troyes</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p193_s">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">126.</td>
+     <td>Painted glass of the fourteenth century. Cathedral of Ch�lons-sur-Marne</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p194_s">194</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">127.</td>
+     <td>Painted window of the fifteenth century. �vreux Cathedral</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p195_s">195</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">128.</td>
+     <td>Enamel of the eleventh century. Plaque cover of a MS.</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p196_s">196</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">129.</td>
+     <td>Enamel of the thirteenth century. Plaque cover of an Evangelium</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p198_s">198</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">130.</td>
+     <td>Enamel of the twelfth century. Reliquary shrine of St. Thomas � Becket</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p199_s">199</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">131.</td>
+     <td>Enamel of the sixteenth century. Our Lady of Sorrows</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p200_s">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">132.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Cloister (thirteenth century)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p206_s">206</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">133.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Cluny. Gateway</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p216_s">216</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">134.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Cluny. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p219_s">219</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">135.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Cluny. Door of the Abbey Church</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p221_s">221</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">136.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of St. �tienne at Caen. Fa�ade</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p228_s">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">137.</td>
+     <td>St. Alban's Abbey (England)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p230_s">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">138.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Montmajour. Cloisters</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p231_s">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">139.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Elne. Cloisters</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p232_s">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">140.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Fontfroide. Cloisters</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p233_s">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">141.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Maulbronn (Wurtemberg). Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p235_s">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">142.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Fontevrault. Kitchen</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p236_s">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">143.</td>
+     <td>Cathedral of Puy-en-Velay. Cloisters</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p237_s">237</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">144.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of La Chaise Dieu (Auvergne). Cloisters</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p239_s">239</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">145.</td>
+     <td><i>Chartreuse</i> of Villefranche de Rouergue. Plan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span></td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p242_s">242</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">146.</td>
+     <td><i>Chartreuse</i> of Villefranche de Rouergue. Bird's-eye view</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p243_s">243</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">147.</td>
+     <td><i>Grande Chartreuse.</i> The Great Cloister</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p244_s">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">148.</td>
+     <td><i>Grande Chartreuse.</i> General View</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p245_s">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">149.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. General View</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p248_s">248</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">150.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the entrance</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p249_s">249</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">151.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the lower church</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p250_s">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">152.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the upper church</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p252_s">252</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">153.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Section from north to south</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p253_s">253</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">154.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Section from west to east</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p254_s">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">155.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Crypt known as the <i>Galerie de l'Aquilon</i></td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p256_s">256</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">156.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. North front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p257_s">257</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">157.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The almonry</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p258_s">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">158.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. A tympanum of the cloisters</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p259_s">259</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">159.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The cellar</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p260_s">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">160.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Refectory</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p262_s">262</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">161.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Hall of the knights</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p263_s">263</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">162.</td>
+     <td>St. Michael's Mount, Cornwall</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p264_s">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">163.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Gate-house</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p270_s">270</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">164.</td>
+     <td>City of Carcassonne. South-east ramparts</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p273_s">273</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">165.</td>
+     <td>City of Carcassonne. North-west ramparts</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p274_s">274</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">166.</td>
+     <td>Fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn. Section</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p277_s">277</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">166<i>a</i>.</td>
+     <td>Fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn. General view</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p278_s">278</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">167.</td>
+     <td>City of Carcassonne. Plan of the thirteenth century</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p279_s">279</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">168.</td>
+     <td>City of Carcassonne. Ramparts, south-west angle</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p280_s">280</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">169.</td>
+     <td>Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes, north and south</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p281_s">281</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">170.</td>
+     <td>Ramparts of Avignon. Curtain and towers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p282_s">282</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">170<i>a</i>.</td>
+     <td>Machicolations</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p283_s">283</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">171.</td>
+     <td>Ramparts of St. Malo</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p284_s">284</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">172.</td>
+     <td>Mont St. Michel. South front</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p287_s">287</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">173.</td>
+     <td>Mont St. Michel. As restored on paper</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p288_s">288</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">174.</td>
+     <td>Castle of Angers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p292_s">292</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">175.</td>
+     <td>Carcassonne. Citadel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span></td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p293_s">293</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">176.</td>
+     <td>Loches Castle. Keep</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p294_s">294</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">177.</td>
+     <td>Falaise Castle. Keep</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p297_s">297</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">178.</td>
+     <td>Lavardin Castle. Keep</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p298_s">298</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">179.</td>
+     <td>Keep of Aigues-Mortes</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p299_s">299</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">180.</td>
+     <td>Provins Castle. Keep</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p300_s">300</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">181.</td>
+     <td>Castle, Chinon</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p302_s">302</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">182.</td>
+     <td>Castle, Clisson. Keep</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p303_s">303</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">183.</td>
+     <td>Castle. Villeneuve-les-Avignon</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p304_s">304</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">184.</td>
+     <td>Castle of Tarascon</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p305_s">305</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">185.</td>
+     <td>Vitr� Castle</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p307_s">307</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">186.</td>
+     <td>City of Carcassonne. Castle gate</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p310_s">310</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">187.</td>
+     <td>City of Carcassonne. Gate of the Lists</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p312_s">312</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">188.</td>
+     <td>City of Carcassonne. Gate known as the <i>Porte Narbonaise</i></td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p313_s">313</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">189.</td>
+     <td>Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes. Drawbridge</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p314_s">314</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">190.</td>
+     <td>Ramparts of Dinan. Gate known as the <i>Porte de Jerzual</i></td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p315_s">315</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">191.</td>
+     <td>Vitr� Castle. Gate-house</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p317_s">317</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">192.</td>
+     <td>Ramparts of Gu�rande. Gate known as the <i>Porte St. Michel</i></td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p318_s">318</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">193.</td>
+     <td>Ramparts of Mont St. Michel. Gateway known as the <i>Porte du Roi</i></td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p320_s">320</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">194.</td>
+     <td>Entrance to the Port of La Rochelle</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p322_s">322</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">195.</td>
+     <td>Bridge at Avignon</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p323_s">323</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">196.</td>
+     <td>Bridge of Montauban</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p325_s">325</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">197.</td>
+     <td>Bridge of Cahor</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p326_s">326</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">198.</td>
+     <td>Bridge of Orthez</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p327_s">327</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">199.</td>
+     <td>Fortified bridge. Mont St. Michel</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p328_s">328</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">200.</td>
+     <td>Town-hall at St. Antonin (Tarn et Garonne)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p334_s">334</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">201.</td>
+     <td>Barn at Perri�res (Calvados)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p335_s">335</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">201<i>a</i>.</td>
+     <td>Barn at Perri�res (Calvados). Section</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p336a_s">336</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">201<i>b</i>.</td>
+     <td>Barn at Perri�res (Calvados). Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p336b">336</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">202.</td>
+     <td>Tithe-barn at Provins</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p337_s">337</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">203.</td>
+     <td>Granary of the Abbey of Vauclair</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p338_s">338</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">204.</td>
+     <td>Hospital of St. John, Angers</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p339_s">339</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">205.</td>
+     <td>Abbey of Ourscamps (Oise)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p340_s">340</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">206.</td>
+     <td>Lazar-house at Tortoir (Aisne)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p341_s">341</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">207.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span></td>
+     <td>Hospital at Tonnerre. Section</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p343_s">343</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">208, 208<i>a</i>.</td>
+     <td>Houses at Cluny</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p347_s">347</a>,
+                     <a href="#i_p348_s">348</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">209, 210.</td>
+     <td>Houses at Vitteaux and at St. Antonin</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p349_s">349</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">211, 212.</td>
+     <td>Houses at Provins and at Laon</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p350_s">350</a>,
+                     <a href="#i_p351_s">351</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">213.</td>
+     <td>House at Cordes. Albigeois</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p352_s">352</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">214.</td>
+     <td>House at Mont St. Michel</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p354_s">354</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">215, 216.</td>
+     <td>Wooden houses at Rouen and at Andelys</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p355_s">355</a>,
+                     <a href="#i_p356_s">356</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">217.</td>
+     <td>H�tel Lallemand at Bourges</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p357_s">357</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">218.</td>
+     <td>Jacques C&#339;ur's house at Bourges</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p358_s">358</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">219.</td>
+     <td>Town-hall of Pienza, Italy</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p361_s">361</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">220.</td>
+     <td>Town-hall and belfry at Ypres</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p363_s">363</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">221.</td>
+     <td>Market and belfry at Bruges</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p365_s">365</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">222.</td>
+     <td>Town-hall of Bruges</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p366_s">366</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">223.</td>
+     <td>Town-hall at Louvain</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p368_s">368</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">224.</td>
+     <td>Belfry of Tournai (Belgium)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p370_s">370</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">225.</td>
+     <td>Belfry of Ghent (Belgium)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p371_s">371</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">226.</td>
+     <td>Belfry at Calais (France)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p374_s">374</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">227.</td>
+     <td>Belfry of B�thune (France)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p376_s">376</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">228.</td>
+     <td>Belfry of �vreux (France)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p377_s">377</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">229.</td>
+     <td>Belfry of Avignon (France)</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p378_s">378</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">230.</td>
+     <td>Belfry gate known as <i>La Grosse Cloche</i>, Bordeaux</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p379_s">379</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">231.</td>
+     <td>Cloth hall known as <i>La Loge</i>, Perpignan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p381_s">381</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">232.</td>
+     <td>Bishop's Palace at Laon</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p382_s">382</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">233.</td>
+     <td>Archbishop's Palace at Albi. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p383_s">383</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">234.</td>
+     <td>Archbishop's Palace at Albi. General view</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p384_s">384</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">235.</td>
+     <td>Palace of the Popes at Avignon. Plan</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p385_s">385</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+     <td class="nmb">236.</td>
+     <td>Palace of the Popes at Avignon. General view</td>
+     <td class="pag"><a href="#i_p387_s">387</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="center xxl">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE</p>
+
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2></div>
+
+<p>The term <i>Gothic</i>, as applied to the architectural period dating from
+the middle of the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century, is
+purely conventional.</p>
+
+<p>The expression is clearly misleading as indicating the architecture
+of the Goths or Visigoths; for these tribes were vanquished by Clovis
+in the sixth century, and left no monumental trace of their invasion.
+Hence, their influence upon art was <i>nil</i>. The term is radically
+false both from the historical and the arch�ological point of view,
+and originates in an error which demands the strenuous opposition
+due to persistent fallacies. By a strange irony of fate the term
+<i>Gothic</i>, used in the last century merely as the opprobrious synonym
+of <i>barbaric</i>, has been specialised within the last sixty years in
+connection with that polished epoch of the Middle Ages which sheds
+most lustre upon our national art. And this, in spite of its Germanic
+origin.</p>
+
+<p>Romanesque architecture, or to be exact, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> architecture which,
+by virtue of the arch�ologic convention of 1825, we agree to label
+Romanesque, undoubtedly borrowed its essential elements from the
+Romans and Byzantines, modifying and perfecting them by the genius
+of Western Europe; but the architectural period which began in the
+middle of the twelfth century, and is so unjustly dubbed <i>Gothic</i>, was
+of purely French birth; its cradle was the nucleus of modern France.
+Aquitaine, Anjou, and Maine were the provinces in which it first took
+root. The royal domain, and notably the Ile-de-France, witnessed its
+most marvellous developments, and it was from the very heart of France
+that its splendour radiated throughout Europe.</p>
+
+<p>But the tyranny of usage leaves us no choice as to the title of this
+volume. We are compelled to style it <i>Gothic Architecture</i>, though we
+would gladly have registered our protest by naming it <i>French Medi�val
+Architecture</i>.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> This idea, which has recently found support in quarters
+which might have been considered free from such <i>chauvinism</i>, is based
+upon a narrow and peculiarly modern view of art. Art activities in
+the Middle Ages were as instinctive and unconscious as speech. The
+forms of architecture were invented and elaborated much in the same
+way as language. For the purpose of the historian of architecture,
+the northern half of France, the three southern quarters of Great
+Britain, and the districts threaded by the Rhine, form a single
+country, a single <i>foyer</i> of art. They all pressed on from similar
+starting-points to similar goals; and if the French went ahead in
+one direction, they fell astern in another. It may be allowed that,
+on the whole, the architects of the <i>Ile-de-France</i> did better than
+their rivals. Gothic architecture is pre-eminently logical, and
+logic is pre-eminently the artistic gift of the Frenchman. So that
+its more scientific development in the "French royal domain" was
+only to be expected. That success of this kind gives a right to
+call the whole development "French medi�val architecture" cannot be
+allowed.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></span></p></div>
+
+<p>The term <i>Gothic</i> is, however, purely arbitrary, as is also that
+of <i>pointed</i>, which has been introduced by writers who admit the
+principle of the broken arch as the characteristic of so-called Gothic
+architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The broken or pointed arch, which is formed by the intersection of
+two opposite curves at an angle more or less acute, was known to
+architects long before its systematic application. It occurs in
+buildings of the ninth century in Cairo, and was used prior to this
+in Armenia, and still earlier in Persia, where indeed it superseded
+all other forms of span from the times of the last of the Sassanides
+onwards. It is an expedient which gives increased power of resistance
+to the arch by diminishing its lateral thrusts.</p>
+
+<p>The pointed arch is a form which admits of infinite variations. The
+one law which governs its construction is expediency. It frankly
+abandons those rules of classic proportion which are the canons, so
+to speak, of the round-headed arch. Thus we shall find the pointed
+approximating to the round-headed form in the twelfth century, only
+to diverge from it more widely than before, till, towards the close
+of the thirteenth and throughout the fourteenth century, it took on
+the acute proportions necessitated by a perilous disposition to prefer
+loftiness to solidity.</p>
+
+<p>Fundamentally, it is of little moment whether the architecture of the
+twelfth to the sixteenth century be termed Gothic or pointed, when
+we recognise these terms as equally inexact. The point to be really
+insisted upon is that the filiation we have already demonstrated in
+our book on Romanesque Architecture continued slowly, but surely, in
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> wake of civilisation, of which architecture is ever one of the
+most striking manifestations.</p>
+
+<p>So-called Gothic architecture was not the product of a single
+generation; it was the continuous logical development of the
+Romanesque movement, just as the latter in its time had been the
+outcome of a gradual adaptation of old traditions to new-born
+exigencies. Thus our Aquitainian forbears, by their successful
+translation into stone of the eastern cupola, prepared the way for
+the groined vault, the embryo of which is clearly traceable in the
+pendentives of the dome at St. Front.</p>
+
+<p>The great churches which, towards the middle of the twelfth century,
+rose throughout the rich Western provinces that cluster about
+Aquitaine, were all constructed with groined vaults. In these examples
+we can discern no halting, tentative application of newly adopted
+principles. The work is that of consummate architects, who brought
+to their labours the assurance born of experienced skill, and in the
+later part of the twelfth century, the new system had replaced all
+others for the construction of vaults throughout Western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The architects of the royal domain, and notably those of the
+Ile-de-France, had been the first to adopt the groined vault. Towards
+the close of the twelfth century their assimilation of the new
+principles, their native ingenuity, and professional hardihood alike
+urged them to its further development. They became the inventors of
+the flying buttress.</p>
+
+<p>The substitution of the groined vault for its parent, the cupola,
+was the direct consequence of the old tradition. The development
+was merely a stage in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> the march of ideas, a consummation logically
+arrived at in the track which the Romans, constructors not less
+bold though more prudent than their artistic progeny, had marked
+out for them. The groined vault, in short, is simply the growth
+of Roman principles perfected by continuous experiment. But the
+flying buttress, or rather the system of construction based on its
+use, caused a radical change in the art of building of the twelfth
+century. Stability, which in the ancient buildings was ensured by
+solid masses at the impost of vaults and arches, was replaced by the
+balance of parts. From this daring system some of the most marvellous
+of architectural effects have been won; but the innovation had a
+dangerous inherent weakness, inasmuch as it involved the exterior
+position of those essential vital organs for whose preservation the
+ancients had wisely provided, by keeping them within the building.</p>
+
+<p>It is therefore not surprising that though fifty years after its
+introduction the groined vault was generally adopted throughout
+Western Europe, and even in the East, the success of the flying
+buttress was infinitely more gradual and restricted. Thus, in the
+North, the multiplication of great religious monuments built, or even
+rebuilt on the new lines, was simultaneous with the construction in
+the South of vast churches on the old principles. The adventurous
+builders of the North had eagerly adopted the new division of churches
+into several aisles, all with groined vaults, the vault of the great
+central nave relying upon exterior flying buttresses for resistance to
+its thrust.</p>
+
+<p>In the South, on the other hand, architects were prudent, either
+through instinctive resistance to, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> deliberate reaction from, the
+innovating influence, or by way of fidelity to an ancient tradition.
+They built with a single aisle, wide and lofty; the vaults were
+indeed supported by ribs, but their thrusts were received by powerful
+buttresses inside the walls, the projections thus formed being further
+utilised for the construction of chapels in the intervals.</p>
+
+<p>This latter system, which has the incontestable merit of perfect
+solidity, recalls the construction of the Basilica of Constantine,
+or of the tepidarium in the Baths of Caracalla. The stability of the
+edifice was ensured by the resistance of masses at the imposts, and
+the whole principle of construction formed, as it were, a protest
+against the miracles of equilibrium so much in favour among the
+Northerners.</p>
+
+<p>The new system of vaults supported by flying buttresses made
+very slight way in the South. It appears but rarely, and in the
+few instances where it is used has entirely the air of a foreign
+importation. Even in the cradle of its origin, it took root slowly
+and with difficulty, for its first applications were not without
+disaster. Lacking that mathematical knowledge which is the mainstay
+of the modern architect, the experimental skill shown by the
+thirteenth-century builder in constructing his vaults, and then
+in neutralising their thrusts by flying buttresses reduced to
+the legitimate function of permanent struts, was little short of
+miraculous. For it must be borne in mind that the thrust of these
+vaults, and the strength of the flying buttresses, varied of necessity
+according to their span, and the resisting powers of their materials.
+It was only by dint of long gropings in the dark that the necessarily
+empirical formul�<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> of the innovators were gradually transformed into
+recognised rules, and this knotty problem of construction received
+no positive solution till the last years of the thirteenth, or more
+emphatically, the first years of the fourteenth century. While even
+then the solution could claim no universal acceptance, for what was
+comparatively easy in countries where stone abounds became difficult,
+if not impossible, in districts where such a material as brick was the
+sole resource of builders.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the growth of Gothic architecture was rapid, so rapid
+that even in the fourteenth century it began to show symptoms of that
+swift decadence which is the Nemesis of facile success. The abuse of
+equilibrium, the excessive diminution of points of support&mdash;defects
+often aggravated by insecurity of foundation and exaggerated loftiness
+of structure&mdash;the poor quality of materials, and the faulty setting
+thereof due to empirical methods, the over-rapidity of execution
+caused by mistaken emulation, the dearth of funds consequent on
+social and political convulsions complicated by the miseries of
+war,&mdash;all these things joined hands for the extinction of a once
+resplendent art. But the initial cause of its ruin must be sought in
+its abandonment of antique traditions. These traditions had persisted
+uninterruptedly throughout the so-called Romanesque period, only to
+pave the way for a seductive art in novel form, which, casting aside
+the trammels of the past in obedience to the dictates of the moment,
+fell on decay as rapidly as it had risen to eminence. Dawning in the
+France of Louis the Fat, it reached its apogee under St.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> Louis, and
+was in full decadence before the close of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The narrow limits assigned to us forbid not only detailed discussion
+of our great monuments, but even a summary of the most famous. We must
+be content to work out that theory of evolution already put forward by
+us in <i>L'Architecture Romane</i>. We propose merely to offer a synthesis
+of that architectural development which succeeded the so-called
+Romanesque epoch, from its birth in the twelfth to its extinction in
+the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>And as the groined vault is, broadly speaking, the essential
+characteristic of so-called Gothic architecture, and the flying
+buttress one of its most interesting manifestations, we shall make
+a special study of their origin, their modifications, and their
+principal applications in connection with religious, monastic,
+military, and civil architecture. We shall dwell more particularly
+upon religious architecture as presenting the grandest and most
+obvious evidences of artistic progress, not in its admirable buildings
+alone, but in those masterpieces of painting and sculpture to which it
+gave birth in France.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PART I<br />
+    <span class="smaller">RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE</span></h2></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">THE INFLUENCE OF THE CUPOLA UPON SO-CALLED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE</span></h3></div>
+
+<blockquote>
+
+<p><i>The cupola, in its symbolic aspect, was the germ, whence sprang
+an architectural system the revolutionary action of which upon
+art can scarcely be over-estimated.</i><a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>L'Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Quantin, Paris,
+1888.</p></div>
+
+<p>So-called Gothic architecture was no spontaneous and miraculous
+manifestation. Like all human activities, its end is easy to
+determine; but it is difficult to fix even an approximate date for
+its beginning. The traces of its origin are lost in that period of
+architectural activity which preceded it, and prepared its way by a
+train of unbroken evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The cupola of St. Front, which we may reasonably call the mother
+cupola of France, was not an imitation of that of St. Mark at
+Venice, for both were based upon the church built by Justinian at
+Constantinople, in honour of the Holy Apostles. But the form thus
+imported into Aquitaine received such modification and development, as
+to make it virtually an original achievement. One of the knottiest of
+architectural problems was solved in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> process, and that admirable
+constructive principle was established which consists in concentrating
+the thrust of a vault upon four points of support strengthened by
+pendentives.</p>
+
+<p>The construction of such a cupola as that of St. Front in dressed
+stone was an event of great moment in a district which still preserved
+the Gallo-Roman tradition in its integrity, and was commonly reputed
+the fatherland of our architecture. Its immediate consequences were
+shown before the close of the eleventh century by the erection of
+large abbey churches on the model of St. Front in various neighbouring
+provinces.</p>
+
+<p>But while accepting the new principle, the architects of the period
+directed their energies to its perfectibility. Their efforts, and
+even their successes, in this direction are manifest so early as the
+first years of the twelfth century. The churches of Angoul�me and
+of Fontevrault may be cited in proof. "We here recognise the main
+preoccupation of the Romanesque builders&mdash;namely, how best to reduce
+the immense masses of churches built with the primitive cupola by a
+more deliberate and judicious distribution of thrust and resistance.
+We further see how the adoption of these principles led to the
+emphasising of critical points by buttresses, which now began to
+project from the exterior walls."<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>L'Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Quantin, Paris,
+1888.</p></div>
+
+<p>The new system spread rapidly, notably in Anjou and Maine, its growth
+being marked by an ever-increasing refinement and perfection. The
+architects of the rich abbeys of these provinces, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> importance of
+which was aggrandised by their strong attachments to the all-powerful
+religious organisation of the period, gave a further development
+to the Aquitainian method. They transformed the pendentives of the
+cupolas into independent arches which performed exactly the same
+functions, thus logically working out an architectonic principle of
+amazing simplicity, the success of which was so rapid that, by the
+middle of the twelfth century, it was systematically applied to the
+construction of great churches at Angers, Laval, and Poitiers.</p>
+
+<p>The works of the Angevin architects were of course known to their
+Northern brethren, who, in common with all the builders of the day,
+had long been seeking the final solution of the great problem of
+the vault. The architects of the Ile-de-France at once appropriated
+the Angevin system with that special professional ingenuity which
+characterised them, and applied it to the construction of innumerable
+churches, large and small, all of them built on the basilican
+plan&mdash;that is to say, with three, or even five aisles.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Aquitainian cupola of dressed stone exercised an absolutely
+direct influence upon Gothic architecture, since it gave birth to the
+<i>intersecting arch</i>, which is the main feature of so-called Gothic.
+This influence was first manifested in the general arrangement of
+single-aisled churches vaulted upon intersecting ribs, the earliest
+departure from the original cupola. It was then more grandiosely
+demonstrated in vast abbey or cathedral churches, built in accordance
+with the basilican tradition, and all vaulted on the new principle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Angers and Laval are primitive examples of churches whose square
+compartments carry groined vaults, which thenceforth took the place of
+cupolas with pendentives.</p>
+
+<p>The abbey church of Noyon shows the application of this principle,
+novel in the twelfth century, to the several-aisled churches of the
+Northern architects. The <i>original</i> vaults of Noyon<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> were planned in
+square. The intersecting arches united the principal piers diagonally,
+the strain being relieved by a subordinate or auxiliary arch which
+rested upon secondary piers, indicated on the exterior by buttresses
+less salient than those of the main piers, and on the interior by a
+column receiving the lateral archivolts which united the chief piers.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> The original disposition of the vaults built about
+1160 is indicated by the spring of the arches above the capitals,
+and by the base plan of the principal piers. The present vaults on
+rectangular plan were built after the fire of 1238, in accordance with
+prevailing fashions.</p></div>
+
+<p>This system of construction, the principle of which was logically
+developed at Noyon, for instance, no longer exists, save in its
+traditional state in the great churches of Laon, and in the cathedrals
+of Paris, Sens, and Bourges, to name but the principal, without regard
+to the innumerable churches built on these principles throughout
+Western Europe. In these great buildings the vaults were all square on
+plan down to the adoption in the first half of the thirteenth century
+of equal bays, vaulted on a rectangular plan, and marked inside and
+out by equal piers and projections, as at Amiens, Rheims, and many
+other churches of the period.</p>
+
+<p>Hence we see how incontestable was the influence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> of the cupola
+upon so-called Gothic architecture. This truth is demonstrated by
+monuments yet in existence, lapidary documents above suspicion. It
+cannot be insisted upon too strongly, not merely for the satisfaction
+of arch�eologic accuracy, but more especially as yet another proof
+that the filiation between the art of the ancients and that of the
+so-called Romanesque architects is no less evident than that which
+links together the Romanesque and the so-called Gothic. Of this latter
+filiation we have a direct proof in the Aquitainian cupola, the parent
+of those of Angoumois, which in their turn gave birth to the Angevin
+intersecting arch, and so prepared the way for the flying buttress,
+which again was to mark a new departure.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">THE ORIGIN OF THE INTERSECTING VAULT</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>So early as the eleventh century churches were built with one or
+several aisles, and in this latter case the side aisles only had
+ribbed vaults, the nave being covered by a timber roof. The next step
+was to vault all three aisles, buttressing the barrel-vaulted nave by
+continuous half-barrel vaults or ribbed vaults over the aisles, and
+further strengthening it by projecting transverse arches, or <i>arcs
+doubleaux</i>, the whole being crowned by a roof which embraced the side
+aisles. These cumbrous and timidly constructed buildings were merely
+imitations of the Roman basilicas. To ensure their solidity they had
+perforce to be narrow; and the necessary abolition of top lighting
+made them gloomy. We find then that, before the appearance of the
+cupola, medi�val architects were perfectly acquainted both with the
+barrel vault and the ribbed vault, the latter formed, on traditional
+principles, by the interpenetration of two demi-cylinders. They had
+even attempted to improve upon the construction by strengthening the
+line of penetration with a salient rib, giving an elliptic arch. But
+this rib was purely decorative, for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> in the Roman vault the stones
+at the line of intersection, whether ribbed or not, were in complete
+solidarity with the filling on either side in which they were buried.</p>
+
+<p>It follows that we shall seek in vain in the Roman ribbed vault the
+germ of the intersecting arch, with its essentially active functions.</p>
+
+<p>For the origin of the intersecting arch we must turn to the eleventh
+century. We shall find it in the dressed stone cupola of St. Front,
+and more especially in its pendentives.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#i_p017">Fig. 1</a> gives the plan of one of the cupolas of St. Front. It is
+composed of four massive transverse arches, the thrusts of which are
+received upon four piers united by pendentives (Figs. <a href="#i_p018_s">2</a> and <a href="#i_p019_s">3</a>) passing
+from the re-entering angles at the spring of the arches to the base
+of the circular dome itself, each of the concentric courses bearing
+upon the keys of the <i>arcs-doubleaux</i>, and transmitting to them, and
+therefore to the piers by which they are supported, the weight of the
+cupola itself.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p017"
+   src="images/i_p017.png"
+   width="310"
+   height="350"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm"> 1. PLAN OF A CUPOLA OF THE ABBEY CHURCH OF ST. FRONT AT P�RIGUEUX</p>
+   </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p018_s"
+   src="images/i_p018_s.png"
+   width="425"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">2. PENDENTIVE (MARKED A) OF A CUPOLA OF THE ABBEY CHURCH OF ST. FRONT</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2"><a href="#i_p019_s">Fig. 3</a> is a section through one of the pendentives of St. Front,
+following the line A B in <a href="#i_p017">Fig. 1</a>. It<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> shows that the first six courses
+are cut so as to make what is called a <i>tas de charg�</i>; the upper
+surfaces are horizontal, the faces curved to the radius of the dome
+itself. After the sixth course the voussoirs are cut normally to the
+curve of the arch. The vaulting of religious buildings having long
+been the crux of medi�val architects, the construction of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> the St.
+Front cupolas must have been an event much noised abroad, for towards
+the close of the eleventh century a large number of churches with
+cupolas were built in imitation of the mother church at P�rigueux.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p019_s"
+   src="images/i_p019_s.png"
+   width="328"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">3. SECTION OF A PENDENTIVE ON THE DIAGONAL A TO B IN PLAN, FIG. 1</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The construction of the churches of Angoul�me and Fontevrault in the
+first years of the twelfth century shows that the architects were
+attempting to cover spaces of ever-increasing span on the Aquitainian
+model, while at the same time they set themselves to lighten their
+vaults, and consequently to reduce their points of support.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#i_p020a">Fig. 4</a> gives the plan of one of the cupolas of Angoul�me or of
+Fontevrault, both being built on precisely similar plan, with the
+exception of the number of bays to the nave.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:453px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p020a"
+   src="images/i_p020a.png"
+   width="453"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">4. PLAN OF A CUPOLA OF ANGOUL�ME OR FONTEVRAULT</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2"><a href="#i_p020b_s">Fig. 5</a> gives the section of a bay in one of these churches, and
+illustrates the considerable difference<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> already existing between
+the mother cupola of St. Front and its offspring. The cupola on
+pendentives begins to show a certain attenuation, and we shall
+presently note a fresh step forward towards the solution of that
+problem so persistently grappled with by the medi�val architect&mdash;how
+to reduce the weight of the vault.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:500px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p020b_s"
+   src="images/i_p020b_s.png"
+   width="500"
+   height="490"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">5. SECTION OF A BAY OF THE CUPOLAS OF ANGOUL�ME</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Church of St. Avit-S�nieur furnishes a most instructive example.</p>
+
+<p>The cupola of this building is strengthened by stiffening ribs. It
+becomes an annular vault, formed of almost horizontal keyed courses,
+sustained by transverse and diagonal ribs, which act the part of a
+permanent centering.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Church of St. Pierre at Saumur marks a further step onwards in the
+construction of vaults derived from the cupola.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>L'Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p021a_s"
+   src="images/i_p021a_s.png"
+   width="445"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">6. SECTION OF A BAY IN THE CHURCH OF ST. AVIT-S�NIEUR</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p>Finally, the architects of Maine and Anjou achieved the long-desired
+consummation. Under their treatment the pendentives resolved
+themselves into their actively useful elements, the visible signs of
+which were diagonal or intersecting arches, salient and independent,
+set in precisely the same manner as the pendentives of the cupola
+(<a href="#i_p019_s">Fig. 3</a>), and performing identical functions (<a href="#i_p022">Fig. 8</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:512px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p021b_s"
+   src="images/i_p021b_s.png"
+   width="512"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">7. PLAN OF VAULT ON INTERSECTING ARCHES</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The vault proper is no longer formed of concentric courses, as in the
+mother cupola. It consists thenceforward of voussoirs cut normally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> to
+the curve, and filling the triangles (A, B, C, D, <a href="#i_p021b_s">Fig. 7</a>) determined
+by the longitudinal, the diagonal or intersecting, and the transverse
+arches. These arches form a stone skeleton, no less solid though far
+less ponderous than the cupola pendentives, and sustain the vault by
+distributing its thrusts over four points of support.</p>
+
+<p>The triangular fillings no longer imprison the ribs, or, more exactly
+speaking, the intersecting arches, nor do they any longer neutralise
+their active functions. These fillings, on the other hand, have, like
+the intersecting arch, gained a new independence. They now contribute
+to the elasticity of the divers organs of the vault, a most essential
+element in its solidity. The peculiar arrangement of the intersecting
+arches in the nave of Angers gives incontrovertible proof of the
+direct filiation of this building to the Aquitainian cupola. The
+voussoirs of the intersecting arches are about equal in horizontal
+section to those of the transverse arches, while their vertical
+section equals the thickness of the filling plus the internal salience
+which marks their function. They look in fact like slices cut from
+the pendentives of a cupola (A, <a href="#i_p022">Fig. 8</a>).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> It must be remarked, too,
+that at Angers the stones of the filling do not yet rest upon the
+extrados of the ribs, in the fashion adopted some years later in the
+Ile-de-France and elsewhere (see B, <a href="#i_p022">Fig. 8</a>), but embrace them (as at
+A).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:512px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p022"
+   src="images/i_p022.png"
+   width="411"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">8. SECTION OF AN INTERSECTING ARCH</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The identity of function in the pendentive and in the Gothic
+intersecting arch, both constructed, as they are, of stones dressed
+normally to their curves, shows that they sprang from a common origin,
+which is as much as to say that the Aquitainian cupola begat the
+intersecting vault.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER III<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">THE FIRST GROINED VAULTS</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The first application of the system of intersecting vaults appears in
+the great churches of Angers and Laval.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the new methods propagated by the religious
+architects of Aquitaine and neighbouring provinces had excited the
+emulation of the Northern builders, more especially those of the
+Ile-de-France. Evidences to this effect are to be found in certain
+subordinate portions of their buildings at this period, such as side
+aisles or apsidal chapels. Their timid arrangement seems, however,
+reminiscent of the Roman system of ribbed vaulting, with a slightly
+increased prominence of the ribs superadded, rather<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> than of the
+revolution that had been effected in church vaulting generally.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:485px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p024"
+   src="images/i_p024.png"
+   width="485"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">9. PLAN OF A BAY IN THE NAVE OF ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS</p>
+   </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:459px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p025_s"
+   src="images/i_p025_s.png"
+   width="459"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">10. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">But, if we except perhaps Laval, nowhere shall we find the new system
+of vaulting upon intersecting arches more mightily demonstrated than
+at Angers, the aisles of which measure 54 feet across. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> grandeur
+of the architectural composition, no less than the admirable technical
+skill shown in the details, gives proof of the consummate mastery
+arrived at by the builders of these noble structures so early as the
+middle of the twelfth century. The plan of these churches resembles
+that of Angoul�me and Fontevrault. It is in no way allied to the
+Northern buildings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:481px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p026"
+   src="images/i_p026.png"
+   width="481"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">11. PLAN OF A BAY OF THE NAVE IN THE CHURCH OF LA STE. TRINIT� AT LAVAL</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">They are constructed with single aisles, like the cupola churches,
+with a series of bays, square on plan; but the arrangement of the
+vaults has been perfected by the logical use of intersecting arches in
+the place of pendentives, the architects of the day having realised
+by this time the progress we have explained and demonstrated in the
+preceding chapter.</p>
+
+<p>These vast aisles, vaulted on intersecting arches, are of course
+allied to the cupolas; they recall their general outline, but the
+arrangement of the vaulting is different. The intersecting ribs are
+no longer merely decorative features; they have taken on all the
+active functions of the <i>arc-doubleau</i> and the formeret. Their union
+constitutes an elastic ossature, the weight being concentrated upon
+four points of support, which receive the impost of the arches, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+compose a stone skeleton, each unit of which has been cut and dressed
+to fill the exact place it occupies in the whole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:574px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p027_s"
+   src="images/i_p027_s.png"
+   width="574"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">12. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF TWO BAYS IN THE NAVE OF LA STE. TRINIT� AT LAVAL</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">If we compare the sections (Figs. <a href="#i_p028a_s">13</a> and <a href="#i_p028b_s">14</a>) of the churches of
+Angoul�me and Angers, we may clearly trace the filiation between these
+buildings, the one dating from the first years of the twelfth century,
+the other from some thirty or even forty years later. We shall also
+note the advance made by the Angevin architects in the construction of
+groined vaults in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> place of domes with pendentives, a development
+worked out by the more perfect and reasoned application of the same
+architectural principle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:598px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p028a_s"
+   src="images/i_p028a_s.png"
+   width="598"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:672px;">
+  <img
+   class="p0"
+   id="i_p028b_s"
+   src="images/i_p028b_s.png"
+   width="672"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">13 AND 14. COMPARATIVE SECTIONS OF THE CHURCHES OF ANGOUL�ME AND ANGERS</p>
+   </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p0"
+   id="i_p029_s"
+   src="images/i_p029_s.png"
+   width="381"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">15. VIEW IN PERSPECTIVE OF THE NAVE VAULT OF ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Church of Laval, built simultaneously with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> that of Angers,
+or only a few years later, shows a further advance, not merely in
+the matter of form, but in the increased science and ingenuity of
+combinations, and the methodical accuracy of the execution.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p030a"
+   src="images/i_p030a.png"
+   width="427"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">16. PLAN OF A SUMMER OF THE NAVE VAULT OF LA STE. TRINIT� AT LAVAL</p>
+   </div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:519px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p030b"
+   src="images/i_p030b.png"
+   width="519"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">17. PLAN OF ONE OF THE PIERS OF THE NAVE OF LA STE. TRINIT� AT LAVAL</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The arches which compose the ossature of the vaults become independent
+in their functions, as at Angers, immediately upon leaving the abacus,
+an essential characteristic of the new system. The lateral points of
+support are composed of piers proper and of clustered columns, crowned
+by corbelled capitals, which, by prolonging them, mark the formerets,
+the diagonal, and the transverse arches as they fall upon the abaci.
+It is easy to see in this arrangement the origin of those clustered
+shafts so generally and even excessively used in the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries, the main object of which was to conceal as far
+as possible the points of support.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These details, and the section (<a href="#i_p027_s">Fig. 12</a>) showing the mode of
+construction in the vaults, demonstrate sufficiently that at Laval, no
+less than at Angers, a direct filiation exists between the dome upon
+pendentives and the groined and ribbed vault.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IV<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">BUILDINGS VAULTED UPON INTERSECTING ARCHES</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The new system derived from the domes upon pendentives, so brilliantly
+applied in Anjou and Maine in the first half of the twelfth century,
+was thenceforth the normal method of the religious architect. The
+admirable simplicity of the new method and its adaptability to every
+class of building, from the great abbey church to the modest chapel,
+sufficiently accounts for its rapid dissemination throughout Western
+Europe, where religious bodies had founded innumerable abbeys, large
+and small, of varying rules and orders, but all welded together by one
+mighty organisation.</p>
+
+<p>A long array of churches on the Angevin model rose, not only in the
+neighbouring provinces&mdash;as Ste. Radegonde at Poitiers, Notre Dame de
+la Coulture and the nave of St. Julien at Mans,&mdash;but farther afield
+towards the south. To name only the most important&mdash;the charming
+Church of Thor, dedicated to Ste. Marie du Lac, between Avignon and
+the fountain of Vaucluse; that of St. Sauveur at St. Macaire, near
+Bordeaux; the nave of St. Andr� at Bordeaux, begun in 1252 on the
+cupola plan, but modified and finally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> crowned with a groined and
+ribbed vault; St. Caprais at Agen, which shows the same modifications,
+and lastly, the immense brick nave of St. �tienne at Toulouse,
+which measures 64 feet&mdash;all demonstrate the progression of the new
+principles in the second half of the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:538px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p033_s"
+   src="images/i_p033_s.png"
+   width="538"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">18. PLAN OF THE NAVE, ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Towards the North the advance was no less general. Various buildings
+show to what excellent account contemporary architects had turned the
+system of vaults on intersecting arches, recognising<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> its admirable
+adaptability to different climates, and to the most diverse materials.
+But it was reserved for Angers, the cradle of its birth, to give an
+added perfection to this ingenious system.</p>
+
+<p>The Church of the Ste. Trinit�, on the right bank of the Maine, built
+by the sons or pupils of those architects who had planned St. Maurice
+for the hill on the opposite shore, marks a fresh advance in the
+construction of these vaults. Like St. Maurice, it has but a single
+aisle, which is divided into three bays, each as nearly as possible
+square on plan. The system of vaulting takes on a greater elegance by
+the insertion of a transverse arch, with its supporting shafts, in the
+centre of each bay. This divides the bay into two equal parts, and,
+cutting the diagonal ribs at their intersection, supports them at the
+critical point.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#i_p034_s">Fig. 19</a> gives the plan of these vaults, the system of which was
+eagerly seized upon by the Northern architects, and the great abbey
+church of Noyon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> appears to have been the first-fruits of this new
+development of the Angevin idea.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p034_s"
+   src="images/i_p034_s.png"
+   width="205"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">19. PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF LA STE. TRINIT� AT ANGERS</p>
+   </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p0"
+   id="i_p035_s"
+   src="images/i_p035_s.png"
+   width="377"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">20. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A BAY OF LA STE. TRINIT� AT ANGERS</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The great abbey churches and immense cathedrals which were built from
+the second half of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth century
+attest the importance of the development carried out at Angers by
+the arrangement of their own vaults in square compartments. For we
+now find this system adopted in the construction of the churches or
+cathedrals of Noyon, Laon, Notre Dame at Paris, Sens, and Bourges, to
+name only acknowledged masterpieces of so-called Gothic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p037_s"
+   src="images/i_p037_s.png"
+   width="294"
+   height="580"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">21. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A BAY OF LA STE. TRINIT� AT ANGERS</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The influence of the cupola, which we established in our first
+chapter, was both direct and consecutive. It was direct in churches
+built with one aisle and vaulted on intersecting arches, and
+consecutive in the so-called Romanesque churches, which were either
+completed or modified on the new lines by the substitution of vaults
+on intersecting arches of dressed stone for timber roofs. A large
+number of buildings in England, Normandy, Germany, Northern Italy,
+Switzerland, the Rhine Provinces, and those of Northern France bear
+testimony of the highest interest to the transformations consequent on
+the invention of the groined vault and its universal application.</p>
+
+<p>Architects who had been trained in the great abbey schools, emboldened
+by the successes of their forerunners and their own individual
+experience, raised on every hand vast cathedrals, in which every known
+development of the system was essayed with unequalled daring. Going
+on from strength to strength, they eventually abandoned the antique<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>
+traditions, and disregarding the statical conditions which ensured
+the solidity of the ancient buildings,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> they invented a system of
+construction which is, as it were, merely a skeleton in stone, a stone
+version of the timbered roof; its characteristic expression was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> the
+permanent strut known as the <i>flying buttress</i>; its governing idea
+was equilibrium, for which it provided by architectural stratagems
+ingenious in the highest degree, but also extremely precarious. Its
+existence or stability depends for the most part on the quality of the
+materials and their degrees of resisting power, the essential organs,
+by which I mean those vital <i>weight-carrying</i> portions, the failure
+of which would involve the ruin of the whole, being <i>outside</i> the
+building, and therefore exposed to all those deteriorating influences
+from which the <i>load</i> they bear, that is to say, the vaults, are
+protected by walls and roof.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p038_s"
+   src="images/i_p038_s.png"
+   width="311"
+   height="580"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">22. SECTION OF A SINGLE-AISLED CHURCH VAULTED ON
+INTERSECTING ARCHES WITH BUTTRESSES</p>
+   </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p039_s"
+   src="images/i_p039_s.png"
+   width="395"
+   height="580"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">23. SECTION OF A THREE-AISLED CHURCH VAULTED ON INTERSECTING ARCHES WITH FLYING BUTTRESSES</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The great buildings constructed on these new principles consisted of
+a central nave with two, or even four side aisles. The huge structure
+depended for its light first upon low windows in the collateral
+portions, secondly, upon windows at a much higher level. Hence it
+became necessary to raise the vault of the central nave, and to
+give it an abutment in the form of <i>detached semi-arches</i> or flying
+buttresses. The crowns of these semi-arches impinged the piers at the
+planes of greatest pressure and received the collective thrust of
+all the ribs, formerets, transverse and diagonal arches. Their bases
+rested upon abutments, the strength of which was calculated according
+to the thrust they had to meet.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER V<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">ORIGIN OF THE FLYING BUTTRESS</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The primitive method of vaulting adopted in the central provinces of
+France in the construction of churches with three aisles rendered such
+buildings of necessity low and heavy. The main aisle being covered by
+a barrel vault, supported on either side by a continuous half-barrel
+vault, the sole means of lighting lay in the windows of the side
+aisles, so that the nave was always gloomy in the extreme. The
+Norman architects had avoided this difficulty, first in their native
+province, and afterwards in England, by vaulting the subordinate
+aisles only, and by raising the lateral walls of the nave high enough
+to allow a line of windows to be introduced between the lean-to roofs
+of the side aisles and the nave roof, the latter being an open timber
+construction instead of a vault.</p>
+
+<p>The lateral gallery in the first story of Norman churches built on the
+basilican model is merely a development of the ancient tradition.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
+It bears the name of triforium because&mdash;or so we are told&mdash;each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+compartment of such an interior gallery between the main piers of the
+nave was originally divided into three by pillars supporting lintels
+or by small columns supporting an arcade.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> See <i>L'Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Maison
+Quantin, Paris, 1888, chaps. i. iii. and iv.</p></div>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the eleventh century Norman architects on both
+sides of the Channel were raising vast churches, the side aisles of
+which bore above their ribbed vaults galleries after the fashion
+of the primitive basilicas. These galleries in their turn were
+covered by open timber roofs like that of the nave. The bays were
+emphasised in the nave and in the side aisles by transverse arches,
+or <i>arcs-doubleaux</i>, which served as buttresses to those of the main
+vault. But after the adoption, towards the middle of the twelfth
+century, of the Angevin method of vaulting for religious buildings,
+the functions of the lateral walls and of the supporting arches became
+better defined, for these walls and arches had now to meet the thrusts
+of the transverse as well as that of the diagonal arches, which,
+meeting in bundles, as it were, at each pier, gathered their energies
+at well-marked points.</p>
+
+<p>It was thus that the cross walls or <i>arcs-doubleaux</i> of the side
+aisles were gradually modified till they became detached semi-arches
+concealed beneath the outer roof of the side aisles.</p>
+
+<p>We have traced this modification in the Abbaye aux Dames at Caen.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> <i>L'Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison
+Quantin, 88, chap. xvii.</p></div>
+
+<p><a href="#i_p043_s">Fig. 24</a> shows us an English example. It may be followed out in a
+number of other churches in England, at Pavia in Italy, at Zurich in
+Switzer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>land, and at Basle on the Rhine, to name but a few of the
+churches in which the modification of the vaults was long posterior to
+the construction of the building itself.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:668px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p043_s"
+   src="images/i_p043_s.png"
+   width="668"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">24. DURHAM CATHEDRAL. TRANSVERSE SECTIONS</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In France we shall find no example more deeply interesting than
+Noyon, which at the date of its construction (the last quarter of
+the twelfth century) formed, as it were, an epitome of the advance
+so far made by the architects of the Ile-de-France. In this curious
+building we find a fusion of the antique tradition developed by the
+Normans in their triforiums, and of the Angevin methods, as manifested
+in the groined vaults derived from domes: methods further perfected
+by the example of La Ste. Trinit�<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> at Angers; in other words, by the
+adoption of intersecting arches planned on a square, the thrusts of
+all being received on the main piers, reinforced by an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> intermediate
+transverse arch. And we note the appearance of the detached semi-arch
+beneath the roofing of the inferior aisles merging at its springing
+into the lateral <i>arc-doubleau</i>, and so resisting the thrust of the
+intersecting arches and transverse arches of the nave.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p044_s"
+   src="images/i_p044_s.png"
+   width="302"
+   height="580"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">25. ABBEY CHURCH AT NOYON. PLAN</p>
+   </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p045_s"
+   src="images/i_p045_s.png"
+   width="282"
+   height="580"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">26. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF NOYON CHURCH</p>
+   </div>
+
+<p class="p2">It has been said that Noyon was suggested by Tournai, doubtless on
+account of their superficial affinities. But the likeness is merely in
+general aspect, the methods of construction being wholly different. At
+Tournai the apsidal transepts are vaulted upon transverse arches of
+great strength, and upon radiating semi-arches united where they meet
+by a ring of voussoirs set horizontally, and at their springing by
+vaults keyed into their mass, an ingenious arrangement which recalls
+the vaulting of the <i>Salle des Capitaines</i> over the porch of the
+monastery church at Moissac.</p>
+
+<p>The combination of these <i>arcs-doubleaux</i>, which, in addition to the
+solidity of their independent structure, are strongly reinforced by
+the massive circular courses of the walls, is very peculiar, for it
+dispenses altogether both with auxiliary arches and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> with abutments.
+Tournai, therefore, cannot be held to have begotten Noyon, for here
+we have groined vaults, the intersecting arches of which demand the
+reinforcement of abutments either concealed or apparent to sustain
+the thrust of these vaults over the lateral <i>arcs-doubleaux</i>. The
+ingenious arrangement above cited had in no sense modified the methods
+of abutment followed by the architects of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> the twelfth century even
+after the adoption of the vault on intersecting arches. These, as will
+be remembered, consisted in buttressing the walls and piers of the
+nave by cross walls or by arches concealed beneath the roofing of the
+side aisles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:526px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p046_s"
+   src="images/i_p046_s.png"
+   width="526"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">27. CHURCH OF TOURNAI, BELGIUM. EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE
+NORTH TRANSEPT TOWARDS THE SCHELDT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p047a_s"
+   src="images/i_p047a_s.png"
+   width="414"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">28. MONASTERY CHURCH AT MOISSAC. VAULT OF THE HALL KNOWN
+AS THE HALL OF THE CAPTAINS ABOVE THE PORCH</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p047b_s"
+   src="images/i_p047b_s.png"
+   width="423"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">29. CHURCH OF TOURNAI, BELGIUM. INTERIOR OF THE NORTH TRANSEPT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">We find at Soissons the first application of an architectural system,
+the special feature of which is the <i>flying buttress</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The south transept of Soissons Cathedral was evidently suggested by
+Noyon. This is apparent in the adoption of the two-storied side aisle
+and in the semi-circular plan. But the method of vaulting common to
+both churches has a greater refinement at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> Soissons. Reduced to its
+simplest expression of strength by the attenuation of its skeleton,
+the vault still exercises its full thrust on those parts which rise
+above the upper gallery.</p>
+
+<p>The architect of Soissons was not content, like his brother of Noyon,
+to support the vault laterally by interior arches collaborating with
+the <i>arcs-doubleaux</i> of the triforium, and reinforced by an abutment
+impinging on the wall of the central nave. To him the idea occurred of
+detached semi-arches in open air, springing from above the roof of the
+triforium and its buttresses and marking each bay. Thus was born the
+<i>flying buttress</i>, a feature frankly emphasising its special aim and
+function, namely, to meet the thrust of the main vault at its points
+of concentration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p048_s"
+   src="images/i_p048_s.png"
+   width="193"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">30. SOISSONS CATHEDRAL. SOUTH TRANSEPT. SECTION OF FLYING BUTTRESS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:619px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p049_s"
+   src="images/i_p049_s.png"
+   width="619"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">31. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF SOUTH TRANSEPT, SOISSONS
+CATHEDRAL<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> These flying buttresses, in themselves insufficient for
+the task laid upon them, and worn by the destructive action of the
+weather, were pushed entirely out of shape by the constant pressure
+from within, the thrust of the vault being aggravated by the circular
+plan of the building, while the vaults themselves became dislocated
+by reason of their insufficient abutments. It became necessary to
+reconstruct the buttresses in 1880, to avert the total collapse of the
+south transept.
+</p>
+<p>
+The reconstruction of these flying buttresses, and of many others of
+the same period, furnishes us with a criticism <i>ad hominem</i> upon the
+system.</p></div>
+
+<p class="p2">The flying buttress, in combination with the intersecting arch,
+gave<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> birth to a new system of construction, a system on which
+were raised vast buildings which compel our admiration and demand
+our careful study, but should not invite our imitation. They are
+monuments to the ingenuity of the twelfth and thirteenth century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+architect, but no less are they beacons warning against the perils of
+a rationalism&mdash;more apparent than real&mdash;which their authors carried to
+its extreme limits, casting to the winds all traditional principles,
+and consequently all authority.</p>
+
+<p>It would seem as though the architects of this period, emboldened by
+such achievements as the churches of Noyon, Soissons, Laon, Paris,
+Sens, and Bourges, and spurred by professional emulation, went on from
+one feat of daring to another, passing from the triumphs of Rheims,
+Amiens, and Mans to the supreme architectural folly of Beauvais, and
+creating monuments no less amazing in dimension than in the statical
+problems grappled with, if not always solved.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VI<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">CHURCHES AND CATHEDRALS OF THE TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The study of medi�val architecture is one of the most fascinating of
+pursuits, but it is one beset with difficulties. The obscurity in
+which the origin of our great monuments is buried is profound and
+often impenetrable.</p>
+
+<p>A fertile cause of error is the confusion which in many cases has
+arisen between the dates of foundation and of consecration. Very often
+a church was built and afterwards considerably modified, rather than
+actually reconstructed, on the same consecrated site.</p>
+
+<p>Lightning was the most frequent cause of the destruction, total or
+partial, of medi�val churches. Striking the steeple, the tower, or the
+roof, it fired the timber superstructure of the nave. This in itself
+would not have been an irreparable disaster; but as the timbers gave
+way the calcined beams charred the piers, and so prepared the downfall
+of the whole building, which was then either restored or reconstructed
+in the fashion of the day. Hence, whether we base our deductions upon
+more or less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> trustworthy records or upon contemporary readings of
+existing data, the result is too often a confusion among vanished
+monuments, or a contradiction between the buildings as they now exist
+and the historic records which relate to them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p052_s"
+   src="images/i_p052_s.png"
+   width="318"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">32. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p054_s"
+   src="images/i_p054_s.png"
+   width="298"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">33. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. INTERIOR OF THE NAVE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Nothing is easier for interested theorists than to post-or ante-date
+the structure of a building. They have nothing to fear from the
+testimony of writers, and, with very few exceptions, it is difficult
+to assign a precise date to the construction of great churches and
+cathedrals or to point with certainty to their architects. The
+obscurity of these great artists is perhaps to be accounted for by
+the fact that they were ecclesiastics. As such the honour of their
+achievements belonged not to the individual, but to the corporate
+body, the <i>order</i> of which they were members, and members moreover who
+had, in most cases, taken the vow of humility.</p>
+
+<p>Modern science, architectural and arch�ological, has failed to throw
+much positive light on this subject. It contents itself for the most
+part with ingenious hypotheses and learned deductions which leave
+us still in doubt as to precise dates. But we shall at least find
+some sort of foothold in a careful architectural survey of buildings
+themselves. This should be, of course, supplemented by study of
+historic records, and such a study will convince us that art in the
+Middle Ages, as in all epochs, obeyed the immutable laws of filiation
+and transformation. We shall follow the artist step by step, observing
+his research, his hesitation, his errors, and even his corrections.</p>
+
+<p>These are trustworthy documents in which to study the origin of a
+building and to note its successive transformations, which latter were
+far more frequent than total reconstructions. For it was not until the
+beginning of the thirteenth century that great cathedral churches in
+any con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>siderable numbers were conceived and continuously executed.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> It is possible, if not easy, to trace the architectural
+development of the Middle Ages in a good many cathedrals and
+churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. We have, however,
+confined ourselves, for the purposes of our present synthesis, to
+the churches and cathedrals of the royal domain, and more especially
+of the Ile-de-France, not only because they served as models for the
+architects of their day, but because they illustrate in a remarkable
+degree the various transitions we desire to study.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p055_s"
+   src="images/i_p055_s.png"
+   width="373"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">34. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. MAIN FA�ADE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2">The great abbey churches founded towards the close of the twelfth
+century in the royal domain, but continued and finished in the early
+years of the thirteenth, still preserved a more ancient tradition.</p>
+
+<p>Laon, which is derived from Noyon and from the south transept of
+Soissons, consists of a nave with transepts, and of two-storied side
+aisles vaulted upon intersecting arches, above which, as at Soissons,
+rise flying buttresses, which meet the thrust of the main vault.</p>
+
+<p>This arrangement of the side aisles proves the continuity of the
+Norman formul�, just as the method of construction adopted in the main
+vault demonstrates the persistent influence of the dome.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See chap. i., "The Influence of the Cupola on Gothic
+Architecture."</p></div>
+
+<p>The admirably constructed main vault is square on plan, each square
+containing two transverse compartments, after the Angevin method as
+derived from the Aquitainian dome. Here we find indications that,
+if the builders of the Church of Laon had fully assimilated this
+method, their minds were nevertheless not altogether at rest as to
+the functions of the flying buttress. This was, of course, essential
+to the piers which received the united thrust of both transverse
+and diagonal arches. But it was far from logical to reinforce the
+intermediate piers supporting nothing but the auxiliary transverse
+arches by abutments identical with those of the main piers.</p>
+
+<p>The illogicality so striking at Laon is absent from Noyon. There,
+on the contrary, the architects&mdash;of the original construction&mdash;had
+emphasised the functions of the main piers by buttresses of greater
+projection and solidity than those accorded to the secondary piers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p057_s"
+   src="images/i_p057_s.png"
+   width="288"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">35. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. THE EAST END</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p058_s"
+   src="images/i_p058_s.png"
+   width="293"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">36. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. SECTION OF THE NAVE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Notre Dame de Paris was begun towards the close of the twelfth
+century, and finished, save for the chapels, in the first half of
+the thirteenth. As at Laon, the Norman tradition is observed in the
+arrangement of the upper galleries of the side aisles, while the
+influence of the dome is again to be traced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> in the sex-partite
+groining. The same illogical system of abutments obtains as at Laon.</p>
+
+<p>This vast building, consisting of a nave and double side aisles of
+equal height sweeping round the semi-circular choir, seems to be one
+of the first five-aisled cathedrals; its grandiose arrangement, the
+boldness of its combinations, and the perfection of its detail mark
+the considerable progress made by the architects of the Ile-de-France.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p059_s"
+   src="images/i_p059_s.png"
+   width="218"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">37. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The method of construction here adopted has a peculiar significance.
+The upper internal galleries, vaulted on diagonal arches, and raised
+considerably above the level of the second side aisle, the boldness of
+the flying buttress, which at one span embraces the two side aisles
+and forms the abutments of the main vault&mdash;alike prove that the
+architects of Notre Dame de Paris had adopted the newly discovered
+systems even to excess, and were applying them with unparalleled skill
+and ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p060_s"
+   src="images/i_p060_s.png"
+   width="344"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">38. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. SECTION OF THE NAVE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Norman tradition which had obtained in the Ile-de-France
+passed away in the first years of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> thirteenth century. At
+Ch�lons-sur-Marne the nave is flanked by two-storied side aisles. But
+the upper gallery, vaulted and greatly reduced in size, shows that the
+conventional arrangement was fast dying out.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the dome was longer lived, as is shown in the
+construction of vaults at this period. We may still trace it at
+Langres in the domed form of the vaults, which, in spite of their
+rectangular plan, seem to be a reduced copy of the Angevin naves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p061_s"
+   src="images/i_p061_s.png"
+   width="243"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">39. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. FLYING BUTTRESSES AND SOUTH TOWER</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The naves of Sens and of Bourges are also vaulted in square
+compartments. The thrust of the vaults is carried by the diagonal
+arches to each alternate pier, the intermediate one receiving only the
+auxiliary transverse arch already<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> fully described. Yet here again the
+exterior flying buttresses are all of equal solidity in spite of the
+varying strain. This arrangement, prudent if illogical, shows once
+more with what distrust architects had adopted that system of exterior
+abutment, the characteristic of which is a detached arch exposed to
+all the vicissitudes of weather, and yet responsible for the stability
+of the whole edifice.</p>
+
+<p>The Cathedral of Sens marks a new phase of development by its
+suppression of the upper gallery over the side aisles. These are now
+vaulted and covered by a lean-to roof; a flying buttress of single
+span receives the thrust of the main vault. The building is perfectly
+solid; its construction shows research, though it is as illogical as
+that of Laon or of Paris; for the exterior flying buttresses are all
+of equal strength, and so fail to proclaim their true functions, the
+interior thrusts varying considerably.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:663px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p062_s"
+   src="images/i_p062_s.png"
+   width="663"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">40. SENS CATHEDRAL. PLAN OF A BAY. VAULT IN SQUARE
+COMPARTMENTS OF TWO BAYS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p063_s"
+   src="images/i_p063_s.png"
+   width="345"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">41. SENS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF A BAY OF THE NAVE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p064_s"
+   src="images/i_p064_s.png"
+   width="344"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">42. SENS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR VIEW OF LATERAL BAYS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The arrangement at Bourges, which appears to have been mainly built,
+if not actually finished, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> the first half of the thirteenth
+century, differs from that of Sens. The structure is one of five
+aisles,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> and in plan recalls Notre Dame de Paris, but the details are
+very dissimilar. The inner side aisles no longer support a gallery,
+nor are they of equal height with the outer aisles; they are raised
+so as to afford space for lighting (see <a href="#i_p065_s">Fig. 43</a>). The main vault is
+sex-partite planned on squares; but the same illogicality exists
+here which we have already pointed out, and in connection with which
+we will risk appearing somewhat insistent, in the hope of directing
+special attention to it. It is more glaring here than elsewhere, the
+flying buttresses<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> themselves being of exaggerated dimensions and of
+double span, embracing the two side aisles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p065_s"
+   src="images/i_p065_s.png"
+   width="307"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">43. BOURGES CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2">Both at Bourges and Sens the space between the summit of the
+archivolts and the bases of the upper windows, known as the frieze,
+or, in modern parlance, the triforium, becomes a purely decorative
+feature. It consists of a narrow arcaded corridor, occupying in the
+interior of the building that portion of the wall space which in the
+exterior has been appropriated by the lean-to roof of the side aisles.
+At Sens there is merely a single gallery; at Bourges it becomes
+double, through the stepped arrangement of the side aisles (see <a href="#i_p065_s">Fig. 43</a>),
+a variation in which we may trace an ingenious blending of the
+systems of Anjou and Poitiers with those of the Ile-de-France.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VII<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">THE CATHEDRALS OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The Cathedral of Rheims, which was begun soon after the destruction of
+the original building by the fire of 1211, is a supreme expression of
+the fusion of the three systems&mdash;those of Aquitaine, of Anjou, and of
+the Ile-de-France. It may be taken as the most perfect manifestation
+of persistent efforts to establish a method of construction based on
+equilibrium&mdash;the equilibrium, that is to say, of a building vaulted
+on intersecting arches, the thrusts of which are received by exterior
+flying buttresses.</p>
+
+<p>The temerity, and even the dangers of such a system, are sufficiently
+demonstrated in the wonderful works of the thirteenth-century
+architects themselves. For, notwithstanding the skill and beauty of
+their many admirable combinations, they were unable to reduce their
+methods to scientific formul�. The statical power of their structures
+remained an uncertain quantity, determined by the durability of the
+material and its exposure or non-exposure to the weather, the interior
+skeleton being formed of the same material as the exterior.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p068_s"
+   src="images/i_p068_s.png"
+   width="243"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">44. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The perils inherent in such a system are more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> apparent at Rheims than
+elsewhere, because of the colossal proportions of the building. The
+arrangement of the flying buttresses, however, is more logical than
+at Laon, Paris, Sens, and Bourges, by reason of the quadripartite
+arrangement of the main vault. The thrusts being equally distributed
+among the supporting piers, each flying buttress performs an identical
+office; their equal strength and solidity is therefore perfectly
+appropriate and logical. But though theoretically correct in its
+disposition of flying buttresses of equal strength to meet thrusts of
+equal strength, the method is vitiated by its inherent weakness as a
+system of abutment. The fragility of the flying buttress exposed it
+to two grave dangers, active and passive; active, taking into account
+the constant strain upon it as an abutment; passive, in regard to the
+gradual reduction of its solidity by exposure to weather. In support
+of this statement,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> it is only necessary to refer to the restorations
+which it has been found necessary to make within the last few years,
+to preserve the nave. The flying buttresses have been strengthened
+from below, a proceeding without which the collapse of the huge
+building would have been inevitable.</p>
+
+<p>But we shall find much to call for unqualified admiration at Rheims in
+the grandiose conception of the work and in its powerful execution, in
+the magnificent arrangement of its eastern fa�ade, and in the perfect
+harmony of the ornamentation, where sculpture, capitals, friezes,
+crockets, and floriations are so many types of medi�val decorative art
+at its best.</p>
+
+<p>The Cathedral of Amiens, which dates from about 1220, and is one of
+the largest as well as one of the most admired of Gothic masterpieces,
+is directly founded upon that of Rheims. The plan is on the same
+lines, with this exception, that at Amiens the choir is of greater
+importance relatively to the nave, and that the piers and points of
+support are weaker and much more lofty.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p070_s"
+   src="images/i_p070_s.png"
+   width="290"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">45. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p071_s"
+   src="images/i_p071_s.png"
+   width="394"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">46. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE CHOIR</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The R�mois architects, while exercised by the problems of equilibrium
+which their system involved, sought to minimise its dangers, which
+they recognised no less fully than their predecessors, by prudently
+avoiding all false bearings. It will be easily seen by a comparison
+of the two sections (Figs. 45 and 48) that the builders of Amiens
+were troubled by no such misgivings, or that they were at least more
+venturesome if not more accomplished. They did not hesitate to base
+the columns which received the crowns of the flying buttresses on a
+corbel arrangement which had no solid bearing, as may be seen by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+following the direction of the dotted line X in <a href="#i_p073_s">Fig. 48</a>. The boldness,
+or rather the imprudence of such<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> an arrangement is patent, for the
+failure of anyone of the courses, or the decay of any part of the pier
+into which the corbels are keyed, would necessarily involve a rupture
+in the flying buttresses, on which the stability of the main vault
+depends. The disintegration of the whole building and its total ruin
+could be the only result. The perils of such combinations, or rather
+such <i>tours de force</i> of equilibrium, are exemplified at Beauvais.
+The architects who built the choir, about the year 1225, basing it on
+that of Amiens, determined to raise a monument which should surpass,
+both in plan and elevation, all the structures of their epoch. They
+increased the breadth of the choir and of its bays, raising, in the
+latter, intermediate piers on the crowns of the lower archivolts, thus
+dividing the upper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> bays, and at the same time strengthening the vault
+by auxiliary transverse arches. They exaggerated the height of the
+archivolts and of the large windows,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> and diminished their thickness,
+in order to give greater elegance and lightness, and the main vault
+rose to a height of more than 160 feet above the ground level. This
+tremendous elevation, the exaggeration of which in proportion to the
+width of the nave is striking, necessitated a complicated system of
+flying buttresses surpassing in boldness all that had gone before.
+The section in <a href="#i_p077_s">Fig. 51</a> will give some idea of what has been justly
+described as an architectural folly. It is astonishing that the
+structure should have stood as it has done, taking into account the
+false bearings of the intermediate piers, here again shown by the
+dotted line X (<a href="#i_p077_s">Fig. 51</a>).</p>
+
+<p>These rest for half of their thickness on off-sets from the piers,
+which, proving unequal to the strain, have been temporarily stayed,
+and must eventually be consolidated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p072_s"
+   src="images/i_p072_s.png"
+   width="262"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">47. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p073_s"
+   src="images/i_p073_s.png"
+   width="277"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">48. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. SECTION THROUGH THE NAVE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The choir, however, was finished about 1270, and stood for several
+years. But dislocations then declared themselves. The forces so
+elaborately balanced lost their equilibrium, and on the 29th November
+1284 the vault fell, dragging down with it the flying buttresses, and
+carrying havoc through the rest of the building. In the reconstruction
+which followed it was thought imperative to double the points of
+support in the arcades both of the main and side aisles, and to
+reinforce the flying buttresses by iron chains.</p>
+
+<p>During the thirteenth century a number of cathedrals were raised all
+over Europe on the model of the great buildings of Northern France,
+and more especially of Amiens, which seems to have roused a great
+enthusiasm; these were, however, of far<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> more modest dimensions. They
+had neither the exaggerated height nor the structural audacities
+of their exemplars. Few of these churches and cathedrals, the
+reconstruction of which on the new system generally began with the
+choir, which was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> added to the primitive nave, were completed by
+those who initiated their erection. The most highly favoured in this
+respect were finished in the course of the fourteenth century; but in
+the greater number<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> of cases the work dragged slowly on, and reached
+its end some two centuries after its inauguration. Reconstructive
+undertakings were constantly impeded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> by wars or social convulsions,
+which either hampered or entirely cut off the resources of bishops and
+architects, their promoters. Such interruptions were of great service
+to modern arch�ological study, offering as they do distinct evidence
+of the various transformations which were successively accomplished
+from the so-called Romanesque period to the Gothic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p075_s"
+   src="images/i_p075_s.png"
+   width="414"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">49. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. APSE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p076_s"
+   src="images/i_p076_s.png"
+   width="285"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">50. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. NORTH FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p077_s"
+   src="images/i_p077_s.png"
+   width="318"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">51. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. TRANSVERSE SECTION</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p078_s"
+   src="images/i_p078_s.png"
+   width="425"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">52. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. ROSE WINDOW OF NORTH TRANSEPT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The majority of these great buildings, which show traces of the
+vicissitudes through which they passed, bear a strong likeness to
+each other, and vary only in detail, according to the skill of their
+constructors.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiar interest of Chartres centres in its remarkable statuary;
+it has, however, other features which command attention, such as
+the rose window of the north, transept and the design of the flying
+buttresses. These consist of three arches, one above the other, the
+two lower ones being connected by colonnettes, radiating from a
+centre, so that the lower arch is related to the upper, as the nave of
+a wheel is to the felloes, the colonnettes forming the spokes.</p>
+
+<p>At Mans the arrangement of the choir is so far more remarkable in that
+it is extremely unusual, or indeed, in its way unique. The flying
+buttresses are planned in the form of a Y (see A on the plan <a href="#i_p080_s">Fig. 53</a>),
+thus affording space for windows in the exterior wall, to light the
+vast circular ambulatory, which at Mans is of unusual importance, and
+surrounds the choir with a double aisle. The flying buttresses which
+rise above the <i>arcs-doubleaux</i>, bi-furcated (B on the plan), are
+over-attenuated in section; their exaggerated height and proportionate
+slenderness threaten to make them spring, so that it has been found
+necessary to bind them together by ties and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> iron chains. Such
+expedients are a sufficient criticism of the ingenious but precarious
+system adopted by the architects of Mans.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p080_s"
+   src="images/i_p080_s.png"
+   width="298"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">53. MANS CATHEDRAL. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:477px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p081_s"
+   src="images/i_p081_s.png"
+   width="477"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">54. MANS CATHEDRAL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE APSE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p082_s"
+   src="images/i_p082_s.png"
+   width="385"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">55. MANS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE CHOIR</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The influence of the Ile-de-France in Normandy is manifest in the
+arrangement of choirs and apsidal chapels in Norman cathedrals of
+the thirteenth century. The Cathedral of Coutances, a monument
+of the eleventh century, was rebuilt in the early<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> years of the
+thirteenth century under the impulse given by Northern France to the
+architecture of the period. It is in the choir that we clearly trace
+this influence, in the double columns of the apse, and the ingenious
+disposition of its collateral vaults. But the fa�ade is purely Norman,
+not merely in general design, but in the details of the composition,
+facsimiles of which may be found in England.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p083_s"
+   src="images/i_p083_s.png"
+   width="163"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">56. COUTANCES CATHEDRAL. NORTH TOWER</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Cathedral of Dol in Brittany, one of the great churches of the
+thirteenth century, seems to have escaped the influences of the
+Northern innovation. Its general plan, its square apse lighted by
+large windows, the details of its architecture and ornamentation,
+all proclaim its affinity to the great churches which rose
+contemporaneously with it on either side of the Channel, in Normandy,
+and in England. It is very probable that it was built by the same
+architects or their immediate disciples, working on the more ancient<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>
+methods of the Norman schools founded by Lanfranc at Canterbury
+towards the close of the eleventh century, on the model of those he
+had established in France at the famous Abbaye du Bec.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES OF THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The Cathedrals of Rheims, Amiens, and Beauvais excited extraordinary
+enthusiasm in their time, not only in the provinces of France, but
+among neighbouring nations, notably in England, Belgium, Germany,
+Sweden, Spain, and Italy.</p>
+
+<p>This enthusiasm was less fervid in the provinces farthest from
+the royal domain; but even in these outlying districts several
+remarkable buildings rose in the first half of the thirteenth century,
+constructed on the new lines.</p>
+
+<p>In 1233 the Cathedral of Bazas was begun, and, unlike the majority of
+such undertakings, was carried through and finished in a comparatively
+short time.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:606px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p086_s"
+   src="images/i_p086_s.png"
+   width="606"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">57. RODEZ CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p087_s"
+   src="images/i_p087_s.png"
+   width="274"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">58. BORDEAUX CATHEDRAL. CHOIR AND NORTH FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p088_s"
+   src="images/i_p088_s.png"
+   width="322"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">59. LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Cathedral of Bayonne, a contemporary building, shared the fate
+of Meaux, Troyes, and Auxerre. It was completed, with one tower
+only, in the sixteenth century. In 1248 the foundations of Clermont
+Cathedral were laid. The plan provided for six or seven towers, but
+the choir was the only portion finished in the thirteenth century. The
+transept and four towers, together with a portion of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> the nave, were
+completed in the following century, and the work was then abandoned
+until the reign of Napoleon III., who caused it to be again taken
+up. The Cathedral of Limoges was begun in 1273, under the direct
+inspiration of Notre Dame at Amiens. Down to our own times it has had
+to content itself with a choir, a transept, and the suggestions of a
+nave, the last of which has lately been completed. At Rodez a greater
+perseverance was shown, and the work went steadily on from 1277 until
+the Renascence, at which period, however, the two western towers were
+left unfinished, notwithstanding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> a contemporary description of their
+magnificence, which, in a truly Gascon vein, compares them to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+Egyptian pyramids, among other world-renowned marvels.</p>
+
+<p>"In 1272 Toulouse and Narbonne entered the lists against Amiens,
+imitating its plan, and proposing to at least equal it in dimensions.
+Neither of these undertakings proved happy. Archbishop Maurice of
+Narbonne died the same year the works were begun; his successors took
+but a lukewarm interest in their progress. In 1320 the sea re<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>treated,
+leaving the port on which the wealth of the inhabitants mainly
+depended high and dry. Fortunately the choir with its noble vault 130
+feet high was already completed, but the transept walls were left to
+fall into ruins. At Toulouse Bishop Bertrand de l'Isle-Jourdain lived
+just long enough to carry the work above the triforium of the choir;
+it was then abandoned till the fifteenth century. His successors
+squandered the revenues of their vast diocese so shamelessly in
+pleasures and display that Popes Boniface VIII. and John XXII.,
+scandalised at their disorders, dismembered their territory and
+subdivided it into four bishoprics, granting to the Bishop of Toulouse
+the title of archbishop by way of compensation. But this compensation
+was of small avail to future zealous prelates for the carrying out of
+Bertrand's projects, and the choir of Toulouse was never finished.
+It falls short of its predestined height of 130 feet by 90, and the
+transept was not even begun.</p>
+
+<p>"The Cathedrals of Lyons, of St. Maurice at Vienne, and of St.
+�tienne at Toul have affinities more or less direct with the great
+architectural movement. At Bordeaux the building of a great cathedral
+was contemplated at the time of the English occupation; but the choir
+would never have been finished but for the liberality of King Edward
+I. and of Pope Clement V., who had formerly been archbishop of the
+town."<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Anthyme St. Paul, <i>Histoire Monumentale de la France</i>;
+Paris Hachette and Co., 1884.</p></div>
+
+<p>The great cathedrals constructed in England in the thirteenth century
+bear witness to the expansion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> of French art on the lines already laid
+down in the preceding century by the teaching and achievements of the
+Norman monkish architects who had followed William the Conqueror to
+Great Britain.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> This is a very summary way of dismissing the vexed
+question of French influence upon English architecture. The
+undeniable fact that wherever a French architect can be identified
+as the author of an English building&mdash;William of Sens at Canterbury,
+for instance&mdash;the work he did differs entirely in character from
+contemporary English work is enough to refute much of the claim made
+for France. The principles of Gothic architecture were the common
+property of the two countries, and by each were developed according to
+their lights.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<p>English builders assimilated the constructive principles of the
+architects of Anjou and of the Ile-de-France. In the numerous
+cathedrals they raised from the thirteenth to the close of the
+fifteenth century it is easy to trace the original characteristics of
+French art throughout all the transformations or adaptations by which
+its methods were modified in accordance with British usages and ideas.</p>
+
+<p>This influence is very apparent in the Cathedrals of York, Ely,
+Wells, Salisbury, and Canterbury, the last of which was constructed
+from the plans of an architect or master-mason, known as William of
+Sens; in that of Lichfield, where the spires of the fa�ade recall
+those of Coutances in Normandy, and above all, at Lincoln, one of
+the most beautiful of English cathedrals. Here we have perhaps the
+most strongly-marked instance of the steady and continuous filiation
+between the buildings of France and England during the so-called
+Gothic period. It is quite possible that they were the work of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+same architects, as they certainly were carried out by pupils or
+disciples of the same master-builders.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> It is difficult to believe that Mons. Corroyer
+is in earnest in comparing the spires of Lichfield to those of
+Coutances, or the central tower of Lincoln to that of the same
+French cathedral. Mons. Corroyer appears to be unacquainted with the
+line of filiation between English spires and towers, and so looks,
+as a matter of course, for a French mother to such as strike his
+fancy.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span></span></p></div>
+
+<p>Lincoln Cathedral, founded in the eleventh century, and finished in
+1092, shared the fate of so many other timber-roofed buildings of
+the period. The greater part of it was destroyed by fire in 1124.
+It was rebuilt and enlarged by St. Hugh in accordance with the new
+ideas he had brought with him from France, a very natural consequence
+of his supervision, when we take into account that as mandatory of
+Pope Gregory VII. he had been Bishop of Grenoble. The church was
+again partly destroyed by an earthquake in 1185. It was then rebuilt,
+enlarged, and completed by Bishop Grosset�te, an Englishman by birth,
+who had, however, been educated and brought up in France in the early
+part of the thirteenth century, and had carried over with him to his
+native land the essence of the grand and noble inspirations which
+marked that marvellous era.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p091_s"
+   src="images/i_p091_s.png"
+   width="422"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">60. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p092_s"
+   src="images/i_p092_s.png"
+   width="391"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">61. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The lantern-tower at the intersection of the western transept,
+which had fallen in 1235, was either rebuilt or finished by Bishop
+Grosset�te about 1240. In its general outline and in detail it recalls
+the great lantern-tower of Coutances in Normandy, which seems also to
+have served as model for that of St. Ouen at Rouen in the fourteenth
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The vast and magnificent Cathedral of Lincoln is an admirable subject
+for comparative study. Its architecture combines most strikingly the
+characteristics of the two nations. It blends in one harmonious whole
+the massive solidity of English structure overlaid with detail, formed
+by lines vertical, rigid, dry, and hard as iron, and the mingled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+grace and strength of French architecture, which may fitly be compared
+with gold, in its union of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> the supple and the durable, of solidity
+and power of resistance equal to those of the less precious metal,
+with an adaptability to artistic ends far greater.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p094_s"
+   src="images/i_p094_s.png"
+   width="338"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">62. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. TRANSEPT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p095_s"
+   src="images/i_p095_s.png"
+   width="413"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">63. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. APSE AND CHAPTER-HOUSE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In the fa�ade and the west towers English characteristics predominate,
+but the choir and the apse<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> are French in composition, and most
+probably in execution, as is also the presbytery, in which both the
+arrangement and the details of the bays recall those of the lateral
+fa�ades of Bourges.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> All three are veritable masterpieces, worthy
+of the most brilliant period of French medi�val architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Here Mons. Corroyer directly traverses the opinion
+of Viollet-le-duc, who could see no ground whatever for ascribing
+a French origin to the choir of Lincoln. Indeed, the conception of
+that choir, and nearly all its details, are not only unlike, they are
+opposed to those of French contemporary examples. Here are the words
+of the great French architect: "After the most careful examination I
+cannot find, in any part of the Cathedral of Lincoln, neither in the
+general design, nor in any part of the system of architecture adopted,
+nor in the details of ornament, any trace of the French school of
+the twelfth century (the lay school, from 1170 to 1220), so plainly
+characteristic of the Cathedrals of Paris, Noyon, Senlis, Chartres,
+Sens, and even Rouen.... The construction is English, the profiles of
+the mouldings are English, the ornaments are English, the execution of
+the work belongs to the English school of workmen of the beginning of
+the thirteenth century."&mdash;<i>Gentleman's Magazine</i> for May 1861&mdash;Letter
+to "Sylvanus Urban." The date of Lincoln choir is known. It belongs to
+the last years of the twelfth century, and so anticipates such French
+work as can show analogies with it, Le Mans, for instance, where the
+work in question dates from 1210-1220.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ed.</span></p></div>
+
+<p>In Belgium French influence manifested itself so early as the first
+half of the thirteenth century in the building of the remarkable
+Church of Ste. Gudule at Brussels. Up to this period the methods
+of the Rhenish schools had obtained in the Low Countries, and the
+setting aside of these methods in favour of the new system of France
+is significant of the high repute of the latter throughout Western
+Europe. Further evidence to this effect is to be found in the great
+churches of Ghent, Tongres, Louvain, and Bruges among others, which
+were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> either built between 1235 and 1300, or at any rate begun during
+this period, to be completed in the fourteenth century and even later.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p097_s"
+   src="images/i_p097_s.png"
+   width="426"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">64. BRUSSELS CATHEDRAL (STE. GUDULE). WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Ste. Gudule at Brussels was begun about 1226; but only the choir
+and the transept were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> finished by 1275. The nave was built in the
+fourteenth century, together with the towers of the west front, which,
+however, were not finally completed till the following century, or
+perhaps the sixteenth. Several chapels, the windows of which are
+filled with magnificent painted glass, date from the same period as
+these towers.</p>
+
+<p>French influence is no less patent at Cologne, which is undoubtedly
+the daughter of Amiens. The opinion of a German writer is of special
+interest on this point.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p099_s"
+   src="images/i_p099_s.png"
+   width="318"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">65. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. SOUTH FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">"The famous Cathedral of Cologne, one of the masterpieces of the
+German School, is a direct emanation from French tradition. The choir
+is a replica of that of Amiens; it was dedicated in 1322, after which
+the work of nave and transepts was carried on continuously; the nave
+measures 43 feet in width, and 140 in height; the total length of
+the church is 503 feet. The two towers of the west front have been
+completed in our own times&mdash;from the original designs, it is said.
+The general effect, whether of interior or exterior, is certainly not
+equal to that of the finest French cathedrals, but the style is rich
+and pure, and touches perfection in the treatment of details."<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> W. L�bke, <i>Essai d'Histoire de l'Art</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>In Scandinavian countries French art, which had already manifested
+itself at Ripen in Jutland during the so-called Romanesque period,
+gives us a fresh instance of its expansive power in an important
+Swedish building which dates from the end of the thirteenth century.
+The Cathedral of Upsala has this peculiarity, that it was designed and
+even begun by a French architect, one Estienne de Bonneuil,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> who, on
+30th August 1287, received the royal authority to betake himself to
+Upsala to construct the cathedral.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Charles Lucas, <i>Les Architectes fran�ais � l'�tranger</i>
+(from the journal, <i>L'Architecture</i>).</p></div>
+
+<p>In Spain the chief monuments of thirteenth-century Gothic architecture
+which betray the influence of France are the great five-aisled Church
+of Toledo, the cathedral at Badajoz, and the front of St. Mark's
+at Seville. French influence again is manifest in the cathedrals
+of L�on, of Palencia, of Oviedo, of Pampeluna, of Valencia, and of
+Barcelona, founded at the end of the thirteenth century and continued
+in the fourteenth, as well as in the churches of Torquemado, Bilbao,
+Bellaguer, Monresa, and Guadalupe, all dating partly from the
+fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The Cathedral of Burgos, begun in the first half of the thirteenth
+century, shows a striking analogy with French buildings of about the
+same period in the plan and construction of its flying buttresses
+and windows as well as in the decorative sculpture of its portals.
+The lower stories of the west front seem to date from the fourteenth
+century, but the openwork spires which crown it were not finished
+until the fifteenth. In this curious building we find elements taken
+from France, mingled with decorative passages of pure Italian, and
+with others characteristically Spanish in their use of motives only to
+be explained by the vitality of the Saracenic traditions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p101_s"
+   src="images/i_p101_s.png"
+   width="343"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">66. BURGOS CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Innumerable churches were built in Italy during the so-called Gothic
+period, principally towards its<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> conclusion. Not to speak of the
+famous Cathedrals of Milan and Florence, nor of S. Anthony, nor of
+the Cathedral of Padua, the Cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto seem
+especially to lean away from antique and Lombard traditions towards
+those of France, a characteristic especially notable in the decorative
+details of their west fronts, which recall in many ways the work of
+French architects during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:530px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p102_s"
+   src="images/i_p102_s.png"
+   width="530"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">67. CATHEDRAL OR DUOMO OF SIENA. WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p103_s"
+   src="images/i_p103_s.png"
+   width="446"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">68. CHURCH OF ST. FRANCIS AT ASSISI. APSE AND CLOISTERS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">It is the opinion of some arch�ologists that the true parent of
+the Cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto was the Church of St. Francis
+at Assisi, which is not far distant. Now St. Francis of Assisi is
+undeniably French in origin. This church, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> was founded in 1228
+to receive the remains of St. Francis who died in 1226, was possibly
+completed as to the lower structure in the thirteenth century; but it
+is improbable, to say the least, that this completion should have been
+the work of a German, for at this period Gothic architecture was still
+in embryo in Germany, while in France it had reached its most glorious
+development. The upper church seems to be later in date by a century;
+we may clearly trace its affinities with French art in the system of
+construction, which has all the characteristics peculiar to that which
+prevailed in the south of France at the close of the thirteenth and
+the beginning of the fourteenth century. Of this system the Church
+of Albi is the most finished type.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> Assisi, in its single aisle,
+in its buttresses, both as to their interior projections and their
+exterior half-turreted forms, shows a complete analogy with the French
+Albigeois church.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> See chap. ix. "Albi," etc.</p></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IX<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">CHURCHES OF THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES IN FRANCE AND IN
+THE EAST</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>"The thirteenth century was so prolific in religious architecture as
+to leave little scope to those which followed. But even had the growth
+of great religious monuments been less rapid at this period, the wars
+which convulsed France in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries would
+have paralysed such undertakings as the building of great cathedral
+churches. The religious buildings actually completed in the fourteenth
+century are rare; still rarer are those which date from the fifteenth.
+In those stormy days enterprise was confined to the completion of
+unfinished churches, and the modification, restoration, or enlargement
+of twelfth and thirteenth century buildings. It was not until the
+close of the fifteenth and opening of the sixteenth century, when
+France was beginning to recover its former power, that a fresh impulse
+was given to religious architecture; even then, however, the Gothic
+tradition persisted, though in a corrupt and bastard form. Many of the
+great cathedrals were finished, and a number of small churches, which
+had been destroyed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> during the wars, or had fallen into decay through
+long neglect, consequent on the poverty of the community, were either
+rebuilt or restored. The movement was, however, presently arrested
+by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> Reformation, when war, fire, and pillage again destroyed or
+mutilated most of the newly completed religious buildings. The havoc
+wrought by this last upheaval was in its nature irrevocable, for when
+order once more reigned at the close of the sixteenth century, the
+Renascence had swept away the last traces of the national art; and
+though superficially the system of construction which prevailed in
+French churches of the thirteenth century still obtained, the genius
+which had presided at their construction was extinct and its memory
+despised."<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dictionnaire raisonn� de l'Architecture
+fran�aise</i>, etc., vol. i.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p106_s"
+   src="images/i_p106_s.png"
+   width="444"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">69. CHURCH OF ST. OUEN AT ROUEN. CENTRAL TOWER AND
+APSE, SOUTH FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Church of St. Ouen at Rouen, except for the west front and its
+towers, which are modern, is a typical example of the rare religious
+buildings constructed in the north of France during the fourteenth
+century. The arrangement of these churches varies, inasmuch as,
+while in general they follow the methods of construction adopted by
+the Northern architects of the thirteenth century, their special
+characteristic is a refinement or rather an attenuation of the piers,
+less by actual reduction of their section than by a diminution of
+their apparent bulk. This was effected by multiplying the clustered
+shafts, the slenderness of which was still further exaggerated by
+the prodigality of the mouldings, and the over-hollowness of their
+profiles. These profiles and mouldings rise from the base to the
+summit, and in the fourteenth century mark the spring of the arches
+by rings of sculpture, crowned with rudimentary abaci. These latter
+details were the last traces of a tradition which was to finally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+disappear in the fifteenth century. Thenceforward the lines of
+the intersecting arches of the vault, as of the longitudinal and
+transverse arches, run down without interruption to the base of the
+piers, where we find a complex faggot of mouldings crossing and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span>
+recrossing, and showing little beyond the technical dexterity of the
+carver.</p>
+
+<p>The main preoccupation of the architects of this period seems to
+have been the reduction of solid surfaces so as to give full play
+to the soaring effect of their airy shafts and vaults. The walls
+disappear, save below the windows, which now occupy the entire space
+of each bay. The triangular divisions of the vault are concealed by
+a serried network of supplementary ribs, for the most part useless
+save as decorations. But it must in justice be remembered that to this
+exaggeration of the window spaces we owe the growth of the beautiful
+art of painting on glass. This art, the admirable fitness of which
+for decorative purposes can hardly be over-estimated, had already
+manifested itself in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In the
+interval from that period to the Renascence it produced its grandest
+masterpieces.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> See chap. xii. "Decorative Painting on Walls and Glass."</p></div>
+
+<p>It must be borne in mind that the great constructive and
+reconstructive movement which had manifested itself throughout Western
+Europe, and notably in the north of France, by great buildings, the
+distinguishing characteristics of which are vaulted roofs and flying
+buttresses, had made little progress in Southern France. The few
+exceptions of importance are&mdash;Bazas, Bayonne, Auch, Toulouse, and
+Narbonne. The Southern architects, as we have already stated, adhered
+to the ancient tradition, whether influenced by impulses of reaction,
+resistance, or defiance. Their conservatism is comprehensible
+enough in view of the strong Gallo-Roman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> tendencies which governed
+architectural activity throughout the district. The builders of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries did indeed accept the Angevin
+intersecting arch, an invention the admirable simplicity of which was
+its own recommendation. But this concession was without prejudice to
+their broad principles. In the general arrangement of their religious
+buildings they still adhered to Roman usage, and to such models
+as the Basilica of Constantine and the tepidarium of the Baths of
+Caracalla.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>L'Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison
+Quantin, chaps. iii. and vii.</p></div>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the thirteenth, and throughout the fourteenth
+century, a large number of churches were built in the South,
+consisting of a single wide and lofty aisle, vaulted on intersecting
+arches, the thrusts of which were received by buttresses of great bulk
+and prominence in the interior of the building, but very slightly
+indicated on the exterior. The spaces between the massive interior
+buttresses, on either side of the aisle, were occupied by a series of
+chapels, supporting disconnected tribunes or a continuous corridor.
+The two great churches of the Cordeliers and of the Jacobins at
+Toulouse were built in the brick of the country in the second half
+of the thirteenth century. These have two aisles, according to the
+Dominican usage of the period, but the exterior arrangement is the
+same as in the one-aisled churches. The Churches of St. Bertrand
+at Comminges, and those of Lod�ve, Perpignan, Condom, Carcassonne,
+Gaillac, Montpezat, Moissac, etc., were built in the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries on the single-aisled plan. That of Perpignan has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+this peculiarity; its vaults, though supported on intersecting arches,
+are built in accordance with Roman methods, which further prevail
+both in the forms of the terra-cotta materials, and in the manner of
+their application. The reins of the vault, which measures some 53 feet
+across, are ornamented by terra-cotta jars embedded in an admirably
+prepared lime mortar of great durability. The actual roof lies without
+the support of any intervening structure of timber upon the extrados
+of the vault. This consists of voussoirs of Roman brick, retained
+by a layer of terra-cotta upon which the tiles, also of the antique
+Roman form, are laid. This arrangement protects the vault from any
+infiltration of water due to the rupture of the tiles, an absolutely
+necessary precaution, if the former was to retain its stability.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p108_s"
+   src="images/i_p108_s.png"
+   width="336"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">70. ALBI CATHEDRAL. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p111_s"
+   src="images/i_p111_s.png"
+   width="318"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">71. ALBI CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Cathedral of Ste. C�cile at Albi is a monumental type of the
+single-aisled system. It is one of the largest and most important of
+Southern buildings constructed on the traditional principles of the
+ancient Romans. The vast single aisle, some 60 feet wide, is built
+entirely of brick, with the exception of the window tracery, the choir
+screen, and the south porch. Here we may study constructive principles
+no less simple than sagacious, combining all the necessary conditions
+of stability. The points of support and abutments of the vault on
+intersecting arches are all enclosed by the outer wall; they are thus
+protected from the accidents of climate, and their durability is
+almost indefinitely assured.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p113_s"
+   src="images/i_p113_s.png"
+   width="418"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">72. ALBI CATHEDRAL. APSE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:515px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p114_s"
+   src="images/i_p114_s.png"
+   width="515"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">73. ALBI CATHEDRAL. DONJON TOWER AND SOUTH FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The foundations of the cathedral, which was dedicated to St. Cecilia,
+were laid in 1282, on the ruins of the ancient Church of Ste. Croix.
+The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> main building was finished towards the close of the fourteenth
+century, and the whole as it now stands was completed in the last
+years of the fifteenth and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> early part of the sixteenth century, by
+the addition of the baldacchino of the southern porch, or principal
+entrance, of the stone rood loft, and choir screen, the stalls
+of carved wood, and the fresco decorations which adorn the whole
+building. This varied workmanship renders Albi one of the most
+instructive of studies in connection with French decorative art,
+the successive developments being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> marked by monumental examples of
+the highest order, inspired or created by divers influences. The
+architecture is of the Southern French type, as far as the main
+building is concerned; in essentials, the same type prevails in the
+magnificent porch known as the <i>baldaquin</i>, in the choir screen,
+and in the rood loft; but in these later additions the inspiration
+of Northern art at the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the
+sixteenth century is also perceptible. The statuary and sculptured
+ornaments of wood and stone are Flemish; the paintings indicate their
+Italian origin by their crudity of colour and vulgarity of motive.</p>
+
+<p>The Cathedral of Albi has a special interest as being one of the most
+curious examples of Southern Gothic architecture in the fourteenth
+century. It has a further peculiarity, inasmuch as it was not only a
+church, as it still is, but a fortress. Such a combination is readily
+accounted for by a study of the epoch following on the fierce struggle
+which ended in the extermination of the Albigenses, and of the social
+and political events resulting therefrom.</p>
+
+<p>The interior is purely ecclesiastical, of the most beautiful type of
+its time; the grandeur of its dimensions, its structural perfection,
+and the magnificence of its decoration, are unsurpassed in their way.</p>
+
+<p>The exterior is that of a fortress. Its intention is proclaimed by the
+buttresses rising from the glacis of the base to form, as it were,
+flanking towers; by the arrangement of the bays, or rather curtains,
+crowned by an embattled machicolated parapet, which unite these
+towers, and by the grandiose<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> military character of the architecture.
+The formidable aspect of the building is much enhanced by the western
+tower, in effect a donjon keep, completing the system of defence by
+its connection with the fortifications of the archbishop's palace,
+which in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> their turn are carried on to ramparts, crowning the
+escarpments which, to the north, rise from the Tarn.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> See "Civil Architecture," Part IV. chap. ii.</p></div>
+
+<p>A few fortified churches still exist&mdash;such, for example, as Les Stes.
+Maries (Bouches du Rhone), which dates from the thirteenth century.
+Albi was not a solitary instance of this usage. The Churches of
+B�ziers, Narbonne, and many others of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+century had been surrounded by defensive outworks rendered necessary
+by religious strife. The buildings thus transformed into strongholds
+served the further purpose of sheltering fugitive populations in times
+of panic.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting of such examples is the Church of
+Esnandes, not far from Rochelle, on the creek of Aiguillon, a building
+which dates from the twelfth century. It was fortified at the
+beginning of the fifteenth century to resist the incursions of the
+English.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:451px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p116_s"
+   src="images/i_p116_s.png"
+   width="451"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">74. CHURCH OF ESNANDES (CHARENTE INF�RIEURE). A
+FORTIFIED CHURCH OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">As we have already remarked on the authority of a learned writer,
+the buildings of the fifteenth century are less numerous than those
+of the fourteenth. Those concerned in such undertakings were content
+to finish churches begun at an earlier period, or to attempt their
+reconstruction, frequently on plans which it was impossible to carry
+out, so that many buildings were left incomplete. We may instance a
+very famous monument, the Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The Romanesque
+choir fell into ruins in 1421, during the Hundred Years' War. In 1452
+Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville undertook the reconstruction of the
+church on a scale so considerable that the choir only was completed
+during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> first years of the sixteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> This part of
+the church shows the effect of the decadence of which there had been
+indications so early as the close of the thirteenth century. Certain
+of the arrangements are very ingenious, notably that of the triforium,
+which rests on the reins of the lower vault, and forms, as seen from
+outside, a series of small apses standing out from the main wall. But
+the mason's work is negligent, especially in the flying buttresses,
+which were so carefully treated by the architects of the thirteenth
+century. The lines are attenuated by a multiplicity of mouldings to an
+almost threadlike slenderness; the spring of the arches is undefined
+by capitals, and the complicated network of the fenestration adds to
+the wire-drawn effect, and further diminishes the proportions of the
+building. There is little to admire but the extreme manual dexterity
+of the carvers. The carving of the granite, the only stone used at
+Mont St. Michel<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> save for the arcadings of the cloister, is very
+remarkable, as is also the ornamental sculp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span>ture; this is executed
+with extreme skill, in spite of the excess of detail with which it is
+loaded.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> <i>Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et des ses
+Abords</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> See Part II., "Monastic Architecture."</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p118_s"
+   src="images/i_p118_s.png"
+   width="334"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">75. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE
+CHOIR (LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY). FROM A DRAWING BY THE AUTHOR</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p119_s"
+   src="images/i_p119_s.png"
+   width="343"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">76. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN OF THE CHOIR ABOVE
+THE LOWER CHAPEL</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p120_s"
+   src="images/i_p120_s.png"
+   width="396"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">77. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. DETAILS OF THE APSE
+(LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The decadence of Gothic architecture was manifest even at the close of
+the thirteenth century in such <i>tours de force</i> as the choir of St.
+Peter at Beauvais, and the Church of St. Urbain at Troyes. During the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries buildings or parts of buildings
+were constructed with remarkable skill, but the noble simplicity which
+was the strength of thirteenth-century architecture was no more. By
+the close of the fifteenth century a studied mannerism had taken
+its place. The western doorway of Alen�on Cathedral is a typical
+example of this development, the defects of which were still further
+accentuated in the following century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p122_s"
+   src="images/i_p122_s.png"
+   width="360"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">78. ALEN�ON CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">"The qualities of the architecture of the decadence must be sought
+not in the construction, but in the decoration of churches; here we
+may freely admire the happy detail and patient execution which mark
+the work of carvers and limners during the last two centuries of the
+Middle Ages."<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Anthyme St. Paul, <i>Histoire Monumentale de la France</i>;
+Paris, 1884.</p></div>
+
+<p>Gothic architecture put forth its expansive force at the close of the
+twelfth and during the thirteenth century, not only throughout Western
+Europe, but even in Eastern countries, where monuments still survive
+of the highest interest to us as the work of monkish architects who
+came from France in the wake of the first Crusaders. The modifications
+and enlargements of famous buildings in the Holy Land towards the
+close of the twelfth century show evident traces of their influence,
+which is further<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> manifested in certain structures of Rhodes and
+Cyprus from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, in which Western
+and more especially French types have served as models.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:642px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p123_s"
+   src="images/i_p123_s.png"
+   width="642"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">79. FA�ADE OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. SOPHIA AT NICOSIA
+(ISLAND OF CYPRUS)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">"It will hardly be disputed that the prolonged sojourn of the
+Crusaders in the Levant, the teachings of their architects, and
+the contemplation of their works, were considerable factors in the
+development of Arab art. There was a reaction of the West upon the
+East; sometimes indeed such a direct influence is perceptible as to
+astound and perplex the observer. To understand the part played by the
+Crusaders in the East, and to appreciate its Western and independent
+character, we must cast a rapid glance at the monuments constructed by
+them in Cyprus and Rhodes after their expulsion from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> Syria. We shall
+find the movement which originated in the twelfth century progressing
+throughout the following centuries on the same lines; in other words,
+drawing a continuous inspiration from France.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Melchior de Vog��, <i>Les �glises de la Terre Sainte</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>"The island of Cyprus was conquered in 1191<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> by Richard C&#339;ur de
+Lion; in the following year it was ceded to Guy de Lusignan, in whose
+family it remained until the close of the fifteenth century. Catherine
+Cornaro, the widow of the last of the Lusignans, gave it in 1489 to
+the Venetians, who retained possession of it till its conquest by
+the Turks in 1571. Throughout the thirteenth century Cyprus was a
+refuge for successive remnants of the Christian colonies of Syria.
+French predominance was at its height in the fourteenth century.
+The religious monuments of this period are very numerous and of
+great variety of structure. Art had emerged from the cloister, and
+had ceased to be the monopoly of monastic bodies. In Cyprus we no
+longer find that scholastic uniformity which characterises the Latin
+churches of the Holy Land. The new blood of secularism had entered
+into Romanesque architecture and led to a fresh development of the
+art in Cyprus as in France Architects applied the thirteenth-century
+methods, fully recognising their consequences. They sacrificed to
+local exigencies by the substitution of flat roofs for timber ones,
+but this modification in nowise affected the general arrangement of
+their buildings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:474px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p124_s"
+   src="images/i_p124_s.png"
+   width="474"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">80. CATHEDRAL OF ST. NICHOLAS AT FAMAGUSTA (ISLAND OF
+CYPRUS). FA�ADE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:675px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p126_s"
+   src="images/i_p126_s.png"
+   width="675"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm"> 81. CATHEDRAL OF ST. NICHOLAS AT FAMAGUSTA (ISLAND OF
+CYPRUS)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">"The most considerable monument of the thirteenth century is the
+Cathedral of Nicosia, built between 1209 and 1228, and dedicated to
+St. Sophia (see <a href="#i_p123_s">Fig. 79</a>). This large three-aisled church has all the
+characteristics of French cathedrals of the period."<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Melchior de Vog��, <i>Les �glises de la Terre Sainte</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Churches of St. Catherine and of the Armenians, the mosques
+of Emerghi� and of Arab<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> Achmet also date from the close of the
+thirteenth century. Among the more numerous buildings of the
+fourteenth century the most noteworthy are the Cathedral of St.
+Nicholas at Famagusta (Figs. 80 and 81), with its three portals
+and two towers; the Church of St. Sophia at Famagusta (Fig. 82),
+the Premonstrant Monastery of Lapa�s, remarkable for the beauty
+and nobility of its abbatial buildings, which comprise a large
+three-aisled chapel, and several religious buildings at Paphos and
+at Limasol. At Rhodes there are a number of churches built in the
+fifteenth century after French models, which had no less a vogue
+for dwelling-houses than for religious and military architecture;
+in a word, architecture&mdash;civil, religious, or military&mdash;was French
+in all its manifestations. "The guns of the order still point from
+the embrasures of the towers, Soliman's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> stone cannon balls strew
+the neighbouring ground; sculptured on the house fronts are the
+blazons, and in many cases the French names, of their bygone owners.
+Involuntarily the mind travels back by the space of three centuries,
+reincorporating these forgotten worthies, and repeopling their
+dwelling-places. One half expects to see the emblazoned doors thrown
+open, to give egress to knightly owners, mustering for the last time
+under the banner of St. John."<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Melchior de Vog��, <i>Les �glises de la Terre Sainte</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p127_s"
+   src="images/i_p127_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="348"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">82. RUINS OF THE CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA AT FAMAGUSTA
+(ISLAND OF CYPRUS)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER X<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">TOWERS AND STEEPLES&mdash;CHOIRS&mdash;CHAPELS</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The first steeples were round, on the model of the Greek and Byzantine
+cupolas, and modest in diameter, so that the bells they contained can
+only have been small ones. These bells were suspended from the summit
+of the tower, the portion of wall surrounding them being pierced by
+arcaded openings, and crowned by a long pyramidal roof.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> <i>Encyclop�die de l'Architecture et de la Construction</i>,
+article "Clocher," by Ed. Corroyer.</p></div>
+
+<p>Such towers were very frequently isolated from the body of the church.
+A large number of Italian churches, dating from all periods of the
+Middle Ages, have steeples at a considerable distance from the main
+building.</p>
+
+<p>Force of habit determined the application of the round form to towers
+of the twelfth century; but it is evident that a square plan was
+preferred, even so early as the tenth century, and such a form was in
+course of time rendered necessary by the development of the founder's
+art, and the increase in the dimensions of bells at the beginning of
+the twelfth century. Besides the great bells which proclaimed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> the
+hour of prayer to a distant flock, small bells were in use to regulate
+the religious exercises of the clergy. They are called in the Latin
+texts <i>signum</i>, <i>schilla</i>, <i>nola</i>; in French <i>sin</i>, <i>esquielle</i>,
+<i>eschelitte</i>; from the beginning of the tenth century they were placed
+in the campaniles which crowned the domes.</p>
+
+<p>The Italian word <i>campanile</i> has the force of the French terms <i>tour</i>,
+<i>clocher</i>, <i>beffroi</i> (or the English tower, steeple, belfry). But the
+denomination <i>clocher</i> has a general application to all pyramidal
+structures rising above the roof of a church.</p>
+
+<p>The belfry was a tower, in most cases isolated, which contained the
+bell destined to sound the curfew and tocsin, and to call the burghers
+to civic assemblies.</p>
+
+<p>Like the belfry, the Italian campanile is generally an isolated
+building, but it is usually placed in the near neighbourhood of a
+church. Among the most famous <i>campanili</i> are those of Florence&mdash;begun
+in the fourteenth century, on the plans of Giotto,&mdash;of Padua, of
+Ravenna, and the famous leaning tower of Pisa.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p129_s"
+   src="images/i_p129_s.png"
+   width="200"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">83. STEEPLE, VEND�ME (TWELFTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In France the term campanile has a more general application, and is
+given to the little pierced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> arcaded turrets which, in many churches,
+crown the walls of the fa�ade and shelter small bells.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p130_s"
+   src="images/i_p130_s.png"
+   width="204"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">84. GIOTTO'S TOWER AT FLORENCE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The most ancient belfries of the original provinces of France have
+great analogies with Byzantine monuments as to form, even when
+differing in detail. One of the most remarkable of these is the tower
+of St. Front at P�rigueux, which seems to date from the first years
+of the eleventh century. It marked the sepulchre of the Saint, and
+apparently embraced two bays of the original three-aisled Latin church
+of the sixth century, evident traces of which have been discovered to
+the west of the great domed building of later times.</p>
+
+<p>The tower of St. Front is composed of three square stories,
+diminishing on plan as they rise, and crowned<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> by a conical dome,
+resting upon a circular colonnade, the columns of which vary in
+height and diameter, and owe their origin to Roman examples in the
+neighbourhood.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> <i>L' Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison
+Quantin, 1887.</p></div>
+
+<p>The influence of this remarkable building was very considerable. It
+served as a model to architects of the neighbouring provinces. The
+type was improved upon in the tower of the Abbey Church of Brant�me
+by the avoidance of the false bearings which mar the structure of St.
+Front, while at St. L�onard, near Limoges, a very original feature was
+superadded in the octagonal form of the crown or roof. The Auvergnat
+architects further perfected the construction by introducing internal
+piers for the support of the recessed walls of the upper stories, as
+at Puy.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> 1888.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is worthy of note that, in spite of the importance given to
+these buildings, the space allotted to the bells themselves was
+comparatively limited, which seems to indicate that the towers were
+destined for other purposes than the reception of bells. In the
+eleventh century the tower bore the same relation to the cathedral or
+abbey as did the donjon to the feudal castle. It was, in fact, the
+symbol of power. As abbots and bishops enjoyed the same rights as the
+nobles, it will be readily understood that the costliness of such
+emblems would be governed solely by the resources of their authors.
+The number of towers built at about the same period in connection with
+cathedrals and abbeys, and the importance of such as were attached
+even to simple parish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> churches may be explained if we consider
+them mainly as denoting the status of an enfranchised<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> commune. The
+rivalries in connection with neighbouring towers undoubtedly had their
+origin in conditions such as these.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p132_s"
+   src="images/i_p132_s.png"
+   width="261"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">85. BAYEUX CATHEDRAL. TOWERS OF THE WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p133_s"
+   src="images/i_p133_s.png"
+   width="301"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">86. SENLIS CATHEDRAL. SOUTH TOWER OF WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Towards the close of the eleventh century and throughout the twelfth
+many towers were built at an angle with the door, or in front of it,
+so as to form a porch, as at St. Beno�t-sur-Loire and Poissy; or above
+it, as in the Churches of Ainay and of Moissac.</p>
+
+<p>Later on immense towers with spires were built at each angle of the
+western fa�ade, the gable of the nave rising between them.</p>
+
+<p>At the Abbey Church of Jumi�ges a large projecting porch filled the
+central bay of the ground story between the bases of the towers, but
+more frequently the towers were in one plane with the chief porch, and
+were themselves pierced with lateral porches, the three doors, with
+their richly sculptured voussoirs, forming one vast decorative whole.</p>
+
+<p>The architects of the so-called Romanesque period built their towers
+at the intersection of the transepts; but avoiding the constructive
+audacities of the tower of St. Front, which was one of the most
+generally accepted models of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, they
+ensured the solidity of their central tower by placing the more or
+less conical cupola which crowned the structure upon a square base,
+carefully loaded and abutted at each angle.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the twelfth century the architects of the
+Ile-de-France adopted a square form for the body of the tower, and in
+imitation of Oriental and Rhenish builders, reserved the octagonal
+plan for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> the spire, ensuring the solidity of the angles by a variety
+of ingenious combinations.</p>
+
+<p>The great central towers of the Norman churches built in England and
+Normandy from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century were not always
+merely belfries, as at Salisbury or Langrune, for instance; in many
+cases they were lanterns, their functions being to light the centre
+of the church and to form a magnificent decorative feature at the
+intersection of transepts, nave, and choir in cruciform structures,
+such as St. Georges, Bocherville, Coutances, etc. Of all the French
+provinces Normandy clung most persistently to the lantern tower, and
+that of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of the most interesting examples.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p135_s"
+   src="images/i_p135_s.png"
+   width="177"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">87. SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. STEEPLE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p136_s"
+   src="images/i_p136_s.png"
+   width="268"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">88. CHURCH OF LANGRUNE (CALVADOS). STEEPLE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In other provinces, notably Picardy, Champagne, Burgundy, and the
+Ile-de-France, lantern towers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> were superseded by timber <i>fl�ches</i>
+cased in lead, which rose at the intersection of the roofs of nave and
+transepts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Among the most remarkable towers of the twelfth century in the
+Northern provinces we may mention those of Tracy-le-Val (Oise), of
+the Abbey Church of the Ste. Trinit� at Vend�me, and of Bayeux; those
+of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes at Caen; the old tower of the Cathedral of
+Chartres, and that of St. Eus�be at Auxerre.</p>
+
+<p>In the thirteenth century the height and decorative richness of these
+structures had increased to an extraordinary degree. The tower of
+Senlis (Fig. 86) is a most elegant example of the first years of a
+century which witnessed the birth of so many marvels of architecture.</p>
+
+<p>In Burgundy several remarkable towers were built by the monks of
+Cluny, who were free from the asceticism introduced by St. Bernard
+among their brethren of Citeaux. The most notable of their structures
+are perhaps the towers of the Church of St. P�re, near V�zelay, built
+about 1240.</p>
+
+<p>In the South various original developments in Gothic architecture were
+logically brought about by a judicious use of the materials of the
+country, such as brick. Most interesting examples of such development
+are to be found in the tower of the Jacobin Church at Toulouse, which
+dates from the close of the thirteenth century, and the donjon tower
+of Albi, the characteristics of which we have already discussed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p138_s"
+   src="images/i_p138_s.png"
+   width="346"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">89. CHURCH OF THE JACOBINS AT TOULOUSE. TOWER</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Examples of isolated towers are hardly to be found of later date than
+the thirteenth century. Bordeaux perhaps offers an exception. But
+the general usage after this period was to include the towers in the
+composition of the fa�ade; their actual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> functions as belfries became
+apparent only above the level of the vaults. A beautiful example of
+this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> treatment may be studied in the noble composition of Notre Dame
+de Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Its contemporary, the Cathedral of Laon, has four towers, terminating
+in octagonal belfries, the angles of which are flanked by two-storied
+openwork pinnacles; on the second of these stories are placed colossal
+bulls, the effect of which is very striking.</p>
+
+<p>The towers of Rheims, which date from the second half of the
+thirteenth century, are of secondary importance in the splendid
+fa�ade; but they are marked by a feature which was a novelty at
+the time. The interior of the belfry is built with a cage to allow
+free play to the bells, and space for the timbers by which they are
+supported, while the exterior forms an octagonal tower flanked by
+important pinnacles.</p>
+
+<p>Rheims may be said to mark in Gothic architecture the boundary which
+separated its period of perfection from that of exaggeration and
+mannerism. The mania for lightness and the desire to dazzle and
+astound soon seduced its artists into a dangerous path which led
+inevitably to decadence. Such effects first manifested themselves more
+especially in the provinces of the German frontier, and the spire of
+Strasburg, built in the fourteenth century, is a famous example of
+these mistaken tendencies.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries towers adhered to
+the plan and general arrangement adopted by the later architects of
+the thirteenth century, diverging chiefly in the marvellous profusion
+of detail and of sculpture, and in the excessive lightness of design.
+The points of support were attenu<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>ated, and the mass of ornament
+seemed designed to conceal them as far as possible. In France the
+misfortunes of the times tended largely to perpetuate these dangerous
+foibles; for a number of churches which were founded at the close of
+the thirteenth century remained unfinished till the fifteenth and
+sixteenth, when Gothic art was in full decadence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p140_s"
+   src="images/i_p140_s.png"
+   width="212"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">90. CHURCH OF ST. PIERRE AT CAEN. TOWER</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">But we must not pass over unmentioned certain buildings famous for
+boldness of construction and magnificence of decoration, if not for
+purity of style. The following are perhaps the most important:&mdash;In
+France the tower of St. Pierre at Caen, which shows strong traces
+of that analogy, or family likeness, so to speak, uniting Norman
+edifices; and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> tower of St. Michel at Bordeaux, the spire of which
+was destroyed by a hurricane in 1768, and has lately been restored
+to its primitive height of 365 feet; in Austria the tower of St.
+Stephen, one of the most important of such buildings in that country,
+finished in 1433; the tower of the Cathedral of Freiburg-im-Breisgau
+(grand-duchy of Baden), one of the most beautiful and important
+examples. It was mainly constructed towards the close of the
+fourteenth century, but the openwork spire was added about the middle
+of the following century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p141_s"
+   src="images/i_p141_s.png"
+   width="224"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">91. CHURCH OF ST. MICHEL AT BORDEAUX. TOWER</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Cathedral of Antwerp in Belgium was begun in the middle of the
+fourteenth century; the nave and the four side aisles were not
+completed till a century<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> later. The fa�ade is said to have been begun
+in 1406 by a Boulognese master-mason, one Pierre Amel; but of the
+two belfry towers only that on the north was completed in 1518. Its
+principal merit lies in its boldness of construction and its unusual
+height of 410 feet, rather than in purity of style or beauty of
+detail, the latter being a conglomerate made up from every period of
+Gothic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p142_s"
+   src="images/i_p142_s.png"
+   width="191"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">92. CATHEDRAL OF FREIBURG-IM-BREISGAU (GRAND-DUCHY OF
+BADEN). TOWER</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><i>Choirs.</i>&mdash;In Christian churches the choir<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>
+proper was an institution long before the chapels.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> <i>L' Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison
+Quantin, 1888.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> <i>Encyclop�die de l'Architecture et de la Construction</i>,
+article "Ch&#339;ur-Chapelle," by Ed. Corroyer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p143_s"
+   src="images/i_p143_s.png"
+   width="246"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">93. ANTWERP CATHEDRAL</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">At the extremity of the basilica, in the centre of the chalcidium or
+transept which gave to the basilican plan the form of a T or Tau&mdash;a
+figure venerated by the Christians as symbolising the Cross&mdash;were
+placed the altar, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> sanctuary, and the precincts occupied by the
+deacons and sub-deacons. The altar stood in the midst, between the
+hemicycle or apse and the nave arch. The hemicycle or apse which
+formed the Pagan tribunal was by the Christians reserved for ordained
+priests, hence its name, <i>presbyterium</i>. A semi-circular bench
+(<i>consistorium</i>), interrupted in the middle by a seat higher than the
+rest, on either side of which sat the inferior clergy, surrounded the
+apse, the raised seat (<i>suggestus</i>) being the throne of the bishop or
+his representative.</p>
+
+<p>This portion of the basilica underwent a later modification; from
+the <i>presbyterium</i> it became the <i>martyrium</i>, or shrine in which was
+placed the body of the patron saint of the basilica or the relic to
+which the devotion of the faithful was specially addressed. This usage
+had been established even before the year 500 in the first basilica of
+St. Martin at Tours.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive apse was lighted only from the nave or transept. After
+its transformation into the <i>martyrium</i> it was not only pierced with
+windows, but, according to some authors, was provided with openings
+along its base, or even arcaded, so as to give access to a low gallery
+running round it. If this be so, the characteristic arrangement of
+medi�val churches dates from the fifth century.</p>
+
+<p>In later times when it became customary to place the altar at the
+back, against the wall of the apse, seats for the bishops, priests,
+and choristers&mdash;<i>the choir</i>&mdash;were arranged between the altar and the
+nave. In monastic churches, built after the Latin tradition, the choir
+was generally in the crossing, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> where there were no transepts,
+in the nave itself. It was separated from the congregation by a low
+enclosure of stone or marble. There are a few examples of churches
+with <i>two</i> choirs, one at the east, the other at the west.</p>
+
+<p>In the first churches of the Romanesque epoch the choir was confined
+to the space between the piers of the crossing; it soon, however, made
+considerable advances. In monastic churches the choir or sanctuary was
+cut off from the surrounding spaces by barriers of stone or wood, and
+towards the nave was closed by a <i>jub�</i>, or rood screen and loft, the
+upper part of which was accessible to the monks for the reading of the
+epistle and gospel. Bishops, on the other hand, being free from the
+necessity of closing the choirs of their cathedrals, made a point of
+providing their flocks with wide spaces, in which ceremonies could be
+afforded a liberal development.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the twelfth century and beginning of the thirteenth
+these ideas governed the construction of important churches. Changes
+continued to be made, however, and from the reign of St. Louis we find
+the choirs of great cathedrals arranged on the exclusive principles
+of the monastic churches. The arcades surrounding them were filled
+with high stone walls, against the inner sides of which the stalls of
+the clergy, with their lofty and richly carved wooden canopies, were
+securely fixed.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more famous choirs we may quote those of Notre Dame de
+Paris, of Amiens, of Beauvais, of Auch, of Lincoln, of Canterbury, of
+Spires, of Worms, of Burgos, etc. In order to satisfy the laymen whose
+view of the ceremonies<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> performed in the choir was intercepted by
+these enclosures, the sanctuary was surrounded by chapels contrived in
+the wall of the apse, and in the side aisles of the nave.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chapels.</i>&mdash;From the end of the tenth century,
+according to M. de Caumont, we shall sometimes find aisles running
+entirely round the choir or sanctuary and communicating with it by an
+arcade. Even at this early period there must have been chapels in such
+aisles. In the twelfth century the disposition to elongate the choirs
+of important churches became general, and brought with it certain
+modifications of the plan. The Church of Vignori, which dates from the
+tenth century, has an apse divided into three chapels, recalling in
+its arrangement that of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>The Church of St. Servan, built in the eleventh century, has five
+chapels round the choir, and the Auvergnat churches&mdash;Notre Dame du
+Port at Clermont, and St. Paul at Issoire among others,&mdash;which date
+from the beginning of the twelfth century, also show in this respect
+some interesting peculiarities. The importance given to the apse by
+these rings of chapels can scarcely be too much insisted on.</p>
+
+<p>On plan these apsidal chapels are, for the most part, round-ended.
+They are pierced with one or more round-headed windows, and have
+segmental vaults. On the outside they are often ornamented by
+mouldings, modillions, and even by variations in the colour of their
+stones. Chapels between the buttresses of the nave are rare in several
+aisled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> churches of the Romanesque period, but in many such buildings
+they were added at a later time.</p>
+
+<p>The great revolution which took place in the art of building towards
+the end of the twelfth century had, for one of its results, the
+multiplication of chapels in the numerous great churches dating from
+that epoch. The principle of that revolution being to replace the
+inert masses which had previously resisted the various thrusts by
+comparatively slender points of support upon which those thrusts could
+be collected, stability being secured by a scientific calculation
+of forces, it led, as a natural consequence, to a considerable
+augmentation of disposable surfaces in the interior. These surfaces,
+mere curtains between the points of support, were ornamented with
+vast networks of stone, embracing panels of painted glass, on which
+the principal events of the Old and New Testaments, and the scenes
+so vividly outlined in the traditions of the time, were traced with
+admirable art. Room was found for chapels of considerable size, not
+only in the walls, or rather between the piers of the apse, but also
+in those of the side aisles, the bounding walls of which were carried
+out to the external faces of the buttresses receiving the thrust of
+the main vault, which buttresses now formed the lateral walls of a
+continuous line of chapels.</p>
+
+<p>The veneration paid to the relics of saints increased greatly after
+the year 1000, in consequence of the pilgrimages to the Holy Land
+which preceded the Crusades. Each religious community established a
+patron, and demanded a special oratory dedicated to him, and it was a
+point of honour to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> make such a shrine excel that of the neighbouring,
+and, in most cases, rival corporation. The demand for these shrines
+increased to such an extent at the close of the fourteenth and
+throughout the fifteenth century that, though chapels were constructed
+in all the available spaces of the vast cathedrals, they were found
+insufficient, and sanctuaries, which in earlier times had been
+the special property of particular bodies, were shared by several
+confraternities.</p>
+
+<p>The Lady Chapel, or chapel dedicated to the Virgin, was generally in
+the apse, and in the thirteenth century, especially at its close, had
+been so considerably developed as to give great importance to the
+portion of the apse allotted to it. Very curious examples of this
+development are to be studied in the Cathedrals of Bourges, Amiens,
+Meaux, and Rouen, among others.</p>
+
+<p>In many cathedrals and churches of the Middle Ages lateral chapels
+or annexes were built to serve some subsidiary purpose; such were
+chapter-houses, muniment rooms, treasuries, or even mortuaries, as
+the presbytery of Lincoln, the circular chapel at Canterbury, known
+as Becket's Crown, containing the tomb of Thomas � Becket, and Henry
+VII.'s chapel at Westminster.</p>
+
+<p>A most interesting example of this species of structure dating from
+the end of the twelfth century is to be seen at Soissons Cathedral; a
+two-storied vaulted building is connected by openings with the upper
+galleries of the round-ended south transept, and contains a funeral
+chapel, with a vaulted chamber above for a treasury.</p>
+
+<p>In many countries small ancient buildings are to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> found, known
+as baptisteries or chapels; these latter are doubtless the little
+rural churches which were built in great numbers in the first
+centuries of the Christian era, and are designated <i>capella</i> in texts
+of the time of Charlemagne, or perhaps oratories, such as it was
+customary to attach to the charnel-houses of towns or great religious
+establishments.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> <i>L'Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison
+Quantin, 1888.</p></div>
+
+<p>The use of private chapels dates from the earliest days of
+Christianity; great personages who had embraced the new faith followed
+the example of the Romans who constructed private basilicas in their
+palaces. The custom was perpetuated, and the splendid Palatine Chapel
+of Aix is one of the most magnificent of its results. In later times
+kings and great nobles built themselves sanctuaries within their
+castles. In the time of Charles V. the Louvre owned an important
+chapel; the feudal castles of Coucy and Pierrefonds, among others,
+contained large chapels, the arrangement of which is very curious.
+Arch�ologists cite as of special beauty among seignorial chapels
+the ancient oratory of the Dukes of Bourbon at Moulins, the Chapels
+of Chenonceaux, Chambord, and Chaumont, and the Chapel of Jacques
+C&#339;ur's <i>h�tel</i> at Bourges. Many episcopal palaces have very
+remarkable chapels, such as that of the archbishop's palace at Rheims.</p>
+
+<p>Refuges, hospitals, madhouses, and prisons also had chapels more or
+less important.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>Sainte Chapelle</i><a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> was applied in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> Middle Ages to
+buildings raised over spots sanctified by the martyrdom of a saint, or
+destined to enshrine relics of peculiar holiness. The most famous was
+the royal oratory, built by Pierre de Montereau between 1242 and 1248
+on the south side of the royal palace, now the <i>Palais de Justice</i>,
+Paris, to receive the Crown of Thorns, the pieces of the true Cross,
+and other relics brought by the royal founder, St. Louis, from the
+Holy Land.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> The plans and elevations of these chapels are so well
+known, and have been so frequently published, that we abstain from
+reproducing them in the present work.</p></div>
+
+<p>The distinguishing feature of the <i>Ste. Chapelle</i> of Paris is its
+division into two stories&mdash;the upper chapel, which communicated with
+the royal apartments, and the lower chapel on the ground floor, which
+may have been open to the public. Its construction is remarkable no
+less for the happy boldness with which the whole of the spaces between
+the buttresses were utilised for the introduction of immense painted
+windows, than for the perfection of execution and the beauty of the
+sculptures, and this in spite of the rapidity with which the work was
+carried out. An annexe, which has now disappeared, adjoined the apse
+on the north, and consisted of three stories serving as sacristies and
+muniment rooms. The spire, a wooden structure cased in lead, dating
+from the time of Charles VII., was destroyed by fire in 1630; it was
+shortly restored, only to be again demolished at the close of the
+eighteenth century, and was finally replaced by the architect Lassus,
+who restored the building.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ste. Chapelle</i> of St. Germain-en-Laye must have been built some
+years before that of the royal palace of Paris. It is remarkable for
+certain peculiarities of structure which show a greater<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> architectural
+skill; the piers which sustain the vault have a greater interior
+projection; the formerets are disengaged from the wall, and the square
+windows occupy the whole space between the buttresses, and rise to
+close beneath the cornice. This most original and learned arrangement
+gives the building a very graceful aspect, and brings out its elegant
+proportions.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ste. Chapelle</i> of Vincennes, begun by Charles VI., was not
+completed until the reign of Henry II. In construction it is akin to
+that of Paris. The two-storied annexes which formed the sacristies and
+treasury were finished towards the close of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>After the example of kings and princes the great abbeys began to
+raise important oratories independent of their conventual churches.
+The Abbey of St. Martin des Champs at Paris founded two large chapels
+about the middle of the thirteenth century,&mdash;one dedicated to the
+Virgin, and the other to St. Michael.</p>
+
+<p>Pierre de Montereau was commissioned to build, in addition to the
+<i>Ste. Chapelle</i> of the palace, a chapel dedicated to the Virgin,
+within the precincts of the Abbey of St. Germain des Pr�s; the plan
+of the vaults differs here from that of the Ste. Chapelle of the
+palace. According to a drawing by Alexander Lenoir, made before the
+destruction of this chapel of the Virgin, the pointed arches comprised
+two bays, in imitation of the vaults on intersecting arches in Notre
+Dame of Paris, the origin of which we discussed in chapter vi.</p>
+
+<p>The Abbey of Ch�alis, near Senlis, founded by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> Louis the Fat in 1136,
+which was one of the most important abbeys of the Cistercian order
+in the thirteenth century, possessed an abbey church of five aisles,
+over 330 feet long. Towards the middle of the thirteenth century
+it nevertheless founded a <i>Ste. Chapelle</i>, known as the Chapelle
+de l'Abb�. The building has undergone various vicissitudes, and
+the ribbed vaults which date from the reign of St. Louis were once
+decorated with frescoes, attributed to Primaticcio. The building
+still exists, however, almost in its entirety. It illustrates the
+considerable influence exercised by the Ste. Chapelle of Paris from
+its very foundation on the great nobles, more especially the heads of
+rich abbeys eager to parade their immense power and wealth.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XI<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">SCULPTURE</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>In the Middle Ages all the arts were auxiliary to architecture. The
+architect traced the details of his conception in the workshop, and
+superintended the construction; he directed stone-carvers, masons,
+sculptors, illuminators, painters, and glass-stainers, and laid his
+<i>imprimatur</i> on every branch of the work of which he was the creator.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the connection between the allied arts was very close. The
+history of sculpture is that of architecture, for the diverse
+influences which marked their origin and modifications were common to
+both. Each reached its apogee in the brilliant manifestations of the
+thirteenth century, and each followed the same path to decadence less
+than two centuries later.</p>
+
+<p>Statuary and ornamental sculpture were inseparable, being executed by
+the same artists in pursuance of the same idea: the study of nature.</p>
+
+<p>In obedience to the law of increasing development they abandoned the
+hieratic forms imposed by religious tradition, but only to give a new
+expression to these very traditions, which were still preserved and
+venerated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Roman inspiration, and even direct imitation of Roman sculpture,
+is clearly traceable in the first half of the thirteenth century.
+Rheims, which may be accepted as the masterpiece, the last word, so to
+speak, of Gothic architecture, illustrates this influence in certain
+magnificent examples of the western porch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:599px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p154_s"
+   src="images/i_p154_s.png"
+   width="599"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">94. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT. CENTRAL PORCH</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p155_s"
+   src="images/i_p155_s.png"
+   width="376"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">95. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p156_s"
+   src="images/i_p156_s.png"
+   width="309"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">96. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The architects of the thirteenth century were pre-eminently the
+children of their generation. Ignoring their Latin descent they
+followed in the paths of the innovators so far as monumental structure
+was concerned; but they in their turn inaugurated a new departure
+by abandoning the Byzantine convention in statuary and sculptured
+ornament which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> had prevailed throughout the preceding century, in
+favour of the more ancient Roman tradition. In this one respect they
+made a salutary return upon those antique principles which they
+afterwards definitively abandoned.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p157_s"
+   src="images/i_p157_s.png"
+   width="210"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">97. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF PRINCIPAL DOOR.
+STATUE AND ORNAMENT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p158_s"
+   src="images/i_p158_s.png"
+   width="216"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">98. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF PRINCIPAL DOOR.
+STATUE AND ORNAMENT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The influence of Roman art upon French medi�val sculpture is
+unquestionable. Its course may be traced through the relations
+existing between North and South long before the Crusades, principally
+by means of the great religious communities, and even more manifestly
+in the countless monuments raised in Gaul on Roman models, or in those
+constructed by Gallo-Romans for several centuries. Many of these
+survived the incursions of the barbarians.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of orna<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>mental sculpture is no less venerable.
+Superficially, it would seem to have drawn its inspiration mainly from
+the Romanesque epoch; but according to modern <i>savants</i><a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> its source
+must be looked for in much remoter periods. Oriental art, imported
+into Scandinavia, and there barbarised, was introduced into Ireland
+in the early centuries of our era. The Irish monks, whose power was
+very great, and who seem to have been the principal agents in the
+Renascence of the days of Charlemagne, created, or at any rate greatly
+influenced Carlovingian art by their manuscripts and miniatures. From
+Carlovingian art that of the so-called Romanesque period was born, and
+this was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> in its turn the parent of the ornamental sculpture of the
+thirteenth century. In the admirably decorative character of this
+art we recognise the influence of an ancient tradition handed on from
+generation to generation, to be finally rejuvenated, invigorated, and
+transformed as to detail by a close study of nature,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> precisely as had
+happened in the allied development of statuary.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> M. A. de Montaiglon, Professor at the <i>�cole des
+Chartes</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The architects of the Ile-de-France, like those of Rheims,
+assimilated the principles of the new art with the supple skill which
+characterised them, such assimilation bearing rich fruit at Notre Dame
+de Paris in the sculptured figures of the west porch, and no less in
+their accessory ornaments.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p159_s"
+   src="images/i_p159_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="388"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">99. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. PRINCIPAL DOOR. RUNNING LEAF
+PATTERN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p160_s"
+   src="images/i_p160_s.png"
+   width="348"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">100. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. RUNNING LEAF PATTERN ON
+ARCHIVOLTS OF NORTH DOOR</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">A most instructive comparative study is furnished by the north and
+south porches of Chartres Cathedral. Here we find, in one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> building,
+examples of sculptures inspired by the hieratic tradition of
+Byzantium, and of those which had been transformed and naturalised by
+a return to antique ideals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p161_s"
+   src="images/i_p161_s.png"
+   width="225"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">101. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF THE NORTH PORCH</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">At Amiens again certain of the sculptures were influenced by the new
+principles. But in the greater part there is a prodigality of motive
+and looseness of execution which indicate decline no less surely than
+the mistaken ingenuity of the structural details.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p162_s"
+   src="images/i_p162_s.png"
+   width="246"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">102. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF THE SOUTH PORCH</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Medi�val sculpture followed the fortunes of architecture, both in
+its rise and fall. In its first beginnings it was characterised by
+a purity of style not unworthy of Rome in her most glorious days,
+but rapidly losing touch with the antique ideal, it lost measure and
+proportion in its development. The wise laws of simplicity, essential
+to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> all greatness in art, were set aside in favour of an unruly
+exuberance which ran riot in details, and was the immediate cause of
+a decline perceptible even in the fourteenth century, and absolute
+in the fifteenth. "Sculpture was at its zenith. We are astounded by
+the activity and fertility of thirteenth-century artists, who peopled
+fa�ades and embrasures with figures from seven to ten feet in height,
+and animated every tympanum with countless statuettes. The fa�ade of
+Notre Dame, by no means one of the richest, has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> sixty-eight colossal
+statues, for the most part of the highest excellence; at Chartres and
+at Amiens there are over a hundred to each porch. The famous figure of
+Christ at Amiens is a masterpiece; bas-reliefs work out the details of
+the main subject, and enrich the story with innumerable pictures of
+amazing vigour and originality."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p163_s"
+   src="images/i_p163_s.png"
+   width="389"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">103. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. CENTRAL PORCH OF WEST FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:561px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p164_s"
+   src="images/i_p164_s.png"
+   width="561"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">104. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. STATUES IN THE SOUTH PORCH</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:489px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p165_s"
+   src="images/i_p165_s.png"
+   width="489"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">105. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. CHOIR STALLS. CARVED ORNAMENT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2">The favourite themes of the thirteenth century had something in
+common with those of the Romanesque epoch, though there is a sensible
+difference of treatment and considerable progress in composition,
+which exhibited more of taste and learning and less of eccentricity.
+But the satiric power and delight in caricature of our forefathers
+still demanded an outlet. These found expression in many a caustic
+gibe at clergy, princes, and rich burghers, and took substance in many
+a quaint gargoyle. A luxuriant system of ornamentation, adapted from
+the vegetable kingdom, was auxiliary to statuary. The main subject was
+enframed by it, or relieved against it; while often the composition
+itself was enriched<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> by its introduction to complete the decorative
+effect. Or such a system of decoration was the only sculpturesque
+motive employed; it was then used with the utmost elaboration, and
+developed at the expense of statuary. Such was the case in Burgundy
+and Normandy, in which provinces the latter art was of slow growth.
+The Byzantine character of the scrolls, carved bands, and fantastic
+foliage of Romanesque art disappeared; ornament took on a new
+independence, and began to seek its types among native plant forms.</p>
+
+<p>The carved leafage (<a href="#i_p166_s">Fig. 106</a>) of the cloister arcades in the Abbey of
+Mont St. Michel strikingly illustrate this departure. The very plants
+which inspired the thirteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span>-century sculptors still flourish at the
+foot of the ancient abbey walls.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p166_s"
+   src="images/i_p166_s.png"
+   width="371"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">106. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CLOISTERS OF THE
+THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CARVED ORNAMENT OF INTERIOR SPANDRILS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p167_s"
+   src="images/i_p167_s.png"
+   width="289"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">107. WOODEN STATUETTE (HEIGHT 23&#8541; IN.) THIRTEENTH
+CENTURY. ATELIERS DE LA CHAISE DIEU, AUVERGNE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p168_s"
+   src="images/i_p168_s.png"
+   width="229"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">108. IVORY STATUETTE (HEIGHT 9&#8542; IN.) THIRTEENTH
+CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Thus the flora of our own fields was applied in lithic form to the
+elements of our church architecture. But the breadth proper to
+architectural sculpture was still preserved by means of ingenious
+combinations.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that the
+imitation of natural forms became servile, tedious, and over-minute,
+and that the beauty of the whole was sacrificed to exaggerated
+faithfulness of detail.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Anthyme St. Paul, <i>Histoire Monumentale de la France</i>;
+Paris, Hachette and Co., 1884.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p169_s"
+   src="images/i_p169_s.png"
+   width="199"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">108A. IVORY STATUETTE (HEIGHT 9&#189; IN.) FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">It should be noted that the decadence which manifested itself in
+monumental sculpture was far less rapid in the more intimate art which
+may be distinguished as <i>imagery</i>. In the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries all sculptors were <i>image-makers</i>; but towards the close of
+the latter, and during the fifteenth, the term was specially applied
+to carvers of images in wood, ivory, etc.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> Art still flourished in
+their ateliers in all its beauty, notably that of the goldsmiths,
+who carved images in high or low relief in precious metals, and who,
+thanks to the severely paternal regulations of the <i>ma�trise</i>, were
+enabled to bring French decorative art to the highest degree of
+perfection. The beautiful carved wooden stalls of Amiens, Auch, and
+Albi, to name<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> but the most famous, testify to the vigorous talent of
+the fourteenth and fifteenth-century image-carvers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p170_s"
+   src="images/i_p170_s.png"
+   width="430"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">109. WOODEN STATUETTE (HEIGHT 10 IN.) FOURTEENTH
+CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:653px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p171a_s"
+   src="images/i_p171a_s.png"
+   width="653"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">110. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 6&#8540; IN.) FOURTEENTH
+CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p171b_s"
+   src="images/i_p171b_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="380"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">110A. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 2&#190; IN.) FOURTEENTH
+CENTURY. SCHOOL OF THE ILE-DE-FRANCE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:615px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p172_s"
+   src="images/i_p172_s.png"
+   width="615"
+   height="470"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">111. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 4&#190; IN.) FOURTEENTH
+CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Flemish <i>ateliers</i>, which were kept up by the severe rules of the
+guilds, exercised a salutary influence upon the Burgundian craftsmen.
+This is more especially true of the great workshops of Antwerp
+and of Brussels, and perhaps also of those of Southern Germany.
+Burgundian influences reacted in their turn upon the artists of the
+Ile-de-France, notably in Paris (that brilliant centre of all artistic
+activities in the fourteenth century), and stirred them to emulation.
+The union of these various elements brought about the revival of the
+fine tradition of the thirteenth century, and towards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> the close of
+the fifteenth century paved the way for a French Renascence, which
+heralded that more famous movement of the sixteenth, the credit of
+which is usually given to the Italians, who, however, such was the
+infatuation of the times, contributed rather to the debasement than to
+the regeneration of French national art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p173_s"
+   src="images/i_p173_s.png"
+   width="362"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">111A. IVORY PLAQUE (HEIGHT 6<sup>11</sup>/<sub>16</sub> IN.) COVER OF AN
+EVANGELIUM. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF THE ILE-DE-FRANCE (SOISSONS)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p174_s"
+   src="images/i_p174_s.png"
+   width="359"
+   height="480"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">112. HEAD IN SILVER GILT REPOUSS�. HALF-LIFE SIZE.
+THIRTEENTH CENTURY. ATELIERS OF THE GOLDSMITH'S GUILD OF PARIS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p175_s"
+   src="images/i_p175_s.png"
+   width="381"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">113. GROUP CARVED IN WOOD (HEIGHT 10&#188; IN.) FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY. SCHOOL OF ANTWERP</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The remarkable sculptures that owe their origin to the <i>ateliers</i> of
+Antwerp are distinguished by one of the quarterings of the civic arms,
+a severed hand burnt in with a red-hot iron. Those of Brussels are
+branded in like fashion. The images of wood, ivory, and <i>vermeil</i>,
+that we figure as illustrating the art of the image-carvers from the
+thirteenth to the fifteenth century, show that the old tradition was
+still cherished in this community. Their artists were so far swayed
+by iconographic convention that a certain hieratic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> sentiment is
+perceptible in their works; but this is never allowed to outweigh
+fitness of action and expression, and their masterpieces are so
+instinct with taste and delicacy, composed with so much skill and
+executed with such freedom, that they are the admiration of modern
+artists.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The statuettes, diptychs, etc., in wood, ivory, and
+<i>vermeil</i>, or silver-gilt, figured from No. 107 to No. 115, belong to
+the author.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p176_s"
+   src="images/i_p176_s.png"
+   width="237"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">114. WOODEN STATUETTE, PAINTED AND GILDED (HEIGHT
+19<sup>11</sup>/<sub>16</sub> IN.) FIFTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF BRUSSELS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p177_s"
+   src="images/i_p177_s.png"
+   width="276"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">115. WOODEN STATUETTE, PAINTED AND GILDED (HEIGHT
+19<sup>11</sup>/<sub>16</sub> IN.) SIXTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF MUNICH</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">These essentially French qualities they owe, primarily, of course,
+to the genius of their creators, but in a scarcely inferior degree
+to the fostering care of the <i>ma�trises</i>, institutions which only
+require a certain modification by the progressive leaven of today, to
+become models for the imitation of all whose function it is to develop
+national art.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XII<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">PAINTING</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The origin of painting dates from remote antiquity, and the art had
+already passed through many developments before it was applied by
+Gothic architects to the decoration of their buildings.</p>
+
+<p>"In the thirteenth century the architectonic painting of the Middle
+Ages reached its apogee in France. The painted windows, the vignettes
+of manuscripts, and the mural decorations of this period all denote
+a learned and finished art, and are marked by a singular harmony of
+tones, and a corresponding harmony with architectural forms. It is
+beyond question that this art was developed in the cloister, and was a
+direct product of Gr�co-Byzantine teachings."<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dictionnaire raisonn�</i>, vol. vii.</p></div>
+
+<p>From the arch�ological point of view, however, it is important to bear
+in mind the considerable influence exercised upon continental art by
+the manuscripts and miniatures of Irish monks, so early as the reign
+of Charlemagne.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:537px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p180_s"
+   src="images/i_p180_s.png"
+   width="537"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">116. PAINTINGS IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. HORIZONTAL
+PROJECTION OF THE CUPOLA WITH FORESHORTENED FIGURES AND THEIR
+ARCHITECTURAL FRAMEWORK</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Towards the close of the twelfth century sculpture and painting alike
+entered on a new phase,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> resulting from that process of architectural
+evolution we have been considering. The hieratic tradition was set
+aside for the direct teaching and inspiration of nature. But as the
+mastery of the painter increased, the mural spaces available for
+the application of his new methods diminished rapidly, till, by the
+thirteenth century, the only wall surfaces left to him were those
+beneath the windows, and some few<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> triangular spaces in the vault,
+where the interlacing network of arches became gradually closer and
+closer. Finding themselves thus practically excluded from the new
+Gothic buildings, the painters of the day turned their attention with
+entire success to the decoration of ancient monuments by the new
+naturalistic methods. The domes of great abbey churches such as St.
+Front (P�rigueux) offered immense bare surfaces, the concave forms
+of which they utilised with extraordinary skill, adorning them with
+compositions in which figure and ornament are so adroitly combined,
+that they seem to be of normal proportions, in spite of their really
+colossal size (<a href="#i_p182_s">Fig. 117</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p182_s"
+   src="images/i_p182_s.png"
+   width="280"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">117. PAINTING IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. FRAGMENT OF ONE OF
+THE EIGHT SECTORS OF THE CUPOLA. THE PROPHET EZEKIEL</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Thanks to a discovery of mural paintings made in the Cathedral of
+Cahors in 1890, of the greatest arch�ological importance, we are able
+to verify these statements.</p>
+
+<p>During the progress of certain works undertaken for the preservation
+of the two domes, some paintings of great interest were laid bare on
+the removal of several coats of whitewash from the western cupola.
+Traces of similar decoration were found on the eastern cupola and its
+pendentives, but these it was found impossible to preserve, the action
+of the air causing them to peel at once from the surfaces. But the
+western composition is intact, and though the brilliance of the colour
+has no doubt suffered from time, we can still appreciate the learning,
+vigour, and firmness of hand perceptible in the design, which is
+outlined in black.</p>
+
+<p>This western cupola, which is ovoid, and some fifty-three feet in
+diameter, like that of the east, is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> divided by its pictorial scheme
+into eight sectors, separated by wide bands of boldly-designed fruits
+and flowers. <a href="#i_p180_s">Fig. 116</a> gives an exact idea of the general arrangement.
+Eight colossal figures of prophets, varying in height from fifteen to
+sixteen feet approximately, form the chief motives of the decoration.
+David, the prophet king, and the four great prophets: Daniel to
+the left of David; then in order, Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Ezekiel on
+the right, towards the choir of the church, and the three minor
+prophets&mdash;Jonah, Esdras, and Habakkuk&mdash;are painted in modulated tones,
+the dark outline forming a setting, on a background varying from tawny
+to deep red. The figures are enframed in a firmly-drawn architectural
+setting. This architecture is painted in gray against the masonry,
+the courses of which are indicated by double lines of brown upon the
+pale ochre of the general surface. Each prophet holds a phylactery
+or banderole inscribed with his name in beautiful thirteenth-century
+characters.</p>
+
+<p>The floriated bands which divide the sectors terminate above in a
+circular frieze surrounding the crown of the cupola. The latter
+represents a starry sky, the centre painted with the apotheosis of
+St. Stephen, the patron of the cathedral. The frieze is painted
+with scenes from the trial and stoning of the Saint; the life-size
+figures are full of expression and grouped with great variety. In
+these paintings there are evident leanings towards the naturalistic
+evolution; and though the figures of the prophets are still hieratic
+in certain respects, the poses, heads, and details all point to
+evident research in the matter of physiognomy. This research is
+carried very far in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> the figures of the circular frieze, where the
+hands have evidently been carefully studied from nature.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:603px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p184_s"
+   src="images/i_p184_s.png"
+   width="603"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">118. PAINTINGS IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. FRAGMENT OF THE
+CENTRAL FRIEZE OF THE CUPOLA</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Technically speaking, these paintings are not frescoes. "The medium
+employed seems to have been egg, the white and yolk mixed, and the
+method very analogous to that of water-colour painting.... The red
+tones were laid over a bed of deep orange, the effect being one of
+extraordinary vigour and brilliance, taking into account the means at
+command. The use of a prepared ground was systematic, and was resorted
+to whenever intensity of the tones or colour effects was desired.
+Evident efforts in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> direction of modelling are noticeable,
+though these have been neutralised to a great extent by a lack of
+concentration in the lights, and if it were not for the thick outline
+in which each figure is set, there would be much in common between
+the methods of these paintings and those renderings of diffused light
+affected by our modern <i>plein-airistes</i>. The general tone is that of
+the simpler paintings of the thirteenth century, that is to say, of
+those in which no gold was used. The effect is warm and brilliant, the
+dominant hue orange, heightened by reds of various tints."<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> From the technical notes of M. Ga�da.</p></div>
+
+<p>According to the arch�ological records derived from various works of
+the historians of Le Quercy, these paintings in the west cupola of
+Cahors were carried out under the direction of the Bishops Raymond de
+Cornil, 1280-93, Sicard de Montaigu, 1294-1300, Raymond Panchelli,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a>
+1300-1312, or Hugo Geraldi, 1312-16, the friend of Pope Clement V. and
+of Philip IV. of France, who was burnt alive at Avignon, or perhaps
+even of Guillaume de Labroa, 1316-24, whose residence was at Avignon,
+and who governed the diocese of Cahors through a procurator. From this
+period onwards there was no further question of decorative works, the
+successors of these bishops being fully occupied in maintaining the
+struggle against the English invaders.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Raymond Panchelli, or Raymond II., who in 1303 began to
+build the Bridge of Valentr� at Cahors.</p></div>
+
+<p>It seems reasonable therefore to infer that the Cahors paintings
+date either from the end of the thirteenth century or the beginning
+of the fourteenth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> In any case, these decorations are of very great
+artistic merit, and of the highest interest as an unique example of
+French decorative art at the finest period of the thirteenth century,
+when Gothic architecture had reached its apogee, and was producing
+masterpieces which served as models for contemporary artists, and even
+more notably, for those of the early fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>That vigilant guardian of our beautiful cathedrals and historic
+monuments, the <i>Administration des Cultes</i>, has taken measures which
+do it infinite honour in this matter. No attempt has been made to
+restore the paintings, but all necessary steps have been taken to
+ensure their preservation as they stand, so as to leave intact the
+arch�ological value of these convincing witnesses to the genius of our
+French medi�val painters.</p>
+
+<p>The mural spaces available for fresco decoration having been gradually
+suppressed, and decorative painting limited to the illumination of
+certain subordinate members of the structure, the medi�val artists
+began to apply themselves to the decoration of the great screens of
+glass which, with their sculptured framework of stone, now filled
+the entire spaces between the piers. In this new art, or rather this
+incarnation of the spirit of decoration under a new form, we find a
+fresh illustration of that supple assimilative genius which already
+distinguished the French artist.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p187_s"
+   src="images/i_p187_s.png"
+   width="326"
+   height="530"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">119, 120. PAINTED WINDOWS OF THE EARLY TWELFTH CENTURY.
+FROM ST. R�MI AT RHEIMS<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Drawings lent by M. Ed. Didron, painter upon glass.</p></div>
+
+<p class="p2">"It is in the nature of the material used, that painted windows
+should greatly affect the character of the building they decorate.
+If their treatment is injudicious, the intended architectural
+effect may be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> greatly modified; if, on the other hand, they
+are intelligently applied, they tend to bring out the beauty of
+structural surroundings.... As is the case with all architectonic
+painting, stained glass demands simplicity in composition, sobriety
+in execution, and an avoidance of naturalistic imitation. It should
+aim neither at illusion nor perspective. Its scheme of colour should
+be frank, energetic, comprising few tints, yet producing a harmony
+at once sumptuous and soothing, which should compel attention, but
+seeks not to engross it to the detriment of the setting. Like a mural
+mosaic, an Eastern carpet, or the enamelled goldsmith's work of the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a truly decorative window has no
+affinities with a picture, a scene or landscape gazed at from an open
+window, where the interest concentrates itself upon a particular
+point, and where the illumination is not equally diffused throughout.
+The fundamental law of decorative painting rests on a convention the
+aim of which is the satisfaction of the eye, which finds its pleasure
+to a far greater degree in the logical decoration of some structural
+or useful object than in its realisation of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> natural phenomena.
+Between painted windows and pictures a great gulf is fixed; and the
+modern school, the heir of the Italian Renascence, seeking to bridge
+it over, has seduced decorative art from the safe paths of sound
+judgment."<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> <i>Le Vitrail � l'Exposition de 1889</i>, by Ed. Didron;
+Paris, 1890.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p188_s"
+   src="images/i_p188_s.png"
+   width="432"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">121. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. CHURCH OF
+BONLIEU (CREUSE)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:557px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p189_s"
+   src="images/i_p189_s.png"
+   width="557"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">122. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CHARTRES
+CATHEDRAL</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The true functions of stained glass were never more admirably
+understood than in the twelfth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> century. The artists of that day
+had a perfect comprehension of those colour-harmonies, the subdued
+splendour of which best accorded with the simple and vigorous forms
+of Romanesque architecture. Upon his glass of various tints the
+painter first outlined his figure or ornament in black. This outline
+he supported with a flat half-tint which supplied a rough modelling
+and allowed the forms expressed to make their fullest effect from a
+distance.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> When, in the thirteenth century, the extreme austerity
+of religious buildings began to relax, the splendour of the painted
+windows increased proportionately; but the coloration, though it
+increased<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> in glow and vigour, still preserved its complete harmony
+with its surroundings. An additional richness is perceptible in
+work of the fourteenth century, at which period red glass began to
+be used with a certain prodigality. The system of execution remains
+unchanged so far; but the black outline is considerably attenuated,
+and the half-tone which emphasises it loses much of its importance.
+The figures, in place of the hieratic repose of an earlier period,
+affect a certain grace and animation which herald a tendency towards
+realistic imitation. These germs of naturalism soon bore fruit. At
+the close of the fourteenth century the discovery of how to obtain
+yellow from salts of silver, and the facility with which it could be
+used to warm the grayer tones of glass by the help of the muffle,
+caused a revolution in the art of glass-painting, and prepared the way
+for polychromatic enamelling. This discovery, eminently useful when
+discreetly applied, was to lead to regrettable exaggerations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:558px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p190_s"
+   src="images/i_p190_s.png"
+   width="558"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">123. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.
+CHARTRES CATHEDRAL</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p191_s"
+   src="images/i_p191_s.png"
+   width="362"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">124. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CHURCH
+OF ST. GERMER, TROYES</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In the fifteenth century the figures of saints were usually drawn
+upon glass so tinted as to be of a soft white tone; the hair, beards,
+head-dresses, jewels, trimmings, and embroideries were painted in
+yellow. The figures stood out in bold relief against a background
+of blue or red, and were divided by a damasked drapery of green or
+purple. Vast architectural motives were introduced enframing the
+figures and filling up the immense window spaces of the latest period
+of medi�val art. The transformation was radical. It is of interest to
+note that the final development of the Gothic style ought logically
+to have brought about a recrudescence of vigour in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> coloration
+of stained glass; but the exact reverse was the case; and a marked
+modification took place in the glowing effects won by a diversity of
+strong tints. The sort of <i>cama�eu</i> which was the result obliged the
+painter to insist more strongly on the modelling of the figures, and
+to give less importance to the black outline, which was eventually
+suppressed altogether.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p193_s"
+   src="images/i_p193_s.png"
+   width="408"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">125. PAINTED WINDOWS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. CHURCH
+OF ST. URBAIN AT TROYES</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In the sixteenth century painted glass became to a certain extent
+translucent pictures, in which architectural fitness was no longer
+respected. Composition lost its simplicity. A subject spread from
+panel to panel, regardless of the intervening tracery. Nevertheless,
+we forget the defects of this luxuriant development, and cease to
+wonder at its popularity, in view of that broad and vigorous execution
+and beauty of colour which give it a special decorative value of its
+own.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p194_s"
+   src="images/i_p194_s.png"
+   width="380"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">126. PAINTED GLASS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. HEAD OF
+ST. PETER. CATHEDRAL OF CH�LONS-SUR-MARNE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Enamelling is so closely allied to glass-painting as to claim a
+word for itself. Here, again, the decorative art of the Middle Ages
+was characteristic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span>ally displayed, and though the process is more
+specially applicable to the ornamentation of goldsmith's work than to
+the decoration of large surfaces, it is one of the most brilliant and
+exquisite of the auxiliary arts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p195_s"
+   src="images/i_p195_s.png"
+   width="243"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">127. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. �VREUX
+CATHEDRAL</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The earliest enamels are <i>champlev�</i> and <i>cloisonn�</i>. By the
+<i>champlev�</i> process a hollow, the edges of which outlined the
+figures or ornaments, was cut in the field or ground of metal for
+the reception of the fusible enamel; for <i>cloisonn�</i>, <i>cloisons</i>, or
+slender walls of metal were fixed upon the field to separate flesh
+from draperies, and one tint generally from another. The background,
+the <i>cloisons</i>, and the flesh were gilt and burnished; details were
+defined by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> engraved lines, so that the draperies only were enamelled.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p196_s"
+   src="images/i_p196_s.png"
+   width="314"
+   height="540"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">128. ENAMEL OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. PLAQUE COVER OF A
+MS. HEIGHT 4&#190; IN., WIDTH 2<sup>9</sup>/<sub>16</sub> IN.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2"><a href="#i_p196_s">Fig. 128</a> reproduces an enamel of the close of the eleventh century, in
+which these various characteristics may be studied. The inscriptions
+on either side of the cross are formed by letters vertically
+superposed, which read downwards.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning of the thirteenth century enamels were executed by
+the process known as <i>taille d'�pargne</i>. By this method the ground
+was cut out, as described above, for the reception of the various
+ingredients which, after undergoing the process of firing, formed
+the enamel; the draperies, hands, and feet of the figures which were
+<i>�pargn�s</i> (<i>spared</i> or left) were modelled and chased in very low
+relief; but the central figure, such as the Christ, and the heads of
+the subordinate personages or attendant angels, were always in high
+relief, vigorously modelled, and chased.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#i_p198_s">Fig. 129</a>, a plaque forming the cover of an evangelium, is a
+characteristic example of this class of enamel. It dates from the
+early thirteenth century, and is a production of the <i>ateliers</i>
+founded at Limoges by the monks of Solignac.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:515px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p198_s"
+   src="images/i_p198_s.png"
+   width="515"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">129. ENAMEL OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. PLAQUE COVER OF
+AN EVANGELIUM. HEIGHT 7<sup>2</sup>/<sub>16</sub> IN., WIDTH 6<sup>11</sup>/<sub>16</sub> IN.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The reliquary figured <a href="#i_p199_s">No. 130</a> is also a work of the Limousin
+enamellers. The methods employed are identical, but the carving of the
+figures is less delicate, indeed almost rudimentary, the modelling
+being replaced by hasty strokes of the graver. The lower panel of this
+reliquary represents the martyrdom of Thomas � Becket, Archbishop of
+Canterbury, the upper part his apotheosis. It is crowned by a ridge
+roof of two sides.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p199_s"
+   src="images/i_p199_s.png"
+   width="427"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">130. ENAMEL OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. RELIQUARY SHRINE
+OF ST. THOMAS � BECKET</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">As is well known, Thomas � Becket was canonised two years after his
+tragic death, which had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> aroused general reprobation throughout
+Christendom. The universal feeling expressed itself at Limoges by
+the manufacture of a great number of reliquaries destined to receive
+relics of the sainted martyr.</p>
+
+<p>In the details of the draperies and hands of those portions of
+<a href="#i_p198_s">Fig. 129</a> which are carved in low relief, we may trace the germs of
+those low-relief enamels known as translucent, or to be more exact,
+transparent enamels. This process originated in Italy, and was
+commonly employed in France, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> even in Germany throughout the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, more especially the latter.
+These enamels could only be executed on gold and silver. The method
+consisted in modelling the design in very low relief on the face of
+the plate, which was then covered with a transparent enamel of few
+colours. The process was a slow and difficult one;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> the pieces were
+consequently very costly, and the demand for them proportionately
+restricted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:457px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p200_s"
+   src="images/i_p200_s.png"
+   width="457"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">131. ENAMEL OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. OUR LADY OF
+SORROWS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The enamellers of the sixteenth century, especially those who
+flourished at its beginning, were evidently inspired by these
+low-relief enamels to seek the same brilliant opalescence of effect
+by more scientific and less costly methods. But the simplification of
+the process degenerated into vulgarisation, and its original qualities
+gradually faded out. <a href="#i_p200_s">Fig. 131</a>, representing Our Lady of Sorrows, and
+signed I. C. (Jehan Courteys or Courtois), gives some idea of the
+design, at least, of the painted enamels executed by the Limousin
+artists of the early sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Gothic architecture, more especially in its religious manifestations
+from the twelfth to the fifteenth century, made its prolific influence
+felt, not only by the structural qualities of its vast and numerous
+buildings, but by those various arts created, perfected, or at least
+developed, for their decoration. We have traced a bare outline of
+its activities, regretting that space fails us to make an exhaustive
+study of their various manifestations. The priceless fragments which
+illustrate these offshoots of an art essentially French are now the
+chief ornaments not only of French, but of all European museums.
+They take rank as factors of the first importance in art education,
+pointing the way to fresh masterpieces of French genius.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PART II<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE</span></h2></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE: ITS ORIGIN</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The origin of monastic architecture is of no greater antiquity than
+the fourth century of the Christian era. The hermits and anchorites of
+the earliest period made their habitation in the caves and deserts of
+the Theba�d; their sole monument is the record of their virtues, which
+have outlived any buildings they may have raised during their years
+of solitude. But the first Christians who banded themselves together
+under a common rule, and discarded anchoritism for the cenobitic life,
+marked their worldly pilgrimage by monuments, traces of which are
+still to be found in historic records or fragmentary remains.</p>
+
+<p>The history of abbey churches is identical with that of
+cathedrals.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a> The architectural evolutions and transformations
+which succeeded each other in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
+manifested themselves in both. Like the cathedrals, the abbey churches
+were the creation of monkish architects, and were carried out either
+under their immediate direction or that of their pupils.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> See Part I., "Religious Architecture."</p></div>
+
+<p>But a kindred field of study offers itself in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> abbeys themselves,
+their organisation and adaptation to the domestic needs of their
+be-frocked inmates.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:564px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p206_s"
+   src="images/i_p206_s.jpg"
+   width="564"
+   height="390"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">132. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CLOISTER (THIRTEENTH
+CENTURY. FROM A DRAWING BY ED. CORROYER)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Monastic institutions date from the Roman era. The first abbeys were
+those established in France in the fourth century, by St. Hilary of
+Poitiers and St. Martin of Tours. These religious associations or
+corporations, which eventually became so powerful, by reason not only
+of their numbers, but of the spirit which animated them, must be
+reckoned as among the most beneficent forces of the Middle Ages. Even
+from the philosophical side alone of the religious rule under which
+they flourished, by virtue of which enlightened men wielded supreme
+power, they were admirable institutions.</p>
+
+<p>To instance one among many, the so-called <i>Rule</i> of St. Benedict
+is in itself a monument, the basis of which is <i>discipline</i>, the
+coping-stone <i>labour</i>. These are principles of undying excellence, for
+they are the expression of eternal truths. And from them our modern
+economists, who so justly exalt the system of co-operation, might even
+in these latter days draw inspiration as useful and as fruitful as
+that by which men were guided in the days of Benedict.</p>
+
+<p>Three great intellectual centres shed their light on the first
+centuries of the Middle Ages. These were L�rins, Ireland, and Monte
+Casino. Their most brilliant time was from the fourth century to
+the reign of Charlemagne, by which period they may be said to have
+prepared the way for successive evolutions of human knowledge, by
+assiduous cultivation of the sciences and arts, more especially
+architecture, in accordance with the immutable laws of development and
+progress.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>L�rins.</i>&mdash;St. Honoratus and his companions, when
+they landed in the archipelago, built on the principal island a chapel
+surrounded by the cells and buildings necessary for a confraternity.
+This took place about 375-390 <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> The members of the budding
+community were learned monks, who had accepted the religious rule
+which had now become their law. They instructed neophytes sent them
+from the mainland, and their reputation grew so rapidly that L�rins
+soon took rank as a school of theology, a seminary or nursery whence
+the medi�val church chose the bishops and abbots best fitted to govern
+her.</p>
+
+<p>The school of L�rins was so esteemed for learning that it took
+an active part in the great Pelagian controversy which agitated
+Christendom at the time,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> and zealously advocated the doctrines of
+semi-pelagianism, but this tendency was finally subdued by St. Vincent
+of L�rins, whose ideas were more orthodox. The theological teaching of
+L�rins seems to have dominated, or at least to have directed religious
+opinion in Gaul down to the sixth century.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> <i>Pelagianism</i> was the heresy of the monk Pelagius,
+who flourished in the fourth century. He contested the doctrine of
+original sin, as imputed to all mankind from the fall of Adam, and
+taught that the grace of God is accorded to us in proportion to our
+merits. <i>Semi-pelagianism</i> taught that man may begin the work of his
+own amelioration, but cannot complete it without Divine help.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Ireland.</i>&mdash;So early as the sixth century Ireland
+was the centre of art and science in the West. The Irish monks had
+followed the oriental tradition as modified by its passage through
+Scandinavia; they exercised a considerable influence on continental
+art by their manuscripts and illuminations, and prepared the way for
+the renascence of the days of Charle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>magne, to which such importance
+was given by the monuments of the Romanesque movement.</p>
+
+<p>St. Columba was a monk of the seminary of Clonard in Ireland,
+whence towards the close of the sixth century he passed over to
+the continent, founding the Abbeys of Luxeuil and Fontaine, near
+Besan�on, and later that of Bobbio, in Italy, where he died in 615.
+His principal work was the <i>Rule</i> prescribed to the Irish monks who
+had accompanied him, and those who took the vows of the monasteries he
+had founded. In this famous work he did not merely enjoin that love of
+God and of the brethren on which his <i>Rule</i> is based; he demonstrated
+the utility and beauty of his maxims, which he built upon Scriptural
+precepts, and upon fundamental principles of morality. The school
+of Luxeuil became one of the most famous of the seventh century,
+and, like that of L�rins, the nursery of learned doctors and famous
+prelates.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monte Casino.</i>&mdash;In the sixth century St. Benedict
+preached Christianity in the south of Italy, where, in spite of
+Imperial edicts, Paganism still prevailed among the masses. He built a
+chapel in honour of St. John the Baptist on the ruins of a temple of
+Apollo, and afterwards founded a monastery to which he gave his <i>Rule</i>
+in 529. This was the cradle of the great Benedictine order.</p>
+
+<p>The number of St. Benedict's disciples grew apace. He had imposed on
+them, together with the voluntary obedience and subordination which
+constitute <i>discipline</i>, those prescriptions of his <i>Rule</i>, which
+demanded the partition of time between prayer and work. He proceeded
+to make a practical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> application of these principles at Monte Casino,
+the buildings of which were raised by himself and his companions.
+Barren lands were reclaimed and transformed into gardens for the
+community; mills, bakehouses, and workshops for the manufacture of
+all the necessaries of life were constructed in the abbey precincts,
+with a view to rendering the confraternity self-supporting; auxiliary
+buildings were reserved for the reception of the poor and of
+travellers. These, however, were so disposed that strangers were kept
+outside the main structure, which was reserved exclusively for the
+religious body.</p>
+
+<p>The great merit of St. Benedict, apart from his philosophical
+eminence, lies in his comprehension of the doctrine of labour. He was
+perhaps the first to teach that useful and intelligent work is one
+of the conditions, if not indeed the sole condition, of that moral
+perfection to which his followers were taught to aspire. If he had no
+further title to fame, this alone should ensure his immortality.</p>
+
+<p>"The apostles and first bishops were the natural guides of those who
+were appointed to build the basilicas in which the faithful met for
+worship. When at a later stage they carried the faith to distant
+provinces of the empire, they alone were able to indicate or to mark
+out with their own hands the lines on which buildings fitted for
+the new worship should be raised.... St. Martin superintended the
+construction of the oratory of one of the first Gallic monasteries
+at Liguj�, and later of that of Marmoutier, near Tours, on the banks
+of the Loire. In the reign of Childebert, St. Germain directed the
+building of the Abbey of St. Vincent&mdash;afterwards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> re-named St.
+Germain-des-Pr�s&mdash;in Paris. St. Benedict soon added to his <i>Rule</i> a
+decree providing for the teaching and study of architecture, painting,
+mosaic, sculpture, and all branches of art; and it became one of the
+most important duties of abbots, priors, and deans to make designs for
+the churches and auxiliary buildings of the communities they ruled.
+From the early centuries of the Christian era down to the thirteenth
+century, therefore, architecture was practised only by the clergy, and
+came to be regarded as a sacred science. The most ancient plans now
+extant&mdash;those of St. Gall and of Canterbury&mdash;were traced by the monks
+Eigenhard and Edwin.... During the eleventh and twelfth centuries
+there rose throughout Christendom admirable buildings due to the art
+and industry of the monks, who, bringing to bear upon the work their
+own researches, and the experience of past generations, received a
+fresh stimulus to exertion in this age of universal regeneration, by
+the enthusiasm with which their kings inspired them for the vast ruins
+of the ninth century."<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Albert Lenoir, <i>L'Architecture Monastique</i>; Paris, 1856.</p></div>
+
+<p>From the earliest centuries of the Christian era communities both male
+and female had been formed with the object of living together under
+a religious rule; but it seems evident that the greater number of
+monasteries owed their fame and wealth, if not their actual origin,
+to the reputation of their relics. These attracted the multitude.
+Pilgrimages became so frequent, and pilgrims so numerous, that it was
+found necessary to build hospices, or night-refuges, in various towns
+on their routes. A confraternity<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> of the <i>Pilgrims of St. Michael</i> was
+formed in the beginning of the thirteenth century in Paris, where the
+confraternity of <i>St. James of Pilgrims</i> had already built its chapel
+and hospital in the Rue St. Denis, near the city gate.</p>
+
+<p>From the seventh to the ninth century important abbeys flourished
+in nearly all the provinces now comprised in modern France. Later,
+under the immediate successors of Charlemagne, great monasteries were
+founded in all the countries which made up his dominions. Charlemagne
+himself had greatly contributed to the development of religious
+institutions by his reliance on the bishops, and more especially the
+monks who represented progress, supported his policy, and enforced
+his civilising mission. But after his death the study of art and
+science declined so rapidly that a radical reform became necessary in
+the tenth century, a reform which seems to have had its birth in the
+Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, established in Burgundy about the year 930.</p>
+
+<p>From this hasty sketch of monastic organisation some idea may be
+gathered of the importance of religious institutions in the eleventh
+and twelfth centuries, and of the immense services they had rendered
+the State by diligent and useful toil, among the chief fruits of which
+must be reckoned the revival of agriculture, and the development of
+the sciences and arts, more especially architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Monastic architecture exercised a great and decisive influence upon
+national art by its vast religious buildings, the precursors of our
+great cathedrals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Until the middle of the twelfth century science, letters, art,
+wealth, and above all, intelligence&mdash;in other words, omnipotence on
+earth&mdash;were the monopoly of religious bodies. It is bare historic
+justice to remember that the Middle Ages derived their chief title to
+fame, and all their intellectual enlightenment, from the abbeys, and
+that the great religious houses were in fact schools, the educational
+influence of which was immense. It must be borne in mind that if the
+great cathedrals of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were not
+actually constructed by the monks, their architects were nevertheless
+the pupils of monks, and that it was in the abbey schools, so
+generously opened to all, that they imbibed the first principles of
+the art they afterwards turned to such marvellous account.</p>
+
+<p>The study of architecture in particular was not merely theoretical. It
+was demonstrated by the monks in their important monastic buildings,
+the crowning point of which was the abbey church, a structure often
+larger and more ornate than contemporary cathedrals.</p>
+
+<p>On the plan commonly adopted, the cloister, a spreading lawn adorned
+with plants, adjoined the church on the north, and sometimes on the
+south. An open arcade surrounded the cloister, by means of which
+communication with all the necessary domestic offices was provided.
+Of these the principal were: the refectory, generally a fine vaulted
+hall, close to the kitchens; the <i>chapter-house</i>, a building attached
+to the church, the upper story of which was the dormitory of the
+monks; the vaulted cellars and granaries, above which were the
+lodgings<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> provided for strangers; the storerooms were connected with
+stables, cattle-stalls, and various outdoor offices, often of great
+extent. All these dependencies for the service of the community were
+kept strictly separate one from another, thus all necessary measures
+were taken to provide for the needs and duties of hospitality without
+any disturbance of the religious routine.</p>
+
+<p>The abbeys of the Romanesque period were largely used as models in
+their day. They were modified by lay architects or monkish builders
+who, however, were careful to abate nothing of their perfection; they
+partook of the developments which marked the middle of the thirteenth
+century, and were subjected to that progressive transformation, the
+great feature of which was the adoption of the Angevin intersecting
+arch, the distinguishing characteristic of Gothic architecture.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">THE ABBEY OF CLUNY&mdash;CISTERCIAN ABBEYS</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The Benedictines, the Cistercians, the Augustinians, the
+Premonstrants, and notably the congregation of Cluny were all
+energetic builders, and the vast and magnificent structures of their
+creation were reckoned the most perfect achievements of their day. The
+study of their buildings&mdash;the church, the dwelling-places of abbot and
+monks, with all their dependencies&mdash;is most instructive. It fills us
+with admiration for the learning and judgment of the monkish builders
+who, accepting the limitations imposed by climate, locality, material,
+the numbers of their inmates, and the resources of their order, turned
+them all to account as elements of beauty and harmony.</p>
+
+<p>The architects of the first abbeys undoubtedly adopted the
+constructive methods of the period, and built in the Latin, Roman,
+or Gallo-Roman manner. The double gateway of the Abbey of Cluny, the
+architect of which was probably Gauzon, sometime Abbot of Beaune,
+who laid the foundations of the famous monastery, is an interesting
+proof of this assertion. But monastic architecture underwent the same
+modifications to which ecclesiastical architecture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> had been subjected
+under those various influences which manifested themselves in the
+glorious monuments built from the eleventh to the thirteenth century,
+when Gothic architecture reached its apogee.</p>
+
+<p>The abbots of the many abbeys of various orders built throughout
+this period were too enlightened to disregard the progress of their
+contemporaries, and they promptly applied the new principles to the
+construction or embellishment of their monasteries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:622px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p216_s"
+   src="images/i_p216_s.png"
+   width="622"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">133. ABBEY OF CLUNY. GATEWAY</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Abbey of Cluny was founded in 909 by William, Duke of Aquitaine,
+and declared independent by Pope John XI., who in 932 confirmed
+the duke's charter. Its rapid development and growth in power is
+sufficiently explained by the social and political circumstances of
+its origin. At the begin<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span>ning of the tenth century Norman invasions
+and feudal excesses had destroyed the work of Charlemagne. Western
+Christendom seemed to lapse into barbarism after the havoc made by
+the Saracens and Northern pirates among towns and monasteries. Civil
+society and religious institutions had alike fallen into the decay
+born of a conflict of rights and a contempt of all authority.</p>
+
+<p>Cluny rapidly became a centre round which all the intelligence which
+had escaped submersion in the chaos of the ninth century grouped
+itself. Its school soon attained a distinction equal to that which
+marked the first great seats of learning at the beginning of the
+Middle Ages. Thanks to the <i>Rule</i> of St. Benedict, on which the
+Benedictines of Cluny had grounded their community, the abbey
+developed greatly in extent and wealth. Throughout the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries it seems to have been the prolific nursery-ground
+whence Europe drew not only teachers for other monastic schools,
+but specialists in every branch of science and of letters, notably
+architects, who aided in the expansion of Cluny and its dependencies,
+and further practically contributed to the construction of the
+numerous abbeys founded by the Benedictines throughout Western Europe,
+and even in the East, the cradle of Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>While this struggle of intelligence against ignorance was in progress,
+a social revolution had accomplished itself by the enfranchisement of
+the communes, a development of the utmost importance in its relation
+to science, art, and material existence, in a word, to the whole
+social system.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Architecture, that faithful expression of the social state which had
+its origin in Pagan civilisation, became Christianised by its culture
+in the abbeys, and in its new development rose to that pre-eminence
+the marvels of which we have already studied in the first part of this
+work. But though the successes achieved by the architecture of this
+period were rapid and dazzling, its decadence was profound, for it was
+induced by too radical an emancipation from antique principles, the
+superiority of which had been established in the first centuries of
+the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>The Abbey of Cluny soon became too small for the increasing number of
+monks. St. Hugh undertook its reconstruction in the closing years of
+the eleventh century, and the monk Gauzon of Cluny began the works in
+1089 on a much more extensive plan, indeed on a scale so magnificent
+that the church of the new abbey was esteemed the first in importance
+among Western buildings of the kind.</p>
+
+<p>The plan (<a href="#i_p219_s">Fig. 134</a>) shows the arrangement of the abbey at the close
+of the eleventh century, when the monastic buildings had been
+reconstructed some time previously. The ancient church was intact; the
+choir had been begun in the time of St. Hugh, but the building had not
+been consecrated till 1131. The chapel which precedes it on the west
+was completed so late as 1228 by Roland I., twentieth abbot of Cluny.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p219_s"
+   src="images/i_p219_s.png"
+   width="447"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">134. ABBEY OF CLUNY. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">At A on the plan stood the entrance, the Gallo-Roman gateway which
+still exists. At B, in front of the church, a flight of steps led
+up to a square platform, from which rose a stone cross; a flight of
+broad steps gave access to the chapel entrance at C,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> an open space
+between two square towers. The northern tower was built to receive the
+archives; that on the south was known as the Tower of Justice. The
+ante-church or narthex at D seems to have been set apart for strangers
+and penitents, who were not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> allowed to enter the main building. Their
+place of worship was distinct from the abbey church, just as their
+lodging was separated from the buildings reserved for the brotherhood,
+who were permitted no intercourse with the outer world. At E was the
+door of the abbey church, which was only opened to admit some great
+personage whose exceptional privilege it was to enter the sanctuary.</p>
+
+<p>At Cluny, as at V�zelay, one of the dependencies of Cluny, the
+Galilee, which is found in all Benedictine abbeys, was built
+with aisles and towers on the same scale as an ordinary church.
+It communicated with the buildings set apart for guests over the
+storehouses of the abbey to the west of the cloister at F on the
+plan. From the Galilee access to the abbey church was obtained at
+E, by means of a single doorway, which from descriptions seems to
+have resembled the great door of the monastery church at Moissac in
+arrangement and decoration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p221_s"
+   src="images/i_p221_s.png"
+   width="411"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">135. ABBEY OF CLUNY. INTERIOR OF NARTHEX, WITH DOOR
+LEADING INTO ABBEY CHURCH</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The special characteristic of the Abbey Church of Cluny is its double
+transept, an arrangement we shall find reproduced in the great abbey
+churches of England, notably at Lincoln. According to a description
+written in the last century, the Abbey Church of Cluny was 410 feet
+long. It was built in the form of an archiepiscopal cross, and had
+two transepts: the first nearly 200 feet long by 30 feet wide; the
+second, 110 feet long and wider than the first. The basilica, 110
+feet in width, was divided into five aisles, with semi-circular
+vaults supported on sixty-eight piers. Over three hundred narrow
+round-headed windows, high up the wall, transmitted the dim light that
+favours meditation. The high altar was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> placed immediately beyond the
+second transept at G, and the retro-choir and altar at H. The choir,
+which had two rood screens, occupied about a third of the nave. It
+contained two hundred and twenty-five stalls for the monks, and in
+the fifteenth century was hung with magnificent tapestries. A number
+of altars dedicated to various saints were placed against the screens
+and the piers of nave and side aisles. At a later period chapels were
+constructed along the aisles and on the eastern sides of the two
+transepts.</p>
+
+<p>Above the principal transept rose three towers roofed with slate; the
+central, or lantern tower was known as the lamp tower, because from
+the vaults of the crossing below it were suspended lamps, or coronas
+of lights which were kept burning day and night over the high altar.</p>
+
+<p>To the south of the abbey, at F on the plan, was a great enclosure,
+surrounded by a cloister, some vestiges of which still remain. K and
+L mark the site of the abbatial buildings which were restored in the
+fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; M and N the structures raised last
+century over the primitive foundations. To the east lay the gardens
+and the great fish-ponds which still exist, with portions of their
+enclosures. Another surviving fragment is a building of the thirteenth
+century, said to be the bakery, and marked O on the plan.</p>
+
+<p>The abbots who succeeded St. Hugh were unable to preserve the
+primitive conditions of the foundation. The excessive luxury resulting
+from over-prosperity brought about demoralisation, and by the end of
+the eleventh century discord was rife at Cluny.</p>
+
+<p>Peter the Venerable, who was elected abbot in 1112, restored order
+for a time, and established a chapter general, consisting of two
+hundred priors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> and over twelve hundred other monks. In 1158, at the
+time of Peter's death, these numbers had increased by more than four
+hundred, and the order had founded monasteries in the Holy Land and at
+Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Abbey of Citeaux.</i>&mdash;The reform of the
+Benedictine orders became a pressing necessity, and St. Robert, Abbot
+of Solesmes, entered upon the task about 1098. St. Bernard continued
+it, after having quitted his abbey, with twenty-one monks of the
+order, to take refuge in the forest of Citeaux, given him by Don
+Reynard, Vicomte of Beaune. His main achievement was reorganisation
+of such a nature as to deal effectually with the decay of primitive
+simplicity throughout the order, which had completely lost touch with
+monastic sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>"Frequent intercourse with the outside world had demoralised the
+monks, who attracted within their cloister walls crowds of sightseers,
+guests, and pilgrims. The monasteries which, down to the eleventh
+century, were either built in the towns, or had become centres of
+population in consequence of the Norman and Saracen invasions,
+retained their character of religious seclusion only for a certain
+number of monks, who devoted themselves to intellectual labours.
+Besides which, the brethren had become feudal lords, holding
+jurisdiction side by side with the bishops, and St. Germain-des-Pr�s,
+St. Denis, St. Martin, Vend�me, and Moissac owned no over-lordships
+but that of the Pope. Hence arose temporal cares, disputes, and even
+armed conflicts, among them. The greed and vanity of the abbots at
+least, if not of their monks, made itself<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> felt even in religious
+worship, and in the buildings consecrated thereto."<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Anthyme St. Paul, <i>Histoire Monumentale de la France</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>St. Bernard, in an address to the monks of his day, reproves their
+degeneracy, and censures the exaggerated dimensions of the abbey
+churches, the splendour of their ornamentation, and the luxury of
+the abbots. O vanity of vanities! he exclaims, and folly great as
+vanity! The Church is bedecked in her walls, but naked in her poor!
+She overlays her stones with gold, and leaves her children without
+raiment! The curious are given distractions, and the miserable lack
+bread! It was to suppress such abuses that the Cistercian order was
+founded by St. Robert and St. Bernard, and also to put an end to
+the disputes arising from ecclesiastical jurisdiction by making the
+new abbeys dependencies of the bishoprics. They were to be built in
+solitary places, "and to nourish their inmates by agriculture. It
+was forbidden to found them over the tombs of saints, for fear of
+attracting pilgrims, who would bring worldly distractions in their
+train. The buildings themselves were to be solid, and built of good
+freestone, but without any sort of extraneous ornament; the only
+towers allowed were small belfries, sometimes of stone, but more
+usually of wood."<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>The Cistercian order was founded in 1119, and St. Robert imposed
+the <i>Rule</i> of St. Benedict in its primitive severity. To mark his
+separation from the degenerate Benedictines, whose dress was black, he
+gave his monks a brown habit. After determining their religious duties
+he gave minute<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> instructions as to the arrangement of the buildings.
+The condition chiefly insisted upon was that the site of the monastery
+should be of such extent and so ordered that the necessaries of life
+could be provided within its precincts. Thus all causes of distraction
+through communication with the outside world were removed. The
+monasteries, whenever possible, were to be built beside a stream or
+river; they were to contain, independently of the claustral buildings,
+the church and the abbot's dwelling, which was outside the principal
+enclosure, a mill, a bakehouse, and workshops for the manufacture of
+all things requisite to the community, besides gardens for the use and
+pleasure of the monks.</p>
+
+<p>The Abbey of Clairvaux was an embodiment of the reforms brought about
+by St. Robert, and later by St. Bernard. The general arrangement and
+the details of service were almost identical with those of Citeaux,
+just as Citeaux itself had been modelled upon Cluny in all respects,
+save that a severe observance of the primitive Benedictine rule
+was insisted upon in the disposition of the later foundation. All
+superfluities were proscribed, and the rules which enjoined absolute
+seclusion as a means towards moral perfection were sternly enforced.</p>
+
+<p>The result is undoubtedly interesting as a religious revival; but we
+may be permitted to regret that the intellectual impetus given to art
+progress by the great Benedictine lords spiritual of Cluny should have
+been checked by the frigid utilitarianism to which architecture&mdash;then
+an epitome of all the arts&mdash;was reduced by the purists of Citeaux in
+its application to the monasteries of the reform.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Cistercian monuments are not, however, wanting in interest.</p>
+
+<p>Of Clairvaux and Citeaux little remains but fragments embedded in
+a mass of modern buildings, for the most part restorations of the
+last century. As records these are less to be relied upon than the
+historical and arch�ological documents which guided Viollet-le-Duc
+in his graphic reconstruction of famous Cistercian abbeys, an essay
+not to be bettered as a piece of lucid demonstration (see his
+<i>Dictionary</i>, vol. i. pp. 263-271).</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER III<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">ABBEYS AND CARTHUSIAN MONASTERIES</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>In the eleventh century a large number of monasteries had been built
+throughout Western Europe by monks of various orders, in imitation
+of the great monastic schools of L�rins, Ireland, and Monte Casino.
+Among the famous abbeys of this period may be mentioned "V�zelay and
+F�camp, sometime convents for women, afterwards converted into abbeys
+for men; St. Nicaise, at Rheims; Nogent-sous-Coucy, in Picardy; Anchin
+and Annouain, in Artois; St. �tienne, at Caen; St. Pierre-sur-Dives,
+Le Bec, Conches, Cerisy-la-For�t,<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> and Lessay, in Normandy; La
+Trinit�, at Vend�me; Beaulieu, near Loches; Montierneuf, at Poitiers,
+etc."<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> <i>L'Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer, chap. iii.
+part ii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Anthyme St. Paul, <i>Histoire Monumentale de la France</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Abbeys of Fulda, in Hesse, and of Corvey, in Westphalia, the
+latter founded by Benedictine monks from the Abbey of Corbie, in
+Picardy, were in their day the chief centres of learning in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>In England St. Alban's Abbey, in Hertfordshire, was built in 1077 by a
+disciple of Lanfranc, the illustrious abbot of the famous Abbey of Le
+Bec, in Normandy. A large number of monasteries were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> founded later
+on by various orders, notably the Benedictines&mdash;Croyland, Malmesbury,
+Bury St. Edmund's, Peterborough, Salisbury, Wimborne, Wearmouth,
+Westminster, etc., not to mention the abbeys and priories which had
+existed in Ireland from the sixth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p228_s"
+   src="images/i_p228_s.png"
+   width="309"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">136. ABBEY OF ST. �TIENNE AT CAEN. FA�ADE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The mother abbey of Citeaux gave birth to four daughters&mdash;Clairvaux,
+Pontigny, Morimond, and La Fert�.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of Clairvaux was much increased in the first years
+of the twelfth century by the fame of her abbot, St. Bernard, that
+most brilliant embodiment of medi�val monasticism. His influence was
+immense, not alone in his character of reformer and founder of an
+important order, but as a statesman whom fortune persistently favoured
+in all enterprises tending to the increase of his great reputation.</p>
+
+<p>St. Bernard distinguished himself in the theological controversies
+of his century at the Council of Sens in 1140, and in successful
+polemical disputations with Ab�lard, the famous advocate of free will,
+and other heterodox philosophers who heralded the Reformation of the
+sixteenth century. Somewhat later he took an active part in promoting
+the hapless second Crusade under Louis VII., and in 1147, a few years
+before his death, he entered vigorously into the Manich�an controversy
+as a strenuous opponent of the heresy which was then agitating the
+public mind and preparing the way for the schism which, at the
+beginning of the thirteenth century, brought about the terrible war of
+the Albigenses, and steeped Southern France in blood.</p>
+
+<p>The monastic fame of St. Bernard was established<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> not only by the
+searching reforms he instituted at Clairvaux among the seceding monks
+of Cluny and Solesmes, but by the success of the Cistercian colonies
+he planted in Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Denmark, to the number of
+seventy-two, according to his historians.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p230_s"
+   src="images/i_p230_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="434"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">137. ST. ALBAN'S ABBEY (ENGLAND)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:687px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p231_s"
+   src="images/i_p231_s.png"
+   width="687"
+   height="450"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">138. ABBEY OF MONTMAJOUR (PROVENCE). CLOISTERS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">During his lifetime the poor hermitage of the <i>Vall�e d'Absinthe</i>
+(which name he changed to Claire-Vall�e, Clairvaux) had become a vast
+feudal settlement of many farms and holdings, rich enough to support
+more than seven hundred monks. The monastery was surrounded by walls
+more than half a league in extent, and the abbot's domicile had become
+a seignorial mansion. As the fount of the order, and mother of all
+the auxiliary houses, Clairvaux was supreme over a hundred and sixty
+monasteries in France and abroad. Fifty years after the death of St.
+Bernard the importance of the order<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> had become colossal. During
+the thirteenth century, and from that time onwards, the Cistercian
+or Bernardine monks built immense abbeys, and decorated them with
+royal magnificence. Their establishments contained churches equal in
+dimension to the largest cathedrals of the period, abbatial dwellings
+adorned with paintings, and boasting oratories which, as at Cha�lis,
+were <i>Stes. Chapelles</i> as splendid as that of St. Louis in Paris. The
+very cellars held works of art in the shape of huge casks elaborately
+carved.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:666px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p232_s"
+   src="images/i_p232_s.png"
+   width="666"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">139. CHURCH AT ELNE IN ROUSSILLON. CLOISTERS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Thus, by a strange recurrence of conditions, the settlements founded
+on a basis of the most rigorous austerity by the ascetics who had
+fled from the splendours of Solesmes and Cluny to the forest,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> became
+in their turn vaster, richer, and more sumptuous than those the
+magnificence of which they existed to rebuke. With this difference,
+however: the ruin brought about by the luxury of the Cistercian
+establishment was so complete that nothing of their innumerable
+monasteries was spared by social revolution but a few arch�ologic
+fragments and historic memories.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:666px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p233_s"
+   src="images/i_p233_s.png"
+   width="651"
+   height="480"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">140. ABBEY OF FONTFROIDE (LANGUEDOC). CLOISTERS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The influence of the Cistercian foundation extended to various
+countries of Europe. It was manifested in Spain, at the great Abbey of
+Alcobaco, in Estramadura, said to have been built by monkish envoys
+of St. Bernard; in Sicily, in the rich architectural detail of the
+Abbey of Monreale; and in Germany, in the foundation of such abbeys
+as those of Altenberg in Westphalia, and Maulbronn in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> Wurtemberg. In
+1133 Everard, Count of Berg, invited monks of Citeaux to settle in
+his dominions, and in 1145 they founded a magnificent abbey on the
+banks of the Dheen, which was held by the Cistercian order down to the
+period of the Revolution, when it shared the fate of other religious
+houses.</p>
+
+<p>The Cistercian Abbey of Maulbronn is the best preserved of those
+which owed their origin to St. Bernard throughout the twelfth and
+thirteenth centuries. The abbey church, the cloister, the refectory,
+the chapter-house, the cellars, the storerooms, the barns, and the
+abbot's lodging, the latter united to the other buildings by a covered
+gallery, still exist in their original condition. More manifestly
+even than Altenberg does the Abbey of Maulbronn prove that simplicity
+marked the proceedings of the Benedictines during the first years
+of the twelfth century, under the rule or influence of St. Bernard.
+From this period onward Cistercian brotherhoods multiplied with great
+rapidity in the provinces which were to form modern France.</p>
+
+<p>In the Ile-de-France the ruins of Ourscamp, near Noyon, of Cha�lis,
+near Senlis, of Longpont and of Vaux-de-Cernay, near Paris, bear
+witness to the monumental grandeur of once famous and important
+abbeys. The monasteries and priories of the twelfth century are
+numerous in Provence; we may name S�nanque, Silvacane, Thoronet, and
+Montmajour, near Arles, at the extremity of the valley of Les Baux.
+Among the abbeys founded in the thirteenth century were Royaumont,
+in the Ile-de-France; Vaucelles, near Cambrai; Preuilly-en-Brie;
+La Trappe, in Le<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> Perche; Breuil-Beno�t, Mortemer, and Bonport, in
+Normandy; Boschaud, in P�rigord; l'Escale-Dieu, in Bigorre; Les
+Feuillants, Nizors, and Bonnefont, in Comminges; Granselve and
+Baulbonne, near Toulouse; Floran, Valmagne, and Fontfroide, in
+Languedoc; Fontenay, in Burgundy, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:664px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p235_s"
+   src="images/i_p235_s.png"
+   width="664"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">141. CISTERCIAN ABBEY OF MAULBRONN (WURTEMBERG). PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Towards the close of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth
+century other fraternities had been formed in the same spirit as
+that of Citeaux; "in the first rank of these was the Order of the
+Premonstrants, so named from the mother abbey founded in 1119 by St.
+Norbert at Pr�montr�, near Coucy."<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Anthyme St. Paul, <i>Histoire Monumentale de la France</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>To this order the monastery of St. Martin at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> Laon, and others in
+Champagne, Artois, Brittany, and Normandy owed their origin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p236_s"
+   src="images/i_p236_s.png"
+   width="388"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">142. ABBEY OF FONTEVRAULT. KITCHEN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:606px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p237_s"
+   src="images/i_p237_s.png"
+   width="606"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">143. CATHEDRAL OF PUY-EN-VELAY. CLOISTERS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In the early part of the twelfth century Robert d'Arbrisselles founded
+several double monasteries for men and women, on the model of those
+built in Spain in the ninth century; that of Fontevrault was not
+more successful as a monastic experiment than the rest, but it gave
+rise to a number of superb buildings. The abbey itself contributed
+in no slight degree to the progress of architecture, which developed
+in Anjou at the dawn of the twelfth century, and manifested itself
+principally at Angers in works the supreme importance of which we have
+dwelt upon in the early part of this volume.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The episcopal churches also owned claustral buildings for the
+accommodation of the cathedral clergy who lived together in
+communities according to the ancient usage which obtained down to the
+fifteenth century. The Cathedrals of Aix, Arles, and Cavaillon, in
+Provence, of Elne, in Roussillon, of Puy, in Velay, of St. Bertrand,
+in Comminges, still preserve their cloisters of the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<p>The Abbey of La Chaise Dieu, in Auvergne, founded in the eleventh
+century, was one of the monastic schools which rose to great
+importance, mainly through the talents of its monkish architect and
+sculptor, Guinamaud, who established its reputation as an art centre.
+By the close of the twelfth century La Chaise Dieu was turning out
+proficients in sculpture, painting, and goldsmith's work.</p>
+
+<p>The buildings of La Chaise Dieu were reconstructed in the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The order of preaching friars, founded by St. Dominic in the early
+part of the thirteenth century, is noted rather for its intellectual
+than for its architectural achievements; the fame of the Dominicans
+rests upon their preaching and writings, not upon the number or
+magnificence of their monasteries.</p>
+
+<p>About the same period St. Francis of Assisi founded the order of minor
+friars, who professed absolute poverty&mdash;a profession which, however,
+did not prevent their becoming richer at last than their forerunners.
+These two orders&mdash;preaching and mendicant friars, apparently formed
+in protest against the supremacy of the Benedictines&mdash;were strongly
+supported by St. Louis, who also protected other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> orders, such as the
+Augustinians and Carmelites, by way of balancing the power of the
+Clunisians and Cistercians.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:631px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p239_s"
+   src="images/i_p239_s.png"
+   width="631"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">144. ABBEY OF LA CHAISE DIEU (AUVERGNE). CLOISTERS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">To the preaching friars St. Louis granted the site of the Church of
+St. Jacques, in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris&mdash;whence the name <i>Jacobin</i>
+as applied to monks of the Dominican order,&mdash;and here they built in
+1221 the Jacobin monastery, the church of which, like those of Agen
+and Toulouse, has the double nave peculiar to the churches of the
+preaching friars.</p>
+
+<p>From the thirteenth century onwards the arrangement of the abbeys
+diverges more and more from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> the Benedictine system in the direction
+of secular models. The daily life of the abbots had come to
+differ but little from that of the laymen of their time, and as a
+natural consequence, monastic architecture lost its distinguishing
+characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>The Rule of the Carthusian Order, founded towards the close of the
+eleventh century by St. Bruno, was of such extreme austerity, and
+was so persistently adhered to down to the fifteenth century, at
+least, that we need not wonder to find no vestiges of buildings
+erected by this community contemporaneously with those of other great
+foundations. The Carthusians clung longer than any of their brethren
+to the vows of poverty and humility which obliged them to live like
+anchorites, though dwelling under one roof. Far from living in common,
+on the cenobitic method, after the manner of the Benedictines and
+Cistercians, they maintained the cellular system in all its severity.
+Absolute silence further aggravated the complete isolation which
+encouraged them to scorn all that might alleviate or modify the
+rigours of their religious duties.</p>
+
+<p>In time, however, the Carthusians relaxed something of this extreme
+asceticism in their monastic buildings, if not in their religious
+observances. Towards the fifteenth century they did homage to art by
+the construction of monasteries which, though falling short of the
+Cistercian monuments in magnificence, are of much interest from their
+peculiarities of arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary buildings comprised the gate-house, giving access by a
+single door to the courtyard of the monastery, where stood the church,
+the prior's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> lodging, the hostelry for guests and pilgrims, the
+laundry, the bakehouse, the cattle sheds, storerooms, and dovecote.
+The church communicated with an interior cloister, giving access to
+the chapter-house and refectory, which latter were only open to the
+monks at certain annual festivals. The typical feature of St. Bruno's
+more characteristic monasteries is the great cloister, on the true
+Carthusian model&mdash;that is to say, rectangular in form, and surrounded
+by an arcade, on which the cells of the monks open. Each of these
+cells was a little self-contained habitation, and had its own garden.
+The door of each cell was provided with a wicket, through which a lay
+brother passed the slender meal of the Carthusian who was forbidden to
+communicate with his fellows.</p>
+
+<p>The Rule of St. Bruno, as is commonly known, enjoins the life of an
+anchorite; the Carthusian must work, eat, and drink in solitude;
+speech is interdicted; on meeting, the brethren are commanded to
+salute each other in silence; they assemble only in church for certain
+services prescribed by the Rule, and their meals, none too numerous at
+any time, were only taken in common on certain days in the year.</p>
+
+<p>The severity of these conditions explains the extreme austerity of
+Carthusian architecture. It had, as we have already said, no real
+development until the fifteenth century, and then only as regards
+certain portions of the monastery, such as the church and its
+cloister, which were in strong contrast with the compulsory bareness
+of the great cloister of the monks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The ancient <i>Chartreuse</i> of Villefranche de Rouergue, either built
+or reconstructed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, still
+preserves some remarkable features. The plan, and the bird's-eye view
+(Figs. <a href="#i_p242_s">145</a> and <a href="#i_p243_s">146</a>) from <i>L'Encyclop�die de l'Architecture et de la
+Construction</i>, gives an exact idea of the monastery. Some of the cells
+are still intact, also the refectory, and certain other portions of
+the primitive structure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:695px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p242_s"
+   src="images/i_p242_s.png"
+   width="695"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">145. CHARTREUSE OF VILLEFRANCHE DE ROUERGUE. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In spite of the rigidity of the <i>Rule</i> of St. Bruno certain
+foundations of his order became famous, notably the monastery
+established by the Carthusians on the invitation of St. Louis in the
+celebrated castle of Vauvert, beyond the walls of Paris, near the
+<i>Route d'Issy</i>. The castle was regarded with terror by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> Parisians,
+who declared it to be haunted by the devil, whence the popular
+expression: <i>aller au diable Vauvert</i>, which later was corrupted
+into <i>aller au diable au vert</i>. The Carthusians, nevertheless, took
+up their quarters in the stronghold, and enriched it with a splendid
+church built by Pierre de Montereau, the foundation stone of which
+was laid by St. Louis in 1260. The <i>Chartreuse</i> of Vauvert developed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span>
+greatly, and became one of the most famous of the order. It was in
+the lesser cloister of this monastery that the artist Eustache Le
+Sueur painted his famous frescoes from the life of St. Bruno in the
+beginning of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:511px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p243_s"
+   src="images/i_p243_s.png"
+   width="511"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">146. CHARTREUSE OF VILLEFRANCHE DE ROUERGUE.
+BIRD'S-EYE VIEW</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p244_s"
+   src="images/i_p244_s.png"
+   width="435"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">147. GRANDE CHARTREUSE. THE GREAT CLOISTER</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2">The most famous Carthusian monasteries of Italy are those of Florence,
+which dates from the middle of the fourteenth century, and is
+attributed in part to Orcagna, and of Pavia, founded at the close of
+the fourteenth century by Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p245_s"
+   src="images/i_p245_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="506"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">148. GRANDE CHARTREUSE. GENERAL VIEW</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The French Carthusian monasteries of greatest interest after Vauvert,
+which had the special advantage of royal protection, are those of
+Clermont, in Auvergne, Villefranche de Rouergue (Figs. <a href="#i_p242_s">145</a> and <a href="#i_p243_s">146</a>),
+Villeneuve-lez-Avignon, and Montrieux, in Var. The <i>Chartreuse</i> of
+Dijon is one of the most ancient, not only as to its buildings, which
+are the work of the Duke of Burgundy's architects, but in respect of
+its famous sculptures of the tomb of Philip the Bold, and his wife,
+Margaret of Flanders, and those<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> of the <i>Well of Moses</i>, carved by the
+Burgundian brothers, Claux Suter, who flourished at the close of the
+fourteenth century, and had much to do with the revival of art at that
+period.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> See Part I., "Sculpture."</p></div>
+
+<p>But the most imposing of all, and the most famous, if not the most
+beautiful, is that in the mountains near Grenoble, universally known
+as <i>La Grande Chartreuse</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The original monastery is said to have been founded by St. Bruno. It
+consisted merely of a humble chapel and a few isolated cells, which
+are supposed to have occupied the site in the <i>Desert</i>, on which the
+Chapels of St. Bruno and St. Mary now stand. The existing buildings
+were reconstructed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in the
+manner of the day, of which the arcades of the great cloister are good
+examples. The present church, which is extremely simple in design, has
+preserved nothing of its sixteenth-century decoration but the choir
+stalls. The great cloister consists of an arcaded gallery, on which
+the sixty cells of the monks open. It is arranged in strict accordance
+with the Rule of St. Bruno as regards its connection with the main
+buildings, the chief features of which we have already pointed out.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IV<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">FORTIFIED ABBEYS</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The monasteries built throughout the twelfth century were provided
+with outer walls, by means of which the claustral buildings, offices,
+workshops, and even farms of the community were enclosed. Thus all
+the necessaries of life were produced within the precincts, and all
+communication with the outside world was avoided.</p>
+
+<p>But by the end of the century the great abbeys had become feudal
+castles; and fortified walls were raised around them, often embracing
+the town which had grown up under their protection and shared their
+fortunes. This was the case at Cluny, and the town acknowledged its
+obligations to the monks by the payment of tithes.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Philip Augustus and St. Louis the abbots were not
+only the heads of their monasteries but feudal chieftains, vassals
+of the royal power, and as such obliged to furnish the sovereign
+with men-at-arms in time of war, and to maintain a garrison when
+required.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See Part III., "Military Architecture," Abbey of Mont
+St. Michel.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Abbey of Tournus was, like Cluny, surrounded by walls connected
+with the city ramparts.</p>
+
+<p>The Abbey of St. Allyre, in Auvergne, near Clermont, was defended
+by walls and towers, which seem to have been added to the original
+structure of the ninth century at some period during the thirteenth,
+when such fortification of religious houses became necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p248_s"
+   src="images/i_p248_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="416"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">149. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GENERAL VIEW FROM THE
+ROCKS OF COUESNON, TAKEN IN 1878, BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE DYKE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In many other monasteries a system of defence more or less elaborate
+was adopted; but the most famous of all the abbeys built by the
+Benedictines was unquestionably Mont St. Michel, which, for boldness
+and grandeur of design, is unique among military and monastic
+monuments from the eleventh to the close of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p249_s"
+   src="images/i_p249_s.png"
+   width="422"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">150. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF THE
+GUARD-ROOM, ALMONRY, AND CELLAR</p>
+    <p class="sm"><i>Key to Plan.</i>&mdash;A. Tower known as the <i>Tour Claudine</i>. Ramparts.
+B. Barbican. Entrance to the abbey. B&#8242;. Ruin of the stairway
+known as the <i>Grand Degr�</i>. C. Gate-house. D. Guard-room known
+as <i>Bellechaise</i>. E. Tower known as the <i>Tour Perrine</i>. F.
+Steward's lodging and Bailey. G. Abbot's lodging. G&#8242;. Abbatial
+buildings. G&#8242;. Chapel of St. Catherine. H. Courtyard of the
+church, great stairway. I. Courtyard of the <i>Merveille</i>. J,
+K. Almonry, cellar (of the <i>Merveille</i>). L. Formerly the
+abbatial buildings. M. Gallery or crypt known as the <i>Galerie
+de l'Aquilon</i> (of the North Wind). N. Hostelry (Robert de
+Thorigni). O. Passages connecting the abbey with the hostelry.
+P, P&#8242;. Prison and dungeon. R, S. Staircase. T. Modern wall of
+abutment. U. Garden, terraces, and covered way. V. Body of rock.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p250_s"
+   src="images/i_p250_s.png"
+   width="368"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">151. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF
+THE LOWER CHURCH, THE REFECTORY, AND THE CHAPTER-HOUSE, OR KNIGHTS'
+HALL.</p>
+    <p class="sm"><i>Key to Plan.</i>&mdash;A. Lower church. B, B&#8242;.
+Chapels beneath the transepts. C. Substructure of Romanesque
+nave. C, C&#8242;, and C&#8243;. Charnel-house or burying-place of the
+monks, and substructure of south platform. D. Formerly the
+cistern. E. Formerly the claustral buildings. Refectory. F.
+Formerly the cloister or ambulatory. G. Passage communicating
+with the hostelry. H, I. Hostelry and offices (Robert de
+Thorigni). J. Chapel of hostelry (St. �tienne). K, K&#8242;, L, M.
+Refectory. Tower known as the <i>Tour des Corbins</i> (Tower of
+Crows). Chapter-house, or hall of the knights, Galilee or
+narthex (<i>Merveille</i>). N. Hall of the military executive, or
+hall of the officers. O. Tower known as the <i>Tour Perrine</i>. P.
+Battlements of the gate-house. Q. Courtyard of the <i>Merveille</i>.
+R, S. Staircase and terrace of the apse. T. Courtyard of the
+church. U. Fortified bridge connecting the lower church with
+the abbey buildings. V, X. Abbot's lodging. Accommodation
+for guests. Y, Y&#8242;. Cisterns of the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries. Z. Body of rock.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Abbey of Mont St. Michel was founded in 708 by St. Aubert,
+according to tradition. At the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> close of the tenth century it was
+restored by Richard Sans Peur, third Duke of Normandy, with the help
+of the Benedictine monks from Monte Casino, whom he had installed at
+St. Michel in 966. It increased greatly in wealth and extent in the
+eleventh century, and by the end of the twelfth was in the full tide
+of its prosperity. Its buildings, however had not yet that importance
+to which they attained in the following century.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> In the twelfth
+century they consisted of the church, which was built between 1020
+and 1135<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> and the monastic buildings proper (<i>lieux r�guliers</i>),
+with lodgings for servants and guests to the north of the nave, at
+G, G�, and F on the plan, <a href="#i_p252_s">Fig. 152</a>. To these, which were restored
+or reconstructed in a great measure by the Abbot Roger II. at the
+beginning of the twelfth century, additions were made on the south and
+south-east by Robert de Thorigni from 1154 to 1186.</p>
+
+<p>The monastery was not then fortified.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> <i>Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel</i>, by Ed.
+Corroyer; Paris, 1877. This work was crowned by the Institute in 1879,
+at the <i>Concours des Antiquit�s Nationales</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> See <i>L'Architecture Romane</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris,
+Maison Quantin, 1888.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p252_s"
+   src="images/i_p252_s.png"
+   width="367"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">152. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF THE
+UPPER CHURCH, THE CLOISTERS, AND THE DORMITORY</p>
+    <p class="sm"><i>Key to Plan.</i>&mdash;A, A�, A.�� Church, choir, and transepts. B,
+B�, B��. Three first bays of nave, destroyed in 1776. C, C�,
+C��. Towers and porch (Robert de Thorigni). D. Tomb of Robert
+de Thorigni. E. Formerly the terrace in front of the church.
+F. Formerly the chapter-house. G, G�. Formerly the claustral
+buildings. Dormitory. H. Platform at the southern entrance
+of the church. I. Ruin of the hostelry (Robert de Thorigni).
+J. Infirmary. K. Dormitories of the thirteenth century
+(<i>Merveille</i>). K�. Tower, known as the <i>Tour des Corbins</i>
+(thirteenth century, <i>Merveille</i>). L, L�. Cloister and archives
+(thirteenth century, <i>Merveille</i>). M. Vestry (thirteenth
+century, <i>Merveille</i>). N. Abbot's lodging. O. Accommodation for
+guests. P. Courtyard of the <i>Merveille</i>. P�. Terrace of the
+apse. Q. Courtyard of the church and great staircase.</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Built on the summit of a rock, the impregnable steepness of which
+provided a natural rampart north and west, it depended solely upon
+the advantages of its position for defence. Its situation in the
+midst of a treacherous sandy plain&mdash;a position which gave rise to the
+medi�val name, <i>Le Mont St. Michel au P�ril de la Mer</i>&mdash;secured it
+against attempts at investiture, and even to a great extent against
+sudden assaults. Enclosures of stone or wooden fences surrounded it at
+those points on the east where the less rugged nature of the surface
+rendered access comparatively easy, and where stood the entrance,
+with the various habitations which had grouped themselves round it.
+The so-called <i>town</i> had been founded in the tenth century by a few
+families decimated by the Normans, in their raids upon Avranches and
+its neighbourhood after the death of Charlemagne. In the thirteenth
+century it consisted of a small number of houses which, by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> way of
+security against the vagaries of the sea, were built upon the highest
+point of the rock to the east.</p>
+
+<p>In 1203 the greater part of the abbey, the church excepted, was
+destroyed during the wars between Philip Augustus, King of France, and
+John, King of England.</p>
+
+<p>Historic records prove conclusively that the abbey had no defensive
+works properly so-called in the twelfth and early part of the
+thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>From this period onwards abbeys, more especially those of the
+Benedictine orders, were transformed into regular fortresses capable
+of sustaining a siege. The abbots, in their character of feudal lords,
+fortified their monasteries to ensure them against disasters such as
+had marked the early years of the thirteenth century. Mont St. Michel
+is one of the most curious examples of such fortification.</p>
+
+<p>The original architects of the abbey seem to have been unwilling to
+diminish the height of the mount by levelling. Resolving to detract in
+no degree from the majesty of so splendid a base for<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> their church,
+they set about their work on the same principle as the pyramid
+builders. Our illustrations show how the buildings were raised partly
+on plateaux circumscribing the apex of the mount, partly on that apex
+itself. The result is that the monastery, as we see it, has a core of
+rock rising at its highest point to the very floor of the church. The
+ring of lower stories rests upon walls of great thickness, and upon
+piers united by vaults, the whole forming a substructure of perfect
+solidity.</p>
+
+<p>The section made through the transept (<a href="#i_p253_s">Fig. 153</a>) gives an exact idea
+of the portion which dates from the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
+and of the buildings which gradually grouped themselves round this
+nucleus, such as the so-called <i>Merveille</i> (Marvel) to the north, and
+the abbot's lodging to the south.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p253_s"
+   src="images/i_p253_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="300"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">153. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. TRANSVERSE SECTION, FROM
+NORTH TO SOUTH<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> <i>Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de ses
+Abords</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p254_s"
+   src="images/i_p254_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="318"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">154. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. LONGITUDINAL SECTION,
+FROM WEST TO EAST</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The longitudinal section (<a href="#i_p254_s">Fig. 154</a>) shows the crypt, or lower church.
+This was not, as has been frequently asserted, actually hollowed
+out of the rock; it was, however, very ingeniously contrived in the
+fifteenth century over the ruins of the Romanesque church in the
+space between the declivity of the mount and the artificial plateau
+of the earlier architects. The substructures of the Romanesque church
+which were enlarged by Robert de Thorigni in the thirteenth century
+are indicated in this diagram. They are of gigantic proportions,
+especially towards the west.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#i_p256_s">Fig. 155</a> shows the so-called <i>Galerie de l'Aquilon</i> (Gallery of the
+North Wind), one of the upper stories of the claustral buildings to
+the north of the church constructed by Roger II., eleventh abbot
+(1106-1122).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p256_s"
+   src="images/i_p256_s.png"
+   width="382"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">155. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GALERIE DE L'AQUILON
+(GALLERY OF THE NORTH WIND)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p257_s"
+   src="images/i_p257_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="441"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">156. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL, NORTH FRONT. GENERAL
+VIEW FROM THE SEA</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:459px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p258_s"
+   src="images/i_p258_s.png"
+   width="459"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">157. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. THE ALMONRY. PERSPECTIVE
+VIEW LOOKING WEST. THE CELLAR BEYOND</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">After the fire of 1203, when the abbey had become a feof of the royal
+domain, the Abbot<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> Jourdain and his successors rebuilt it almost
+entirely, with the exception of the church.</p>
+
+<p>As the peculiarities of the site made it impossible to adhere strictly
+to the Benedictine system of direct communication between the main
+buildings and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> church, the <i>lieux r�guliers</i>, or accommodation
+reserved for the monks, were disposed above the magnificent building
+to the north of the church, which, from the time of its foundation,
+was known as <i>La Merveille</i> (the Marvel).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:452px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p259_s"
+   src="images/i_p259_s.png"
+   width="452"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">158. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. NAMES OF THE ARCHITECTS
+OR SCULPTORS OF THE CHOIR</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p260_s"
+   src="images/i_p260_s.png"
+   width="420"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">159. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CELLAR. PERSPECTIVE VIEW
+FROM WEST TO EAST. THE ALMONRY BEYOND</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">This vast structure fairly takes rank as the grandest example of
+combined religious and military architecture of the finest medi�val
+period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <i>Merveille</i> consists of three stories, two of which are vaulted.
+The lowest contains the almonry<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> and cellar; the intermediate story
+the refectory and the knights' hall; the third the dormitory and
+cloister. The building consists of two wings running east and west;
+the apartments are superposed as follows:&mdash;In the east wing the
+almonry, the refectory, and the dormitory; in the west the cellar, the
+knights' hall, and the cloister.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> <i>Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de ses
+Abords</i>, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877.</p></div>
+
+<p>This splendid structure is built entirely of granite. It was carried
+out by one continuous effort, under the inspiration of an incomparably
+bold and learned design of the Abb� Jourdain, to which his successors
+religiously adhered.</p>
+
+<p>The undertaking was entered upon in 1203 and finished in 1228, the
+final achievement being the cloister, the architects or sculptors of
+which are commemorated by an inscription in the spandril of one of the
+arcades in the south walk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:481px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p262_s"
+   src="images/i_p262_s.png"
+   width="481"
+   height="540"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">160. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. REFECTORY</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:461px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p263_s"
+   src="images/i_p263_s.png"
+   width="461"
+   height="530"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">161. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CHAPTER-HOUSE, CALLED
+THE HALL OF THE KNIGHTS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">To fully appreciate this stupendous monument, we must realise the
+extraordinary energy which enabled its architects to complete it in
+the comparatively short space of twenty-five years. We must take
+into account the conditions of its growth, its situation on the very
+summit of a rugged cliff, cut off from the mainland at times by
+the sea, at other times by an expanse of treacherous quicksand. We
+must consider the enormous difficulties of transporting materials,
+seeing that all the granite used was quarried by the monks from the
+neighbouring coast. It is true that an unimportant quota of the stone
+was dug from the base of the rock itself. But though the passage
+across the sands was by this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> means avoided, the difficulties of
+raising great masses of stone to the foot of the <i>Merveille</i>, the
+foundations of which are over 160 feet above the sea-level, had still
+to be met. It seems certain that the east and west buildings of which
+the <i>Merveille</i> consists were built at the same time, for though
+certain differences<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> are perceptible in the form of the exterior
+buttresses, they evidently result from the interior formation of the
+various apartments. A study of the plans, sections, and fa�ades of the
+buildings is convincing on this head, and the general arrangements,
+notably that of the staircase, all point to the same conclusion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> This
+staircase is a spiral in the thickness of the buttress which, with its
+crowning octagonal turret, forms the point of junction between the two
+buildings. It winds from the almonry of the eastern ground-floor to
+the knights' hall on the west, passing through the dormitory of the
+eastern block to terminate in the northern embattlement above.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p264_s"
+   src="images/i_p264_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="360"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">162. ST. MICHAEL'S MOUNT, CORNWALL</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The eastern and northern fa�ades of the <i>Merveille</i> are models of
+severe and virile beauty; a massive grandeur characterises them,
+especially striking and impressive in the northern front as viewed
+from the sea. The vast walls of granite (the material used throughout,
+save in the inner walk of the cloister) are pierced with windows
+varying in shape according to the character of the rooms they light.
+Those of the dormitory are very remarkable. They are long and narrow,
+and affect the aspect of loopholes, deeply splayed outwards; the
+peculiar form of the honeycombed window-heads suggests a reminiscence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span>
+of Arab types seen by the French Crusaders in Palestine. The
+thrusts of the interior vaulting are met on the exterior by massive
+buttresses, the vigorous profiles of which contribute greatly to the
+nobility of the general effect.</p>
+
+<p>These formidable fa�ades were practically fortifications, but the
+<i>Merveille</i> was further defended to the north by an embattled wall,
+flanked by a tower which served as a post for watchmen, to which the
+covered ways running round the base of the western buildings converged.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle, on a level with the north-west angle of the
+<i>Merveille</i>, a <i>ch�telet</i>, or miniature keep, now destroyed, guarded
+the rugged passage between embattled walls which led to the Fountain
+of St. Aubert, and was known as the <i>Passage du Degr�</i> (passage of the
+stairway).</p>
+
+<p>The various buildings of the abbey which were added in the fourteenth
+century, after the construction of the <i>Merveille</i>, are: the abbot's
+lodging, with its offices on the south, and certain military works
+which completed the defensive system. In the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries these were gradually extended to the walls of the town, as
+we shall see in Part III., "Military Architecture."</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PART III
+
+<span class="smaller">MILITARY ARCHITECTURE</span></h2></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">CIRCUMVALLATION OF TOWNS</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The distinctive character of military architecture in the Middle Ages
+must be sought in defensive fortification. In all other respects
+its constructive methods were identical with those employed in
+architectural works generally. The few ornamental features of military
+buildings, as, for instance, the interior vaults and the profiles of
+consoles and cornices, diverge but slightly from the accepted types of
+such features in the churches, monasteries, and domestic structures of
+the period.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin, Roman, Gallo-Roman, Romanesque, and Gothic architects
+were versed in every department of the art they practised. The same
+architect was called upon to construct the church and the fortress,
+the abbey, and the ramparts which were often its necessary complement,
+the donjon, and castle, the town hall, the hospital, the rural
+barn, and the urban dwelling. He was responsible not only for the
+inception of every class and form of building, but for its successful
+elaboration; on him alone the responsibility of its execution rested;
+no scientific specialist checked his conclusions and verified his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>
+calculations as in our own time. The system by which the architect and
+the engineer have each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> their separate functions and responsibilities
+in the construction of the same building was unknown. The builder, or
+mason, as some would have him called, was an architect in the fullest
+sense; he himself traced the diagrams of his conceptions, and directed
+the execution of every detail, careful alike of stability and beauty.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p270_s"
+   src="images/i_p270_s.png"
+   width="382"
+   height="540"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">163. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GATE-HOUSE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">It is a curious and disheartening phenomenon that such a direct
+contravention of the principles of medi�val art as the modern
+system of divided responsibility implies, should obtain only
+among the French, the very people to whom Western Europe owes its
+initiation into those principles. In England, in Belgium, in Holland,
+Switzerland, and Germany the architect is also the engineer; the
+science and the art of his craft are inseparable. "This intimate
+union of qualities gives an individuality to certain productions of
+these nations which we might well lay to heart and make the subject
+of serious comparative study. We must needs admit to begin with that
+we ourselves have become disciples rather than pioneers in a great
+movement."<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> "L'Art � l'Exposition," <i>L'Architecture</i>, by Ed.
+Corroyer; Paris. <i>L'Illustration</i>, for 25th May 1889.</p></div>
+
+<p>The one preoccupation of the modern engineer seems to be the
+satisfaction of imperious necessity. He is inclined to neglect all
+that mathematics cannot give him. And yet he has brought about a very
+sensible progress by his mathematical application of modern science.
+He has unquestionably excelled in industrial masterpieces perfectly
+adapted to the needs of the moment, if wanting in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> qualities
+that make for immortality. We accept with qualified admiration
+his marvellous bridges and kindred works in metal&mdash;marvellous yet
+ephemeral; but we accept them merely as a temporary substitute for the
+more solid if less showy stone bridges of our early architects.</p>
+
+<p>We would not have the servant of yesterday the master of to-morrow.
+We protest against the degradation of the architect from his high
+and noble estate to the rank of a mere decorator, however skilful.
+We would not witness the extinction of the ancient French traditions
+which inspired so many masterpieces, and to which we look as the
+source of many yet to come.</p>
+
+<p>It appears, moreover, that the general acceptation of the word
+<i>ing�nieur</i> (engineer) is a totally mistaken one. It is derived from
+the medi�val term <i>engigneur</i>, which was very differently applied.</p>
+
+<p>The architect and the engineer of our own day are both <i>constructors</i>,
+but with a difference. The architect loves and cultivates his art; the
+engineer, with few exceptions, despises, or affects to despise, his.</p>
+
+<p>In the Middle Ages their functions were perfectly distinct. The
+architect constructed what the <i>engigneur</i> used his utmost cunning
+to destroy. The architect built ramparts and strengthened them with
+towers; the <i>engigneur</i> undermined them if attacking, or countermined
+them if defending. It was his business to invent or direct the use of
+engines of war, such as rams, mangonels, arblasts, and machines for
+the slinging of enormous projectiles, or grenades. He constructed the
+portable wooden towers which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> the besieging party brought up against
+the walls for an escalade, directed the sappers who undermined them,
+and, in fact, superintended the manufacture of all such offensive
+engines as were necessary in the conduct of a siege, a process
+which, before the invention of firearms, necessitated preparations
+as prolonged and tedious as they were complicated and uncertain.
+In short, the architect was the constructor of fortifications, the
+<i>engigneur</i> their assailant or defender. It was not until the time
+of Vauban that military engineers were called upon to exercise
+functions so much more extensive. At an earlier period there were,
+however, specialists in construction who undertook such works as the
+circumvallation of Aigues-Mortes, but their labours had little in
+common with those of modern engineers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p273_s"
+   src="images/i_p273_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="182"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">164. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. RAMPARTS TO THE SOUTH-EAST</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Before the feudal period the fortifications of camps consisted
+either of earthworks, of walls built of mud and logs, or of
+palisades surrounded by ditches, in imitation of the Roman methods
+of castrametation. The <i>enceintes</i> of towns fortified by the Romans
+were walls defended by round or square towers. These walls were built
+double; a space of several yards intervened, which was filled up with
+the earth dug from the moat or ditch, mixed with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> rubble. The mass was
+levelled at the top and paved to form what is technically known as a
+covered way, or terrace protected by an embattled wall rising from the
+outer curtain.</p>
+
+<p>That portion of the <i>enceinte</i> of Carcassonne which was built by the
+Visigoths in the sixth century is thus constructed on the Roman model.
+"The ground on which the town is built rises considerably above that
+beyond the walls, and is almost on a level with the rampart. The
+curtains<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a> are of great thickness; they are composed of two facings
+of dressed stones cut into small cubes, which alternate with courses
+of bricks; the intervening space is filled not with earth, but with
+a concrete formed of rubble and lime."<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> The flanking towers which
+rise considerably above the curtains were so disposed that it was
+possible to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> isolate them from the walls by raising drawbridges. Thus
+each tower formed an independent stronghold against assailants.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> The wall space between the towers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Viollet-le-Duc, <i>La Cit� de Carcassonne</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>Fig. 165 shows a portion of the north-west ramparts of the city of
+Carcassonne, with the first round tower; to the left of the drawing is
+the Romano-Visigothic tower, flanking right and left the curtains of
+the same period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p274_s"
+   src="images/i_p274_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="425"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">165. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. NORTH-WEST RAMPARTS.
+ROMANO-VISIGOTHIC TOWER (FIRST ON THE LEFT)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In accordance with the Roman tradition the <i>enceinte</i> of a town,
+formed, as we have seen, of ramparts strengthened by towers, were
+further defended by a citadel or keep, of which we shall have more to
+say in the following chapter. This keep commanded the whole place,
+which was usually situated on the slope of a hill above the bank of
+a river. The bridge which communicated with the opposite bank was
+fortified by a gate-house or <i>t�te de pont</i>, to guard the passage.</p>
+
+<p>The circumvallation of towns often consisted of a double enclosure,
+divided by a moat. By the close of the twelfth century architects had
+caught the inspiration of the great military works of the Crusaders in
+the East, and military architecture had progressed on the same lines
+as religious and monastic architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The territories, conquered by the Crusaders in the course of
+establishing the Christian supremacy in the East, had been divided
+into feofs as early as the twelfth century. These soon boasted
+castles, churches, and monastic foundations, of the Cistercian and
+Premonstrant orders among others.</p>
+
+<p>According to G. Rey, the following abbeys and priories were built in
+the neighbourhood of Jerusalem<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> at this period:&mdash;The monasteries of
+Mount Sion, Mount Olivet, Jehoshaphat, St. Habakkuk, and St. Samuel,
+etc., and in Galilee, those of Mount Tabor and Palmar�e. The military
+organisation was regulated by the <i>Assises de la haute Cour</i> (Assizes
+of the Supreme Court), which determined the number of knights to be
+furnished by each feof for the defence of the kingdom, and in like
+manner, the number of men-at-arms required from each church and each
+community of citizens.... The middle of the twelfth century was the
+period at which the Christian colonies of the Holy Land were most
+flourishing. Undeterred by the wars of which Syria was the theatre,
+the Franks had promptly assimilated the Greek and Roman tradition as
+manifested in Byzantine types of military architecture. The double
+enclosure flanked by towers, one of the main features of Syrian
+fortresses built by the Crusaders, was borrowed from the Greeks.
+Many of their strongholds, notably Morgat, the so-called <i>Krak</i> of
+the knights, and Tortosa, were of colossal proportions. They may be
+divided into two classes. In the first, the buildings are of the
+Frankish type, and seem to be modelled on the French castles of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries. The flanking towers are nearly always
+round; they contain a defensive story, while their summits and those
+of the intervening curtains are crowned with battlements in the French
+fashion. Other features subsequently introduced were: the double
+<i>enceinte</i>, borrowed from the Byzantines, the inner line of which
+commanded the outer, and was sufficiently near to allow its defenders
+to engage, should assailants have carried the first<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> barrier;
+secondly, stone machicolations in place of the wooden <i>hourds</i> or
+timber scaffoldings which were retained in France till the close of
+the thirteenth century; and finally, the talus, a device by which
+the thickness of the walls was tripled at the base, thus affording
+increased security against the arts of the sapper and the earthquake
+shocks so frequent in the East.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p277_s"
+   src="images/i_p277_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="190"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">166. FORTRESS OF KALAAT-EL-HOSN IN SYRIA (KRAK OF THE
+KNIGHTS). SECTION, AS RESTORED BY M. G. REY</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p278_s"
+   src="images/i_p278_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="496"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">166A. FORTRESS DE KALAAT-EL-HOSN IN SYRIA (KRAK OF THE
+KNIGHTS). AS RESTORED BY M. G. REY</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The buildings of the second class belong to the school of the Knights
+Templars. Their characteristic features are the towers, invariably
+square or oblong in shape, and projecting but slightly from the
+curtains. The fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn,<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> or <i>Krak</i> of the
+knights, commanded the pass through which ran the roads from Homs
+and Hamah to Tripoli and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> Tortosa, and was a military station of
+the first importance. Together with the castles of Akkar, Arcos, La
+Col�e, Chastel-Blanc, Areynieh, Yammour, Tortosa, and Markab, and the
+various auxiliary towers and posts, it constituted a system of defence
+designed to protect Tripoli from the incursions of the Mahometans,
+who retained their hold on the greater part of Syria.... The <i>Krak</i>,
+which was built under the direction of the Knights Hospitallers, has a
+double <i>enceinte</i>, separated by a wide ditch partly filled with water.
+The inner wall forms a reduct, and rising above the outer enclosure
+commands its defences. It also encompasses the various dependencies of
+the castle, the great hall, chapel, domestic buildings, and magazines.
+A long vaulted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> passage, easy of defence, was the only entrance to the
+place. To the north and west the outer line consisted of a curtain
+flanked by rounded turrets, and crowned by machicolations, which
+formed a continuous scaffolding of stone along the greater part of the
+<i>enceinte</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> <i>�tude sur les Monuments de l'Architecture Militaire des
+crois�s en Syrie</i>, by G. Rey; Paris, 1871.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p279_s"
+   src="images/i_p279_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="521"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">167. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. PLAN (THIRTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The action of the East upon the West was manifested in the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries by the application to the fortification of
+Carcassonne and Aigues-Mortes of methods in use among the Crusaders in
+Syria.</p>
+
+<p>This oriental influence is apparent at Carcassonne in the double
+<i>enceinte</i> borrowed from Syrian fortresses.</p>
+
+<p>The city of Carcassonne stands upon a plateau commanding the valley
+of the Aude, the site of an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> ancient Roman <i>castellum</i>. In the sixth
+century it fell into the hands of the Visigoths, who fortified it.
+It increased considerably in extent during the tenth, eleventh, and
+twelfth centuries, but in the time of Simon de Montfort (1209) and of
+Raymon de Trancavel (1240) the <i>enceinte</i> was not nearly so important
+as it became under St. Louis. By the middle of the thirteenth century
+the king had begun the construction of defensive works on a vast
+scale, and built the outer <i>enceinte</i>, which still exists, as may
+be seen on the plan (Fig. 167) taken from Viollet-le-Duc's <i>Cit� de
+Carcassonne</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:690px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p280_s"
+   src="images/i_p280_s.png"
+   width="690"
+   height="453"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">168. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. RAMPARTS. SOUTH-WEST ANGLE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The primary object of the <i>enceinte</i> was to secure the place against
+a sudden attack during the completion or enlargement of its interior
+defences. The additions of St. Louis, which were carried on by Philip
+the Bold, rendered Carcassonne impregnable<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> in the general estimation.
+"As a fact, it was never invested, and did not open its gates to
+Edward the Black Prince till 1355, when all Languedoc had submitted to
+him."<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> Viollet-le-Duc, <i>La Cit� de Carcassonne</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p281_s"
+   src="images/i_p281_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="493"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">169. RAMPARTS OF AIGUES-MORTES, NORTH AND SOUTH</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Oriental influences are equally evident at Aigues-Mortes. The Genoese
+Guglielmo Boccanera, who constructed the <i>enceinte</i>, was apparently
+familiar with the system of fortification adopted by the Crusaders in
+Syria. The machicolations which here make their first appearance in
+Languedoc (in the reign of Philip the Bold), proclaim the filiation
+of Aigues-Mortes to the Syrian fortresses. Italian influences are
+also perceptible in the square plan of the flanking towers. French
+architects had always preferred the round tower, as more solid in
+itself, and less open<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> to attack from sappers, who, in advancing
+against a building of this form, were fully exposed to the missiles of
+the defenders from the curtains adjoining; while, on the other hand,
+the angles of the square tower gave a certain protection to assailants
+advancing against its front.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:7001px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p282_s"
+   src="images/i_p282_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="506"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">170. RAMPARTS OF AVIGNON. CURTAIN, TOWERS, AND
+MACHICOLATIONS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The ramparts of Avignon, which date from the fourteenth century, seem
+to have been constructed on Italian methods. The curtains are flanked
+by square towers, open towards the town, and surmounted by embattled
+parapets corbelled out from the walls, and machicolated so as to
+command their bases.</p>
+
+<p>In the thirteenth century walls and towers were provided with movable
+wooden scaffoldings, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> shown at A in the figure. Spaces were left
+in the masonry of the walls for the insertion of wooden beams, which,
+projecting from the curtain, supported an overhanging gallery. This,
+being pierced with traps or apertures in the flooring, commanded
+the base of the wall, and was an important element in defensive
+operations. But as it was found that these timber galleries were
+easily set on fire by assailants, they were replaced in the fourteenth
+century by stone machicolations, as shown at B, consisting of corbels,
+supporting an embattled parapet. Between the inner face of the parapet
+and the outer face of the curtain the supporting corbels alternated
+with openings for the defence of the base, as already described. This
+arrangement, among the earliest examples of which are the square
+towers of Avignon, was soon generally adopted by architects in the
+construction of city ramparts.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p283_s"
+   src="images/i_p283_s.png"
+   width="410"
+   height="500"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">170A. MACHICOLATIONS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p>"The art of fortification, which had made great advances at the
+beginning of the thirteenth century, remained almost stationary to
+the end of it. During the Hundred Years' War, however, it received a
+fresh<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> impetus. When order had been restored in the kingdom, Charles
+VII. set about the restoration or reconstruction of many fortresses
+recaptured from the English. In the defensive works of such towns
+and castles, and in various new undertakings of a like nature,
+we recognise the method and regularity proper to an art based on
+well-defined principles, and far advanced towards mastery."<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dictionnaire</i>, vol. i.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the Abbey of Mont St. Michel the successive modifications applied
+to military <i>enceintes</i> from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century,
+are illustrated in the fullest and most interesting manner.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p284_s"
+   src="images/i_p284_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="310"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">171. RAMPARTS OF ST. MALO (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Of the fourteenth century fortifications, which surrounded the
+original town at the summit of the rock, connecting the ramparts with
+the <i>Merveille</i> on the north, and the abbey buildings on the south,
+some fragments still remain. The tower on the north is intact. The
+walls are crowned with machicolations, in accordance with the then
+novel system of massing the defences at the top of the ramparts.
+The gate of the <i>enceinte</i> was to the south-east,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> judging from the
+miniatures in the <i>livre d'heures</i> of Pierre II., Duke of Brittany,
+which show the arrangement of the original <i>enceinte</i> at the close of
+the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The abbey was at this time governed by Pierre Le Roy, one of its
+ablest abbots and most famous constructors. He rebuilt the summit of
+the <i>Tour des Corbins</i> (<i>merveille</i>), restored, and re-roofed the
+abbey buildings to the south of the church, which, begun by Richard
+Justin in 1260, were carried on at intervals by his successors till
+they were partially destroyed by the fire of 1374. He completed the
+eastern defences by the addition of the square tower at O on the plan
+(Fig. 151), in which he built several rooms for the accommodation of
+his soldiers. The tower is known as the <i>Tour Perrine</i>, in memory of
+its author. We have seen that the abbots gradually became great feudal
+chieftains; the Abbot of Mont St. Michel was further commandant of the
+place for the king; and he was empowered to bestow feofs on the nobles
+of the province, who bound themselves in return to keep guard over the
+mount in certain contingencies, enumerated in the following rendering
+of a Latin text:&mdash;<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Ed. Corroyer, <i>Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St.
+Michel et de ses Abords</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>"The tenure of these vavassories was by faith and fealty, and their
+holders were bound to furnish relief and thirteen knights, each
+of whom was to come in person to guard the gate of the abbey when
+necessary&mdash;that is to say, in time of war; each to keep guard for
+the space of the ebb and flow of the sea&mdash;that is to say, during
+the rising and falling of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> the tide; and each to be provided with
+gambeson, casque, gauntlets, shield, lance, and all requisite arms;
+and further to present themselves thus armed yearly at the feast of
+St. Michael in September."</p>
+
+<p>In the early years of the fifteenth century he built the gate-house
+and crenellated curtain which connects it with the <i>Merveille</i>, to
+the north of the guard-room, <i>Bellechaise</i> (see <a href="#i_p270_s">Fig. 163</a>, beginning
+of this chapter). The gate-house was placed in front of the northern
+fa�ade of <i>Bellechaise</i> (D, <a href="#i_p249_s">Fig. 150</a>); an open space between this and
+the south wall of the new structure formed a wide <i>machicoulis</i> for
+the protection of the north gate (that of <i>Bellechaise</i>), which, by
+the erection of the new building, had been transformed into a second
+interior entrance. The gate-house or <i>ch�telet</i> is a square structure,
+flanked at the angles of the north front by two turrets, corbelled out
+upon buttresses. In general appearance they resemble a pair of huge
+mortars standing on their breeches. Between the pedestals of these
+turrets was the doorway and the inclined vault over the staircase
+leading to the guard-room. This entrance was defended by a portcullis
+worked from within on the first story, and by three <i>machicoulis</i>
+at the top of the curtain, between the battlements of the turrets.
+For the further protection of the gate-house Pierre Le Roy built the
+barbican which covers it to the east and north, and also commands
+the great staircase (<i>Grand Degr�</i>) on the north. He modified the
+ramparts by the addition of the tower known as the <i>Tour Claudine</i> at
+the north-east angle of the <i>Merveille</i>. In the lower story of this
+tower he constructed a guard-room, the postern of which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> communicated
+with the <i>Grand Degr�</i>, and by a series of ingenious and unique
+combinations was so contrived as to command all the approaches.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> Ed. Corroyer, <i>Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St.
+Michel</i>, etc.; Paris, 1877.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p287_s"
+   src="images/i_p287_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="350"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">172. MONT ST. MICHEL. SOUTH FRONT (AS IT WAS IN 1875)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In 1411 the Abbot Robert Jolivet was nominated lord of the abbey by
+Pope John XXIII. After his election by the monks he was made captain
+of the garrison by the king, but continued to live in Paris. In
+1416, however, he hastened to his abbey, which was threatened by the
+English, who had possessed themselves of Lower Normandy after the
+battle of Agincourt in 1415. Whilst the English were busy fortifying
+Tombelaine, Robert Jolivet completed his walls and certain towers
+round about the town, which still exist. To meet the expenses of
+his undertaking the abbot obtained a grant from the king of fifteen
+hundred <i>livres</i> from the revenues of the Viscounty of Avranches,
+besides a subsidy from the Master of the Mint at St. L�.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p288_s"
+   src="images/i_p288_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="428"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">173. MONT ST. MICHEL. FORTIFICATIONS OF THE FOURTEENTH
+CENTURY (AS RESTORED BY ED. CORROYER)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">At the time when Robert Jolivet was building<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> the new ramparts, from
+about 1415 to 1420, the town had greatly increased towards the south,
+and even setting aside the dangerous proximity of the English at
+Tombelaine, some more extensive system of defence than that afforded
+by the fortifications of the fourteenth century was imperatively
+needed to secure the place against attack. Robert Jolivet incorporated
+his new walls on the east with those of the preceding century, which,
+following the escarpments of the cliff, descend to the beach, and
+are protected by the northern tower. These walls he flanked with an
+additional tower projecting considerably from the surface, which was
+destined to command the adjoining curtains and protect the main line
+of his defences. He then carried his walls round to the south of the
+rock and strengthened them by five other towers. The last of these,
+known as the <i>Tour du Roi</i>, forms the south-eastern projection of the
+place, and commands the western gate of the town.</p>
+
+<p>The walls and their sloping bases are defended by stone machicolations
+above, the consoles of which support open crenellated parapets.
+Several of the towers were roofed, and afforded shelter for the
+defenders of the ramparts. After leaving the <i>Tour du Roi</i> the
+walls turn off at a right angle and unite themselves to the abrupt
+declivities of the rock by means of a series of steps and covered
+ways, commanded by a fortified guard-room. Even the inaccessible peaks
+of the rock itself are fortified and connected with the defences of
+the abbey on the south.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the fifteenth century, and still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> more notably
+towards its close, firearms had been successfully used in various
+sieges, and had made such rapid progress that the whole system of
+attack and defence was transformed. Towers gave way to bastions, the
+terraces of which became batteries, while the battlements of the
+earlier mode were replaced by epaulments. Machicolations which were
+now merely a traditional decoration at last disappeared altogether,
+and military science gradually took the place of architecture, for
+which there was henceforth little scope in this particular field.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">CASTLES AND KEEPS, OR DONJONS</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The first French castles of the medi�val period seem to have been
+built for the purpose of arresting invasion and affording shelter to
+communities decimated by the raids of the Normans. They consisted of
+simple intrenchments more or less extensive. Surrounded by a <i>foss�</i>
+or ditch formed of earthworks, the scarp of which was defended by
+a palisade, they had much in common with the camps of the ancient
+Romans. In the centre of the enclosure rose the <i>motte</i> (mote or
+mound), a conical elevation, either natural to the ground, or
+artificially formed on the model of the Roman <i>pr�torium</i>. This was
+surmounted by a building, generally of wood, which served as a post of
+observation and a retreat less accessible than the <i>enceinte</i> itself.</p>
+
+<p>In these rudimentary dispositions we recognise the germ of those
+feudal keeps and castles which were such important features of
+medi�val architecture, notably during the Gothic period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p292_s"
+   src="images/i_p292_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="508"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">174. CASTLE OF ANGERS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Defensive works of this nature sprang up at various points of the
+royal domain which were exposed to the incursions of the Scandinavian
+pirates;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> but the temporary concessions of Charles the Bald were
+claimed as definitive by those to whom they had been made. "When,
+therefore, that feeble monarch proclaimed the heredity of the feofs
+at Quierzy-sur-Oise in 877, he did but sanction that which was
+already an accomplished fact.... When the feudal system was firmly
+established, the nobles turned their attention to the maintenance
+of their usurpations alike against the kings of France, strangers,
+and neighbours. To this end they carefully chose the best strategic
+positions in their territories, and fortified them in the most durable
+fashion at their command. The imposts they levied were considerable,
+and their serfs were subject to endless exactions."<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> Stone castles
+were accordingly built<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> which, in general arrangement, adhered to
+primitive models. In 980 Frotaire had raised no less than five around
+P�rigueux, his episcopal town.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Anthyme St. Paul, <i>Histoire Monumentale de la France</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>In 991 Thibault File-�toupe built a fortress on the hill of Montlh�ry,
+near the royal residences of Paris and �tampes, which was very
+formidable to the first five kings of the house of Capet. Later, when
+it became a royal possession, it was one of the chief bulwarks of the
+city.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p293_s"
+   src="images/i_p293_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="478"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">175. CARCASSONNE; CITADEL. VIEW FROM THE NORTH-EASTERN
+ANGLE. (SEE PLAN, FIG. 167)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In the Middle Ages the castle bore the same relation to the fortified
+town as did the keep to the feudal castle, and the history of one is
+bound up in that of the other.</p>
+
+<p>In a fortified town the castle was the lodging of the leader and his
+soldiers. It was connected with the ramparts of the place, and had one
+or more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> special outlets; it was further provided with defences on the
+side of the town itself, so that upon occasion it became an isolated
+stronghold.</p>
+
+<p>The Castle of Carcassonne is a famous example of such offensive and
+defensive fortification. It was built in the first years of the
+twelfth century, and is composed of various lodgings for the chief and
+his garrison, defended east and north, on the side towards the city,
+by towers and curtains (Fig. 175). At the south-west angle independent
+reducts and towers guard the courtyards and approaches. The west front
+overlooks the open country, and here was placed the gate, which was
+defended by a series of formidable devices so ingenious as to preclude
+all possibility of surprise.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p294_s"
+   src="images/i_p294_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="520"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">176. LOCHES CASTLE. KEEP</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2">During the Romanesque and Gothic periods the castle was a miniature
+town, with its own fortified <i>enceinte</i>, composed of walls reinforced
+by towers which served as refuges at various points of the
+circumference, and formed so many reducts for the arrest of assailants.</p>
+
+<p>The keep was the citadel of this miniature town, the temporary
+lodging of the lord whose vassals lived in the internal offices, and
+whose soldiers occupied the gate-house buildings and the towers of
+the ramparts. The noble sought to give his special habitation the
+most formidable aspect possible, and thereby to strike terror to the
+beholder, a very necessary device in those days of conflict when the
+friend of night was often the implacable foe of morning. "In times of
+peace the keep was the receptacle for the treasure, arms, and archives
+of the family; but the lord did not lodge there; he only took up his
+quarters in the keep with his wife and children in time of war. As
+it was not possible for him to defend the place alone, he surrounded
+himself with a band of the most devoted of his followers who shared
+his dwelling. From thence he exercised a scrupulous surveillance over
+the garrison and its approaches, for the keep was always placed at
+the most vulnerable point of the fortress, and he and his bodyguard
+held the horde of vassals and retainers in due subservience; as they
+were able to pass in and out at all hours by secret and well-guarded
+passages, the garrison was kept in ignorance of the exact means of
+defence, the lord, as was natural, doing all in his power to make them
+appear formidable."<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a> Viollet-le-Duc, <i>Dictionnaire</i>, vol. v.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>Castles and keeps of stone were generally built upon the natural scarp
+of some spur commanding two valleys and near the banks of a river; the
+primitive mounds of the feudal fortresses were abandoned; as we have
+already remarked, these were in many cases artificial, and would have
+been quite inadequate to the support of the huge masses of masonry of
+the new architecture.</p>
+
+<p>"By the close of the tenth century and the opening years of the
+eleventh, Foulques Nerra was raising castles throughout his own
+territories in Anjou, and on every available point of vantage he could
+wrest from his neighbour, the Count of Blois and Tours; the latter
+built fortresses to resist the aggressor and complete the network of
+strongholds begun by his father, Thibault the Trickster, one of the
+most turbulent nobles of his day."<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> Anthyme St. Paul, <i>Histoire Monumentale de la France</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>The keep of Langeais, on a precipitous hill overlooking the Loire,
+was founded by Foulques Nerra at the close of the tenth century;
+the walls, which are still standing on three sides, show traces of
+Gallo-Roman methods of construction; the dressed stones are of small
+size, and brick and stone are used conjointly for the voussoirs of the
+window arches.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of castles and keeps were built in the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries, among others those of Plessy, Grimoult, Le Pin,
+and La Pommeraye, the last on a mound surrounded by deep moats
+which separate three lines of circumvallation from each other;
+Beaugency-sur-Loire, the vast keep of which was four stories high;
+and Loches,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> which is ascribed to Foulques Nerra, but which seems
+to belong rather to the twelfth century, at which period military
+architecture had made a great advance. The keep of Loches is perhaps
+the finest of all such structures in France; in height it is nearly
+100 feet; the ramparts seem to date from the thirteenth century; the
+form of the towers on plan is a pointed arch, a shape adopted as
+offering greater resistance at the part most frequently attacked by
+the sapper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:609px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p297_s"
+   src="images/i_p297_s.png"
+   width="609"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">177. FALAISE CASTLE. KEEP</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">At Falaise, where the castle like that of Domfront is built on
+a rugged promontory, the ramparts are later than the keep, the
+architectural details of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> which point to the twelfth century. This
+hypothesis is supported by a passage in the Chronicle of Robert du
+Mont, quoted by M. de Caumont. In 1123 Henry II. rebuilt the keep and
+ramparts of Arques, and carried out similar restorations at Gisors,
+Falaise, Argentan, Exmes, Domfront, Amboise, and Vernon.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p298_s"
+   src="images/i_p298_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="512"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">178. LAVARDIN CASTLE. KEEP</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p299_s"
+   src="images/i_p299_s.png"
+   width="442"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">179. KEEP OF AIGUES-MORTES. TOUR DE CONSTANCE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Other keeps of equal interest in point of situation, plan, or details
+of construction are:&mdash;Ste. Suzanne, Nogent-le-Rotrou, Broue, L'Islot,
+Tonnay-Boutonne, Pons, Chamboy, Montbazon, Lavardin, Montrichard,
+and Huriet in the Bourbonnais. All these, in common with those first
+described, are square or rectangular on plan. From the end of the
+twelfth century onwards the cylindrical form<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> predominates in the plan
+of keeps and towers. On the whole, it offered the best resistance to
+the medi�val assailant. The convex surface was of equal strength all
+round, and as we have seen in the preceding chapter, the circular
+trace for towers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> gave the garrison the best chance of defending their
+bases from the curtain, and of opposing the work of sappers and miners.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:451px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p300_s"
+   src="images/i_p300_s.png"
+   width="451"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">180. PROVINS CASTLE. KEEP</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The great advance made in architecture by the general adoption
+of an expedient so simple and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> easy of execution as the vault on
+intersecting arches manifested itself very strongly in military
+structures. The heavy wooden floors of the earlier keeps, which were
+so apt to catch fire, were replaced by less ponderous vaults, binding
+the circular walls firmly together, and forming a flooring for the
+various stories less unsteady and infinitely more durable than the
+huge beams and joists of earlier days.</p>
+
+<p>A further improvement was the pointed roof, round on plan, now
+generally adopted as better calculated to withstand projectiles or
+combustibles which shattered the angles of the roof in the old square
+towers, and set fire to the timbers.</p>
+
+<p>The form of keeps, however, varied considerably throughout the
+twelfth century. At Houdan the keep is a great tower strengthened by
+four turrets; at �tampes it is composed of four clustered towers,
+forming a quatrefoil on plan; the vaulted stories are marked by many
+curious features, among others a deep well, the opening of which is
+in the second floor. Some historians date this building from the
+eleventh century; there are indications, however, in the details of
+the architecture and sculptures, which point to the early part of the
+reign of Philip Augustus.</p>
+
+<p>The keep of Provins, which belongs to the twelfth century, has certain
+very original features. It rises from a solid mound of masonry, and
+has a circular <i>enceinte</i>. The base of the keep itself is square, and
+is flanked at each angle by a turret. An octagonal tower surmounts
+the square base, and is connected with the flanking turrets by flying
+buttresses. The keep of Gisors is also octagonal in form, one of its
+octagons being at a tangent to the circular <i>enceinte</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> which crowns
+the feudal <i>motte</i> or mound. It was built in the twelfth century, and
+was considerably augmented by the line of walls and square towers
+which Philip Augustus drew round the mound.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ch�teau Gaillard</i>, built at the close of the twelfth century
+on an eminence commanding the Seine at Les Andelys, has several
+peculiarities of arrangement. The round keep is first enclosed by a
+circular <i>enceinte</i>, or rather by a square, the angles of which have
+been rounded. This in its turn is surrounded by an elliptic enclosure
+connected with the defences of the castle, and consisting of a series
+of segmental towers united by very narrow curtains. In this massive
+structure the art of the architect manifests itself only in the
+robust solidity of the masonry. It is the keep in its purely military
+character. No trace of decoration mitigates its austerity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p302_s"
+   src="images/i_p302_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="302"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">181. CASTLE OF CHINON. SOUTH FRONT</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Philip Augustus, having possessed himself of the Ch�teau Gaillard,
+fortified Gisors on the same formidable scale, and proceeded to build
+the castle of Dourdan as well as his own palace fortress of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span>
+Louvre, in Paris. Upon the death of the king, Enguerrand III. began
+to build a fortress at Coucy, which he completed in less than ten
+years (1223-1230). Its grandiose proportions and formidable system of
+defence surpassed everything that had gone before. Coucy was, in fact,
+the architectural manifestation of that haughty ambition to which
+Enguerrand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> is said to have given free expression during the minority
+of his sovereign.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:504px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p303_s"
+   src="images/i_p303_s.png"
+   width="504"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">182. CASTLE OF CLISSON. KEEP</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Next in importance to the castles and keeps of the thirteenth century,
+already enumerated, are the following:&mdash;The White Tower of Issoudun;
+the Tower of Blandy; the octagonal keep of Ch�tillon-sur-Loing,
+Semur; the royal fortresses of Angers, built by St. Louis;
+Montargis, Boulogne, Chinon, and Saumur; the <i>Tour Constance</i> or
+keep of Aigues-Mortes, ascribed to St. Louis; the castle of Najac,
+built by his brother, Alphonse of Poitiers; the castles of Bourbon
+l'Archambault and Chalusset, and the castle of Clisson, rebuilt or
+begun by Olivier I., Lord of Clisson, after his return from the Holy
+Land, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p304_s"
+   src="images/i_p304_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="334"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">183. VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON. CASTLE OF ST. ANDR�</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In the fourteenth century military architecture developed chiefly
+on reconstructive lines. Ancient fortresses were reorganised in
+accordance with the new methods of attack and (consequently) of
+defence, and the weak points brought to light by recent sieges
+were dealt with. The same process was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> applied to the construction
+of towers which had hitherto been furnished with several rows of
+loopholes, an excellent expedient for the defence of curtains and
+approaches, but subject to this drawback, that it directed attention
+to the most vulnerable points. The first effect of the use of cannon
+in warfare was to increase the thickness of the walls; subsequently,
+such structural modifications were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> adopted as were required by the
+novel method of massing all the defences at the summit of machicolated
+walls. The principal castles of this period were Vincennes, near
+Paris, built by Philip of Valois and Charles V., and the vast
+fortified palace at Avignon, constructed by the Popes Benedict XII.,
+Clement VI., Innocent VI., and Urban V., of which we shall have more
+to say in Part IV. Gaston Ph&#339;bus, Count of Foix and B�arn, built
+square keeps in the <i>Bastide</i> of B�arn, at Montaner, and at Mauvezin,
+besides circular keeps at Lourdes and at Foix.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:520px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p305_s"
+   src="images/i_p305_s.png"
+   width="520"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">184. CASTLE OF TARASCON</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Among keeps and castles completed or entirely built in the fourteenth
+century, Anthyme St. Paul enumerates those of Roquetaillade,
+Bourdeilles, Polignac, Briquebec, Hardelot, Rambures, Lavardin (the
+foundations of which were laid in the twelfth century), Montrond,
+Turenne, Billy, Murat, and H�risson, the curious keep of Montbard, the
+keeps of Romefort, Pouzauges, Noirmoutier, and many others.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth century
+Louis of Orleans, son of Charles V., took advantage of the madness
+of his brother Charles VI. to fortify various positions on which he
+relied for the furtherance of his ambitious schemes. In 1393 and the
+years immediately following he acquired various estates in Valois:
+Mont�pilloy, Pierrefonds, and La Fert�-Milon, the castle of which he
+rebuilt entirely. He also bought the domain of Coucy in 1400, after
+the death of the last male descendant of Enguerrand III.</p>
+
+<p>Coucy, Pierrefonds, and La Fert�-Milon have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> been so exhaustively
+described in special works, notably those of Viollet-le-Duc, that we
+need not reproduce them here. We have cited them as characteristic
+types of those colossal fortresses and keeps, admirable alike in
+grandiose proportion and refinement of detail which are the supreme
+expression of feudal power.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:692px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p307_s"
+   src="images/i_p307_s.png"
+   width="692"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">185. VITR� CASTLE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Several other castles were built in Albigeois, Auvergne, Limousin,
+Guyenne, La Vend�e, and Provence, notably at Tarascon. The keeps of
+Tr�ves in Anjou also date from this period.</p>
+
+<p>Important castles sprang up all over Brittany in the fifteenth
+century. Such were Combourg, Foug�res, Montauban, St. Malo, Vitr�,
+Elven, Sucinio, Dinan, Tonqu�dec, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Many of these buildings which date from the close of the century
+were remarkable for their ingenuity of arrangement and richness of
+decoration. But though worthy of all attention from the artistic point
+of view, they do not come within the scope of our present study&mdash;that
+of <i>military</i> architecture in the Gothic period.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER III<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">GATES AND BRIDGES</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>Though confining ourselves to a brief historical abstract of the
+so-called Gothic period in architecture, without reference to Roman
+examples, we have said enough in the foregoing studies on castles
+and keeps, and the circumvallation of towns, to give some idea of
+the importance attached by architects to the gates which secured the
+<i>enceintes</i>, and the bridges which afforded an approach.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gates.</i>&mdash;Following the example of those Frankish
+architects whose works in Syria after the first Crusade seem to have
+exercised such far-reaching influence, French builders of the reigns
+of Philip Augustus and St. Louis reduced the entrances of fortresses
+and fortified <i>enceintes</i> to the smallest number practicable. Their
+construction was based upon a system calculated to repulse any
+ordinary attempt to carry the place by direct attack; as a rule,
+fortresses were taken rather by ruse, surprise, or treason than by
+regular siege.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:616px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p310_s"
+   src="images/i_p310_s.png"
+   width="616"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">186. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. GATE-HOUSE OF THE CASTLE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">During the twelfth, and more especially the thirteenth century, the
+gates were the points most strongly fortified. They were approached
+over a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> bridge, by raising a movable portion of which, however,
+entrance might be barred on the very threshold. The narrow gateway
+passage was defended by two projecting towers pierced with loopholes,
+and connected by a curtain. The whole structure formed a fortified
+gate-house, known as a <i>ch�telet</i>, which had to be carried before an
+assailant could penetrate to the fortress beyond. The passage was
+further defended by a single or double portcullis, a grated timber
+framework like a harrow, cased with iron, the uprights of which were
+spiked at the bottom. The passage was also defended by machicolations
+or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> holes in the roof, through which the garrison could hurl down
+missiles on the heads of their enemies, should the latter have forced
+the gate.</p>
+
+<p>The castle-gate of Carcassonne which was built about 1120 still
+exists, and is a good example of such arrangements.</p>
+
+<p>The minute precautions adopted by architects to guard against surprise
+are very manifest in this example. A sudden attempt was often
+successful, especially if favoured by traitors among the defenders
+themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulties of passage were increased by the multiplication of
+portcullises, the windlasses of which were worked from different
+stories of the tower, so as to prevent collusion between different
+parties of the garrison, which was often composed largely of
+mercenaries. In the gate-house of Carcassonne the first portcullis
+was raised or lowered by means of chains and counter-weights worked
+from a windlass on the second floor; the second portcullis was worked
+in like manner from the first floor, in a place entirely cut off from
+communication with that above, to which access could only be obtained
+by a wooden staircase in the castle courtyard.</p>
+
+<p>In the thirteenth century military architects further provided
+against surprises by defensive outworks. The gate of Laon, at Coucy,
+so admirably described by Viollet-le-Duc, is a famous example. These
+outworks, which were called barbicans, were designed to protect the
+great gate and its approaches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:554px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p312_s"
+   src="images/i_p312_s.png"
+   width="554"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">187. CARCASSONNE. GATEWAY OF THE LISTS, KNOWN AS THE
+<i>PORTE DE L'AUDE</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Around the walls of the city of Carcassonne a second line of ramparts
+had been drawn by St. Louis, in which only a single opening gave
+access to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> the <i>lists</i> (Fig. 187)&mdash;that is to say, the space between
+the inner and outer enclosures. He afterwards built a huge tower,
+known as the <i>Barbican</i>, to the west of the castle, with which it
+was connected by crenellated walls, and by inner cross-walls, so
+arranged in a kind of echelon that the open spaces on one side were
+masked by the projections on the other (see plan, <a href="#i_p279_s">Fig. 167</a>). The
+tower was destined to cover sorties from the garrison, and to keep
+open communication by the bridge across the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> Aude. It was rather an
+outwork than a barbican such as Philip the Bold built before the
+<i>Porte Narbonaise</i>, on the east of the city, towards the close of the
+thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p313_s"
+   src="images/i_p313_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="441"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">188. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. GATE KNOWN AS THE <i>PORTE
+NARBONAISE</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The <i>Porte Narbonaise</i> bears a general resemblance to the main
+gate of the castle, subject, however, to the great advance made in
+military architecture in the course of a century. The gateway towers
+are provided with spurs, an invention directed against the attack of
+miners, which had the further advantage of interfering with the action
+of a battering-ram, by exposing those who worked it to missiles from
+the adjacent parts of the curtain. The gate opened immediately upon
+the lists; it was defended by the crenellated semi-circular barbican,
+which was united on either side to the embattled parapet of the lists.
+Access to the barbican was obtained only by a narrow passage preceded
+by a bridge, the latter<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> easily defended by a redan which adjoined the
+postern of the barbican.</p>
+
+<p>The gate itself was provided with two portcullises like those of the
+castle gate; behind the first were massive folding-doors, and over it
+a wide machicolation.</p>
+
+<p>The constructive methods employed in the building of fortified gates
+were modified as military architecture progressed on lines already
+considered by us in the first chapter of this section, when dealing
+with defensive methods generally, which, in the fourteenth century,
+seem to have been in advance of those of attack. A steady improvement
+in details went on until the invention of gunpowder came in to
+profoundly modify the conditions alike of defence and assault.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p314_s"
+   src="images/i_p314_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="418"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">189. RAMPARTS OF AIGUES-MORTES. GATE KNOWN AS THE
+<i>PORTE DE LA GARDETTE</i>. DRAWBRIDGE. (TO THE RIGHT OF THE DRAWING THE
+<i>TOUR CONSTANCE</i>, BUILT BY ST. LOUIS)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The gateways of fortified <i>enceintes</i> were modified in the
+fourteenth century not only by alterations in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> the plan of towers,
+the substitution of stone machicolations for the wooden <i>hourds</i> or
+scaffoldings of parapets, the addition of portcullises, folding-doors,
+and the <i>machicoulis</i> of the vaulted passage, but further by the
+invention of the drawbridge. A drawbridge, it may be hardly necessary
+to say, consisted of a wooden platform suspended by chains to
+cross-beams poised on uprights on the principle of a see-saw; when
+lowered, the bridge afforded a passage across the moat. It was raised
+by depressing the inner ends of the lever-beams which pivoted upon a
+fulcrum, and thus brought the platform up vertically against the front
+of the building, where it formed an outer door which an attacking
+party had either to batter in or to bring down by cutting the chains.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p315_s"
+   src="images/i_p315_s.png"
+   width="338"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">190. RAMPARTS OF DINAN. GATE KNOWN AS THE <i>PORTE DE
+JERZUAL</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">It will be readily perceived that such a bridge was infinitely more
+effectual and more to be depended<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> upon than the portable bridge
+mentioned in our description of the castle gate of Carcassonne.
+The latter had to be raised piece by piece, a prolonged operation
+impossible of execution in case of a sudden surprise.</p>
+
+<p>Aigues-Mortes seems to have been one of the first fortresses to
+which the new methods were applied. The gates east, west, and south
+are constructed on the twelfth-century system, as exemplified at
+Carcassonne. But the northern gate, known as the <i>Porte de la
+Gardette</i>, which was either made or altered in the fourteenth century,
+still shows the grooves for the beams of the drawbridge, and the
+pointed arch of the doorway is enframed by a square rebate destined
+for the platform when raised.</p>
+
+<p>The use of drawbridges became very general in the fourteenth century,
+and gave rise to various ingenious combinations. The gate at Dinan,
+known as the <i>Porte de Jerzual</i>, which probably dates from the close
+of the century, is a curious example. It is not placed between
+two towers in the manner then usual, but is pierced through the
+actual face of a tower. In this case, the inner prolongation of the
+lever-beams formed a solid panel like the platform of the bridge
+itself. It was worked through a hole in the roof of the entrance
+archway, being raised with the help of a chain, and falling through
+its own preponderant weight. The horizontal pivot on which it turned
+rested on the brackets shown in <a href="#i_p315_s">Fig. 190</a>; the external sections of the
+lever-beams sank in the usual manner into the vertical grooves above
+the arch, and when the bridge was up, the solid panel joining the
+inner ends of the levers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> doubled the protection it gave. In case of
+alarm, the chain had simply to be let go, and the panel falling by its
+own weight, the bridge rose, and the barricade was complete.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:574px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p317_s"
+   src="images/i_p317_s.png"
+   width="574"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">191. VITR� CASTLE. GATE-HOUSE</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">By the fifteenth century drawbridges were in universal use; an
+interesting development was the result. This was the introduction of a
+smaller gate or postern in the curtain between the towers, by the side
+of the great gateway. Each of the two apertures was furnished with its
+own drawbridge.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> That of the centre, which was reserved for horsemen
+and vehicles, was worked by two beams or arms, as we have seen, while
+the smaller footbridge of the postern was raised by means of a single
+beam, the chain of which was attached to a forked upright.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:623px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p318_s"
+   src="images/i_p318_s.png"
+   width="623"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">192. ENCEINTE OF GU�RANDE. GATE OF ST. MICHEL</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The castle of Vitr�, which was built, or at least completed at the
+close of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth century,
+illustrates the system in the gateway of its <i>ch�telet</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The gate-house, known as the <i>Porte St. Michel</i>, at Gu�rande, which
+was built together with the <i>enceinte</i> by John V., Duke of Brittany,
+in 1431, still<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> preserves the lateral grooves which indicate the shape
+and arrangement of the postern drawbridge.</p>
+
+<p>When raised, the two drawbridges closed the apertures of gateway and
+postern, while the open gulf of the great ditch, either empty, or full
+of water, cut off the approach to the entrance.</p>
+
+<p>The Abbey of Mont St. Michel, which we have already studied under
+various aspects, has further information to give us with regard to the
+construction of fortified gateways. In accordance with contemporary
+usage, the Abbot Pierre Le Roy built a gate-house or <i>bastille</i>
+(Fig. 163), the entrance of which was guarded by a portcullis and a
+wide <i>machicoulis</i>; he masked this gate-house by a barbican, which
+was connected north and south with the great stairway leading to
+the abbey. The northern staircase is rendered specially interesting
+by the ingenious arrangement of its gates, which opened within
+the barbican. The apertures were filled by a panel which worked
+horizontally, on a system necessitated by the exceptional situation of
+the abbey, where the military, as well as the domestic buildings, were
+superposed, communicating with each other only by an elaborate series
+of staircases and inclines. The doors pivoted upon horizontal axes.
+Resting upon salient jambs in the embrasures of the doorways, they
+opened in a direction parallel with the slope of the steps, and could
+be shut at the least alarm, being carried into place by their own
+weight. They were kept fastened by lateral bolts, the slots of which
+still exist in the jambs.<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Ed. Corroyer, <i>Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St.
+Michel et de ses Abords</i>; Paris, 1877.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p320_s"
+   src="images/i_p320_s.png"
+   width="423"
+   height="530"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">193. RAMPARTS OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GATEWAY KNOWN AS THE
+<i>PORTE DU ROI</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The main gate of the ramparts, which was built between 1415 and 1420,
+is to the west of the place, in the curtain flanked by the tower
+known as the <i>Tour du Roi</i>. This gate and the lateral postern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> gave
+access to the town, their drawbridges forming a passage across the
+moat when lowered, and when raised, an initial barrier to assailants.
+Above the gates was the warder's lodging, beneath which the vaulted
+passage and the postern communicated directly with an outer guard-room
+in the ground-floor of the <i>Tour du Roi</i>. In addition to the first
+barrier, formed by the raised platform of the drawbridge, the main
+entrance was secured by double doors, and by an iron portcullis, which
+still remains in its lateral grooves. The great arch is crowned by a
+tympanum, on which the united arms of the king, the abbey, and the
+town were carved.</p>
+
+<p>The works designed for the defence of rivers flowing through fortified
+towns, or of the inlets of harbours, are closely allied to the
+military architecture of gates. At Troyes the river arches in the
+town ramparts were guarded by gratings or portcullises of iron. At
+Paris the passage of the Seine was barred by chains stretched across
+the river from wall to wall, and upheld in the middle of the stream
+by piles or firmly anchored boats. At Angers the walls of the town
+abutted on two towers known as the <i>Haute Cha�ne</i> and the <i>Basse
+Cha�ne</i> (the Higher and Lower Chains), containing windlasses for the
+chains, which at night were stretched across the Maine at its passage
+through the <i>enceinte</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Seaports were defended at the mouth by towers on either shore,
+between which chains, worked from within, could be stretched to bar
+the passage. The harbour of La Rochelle is thus protected. According
+to some arch�ologists of authority, the tower known as the <i>Tour
+de la Cha�ne</i> (to the left of the drawing) is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> older than that of
+St. Nicholas (on the right), which is supposed by them to have been
+built in the sixteenth century on the foundations of an earlier tower
+contemporary with that on the other side of the Channel. The piles
+upon which these towers stand seem to have given way in part, and to
+have caused a perceptible inclination of the Tower of St. Nicholas.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p322_s"
+   src="images/i_p322_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="313"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">194. ENTRANCE TO THE PORT OF LA ROCHELLE. TOWER OF ST.
+NICHOLAS, AND TOWER CALLED <i>TOUR DE LA CHA�NE</i>. BEFORE THE RESTORATION</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The suggestion made in a very fanciful modern design, that the two
+towers were once united by a great arch, is wholly without foundation.
+Such a useless structure would have entailed defensive works equally
+useless, seeing that a chain stretched from tower to tower at high
+tide&mdash;at low tide the harbour was inaccessible&mdash;would have been
+perfectly effectual against any vessels of that period attempting to
+force a passage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bridges.</i>&mdash;As is the case with all other
+architectural buildings, the origin of bridges dates back to the
+Romans, by whom they were often decorated with triumphal arches.
+The bridge of St. Chamas<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> in Provence, known as the <i>Pont Flavien</i>
+(Flavian Bridge), is an example which seems to date from the first
+centuries of the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>The triumphal arches were in later times replaced by fortifications;
+they became <i>t�tes de pont</i>, <i>bastilles</i>, or crenellated gate-houses,
+the function of which was not, like that of the arches, the decoration
+of the structure or the glorification of its founder, but the defence
+of the passage across the river, and the protection of the fortress
+with which it communicated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p323_s"
+   src="images/i_p323_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="293"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">195. BRIDGE AT AVIGNON. RUINS OF THE BRIDGE KNOWN AS
+THE PONT DE ST. B�N�ZET</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Among the bridges constructed by medi�val architects, that of St.
+B�n�zet, the Bridge of Avignon, seems to be the most ancient. This
+bridge, which was begun about 1180, and completed some ten years
+later, is equally remarkable for its architectural details, and the
+structural problems solved by its builders. It crosses, or rather
+used to cross, the Rhone&mdash;for though the arm towards the <i>Rocher des
+Doms</i> is the narrower, it is the deeper&mdash;on nineteen arches, extending
+from the foot of the Doms, on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> Avignonese bank, to the Tower of
+Villeneuve, on the right bank, after a slight deflection southward.</p>
+
+<p>The gate-house on the left bank, some fragments of which still remain,
+is said to have been built by the Popes in the fourteenth century, for
+the purpose of levying tolls, a perquisite shared by them with the
+King of France.</p>
+
+<p>The Bridge of Avignon seems to have been one of the first constructed
+by the fraternity of the <i>Hospitaliers pontifs</i>, which was founded
+in the twelfth century for the double object of building bridges
+and succouring travellers. The head of the order at the time of the
+building of the Rhone bridge was St. B�n�zet. It must have numbered
+architects of ability among its members, for the construction of the
+Bridge of Avignon is very remarkable. Each of the elliptical arches
+is composed of four independent arches in simple juxtaposition one
+with another. This device ensures elasticity, and as a consequence
+stability. The solidarity of the whole is rendered complete by the
+masonry of the spandrils, which recall the architectural portions of
+the aqueduct, known as the <i>Pont du Gard</i>; its width is about 16 feet.
+The arches spring from piers furnished on either face with acute spurs
+designed to break the force of the stream and the impact of floating
+ice in the winter.</p>
+
+<p>The spandril above each pier is pierced with a round arch, to
+give free passage to the water during those floods which at times
+completely submerge the piers.</p>
+
+<p>The bridge in its present ruined condition has only four arches. On
+the pier nearest to the left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> bank the ancient chapel, dedicated to
+St. Nicholas, is still standing. Access to it is obtained by means
+of a flight of corbelled steps rising from the foundation to the
+entrance, and by an overhanging landing-stage, resting at one end
+against the pier, at the other against the flank of the arch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p325_s"
+   src="images/i_p325_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="381"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">196. BRIDGE OF MONTAUBAN, KNOWN AS THE <i>PONT DES
+CONSULS</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The old bridge at Carcassonne seems to be contemporary with that of
+Avignon, but its arches are semi-circular, their keystones are bound
+into the intrados, and their piers are spurred to the level of the
+platform, where they form recesses or refuges, which the narrowness of
+the bridge rendered very necessary.</p>
+
+<p>Among bridges of the thirteenth century we may mention that at
+B�ziers, where the arches, both pointed and semi-circular, resemble
+those of Carcassonne in construction; but here the piers only rise
+above the summers of the arches by the height of two or three courses,
+and their spandrils<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> are pierced to give free passage to the current
+during floods.</p>
+
+<p>The bridge which spanned the Rhone at St. Savournin du Port, known as
+the <i>Pont St. Esprit</i>, was the work of a Clunisian abbot about 1265.
+It resembled the Bridge of Avignon in the construction of the piers
+with their pierced spandrils; the arches, however, were semi-circular.
+The platform, which is some 16 feet across, was barred at either end
+by toll-gates; that nearest to the little town was connected with
+the <i>t�te de pont</i>, which, in after times, was incorporated with the
+fortress commanding the course of the Rhone above the bridge.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p326_s"
+   src="images/i_p326_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="232"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">197. BRIDGE OF CAHORS, KNOWN AS THE PONT DE VALENTR�</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The question of tolls was an important one in those days, and gave
+rise to frequent disputes. The towers and gate-houses of bridges were
+toll-bars as well as defensive outworks.</p>
+
+<p>The bridge at Montauban, known as the <i>Pont des Consuls</i>, which was
+begun at the close of the thirteenth century, remained unfinished
+till the beginning of the fourteenth, when Philip the Fair gave such
+help as was needed for its completion, on condition that he should
+be allowed to raise three towers on the bridge, with a view to the
+appropriation of the tolls.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Bridge of Montauban is built entirely of brick. It consists of
+seven pointed arches, resting on spurred piers, which are pierced
+with arches, also pointed, and rising to the same height as the main
+arches, to provide for the frequent floods of the Tarn.</p>
+
+<p>The Bridge of Cahors is one of the most beautiful of
+fourteenth-century examples. It is still of great interest in spite of
+the various restorations it has undergone, chiefly of late years.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p327_s"
+   src="images/i_p327_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="431"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">198. BRIDGE OF ORTHEZ</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">This bridge, which is known as the <i>Pont de Valentr�</i>, was begun in
+1308 by Raymond Panchelli, Bishop of Cahors from 1300-1312, and cannot
+have been finished before 1355. It consists of six slightly pointed
+arches; the piers, which rise to the level of the parapet, forming
+lateral refuges, are triangular above bridge and square below. At each
+end the bridge was commanded by a crenellated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> structure, forming a
+gate-house or <i>t�te de pont</i> on either bank. In the middle rose a
+lofty tower with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> gates, by means of which passage might be barred and
+assailants checked in the event of a surprise of either gate-house.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p328_s"
+   src="images/i_p328_s.png"
+   width="281"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">199. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. FORTIFIED BRIDGE
+CONNECTING THE LOWER CHURCH WITH THE ABBEY</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The Bridge of Orthez has strong affinities with that of Cahors. It
+must date from about the same period, and there is every reason to
+suppose it was defended, not only by the central tower, but by <i>t�tes
+de pont</i>, one of which at least must have been destroyed to make way
+for the railroad from Bayonne to Pau.</p>
+
+<p>Bridges were of great importance in the Middle Ages, both as public
+highways and military outworks. At certain points, notably at the
+confluence of two rivers, they were strongly reinforced by very
+considerable defences, as at Sens, Montereau, etc.</p>
+
+<p>At Paris, Orleans, Rouen, Nantes, and a large number of other towns
+traversed by rivers, bridges were not only important as military
+defences, but of great interest as architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Mont St. Michel shall furnish us with our last example, a bridge
+of the fifteenth century. Though it spans no stream, it is none
+the less remarkable. In the details of this bridge&mdash;its embattled
+platform uniting the lower church to the abbey, its machicolated
+parapet guarding the inner passages&mdash;we recognise an art consummate as
+that which stirs our enthusiasm in the vast proportions and perfect
+execution of the splendid choir, the whole proclaiming the versatile
+genius of those great builders who welded into one noble monument a
+triad of masterpieces&mdash;religious, monastic, and military.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PART IV<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">CIVIL ARCHITECTURE</span></h2></div>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER I<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">BARNS, HOSPITALS, DWELLING-HOUSES, AND "H�TELS" OR TOWN-HOUSES OF THE
+NOBILITY</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>Civil architecture could boast no special characteristics before
+the close of the thirteenth century. Its earlier buildings bore the
+impress of religious and monastic types, as was natural at a period
+when architecture was practised almost exclusively by monks and by the
+lay disciples trained in their schools.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the following century that domestic architecture
+threw off the trammels of religious tradition, and took on the
+character appropriate to its various functions. Artists began to seek
+decorative motives in the scenes and objects of daily life, no longer
+borrowing exclusively from sacred themes, and convention in form and
+detail was abandoned in some degree for the study of nature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Barns.</i>&mdash;Throughout the Romanesque and Gothic
+periods, barns, hospitals, and houses were constructed in the
+prevailing style. We propose, of course, to deal only with buildings
+possessing real architectural features.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:466px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p334_s"
+   src="images/i_p334_s.png"
+   width="466"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">200. TOWN-HALL AT ST. ANTONIN (TARN ET GARONNE). THE
+UPPER PART OF THE BELFRY WAS REBUILT ABOUT 1860</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The barns or granaries of medi�val times were rural dependencies of
+the abbeys, but were built outside the enclosure of the monastery
+proper, and formed part of the <i>priory</i> or farm. The entrance of the
+barn was a large door, opening upon the yard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> in the centre of the
+front gable end; access was also obtained by means of smaller doors
+in the side walls, and often a postern was constructed beside the
+main entrance for ordinary use. The great central doors were then
+only thrown open for the passage of carts, which, entering at the
+front, passed out through a similar door in the opposite gable end, as
+at the barn of Perri�res, which, though situated in Normandy, was a
+dependency of the Abbey of Marmoutier, near Tours.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:589px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p335_s"
+   src="images/i_p335_s.png"
+   width="589"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">201. BARN AT PERRI�RES (CALVADOS). END OF TWELFTH
+CENTURY. (AFTER CAUMONT)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Such barns were generally large three-aisled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> buildings, the central
+aisle divided from those on either side by an arcade, or pillars of
+wood or stone, which supported the pointed timber roof covering the
+whole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p336a_s"
+   src="images/i_p336a_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="376"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">201A. BARN AT PERRI�RES. SECTION</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:550px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p336b"
+   src="images/i_p336b.png"
+   width="550"
+   height="356"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">201B. BARN AT PERRI�RES. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In some of these barns it was the practice to pile wheat, barley, or
+rye in the centre and in one of the side aisles; in others the central
+aisle was kept free for passage, and the grain was stored in the sides.</p>
+
+<p>The fa�ades differ only in unimportant details. They consist of vast
+gable ends, following the lines of the roof, and strengthened by
+pilasters. A large doorway, with a small postern to the side of it,
+occupies the centre of the base, and the apex is pierced with narrow
+openings to light, or rather to ventilate, the interior.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Tithe-barns were very generally constructed on this plan. When large
+and important they had two stories, as at Provins.</p>
+
+<p>These were not as a rule vaulted, but the granaries, or <i>greniers
+d'abondance</i>, were often built with three stories, that of the
+ground-floor, and even the one above it, being vaulted. The granary of
+the Abbey of Vauclair, in the department of Aisne, built towards the
+close of the twelfth century, is a very interesting example of such
+structures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p337_s"
+   src="images/i_p337_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="545"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">202. TITHE-BARN AT PROVINS</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p338_s"
+   src="images/i_p338_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="213"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">203. GRANARY OF THE ABBEY OF VAUCLAIR</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Some idea of the importance of religious establishments at this period
+may be gathered from the foregoing details. The great abbeys were
+miniature towns, and their dependencies, the priories, con<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span>sisted of
+vast farms, round which large villages soon grew up. The cultivators
+of these great holdings combined agricultural labours with their
+religious exercises, and the priors in especial were not only priests,
+but perhaps even in a greater degree stewards or bailiffs, whose duty
+it was to collect payments in kind, such as tithes or other revenues,
+to store these, together with the crops of their own raising, and
+finally to administer the wealth of every description&mdash;lands, woods,
+rivers, and ponds&mdash;belonging to the abbey.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hospitals.</i>&mdash;A large number of charitable
+institutions, called in the Middle Ages <i>maisons dieu</i>, <i>h�tels dieu</i>,
+hospices, hospitals, and lazar-houses, were founded in the eleventh
+century, and greatly developed in the twelfth and thirteenth.</p>
+
+<p>A hospital was attached to most of the large abbeys or their
+dependencies. The cities also owned hospitals founded or served by
+monks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Lazar-houses had multiplied throughout Western Europe by the end of
+the twelfth century, from Denmark to Spain, from England to Bohemia
+and Hungary; but these buildings gave little scope to the architect.
+They consisted merely of an enclosure surrounding a few isolated
+cells, and a chapel, attached to which were the lodgings of the monks
+who tended the lepers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p339_s"
+   src="images/i_p339_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="496"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">204. HOSPITAL OF ST. JOHN AT ANGERS (TWELFTH CENTURY).
+GREAT HALL, AS RESTORED BY A. VERDIER</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">But many of the hospices or hospitals built from the end of the
+twelfth to the fourteenth century are magnificent buildings, in
+general arrangement much resembling the great halls of the abbeys.</p>
+
+<p>It must be borne in mind that hospitality in the Middle Ages
+was obligatory; each monastery, therefore, had its eleemosynary
+organisation, which included<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> special buildings for the accommodation
+of monks whose business it was to tend the sick and to distribute alms
+to them and other travellers and pilgrims.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p340_s"
+   src="images/i_p340_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="479"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">205. ABBEY OF OURSCAMPS (OISE, THIRTEENTH CENTURY).
+HOSPITAL. AS RESTORED BY A. VERDIER</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2">We learn from Viollet-le-Duc that so early as the Carlovingian
+period taxes were levied in aid of the poor, the sick, and pilgrims.
+Charlemagne had enjoined hospitality in his ordinances and
+capitularies, and it was forbidden to refuse shelter, fire, and water
+to any suppliant.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:676px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p341_s"
+   src="images/i_p341_s.png"
+   width="676"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">206. LAZAR-HOUSE AT TORTOIR (AISNE, FOURTEENTH
+CENTURY). FROM DRAWINGS BY A. VERDIER</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The communes vied with kings, nobles, abbots, and citizens in the
+discharge of such duties. Hospices and hospitals were founded on
+every hand, either in deserted buildings, or in specially constructed
+edifices.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Refuges were also built on roads much frequented by pilgrims to
+shelter belated travellers, and hospices were constructed outside the
+walls and close to the city gates.</p>
+
+<p>Pilgrimages were much in vogue in the Middle Ages, especially
+throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The sanctuaries
+of St. Michael in Normandy, and of St. James of Compostella in Spain,
+were the most frequented. At the beginning of the thirteenth century
+a hospice was founded outside Paris, near the Porte St. Denis, which
+was dedicated to St. James. This hospice, with its chapel, was served
+by the confraternity of <i>St. Jacques aux P�lerins</i> (St. James of
+Pilgrims), and offered gratuitous shelter each night to pilgrims bound
+for Paris. Its buildings covered two acres; they included a great hall
+of stone, vaulted on intersecting arches, and measuring some 132 feet
+by 36, for the accommodation of the sick.</p>
+
+<p>In a file of accounts of the fifteenth century, concluding with
+an appeal for funds, it is stated that, for the convenience of
+pilgrims&mdash;<i>y a lieu pour ce faire <span class="smcap">XVIIJ</span> liz qui depuis
+le premier jour d'aoust <span class="smcap">MCCCLXVIIJ</span> jusques au jour
+de Mons. S. Jacques et Christofle ensuivant on est�s log�s et
+heberg�s en l'hospital de c�ans</i> <span class="smcap">XV</span><sup>m</sup> <span class="smcap">VI</span><sup>c</sup>
+<span class="smcap">IIII</span><sup>xx</sup><span class="smcap">X</span> <i>p�lerins qui aloient et venoient au Mont
+Saint Michel et austres p�lerins. Et encore sont log�s continuellement
+chascune nuict de <span class="smcap">XXXVI</span> � <span class="smcap">XL</span> povres p�lerins et
+austres povres, pourquoy le povre hospital est moult charg� et en
+grant n�cessit� de liz, de couvertures et de draps.</i><a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the first years of the fourteenth century several hundreds of
+<i>h�tels dieu</i>, hospitals, and lazar-houses received help from the
+King of France. St. Louis founded the <i>Hospice des Quinze-Vingts</i> for
+the blind, and in many towns hospitals were erected for the insane,
+the old, and the infirm, in addition to the usual lazar-houses.
+Special hospitals had already been established for women in labour,
+and a chapel was founded for their benefit in the crypt of the <i>Ste.
+Chapelle</i> of Paris, dedicated to Our Lady of Travail, of Tombelaine,
+in Normandy.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> "Eighteen beds have been in use, and from the first day
+of August 1368 to the feast of SS. James and Christopher following
+(July 25, 1369) this hospital has lodged and sheltered 16,690 pilgrims
+journeying to or from St. Michael's Mount, besides others. And it
+has further given shelter each night to some thirty-six to forty
+poor pilgrims and other needy persons, whereby the poor hospital is
+heavily burdened and in sore straits for lack of beds, sheets, and
+blankets."&mdash;Ed. Corroyer, <i>Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel
+et de ses Abords</i>; Paris, 1877.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> <i>Idem.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:540px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p343_s"
+   src="images/i_p343_s.png"
+   width="540"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">207. HOSPITAL AT TONNERRE. SECTION OF THE GREAT HALL</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Several hospitals of the Gothic period still exist. That of St. John
+at Angers is one of the most remarkable. It comprises a great hall,
+divided into three aisles, and vaulted on intersecting arches, and
+a chapel dating from the close of the twelfth or beginning of the
+thirteenth century. The fine barn at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> Angers is of the same period;
+the plan and details of construction are very curious, and resemble
+those of the barns and granaries already described.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>H�tel Dieu</i> of Chartres dates from about the same period.</p>
+
+<p>The hospital of Ourscamps, near Noyon, is very similar as to the
+scheme of construction which seems to have been one generally adopted
+by the religious architects of the twelfth, and more notably of the
+thirteenth century. The grandiose proportions of the vast building
+recall the great vaulted halls of contemporary abbeys, such as those
+of St. Jean des Vignes at Soissons, and of the <i>merveille</i> at Mont
+St. Michel. Certain individual features characterise it as a hospice
+specially designed for the sick, the poor, and pilgrims.</p>
+
+<p>The Hospice of Tonnerre appears to have been rebuilt in the fourteenth
+century. The vast design is very impressively carried out. The great
+hall, over 60 feet wide by some 300 long, is covered with an open
+timber roof, boarded in so as to form a semi-circular vault, which is
+singularly effective.</p>
+
+<p>The internal arrangements are very ingenious. A wooden gallery in the
+half-story commanded a view into each unceiled cubicle, by means of
+which it was possible to keep constant watch over the patients without
+disturbing them.</p>
+
+<p>The hospital of Beaune has been so often described as to call for
+little comment. The painted timber vault of the great hall seems to
+have been imitated from that of Tonnerre. Its distinctive character
+has unfortunately been destroyed by the construction of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> a ceiling,
+the joists of which rest on the tie-beams of the original skeleton.
+But the inner court is intact, with the arcade and well and wash-house
+so familiar from descriptions and illustrations. Another picturesque
+and often described feature is the great roof on the south side, with
+its double row of dormer windows surmounted by a rich ornamentation of
+hammered lead.</p>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the practice of vaulting the
+great halls of hospitals with stone was abandoned. It became usual in
+France and in Flanders to cover the vast aisles with timber roofs, the
+boarded vaults of which were either pointed or barrel-shaped.</p>
+
+<p>The term <i>maladrerie</i> was applied to the small lazar-houses, numbers
+of which were built in France in the neighbourhood of abbeys or of
+priories remote from towns and great religious centres.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Maladrerie du Tortoir</i>, not far from Laon, on the <i>Route de la
+F�re</i>, is a type of such rural hospitals. Both in plan and in the
+details of construction it recalls the hospital of Tonnerre, more
+especially in the ingenious arrangement of the interior.</p>
+
+<p>In the planning of these charitable institutions medi�val architects
+exhibited the same skill and ingenuity which distinguished their
+treatment of religious monuments. Viollet-le-Duc has pointed out
+the strange illogicality of such a theory as that which would make
+artists who showed extraordinary subtlety in religious buildings
+responsible for so much coarseness in civil structures. We must not
+hold them accountable for the destruction of their well-planned
+hospitals from the sixteenth century onwards, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> the substitution of
+buildings, the main preoccupation of whose architects was to provide
+accommodation for as many patients as possible. Louis XIV. endowed the
+hospitals built in his reign with the revenues of the lazar-houses
+and <i>maladreries</i>, for which there was no further occasion, leprosy
+having disappeared from his dominions. But his hospitals leave much to
+be desired from the hygienic point of view; the medi�val hospitals,
+on the other hand, have a monumental simplicity of appearance, and
+offer a liberal supply of light, air, and space to their patients. We
+do not assert the superiority of the cellular system commonly adopted
+in hospitals from the twelfth to the fifteenth century, over that of
+the open wards of our own times, but we may be permitted to point out
+its great moral advantages. And, as our learned authority remarks, the
+system owed its adoption to a noble delicacy of charitable feeling in
+the medi�val founders and builders of our <i>maisons dieu</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Houses and H�tels, or Town-Houses of the
+Nobility.</i>&mdash;The history of human habitations is a subject of such
+interest that to treat it adequately a special work would be
+necessary. Such an undertaking has, moreover, been admirably carried
+out by a famous architect.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Ch. Garnier, Member of the Institute, whose picturesque
+embodiment of research, in his reconstruction of human habitations
+from the lacustrine period to our own times, attracted so much
+attention at the Exhibition of 1889.</p></div>
+
+<p>We must refrain from discussion of prehistoric or Merovingian
+dwellings, or of those rural hovels, the typical variations of
+which, in different countries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> and climates, offers so wide a field
+for study. To keep within the limits assigned us by the arbitrary
+term Gothic Architecture, we must confine our rapid sketch to the
+architectural period which dates from the middle of the twelfth to the
+close of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:681px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p347_s"
+   src="images/i_p347_s.png"
+   width="681"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">208. HOUSE AT CLUNY (TWELFTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Nothing remains of habitations constructed in France before the
+twelfth century, save the vague and scanty records of ancient texts,
+manuscripts, and bas-reliefs. But we may reasonably infer that the
+houses of the period were built of wood, as was natural in a country
+containing great tracts of forest. We know that most of the important
+buildings were timber structures, which explains the fact that numbers
+of twelfth-century churches were founded on the sites of earlier
+buildings destroyed by fire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Roman, Gallo-Roman, and Merovingian houses were arranged to suit the
+habits of the times; they were lighted by windows opening upon an
+inner courtyard, in accordance with the ancient custom of separating
+the women's apartments from the rest of the habitation.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p348_s"
+   src="images/i_p348_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="517"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">208A. HOUSE AT CLUNY (TWELFTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">But by the end of the twelfth century the urban dwelling was adapted
+to the needs of a family. The doors and windows of the house were made
+to overlook the street. The building consisted generally of a hall
+or shop, in which a handicraft was carried on, or manufactured goods
+were offered for sale. It was lighted by a wide arcade of round or
+pointed arches, and was either on a level with the street, or raised
+above it by the height of some few steps. A back room, opening upon
+a courtyard, served for kitchen and dining-room. To the left of the
+fa�ade<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> a little door gave access to a staircase which led to the
+first floor, where was a large <i>solar</i> or living-room and an apartment
+overlooking the courtyard. Above these were the chambers occupied by
+the inmates of the house.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p349_s"
+   src="images/i_p349_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="426"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">209, 210. HOUSES AT VITTEAUX (C�TE D'OR), AND AT ST.
+ANTONIN (TARN ET GARONNE, THIRTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The architecture of such houses varies according to the climate,
+the materials of the country, and the customs of the inhabitants.
+The houses had no special individuality as long as the windows were
+treated merely as apertures for the admission of light; but directly
+these began to take on a certain elaboration, and such features as
+mouldings or sculptures were introduced in the fa�ades, a system of
+decoration was borrowed from the neighbouring churches or abbeys of
+monkish architects, a consequence either of the far-reaching influence
+of monastic schools, or of the spirit of imitation and force of habit.</p>
+
+<p>Certain houses at Cluny, which date from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> twelfth century,
+exemplify the style. They are built almost entirely of stone. The
+arcading recalls<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> various details of monastic buildings which the
+constructors very naturally took as models.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p350_s"
+   src="images/i_p350_s.png"
+   width="411"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">211. HOUSE AT PROVINS (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p351_s"
+   src="images/i_p351_s.png"
+   width="377"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">212. HOUSE AT LAON (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p352_s"
+   src="images/i_p352_s.png"
+   width="394"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">213. HOUSE AT CORDES. ALBIGEOIS (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The same may be said of the other houses, of which we give drawings
+as illustrating the urban<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> type of the thirteenth and fifteenth
+centuries. It is easy to trace the successive developments of
+religious and monastic architecture in the domestic buildings of the
+period.</p>
+
+<p>It is not until the close of the fourteenth century, and more notably
+in the fifteenth, that such influences gradually die out, and change,
+if not progress, becomes evident in the altered form of the arcades,
+which no longer resemble those of cloisters or churches, but have
+elliptic or square apertures. These, in the windows, are no longer
+subdivided by a stone tracery of ornamental cusps and foliations, but
+merely by plain mullions and transoms, forming square compartments
+which it was possible to fill with movable glazed sashes of the
+simplest construction.</p>
+
+<p>The fa�ades are generally of durable materials, such as stone or
+brick, and the use of wood is restricted to the floors and the roofs.</p>
+
+<p>Houses of the fifteenth century in the Northern departments, where
+stone is scarce, were built mainly of wood, the more solid material
+being used only on the ground-floor. The overhanging upper stories
+were of timbers, the interstices being filled in with brick. The
+principal members, such as corbel tables, beams, ledges, and
+window-frames, were decorated with mouldings and sculptures. The
+fa�ade usually terminated in a gable, the projecting pointed arch of
+which followed the lines of the timber roof. In other cases it was
+crowned by richly decorated dormer windows. In rainy districts the
+roof was covered with slates or shingles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p354_s"
+   src="images/i_p354_s.png"
+   width="421"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">214. HOUSE AT MONT ST. MICHEL (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p355_s"
+   src="images/i_p355_s.png"
+   width="383"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">215. WOODEN HOUSE AT ROUEN (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p356_s"
+   src="images/i_p356_s.png"
+   width="401"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">216. WOODEN HOUSE AT ANDELYS (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">It was usual in the North to detach each house at the upper story,
+even when it was not practic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>able to allow a narrow passage or space
+between. This was not merely a concession to the vanity of the
+citizen, to his desire to make his independent gable a feature of
+the street. It was also a pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span>cautionary measure against fires, which
+were frequent and disastrous in cities built mainly of wood, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span>
+possessing but very rudimentary appliances wherewith to meet such a
+catastrophe.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p357_s"
+   src="images/i_p357_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="513"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">217. H�TEL LALLEMAND AT BOURGES (END OF THE FIFTEENTH
+CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The fifteenth and notably the sixteenth centuries were marked by
+the building of a new class of dwellings, the <i>maisons nobles</i>,
+or town-houses of the nobles, who, down to this period, had lived
+entirely in their fortified castles. These great seignorial mansions
+differ essentially from the houses of the citizens. The <i>h�tel</i>
+occupied a considerable space, in which a courtyard and even gardens
+were included. The house of the citizen or merchant was built flush
+with the street, whereas the <i>h�tel</i> was placed in an inner court,
+often richly decorated, and the street-front was devoted to stables,
+coach-houses, servants'<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> lodgings, and the great entrance which gave
+access to the court and the main building.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:639px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p358_s"
+   src="images/i_p358_s.png"
+   width="639"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">218. JACQUES C&#338;UR'S HOUSE AT BOURGES. VIEW FROM THE
+PLACE BERRY (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The names at least of some famous Parisian <i>h�tels</i> of the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries have survived, such as the <i>h�tels</i> des
+Tournelles, de St. Pol, de Sens, de Nevers, and de la Tr�moille, the
+last destroyed in 1840. The H�tel de Cluny, which dates from 1485, is
+a very curious example, and of remarkable interest, as having been
+preserved almost intact.</p>
+
+<p>Several great houses of the same period still exist at Bourges. Among
+others, the H�tel Lallemand,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> built towards the close of the fifteenth
+century, the inner court of which is especially noteworthy, and the
+still more famous <i>h�tel</i> or <i>ch�teau</i> of Jacques C&#339;ur.</p>
+
+<p>This beautiful structure dates from the second half of the fifteenth
+century, and is built in part on the ramparts of the town. It is so
+well known that it will be unnecessary to describe or illustrate the
+famous portals and inner court. But the fa�ade on the Place Berry,
+though less sumptuous, is hardly less interesting. Here we have the
+two great towers of the fortified <i>enceinte</i>, with their Gallo-Roman
+bases, and between them the <i>corps de logis</i> or main buildings of the
+mansion, which retain many features of the feudal castle, and bear
+witness to the wealth and power of Charles VII.'s ill-used favourite,
+the famous banker, whose splendid fortunes suffered such undeserved
+eclipse.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER II<br />
+
+<span class="smaller">TOWN-HALLS, BELFRIES, PALACES</span></h3></div>
+
+<p>The social evolution which resulted in the enfranchisement of
+the communes had its origin in the eleventh century, though the
+consummation of this great political change was of much later date.</p>
+
+<p>Down to the fourteenth century the efforts of the communes to exercise
+the rights conferred on them in charters wrung from their feudal lords
+received incessant checks. The opposition they encountered is hardly
+to be wondered at, seeing that every concession in their favour tended
+to diminish the despotic authority of those from whom it had been won.
+No sooner, therefore, was a charter rescinded and a commune abolished
+than the instant demolition of the town-hall and belfry was demanded.
+Hence very few town-halls of earlier date than the fourteenth century
+have survived.</p>
+
+<p><i>Town-halls.</i>&mdash;A few of the great Southern cities
+owned town-halls so early as the twelfth century, among them Bordeaux,
+where the building was of the Roman type, and Toulouse, whose
+town-hall was practically a fortalice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p361_s"
+   src="images/i_p361_s.png"
+   width="361"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">219. TOWN-HALL OF PIENZA, ITALY (END OF THE FOURTEENTH
+CENTURY)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">But by far the greater number of the infant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> communes were sunk in
+poverty, and so overwhelmed with dues and taxes that they had no
+margin for communal buildings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the fourteenth century even the commune of Paris could boast only
+the most modest of town-halls. In 1357 �tienne Marcel, provost of
+the merchants, bought from the collector of the salt-tax a small
+two-gabled building which adjoined several private dwellings. We may,
+therefore, conclude that down to this period the town-hall was in
+nowise distinguished from an ordinary habitation.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of the century Caen possessed a town-hall of four stories.</p>
+
+<p>During the thirteenth century many new towns and communes had been
+founded by the Crown, the nobles, and the clergy, the depositaries of
+power in the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>In the North, Villeneuve le Roi, Villeneuve le Comte, and Villeneuve
+l'Archev�que owed their existence, material and communal, to these
+powers respectively.</p>
+
+<p>In the South the war of the Albigenses had devastated and even
+destroyed many cities. The authorities recognised the necessity of
+repeopling the districts so cruelly decimated. The great nobles,
+spiritual and temporal, reconcentrated the scattered population by
+grants of lands for the building of new towns, and sought to establish
+them permanently by apparently liberal concessions in the form of
+communal franchises.</p>
+
+<p>According to Caumont and Anthyme St. Paul, these new towns or
+<i>bastides</i> may be identified by their names, or by their regularity of
+plan, or by both combined.</p>
+
+<p>Certain names indicate a royal foundation or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> dependency, as R�alville
+or Monr�al; others point to privileges conferred on the town, as
+Bonneville, La Sauvetat, Sauveterre, Villefranche, or even La Bastide,
+and Villeneuve.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:694px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p363_s"
+   src="images/i_p363_s.png"
+   width="694"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">220. TOWN-HALL AND BELFRY AT YPRES (BELGIUM)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">A third class borrow the names of French and occasionally of foreign
+provinces or towns. Anthyme St. Paul gives a list of such in the
+<i>Annuaire de l'arch�ologie fran�aise</i>,&mdash;Barcelone or Barcelonnette,
+Beauvais, Boulogne, Bruges, Cadix, Cordes (for Cordova), Fleurance
+(for Florence), Bretagne, Cologne, Valence, Mi�lan (for Milan), La
+Fran�aise and Francescas, Grenade, Libourne (for Leghorn), Mod�ne,
+Pampelonne (for Pampeluna), etc.</p>
+
+<p>A new town or <i>bastide</i> is usually rectangular in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> plan, and measures
+some 750 by 580 feet. Sauveterre d'Aveyron is an example. In the
+centre is a square, into which a street debouches on each side,
+thus dividing the town into four parts. The square is surrounded by
+galleries or cloisters, of round or pointed arches, covered with a
+timber roof or vault, with or without transverse arches, whence the
+term <i>Place des Couverts</i>, still common in some Southern towns.</p>
+
+<p>In the centre of the square stood the town-hall, the ground-floor
+of which was used as a public market. Montr�jeau is one of the
+towns in which this regularity of construction is observed, also
+Montpazier, the streets of which are lined with wide arcades of
+pointed arches. Other examples are to be found at Eymet, Domme, and
+Beaumont, Libourne, Ste. Foy, and Sauveterre de Guyenne, Damazan,
+and Montflanquin, Rabastens, Mirande, Grenade, Isle d'Albi, and
+R�almont, etc. Several <i>bastides</i> in Guyenne were founded by the
+English. Finally, the lower town of Carcassonne, founded in 1247, and
+Aigues-Mortes, founded in 1248, also belong to the class of <i>bastides</i>
+or new towns.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> See Part III., "Military Architecture."</p></div>
+
+<p>"The series of Southern <i>bastides</i>, inaugurated in 1222 by the
+foundation of Cordes-Albigeois, was brought to a close in 1344 by
+a petition of the town-councillors of Toulouse, in answer to which
+the king forbade any further settlements. Two hundred at least of
+the <i>bastides</i> still exist in Guyenne, Gascony, Languedoc, and the
+neighbouring districts. Several of these were unprosperous, and are
+still small villages. In some cases their close<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> proximity tended
+greatly to their mutual disadvantage."<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Anthyme St. Paul, <i>Histoire Monumentale de la France</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p365_s"
+   src="images/i_p365_s.png"
+   width="406"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">221. MARKET AND BELFRY AT BRUGES (BELGIUM)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p366_s"
+   src="images/i_p366_s.png"
+   width="403"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">222. TOWN-HALL OF BRUGES (BELGIUM)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">It is worthy of remark that civil architecture had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> so greatly
+developed by the fifteenth century as to react in its turn upon
+the religious art to which it owed its birth. It gave to religious
+architecture certain new forms, such as the elliptic arch, adopted at
+the close of the fifteenth and throughout the following century, at
+which period civil architecture reached its apogee.</p>
+
+<p>The Southern communes preserved their franchises till the sixteenth
+century, that disastrous era of religious warfare which involved the
+destruction of innumerable buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The town-hall of St. Antonin (Tarn et Garonne) is perhaps the only
+surviving one of the period. With the exception of the belfry, it
+is an almost perfect type of the architecture of this class in the
+thirteenth century, to which date it may probably be assigned (Fig.
+200).</p>
+
+<p>The little town of St. Antonin, which had obtained its communal
+charter in 1136, suffered much for its fidelity to Raymond VI., Count
+of Toulouse. During the war of the Albigenses it was twice taken by
+Simon de Montfort, whose son, Guy de Montfort, sold it to St. Louis in
+1226. It was at this period, no doubt, that the present building was
+erected. It has the characteristic feature of the civic monument, the
+<i>belfry</i>, which, in the Middle Ages, was the architectural expression
+of municipal authority and jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<p>The building is a simple rectangular structure, over which the square
+tower rises to the right. The ground-floor is a market, communicating
+with an adjoining market-place, and with the narrow street which
+passes under the belfry. The <i>grande salle</i> or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> municipal hall
+occupies the first story, together with a smaller apartment in the
+tower. The second story is divided in the same manner.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p368_s"
+   src="images/i_p368_s.png"
+   width="393"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">223. TOWN-HALL AT LOUVAIN (BELGIUM)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2">We have already called attention to the far-reaching influence of
+French art as manifested in religious architecture so early as the
+close of the twelfth century. Such influences were no less paramount
+in developments of civil architecture, and we find municipal
+buildings of the fourteenth century in Italy&mdash;at Pienza and other
+towns&mdash;in which not only analogies but points of identity with the
+thirteenth-century example of St. Antonin are distinctly traceable.</p>
+
+<p>The municipal buildings of the North, the most perfect types of which
+are those of Germany and Belgium, are nearly uniform in plan. A belfry
+rises from the centre of the fa�ade, flanked right and left on the
+first story by the great civic halls. The ground-floor is a market for
+the sale of merchandise.</p>
+
+<p>The cloth-hall of Ypres (so named since the construction of a new
+town-hall in the seventeenth century) is one of the most beautiful of
+such examples. The building was begun in 1202, but was not completed
+till 1304. The fa�ade measures 440 feet in length, and has a double
+row of pointed windows. It terminates at each angle in a very graceful
+pinnacle, and the centre is marked by a noble square belfry of vast
+size, the oldest portion of the building, the foundation-stone of
+which was laid by Baldwin IX. of Flanders in 1200.</p>
+
+<p>The belfry of Bruges, which was begun at the close of the thirteenth
+century, and completed some hundred years later, is another most
+interesting example of the civic buildings of its period.</p>
+
+<p>The structure consists of a market and the usual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> municipal halls,
+crowned by the lofty belfry, the original height of which was 350 feet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p370_s"
+   src="images/i_p370_s.png"
+   width="317"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">224. BELFRY OF TOURNAI (BELGIUM)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p371_s"
+   src="images/i_p371_s.png"
+   width="346"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">225. BELFRY OF GHENT (BELGIUM)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The <i>h�tel de ville</i> or town-hall of Bruges, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span> replaced an
+earlier municipal building in the <i>Place du Bourg</i>, dates from
+between 1376 to 1387. Its architectural character differs entirely
+from that of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> the belfry. Its elegant design and the richness of its
+ornamentation give it the appearance rather of a sumptuously decorated
+chapel than of a civic building.</p>
+
+<p>We may close the list of Belgian town-halls of the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries with that of Louvain. The design and general
+scheme of elaborate decoration are akin to those of the hall of
+Bruges, and it bears the same ecclesiastical impress.</p>
+
+<p>It was built between 1448 and 1463 by <i>Mathieu de Layens, master
+mason of the town and its outskirts</i>, and is a rectangular building
+of three stories. The gable ends are pierced with three rows of
+pointed windows, and adorned with a rich profusion of mouldings,
+statues, and sculptured ornament. The steep roof has four tiers of
+dormer-windows. The angles are flanked by graceful openwork turrets,
+with delicate pinnacles, and similar turrets receive the ridge of the
+roof at either end. The lateral fa�ades are adorned with three rows of
+statues and allegorical sculptures, covering the whole with a wealth
+of exquisite tracery. Its lace-like delicacy has suffered considerably
+from the action of weather, and it was found necessary to renovate a
+considerable portion of the ornament in 1840.</p>
+
+<p><i>Belfries.</i>&mdash;In the early days of the
+enfranchisement of the communes, it became customary to call the
+community together by means of bells, which at that period were
+confined to the church towers, and which it was unlawful to ring
+without the consent of the clergy. It may easily be conceived to what
+incessant broils the new order gave rise, the clergy as a body being
+strongly opposed to the separatist tendency of measures which attacked
+their feudal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> rights. The municipalities finally put an end to
+internecine warfare in this connection by hanging bells of their own
+over the town-gates, a custom which was superseded towards the close
+of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century by the erection
+of towers for the civic bells. Such was the origin of the <i>belfry</i>,
+the earliest material expression of communal independence.</p>
+
+<p>The structure usually formed part of the town-hall, but was sometimes
+an isolated building. The isolated belfry was a great square tower of
+several stories, crowned by a timber roof protected either by slates
+or lead. The great bells hung in one story, and above them the little
+bells of the carillon.</p>
+
+<p>A lodging, opening upon a surrounding gallery, was constructed in the
+upper story for the accommodation of the watchman, whose duty it was
+to warn the inhabitants of approaching danger and to give notice of
+fires. The bells rang at sunrise and curfew.</p>
+
+<p>The chimes (<i>carillon</i>) marked the hours and their subdivisions, and
+at festival seasons mingled their joyous notes with the deep and
+solemn voice of the great bell.</p>
+
+<p>The custom of tolling the great bell to give notice of a fire still
+obtains in many villages of the North, the greater number of which
+have preserved their belfries in spite of the modifications they have
+undergone at different periods.</p>
+
+<p>The belfry tower usually contained a prison, a hall for the
+town-councillors, a muniment room, and a magazine for arms. It was
+long the only town-hall of a commune.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p374_s"
+   src="images/i_p374_s.png"
+   width="348"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">226. BELFRY AT CALAIS (FRANCE)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">We shall find examples of these early municipal buildings among the
+isolated belfries of Belgium, such as that at Tournai, founded in
+1187, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> rebuilt in part at the close of the fourteenth century, and
+that of Ghent, the square tower of which dates from the end of the
+twelfth century. Its spire is a modern addition.</p>
+
+<p>A few buildings of this particular class still exist in France.
+Such is the belfry of Calais, the square tower of which was built
+during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It is crowned by an
+octagonal superstructure, begun at the close of the fifteenth century,
+and completed in the early years of the seventeenth. The belfry of
+B�thune, which dates from the fourteenth century, is another. It
+consists of a square tower reinforced at three of its angles by a
+hexagonal turret, corbelled out from the wall. The fourth turret is
+of the same shape, but here the projection is carried up from the
+ground-floor, and contains the spiral staircase which communicates
+with the various stories of the tower, and terminates on the embattled
+parapet above. The building is completed by a pyramidal spire of great
+elegance, crowned by the watchman's tower. The plan and details of
+this superstructure proclaim it the source whence the gable turrets
+of Louvain were derived. The great bells hang in the uppermost story,
+the smaller ones of the carillon in the story below. On each fa�ade at
+the summit of the tower a great dial marks the hours, as was customary
+from the fourteenth century onwards, when town-clocks first came into
+general use.</p>
+
+<p>The towns of Auxerre, Beaune, Amiens, �vreux, and Avignon still
+possess their belfries.</p>
+
+<p>To the belfry of Amiens, which dates from the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> thirteenth century, a
+square dome was added some hundred years ago. But the great bell of
+the fourteenth century has been preserved.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p376_s"
+   src="images/i_p376_s.png"
+   width="392"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">227. BELFRY OF BETHUNE (FRANCE)</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p377_s"
+   src="images/i_p377_s.png"
+   width="321"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">228. BELFRY OF �VREUX</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The belfry of �vreux retains its fifteenth-century character almost
+in its entirety. That of Avignon, a monument of the close of the
+fifteenth century, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> happily spared when the town-hall was replaced
+by a modern structure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p378_s"
+   src="images/i_p378_s.png"
+   width="349"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">229. BELFRY OF AVIGNON</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The gate-house of the <i>h�tel de ville</i> at Bordeaux, known as the
+<i>grosse cloche</i>, is an example of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> more ancient usage. Here we
+find the bell hung over the gateway, as already described. The belfry
+of Bordeaux, which appears to date from the fifteenth<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> century, is
+very remarkable. It consists of two towers connected by a curtain
+through which is an arched passage. A second arch protects the great
+bell in the upper story, and the whole is surmounted by a central
+roof, flanked right and left by the conical crowns of the lateral
+turrets.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:450px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p379_s"
+   src="images/i_p379_s.png"
+   width="381"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">230. BELFRY GATE AT BORDEAUX, KNOWN AS <i>LA GROSSE
+CLOCHE</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">Markets, warehouses, and exchanges were often annexes of the
+town-halls. A few examples of such buildings have been preserved, but
+those of the third class are extremely rare. A specimen, remarkable
+both for construction and decoration, which recall the Spanish
+architecture of the fourteenth century, still exists at Perpignan. It
+is a house known as <i>La Loge</i>, built in 1396, which originally served
+as exchange to the cloth merchants of French Catalonia and Roussillon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palaces.</i>&mdash;In the Middle Ages the name palace
+was given to the dwelling of the sovereign. Its chief feature was the
+basilica or judgment-hall.</p>
+
+<p>The great nobles followed the royal example and constructed palaces in
+the capitals of their feofs, as at Dijon, Troyes, and Poitiers, which
+are the most important of such examples.</p>
+
+<p>The town-houses of archbishops and bishops were also called palaces.</p>
+
+<p>The courts, parliaments, and tribunals of the executive were held
+in the palace of the suzerain or the bishop, where certain of the
+buildings were open to the public. The important feature, the great
+hall (<i>grand salle</i>), occupied a vast covered space in which the
+plenary courts were held, the vassals assembled, and banquets were
+given. It communicated with galleries or ambulatories. A chapel was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span>
+always included in the plan of the palace, which consisted of the
+lodging of the lord and his followers; offices, often of great extent;
+rooms for the storing of archives; magazines, prisons, and innumerable
+auxiliary buildings, divided by courtyards, and in some cases by
+gardens.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p381_s"
+   src="images/i_p381_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="537"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">231. CLOTH HALL AT PERPIGNAN, KNOWN AS <i>LA LOGE</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">In Paris the palace proper, which was in the �le de la Cit�, consisted
+of buildings constructed from the time of St. Louis to the reign of
+Philip the Fair. From the reign of Charles V. it was specially devoted
+to the administration of justice.</p>
+
+<p>The only remains of the buildings of St. Louis are the <i>Ste.
+Chapelle</i>, the two great towers with their intervening curtain on the
+<i>Quai de l'Horloge</i>, and the square clock tower at the angle of the
+quay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The best examples of seignorial castles are: Troyes, which was built
+by the Counts of Champagne, and inhabited by them till they removed
+to Provins in the thirteenth century; and the palace of the Counts of
+Poitiers at Poitiers, one of the most interesting of such buildings;
+it was burnt by the English in 1346, and repaired or rebuilt at the
+close of the fourteenth century by the brother of Charles V., Jean,
+Duke of Berry, to whom we owe, among other architectural works, the
+curious fireplace of the great vestibule, called the <i>Salle des Pas
+Perdus</i>, in the <i>Palais de Justice</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:613px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p382_s"
+   src="images/i_p382_s.png"
+   width="613"
+   height="550"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">232. BISHOP'S PALACE AT LAON</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="p2">The bishops' palaces were differently planned. They usually adjoined
+the cathedrals, with which they communicated either on the north
+or the south, according to the facilities afforded by the site.
+The characteristic symbol of episcopal power which, in the earlier
+centuries of the Middle Ages, claimed jurisdiction both in spiritual
+and temporal matters, was the great hall, in later days the synod
+house and the council chamber of the executive. The bishop's palace in
+Paris, rebuilt by Maurice de Sully in 1160, preserved this medi�val
+feature, which is even more conspicuous at Sens, in the magnificent
+annexe known as the <i>salle synodale</i> (synod house).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p383_s"
+   src="images/i_p383_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="493"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">233. ARCHBISHOP'S PALACE AT ALBI. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The canons' lodgings were also in close proximity to the cathedral,
+but on the side opposite to the bishop's palace. They were surrounded
+by an en<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span>closure, the gates of which were fastened at night. It was
+the duty of the canons to aid the bishop in his ministrations. They
+lived together in annexes which communicated with the cathedral by
+means of galleries and cloisters.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> See Part II., "Monastic Architecture," the cloisters of
+Puy-en-Velay and Elne in Roussillon.</p></div>
+
+<p>The bishops' palaces were often remarkable for their elaborate
+construction. Fragments of the primitive buildings are still preserved
+in the palaces of Beauvais, Angers, Bayeux, and Auxerre.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p384_s"
+   src="images/i_p384_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="492"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">234. ARCHBISHOP'S PALACE AT ALBI. GENERAL VIEW</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The ancient episcopal palace of Laon<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> marks a development in
+thirteenth-century architecture. It is a good example of that system
+of construction by which the palace was connected with the city
+ramparts and formed a secondary line of defence.</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> The episcopate was transferred to Soissons in 1809.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span></p></div>
+
+<p>This system was also adopted at Narbonne. At the close of the
+thirteenth and during the fourteenth century the palace was
+transformed into a fortress, the importance of which bore witness
+to the power of its bishops. After Avignon, it is perhaps the most
+imposing of episcopal dwellings.</p>
+
+<p>From this time onward the bishops' palaces increased greatly in size,
+their dimensions extending proportionately with those of the great
+cathedrals of the period. The importance of the episcopal buildings
+and their dependencies was on a par with the wealth and power of
+their owners. Some idea of their magnificence may be gathered from
+the private chapel of the archbishop at Rheims, which dates from the
+middle of the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p385_s"
+   src="images/i_p385_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="426"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">235. PALACE OF THE POPES AT AVIGNON. PLAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">The archbishop's palace at Albi has all the character of a feudal
+castle. Its buildings are protected by a keep, and encircled by walls
+and towers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span> connected both with the ramparts of the city, and with
+that more important fortalice, the cathedral itself, the tower of
+which is, in fact, a formidable keep.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> See Part I., Cathedral of Albi, Figs. 70-73.</p></div>
+
+<p>The transformation of church and palace into fortresses by an
+elaborate system of defence was necessitated by the wars which ravaged
+the district, and from which Albi suffered more cruelly than any other
+town.</p>
+
+<p>The palace of the popes at Avignon which Pope Benedict XII. began to
+build in the fourteenth century, and the bishop's palace at Narbonne,
+are among the finest specimens of ecclesiastical fortification in the
+Middle Ages.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> For the Palace of the Popes, see Albert Lenoir and
+Viollet-le-Duc.</p></div>
+
+<p>The Popes, having established themselves at Avignon in the fourteenth
+century, built a huge mansion on the rock known as the <i>Rocher des
+Doms</i>, which overlooks the Rhone. In 1336 Benedict XII., having
+destroyed his predecessor's palace, laid the foundations of the
+immense fortified pile now in existence. The plans were the work of
+the French architect, Pierre Obrier. The building was added to by
+the successors of Benedict XII., Popes Clement VI., Innocent VI.,
+and Urban V., and was completed, or at any rate made efficient for
+defence, by 1398, when Pedro de Luna, who became pope under the title
+of Benedict XIII., sustained a memorable siege therein.</p>
+
+<p>The whole building, which covers a very considerable area, was
+completed in less than sixty years. Its formidable mass was further
+strengthened by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> the fortified <i>enceinte</i> of the town, some three
+miles in circumference.</p>
+
+<p>In general conception, in the architectural skill of its construction,
+and in its tasteful decoration, the Palace of the Popes at Avignon
+bears away the palm from all contemporary buildings in Germany and
+Italy, where French influences were paramount.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width:700px;">
+  <img
+   class="p2"
+   id="i_p387_s"
+   src="images/i_p387_s.png"
+   width="700"
+   height="524"
+   alt="" />
+   <p class="center sm">236. PALACE OF THE POPES AT AVIGNON. GENERAL VIEW</p>
+  </div>
+
+<p class="p2">This noble monument is absolutely and entirely French. No finer
+combination of religious, monastic, military, and civil types could
+be desired in illustration of the art we have agreed to term <i>Gothic
+Architecture</i>, but which might be more truly entitled: <i>Our National
+Architecture in the Middle Ages</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Justice indeed demands this tardy homage. Our vast churches, our
+superb cathedrals, our mighty castles and palace fortresses, the
+masterpieces that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span> fill our museums&mdash;manifestations of artistic
+power which should move us, not to servile imitation but to fruitful
+study,&mdash;all were the creations of <i>native</i> architects.</p>
+
+<p>That expansive force which made our national art the great civilising
+medium of the Middle Ages was derived from our own early architects,
+civil and religious. The principles and practice of monumental art
+were carried by French architects into all countries, though the
+results of their teaching are more conspicuous in Italy and Germany
+than elsewhere. Native builders and artists established the supremacy
+of French art throughout Western Europe, and even in the East. And
+though the foreign evolution, which marked the sixteenth century, did
+indeed exercise a transient influence in France, it must be remembered
+that the way had been prepared for this apparently novel movement by
+those French artists who have carried the fame of our beloved country
+throughout the civilised world.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center p4">THE END</p>
+
+<p class="center p6 sm"><i>Printed by</i> <span class="smcap">R. &amp; R. Clark</span>, <i>Edinburgh</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p class="center"><i>BY THE PRESENT EDITOR</i></p></div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Price 21s., Cloth.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center xl p2">THE SCOTTISH PAINTERS</p>
+
+<p class="center p2">A CRITICAL STUDY</p>
+
+<p class="center sm p2">BY</p>
+
+<p class="center smcap p2">WALTER ARMSTRONG, B.A. Oxon.</p>
+
+<p class="center xs">AUTHOR OF "ALFRED STEVENS," ETC.</p>
+
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+
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+
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+Scotch."&mdash;<i>Glasgow Herald.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="r20" />
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+<blockquote>
+<p class="sm">"The charm of the volume is heightened by nine illustrations
+of some of the masterpieces of English art, and it would
+not be possible to find a more captivating present for any
+one beginning to appreciate the characters of the last
+century."&mdash;<i>Academy.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="left1">MRS. THRALE, AFTERWARDS MRS. PIOZZI. By <span class="smcap">L. B. Seeley</span>, M.A.,
+late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. With Nine Portraits on
+Copper, after Hogarth, Reynolds, Zoffany, and others. Cloth, price 7s.
+6d. Large Paper Edition (150 only), 21s.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="sm">"Mr. Seeley had excellent material to write upon, and he has
+turned it to the best advantage."&mdash;<i>Pall Mall Gazette.</i></p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="left1">LADY MARY WORTLEY MONTAGUE. Extracts from her Letters. Edited by
+<span class="smcap">A. R. Ropes</span>, late Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. With
+Nine Portraits on Copper, after Sir Godfrey Kneller and others. Cloth,
+7s. 6d. Large Paper Edition (150 only), 21s.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="sm">"Embellished as it is with a number of excellent plates, we
+cannot imagine a more welcome or delightful present."&mdash;<i>National
+Observer.</i> </p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<hr class="r20" />
+
+<p class="smcap center">London: SEELEY &amp; CO., Limited, Essex Street, Strand.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+
+<p class="center xl">EVENTS OF OUR OWN TIME.</p>
+
+<p class="left">A New Series of Volumes dealing with the more important events of
+the last half-century. Published at 5s. With Portraits on Copper or
+many Illustrations. Library Edition, with Proofs of the Plates, in
+Roxburgh, 10s. 6d.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="left1">THE REFOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. By Colonel
+<span class="smcap">Malleson</span>, C.S.I. With Portraits and Plans, 5s. Large
+Paper Copies (200 only), 10s. 6d.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="left1">THE WAR IN THE CRIMEA. By Sir <span class="smcap">Edward Hamley</span>, K.C.B.
+With Portraits on Copper, of Lord Raglan, General Todleben,
+General Pelissier, Omar Pasha, and the Emperor Nicholas; and
+with Maps and Plans.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="sm">"A well-written historical narrative, written by a competent
+critic and well-informed observer of the scenes and events it
+describes."&mdash;<i>Times.</i></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="left1">THE INDIAN MUTINY OF 1857. By Colonel <span class="smcap">Malleson</span>, C.S.I. With
+Portraits on Copper, of Sir Colin Campbell, Sir Henry Havelock, Sir
+Henry Lawrence, and Sir James Outram; and with Maps and Plans.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="sm">"Battles, sieges, and rapid marches are described in a style
+spirited and concise."&mdash;<i>Saturday Review.</i></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="left1">&#42;ACHIEVEMENTS IN ENGINEERING. By <span class="smcap">L. F. Vernon Harcourt</span>. With
+many Illustrations.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="sm">"We hope this book will find its way into the hands of all
+young engineers. All the information has been carefully
+gathered from all the best sources, and is therefore perfectly
+accurate."&mdash;<i>Engineering Review.</i></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="left1"><span class="smcap">THE AFGHAN WARS OF 1839-1842 and 1878-1880.</span> By <span class="smcap">Archibald
+Forbes</span>. With Portraits on Copper, of Sir Frederick Roberts,
+Sir George Pollock, Sir Louis Cavagnari and Sirdars, and the Ameer
+Abdurrahman; and with Maps and Plans.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="sm">"Gives a spirited account both of the earlier and later
+campaigns in Afghanistan."&mdash;<i>St. James's Gazette.</i></p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="left1">&#42;THE DEVELOPMENT OF NAVIES DURING THE LAST HALF-CENTURY. By Captain
+<span class="smcap">Eardley WILMOT</span>. With many Illustrations.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="sm">"An admirable summary and survey of what is, perhaps, the
+greatest series of changes in the methods and instruments of
+naval warfare which the world has ever witnessed in a similar
+period of time."&mdash;<i>Times.</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="center">Of Volumes so &#42; marked there will be no Library Edition.</p>
+
+<hr class="r20" />
+
+<p class="smcap center">London: SEELEY &amp; CO., Limited, Essex Street, Strand.</p>
+
+<p class="transnote p2">Transcriber's Notes: All obvious spelling and punctuation errors have been corrected, also hyphenation and accentuation.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
+
+
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-02-07 08:26:54 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-02-07 08:26:54 -0800
commit	bb7abdb55e2f0015f38024b25310a68fd139aafe (patch)
tree	4316a071fe30f73f2e95313b2f82e203b90327dc