From bb7abdb55e2f0015f38024b25310a68fd139aafe Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: nfenwick Date: Fri, 7 Feb 2025 08:26:54 -0800 Subject: Initial commit --- 54701-0.txt | 7623 +++++++++++++++++++++++ 54701-0.zip | Bin 0 -> 137523 bytes 54701-h.zip | Bin 0 -> 15299576 bytes 54701-h/54701-h.htm | 11198 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 54701-h/images/cover.jpg | Bin 0 -> 34596 bytes 54701-h/images/i_frontispiece_s.png | Bin 0 -> 68112 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p017.png | Bin 0 -> 5331 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p018_s.png | Bin 0 -> 35089 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p019_s.png | Bin 0 -> 22059 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p020a.png | Bin 0 -> 34493 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p020b_s.png | Bin 0 -> 34178 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p021a_s.png | Bin 0 -> 24771 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p021b_s.png | Bin 0 -> 17688 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p022.png | Bin 0 -> 18602 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p024.png | Bin 0 -> 37440 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p025_s.png | Bin 0 -> 24563 bytes 54701-h/images/i_p026.png | Bin 0 -> 10699 bytes 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+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of +the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have +to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. + +Title: Gothic Architecture + +Author: Édouard Corroyer + +Editor: Walter Armstrong + +Release Date: May 10, 2017 [EBook #54701] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE *** + + + + +Produced by deaurider, Karin Spence and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + + [Illustration: CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL + FROM A DRAWING BY A. BRUNET-DEBAINES] + + + + + GOTHIC + ARCHITECTURE + + + BY + + ÉDOUARD CORROYER + + ARCHITECT TO THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT AND INSPECTOR + OF DIOCESAN EDIFICES + + EDITED BY + + WALTER ARMSTRONG + + DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF IRELAND + + + _With Two Hundred and Thirty-Six Illustrations_ + + + NEW YORK + MACMILLAN AND CO. + + 1893 + + + + + EDITOR'S PREFACE + + +The following pages, which have been translated under my supervision +by Miss Florence Simmonds, give such an account of the birth and +evolution of Gothic Architecture as may be considered sufficient for +a handbook. Mons. Corroyer writes, indeed, from a thoroughly French +standpoint. He is apt to believe that everything admirable in Gothic +architecture had a Gallic origin. Vexed questions of priority, such as +that attaching to the choir of Lincoln, he dismisses with a phrase, +while the larger question of French influence generally in these +islands of ours, he solves by the simple process of referring every +creation which takes his fancy either to a French master or a French +example, here coming, be it said, into occasional collision with his +own stock authority, the late Mons. Viollet-le-duc. The Chauvinistic +tone thus given to his pages may be regretted, but, when all is +said, it does not greatly affect their value as a picture of Gothic +development. Mons. Corroyer confines himself in the main to broad +principles. He travels along the line of evolution, pointing out how +material conditions and discoveries, and their consequent social +changes, brought about one development after another in the forms +and methods of the architect. In a treatise so conceived, the fact +that the field of observation is practically restricted to France, +the few excursions beyond her frontier being made rather with a view +to displaying the extent of her influence than with any desire for +catholicity of grasp, is of no great moment. The English reader for +whom this translation is intended, will get as clear a notion of how +Gothic, as he knows it, came into being, as he would from a more +universal survey, while he has the advantage of some echo, at least, +of the vivacity, which inspires a Frenchman when his theme is "one of +the Glories of France." + + W. A. + + + + + CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + INTRODUCTION 1 + + + PART I + + RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE + + CHAP. + + 1. THE INFLUENCE OF THE CUPOLA UPON SO-CALLED GOTHIC + ARCHITECTURE 11 + + 2. THE ORIGIN OF THE INTERSECTING ARCH 16 + + 3. THE FIRST VAULTS ON INTERSECTING ARCHES 24 + + 4. BUILDINGS VAULTED ON INTERSECTING ARCHES 32 + + 5. THE ORIGIN OF THE FLYING BUTTRESS 41 + + 6. CHURCHES AND CATHEDRALS OF THE TWELFTH AND FOURTEENTH + CENTURIES 51 + + 7. CATHEDRALS OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 67 + + 8. CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES FROM THE TWELFTH TO THE FOURTEENTH + CENTURY 85 + + 9. CHURCHES OF THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES IN + FRANCE AND IN THE EAST 105 + + 10. TOWERS AND BELFRIES--CHOIRS--CHAPELS 128 + + 11. SCULPTURE 153 + + 12. PAINTING 179 + + + PART II + + MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE + + CHAP. PAGE + + 1. ORIGIN 205 + + 2. ABBEYS OF CLUNY, CITEAUX, AND CLAIRVAUX 215 + + 3. ABBEYS AND _CHARTREUSES_ OR CARTHUSIAN MONASTERIES 227 + + 4. FORTIFIED ABBEYS 247 + + + PART III + + MILITARY ARCHITECTURE + + 1. RAMPARTS OF TOWNS 269 + + 2. CASTLES AND KEEPS 291 + + 3. GATES AND BRIDGES 309 + + + PART IV + + CIVIL ARCHITECTURE + + 1. BARNS, HOSPITALS, HOUSES, AND "HÔTELS" OR TOWNHOUSES OF + THE NOBILITY 333 + + 2. TOWN-HALLS, BELFRIES, AND PALACES 360 + + + + + ILLUSTRATIONS + + + Canterbury Cathedral. By A. Brunet-Debaines _Frontispiece_ + + FIG. PAGE + + 1. Plan of a cupola of the Abbey Church of St. Front at + Périgueux 17 + + 2. Pendentive of a cupola of the Abbey Church of St. Front + at Périgueux 18 + + 3. Diagonal section of a pendentive 19 + + 4. Plan of a cupola of Angoulême or Fontevrault 20 + + 5. Section of a bay of the cupolas of Angoulême 20 + + 6. Section of a bay in the Church of St. Avit-Sénieur 21 + + 7. Plan of vault on intersecting arches 21 + + 8. Section of an intersecting arch 22 + + 9. Plan of a bay in the nave of St. Maurice at Angers 24 + + 10. Transverse section of the nave of St. Maurice at Angers 25 + + 11. Plan of a bay of the nave. Ste. Trinité, Laval 26 + + 12. Section of two bays of the nave. Ste. Trinité, Laval 27 + + 13, 14. Comparative sections of Churches of Angoulême and + Angers 28 + + 15. View in perspective of nave vault. St. Maurice at Angers 29 + + 16. Plan of a summer of the nave vault. Ste. Trinité, Laval 30 + + 17. Plan of one of the nave piers. Ste. Trinité, Laval 30 + + 18. Plan of the nave, St. Maurice, Angers 33 + + 19. Plan of La Ste. Trinité, Angers 34 + + 20. Section of a bay. Ste. Trinité, Angers 35 + + 21. Transverse section of a bay. Ste. Trinité, Angers 37 + + 22. Section of a single-aisled Church vaulted on intersecting + arches with buttresses 38 + + 23. Section of a three-aisled Church vaulted on intersecting + arches with flying buttresses 39 + + 24. Durham Cathedral. Transverse sections 43 + + 25. Abbey Church at Noyon. Plan 44 + + 26. Transverse section of Noyon Church 45 + + 27. Church of Tournai, Belgium. Exterior view of north transept + towards the Scheldt 46 + + 28. Monastery Church at Moissac. Vault of the hall known as + the _Salle des Capitaines_ above the porch 47 + + 29. Church of Tournai, Belgium. Interior of north transept 47 + + 30. Soissons Cathedral, south transept. Section of flying + buttress 48 + + 31. Perspective view of south transept, Soissons Cathedral 49 + + 32. Cathedral of Laon. Plan 52 + + 33. Cathedral of Laon. Interior of the nave 54 + + 34. Cathedral of Laon. Main façade 55 + + 35. Cathedral of Laon. The east end 57 + + 36. Cathedral of Laon. Section of the nave 58 + + 37. Notre Dame de Paris. Plan 59 + + 38. Notre Dame de Paris. Section of the nave 60 + + 39. Notre Dame de Paris. Flying buttresses and south tower 61 + + 40. Sens Cathedral. Plan of a bay 62 + + 41. Sens Cathedral. Section of a bay of the nave 63 + + 42. Sens Cathedral. Interior 64 + + 43. Bourges Cathedral. Section of the nave 65 + + 44. Rheims Cathedral. Plan 68 + + 45. Rheims Cathedral. Section of the nave 70 + + 46. Rheims Cathedral. Flying buttresses of the choir 71 + + 47. Amiens Cathedral. Plan 72 + + 48. Amiens Cathedral. Section through the nave 73 + + 49. Beauvais Cathedral. Apse 75 + + 50. Beauvais Cathedral. North front 76 + + 51. Beauvais Cathedral. Transverse section 77 + + 52. Chartres Cathedral. Rose window of north transept 78 + + 53. Mans Cathedral. Plan 80 + + 54. Mans Cathedral. Flying buttresses of the apse 81 + + 55. Mans Cathedral. Section of the choir 82 + + 56. Coutances Cathedral. North tower 83 + + 57. Rodez Cathedral. West front 86 + + 58. Bordeaux Cathedral. Choir and north front 87 + + 59. Lichfield Cathedral. West front 88 + + 60. Lincoln Cathedral. Plan 91 + + 61. Lincoln Cathedral. West front 92 + + 62. Lincoln Cathedral. Transept 94 + + 63. Lincoln Cathedral. Apse and chapter-house 95 + + 64. Brussels Cathedral (Ste. Gudule). West front 97 + + 65. Cologne Cathedral. South front 99 + + 66. Burgos Cathedral. West front 101 + + 67. Cathedral or Duomo of Siena. West front 102 + + 68. Church of St. Francis at Assisi. Apse and cloisters 103 + + 69. Church of St. Ouen at Rouen. Central tower and apse, + south front 106 + + 70. Albi Cathedral. Plan 108 + + 71. Albi Cathedral. Section of the nave 111 + + 72. Albi Cathedral. Apse 113 + + 73. Albi Cathedral. Donjon tower and south front 114 + + 74. Church of Esnandes. A fortified church 116 + + 75. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Flying buttresses of the choir 118 + + 76. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan of the choir 119 + + 77. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Details of the apse 120 + + 78. Alençon Cathedral. West front 122 + + 79. Façade of the Cathedral of St. Sophia. Island of Cyprus 123 + + 80. Cathedral of St. Nicholas. Island of Cyprus 124 + + 81. Cathedral of St. Nicholas. Island of Cyprus 126 + + 82. Church of St. Sophia. Island of Cyprus. Ruins 127 + + 83. Steeple, Vendôme 129 + + 84. Giotto's Tower at Florence 130 + + 85. Bayeux Cathedral. Towers of the west front 132 + + 86. Senlis Cathedral. South tower of west front 133 + + 87. Salisbury Cathedral. Steeple 135 + + 88. Church of Langrune (Calvados). Steeple 136 + + 89. Church of the Jacobins at Toulouse. Tower 138 + + 90. Church of St. Pierre at Caen. Tower 140 + + 91. Church of St. Michel at Bordeaux. Tower 141 + + 92. Cathedral of Freiburg-im-Breisgau 142 + + 93. Antwerp Cathedral 143 + + 94. Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front 154 + + 95. Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front 155 + + 96. Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front 156 + + 97. Rheims Cathedral. Principal door. Statue and ornament 157 + + 98. Rheims Cathedral. Principal door. Statue and ornament 158 + + 99. Notre Dame de Paris. Principal door. Running leaf pattern 159 + + 100. Notre Dame de Paris. Principal door. Running leaf pattern 160 + + 101. Chartres Cathedral. Statues of north porch 161 + + 102. Chartres Cathedral. Statues of south porch 162 + + 103. Amiens Cathedral. Central porch of west front 163 + + 104. Amiens Cathedral. Statues in the south porch 164 + + 105. Amiens Cathedral. Choir stalls. Carved ornament 165 + + 106. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Ornament of cloisters 166 + + 107. Wooden Statuette (thirteenth century). _Ateliers_ of La + Chaise Dieu, Auvergne 167 + + 108, 108_a_. Two ivory statuettes. School of Paris 168, 169 + + 109. Wooden Statuette (fourteenth century). School of Paris 170 + + 110, 110_a_. Two ivory diptychs (fourteenth century). School + of the Ile-de-France 171 + + 111, 111_a_. Ivory diptych and plaque (fourteenth century). + School of the Ile-de-France 172, 173 + + 112. Head in silver gilt repoussé. _Ateliers_ of the + Goldsmith's Guild of Paris 174 + + 113. Group carved in wood (fifteenth century). School of + Antwerp 175 + + 114. Wooden statuette, painted and gilded (fifteenth century) 176 + + 115. Wooden statuette, painted and gilded (sixteenth century) 177 + + 116. Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. Horizontal projection of + the cupola 180 + + 117. Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. One of the prophets in the + cupola 182 + + 118. Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. Fragment of central frieze + of cupola 184 + + 119, 120. Painted windows of the early twelfth century. From + St. Rémi, Rheims 187 + + 121. Painted window of the twelfth century. Church of + Bonlieu, Creuse 188 + + 122. Painted window of the thirteenth century. Chartres + Cathedral 189 + + 123. Painted window of the thirteenth century. Chartres + Cathedral 190 + + 124. Painted window of the thirteenth century. Church of St. + Germer, Troyes 191 + + 125. Painted windows of the fourteenth century. Church of St. + Urbain, Troyes 193 + + 126. Painted glass of the fourteenth century. Cathedral of + Châlons-sur-Marne 194 + + 127. Painted window of the fifteenth century. Évreux Cathedral 195 + + 128. Enamel of the eleventh century. Plaque cover of a MS. 196 + + 129. Enamel of the thirteenth century. Plaque cover of an + Evangelium 198 + + 130. Enamel of the twelfth century. Reliquary shrine of St. + Thomas à Becket 199 + + 131. Enamel of the sixteenth century. Our Lady of Sorrows 200 + + 132. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Cloister (thirteenth century) 206 + + 133. Abbey of Cluny. Gateway 216 + + 134. Abbey of Cluny. Plan 219 + + 135. Abbey of Cluny. Door of the Abbey Church 221 + + 136. Abbey of St. Étienne at Caen. Façade 228 + + 137. St. Alban's Abbey (England) 230 + + 138. Abbey of Montmajour. Cloisters 231 + + 139. Abbey of Elne. Cloisters 232 + + 140. Abbey of Fontfroide. Cloisters 233 + + 141. Abbey of Maulbronn (Wurtemberg). Plan 235 + + 142. Abbey of Fontevrault. Kitchen 236 + + 143. Cathedral of Puy-en-Velay. Cloisters 237 + + 144. Abbey of La Chaise Dieu (Auvergne). Cloisters 239 + + 145. _Chartreuse_ of Villefranche de Rouergue. Plan 242 + + 146. _Chartreuse_ of Villefranche de Rouergue. Bird's-eye view 243 + + 147. _Grande Chartreuse._ The Great Cloister 244 + + 148. _Grande Chartreuse._ General View 245 + + 149. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. General View 248 + + 150. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the + entrance 249 + + 151. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the + lower church 250 + + 152. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the + upper church 252 + + 153. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Section from north to south 253 + + 154. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Section from west to east 254 + + 155. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Crypt known as the _Galerie + de l'Aquilon_ 256 + + 156. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. North front 257 + + 157. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The almonry 258 + + 158. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. A tympanum of the cloisters 259 + + 159. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The cellar 260 + + 160. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Refectory 262 + + 161. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Hall of the knights 263 + + 162. St. Michael's Mount, Cornwall 264 + + 163. Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Gate-house 270 + + 164. City of Carcassonne. South-east ramparts 273 + + 165. City of Carcassonne. North-west ramparts 274 + + 166. Fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn. Section 277 + + 166_a_. Fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn. General view 278 + + 167. City of Carcassonne. Plan of the thirteenth century 279 + + 168. City of Carcassonne. Ramparts, south-west angle 280 + + 169. Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes, north and south 281 + + 170. Ramparts of Avignon. Curtain and towers 282 + + 170_a_. Machicolations 283 + + 171. Ramparts of St. Malo 284 + + 172. Mont St. Michel. South front 287 + + 173. Mont St. Michel. As restored on paper 288 + + 174. Castle of Angers 292 + + 175. Carcassonne. Citadel 293 + + 176. Loches Castle. Keep 294 + + 177. Falaise Castle. Keep 297 + + 178. Lavardin Castle. Keep 298 + + 179. Keep of Aigues-Mortes 299 + + 180. Provins Castle. Keep 300 + + 181. Castle, Chinon 302 + + 182. Castle, Clisson. Keep 303 + + 183. Castle. Villeneuve-les-Avignon 304 + + 184. Castle of Tarascon 305 + + 185. Vitré Castle 307 + + 186. City of Carcassonne. Castle gate 310 + + 187. City of Carcassonne. Gate of the Lists 312 + + 188. City of Carcassonne. Gate known as the _Porte Narbonaise_ 313 + + 189. Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes. Drawbridge 314 + + 190. Ramparts of Dinan. Gate known as the _Porte de Jerzual_ 315 + + 191. Vitré Castle. Gate-house 317 + + 192. Ramparts of Guérande. Gate known as the _Porte St. + Michel_ 318 + + 193. Ramparts of Mont St. Michel. Gateway known as the + _Porte du Roi_ 320 + + 194. Entrance to the Port of La Rochelle 322 + + 195. Bridge at Avignon 323 + + 196. Bridge of Montauban 325 + + 197. Bridge of Cahor 326 + + 198. Bridge of Orthez 327 + + 199. Fortified bridge. Mont St. Michel 328 + + 200. Town-hall at St. Antonin (Tarn et Garonne) 334 + + 201. Barn at Perrières (Calvados) 335 + + 201_a_. Barn at Perrières (Calvados). Section 336 + + 201_b_. Barn at Perrières (Calvados). Plan 336 + + 202. Tithe-barn at Provins 337 + + 203. Granary of the Abbey of Vauclair 338 + + 204. Hospital of St. John, Angers 339 + + 205. Abbey of Ourscamps (Oise) 340 + + 206. Lazar-house at Tortoir (Aisne) 341 + + 207. Hospital at Tonnerre. Section 343 + + 208, 208_a_. Houses at Cluny 347, 348 + + 209, 210. Houses at Vitteaux and at St. Antonin 349 + + 211, 212. Houses at Provins and at Laon 350, 351 + + 213. House at Cordes. Albigeois 352 + + 214. House at Mont St. Michel 354 + + 215, 216. Wooden houses at Rouen and at Andelys 355, 356 + + 217. Hôtel Lallemand at Bourges 357 + + 218. Jacques Cœur's house at Bourges 358 + + 219. Town-hall of Pienza, Italy 361 + + 220. Town-hall and belfry at Ypres 363 + + 221. Market and belfry at Bruges 365 + + 222. Town-hall of Bruges 366 + + 223. Town-hall at Louvain 368 + + 224. Belfry of Tournai (Belgium) 370 + + 225. Belfry of Ghent (Belgium) 371 + + 226. Belfry at Calais (France) 374 + + 227. Belfry of Béthune (France) 376 + + 228. Belfry of Évreux (France) 377 + + 229. Belfry of Avignon (France) 378 + + 230. Belfry gate known as _La Grosse Cloche_, Bordeaux 379 + + 231. Cloth hall known as _La Loge_, Perpignan 381 + + 232. Bishop's Palace at Laon 382 + + 233. Archbishop's Palace at Albi. Plan 383 + + 234. Archbishop's Palace at Albi. General view 384 + + 235. Palace of the Popes at Avignon. Plan 385 + + 236. Palace of the Popes at Avignon. General view 387 + + + + + GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE + + + + + INTRODUCTION + + +The term _Gothic_, as applied to the architectural period dating from +the middle of the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century, is +purely conventional. + +The expression is clearly misleading as indicating the architecture +of the Goths or Visigoths; for these tribes were vanquished by Clovis +in the sixth century, and left no monumental trace of their invasion. +Hence, their influence upon art was _nil_. The term is radically +false both from the historical and the archæological point of view, +and originates in an error which demands the strenuous opposition +due to persistent fallacies. By a strange irony of fate the term +_Gothic_, used in the last century merely as the opprobrious synonym +of _barbaric_, has been specialised within the last sixty years in +connection with that polished epoch of the Middle Ages which sheds +most lustre upon our national art. And this, in spite of its Germanic +origin. + +Romanesque architecture, or to be exact, that architecture which, +by virtue of the archæologic convention of 1825, we agree to label +Romanesque, undoubtedly borrowed its essential elements from the +Romans and Byzantines, modifying and perfecting them by the genius +of Western Europe; but the architectural period which began in the +middle of the twelfth century, and is so unjustly dubbed _Gothic_, was +of purely French birth; its cradle was the nucleus of modern France. +Aquitaine, Anjou, and Maine were the provinces in which it first took +root. The royal domain, and notably the Ile-de-France, witnessed its +most marvellous developments, and it was from the very heart of France +that its splendour radiated throughout Europe. + +But the tyranny of usage leaves us no choice as to the title of this +volume. We are compelled to style it _Gothic Architecture_, though we +would gladly have registered our protest by naming it _French Mediæval +Architecture_.[1] + +[1] This idea, which has recently found support in quarters which +might have been considered free from such _chauvinism_, is based +upon a narrow and peculiarly modern view of art. Art activities in +the Middle Ages were as instinctive and unconscious as speech. The +forms of architecture were invented and elaborated much in the same +way as language. For the purpose of the historian of architecture, +the northern half of France, the three southern quarters of Great +Britain, and the districts threaded by the Rhine, form a single +country, a single _foyer_ of art. They all pressed on from similar +starting-points to similar goals; and if the French went ahead in +one direction, they fell astern in another. It may be allowed that, +on the whole, the architects of the _Ile-de-France_ did better than +their rivals. Gothic architecture is pre-eminently logical, and logic +is pre-eminently the artistic gift of the Frenchman. So that its more +scientific development in the "French royal domain" was only to be +expected. That success of this kind gives a right to call the whole +development "French mediæval architecture" cannot be allowed.--ED. + +The term _Gothic_ is, however, purely arbitrary, as is also that +of _pointed_, which has been introduced by writers who admit the +principle of the broken arch as the characteristic of so-called Gothic +architecture. + +The broken or pointed arch, which is formed by the intersection of +two opposite curves at an angle more or less acute, was known to +architects long before its systematic application. It occurs in +buildings of the ninth century in Cairo, and was used prior to this +in Armenia, and still earlier in Persia, where indeed it superseded +all other forms of span from the times of the last of the Sassanides +onwards. It is an expedient which gives increased power of resistance +to the arch by diminishing its lateral thrusts. + +The pointed arch is a form which admits of infinite variations. The +one law which governs its construction is expediency. It frankly +abandons those rules of classic proportion which are the canons, so +to speak, of the round-headed arch. Thus we shall find the pointed +approximating to the round-headed form in the twelfth century, only +to diverge from it more widely than before, till, towards the close +of the thirteenth and throughout the fourteenth century, it took on +the acute proportions necessitated by a perilous disposition to prefer +loftiness to solidity. + +Fundamentally, it is of little moment whether the architecture of the +twelfth to the sixteenth century be termed Gothic or pointed, when +we recognise these terms as equally inexact. The point to be really +insisted upon is that the filiation we have already demonstrated in +our book on Romanesque Architecture continued slowly, but surely, in +the wake of civilisation, of which architecture is ever one of the +most striking manifestations. + +So-called Gothic architecture was not the product of a single +generation; it was the continuous logical development of the +Romanesque movement, just as the latter in its time had been the +outcome of a gradual adaptation of old traditions to new-born +exigencies. Thus our Aquitainian forbears, by their successful +translation into stone of the eastern cupola, prepared the way for +the groined vault, the embryo of which is clearly traceable in the +pendentives of the dome at St. Front. + +The great churches which, towards the middle of the twelfth century, +rose throughout the rich Western provinces that cluster about +Aquitaine, were all constructed with groined vaults. In these examples +we can discern no halting, tentative application of newly adopted +principles. The work is that of consummate architects, who brought +to their labours the assurance born of experienced skill, and in the +later part of the twelfth century, the new system had replaced all +others for the construction of vaults throughout Western Europe. + +The architects of the royal domain, and notably those of the +Ile-de-France, had been the first to adopt the groined vault. Towards +the close of the twelfth century their assimilation of the new +principles, their native ingenuity, and professional hardihood alike +urged them to its further development. They became the inventors of +the flying buttress. + +The substitution of the groined vault for its parent, the cupola, +was the direct consequence of the old tradition. The development +was merely a stage in the march of ideas, a consummation logically +arrived at in the track which the Romans, constructors not less +bold though more prudent than their artistic progeny, had marked +out for them. The groined vault, in short, is simply the growth +of Roman principles perfected by continuous experiment. But the +flying buttress, or rather the system of construction based on its +use, caused a radical change in the art of building of the twelfth +century. Stability, which in the ancient buildings was ensured by +solid masses at the impost of vaults and arches, was replaced by the +balance of parts. From this daring system some of the most marvellous +of architectural effects have been won; but the innovation had a +dangerous inherent weakness, inasmuch as it involved the exterior +position of those essential vital organs for whose preservation the +ancients had wisely provided, by keeping them within the building. + +It is therefore not surprising that though fifty years after its +introduction the groined vault was generally adopted throughout +Western Europe, and even in the East, the success of the flying +buttress was infinitely more gradual and restricted. Thus, in the +North, the multiplication of great religious monuments built, or even +rebuilt on the new lines, was simultaneous with the construction in +the South of vast churches on the old principles. The adventurous +builders of the North had eagerly adopted the new division of churches +into several aisles, all with groined vaults, the vault of the great +central nave relying upon exterior flying buttresses for resistance to +its thrust. + +In the South, on the other hand, architects were prudent, either +through instinctive resistance to, or deliberate reaction from, the +innovating influence, or by way of fidelity to an ancient tradition. +They built with a single aisle, wide and lofty; the vaults were +indeed supported by ribs, but their thrusts were received by powerful +buttresses inside the walls, the projections thus formed being further +utilised for the construction of chapels in the intervals. + +This latter system, which has the incontestable merit of perfect +solidity, recalls the construction of the Basilica of Constantine, +or of the tepidarium in the Baths of Caracalla. The stability of the +edifice was ensured by the resistance of masses at the imposts, and +the whole principle of construction formed, as it were, a protest +against the miracles of equilibrium so much in favour among the +Northerners. + +The new system of vaults supported by flying buttresses made +very slight way in the South. It appears but rarely, and in the +few instances where it is used has entirely the air of a foreign +importation. Even in the cradle of its origin, it took root slowly +and with difficulty, for its first applications were not without +disaster. Lacking that mathematical knowledge which is the mainstay +of the modern architect, the experimental skill shown by the +thirteenth-century builder in constructing his vaults, and then +in neutralising their thrusts by flying buttresses reduced to +the legitimate function of permanent struts, was little short of +miraculous. For it must be borne in mind that the thrust of these +vaults, and the strength of the flying buttresses, varied of necessity +according to their span, and the resisting powers of their materials. +It was only by dint of long gropings in the dark that the necessarily +empirical formulæ of the innovators were gradually transformed into +recognised rules, and this knotty problem of construction received +no positive solution till the last years of the thirteenth, or more +emphatically, the first years of the fourteenth century. While even +then the solution could claim no universal acceptance, for what was +comparatively easy in countries where stone abounds became difficult, +if not impossible, in districts where such a material as brick was the +sole resource of builders. + +Nevertheless, the growth of Gothic architecture was rapid, so rapid +that even in the fourteenth century it began to show symptoms of that +swift decadence which is the Nemesis of facile success. The abuse of +equilibrium, the excessive diminution of points of support--defects +often aggravated by insecurity of foundation and exaggerated loftiness +of structure--the poor quality of materials, and the faulty setting +thereof due to empirical methods, the over-rapidity of execution +caused by mistaken emulation, the dearth of funds consequent on +social and political convulsions complicated by the miseries of +war,--all these things joined hands for the extinction of a once +resplendent art. But the initial cause of its ruin must be sought in +its abandonment of antique traditions. These traditions had persisted +uninterruptedly throughout the so-called Romanesque period, only to +pave the way for a seductive art in novel form, which, casting aside +the trammels of the past in obedience to the dictates of the moment, +fell on decay as rapidly as it had risen to eminence. Dawning in the +France of Louis the Fat, it reached its apogee under St. Louis, and +was in full decadence before the close of the fifteenth century. + +The narrow limits assigned to us forbid not only detailed discussion +of our great monuments, but even a summary of the most famous. We must +be content to work out that theory of evolution already put forward by +us in _L'Architecture Romane_. We propose merely to offer a synthesis +of that architectural development which succeeded the so-called +Romanesque epoch, from its birth in the twelfth to its extinction in +the fifteenth century. + +And as the groined vault is, broadly speaking, the essential +characteristic of so-called Gothic architecture, and the flying +buttress one of its most interesting manifestations, we shall make +a special study of their origin, their modifications, and their +principal applications in connection with religious, monastic, +military, and civil architecture. We shall dwell more particularly +upon religious architecture as presenting the grandest and most +obvious evidences of artistic progress, not in its admirable buildings +alone, but in those masterpieces of painting and sculpture to which it +gave birth in France. + + + + + PART I + + RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE + + + + + CHAPTER I + + THE INFLUENCE OF THE CUPOLA UPON SO-CALLED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE + + _The cupola, in its symbolic aspect, was the germ, whence sprang + an architectural system the revolutionary action of which upon + art can scarcely be over-estimated._[2] + +[2] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Quantin, Paris, 1888. + +So-called Gothic architecture was no spontaneous and miraculous +manifestation. Like all human activities, its end is easy to +determine; but it is difficult to fix even an approximate date for +its beginning. The traces of its origin are lost in that period of +architectural activity which preceded it, and prepared its way by a +train of unbroken evolution. + +The cupola of St. Front, which we may reasonably call the mother +cupola of France, was not an imitation of that of St. Mark at +Venice, for both were based upon the church built by Justinian at +Constantinople, in honour of the Holy Apostles. But the form thus +imported into Aquitaine received such modification and development, as +to make it virtually an original achievement. One of the knottiest of +architectural problems was solved in the process, and that admirable +constructive principle was established which consists in concentrating +the thrust of a vault upon four points of support strengthened by +pendentives. + +The construction of such a cupola as that of St. Front in dressed +stone was an event of great moment in a district which still preserved +the Gallo-Roman tradition in its integrity, and was commonly reputed +the fatherland of our architecture. Its immediate consequences were +shown before the close of the eleventh century by the erection of +large abbey churches on the model of St. Front in various neighbouring +provinces. + +But while accepting the new principle, the architects of the period +directed their energies to its perfectibility. Their efforts, and +even their successes, in this direction are manifest so early as the +first years of the twelfth century. The churches of Angoulême and +of Fontevrault may be cited in proof. "We here recognise the main +preoccupation of the Romanesque builders--namely, how best to reduce +the immense masses of churches built with the primitive cupola by a +more deliberate and judicious distribution of thrust and resistance. +We further see how the adoption of these principles led to the +emphasising of critical points by buttresses, which now began to +project from the exterior walls."[3] + +[3] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Quantin, Paris, 1888. + +The new system spread rapidly, notably in Anjou and Maine, its growth +being marked by an ever-increasing refinement and perfection. The +architects of the rich abbeys of these provinces, the importance of +which was aggrandised by their strong attachments to the all-powerful +religious organisation of the period, gave a further development +to the Aquitainian method. They transformed the pendentives of the +cupolas into independent arches which performed exactly the same +functions, thus logically working out an architectonic principle of +amazing simplicity, the success of which was so rapid that, by the +middle of the twelfth century, it was systematically applied to the +construction of great churches at Angers, Laval, and Poitiers. + +The works of the Angevin architects were of course known to their +Northern brethren, who, in common with all the builders of the day, +had long been seeking the final solution of the great problem of +the vault. The architects of the Ile-de-France at once appropriated +the Angevin system with that special professional ingenuity which +characterised them, and applied it to the construction of innumerable +churches, large and small, all of them built on the basilican +plan--that is to say, with three, or even five aisles. + +Thus the Aquitainian cupola of dressed stone exercised an absolutely +direct influence upon Gothic architecture, since it gave birth to the +_intersecting arch_, which is the main feature of so-called Gothic. +This influence was first manifested in the general arrangement of +single-aisled churches vaulted upon intersecting ribs, the earliest +departure from the original cupola. It was then more grandiosely +demonstrated in vast abbey or cathedral churches, built in accordance +with the basilican tradition, and all vaulted on the new principle. + +Angers and Laval are primitive examples of churches whose square +compartments carry groined vaults, which thenceforth took the place of +cupolas with pendentives. + +The abbey church of Noyon shows the application of this principle, +novel in the twelfth century, to the several-aisled churches of the +Northern architects. The _original_ vaults of Noyon[4] were planned in +square. The intersecting arches united the principal piers diagonally, +the strain being relieved by a subordinate or auxiliary arch which +rested upon secondary piers, indicated on the exterior by buttresses +less salient than those of the main piers, and on the interior by a +column receiving the lateral archivolts which united the chief piers. + +[4] The original disposition of the vaults built about 1160 is +indicated by the spring of the arches above the capitals, and by the +base plan of the principal piers. The present vaults on rectangular +plan were built after the fire of 1238, in accordance with prevailing +fashions. + +This system of construction, the principle of which was logically +developed at Noyon, for instance, no longer exists, save in its +traditional state in the great churches of Laon, and in the cathedrals +of Paris, Sens, and Bourges, to name but the principal, without regard +to the innumerable churches built on these principles throughout +Western Europe. In these great buildings the vaults were all square on +plan down to the adoption in the first half of the thirteenth century +of equal bays, vaulted on a rectangular plan, and marked inside and +out by equal piers and projections, as at Amiens, Rheims, and many +other churches of the period. + +Hence we see how incontestable was the influence of the cupola +upon so-called Gothic architecture. This truth is demonstrated by +monuments yet in existence, lapidary documents above suspicion. It +cannot be insisted upon too strongly, not merely for the satisfaction +of archæeologic accuracy, but more especially as yet another proof +that the filiation between the art of the ancients and that of the +so-called Romanesque architects is no less evident than that which +links together the Romanesque and the so-called Gothic. Of this latter +filiation we have a direct proof in the Aquitainian cupola, the parent +of those of Angoumois, which in their turn gave birth to the Angevin +intersecting arch, and so prepared the way for the flying buttress, +which again was to mark a new departure. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + THE ORIGIN OF THE INTERSECTING VAULT + + +So early as the eleventh century churches were built with one or +several aisles, and in this latter case the side aisles only had +ribbed vaults, the nave being covered by a timber roof. The next step +was to vault all three aisles, buttressing the barrel-vaulted nave by +continuous half-barrel vaults or ribbed vaults over the aisles, and +further strengthening it by projecting transverse arches, or _arcs +doubleaux_, the whole being crowned by a roof which embraced the side +aisles. These cumbrous and timidly constructed buildings were merely +imitations of the Roman basilicas. To ensure their solidity they had +perforce to be narrow; and the necessary abolition of top lighting +made them gloomy. We find then that, before the appearance of the +cupola, mediæval architects were perfectly acquainted both with the +barrel vault and the ribbed vault, the latter formed, on traditional +principles, by the interpenetration of two demi-cylinders. They had +even attempted to improve upon the construction by strengthening the +line of penetration with a salient rib, giving an elliptic arch. But +this rib was purely decorative, for in the Roman vault the stones +at the line of intersection, whether ribbed or not, were in complete +solidarity with the filling on either side in which they were buried. + +It follows that we shall seek in vain in the Roman ribbed vault the +germ of the intersecting arch, with its essentially active functions. + +For the origin of the intersecting arch we must turn to the eleventh +century. We shall find it in the dressed stone cupola of St. Front, +and more especially in its pendentives. + +Fig. 1 gives the plan of one of the cupolas of St. Front. It is +composed of four massive transverse arches, the thrusts of which are +received upon four piers united by pendentives (Figs. 2 and 3) passing +from the re-entering angles at the spring of the arches to the base +of the circular dome itself, each of the concentric courses bearing +upon the keys of the _arcs-doubleaux_, and transmitting to them, and +therefore to the piers by which they are supported, the weight of the +cupola itself. + + [Illustration: 1. PLAN OF A CUPOLA OF THE ABBEY CHURCH OF ST. FRONT AT + PÉRIGUEUX] + + [Illustration: 2. PENDENTIVE (MARKED A) OF A CUPOLA OF THE ABBEY + CHURCH OF ST. FRONT] + + [Illustration: 3. SECTION OF A PENDENTIVE ON THE DIAGONAL A TO B IN + PLAN, FIG. 1] + +Fig. 3 is a section through one of the pendentives of St. Front, +following the line A B in Fig. 1. It shows that the first six courses +are cut so as to make what is called a _tas de chargé_; the upper +surfaces are horizontal, the faces curved to the radius of the dome +itself. After the sixth course the voussoirs are cut normally to the +curve of the arch. The vaulting of religious buildings having long +been the crux of mediæval architects, the construction of the St. +Front cupolas must have been an event much noised abroad, for towards +the close of the eleventh century a large number of churches with +cupolas were built in imitation of the mother church at Périgueux. + +The construction of the churches of Angoulême and Fontevrault in the +first years of the twelfth century shows that the architects were +attempting to cover spaces of ever-increasing span on the Aquitainian +model, while at the same time they set themselves to lighten their +vaults, and consequently to reduce their points of support. + +Fig. 4 gives the plan of one of the cupolas of Angoulême or of +Fontevrault, both being built on precisely similar plan, with the +exception of the number of bays to the nave. + + [Illustration: 4. PLAN OF A CUPOLA OF ANGOULÊME OR FONTEVRAULT] + +Fig. 5 gives the section of a bay in one of these churches, and +illustrates the considerable difference already existing between +the mother cupola of St. Front and its offspring. The cupola on +pendentives begins to show a certain attenuation, and we shall +presently note a fresh step forward towards the solution of that +problem so persistently grappled with by the mediæval architect--how +to reduce the weight of the vault. + + [Illustration: 5. SECTION OF A BAY OF THE CUPOLAS OF ANGOULÊME] + +The Church of St. Avit-Sénieur furnishes a most instructive example. + +The cupola of this building is strengthened by stiffening ribs. It +becomes an annular vault, formed of almost horizontal keyed courses, +sustained by transverse and diagonal ribs, which act the part of a +permanent centering. + +The Church of St. Pierre at Saumur marks a further step onwards in the +construction of vaults derived from the cupola.[5] + +[5] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer. + +Finally, the architects of Maine and Anjou achieved the long-desired +consummation. Under their treatment the pendentives resolved +themselves into their actively useful elements, the visible signs of +which were diagonal or intersecting arches, salient and independent, +set in precisely the same manner as the pendentives of the cupola +(Fig. 3), and performing identical functions (Fig. 8). + + [Illustration: 6. SECTION OF A BAY IN THE CHURCH OF ST. AVIT-SÉNIEUR] + + [Illustration: 7. PLAN OF VAULT ON INTERSECTING ARCHES] + +The vault proper is no longer formed of concentric courses, as in the +mother cupola. It consists thenceforward of voussoirs cut normally to +the curve, and filling the triangles (A, B, C, D, Fig. 7) determined +by the longitudinal, the diagonal or intersecting, and the transverse +arches. These arches form a stone skeleton, no less solid though far +less ponderous than the cupola pendentives, and sustain the vault by +distributing its thrusts over four points of support. + +The triangular fillings no longer imprison the ribs, or, more exactly +speaking, the intersecting arches, nor do they any longer neutralise +their active functions. These fillings, on the other hand, have, like +the intersecting arch, gained a new independence. They now contribute +to the elasticity of the divers organs of the vault, a most essential +element in its solidity. The peculiar arrangement of the intersecting +arches in the nave of Angers gives incontrovertible proof of the +direct filiation of this building to the Aquitainian cupola. The +voussoirs of the intersecting arches are about equal in horizontal +section to those of the transverse arches, while their vertical +section equals the thickness of the filling plus the internal salience +which marks their function. They look in fact like slices cut from +the pendentives of a cupola (A, Fig. 8). It must be remarked, too, +that at Angers the stones of the filling do not yet rest upon the +extrados of the ribs, in the fashion adopted some years later in the +Ile-de-France and elsewhere (see B, Fig. 8), but embrace them (as at +A). + + [Illustration: 8. SECTION OF AN INTERSECTING ARCH] + +The identity of function in the pendentive and in the Gothic +intersecting arch, both constructed, as they are, of stones dressed +normally to their curves, shows that they sprang from a common origin, +which is as much as to say that the Aquitainian cupola begat the +intersecting vault. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + THE FIRST GROINED VAULTS + + +The first application of the system of intersecting vaults appears in +the great churches of Angers and Laval. + +It is probable that the new methods propagated by the religious +architects of Aquitaine and neighbouring provinces had excited the +emulation of the Northern builders, more especially those of the +Ile-de-France. Evidences to this effect are to be found in certain +subordinate portions of their buildings at this period, such as side +aisles or apsidal chapels. Their timid arrangement seems, however, +reminiscent of the Roman system of ribbed vaulting, with a slightly +increased prominence of the ribs superadded, rather than of the +revolution that had been effected in church vaulting generally. + + [Illustration: 9. PLAN OF A BAY IN THE NAVE OF ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS] + + [Illustration: 10. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF ST. MAURICE AT + ANGERS] + +But, if we except perhaps Laval, nowhere shall we find the new system +of vaulting upon intersecting arches more mightily demonstrated than +at Angers, the aisles of which measure 54 feet across. The grandeur +of the architectural composition, no less than the admirable technical +skill shown in the details, gives proof of the consummate mastery +arrived at by the builders of these noble structures so early as the +middle of the twelfth century. The plan of these churches resembles +that of Angoulême and Fontevrault. It is in no way allied to the +Northern buildings. + + [Illustration: 11. PLAN OF A BAY OF THE NAVE IN THE CHURCH OF LA STE. + TRINITÉ AT LAVAL] + +They are constructed with single aisles, like the cupola churches, +with a series of bays, square on plan; but the arrangement of the +vaults has been perfected by the logical use of intersecting arches in +the place of pendentives, the architects of the day having realised +by this time the progress we have explained and demonstrated in the +preceding chapter. + +These vast aisles, vaulted on intersecting arches, are of course +allied to the cupolas; they recall their general outline, but the +arrangement of the vaulting is different. The intersecting ribs are +no longer merely decorative features; they have taken on all the +active functions of the _arc-doubleau_ and the formeret. Their union +constitutes an elastic ossature, the weight being concentrated upon +four points of support, which receive the impost of the arches, and +compose a stone skeleton, each unit of which has been cut and dressed +to fill the exact place it occupies in the whole. + + [Illustration: 12. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF TWO BAYS IN THE NAVE OF LA + STE. TRINITÉ AT LAVAL] + +If we compare the sections (Figs. 13 and 14) of the churches of +Angoulême and Angers, we may clearly trace the filiation between these +buildings, the one dating from the first years of the twelfth century, +the other from some thirty or even forty years later. We shall also +note the advance made by the Angevin architects in the construction of +groined vaults in the place of domes with pendentives, a development +worked out by the more perfect and reasoned application of the same +architectural principle. + + [Illustration: 13 AND 14. COMPARATIVE SECTIONS OF THE CHURCHES OF + ANGOULÊME AND ANGERS] + + [Illustration: 15. VIEW IN PERSPECTIVE OF THE NAVE VAULT OF + ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS] + +The Church of Laval, built simultaneously with that of Angers, +or only a few years later, shows a further advance, not merely in +the matter of form, but in the increased science and ingenuity of +combinations, and the methodical accuracy of the execution. + + [Illustration: 16. PLAN OF A SUMMER OF THE NAVE VAULT OF LA STE. + TRINITÉ AT LAVAL] + + [Illustration: 17. PLAN OF ONE OF THE PIERS OF THE NAVE OF LA STE. + TRINITÉ AT LAVAL] + +The arches which compose the ossature of the vaults become independent +in their functions, as at Angers, immediately upon leaving the abacus, +an essential characteristic of the new system. The lateral points of +support are composed of piers proper and of clustered columns, crowned +by corbelled capitals, which, by prolonging them, mark the formerets, +the diagonal, and the transverse arches as they fall upon the abaci. +It is easy to see in this arrangement the origin of those clustered +shafts so generally and even excessively used in the thirteenth and +fourteenth centuries, the main object of which was to conceal as far +as possible the points of support. + +These details, and the section (Fig. 12) showing the mode of +construction in the vaults, demonstrate sufficiently that at Laval, no +less than at Angers, a direct filiation exists between the dome upon +pendentives and the groined and ribbed vault. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + BUILDINGS VAULTED UPON INTERSECTING ARCHES + + +The new system derived from the domes upon pendentives, so brilliantly +applied in Anjou and Maine in the first half of the twelfth century, +was thenceforth the normal method of the religious architect. The +admirable simplicity of the new method and its adaptability to every +class of building, from the great abbey church to the modest chapel, +sufficiently accounts for its rapid dissemination throughout Western +Europe, where religious bodies had founded innumerable abbeys, large +and small, of varying rules and orders, but all welded together by one +mighty organisation. + +A long array of churches on the Angevin model rose, not only in the +neighbouring provinces--as Ste. Radegonde at Poitiers, Notre Dame de +la Coulture and the nave of St. Julien at Mans,--but farther afield +towards the south. To name only the most important--the charming +Church of Thor, dedicated to Ste. Marie du Lac, between Avignon and +the fountain of Vaucluse; that of St. Sauveur at St. Macaire, near +Bordeaux; the nave of St. André at Bordeaux, begun in 1252 on the +cupola plan, but modified and finally crowned with a groined and +ribbed vault; St. Caprais at Agen, which shows the same modifications, +and lastly, the immense brick nave of St. Étienne at Toulouse, +which measures 64 feet--all demonstrate the progression of the new +principles in the second half of the twelfth century. + + [Illustration: 18. PLAN OF THE NAVE, ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS] + +Towards the North the advance was no less general. Various buildings +show to what excellent account contemporary architects had turned the +system of vaults on intersecting arches, recognising its admirable +adaptability to different climates, and to the most diverse materials. +But it was reserved for Angers, the cradle of its birth, to give an +added perfection to this ingenious system. + +The Church of the Ste. Trinité, on the right bank of the Maine, built +by the sons or pupils of those architects who had planned St. Maurice +for the hill on the opposite shore, marks a fresh advance in the +construction of these vaults. Like St. Maurice, it has but a single +aisle, which is divided into three bays, each as nearly as possible +square on plan. The system of vaulting takes on a greater elegance by +the insertion of a transverse arch, with its supporting shafts, in the +centre of each bay. This divides the bay into two equal parts, and, +cutting the diagonal ribs at their intersection, supports them at the +critical point. + +Fig. 19 gives the plan of these vaults, the system of which was +eagerly seized upon by the Northern architects, and the great abbey +church of Noyon appears to have been the first-fruits of this new +development of the Angevin idea. + + [Illustration: 19. PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF LA STE. TRINITÉ AT ANGERS] + + [Illustration: 20. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A BAY OF LA STE. TRINITÉ AT + ANGERS] + +The great abbey churches and immense cathedrals which were built from +the second half of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth century +attest the importance of the development carried out at Angers by +the arrangement of their own vaults in square compartments. For we +now find this system adopted in the construction of the churches or +cathedrals of Noyon, Laon, Notre Dame at Paris, Sens, and Bourges, to +name only acknowledged masterpieces of so-called Gothic. + + [Illustration: 21. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A BAY OF LA STE. TRINITÉ AT + ANGERS] + +The influence of the cupola, which we established in our first +chapter, was both direct and consecutive. It was direct in churches +built with one aisle and vaulted on intersecting arches, and +consecutive in the so-called Romanesque churches, which were either +completed or modified on the new lines by the substitution of vaults +on intersecting arches of dressed stone for timber roofs. A large +number of buildings in England, Normandy, Germany, Northern Italy, +Switzerland, the Rhine Provinces, and those of Northern France bear +testimony of the highest interest to the transformations consequent on +the invention of the groined vault and its universal application. + +Architects who had been trained in the great abbey schools, emboldened +by the successes of their forerunners and their own individual +experience, raised on every hand vast cathedrals, in which every known +development of the system was essayed with unequalled daring. Going +on from strength to strength, they eventually abandoned the antique +traditions, and disregarding the statical conditions which ensured +the solidity of the ancient buildings, they invented a system of +construction which is, as it were, merely a skeleton in stone, a stone +version of the timbered roof; its characteristic expression was the +permanent strut known as the _flying buttress_; its governing idea +was equilibrium, for which it provided by architectural stratagems +ingenious in the highest degree, but also extremely precarious. Its +existence or stability depends for the most part on the quality of the +materials and their degrees of resisting power, the essential organs, +by which I mean those vital _weight-carrying_ portions, the failure +of which would involve the ruin of the whole, being _outside_ the +building, and therefore exposed to all those deteriorating influences +from which the _load_ they bear, that is to say, the vaults, are +protected by walls and roof. + + [Illustration: 22. SECTION OF A SINGLE-AISLED CHURCH VAULTED ON + INTERSECTING ARCHES WITH BUTTRESSES] + + [Illustration: 23. SECTION OF A THREE-AISLED CHURCH VAULTED ON + INTERSECTING ARCHES WITH FLYING BUTTRESSES] + +The great buildings constructed on these new principles consisted of +a central nave with two, or even four side aisles. The huge structure +depended for its light first upon low windows in the collateral +portions, secondly, upon windows at a much higher level. Hence it +became necessary to raise the vault of the central nave, and to +give it an abutment in the form of _detached semi-arches_ or flying +buttresses. The crowns of these semi-arches impinged the piers at the +planes of greatest pressure and received the collective thrust of +all the ribs, formerets, transverse and diagonal arches. Their bases +rested upon abutments, the strength of which was calculated according +to the thrust they had to meet. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + ORIGIN OF THE FLYING BUTTRESS + + +The primitive method of vaulting adopted in the central provinces of +France in the construction of churches with three aisles rendered such +buildings of necessity low and heavy. The main aisle being covered by +a barrel vault, supported on either side by a continuous half-barrel +vault, the sole means of lighting lay in the windows of the side +aisles, so that the nave was always gloomy in the extreme. The +Norman architects had avoided this difficulty, first in their native +province, and afterwards in England, by vaulting the subordinate +aisles only, and by raising the lateral walls of the nave high enough +to allow a line of windows to be introduced between the lean-to roofs +of the side aisles and the nave roof, the latter being an open timber +construction instead of a vault. + +The lateral gallery in the first story of Norman churches built on the +basilican model is merely a development of the ancient tradition.[6] +It bears the name of triforium because--or so we are told--each +compartment of such an interior gallery between the main piers of the +nave was originally divided into three by pillars supporting lintels +or by small columns supporting an arcade. + +[6] See _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Maison Quantin, +Paris, 1888, chaps. i. iii. and iv. + +Towards the close of the eleventh century Norman architects on both +sides of the Channel were raising vast churches, the side aisles of +which bore above their ribbed vaults galleries after the fashion +of the primitive basilicas. These galleries in their turn were +covered by open timber roofs like that of the nave. The bays were +emphasised in the nave and in the side aisles by transverse arches, +or _arcs-doubleaux_, which served as buttresses to those of the main +vault. But after the adoption, towards the middle of the twelfth +century, of the Angevin method of vaulting for religious buildings, +the functions of the lateral walls and of the supporting arches became +better defined, for these walls and arches had now to meet the thrusts +of the transverse as well as that of the diagonal arches, which, +meeting in bundles, as it were, at each pier, gathered their energies +at well-marked points. + +It was thus that the cross walls or _arcs-doubleaux_ of the side +aisles were gradually modified till they became detached semi-arches +concealed beneath the outer roof of the side aisles. + +We have traced this modification in the Abbaye aux Dames at Caen.[7] + +[7] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison Quantin, +88, chap. xvii. + +Fig. 24 shows us an English example. It may be followed out in a +number of other churches in England, at Pavia in Italy, at Zurich in +Switzerland, and at Basle on the Rhine, to name but a few of the +churches in which the modification of the vaults was long posterior to +the construction of the building itself. + + [Illustration: 24. DURHAM CATHEDRAL. TRANSVERSE SECTIONS] + +In France we shall find no example more deeply interesting than +Noyon, which at the date of its construction (the last quarter of +the twelfth century) formed, as it were, an epitome of the advance +so far made by the architects of the Ile-de-France. In this curious +building we find a fusion of the antique tradition developed by the +Normans in their triforiums, and of the Angevin methods, as manifested +in the groined vaults derived from domes: methods further perfected +by the example of La Ste. Trinité at Angers; in other words, by the +adoption of intersecting arches planned on a square, the thrusts of +all being received on the main piers, reinforced by an intermediate +transverse arch. And we note the appearance of the detached semi-arch +beneath the roofing of the inferior aisles merging at its springing +into the lateral _arc-doubleau_, and so resisting the thrust of the +intersecting arches and transverse arches of the nave. + + [Illustration: 25. ABBEY CHURCH AT NOYON. PLAN] + + [Illustration: 26. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF NOYON CHURCH] + +It has been said that Noyon was suggested by Tournai, doubtless on +account of their superficial affinities. But the likeness is merely in +general aspect, the methods of construction being wholly different. At +Tournai the apsidal transepts are vaulted upon transverse arches of +great strength, and upon radiating semi-arches united where they meet +by a ring of voussoirs set horizontally, and at their springing by +vaults keyed into their mass, an ingenious arrangement which recalls +the vaulting of the _Salle des Capitaines_ over the porch of the +monastery church at Moissac. + +The combination of these _arcs-doubleaux_, which, in addition to the +solidity of their independent structure, are strongly reinforced by +the massive circular courses of the walls, is very peculiar, for it +dispenses altogether both with auxiliary arches and with abutments. +Tournai, therefore, cannot be held to have begotten Noyon, for here +we have groined vaults, the intersecting arches of which demand the +reinforcement of abutments either concealed or apparent to sustain +the thrust of these vaults over the lateral _arcs-doubleaux_. The +ingenious arrangement above cited had in no sense modified the methods +of abutment followed by the architects of the twelfth century even +after the adoption of the vault on intersecting arches. These, as will +be remembered, consisted in buttressing the walls and piers of the +nave by cross walls or by arches concealed beneath the roofing of the +side aisles. + + [Illustration: 27. CHURCH OF TOURNAI, BELGIUM. EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE + NORTH TRANSEPT TOWARDS THE SCHELDT] + +We find at Soissons the first application of an architectural system, +the special feature of which is the _flying buttress_. + + [Illustration:28. MONASTERY CHURCH AT MOISSAC. VAULT OF THE HALL KNOWN + AS THE HALL OF THE CAPTAINS ABOVE THE PORCH] + + [Illustration: 29. CHURCH OF TOURNAI, BELGIUM. INTERIOR OF THE NORTH + TRANSEPT] + +The south transept of Soissons Cathedral was evidently suggested by +Noyon. This is apparent in the adoption of the two-storied side aisle +and in the semi-circular plan. But the method of vaulting common to +both churches has a greater refinement at Soissons. Reduced to its +simplest expression of strength by the attenuation of its skeleton, +the vault still exercises its full thrust on those parts which rise +above the upper gallery. + +The architect of Soissons was not content, like his brother of Noyon, +to support the vault laterally by interior arches collaborating with +the _arcs-doubleaux_ of the triforium, and reinforced by an abutment +impinging on the wall of the central nave. To him the idea occurred of +detached semi-arches in open air, springing from above the roof of the +triforium and its buttresses and marking each bay. Thus was born the +_flying buttress_, a feature frankly emphasising its special aim and +function, namely, to meet the thrust of the main vault at its points +of concentration. + + [Illustration:30. SOISSONS CATHEDRAL. SOUTH TRANSEPT. SECTION OF + FLYING BUTTRESS] + + [Illustration: 31. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF SOUTH TRANSEPT, SOISSONS + CATHEDRAL[8]] + +[8] These flying buttresses, in themselves insufficient for the task +laid upon them, and worn by the destructive action of the weather, +were pushed entirely out of shape by the constant pressure from +within, the thrust of the vault being aggravated by the circular +plan of the building, while the vaults themselves became dislocated +by reason of their insufficient abutments. It became necessary to +reconstruct the buttresses in 1880, to avert the total collapse of the +south transept. + +The reconstruction of these flying buttresses, and of many others of +the same period, furnishes us with a criticism _ad hominem_ upon the +system. + +The flying buttress, in combination with the intersecting arch, +gave birth to a new system of construction, a system on which +were raised vast buildings which compel our admiration and demand +our careful study, but should not invite our imitation. They are +monuments to the ingenuity of the twelfth and thirteenth century +architect, but no less are they beacons warning against the perils of +a rationalism--more apparent than real--which their authors carried to +its extreme limits, casting to the winds all traditional principles, +and consequently all authority. + +It would seem as though the architects of this period, emboldened by +such achievements as the churches of Noyon, Soissons, Laon, Paris, +Sens, and Bourges, and spurred by professional emulation, went on from +one feat of daring to another, passing from the triumphs of Rheims, +Amiens, and Mans to the supreme architectural folly of Beauvais, and +creating monuments no less amazing in dimension than in the statical +problems grappled with, if not always solved. + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + CHURCHES AND CATHEDRALS OF THE TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES + + +The study of mediæval architecture is one of the most fascinating of +pursuits, but it is one beset with difficulties. The obscurity in +which the origin of our great monuments is buried is profound and +often impenetrable. + +A fertile cause of error is the confusion which in many cases has +arisen between the dates of foundation and of consecration. Very often +a church was built and afterwards considerably modified, rather than +actually reconstructed, on the same consecrated site. + +Lightning was the most frequent cause of the destruction, total or +partial, of mediæval churches. Striking the steeple, the tower, or the +roof, it fired the timber superstructure of the nave. This in itself +would not have been an irreparable disaster; but as the timbers gave +way the calcined beams charred the piers, and so prepared the downfall +of the whole building, which was then either restored or reconstructed +in the fashion of the day. Hence, whether we base our deductions upon +more or less trustworthy records or upon contemporary readings of +existing data, the result is too often a confusion among vanished +monuments, or a contradiction between the buildings as they now exist +and the historic records which relate to them. + + [Illustration: 32. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. PLAN] + + [Illustration: 33. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. INTERIOR OF THE NAVE] + +Nothing is easier for interested theorists than to post-or ante-date +the structure of a building. They have nothing to fear from the +testimony of writers, and, with very few exceptions, it is difficult +to assign a precise date to the construction of great churches and +cathedrals or to point with certainty to their architects. The +obscurity of these great artists is perhaps to be accounted for by +the fact that they were ecclesiastics. As such the honour of their +achievements belonged not to the individual, but to the corporate +body, the _order_ of which they were members, and members moreover who +had, in most cases, taken the vow of humility. + +Modern science, architectural and archæological, has failed to throw +much positive light on this subject. It contents itself for the most +part with ingenious hypotheses and learned deductions which leave +us still in doubt as to precise dates. But we shall at least find +some sort of foothold in a careful architectural survey of buildings +themselves. This should be, of course, supplemented by study of +historic records, and such a study will convince us that art in the +Middle Ages, as in all epochs, obeyed the immutable laws of filiation +and transformation. We shall follow the artist step by step, observing +his research, his hesitation, his errors, and even his corrections. + +These are trustworthy documents in which to study the origin of a +building and to note its successive transformations, which latter were +far more frequent than total reconstructions. For it was not until the +beginning of the thirteenth century that great cathedral churches in +any considerable numbers were conceived and continuously executed.[9] + +[9] It is possible, if not easy, to trace the architectural +development of the Middle Ages in a good many cathedrals and +churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. We have, however, +confined ourselves, for the purposes of our present synthesis, to +the churches and cathedrals of the royal domain, and more especially +of the Ile-de-France, not only because they served as models for the +architects of their day, but because they illustrate in a remarkable +degree the various transitions we desire to study. + + [Illustration: 34. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. MAIN FAÇADE] + +The great abbey churches founded towards the close of the twelfth +century in the royal domain, but continued and finished in the early +years of the thirteenth, still preserved a more ancient tradition. + +Laon, which is derived from Noyon and from the south transept of +Soissons, consists of a nave with transepts, and of two-storied side +aisles vaulted upon intersecting arches, above which, as at Soissons, +rise flying buttresses, which meet the thrust of the main vault. + +This arrangement of the side aisles proves the continuity of the +Norman formulæ, just as the method of construction adopted in the main +vault demonstrates the persistent influence of the dome.[10] + +[10] See chap. i., "The Influence of the Cupola on Gothic +Architecture." + +The admirably constructed main vault is square on plan, each square +containing two transverse compartments, after the Angevin method as +derived from the Aquitainian dome. Here we find indications that, +if the builders of the Church of Laon had fully assimilated this +method, their minds were nevertheless not altogether at rest as to +the functions of the flying buttress. This was, of course, essential +to the piers which received the united thrust of both transverse +and diagonal arches. But it was far from logical to reinforce the +intermediate piers supporting nothing but the auxiliary transverse +arches by abutments identical with those of the main piers. + +The illogicality so striking at Laon is absent from Noyon. There, +on the contrary, the architects--of the original construction--had +emphasised the functions of the main piers by buttresses of greater +projection and solidity than those accorded to the secondary piers. + + [Illustration: 35. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. THE EAST END] + + [Illustration: 36. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. SECTION OF THE NAVE] + +Notre Dame de Paris was begun towards the close of the twelfth +century, and finished, save for the chapels, in the first half of +the thirteenth. As at Laon, the Norman tradition is observed in the +arrangement of the upper galleries of the side aisles, while the +influence of the dome is again to be traced in the sex-partite +groining. The same illogical system of abutments obtains as at Laon. + +This vast building, consisting of a nave and double side aisles of +equal height sweeping round the semi-circular choir, seems to be one +of the first five-aisled cathedrals; its grandiose arrangement, the +boldness of its combinations, and the perfection of its detail mark +the considerable progress made by the architects of the Ile-de-France. + + [Illustration: 37. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. PLAN] + +The method of construction here adopted has a peculiar significance. +The upper internal galleries, vaulted on diagonal arches, and raised +considerably above the level of the second side aisle, the boldness of +the flying buttress, which at one span embraces the two side aisles +and forms the abutments of the main vault--alike prove that the +architects of Notre Dame de Paris had adopted the newly discovered +systems even to excess, and were applying them with unparalleled skill +and ingenuity. + + [Illustration: 38. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. SECTION OF THE NAVE] + +The Norman tradition which had obtained in the Ile-de-France +passed away in the first years of the thirteenth century. At +Châlons-sur-Marne the nave is flanked by two-storied side aisles. But +the upper gallery, vaulted and greatly reduced in size, shows that the +conventional arrangement was fast dying out. + +The influence of the dome was longer lived, as is shown in the +construction of vaults at this period. We may still trace it at +Langres in the domed form of the vaults, which, in spite of their +rectangular plan, seem to be a reduced copy of the Angevin naves. + + [Illustration: 39. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. FLYING BUTTRESSES AND SOUTH + TOWER] + +The naves of Sens and of Bourges are also vaulted in square +compartments. The thrust of the vaults is carried by the diagonal +arches to each alternate pier, the intermediate one receiving only the +auxiliary transverse arch already fully described. Yet here again the +exterior flying buttresses are all of equal solidity in spite of the +varying strain. This arrangement, prudent if illogical, shows once +more with what distrust architects had adopted that system of exterior +abutment, the characteristic of which is a detached arch exposed to +all the vicissitudes of weather, and yet responsible for the stability +of the whole edifice. + +The Cathedral of Sens marks a new phase of development by its +suppression of the upper gallery over the side aisles. These are now +vaulted and covered by a lean-to roof; a flying buttress of single +span receives the thrust of the main vault. The building is perfectly +solid; its construction shows research, though it is as illogical as +that of Laon or of Paris; for the exterior flying buttresses are all +of equal strength, and so fail to proclaim their true functions, the +interior thrusts varying considerably. + + [Illustration: 40. SENS CATHEDRAL. PLAN OF A BAY. VAULT IN SQUARE + COMPARTMENTS OF TWO BAYS] + + [Illustration: 41. SENS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF A BAY OF THE NAVE] + + [Illustration: 42. SENS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR VIEW OF LATERAL BAYS] + +The arrangement at Bourges, which appears to have been mainly built, +if not actually finished, in the first half of the thirteenth +century, differs from that of Sens. The structure is one of five +aisles, and in plan recalls Notre Dame de Paris, but the details are +very dissimilar. The inner side aisles no longer support a gallery, +nor are they of equal height with the outer aisles; they are raised +so as to afford space for lighting (see Fig. 43). The main vault is +sex-partite planned on squares; but the same illogicality exists +here which we have already pointed out, and in connection with which +we will risk appearing somewhat insistent, in the hope of directing +special attention to it. It is more glaring here than elsewhere, the +flying buttresses themselves being of exaggerated dimensions and of +double span, embracing the two side aisles. + + [Illustration: 43. BOURGES CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE] + +Both at Bourges and Sens the space between the summit of the +archivolts and the bases of the upper windows, known as the frieze, +or, in modern parlance, the triforium, becomes a purely decorative +feature. It consists of a narrow arcaded corridor, occupying in the +interior of the building that portion of the wall space which in the +exterior has been appropriated by the lean-to roof of the side aisles. +At Sens there is merely a single gallery; at Bourges it becomes +double, through the stepped arrangement of the side aisles (see Fig. +43), a variation in which we may trace an ingenious blending of the +systems of Anjou and Poitiers with those of the Ile-de-France. + + + + + CHAPTER VII + + THE CATHEDRALS OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY + + +The Cathedral of Rheims, which was begun soon after the destruction of +the original building by the fire of 1211, is a supreme expression of +the fusion of the three systems--those of Aquitaine, of Anjou, and of +the Ile-de-France. It may be taken as the most perfect manifestation +of persistent efforts to establish a method of construction based on +equilibrium--the equilibrium, that is to say, of a building vaulted +on intersecting arches, the thrusts of which are received by exterior +flying buttresses. + +The temerity, and even the dangers of such a system, are sufficiently +demonstrated in the wonderful works of the thirteenth-century +architects themselves. For, notwithstanding the skill and beauty of +their many admirable combinations, they were unable to reduce their +methods to scientific formulæ. The statical power of their structures +remained an uncertain quantity, determined by the durability of the +material and its exposure or non-exposure to the weather, the interior +skeleton being formed of the same material as the exterior. + + [Illustration: 44. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. PLAN] + +The perils inherent in such a system are more apparent at Rheims than +elsewhere, because of the colossal proportions of the building. The +arrangement of the flying buttresses, however, is more logical than +at Laon, Paris, Sens, and Bourges, by reason of the quadripartite +arrangement of the main vault. The thrusts being equally distributed +among the supporting piers, each flying buttress performs an identical +office; their equal strength and solidity is therefore perfectly +appropriate and logical. But though theoretically correct in its +disposition of flying buttresses of equal strength to meet thrusts of +equal strength, the method is vitiated by its inherent weakness as a +system of abutment. The fragility of the flying buttress exposed it +to two grave dangers, active and passive; active, taking into account +the constant strain upon it as an abutment; passive, in regard to the +gradual reduction of its solidity by exposure to weather. In support +of this statement, it is only necessary to refer to the restorations +which it has been found necessary to make within the last few years, +to preserve the nave. The flying buttresses have been strengthened +from below, a proceeding without which the collapse of the huge +building would have been inevitable. + +But we shall find much to call for unqualified admiration at Rheims in +the grandiose conception of the work and in its powerful execution, in +the magnificent arrangement of its eastern façade, and in the perfect +harmony of the ornamentation, where sculpture, capitals, friezes, +crockets, and floriations are so many types of mediæval decorative art +at its best. + +The Cathedral of Amiens, which dates from about 1220, and is one of +the largest as well as one of the most admired of Gothic masterpieces, +is directly founded upon that of Rheims. The plan is on the same +lines, with this exception, that at Amiens the choir is of greater +importance relatively to the nave, and that the piers and points of +support are weaker and much more lofty. + + [Illustration: 45. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE] + + [Illustration: 46. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE CHOIR] + +The Rémois architects, while exercised by the problems of equilibrium +which their system involved, sought to minimise its dangers, which +they recognised no less fully than their predecessors, by prudently +avoiding all false bearings. It will be easily seen by a comparison +of the two sections (Figs. 45 and 48) that the builders of Amiens +were troubled by no such misgivings, or that they were at least more +venturesome if not more accomplished. They did not hesitate to base +the columns which received the crowns of the flying buttresses on a +corbel arrangement which had no solid bearing, as may be seen by +following the direction of the dotted line X in Fig. 48. The boldness, +or rather the imprudence of such an arrangement is patent, for the +failure of anyone of the courses, or the decay of any part of the pier +into which the corbels are keyed, would necessarily involve a rupture +in the flying buttresses, on which the stability of the main vault +depends. The disintegration of the whole building and its total ruin +could be the only result. The perils of such combinations, or rather +such _tours de force_ of equilibrium, are exemplified at Beauvais. +The architects who built the choir, about the year 1225, basing it on +that of Amiens, determined to raise a monument which should surpass, +both in plan and elevation, all the structures of their epoch. They +increased the breadth of the choir and of its bays, raising, in the +latter, intermediate piers on the crowns of the lower archivolts, thus +dividing the upper bays, and at the same time strengthening the vault +by auxiliary transverse arches. They exaggerated the height of the +archivolts and of the large windows, and diminished their thickness, +in order to give greater elegance and lightness, and the main vault +rose to a height of more than 160 feet above the ground level. This +tremendous elevation, the exaggeration of which in proportion to the +width of the nave is striking, necessitated a complicated system of +flying buttresses surpassing in boldness all that had gone before. +The section in Fig. 51 will give some idea of what has been justly +described as an architectural folly. It is astonishing that the +structure should have stood as it has done, taking into account the +false bearings of the intermediate piers, here again shown by the +dotted line X (Fig. 51). + + [Illustration: 47. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. PLAN] + + [Illustration: 48. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. SECTION THROUGH THE NAVE] + +These rest for half of their thickness on off-sets from the piers, +which, proving unequal to the strain, have been temporarily stayed, +and must eventually be consolidated. + +The choir, however, was finished about 1270, and stood for several +years. But dislocations then declared themselves. The forces so +elaborately balanced lost their equilibrium, and on the 29th November +1284 the vault fell, dragging down with it the flying buttresses, and +carrying havoc through the rest of the building. In the reconstruction +which followed it was thought imperative to double the points of +support in the arcades both of the main and side aisles, and to +reinforce the flying buttresses by iron chains. + + [Illustration: 51. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. TRANSVERSE SECTION] + +During the thirteenth century a number of cathedrals were raised all +over Europe on the model of the great buildings of Northern France, +and more especially of Amiens, which seems to have roused a great +enthusiasm; these were, however, of far more modest dimensions. They +had neither the exaggerated height nor the structural audacities +of their exemplars. Few of these churches and cathedrals, the +reconstruction of which on the new system generally began with the +choir, which was added to the primitive nave, were completed by +those who initiated their erection. The most highly favoured in this +respect were finished in the course of the fourteenth century; but in +the greater number of cases the work dragged slowly on, and reached +its end some two centuries after its inauguration. Reconstructive +undertakings were constantly impeded by wars or social convulsions, +which either hampered or entirely cut off the resources of bishops and +architects, their promoters. Such interruptions were of great service +to modern archæological study, offering as they do distinct evidence +of the various transformations which were successively accomplished +from the so-called Romanesque period to the Gothic. + + [Illustration: 49. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. APSE] + + [Illustration: 50. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. NORTH FRONT] + + [Illustration: 51. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. TRANSVERSE SECTION] + + [Illustration: 52. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. ROSE WINDOW OF NORTH TRANSEPT] + +The majority of these great buildings, which show traces of the +vicissitudes through which they passed, bear a strong likeness to +each other, and vary only in detail, according to the skill of their +constructors. + +The peculiar interest of Chartres centres in its remarkable statuary; +it has, however, other features which command attention, such as +the rose window of the north, transept and the design of the flying +buttresses. These consist of three arches, one above the other, the +two lower ones being connected by colonnettes, radiating from a +centre, so that the lower arch is related to the upper, as the nave of +a wheel is to the felloes, the colonnettes forming the spokes. + +At Mans the arrangement of the choir is so far more remarkable in that +it is extremely unusual, or indeed, in its way unique. The flying +buttresses are planned in the form of a Y (see A on the plan Fig. 53), +thus affording space for windows in the exterior wall, to light the +vast circular ambulatory, which at Mans is of unusual importance, and +surrounds the choir with a double aisle. The flying buttresses which +rise above the _arcs-doubleaux_, bi-furcated (B on the plan), are +over-attenuated in section; their exaggerated height and proportionate +slenderness threaten to make them spring, so that it has been found +necessary to bind them together by ties and iron chains. Such +expedients are a sufficient criticism of the ingenious but precarious +system adopted by the architects of Mans. + + [Illustration: 53. MANS CATHEDRAL. PLAN] + + [Illustration: 54. MANS CATHEDRAL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE APSE] + + [Illustration: 55. MANS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE CHOIR] + +The influence of the Ile-de-France in Normandy is manifest in the +arrangement of choirs and apsidal chapels in Norman cathedrals of +the thirteenth century. The Cathedral of Coutances, a monument +of the eleventh century, was rebuilt in the early years of the +thirteenth century under the impulse given by Northern France to the +architecture of the period. It is in the choir that we clearly trace +this influence, in the double columns of the apse, and the ingenious +disposition of its collateral vaults. But the façade is purely Norman, +not merely in general design, but in the details of the composition, +facsimiles of which may be found in England. + + [Illustration: 56. COUTANCES CATHEDRAL. NORTH TOWER] + +The Cathedral of Dol in Brittany, one of the great churches of the +thirteenth century, seems to have escaped the influences of the +Northern innovation. Its general plan, its square apse lighted by +large windows, the details of its architecture and ornamentation, +all proclaim its affinity to the great churches which rose +contemporaneously with it on either side of the Channel, in Normandy, +and in England. It is very probable that it was built by the same +architects or their immediate disciples, working on the more ancient +methods of the Norman schools founded by Lanfranc at Canterbury +towards the close of the eleventh century, on the model of those he +had established in France at the famous Abbaye du Bec. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + + CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES OF THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES + + +The Cathedrals of Rheims, Amiens, and Beauvais excited extraordinary +enthusiasm in their time, not only in the provinces of France, but +among neighbouring nations, notably in England, Belgium, Germany, +Sweden, Spain, and Italy. + +This enthusiasm was less fervid in the provinces farthest from +the royal domain; but even in these outlying districts several +remarkable buildings rose in the first half of the thirteenth century, +constructed on the new lines. + +In 1233 the Cathedral of Bazas was begun, and, unlike the majority of +such undertakings, was carried through and finished in a comparatively +short time. + + [Illustration: 57. RODEZ CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT] + + [Illustration: 58. BORDEAUX CATHEDRAL. CHOIR AND NORTH FRONT] + + [Illustration: 59. LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT] + +The Cathedral of Bayonne, a contemporary building, shared the fate +of Meaux, Troyes, and Auxerre. It was completed, with one tower +only, in the sixteenth century. In 1248 the foundations of Clermont +Cathedral were laid. The plan provided for six or seven towers, but +the choir was the only portion finished in the thirteenth century. The +transept and four towers, together with a portion of the nave, were +completed in the following century, and the work was then abandoned +until the reign of Napoleon III., who caused it to be again taken +up. The Cathedral of Limoges was begun in 1273, under the direct +inspiration of Notre Dame at Amiens. Down to our own times it has had +to content itself with a choir, a transept, and the suggestions of a +nave, the last of which has lately been completed. At Rodez a greater +perseverance was shown, and the work went steadily on from 1277 until +the Renascence, at which period, however, the two western towers were +left unfinished, notwithstanding a contemporary description of their +magnificence, which, in a truly Gascon vein, compares them to the +Egyptian pyramids, among other world-renowned marvels. + +"In 1272 Toulouse and Narbonne entered the lists against Amiens, +imitating its plan, and proposing to at least equal it in dimensions. +Neither of these undertakings proved happy. Archbishop Maurice of +Narbonne died the same year the works were begun; his successors took +but a lukewarm interest in their progress. In 1320 the sea retreated, +leaving the port on which the wealth of the inhabitants mainly +depended high and dry. Fortunately the choir with its noble vault 130 +feet high was already completed, but the transept walls were left to +fall into ruins. At Toulouse Bishop Bertrand de l'Isle-Jourdain lived +just long enough to carry the work above the triforium of the choir; +it was then abandoned till the fifteenth century. His successors +squandered the revenues of their vast diocese so shamelessly in +pleasures and display that Popes Boniface VIII. and John XXII., +scandalised at their disorders, dismembered their territory and +subdivided it into four bishoprics, granting to the Bishop of Toulouse +the title of archbishop by way of compensation. But this compensation +was of small avail to future zealous prelates for the carrying out of +Bertrand's projects, and the choir of Toulouse was never finished. +It falls short of its predestined height of 130 feet by 90, and the +transept was not even begun. + +"The Cathedrals of Lyons, of St. Maurice at Vienne, and of St. +Étienne at Toul have affinities more or less direct with the great +architectural movement. At Bordeaux the building of a great cathedral +was contemplated at the time of the English occupation; but the choir +would never have been finished but for the liberality of King Edward +I. and of Pope Clement V., who had formerly been archbishop of the +town."[11] + +[11] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_; Paris +Hachette and Co., 1884. + +The great cathedrals constructed in England in the thirteenth century +bear witness to the expansion of French art on the lines already laid +down in the preceding century by the teaching and achievements of the +Norman monkish architects who had followed William the Conqueror to +Great Britain.[12] + +[12] This is a very summary way of dismissing the vexed question of +French influence upon English architecture. The undeniable fact that +wherever a French architect can be identified as the author of an +English building--William of Sens at Canterbury, for instance--the +work he did differs entirely in character from contemporary English +work is enough to refute much of the claim made for France. The +principles of Gothic architecture were the common property of the two +countries, and by each were developed according to their lights.--ED. + +English builders assimilated the constructive principles of the +architects of Anjou and of the Ile-de-France. In the numerous +cathedrals they raised from the thirteenth to the close of the +fifteenth century it is easy to trace the original characteristics of +French art throughout all the transformations or adaptations by which +its methods were modified in accordance with British usages and ideas. + +This influence is very apparent in the Cathedrals of York, Ely, +Wells, Salisbury, and Canterbury, the last of which was constructed +from the plans of an architect or master-mason, known as William of +Sens; in that of Lichfield, where the spires of the façade recall +those of Coutances in Normandy, and above all, at Lincoln, one of +the most beautiful of English cathedrals. Here we have perhaps the +most strongly-marked instance of the steady and continuous filiation +between the buildings of France and England during the so-called +Gothic period. It is quite possible that they were the work of the +same architects, as they certainly were carried out by pupils or +disciples of the same master-builders.[13] + +[13] It is difficult to believe that Mons. Corroyer is in earnest +in comparing the spires of Lichfield to those of Coutances, or the +central tower of Lincoln to that of the same French cathedral. Mons. +Corroyer appears to be unacquainted with the line of filiation between +English spires and towers, and so looks, as a matter of course, for a +French mother to such as strike his fancy.--ED. + +Lincoln Cathedral, founded in the eleventh century, and finished in +1092, shared the fate of so many other timber-roofed buildings of +the period. The greater part of it was destroyed by fire in 1124. +It was rebuilt and enlarged by St. Hugh in accordance with the new +ideas he had brought with him from France, a very natural consequence +of his supervision, when we take into account that as mandatory of +Pope Gregory VII. he had been Bishop of Grenoble. The church was +again partly destroyed by an earthquake in 1185. It was then rebuilt, +enlarged, and completed by Bishop Grossetête, an Englishman by birth, +who had, however, been educated and brought up in France in the early +part of the thirteenth century, and had carried over with him to his +native land the essence of the grand and noble inspirations which +marked that marvellous era. + + [Illustration: 60. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. PLAN] + + [Illustration: 61. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT] + +The lantern-tower at the intersection of the western transept, +which had fallen in 1235, was either rebuilt or finished by Bishop +Grossetête about 1240. In its general outline and in detail it recalls +the great lantern-tower of Coutances in Normandy, which seems also to +have served as model for that of St. Ouen at Rouen in the fourteenth +century. + +The vast and magnificent Cathedral of Lincoln is an admirable subject +for comparative study. Its architecture combines most strikingly the +characteristics of the two nations. It blends in one harmonious whole +the massive solidity of English structure overlaid with detail, formed +by lines vertical, rigid, dry, and hard as iron, and the mingled +grace and strength of French architecture, which may fitly be compared +with gold, in its union of the supple and the durable, of solidity +and power of resistance equal to those of the less precious metal, +with an adaptability to artistic ends far greater. + + [Illustration: 62. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. TRANSEPT] + + [Illustration: 63. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. APSE AND CHAPTER-HOUSE] + +In the façade and the west towers English characteristics predominate, +but the choir and the apse are French in composition, and most +probably in execution, as is also the presbytery, in which both the +arrangement and the details of the bays recall those of the lateral +façades of Bourges.[14] All three are veritable masterpieces, worthy +of the most brilliant period of French mediæval architecture. + +[14] Here Mons. Corroyer directly traverses the opinion of +Viollet-le-duc, who could see no ground whatever for ascribing a +French origin to the choir of Lincoln. Indeed, the conception of that +choir, and nearly all its details, are not only unlike, they are +opposed to those of French contemporary examples. Here are the words +of the great French architect: "After the most careful examination I +cannot find, in any part of the Cathedral of Lincoln, neither in the +general design, nor in any part of the system of architecture adopted, +nor in the details of ornament, any trace of the French school of +the twelfth century (the lay school, from 1170 to 1220), so plainly +characteristic of the Cathedrals of Paris, Noyon, Senlis, Chartres, +Sens, and even Rouen.... The construction is English, the profiles of +the mouldings are English, the ornaments are English, the execution of +the work belongs to the English school of workmen of the beginning of +the thirteenth century."--_Gentleman's Magazine_ for May 1861--Letter +to "Sylvanus Urban." The date of Lincoln choir is known. It belongs to +the last years of the twelfth century, and so anticipates such French +work as can show analogies with it, Le Mans, for instance, where the +work in question dates from 1210-1220.--ED. + +In Belgium French influence manifested itself so early as the first +half of the thirteenth century in the building of the remarkable +Church of Ste. Gudule at Brussels. Up to this period the methods +of the Rhenish schools had obtained in the Low Countries, and the +setting aside of these methods in favour of the new system of France +is significant of the high repute of the latter throughout Western +Europe. Further evidence to this effect is to be found in the great +churches of Ghent, Tongres, Louvain, and Bruges among others, which +were either built between 1235 and 1300, or at any rate begun during +this period, to be completed in the fourteenth century and even later. + + [Illustration: 64. BRUSSELS CATHEDRAL (STE. GUDULE). WEST FRONT] + +Ste. Gudule at Brussels was begun about 1226; but only the choir +and the transept were finished by 1275. The nave was built in the +fourteenth century, together with the towers of the west front, which, +however, were not finally completed till the following century, or +perhaps the sixteenth. Several chapels, the windows of which are +filled with magnificent painted glass, date from the same period as +these towers. + +French influence is no less patent at Cologne, which is undoubtedly +the daughter of Amiens. The opinion of a German writer is of special +interest on this point. + + [Illustration: 65. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. SOUTH FRONT] + +"The famous Cathedral of Cologne, one of the masterpieces of the +German School, is a direct emanation from French tradition. The choir +is a replica of that of Amiens; it was dedicated in 1322, after which +the work of nave and transepts was carried on continuously; the nave +measures 43 feet in width, and 140 in height; the total length of +the church is 503 feet. The two towers of the west front have been +completed in our own times--from the original designs, it is said. +The general effect, whether of interior or exterior, is certainly not +equal to that of the finest French cathedrals, but the style is rich +and pure, and touches perfection in the treatment of details."[15] + +[15] W. Lübke, _Essai d'Histoire de l'Art_. + +In Scandinavian countries French art, which had already manifested +itself at Ripen in Jutland during the so-called Romanesque period, +gives us a fresh instance of its expansive power in an important +Swedish building which dates from the end of the thirteenth century. +The Cathedral of Upsala has this peculiarity, that it was designed and +even begun by a French architect, one Estienne de Bonneuil, who, on +30th August 1287, received the royal authority to betake himself to +Upsala to construct the cathedral.[16] + +[16] Charles Lucas, _Les Architectes français à l'Étranger_ (from the +journal, _L'Architecture_). + +In Spain the chief monuments of thirteenth-century Gothic architecture +which betray the influence of France are the great five-aisled Church +of Toledo, the cathedral at Badajoz, and the front of St. Mark's +at Seville. French influence again is manifest in the cathedrals +of Léon, of Palencia, of Oviedo, of Pampeluna, of Valencia, and of +Barcelona, founded at the end of the thirteenth century and continued +in the fourteenth, as well as in the churches of Torquemado, Bilbao, +Bellaguer, Monresa, and Guadalupe, all dating partly from the +fourteenth century. + +The Cathedral of Burgos, begun in the first half of the thirteenth +century, shows a striking analogy with French buildings of about the +same period in the plan and construction of its flying buttresses +and windows as well as in the decorative sculpture of its portals. +The lower stories of the west front seem to date from the fourteenth +century, but the openwork spires which crown it were not finished +until the fifteenth. In this curious building we find elements taken +from France, mingled with decorative passages of pure Italian, and +with others characteristically Spanish in their use of motives only to +be explained by the vitality of the Saracenic traditions. + + [Illustration: 66. BURGOS CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT] + +Innumerable churches were built in Italy during the so-called Gothic +period, principally towards its conclusion. Not to speak of the +famous Cathedrals of Milan and Florence, nor of S. Anthony, nor of +the Cathedral of Padua, the Cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto seem +especially to lean away from antique and Lombard traditions towards +those of France, a characteristic especially notable in the decorative +details of their west fronts, which recall in many ways the work of +French architects during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. + + [Illustration: 67. CATHEDRAL OR DUOMO OF SIENA. WEST FRONT] + + [Illustration: 68. CHURCH OF ST. FRANCIS AT ASSISI. APSE AND CLOISTERS] + +It is the opinion of some archæologists that the true parent of +the Cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto was the Church of St. Francis +at Assisi, which is not far distant. Now St. Francis of Assisi is +undeniably French in origin. This church, which was founded in 1228 +to receive the remains of St. Francis who died in 1226, was possibly +completed as to the lower structure in the thirteenth century; but it +is improbable, to say the least, that this completion should have been +the work of a German, for at this period Gothic architecture was still +in embryo in Germany, while in France it had reached its most glorious +development. The upper church seems to be later in date by a century; +we may clearly trace its affinities with French art in the system of +construction, which has all the characteristics peculiar to that which +prevailed in the south of France at the close of the thirteenth and +the beginning of the fourteenth century. Of this system the Church +of Albi is the most finished type.[17] Assisi, in its single aisle, +in its buttresses, both as to their interior projections and their +exterior half-turreted forms, shows a complete analogy with the French +Albigeois church. + +[17] See chap. ix. "Albi," etc. + + + + + CHAPTER IX + + CHURCHES OF THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES IN FRANCE AND IN + THE EAST + + +"The thirteenth century was so prolific in religious architecture as +to leave little scope to those which followed. But even had the growth +of great religious monuments been less rapid at this period, the wars +which convulsed France in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries would +have paralysed such undertakings as the building of great cathedral +churches. The religious buildings actually completed in the fourteenth +century are rare; still rarer are those which date from the fifteenth. +In those stormy days enterprise was confined to the completion of +unfinished churches, and the modification, restoration, or enlargement +of twelfth and thirteenth century buildings. It was not until the +close of the fifteenth and opening of the sixteenth century, when +France was beginning to recover its former power, that a fresh impulse +was given to religious architecture; even then, however, the Gothic +tradition persisted, though in a corrupt and bastard form. Many of the +great cathedrals were finished, and a number of small churches, which +had been destroyed during the wars, or had fallen into decay through +long neglect, consequent on the poverty of the community, were either +rebuilt or restored. The movement was, however, presently arrested +by the Reformation, when war, fire, and pillage again destroyed or +mutilated most of the newly completed religious buildings. The havoc +wrought by this last upheaval was in its nature irrevocable, for when +order once more reigned at the close of the sixteenth century, the +Renascence had swept away the last traces of the national art; and +though superficially the system of construction which prevailed in +French churches of the thirteenth century still obtained, the genius +which had presided at their construction was extinct and its memory +despised."[18] + +[18] Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné de l'Architecture +française_, etc., vol. i. + + [Illustration: 69. CHURCH OF ST. OUEN AT ROUEN. CENTRAL TOWER AND + APSE, SOUTH FRONT] + +The Church of St. Ouen at Rouen, except for the west front and its +towers, which are modern, is a typical example of the rare religious +buildings constructed in the north of France during the fourteenth +century. The arrangement of these churches varies, inasmuch as, +while in general they follow the methods of construction adopted by +the Northern architects of the thirteenth century, their special +characteristic is a refinement or rather an attenuation of the piers, +less by actual reduction of their section than by a diminution of +their apparent bulk. This was effected by multiplying the clustered +shafts, the slenderness of which was still further exaggerated by +the prodigality of the mouldings, and the over-hollowness of their +profiles. These profiles and mouldings rise from the base to the +summit, and in the fourteenth century mark the spring of the arches +by rings of sculpture, crowned with rudimentary abaci. These latter +details were the last traces of a tradition which was to finally +disappear in the fifteenth century. Thenceforward the lines of +the intersecting arches of the vault, as of the longitudinal and +transverse arches, run down without interruption to the base of the +piers, where we find a complex faggot of mouldings crossing and +recrossing, and showing little beyond the technical dexterity of the +carver. + +The main preoccupation of the architects of this period seems to +have been the reduction of solid surfaces so as to give full play +to the soaring effect of their airy shafts and vaults. The walls +disappear, save below the windows, which now occupy the entire space +of each bay. The triangular divisions of the vault are concealed by +a serried network of supplementary ribs, for the most part useless +save as decorations. But it must in justice be remembered that to this +exaggeration of the window spaces we owe the growth of the beautiful +art of painting on glass. This art, the admirable fitness of which +for decorative purposes can hardly be over-estimated, had already +manifested itself in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In the +interval from that period to the Renascence it produced its grandest +masterpieces.[19] + +[19] See chap. xii. "Decorative Painting on Walls and Glass." + +It must be borne in mind that the great constructive and +reconstructive movement which had manifested itself throughout Western +Europe, and notably in the north of France, by great buildings, the +distinguishing characteristics of which are vaulted roofs and flying +buttresses, had made little progress in Southern France. The few +exceptions of importance are--Bazas, Bayonne, Auch, Toulouse, and +Narbonne. The Southern architects, as we have already stated, adhered +to the ancient tradition, whether influenced by impulses of reaction, +resistance, or defiance. Their conservatism is comprehensible +enough in view of the strong Gallo-Roman tendencies which governed +architectural activity throughout the district. The builders of the +thirteenth and fourteenth centuries did indeed accept the Angevin +intersecting arch, an invention the admirable simplicity of which was +its own recommendation. But this concession was without prejudice to +their broad principles. In the general arrangement of their religious +buildings they still adhered to Roman usage, and to such models +as the Basilica of Constantine and the tepidarium of the Baths of +Caracalla.[20] + +[20] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison Quantin, +chaps. iii. and vii. + +Towards the close of the thirteenth, and throughout the fourteenth +century, a large number of churches were built in the South, +consisting of a single wide and lofty aisle, vaulted on intersecting +arches, the thrusts of which were received by buttresses of great bulk +and prominence in the interior of the building, but very slightly +indicated on the exterior. The spaces between the massive interior +buttresses, on either side of the aisle, were occupied by a series of +chapels, supporting disconnected tribunes or a continuous corridor. +The two great churches of the Cordeliers and of the Jacobins at +Toulouse were built in the brick of the country in the second half +of the thirteenth century. These have two aisles, according to the +Dominican usage of the period, but the exterior arrangement is the +same as in the one-aisled churches. The Churches of St. Bertrand +at Comminges, and those of Lodève, Perpignan, Condom, Carcassonne, +Gaillac, Montpezat, Moissac, etc., were built in the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries on the single-aisled plan. That of Perpignan has +this peculiarity; its vaults, though supported on intersecting arches, +are built in accordance with Roman methods, which further prevail +both in the forms of the terra-cotta materials, and in the manner of +their application. The reins of the vault, which measures some 53 feet +across, are ornamented by terra-cotta jars embedded in an admirably +prepared lime mortar of great durability. The actual roof lies without +the support of any intervening structure of timber upon the extrados +of the vault. This consists of voussoirs of Roman brick, retained +by a layer of terra-cotta upon which the tiles, also of the antique +Roman form, are laid. This arrangement protects the vault from any +infiltration of water due to the rupture of the tiles, an absolutely +necessary precaution, if the former was to retain its stability. + + [Illustration: 70. ALBI CATHEDRAL. PLAN] + + [Illustration: 71. ALBI CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE] + +The Cathedral of Ste. Cécile at Albi is a monumental type of the +single-aisled system. It is one of the largest and most important of +Southern buildings constructed on the traditional principles of the +ancient Romans. The vast single aisle, some 60 feet wide, is built +entirely of brick, with the exception of the window tracery, the choir +screen, and the south porch. Here we may study constructive principles +no less simple than sagacious, combining all the necessary conditions +of stability. The points of support and abutments of the vault on +intersecting arches are all enclosed by the outer wall; they are thus +protected from the accidents of climate, and their durability is +almost indefinitely assured. + + [Illustration: 72. ALBI CATHEDRAL. APSE] + + [Illustration: 73. ALBI CATHEDRAL. DONJON TOWER AND SOUTH FRONT] + +The foundations of the cathedral, which was dedicated to St. Cecilia, +were laid in 1282, on the ruins of the ancient Church of Ste. Croix. +The main building was finished towards the close of the fourteenth +century, and the whole as it now stands was completed in the last +years of the fifteenth and early part of the sixteenth century, by +the addition of the baldacchino of the southern porch, or principal +entrance, of the stone rood loft, and choir screen, the stalls +of carved wood, and the fresco decorations which adorn the whole +building. This varied workmanship renders Albi one of the most +instructive of studies in connection with French decorative art, +the successive developments being marked by monumental examples of +the highest order, inspired or created by divers influences. The +architecture is of the Southern French type, as far as the main +building is concerned; in essentials, the same type prevails in the +magnificent porch known as the _baldaquin_, in the choir screen, +and in the rood loft; but in these later additions the inspiration +of Northern art at the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the +sixteenth century is also perceptible. The statuary and sculptured +ornaments of wood and stone are Flemish; the paintings indicate their +Italian origin by their crudity of colour and vulgarity of motive. + +The Cathedral of Albi has a special interest as being one of the most +curious examples of Southern Gothic architecture in the fourteenth +century. It has a further peculiarity, inasmuch as it was not only a +church, as it still is, but a fortress. Such a combination is readily +accounted for by a study of the epoch following on the fierce struggle +which ended in the extermination of the Albigenses, and of the social +and political events resulting therefrom. + +The interior is purely ecclesiastical, of the most beautiful type of +its time; the grandeur of its dimensions, its structural perfection, +and the magnificence of its decoration, are unsurpassed in their way. + +The exterior is that of a fortress. Its intention is proclaimed by the +buttresses rising from the glacis of the base to form, as it were, +flanking towers; by the arrangement of the bays, or rather curtains, +crowned by an embattled machicolated parapet, which unite these +towers, and by the grandiose military character of the architecture. +The formidable aspect of the building is much enhanced by the western +tower, in effect a donjon keep, completing the system of defence by +its connection with the fortifications of the archbishop's palace, +which in their turn are carried on to ramparts, crowning the +escarpments which, to the north, rise from the Tarn.[21] + +[21] See "Civil Architecture," Part IV. chap. ii. + +A few fortified churches still exist--such, for example, as Les Stes. +Maries (Bouches du Rhone), which dates from the thirteenth century. +Albi was not a solitary instance of this usage. The Churches of +Béziers, Narbonne, and many others of the thirteenth and fourteenth +century had been surrounded by defensive outworks rendered necessary +by religious strife. The buildings thus transformed into strongholds +served the further purpose of sheltering fugitive populations in times +of panic. + +One of the most interesting of such examples is the Church of +Esnandes, not far from Rochelle, on the creek of Aiguillon, a building +which dates from the twelfth century. It was fortified at the +beginning of the fifteenth century to resist the incursions of the +English. + + [Illustration: 74. CHURCH OF ESNANDES (CHARENTE INFÉRIEURE). A + FORTIFIED CHURCH OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY] + +As we have already remarked on the authority of a learned writer, +the buildings of the fifteenth century are less numerous than those +of the fourteenth. Those concerned in such undertakings were content +to finish churches begun at an earlier period, or to attempt their +reconstruction, frequently on plans which it was impossible to carry +out, so that many buildings were left incomplete. We may instance a +very famous monument, the Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The Romanesque +choir fell into ruins in 1421, during the Hundred Years' War. In 1452 +Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville undertook the reconstruction of the +church on a scale so considerable that the choir only was completed +during the first years of the sixteenth century.[22] This part of +the church shows the effect of the decadence of which there had been +indications so early as the close of the thirteenth century. Certain +of the arrangements are very ingenious, notably that of the triforium, +which rests on the reins of the lower vault, and forms, as seen from +outside, a series of small apses standing out from the main wall. But +the mason's work is negligent, especially in the flying buttresses, +which were so carefully treated by the architects of the thirteenth +century. The lines are attenuated by a multiplicity of mouldings to an +almost threadlike slenderness; the spring of the arches is undefined +by capitals, and the complicated network of the fenestration adds to +the wire-drawn effect, and further diminishes the proportions of the +building. There is little to admire but the extreme manual dexterity +of the carvers. The carving of the granite, the only stone used at +Mont St. Michel[23] save for the arcadings of the cloister, is very +remarkable, as is also the ornamental sculpture; this is executed +with extreme skill, in spite of the excess of detail with which it is +loaded. + +[22] _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et des ses Abords_, +by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877. + +[23] See Part II., "Monastic Architecture." + + [Illustration: 75. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE + CHOIR (LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY). FROM A DRAWING BY THE AUTHOR] + + [Illustration: 76. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN OF THE CHOIR ABOVE + THE LOWER CHAPEL] + + [Illustration: 77. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. DETAILS OF THE APSE + (LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY)] + +The decadence of Gothic architecture was manifest even at the close of +the thirteenth century in such _tours de force_ as the choir of St. +Peter at Beauvais, and the Church of St. Urbain at Troyes. During the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries buildings or parts of buildings +were constructed with remarkable skill, but the noble simplicity which +was the strength of thirteenth-century architecture was no more. By +the close of the fifteenth century a studied mannerism had taken +its place. The western doorway of Alençon Cathedral is a typical +example of this development, the defects of which were still further +accentuated in the following century. + + [Illustration: 78. ALENÇON CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)] + +"The qualities of the architecture of the decadence must be sought +not in the construction, but in the decoration of churches; here we +may freely admire the happy detail and patient execution which mark +the work of carvers and limners during the last two centuries of the +Middle Ages."[24] + +[24] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_; Paris, +1884. + +Gothic architecture put forth its expansive force at the close of the +twelfth and during the thirteenth century, not only throughout Western +Europe, but even in Eastern countries, where monuments still survive +of the highest interest to us as the work of monkish architects who +came from France in the wake of the first Crusaders. The modifications +and enlargements of famous buildings in the Holy Land towards the +close of the twelfth century show evident traces of their influence, +which is further manifested in certain structures of Rhodes and +Cyprus from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, in which Western +and more especially French types have served as models. + + [Illustration: 79. FAÇADE OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. SOPHIA AT NICOSIA + (ISLAND OF CYPRUS)] + +"It will hardly be disputed that the prolonged sojourn of the +Crusaders in the Levant, the teachings of their architects, and +the contemplation of their works, were considerable factors in the +development of Arab art. There was a reaction of the West upon the +East; sometimes indeed such a direct influence is perceptible as to +astound and perplex the observer. To understand the part played by the +Crusaders in the East, and to appreciate its Western and independent +character, we must cast a rapid glance at the monuments constructed by +them in Cyprus and Rhodes after their expulsion from Syria. We shall +find the movement which originated in the twelfth century progressing +throughout the following centuries on the same lines; in other words, +drawing a continuous inspiration from France.[25] + +[25] Melchior de Vogüé, _Les Églises de la Terre Sainte_. + +"The island of Cyprus was conquered in 1191 by Richard Cœur de +Lion; in the following year it was ceded to Guy de Lusignan, in whose +family it remained until the close of the fifteenth century. Catherine +Cornaro, the widow of the last of the Lusignans, gave it in 1489 to +the Venetians, who retained possession of it till its conquest by +the Turks in 1571. Throughout the thirteenth century Cyprus was a +refuge for successive remnants of the Christian colonies of Syria. +French predominance was at its height in the fourteenth century. +The religious monuments of this period are very numerous and of +great variety of structure. Art had emerged from the cloister, and +had ceased to be the monopoly of monastic bodies. In Cyprus we no +longer find that scholastic uniformity which characterises the Latin +churches of the Holy Land. The new blood of secularism had entered +into Romanesque architecture and led to a fresh development of the +art in Cyprus as in France Architects applied the thirteenth-century +methods, fully recognising their consequences. They sacrificed to +local exigencies by the substitution of flat roofs for timber ones, +but this modification in nowise affected the general arrangement of +their buildings. + + [Illustration: 80. CATHEDRAL OF ST. NICHOLAS AT FAMAGUSTA (ISLAND OF + CYPRUS). FAÇADE] + + [Illustration: 81. CATHEDRAL OF ST. NICHOLAS AT FAMAGUSTA (ISLAND OF + CYPRUS)] + + +"The most considerable monument of the thirteenth century is the +Cathedral of Nicosia, built between 1209 and 1228, and dedicated to +St. Sophia (see Fig. 79). This large three-aisled church has all the +characteristics of French cathedrals of the period."[26] + +[26] Melchior de Vogüé, _Les Églises de la Terre Sainte_. + +The Churches of St. Catherine and of the Armenians, the mosques +of Emerghié and of Arab Achmet also date from the close of the +thirteenth century. Among the more numerous buildings of the +fourteenth century the most noteworthy are the Cathedral of St. +Nicholas at Famagusta (Figs. 80 and 81), with its three portals +and two towers; the Church of St. Sophia at Famagusta (Fig. 82), +the Premonstrant Monastery of Lapaïs, remarkable for the beauty +and nobility of its abbatial buildings, which comprise a large +three-aisled chapel, and several religious buildings at Paphos and +at Limasol. At Rhodes there are a number of churches built in the +fifteenth century after French models, which had no less a vogue +for dwelling-houses than for religious and military architecture; +in a word, architecture--civil, religious, or military--was French +in all its manifestations. "The guns of the order still point from +the embrasures of the towers, Soliman's stone cannon balls strew +the neighbouring ground; sculptured on the house fronts are the +blazons, and in many cases the French names, of their bygone owners. +Involuntarily the mind travels back by the space of three centuries, +reincorporating these forgotten worthies, and repeopling their +dwelling-places. One half expects to see the emblazoned doors thrown +open, to give egress to knightly owners, mustering for the last time +under the banner of St. John."[27] + +[27] Melchior de Vogüé, _Les Églises de la Terre Sainte_. + + [Illustration: 82. RUINS OF THE CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA AT FAMAGUSTA + (ISLAND OF CYPRUS)] + + + + + CHAPTER X + + TOWERS AND STEEPLES--CHOIRS--CHAPELS + + +The first steeples were round, on the model of the Greek and Byzantine +cupolas, and modest in diameter, so that the bells they contained can +only have been small ones. These bells were suspended from the summit +of the tower, the portion of wall surrounding them being pierced by +arcaded openings, and crowned by a long pyramidal roof.[28] + +[28] _Encyclopédie de l'Architecture et de la Construction_, article +"Clocher," by Ed. Corroyer. + +Such towers were very frequently isolated from the body of the church. +A large number of Italian churches, dating from all periods of the +Middle Ages, have steeples at a considerable distance from the main +building. + +Force of habit determined the application of the round form to towers +of the twelfth century; but it is evident that a square plan was +preferred, even so early as the tenth century, and such a form was in +course of time rendered necessary by the development of the founder's +art, and the increase in the dimensions of bells at the beginning of +the twelfth century. Besides the great bells which proclaimed the +hour of prayer to a distant flock, small bells were in use to regulate +the religious exercises of the clergy. They are called in the Latin +texts _signum_, _schilla_, _nola_; in French _sin_, _esquielle_, +_eschelitte_; from the beginning of the tenth century they were placed +in the campaniles which crowned the domes. + +The Italian word _campanile_ has the force of the French terms _tour_, +_clocher_, _beffroi_ (or the English tower, steeple, belfry). But the +denomination _clocher_ has a general application to all pyramidal +structures rising above the roof of a church. + +The belfry was a tower, in most cases isolated, which contained the +bell destined to sound the curfew and tocsin, and to call the burghers +to civic assemblies. + +Like the belfry, the Italian campanile is generally an isolated +building, but it is usually placed in the near neighbourhood of a +church. Among the most famous _campanili_ are those of Florence--begun +in the fourteenth century, on the plans of Giotto,--of Padua, of +Ravenna, and the famous leaning tower of Pisa. + + [Illustration: 83. STEEPLE, VENDÔME (TWELFTH CENTURY)] + +In France the term campanile has a more general application, and is +given to the little pierced arcaded turrets which, in many churches, +crown the walls of the façade and shelter small bells. + + [Illustration: 84. GIOTTO'S TOWER AT FLORENCE] + +The most ancient belfries of the original provinces of France have +great analogies with Byzantine monuments as to form, even when +differing in detail. One of the most remarkable of these is the tower +of St. Front at Périgueux, which seems to date from the first years +of the eleventh century. It marked the sepulchre of the Saint, and +apparently embraced two bays of the original three-aisled Latin church +of the sixth century, evident traces of which have been discovered to +the west of the great domed building of later times. + +The tower of St. Front is composed of three square stories, +diminishing on plan as they rise, and crowned by a conical dome, +resting upon a circular colonnade, the columns of which vary in +height and diameter, and owe their origin to Roman examples in the +neighbourhood.[29] + +[29] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison Quantin, +1887. + +The influence of this remarkable building was very considerable. It +served as a model to architects of the neighbouring provinces. The +type was improved upon in the tower of the Abbey Church of Brantôme +by the avoidance of the false bearings which mar the structure of St. +Front, while at St. Léonard, near Limoges, a very original feature was +superadded in the octagonal form of the crown or roof. The Auvergnat +architects further perfected the construction by introducing internal +piers for the support of the recessed walls of the upper stories, as +at Puy.[30] + +[30] _Ibid._ 1888. + +It is worthy of note that, in spite of the importance given to +these buildings, the space allotted to the bells themselves was +comparatively limited, which seems to indicate that the towers were +destined for other purposes than the reception of bells. In the +eleventh century the tower bore the same relation to the cathedral or +abbey as did the donjon to the feudal castle. It was, in fact, the +symbol of power. As abbots and bishops enjoyed the same rights as the +nobles, it will be readily understood that the costliness of such +emblems would be governed solely by the resources of their authors. +The number of towers built at about the same period in connection with +cathedrals and abbeys, and the importance of such as were attached +even to simple parish churches may be explained if we consider +them mainly as denoting the status of an enfranchised commune. The +rivalries in connection with neighbouring towers undoubtedly had their +origin in conditions such as these. + + [Illustration: 85. BAYEUX CATHEDRAL. TOWERS OF THE WEST FRONT] + + [Illustration: 86. SENLIS CATHEDRAL. SOUTH TOWER OF WEST FRONT] + +Towards the close of the eleventh century and throughout the twelfth +many towers were built at an angle with the door, or in front of it, +so as to form a porch, as at St. Benoît-sur-Loire and Poissy; or above +it, as in the Churches of Ainay and of Moissac. + +Later on immense towers with spires were built at each angle of the +western façade, the gable of the nave rising between them. + +At the Abbey Church of Jumiéges a large projecting porch filled the +central bay of the ground story between the bases of the towers, but +more frequently the towers were in one plane with the chief porch, and +were themselves pierced with lateral porches, the three doors, with +their richly sculptured voussoirs, forming one vast decorative whole. + +The architects of the so-called Romanesque period built their towers +at the intersection of the transepts; but avoiding the constructive +audacities of the tower of St. Front, which was one of the most +generally accepted models of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, they +ensured the solidity of their central tower by placing the more or +less conical cupola which crowned the structure upon a square base, +carefully loaded and abutted at each angle. + +At the close of the twelfth century the architects of the +Ile-de-France adopted a square form for the body of the tower, and in +imitation of Oriental and Rhenish builders, reserved the octagonal +plan for the spire, ensuring the solidity of the angles by a variety +of ingenious combinations. + +The great central towers of the Norman churches built in England and +Normandy from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century were not always +merely belfries, as at Salisbury or Langrune, for instance; in many +cases they were lanterns, their functions being to light the centre +of the church and to form a magnificent decorative feature at the +intersection of transepts, nave, and choir in cruciform structures, +such as St. Georges, Bocherville, Coutances, etc. Of all the French +provinces Normandy clung most persistently to the lantern tower, and +that of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of the most interesting examples. + + [Illustration: 87. SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. STEEPLE] + + [Illustration: 88. CHURCH OF LANGRUNE (CALVADOS). STEEPLE] + +In other provinces, notably Picardy, Champagne, Burgundy, and the +Ile-de-France, lantern towers were superseded by timber _flèches_ +cased in lead, which rose at the intersection of the roofs of nave and +transepts. + +Among the most remarkable towers of the twelfth century in the +Northern provinces we may mention those of Tracy-le-Val (Oise), of +the Abbey Church of the Ste. Trinité at Vendôme, and of Bayeux; those +of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes at Caen; the old tower of the Cathedral of +Chartres, and that of St. Eusèbe at Auxerre. + +In the thirteenth century the height and decorative richness of these +structures had increased to an extraordinary degree. The tower of +Senlis (Fig. 86) is a most elegant example of the first years of a +century which witnessed the birth of so many marvels of architecture. + +In Burgundy several remarkable towers were built by the monks of +Cluny, who were free from the asceticism introduced by St. Bernard +among their brethren of Citeaux. The most notable of their structures +are perhaps the towers of the Church of St. Père, near Vézelay, built +about 1240. + +In the South various original developments in Gothic architecture were +logically brought about by a judicious use of the materials of the +country, such as brick. Most interesting examples of such development +are to be found in the tower of the Jacobin Church at Toulouse, which +dates from the close of the thirteenth century, and the donjon tower +of Albi, the characteristics of which we have already discussed. + + [Illustration: 89. CHURCH OF THE JACOBINS AT TOULOUSE. TOWER] + +Examples of isolated towers are hardly to be found of later date than +the thirteenth century. Bordeaux perhaps offers an exception. But +the general usage after this period was to include the towers in the +composition of the façade; their actual functions as belfries became +apparent only above the level of the vaults. A beautiful example of +this treatment may be studied in the noble composition of Notre Dame +de Paris. + +Its contemporary, the Cathedral of Laon, has four towers, terminating +in octagonal belfries, the angles of which are flanked by two-storied +openwork pinnacles; on the second of these stories are placed colossal +bulls, the effect of which is very striking. + +The towers of Rheims, which date from the second half of the +thirteenth century, are of secondary importance in the splendid +façade; but they are marked by a feature which was a novelty at +the time. The interior of the belfry is built with a cage to allow +free play to the bells, and space for the timbers by which they are +supported, while the exterior forms an octagonal tower flanked by +important pinnacles. + +Rheims may be said to mark in Gothic architecture the boundary which +separated its period of perfection from that of exaggeration and +mannerism. The mania for lightness and the desire to dazzle and +astound soon seduced its artists into a dangerous path which led +inevitably to decadence. Such effects first manifested themselves more +especially in the provinces of the German frontier, and the spire of +Strasburg, built in the fourteenth century, is a famous example of +these mistaken tendencies. + +Throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries towers adhered to +the plan and general arrangement adopted by the later architects of +the thirteenth century, diverging chiefly in the marvellous profusion +of detail and of sculpture, and in the excessive lightness of design. +The points of support were attenuated, and the mass of ornament +seemed designed to conceal them as far as possible. In France the +misfortunes of the times tended largely to perpetuate these dangerous +foibles; for a number of churches which were founded at the close of +the thirteenth century remained unfinished till the fifteenth and +sixteenth, when Gothic art was in full decadence. + + [Illustration: 90. CHURCH OF ST. PIERRE AT CAEN. TOWER] + +But we must not pass over unmentioned certain buildings famous for +boldness of construction and magnificence of decoration, if not for +purity of style. The following are perhaps the most important:--In +France the tower of St. Pierre at Caen, which shows strong traces +of that analogy, or family likeness, so to speak, uniting Norman +edifices; and the tower of St. Michel at Bordeaux, the spire of which +was destroyed by a hurricane in 1768, and has lately been restored +to its primitive height of 365 feet; in Austria the tower of St. +Stephen, one of the most important of such buildings in that country, +finished in 1433; the tower of the Cathedral of Freiburg-im-Breisgau +(grand-duchy of Baden), one of the most beautiful and important +examples. It was mainly constructed towards the close of the +fourteenth century, but the openwork spire was added about the middle +of the following century. + + [Illustration: 91. CHURCH OF ST. MICHEL AT BORDEAUX. TOWER] + +The Cathedral of Antwerp in Belgium was begun in the middle of the +fourteenth century; the nave and the four side aisles were not +completed till a century later. The façade is said to have been begun +in 1406 by a Boulognese master-mason, one Pierre Amel; but of the +two belfry towers only that on the north was completed in 1518. Its +principal merit lies in its boldness of construction and its unusual +height of 410 feet, rather than in purity of style or beauty of +detail, the latter being a conglomerate made up from every period of +Gothic. + + [Illustration: 92. CATHEDRAL OF FREIBURG-IM-BREISGAU (GRAND-DUCHY OF + BADEN). TOWER] + + +_Choirs._--In Christian churches the choir[31] proper was an +institution long before the chapels.[32] + +[31] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison Quantin, +1888. + +[32] _Encyclopédie de l'Architecture et de la Construction_, article +"Chœur-Chapelle," by Ed. Corroyer. + + [Illustration: 93. ANTWERP CATHEDRAL] + +At the extremity of the basilica, in the centre of the chalcidium or +transept which gave to the basilican plan the form of a T or Tau--a +figure venerated by the Christians as symbolising the Cross--were +placed the altar, the sanctuary, and the precincts occupied by the +deacons and sub-deacons. The altar stood in the midst, between the +hemicycle or apse and the nave arch. The hemicycle or apse which +formed the Pagan tribunal was by the Christians reserved for ordained +priests, hence its name, _presbyterium_. A semi-circular bench +(_consistorium_), interrupted in the middle by a seat higher than the +rest, on either side of which sat the inferior clergy, surrounded the +apse, the raised seat (_suggestus_) being the throne of the bishop or +his representative. + +This portion of the basilica underwent a later modification; from +the _presbyterium_ it became the _martyrium_, or shrine in which was +placed the body of the patron saint of the basilica or the relic to +which the devotion of the faithful was specially addressed. This usage +had been established even before the year 500 in the first basilica of +St. Martin at Tours. + +The primitive apse was lighted only from the nave or transept. After +its transformation into the _martyrium_ it was not only pierced with +windows, but, according to some authors, was provided with openings +along its base, or even arcaded, so as to give access to a low gallery +running round it. If this be so, the characteristic arrangement of +mediæval churches dates from the fifth century. + +In later times when it became customary to place the altar at the +back, against the wall of the apse, seats for the bishops, priests, +and choristers--_the choir_--were arranged between the altar and the +nave. In monastic churches, built after the Latin tradition, the choir +was generally in the crossing, or where there were no transepts, +in the nave itself. It was separated from the congregation by a low +enclosure of stone or marble. There are a few examples of churches +with _two_ choirs, one at the east, the other at the west. + +In the first churches of the Romanesque epoch the choir was confined +to the space between the piers of the crossing; it soon, however, made +considerable advances. In monastic churches the choir or sanctuary was +cut off from the surrounding spaces by barriers of stone or wood, and +towards the nave was closed by a _jubé_, or rood screen and loft, the +upper part of which was accessible to the monks for the reading of the +epistle and gospel. Bishops, on the other hand, being free from the +necessity of closing the choirs of their cathedrals, made a point of +providing their flocks with wide spaces, in which ceremonies could be +afforded a liberal development. + +At the end of the twelfth century and beginning of the thirteenth +these ideas governed the construction of important churches. Changes +continued to be made, however, and from the reign of St. Louis we find +the choirs of great cathedrals arranged on the exclusive principles +of the monastic churches. The arcades surrounding them were filled +with high stone walls, against the inner sides of which the stalls of +the clergy, with their lofty and richly carved wooden canopies, were +securely fixed. + +Among the more famous choirs we may quote those of Notre Dame de +Paris, of Amiens, of Beauvais, of Auch, of Lincoln, of Canterbury, of +Spires, of Worms, of Burgos, etc. In order to satisfy the laymen whose +view of the ceremonies performed in the choir was intercepted by +these enclosures, the sanctuary was surrounded by chapels contrived in +the wall of the apse, and in the side aisles of the nave. + + +_Chapels._--From the end of the tenth century, according to M. de +Caumont, we shall sometimes find aisles running entirely round the +choir or sanctuary and communicating with it by an arcade. Even at +this early period there must have been chapels in such aisles. In the +twelfth century the disposition to elongate the choirs of important +churches became general, and brought with it certain modifications of +the plan. The Church of Vignori, which dates from the tenth century, +has an apse divided into three chapels, recalling in its arrangement +that of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. + +The Church of St. Servan, built in the eleventh century, has five +chapels round the choir, and the Auvergnat churches--Notre Dame du +Port at Clermont, and St. Paul at Issoire among others,--which date +from the beginning of the twelfth century, also show in this respect +some interesting peculiarities. The importance given to the apse by +these rings of chapels can scarcely be too much insisted on. + +On plan these apsidal chapels are, for the most part, round-ended. +They are pierced with one or more round-headed windows, and have +segmental vaults. On the outside they are often ornamented by +mouldings, modillions, and even by variations in the colour of their +stones. Chapels between the buttresses of the nave are rare in several +aisled churches of the Romanesque period, but in many such buildings +they were added at a later time. + +The great revolution which took place in the art of building towards +the end of the twelfth century had, for one of its results, the +multiplication of chapels in the numerous great churches dating from +that epoch. The principle of that revolution being to replace the +inert masses which had previously resisted the various thrusts by +comparatively slender points of support upon which those thrusts could +be collected, stability being secured by a scientific calculation +of forces, it led, as a natural consequence, to a considerable +augmentation of disposable surfaces in the interior. These surfaces, +mere curtains between the points of support, were ornamented with +vast networks of stone, embracing panels of painted glass, on which +the principal events of the Old and New Testaments, and the scenes +so vividly outlined in the traditions of the time, were traced with +admirable art. Room was found for chapels of considerable size, not +only in the walls, or rather between the piers of the apse, but also +in those of the side aisles, the bounding walls of which were carried +out to the external faces of the buttresses receiving the thrust of +the main vault, which buttresses now formed the lateral walls of a +continuous line of chapels. + +The veneration paid to the relics of saints increased greatly after +the year 1000, in consequence of the pilgrimages to the Holy Land +which preceded the Crusades. Each religious community established a +patron, and demanded a special oratory dedicated to him, and it was a +point of honour to make such a shrine excel that of the neighbouring, +and, in most cases, rival corporation. The demand for these shrines +increased to such an extent at the close of the fourteenth and +throughout the fifteenth century that, though chapels were constructed +in all the available spaces of the vast cathedrals, they were found +insufficient, and sanctuaries, which in earlier times had been +the special property of particular bodies, were shared by several +confraternities. + +The Lady Chapel, or chapel dedicated to the Virgin, was generally in +the apse, and in the thirteenth century, especially at its close, had +been so considerably developed as to give great importance to the +portion of the apse allotted to it. Very curious examples of this +development are to be studied in the Cathedrals of Bourges, Amiens, +Meaux, and Rouen, among others. + +In many cathedrals and churches of the Middle Ages lateral chapels +or annexes were built to serve some subsidiary purpose; such were +chapter-houses, muniment rooms, treasuries, or even mortuaries, as +the presbytery of Lincoln, the circular chapel at Canterbury, known +as Becket's Crown, containing the tomb of Thomas à Becket, and Henry +VII.'s chapel at Westminster. + +A most interesting example of this species of structure dating from +the end of the twelfth century is to be seen at Soissons Cathedral; a +two-storied vaulted building is connected by openings with the upper +galleries of the round-ended south transept, and contains a funeral +chapel, with a vaulted chamber above for a treasury. + +In many countries small ancient buildings are to be found, known +as baptisteries or chapels; these latter are doubtless the little +rural churches which were built in great numbers in the first +centuries of the Christian era, and are designated _capella_ in texts +of the time of Charlemagne, or perhaps oratories, such as it was +customary to attach to the charnel-houses of towns or great religious +establishments.[33] + +[33] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison Quantin, +1888. + +The use of private chapels dates from the earliest days of +Christianity; great personages who had embraced the new faith followed +the example of the Romans who constructed private basilicas in their +palaces. The custom was perpetuated, and the splendid Palatine Chapel +of Aix is one of the most magnificent of its results. In later times +kings and great nobles built themselves sanctuaries within their +castles. In the time of Charles V. the Louvre owned an important +chapel; the feudal castles of Coucy and Pierrefonds, among others, +contained large chapels, the arrangement of which is very curious. +Archæologists cite as of special beauty among seignorial chapels +the ancient oratory of the Dukes of Bourbon at Moulins, the Chapels +of Chenonceaux, Chambord, and Chaumont, and the Chapel of Jacques +Cœur's _hôtel_ at Bourges. Many episcopal palaces have very +remarkable chapels, such as that of the archbishop's palace at Rheims. + +Refuges, hospitals, madhouses, and prisons also had chapels more or +less important. + +The term _Sainte Chapelle_[34] was applied in the Middle Ages to +buildings raised over spots sanctified by the martyrdom of a saint, or +destined to enshrine relics of peculiar holiness. The most famous was +the royal oratory, built by Pierre de Montereau between 1242 and 1248 +on the south side of the royal palace, now the _Palais de Justice_, +Paris, to receive the Crown of Thorns, the pieces of the true Cross, +and other relics brought by the royal founder, St. Louis, from the +Holy Land. + +[34] The plans and elevations of these chapels are so well known, and +have been so frequently published, that we abstain from reproducing +them in the present work. + +The distinguishing feature of the _Ste. Chapelle_ of Paris is its +division into two stories--the upper chapel, which communicated with +the royal apartments, and the lower chapel on the ground floor, which +may have been open to the public. Its construction is remarkable no +less for the happy boldness with which the whole of the spaces between +the buttresses were utilised for the introduction of immense painted +windows, than for the perfection of execution and the beauty of the +sculptures, and this in spite of the rapidity with which the work was +carried out. An annexe, which has now disappeared, adjoined the apse +on the north, and consisted of three stories serving as sacristies and +muniment rooms. The spire, a wooden structure cased in lead, dating +from the time of Charles VII., was destroyed by fire in 1630; it was +shortly restored, only to be again demolished at the close of the +eighteenth century, and was finally replaced by the architect Lassus, +who restored the building. + +The _Ste. Chapelle_ of St. Germain-en-Laye must have been built some +years before that of the royal palace of Paris. It is remarkable for +certain peculiarities of structure which show a greater architectural +skill; the piers which sustain the vault have a greater interior +projection; the formerets are disengaged from the wall, and the square +windows occupy the whole space between the buttresses, and rise to +close beneath the cornice. This most original and learned arrangement +gives the building a very graceful aspect, and brings out its elegant +proportions. + +The _Ste. Chapelle_ of Vincennes, begun by Charles VI., was not +completed until the reign of Henry II. In construction it is akin to +that of Paris. The two-storied annexes which formed the sacristies and +treasury were finished towards the close of the fifteenth century. + +After the example of kings and princes the great abbeys began to +raise important oratories independent of their conventual churches. +The Abbey of St. Martin des Champs at Paris founded two large chapels +about the middle of the thirteenth century,--one dedicated to the +Virgin, and the other to St. Michael. + +Pierre de Montereau was commissioned to build, in addition to the +_Ste. Chapelle_ of the palace, a chapel dedicated to the Virgin, +within the precincts of the Abbey of St. Germain des Prés; the plan +of the vaults differs here from that of the Ste. Chapelle of the +palace. According to a drawing by Alexander Lenoir, made before the +destruction of this chapel of the Virgin, the pointed arches comprised +two bays, in imitation of the vaults on intersecting arches in Notre +Dame of Paris, the origin of which we discussed in chapter vi. + +The Abbey of Châalis, near Senlis, founded by Louis the Fat in 1136, +which was one of the most important abbeys of the Cistercian order +in the thirteenth century, possessed an abbey church of five aisles, +over 330 feet long. Towards the middle of the thirteenth century +it nevertheless founded a _Ste. Chapelle_, known as the Chapelle +de l'Abbé. The building has undergone various vicissitudes, and +the ribbed vaults which date from the reign of St. Louis were once +decorated with frescoes, attributed to Primaticcio. The building +still exists, however, almost in its entirety. It illustrates the +considerable influence exercised by the Ste. Chapelle of Paris from +its very foundation on the great nobles, more especially the heads of +rich abbeys eager to parade their immense power and wealth. + + + + + CHAPTER XI + + SCULPTURE + + +In the Middle Ages all the arts were auxiliary to architecture. The +architect traced the details of his conception in the workshop, and +superintended the construction; he directed stone-carvers, masons, +sculptors, illuminators, painters, and glass-stainers, and laid his +_imprimatur_ on every branch of the work of which he was the creator. + +Thus the connection between the allied arts was very close. The +history of sculpture is that of architecture, for the diverse +influences which marked their origin and modifications were common to +both. Each reached its apogee in the brilliant manifestations of the +thirteenth century, and each followed the same path to decadence less +than two centuries later. + +Statuary and ornamental sculpture were inseparable, being executed by +the same artists in pursuance of the same idea: the study of nature. + +In obedience to the law of increasing development they abandoned the +hieratic forms imposed by religious tradition, but only to give a new +expression to these very traditions, which were still preserved and +venerated. + +Roman inspiration, and even direct imitation of Roman sculpture, +is clearly traceable in the first half of the thirteenth century. +Rheims, which may be accepted as the masterpiece, the last word, so to +speak, of Gothic architecture, illustrates this influence in certain +magnificent examples of the western porch. + + [Illustration: 94. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT. CENTRAL + PORCH] + + [Illustration: 95. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT] + + [Illustration: 96. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT] + +The architects of the thirteenth century were pre-eminently the +children of their generation. Ignoring their Latin descent they +followed in the paths of the innovators so far as monumental structure +was concerned; but they in their turn inaugurated a new departure +by abandoning the Byzantine convention in statuary and sculptured +ornament which had prevailed throughout the preceding century, in +favour of the more ancient Roman tradition. In this one respect they +made a salutary return upon those antique principles which they +afterwards definitively abandoned. + + [Illustration: 97. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF PRINCIPAL DOOR. + STATUE AND ORNAMENT] + + [Illustration: 98. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF PRINCIPAL DOOR. + STATUE AND ORNAMENT] + +The influence of Roman art upon French mediæval sculpture is +unquestionable. Its course may be traced through the relations +existing between North and South long before the Crusades, principally +by means of the great religious communities, and even more manifestly +in the countless monuments raised in Gaul on Roman models, or in those +constructed by Gallo-Romans for several centuries. Many of these +survived the incursions of the barbarians. + +The origin of ornamental sculpture is no less venerable. +Superficially, it would seem to have drawn its inspiration mainly from +the Romanesque epoch; but according to modern _savants_[35] its source +must be looked for in much remoter periods. Oriental art, imported +into Scandinavia, and there barbarised, was introduced into Ireland +in the early centuries of our era. The Irish monks, whose power was +very great, and who seem to have been the principal agents in the +Renascence of the days of Charlemagne, created, or at any rate greatly +influenced Carlovingian art by their manuscripts and miniatures. From +Carlovingian art that of the so-called Romanesque period was born, and +this was in its turn the parent of the ornamental sculpture of the +thirteenth century. In the admirably decorative character of this +art we recognise the influence of an ancient tradition handed on from +generation to generation, to be finally rejuvenated, invigorated, and +transformed as to detail by a close study of nature, precisely as had +happened in the allied development of statuary. + +[35] M. A. de Montaiglon, Professor at the _École des Chartes_. + +The architects of the Ile-de-France, like those of Rheims, +assimilated the principles of the new art with the supple skill which +characterised them, such assimilation bearing rich fruit at Notre Dame +de Paris in the sculptured figures of the west porch, and no less in +their accessory ornaments. + + [Illustration: 99. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. PRINCIPAL DOOR. RUNNING LEAF + PATTERN] + + [Illustration: 100. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. RUNNING LEAF PATTERN ON + ARCHIVOLTS OF NORTH DOOR] + +A most instructive comparative study is furnished by the north and +south porches of Chartres Cathedral. Here we find, in one building, +examples of sculptures inspired by the hieratic tradition of +Byzantium, and of those which had been transformed and naturalised by +a return to antique ideals. + + [Illustration: 101. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF THE NORTH PORCH] + +At Amiens again certain of the sculptures were influenced by the new +principles. But in the greater part there is a prodigality of motive +and looseness of execution which indicate decline no less surely than +the mistaken ingenuity of the structural details. + + [Illustration: 102. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF THE SOUTH PORCH] + +Mediæval sculpture followed the fortunes of architecture, both in +its rise and fall. In its first beginnings it was characterised by +a purity of style not unworthy of Rome in her most glorious days, +but rapidly losing touch with the antique ideal, it lost measure and +proportion in its development. The wise laws of simplicity, essential +to all greatness in art, were set aside in favour of an unruly +exuberance which ran riot in details, and was the immediate cause of +a decline perceptible even in the fourteenth century, and absolute +in the fifteenth. "Sculpture was at its zenith. We are astounded by +the activity and fertility of thirteenth-century artists, who peopled +façades and embrasures with figures from seven to ten feet in height, +and animated every tympanum with countless statuettes. The façade of +Notre Dame, by no means one of the richest, has sixty-eight colossal +statues, for the most part of the highest excellence; at Chartres and +at Amiens there are over a hundred to each porch. The famous figure of +Christ at Amiens is a masterpiece; bas-reliefs work out the details of +the main subject, and enrich the story with innumerable pictures of +amazing vigour and originality." + + [Illustration: 103. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. CENTRAL PORCH OF WEST FRONT] + + [Illustration: 104. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. STATUES IN THE SOUTH PORCH] + + [Illustration: 105. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. CHOIR STALLS. CARVED ORNAMENT] + +The favourite themes of the thirteenth century had something in +common with those of the Romanesque epoch, though there is a sensible +difference of treatment and considerable progress in composition, +which exhibited more of taste and learning and less of eccentricity. +But the satiric power and delight in caricature of our forefathers +still demanded an outlet. These found expression in many a caustic +gibe at clergy, princes, and rich burghers, and took substance in many +a quaint gargoyle. A luxuriant system of ornamentation, adapted from +the vegetable kingdom, was auxiliary to statuary. The main subject was +enframed by it, or relieved against it; while often the composition +itself was enriched by its introduction to complete the decorative +effect. Or such a system of decoration was the only sculpturesque +motive employed; it was then used with the utmost elaboration, and +developed at the expense of statuary. Such was the case in Burgundy +and Normandy, in which provinces the latter art was of slow growth. +The Byzantine character of the scrolls, carved bands, and fantastic +foliage of Romanesque art disappeared; ornament took on a new +independence, and began to seek its types among native plant forms. + +The carved leafage (Fig. 106) of the cloister arcades in the Abbey of +Mont St. Michel strikingly illustrate this departure. The very plants +which inspired the thirteenth-century sculptors still flourish at the +foot of the ancient abbey walls. + + [Illustration: 106. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CLOISTERS OF THE + THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CARVED ORNAMENT OF INTERIOR SPANDRILS] + + [Illustration: 107. WOODEN STATUETTE (HEIGHT 23⅝ IN.) THIRTEENTH + CENTURY. ATELIERS DE LA CHAISE DIEU, AUVERGNE] + + [Illustration: 108. IVORY STATUETTE (HEIGHT 9⅞ IN.) THIRTEENTH + CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS] + +Thus the flora of our own fields was applied in lithic form to the +elements of our church architecture. But the breadth proper to +architectural sculpture was still preserved by means of ingenious +combinations. + +It was not until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that the +imitation of natural forms became servile, tedious, and over-minute, +and that the beauty of the whole was sacrificed to exaggerated +faithfulness of detail.[36] + +[36] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_; Paris, +Hachette and Co., 1884. + + [Illustration: 108A. IVORY STATUETTE (HEIGHT 9½ IN.) FIFTEENTH + CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS] + +It should be noted that the decadence which manifested itself in +monumental sculpture was far less rapid in the more intimate art which +may be distinguished as _imagery_. In the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries all sculptors were _image-makers_; but towards the close of +the latter, and during the fifteenth, the term was specially applied +to carvers of images in wood, ivory, etc. Art still flourished in +their ateliers in all its beauty, notably that of the goldsmiths, +who carved images in high or low relief in precious metals, and who, +thanks to the severely paternal regulations of the _maîtrise_, were +enabled to bring French decorative art to the highest degree of +perfection. The beautiful carved wooden stalls of Amiens, Auch, and +Albi, to name but the most famous, testify to the vigorous talent of +the fourteenth and fifteenth-century image-carvers. + + [Illustration: 109. WOODEN STATUETTE (HEIGHT 10 IN.) FOURTEENTH + CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS] + + [Illustration: 110. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 6⅜ IN.) FOURTEENTH + CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS] + + [Illustration: 110A. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 2¾ IN.) FOURTEENTH + CENTURY. SCHOOL OF THE ILE-DE-FRANCE] + + [Illustration: 111. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 4¾ IN.) FOURTEENTH + CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS] + +Flemish _ateliers_, which were kept up by the severe rules of the +guilds, exercised a salutary influence upon the Burgundian craftsmen. +This is more especially true of the great workshops of Antwerp +and of Brussels, and perhaps also of those of Southern Germany. +Burgundian influences reacted in their turn upon the artists of the +Ile-de-France, notably in Paris (that brilliant centre of all artistic +activities in the fourteenth century), and stirred them to emulation. +The union of these various elements brought about the revival of the +fine tradition of the thirteenth century, and towards the close of +the fifteenth century paved the way for a French Renascence, which +heralded that more famous movement of the sixteenth, the credit of +which is usually given to the Italians, who, however, such was the +infatuation of the times, contributed rather to the debasement than to +the regeneration of French national art. + + [Illustration: 111A. IVORY PLAQUE (HEIGHT 6-11/16 IN.) COVER OF AN + EVANGELIUM. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF THE ILE-DE-FRANCE (SOISSONS)] + + [Illustration: 112. HEAD IN SILVER GILT REPOUSSÉ. HALF-LIFE SIZE. + THIRTEENTH CENTURY. ATELIERS OF THE GOLDSMITH'S GUILD OF PARIS] + + [Illustration: 113. GROUP CARVED IN WOOD (HEIGHT 10-1/4 IN.) FIFTEENTH + CENTURY. SCHOOL OF ANTWERP] + +The remarkable sculptures that owe their origin to the _ateliers_ of +Antwerp are distinguished by one of the quarterings of the civic arms, +a severed hand burnt in with a red-hot iron. Those of Brussels are +branded in like fashion. The images of wood, ivory, and _vermeil_, +that we figure as illustrating the art of the image-carvers from the +thirteenth to the fifteenth century, show that the old tradition was +still cherished in this community. Their artists were so far swayed +by iconographic convention that a certain hieratic sentiment is +perceptible in their works; but this is never allowed to outweigh +fitness of action and expression, and their masterpieces are so +instinct with taste and delicacy, composed with so much skill and +executed with such freedom, that they are the admiration of modern +artists.[37] + +[37] The statuettes, diptychs, etc., in wood, ivory, and _vermeil_, or +silver-gilt, figured from No. 107 to No. 115, belong to the author. + + [Illustration: 114. WOODEN STATUETTE, PAINTED AND GILDED (HEIGHT + 19-11/16 IN.) FIFTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF BRUSSELS] + + [Illustration: 115. WOODEN STATUETTE, PAINTED AND GILDED (HEIGHT + 19-11/16 IN.) SIXTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF MUNICH] + +These essentially French qualities they owe, primarily, of course, +to the genius of their creators, but in a scarcely inferior degree +to the fostering care of the _maîtrises_, institutions which only +require a certain modification by the progressive leaven of today, to +become models for the imitation of all whose function it is to develop +national art. + + + + + CHAPTER XII + + PAINTING + + +The origin of painting dates from remote antiquity, and the art had +already passed through many developments before it was applied by +Gothic architects to the decoration of their buildings. + +"In the thirteenth century the architectonic painting of the Middle +Ages reached its apogee in France. The painted windows, the vignettes +of manuscripts, and the mural decorations of this period all denote +a learned and finished art, and are marked by a singular harmony of +tones, and a corresponding harmony with architectural forms. It is +beyond question that this art was developed in the cloister, and was a +direct product of Græco-Byzantine teachings."[38] + +[38] Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné_, vol. vii. + +From the archæological point of view, however, it is important to bear +in mind the considerable influence exercised upon continental art by +the manuscripts and miniatures of Irish monks, so early as the reign +of Charlemagne. + + [Illustration: 116. PAINTINGS IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. HORIZONTAL + PROJECTION OF THE CUPOLA WITH FORESHORTENED FIGURES AND THEIR + ARCHITECTURAL FRAMEWORK] + +Towards the close of the twelfth century sculpture and painting alike +entered on a new phase, resulting from that process of architectural +evolution we have been considering. The hieratic tradition was set +aside for the direct teaching and inspiration of nature. But as the +mastery of the painter increased, the mural spaces available for +the application of his new methods diminished rapidly, till, by the +thirteenth century, the only wall surfaces left to him were those +beneath the windows, and some few triangular spaces in the vault, +where the interlacing network of arches became gradually closer and +closer. Finding themselves thus practically excluded from the new +Gothic buildings, the painters of the day turned their attention with +entire success to the decoration of ancient monuments by the new +naturalistic methods. The domes of great abbey churches such as St. +Front (Périgueux) offered immense bare surfaces, the concave forms +of which they utilised with extraordinary skill, adorning them with +compositions in which figure and ornament are so adroitly combined, +that they seem to be of normal proportions, in spite of their really +colossal size (Fig. 117). + + [Illustration: 117. PAINTING IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. FRAGMENT OF ONE OF + THE EIGHT SECTORS OF THE CUPOLA. THE PROPHET EZEKIEL] + +Thanks to a discovery of mural paintings made in the Cathedral of +Cahors in 1890, of the greatest archæological importance, we are able +to verify these statements. + +During the progress of certain works undertaken for the preservation +of the two domes, some paintings of great interest were laid bare on +the removal of several coats of whitewash from the western cupola. +Traces of similar decoration were found on the eastern cupola and its +pendentives, but these it was found impossible to preserve, the action +of the air causing them to peel at once from the surfaces. But the +western composition is intact, and though the brilliance of the colour +has no doubt suffered from time, we can still appreciate the learning, +vigour, and firmness of hand perceptible in the design, which is +outlined in black. + +This western cupola, which is ovoid, and some fifty-three feet in +diameter, like that of the east, is divided by its pictorial scheme +into eight sectors, separated by wide bands of boldly-designed fruits +and flowers. Fig. 116 gives an exact idea of the general arrangement. +Eight colossal figures of prophets, varying in height from fifteen to +sixteen feet approximately, form the chief motives of the decoration. +David, the prophet king, and the four great prophets: Daniel to +the left of David; then in order, Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Ezekiel on +the right, towards the choir of the church, and the three minor +prophets--Jonah, Esdras, and Habakkuk--are painted in modulated tones, +the dark outline forming a setting, on a background varying from tawny +to deep red. The figures are enframed in a firmly-drawn architectural +setting. This architecture is painted in gray against the masonry, +the courses of which are indicated by double lines of brown upon the +pale ochre of the general surface. Each prophet holds a phylactery +or banderole inscribed with his name in beautiful thirteenth-century +characters. + +The floriated bands which divide the sectors terminate above in a +circular frieze surrounding the crown of the cupola. The latter +represents a starry sky, the centre painted with the apotheosis of +St. Stephen, the patron of the cathedral. The frieze is painted +with scenes from the trial and stoning of the Saint; the life-size +figures are full of expression and grouped with great variety. In +these paintings there are evident leanings towards the naturalistic +evolution; and though the figures of the prophets are still hieratic +in certain respects, the poses, heads, and details all point to +evident research in the matter of physiognomy. This research is +carried very far in the figures of the circular frieze, where the +hands have evidently been carefully studied from nature. + + [Illustration: 118. PAINTINGS IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. FRAGMENT OF THE + CENTRAL FRIEZE OF THE CUPOLA] + +Technically speaking, these paintings are not frescoes. "The medium +employed seems to have been egg, the white and yolk mixed, and the +method very analogous to that of water-colour painting.... The red +tones were laid over a bed of deep orange, the effect being one of +extraordinary vigour and brilliance, taking into account the means at +command. The use of a prepared ground was systematic, and was resorted +to whenever intensity of the tones or colour effects was desired. +Evident efforts in the direction of modelling are noticeable, +though these have been neutralised to a great extent by a lack of +concentration in the lights, and if it were not for the thick outline +in which each figure is set, there would be much in common between +the methods of these paintings and those renderings of diffused light +affected by our modern _plein-airistes_. The general tone is that of +the simpler paintings of the thirteenth century, that is to say, of +those in which no gold was used. The effect is warm and brilliant, the +dominant hue orange, heightened by reds of various tints."[39] + +[39] From the technical notes of M. Gaïda. + +According to the archæological records derived from various works of +the historians of Le Quercy, these paintings in the west cupola of +Cahors were carried out under the direction of the Bishops Raymond de +Cornil, 1280-93, Sicard de Montaigu, 1294-1300, Raymond Panchelli,[40] +1300-1312, or Hugo Geraldi, 1312-16, the friend of Pope Clement V. and +of Philip IV. of France, who was burnt alive at Avignon, or perhaps +even of Guillaume de Labroa, 1316-24, whose residence was at Avignon, +and who governed the diocese of Cahors through a procurator. From this +period onwards there was no further question of decorative works, the +successors of these bishops being fully occupied in maintaining the +struggle against the English invaders. + +[40] Raymond Panchelli, or Raymond II., who in 1303 began to build the +Bridge of Valentré at Cahors. + +It seems reasonable therefore to infer that the Cahors paintings +date either from the end of the thirteenth century or the beginning +of the fourteenth. In any case, these decorations are of very great +artistic merit, and of the highest interest as an unique example of +French decorative art at the finest period of the thirteenth century, +when Gothic architecture had reached its apogee, and was producing +masterpieces which served as models for contemporary artists, and even +more notably, for those of the early fourteenth century. + +That vigilant guardian of our beautiful cathedrals and historic +monuments, the _Administration des Cultes_, has taken measures which +do it infinite honour in this matter. No attempt has been made to +restore the paintings, but all necessary steps have been taken to +ensure their preservation as they stand, so as to leave intact the +archæological value of these convincing witnesses to the genius of our +French mediæval painters. + +The mural spaces available for fresco decoration having been gradually +suppressed, and decorative painting limited to the illumination of +certain subordinate members of the structure, the mediæval artists +began to apply themselves to the decoration of the great screens of +glass which, with their sculptured framework of stone, now filled +the entire spaces between the piers. In this new art, or rather this +incarnation of the spirit of decoration under a new form, we find a +fresh illustration of that supple assimilative genius which already +distinguished the French artist. + + [Illustration: 119, 120. PAINTED WINDOWS OF THE EARLY TWELFTH CENTURY. + FROM ST. RÉMI AT RHEIMS[41]] + +[41] Drawings lent by M. Ed. Didron, painter upon glass. + +"It is in the nature of the material used, that painted windows +should greatly affect the character of the building they decorate. +If their treatment is injudicious, the intended architectural +effect may be greatly modified; if, on the other hand, they +are intelligently applied, they tend to bring out the beauty of +structural surroundings.... As is the case with all architectonic +painting, stained glass demands simplicity in composition, sobriety +in execution, and an avoidance of naturalistic imitation. It should +aim neither at illusion nor perspective. Its scheme of colour should +be frank, energetic, comprising few tints, yet producing a harmony +at once sumptuous and soothing, which should compel attention, but +seeks not to engross it to the detriment of the setting. Like a mural +mosaic, an Eastern carpet, or the enamelled goldsmith's work of the +twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a truly decorative window has no +affinities with a picture, a scene or landscape gazed at from an open +window, where the interest concentrates itself upon a particular +point, and where the illumination is not equally diffused throughout. +The fundamental law of decorative painting rests on a convention the +aim of which is the satisfaction of the eye, which finds its pleasure +to a far greater degree in the logical decoration of some structural +or useful object than in its realisation of natural phenomena. +Between painted windows and pictures a great gulf is fixed; and the +modern school, the heir of the Italian Renascence, seeking to bridge +it over, has seduced decorative art from the safe paths of sound +judgment."[42] + +[42] _Le Vitrail à l'Exposition de 1889_, by Ed. Didron; Paris, 1890. + +[Illustration: 121. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. CHURCH OF + BONLIEU (CREUSE)] + + [Illustration: 122. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CHARTRES + CATHEDRAL] + +The true functions of stained glass were never more admirably +understood than in the twelfth century. The artists of that day +had a perfect comprehension of those colour-harmonies, the subdued +splendour of which best accorded with the simple and vigorous forms +of Romanesque architecture. Upon his glass of various tints the +painter first outlined his figure or ornament in black. This outline +he supported with a flat half-tint which supplied a rough modelling +and allowed the forms expressed to make their fullest effect from a +distance. When, in the thirteenth century, the extreme austerity +of religious buildings began to relax, the splendour of the painted +windows increased proportionately; but the coloration, though it +increased in glow and vigour, still preserved its complete harmony +with its surroundings. An additional richness is perceptible in +work of the fourteenth century, at which period red glass began to +be used with a certain prodigality. The system of execution remains +unchanged so far; but the black outline is considerably attenuated, +and the half-tone which emphasises it loses much of its importance. +The figures, in place of the hieratic repose of an earlier period, +affect a certain grace and animation which herald a tendency towards +realistic imitation. These germs of naturalism soon bore fruit. At +the close of the fourteenth century the discovery of how to obtain +yellow from salts of silver, and the facility with which it could be +used to warm the grayer tones of glass by the help of the muffle, +caused a revolution in the art of glass-painting, and prepared the way +for polychromatic enamelling. This discovery, eminently useful when +discreetly applied, was to lead to regrettable exaggerations. + + [Illustration: 123. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. + CHARTRES CATHEDRAL] + + [Illustration: 124. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CHURCH + OF ST. GERMER, TROYES] + +In the fifteenth century the figures of saints were usually drawn +upon glass so tinted as to be of a soft white tone; the hair, beards, +head-dresses, jewels, trimmings, and embroideries were painted in +yellow. The figures stood out in bold relief against a background +of blue or red, and were divided by a damasked drapery of green or +purple. Vast architectural motives were introduced enframing the +figures and filling up the immense window spaces of the latest period +of mediæval art. The transformation was radical. It is of interest to +note that the final development of the Gothic style ought logically +to have brought about a recrudescence of vigour in the coloration +of stained glass; but the exact reverse was the case; and a marked +modification took place in the glowing effects won by a diversity of +strong tints. The sort of _camaïeu_ which was the result obliged the +painter to insist more strongly on the modelling of the figures, and +to give less importance to the black outline, which was eventually +suppressed altogether. + + [Illustration: 125. PAINTED WINDOWS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. CHURCH + OF ST. URBAIN AT TROYES] + +In the sixteenth century painted glass became to a certain extent +translucent pictures, in which architectural fitness was no longer +respected. Composition lost its simplicity. A subject spread from +panel to panel, regardless of the intervening tracery. Nevertheless, +we forget the defects of this luxuriant development, and cease to +wonder at its popularity, in view of that broad and vigorous execution +and beauty of colour which give it a special decorative value of its +own. + + [Illustration: 126. PAINTED GLASS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. HEAD OF + ST. PETER. CATHEDRAL OF CHÂLONS-SUR-MARNE] + +Enamelling is so closely allied to glass-painting as to claim a +word for itself. Here, again, the decorative art of the Middle Ages +was characteristically displayed, and though the process is more +specially applicable to the ornamentation of goldsmith's work than to +the decoration of large surfaces, it is one of the most brilliant and +exquisite of the auxiliary arts. + + [Illustration: 127. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. ÉVREUX + CATHEDRAL] + +The earliest enamels are _champlevé_ and _cloisonné_. By the +_champlevé_ process a hollow, the edges of which outlined the +figures or ornaments, was cut in the field or ground of metal for +the reception of the fusible enamel; for _cloisonné_, _cloisons_, or +slender walls of metal were fixed upon the field to separate flesh +from draperies, and one tint generally from another. The background, +the _cloisons_, and the flesh were gilt and burnished; details were +defined by engraved lines, so that the draperies only were enamelled. + + [Illustration: 128. ENAMEL OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. PLAQUE COVER OF A + MS. HEIGHT 4-3/4 IN., WIDTH 2-9/16 IN.] + +Fig. 128 reproduces an enamel of the close of the eleventh century, in +which these various characteristics may be studied. The inscriptions +on either side of the cross are formed by letters vertically +superposed, which read downwards. + +From the beginning of the thirteenth century enamels were executed by +the process known as _taille d'épargne_. By this method the ground +was cut out, as described above, for the reception of the various +ingredients which, after undergoing the process of firing, formed +the enamel; the draperies, hands, and feet of the figures which were +_épargnés_ (_spared_ or left) were modelled and chased in very low +relief; but the central figure, such as the Christ, and the heads of +the subordinate personages or attendant angels, were always in high +relief, vigorously modelled, and chased. + +Fig. 129, a plaque forming the cover of an evangelium, is a +characteristic example of this class of enamel. It dates from the +early thirteenth century, and is a production of the _ateliers_ +founded at Limoges by the monks of Solignac. + + [Illustration: 129. ENAMEL OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. PLAQUE COVER OF + AN EVANGELIUM. HEIGHT 7-2/16 IN., WIDTH 6-11/16 IN.] + +The reliquary figured No. 130 is also a work of the Limousin +enamellers. The methods employed are identical, but the carving of the +figures is less delicate, indeed almost rudimentary, the modelling +being replaced by hasty strokes of the graver. The lower panel of this +reliquary represents the martyrdom of Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of +Canterbury, the upper part his apotheosis. It is crowned by a ridge +roof of two sides. + + [Illustration: 130. ENAMEL OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. RELIQUARY SHRINE + OF ST. THOMAS À BECKET] + +As is well known, Thomas à Becket was canonised two years after his +tragic death, which had aroused general reprobation throughout +Christendom. The universal feeling expressed itself at Limoges by +the manufacture of a great number of reliquaries destined to receive +relics of the sainted martyr. + +In the details of the draperies and hands of those portions of +Fig. 129 which are carved in low relief, we may trace the germs of +those low-relief enamels known as translucent, or to be more exact, +transparent enamels. This process originated in Italy, and was +commonly employed in France, and even in Germany throughout the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, more especially the latter. +These enamels could only be executed on gold and silver. The method +consisted in modelling the design in very low relief on the face of +the plate, which was then covered with a transparent enamel of few +colours. The process was a slow and difficult one; the pieces were +consequently very costly, and the demand for them proportionately +restricted. + + [Illustration: 131. ENAMEL OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. OUR LADY OF + SORROWS] + +The enamellers of the sixteenth century, especially those who +flourished at its beginning, were evidently inspired by these +low-relief enamels to seek the same brilliant opalescence of effect +by more scientific and less costly methods. But the simplification of +the process degenerated into vulgarisation, and its original qualities +gradually faded out. Fig. 131, representing Our Lady of Sorrows, and +signed I. C. (Jehan Courteys or Courtois), gives some idea of the +design, at least, of the painted enamels executed by the Limousin +artists of the early sixteenth century. + +Gothic architecture, more especially in its religious manifestations +from the twelfth to the fifteenth century, made its prolific influence +felt, not only by the structural qualities of its vast and numerous +buildings, but by those various arts created, perfected, or at least +developed, for their decoration. We have traced a bare outline of +its activities, regretting that space fails us to make an exhaustive +study of their various manifestations. The priceless fragments which +illustrate these offshoots of an art essentially French are now the +chief ornaments not only of French, but of all European museums. +They take rank as factors of the first importance in art education, +pointing the way to fresh masterpieces of French genius. + + + + + PART II + + MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE + + + + + CHAPTER I + + MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE: ITS ORIGIN + + +The origin of monastic architecture is of no greater antiquity than +the fourth century of the Christian era. The hermits and anchorites of +the earliest period made their habitation in the caves and deserts of +the Thebaïd; their sole monument is the record of their virtues, which +have outlived any buildings they may have raised during their years +of solitude. But the first Christians who banded themselves together +under a common rule, and discarded anchoritism for the cenobitic life, +marked their worldly pilgrimage by monuments, traces of which are +still to be found in historic records or fragmentary remains. + +The history of abbey churches is identical with that of +cathedrals.[43] The architectural evolutions and transformations +which succeeded each other in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries +manifested themselves in both. Like the cathedrals, the abbey churches +were the creation of monkish architects, and were carried out either +under their immediate direction or that of their pupils. + +[43] See Part I., "Religious Architecture." + +But a kindred field of study offers itself in the abbeys themselves, +their organisation and adaptation to the domestic needs of their +be-frocked inmates. + + [Illustration: 132. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CLOISTER (THIRTEENTH + CENTURY. FROM A DRAWING BY ED. CORROYER)] + +Monastic institutions date from the Roman era. The first abbeys were +those established in France in the fourth century, by St. Hilary of +Poitiers and St. Martin of Tours. These religious associations or +corporations, which eventually became so powerful, by reason not only +of their numbers, but of the spirit which animated them, must be +reckoned as among the most beneficent forces of the Middle Ages. Even +from the philosophical side alone of the religious rule under which +they flourished, by virtue of which enlightened men wielded supreme +power, they were admirable institutions. + +To instance one among many, the so-called _Rule_ of St. Benedict +is in itself a monument, the basis of which is _discipline_, the +coping-stone _labour_. These are principles of undying excellence, for +they are the expression of eternal truths. And from them our modern +economists, who so justly exalt the system of co-operation, might even +in these latter days draw inspiration as useful and as fruitful as +that by which men were guided in the days of Benedict. + +Three great intellectual centres shed their light on the first +centuries of the Middle Ages. These were Lérins, Ireland, and Monte +Casino. Their most brilliant time was from the fourth century to +the reign of Charlemagne, by which period they may be said to have +prepared the way for successive evolutions of human knowledge, by +assiduous cultivation of the sciences and arts, more especially +architecture, in accordance with the immutable laws of development and +progress. + + +_Lérins._--St. Honoratus and his companions, when they landed in the +archipelago, built on the principal island a chapel surrounded by the +cells and buildings necessary for a confraternity. This took place +about 375-390 A.D. The members of the budding community were learned +monks, who had accepted the religious rule which had now become their +law. They instructed neophytes sent them from the mainland, and their +reputation grew so rapidly that Lérins soon took rank as a school of +theology, a seminary or nursery whence the mediæval church chose the +bishops and abbots best fitted to govern her. + +The school of Lérins was so esteemed for learning that it took +an active part in the great Pelagian controversy which agitated +Christendom at the time,[44] and zealously advocated the doctrines of +semi-pelagianism, but this tendency was finally subdued by St. Vincent +of Lérins, whose ideas were more orthodox. The theological teaching of +Lérins seems to have dominated, or at least to have directed religious +opinion in Gaul down to the sixth century. + +[44] _Pelagianism_ was the heresy of the monk Pelagius, who flourished +in the fourth century. He contested the doctrine of original sin, +as imputed to all mankind from the fall of Adam, and taught that +the grace of God is accorded to us in proportion to our merits. +_Semi-pelagianism_ taught that man may begin the work of his own +amelioration, but cannot complete it without Divine help. + + +_Ireland._--So early as the sixth century Ireland was the centre +of art and science in the West. The Irish monks had followed the +oriental tradition as modified by its passage through Scandinavia; +they exercised a considerable influence on continental art by their +manuscripts and illuminations, and prepared the way for the renascence +of the days of Charlemagne, to which such importance was given by the +monuments of the Romanesque movement. + +St. Columba was a monk of the seminary of Clonard in Ireland, +whence towards the close of the sixth century he passed over to +the continent, founding the Abbeys of Luxeuil and Fontaine, near +Besançon, and later that of Bobbio, in Italy, where he died in 615. +His principal work was the _Rule_ prescribed to the Irish monks who +had accompanied him, and those who took the vows of the monasteries he +had founded. In this famous work he did not merely enjoin that love of +God and of the brethren on which his _Rule_ is based; he demonstrated +the utility and beauty of his maxims, which he built upon Scriptural +precepts, and upon fundamental principles of morality. The school +of Luxeuil became one of the most famous of the seventh century, +and, like that of Lérins, the nursery of learned doctors and famous +prelates. + + +_Monte Casino._--In the sixth century St. Benedict preached +Christianity in the south of Italy, where, in spite of Imperial +edicts, Paganism still prevailed among the masses. He built a chapel +in honour of St. John the Baptist on the ruins of a temple of Apollo, +and afterwards founded a monastery to which he gave his _Rule_ in 529. +This was the cradle of the great Benedictine order. + +The number of St. Benedict's disciples grew apace. He had imposed on +them, together with the voluntary obedience and subordination which +constitute _discipline_, those prescriptions of his _Rule_, which +demanded the partition of time between prayer and work. He proceeded +to make a practical application of these principles at Monte Casino, +the buildings of which were raised by himself and his companions. +Barren lands were reclaimed and transformed into gardens for the +community; mills, bakehouses, and workshops for the manufacture of +all the necessaries of life were constructed in the abbey precincts, +with a view to rendering the confraternity self-supporting; auxiliary +buildings were reserved for the reception of the poor and of +travellers. These, however, were so disposed that strangers were kept +outside the main structure, which was reserved exclusively for the +religious body. + +The great merit of St. Benedict, apart from his philosophical +eminence, lies in his comprehension of the doctrine of labour. He was +perhaps the first to teach that useful and intelligent work is one +of the conditions, if not indeed the sole condition, of that moral +perfection to which his followers were taught to aspire. If he had no +further title to fame, this alone should ensure his immortality. + +"The apostles and first bishops were the natural guides of those who +were appointed to build the basilicas in which the faithful met for +worship. When at a later stage they carried the faith to distant +provinces of the empire, they alone were able to indicate or to mark +out with their own hands the lines on which buildings fitted for +the new worship should be raised.... St. Martin superintended the +construction of the oratory of one of the first Gallic monasteries +at Ligujé, and later of that of Marmoutier, near Tours, on the banks +of the Loire. In the reign of Childebert, St. Germain directed the +building of the Abbey of St. Vincent--afterwards re-named St. +Germain-des-Près--in Paris. St. Benedict soon added to his _Rule_ a +decree providing for the teaching and study of architecture, painting, +mosaic, sculpture, and all branches of art; and it became one of the +most important duties of abbots, priors, and deans to make designs for +the churches and auxiliary buildings of the communities they ruled. +From the early centuries of the Christian era down to the thirteenth +century, therefore, architecture was practised only by the clergy, and +came to be regarded as a sacred science. The most ancient plans now +extant--those of St. Gall and of Canterbury--were traced by the monks +Eigenhard and Edwin.... During the eleventh and twelfth centuries +there rose throughout Christendom admirable buildings due to the art +and industry of the monks, who, bringing to bear upon the work their +own researches, and the experience of past generations, received a +fresh stimulus to exertion in this age of universal regeneration, by +the enthusiasm with which their kings inspired them for the vast ruins +of the ninth century."[45] + +[45] Albert Lenoir, _L'Architecture Monastique_; Paris, 1856. + +From the earliest centuries of the Christian era communities both male +and female had been formed with the object of living together under +a religious rule; but it seems evident that the greater number of +monasteries owed their fame and wealth, if not their actual origin, +to the reputation of their relics. These attracted the multitude. +Pilgrimages became so frequent, and pilgrims so numerous, that it was +found necessary to build hospices, or night-refuges, in various towns +on their routes. A confraternity of the _Pilgrims of St. Michael_ was +formed in the beginning of the thirteenth century in Paris, where the +confraternity of _St. James of Pilgrims_ had already built its chapel +and hospital in the Rue St. Denis, near the city gate. + +From the seventh to the ninth century important abbeys flourished +in nearly all the provinces now comprised in modern France. Later, +under the immediate successors of Charlemagne, great monasteries were +founded in all the countries which made up his dominions. Charlemagne +himself had greatly contributed to the development of religious +institutions by his reliance on the bishops, and more especially the +monks who represented progress, supported his policy, and enforced +his civilising mission. But after his death the study of art and +science declined so rapidly that a radical reform became necessary in +the tenth century, a reform which seems to have had its birth in the +Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, established in Burgundy about the year 930. + +From this hasty sketch of monastic organisation some idea may be +gathered of the importance of religious institutions in the eleventh +and twelfth centuries, and of the immense services they had rendered +the State by diligent and useful toil, among the chief fruits of which +must be reckoned the revival of agriculture, and the development of +the sciences and arts, more especially architecture. + +Monastic architecture exercised a great and decisive influence upon +national art by its vast religious buildings, the precursors of our +great cathedrals. + +Until the middle of the twelfth century science, letters, art, +wealth, and above all, intelligence--in other words, omnipotence on +earth--were the monopoly of religious bodies. It is bare historic +justice to remember that the Middle Ages derived their chief title to +fame, and all their intellectual enlightenment, from the abbeys, and +that the great religious houses were in fact schools, the educational +influence of which was immense. It must be borne in mind that if the +great cathedrals of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were not +actually constructed by the monks, their architects were nevertheless +the pupils of monks, and that it was in the abbey schools, so +generously opened to all, that they imbibed the first principles of +the art they afterwards turned to such marvellous account. + +The study of architecture in particular was not merely theoretical. It +was demonstrated by the monks in their important monastic buildings, +the crowning point of which was the abbey church, a structure often +larger and more ornate than contemporary cathedrals. + +On the plan commonly adopted, the cloister, a spreading lawn adorned +with plants, adjoined the church on the north, and sometimes on the +south. An open arcade surrounded the cloister, by means of which +communication with all the necessary domestic offices was provided. +Of these the principal were: the refectory, generally a fine vaulted +hall, close to the kitchens; the _chapter-house_, a building attached +to the church, the upper story of which was the dormitory of the +monks; the vaulted cellars and granaries, above which were the +lodgings provided for strangers; the storerooms were connected with +stables, cattle-stalls, and various outdoor offices, often of great +extent. All these dependencies for the service of the community were +kept strictly separate one from another, thus all necessary measures +were taken to provide for the needs and duties of hospitality without +any disturbance of the religious routine. + +The abbeys of the Romanesque period were largely used as models in +their day. They were modified by lay architects or monkish builders +who, however, were careful to abate nothing of their perfection; they +partook of the developments which marked the middle of the thirteenth +century, and were subjected to that progressive transformation, the +great feature of which was the adoption of the Angevin intersecting +arch, the distinguishing characteristic of Gothic architecture. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + THE ABBEY OF CLUNY--CISTERCIAN ABBEYS + + +The Benedictines, the Cistercians, the Augustinians, the +Premonstrants, and notably the congregation of Cluny were all +energetic builders, and the vast and magnificent structures of their +creation were reckoned the most perfect achievements of their day. The +study of their buildings--the church, the dwelling-places of abbot and +monks, with all their dependencies--is most instructive. It fills us +with admiration for the learning and judgment of the monkish builders +who, accepting the limitations imposed by climate, locality, material, +the numbers of their inmates, and the resources of their order, turned +them all to account as elements of beauty and harmony. + +The architects of the first abbeys undoubtedly adopted the +constructive methods of the period, and built in the Latin, Roman, +or Gallo-Roman manner. The double gateway of the Abbey of Cluny, the +architect of which was probably Gauzon, sometime Abbot of Beaune, +who laid the foundations of the famous monastery, is an interesting +proof of this assertion. But monastic architecture underwent the same +modifications to which ecclesiastical architecture had been subjected +under those various influences which manifested themselves in the +glorious monuments built from the eleventh to the thirteenth century, +when Gothic architecture reached its apogee. + +The abbots of the many abbeys of various orders built throughout +this period were too enlightened to disregard the progress of their +contemporaries, and they promptly applied the new principles to the +construction or embellishment of their monasteries. + + [Illustration: 133. ABBEY OF CLUNY. GATEWAY] + +The Abbey of Cluny was founded in 909 by William, Duke of Aquitaine, +and declared independent by Pope John XI., who in 932 confirmed +the duke's charter. Its rapid development and growth in power is +sufficiently explained by the social and political circumstances of +its origin. At the beginning of the tenth century Norman invasions +and feudal excesses had destroyed the work of Charlemagne. Western +Christendom seemed to lapse into barbarism after the havoc made by +the Saracens and Northern pirates among towns and monasteries. Civil +society and religious institutions had alike fallen into the decay +born of a conflict of rights and a contempt of all authority. + +Cluny rapidly became a centre round which all the intelligence which +had escaped submersion in the chaos of the ninth century grouped +itself. Its school soon attained a distinction equal to that which +marked the first great seats of learning at the beginning of the +Middle Ages. Thanks to the _Rule_ of St. Benedict, on which the +Benedictines of Cluny had grounded their community, the abbey +developed greatly in extent and wealth. Throughout the eleventh and +twelfth centuries it seems to have been the prolific nursery-ground +whence Europe drew not only teachers for other monastic schools, +but specialists in every branch of science and of letters, notably +architects, who aided in the expansion of Cluny and its dependencies, +and further practically contributed to the construction of the +numerous abbeys founded by the Benedictines throughout Western Europe, +and even in the East, the cradle of Christianity. + +While this struggle of intelligence against ignorance was in progress, +a social revolution had accomplished itself by the enfranchisement of +the communes, a development of the utmost importance in its relation +to science, art, and material existence, in a word, to the whole +social system. + +Architecture, that faithful expression of the social state which had +its origin in Pagan civilisation, became Christianised by its culture +in the abbeys, and in its new development rose to that pre-eminence +the marvels of which we have already studied in the first part of this +work. But though the successes achieved by the architecture of this +period were rapid and dazzling, its decadence was profound, for it was +induced by too radical an emancipation from antique principles, the +superiority of which had been established in the first centuries of +the Middle Ages. + +The Abbey of Cluny soon became too small for the increasing number of +monks. St. Hugh undertook its reconstruction in the closing years of +the eleventh century, and the monk Gauzon of Cluny began the works in +1089 on a much more extensive plan, indeed on a scale so magnificent +that the church of the new abbey was esteemed the first in importance +among Western buildings of the kind. + +The plan (Fig. 134) shows the arrangement of the abbey at the close +of the eleventh century, when the monastic buildings had been +reconstructed some time previously. The ancient church was intact; the +choir had been begun in the time of St. Hugh, but the building had not +been consecrated till 1131. The chapel which precedes it on the west +was completed so late as 1228 by Roland I., twentieth abbot of Cluny. + + [Illustration: 134. ABBEY OF CLUNY. PLAN] + +At A on the plan stood the entrance, the Gallo-Roman gateway which +still exists. At B, in front of the church, a flight of steps led +up to a square platform, from which rose a stone cross; a flight of +broad steps gave access to the chapel entrance at C, an open space +between two square towers. The northern tower was built to receive the +archives; that on the south was known as the Tower of Justice. The +ante-church or narthex at D seems to have been set apart for strangers +and penitents, who were not allowed to enter the main building. Their +place of worship was distinct from the abbey church, just as their +lodging was separated from the buildings reserved for the brotherhood, +who were permitted no intercourse with the outer world. At E was the +door of the abbey church, which was only opened to admit some great +personage whose exceptional privilege it was to enter the sanctuary. + +At Cluny, as at Vézelay, one of the dependencies of Cluny, the +Galilee, which is found in all Benedictine abbeys, was built +with aisles and towers on the same scale as an ordinary church. +It communicated with the buildings set apart for guests over the +storehouses of the abbey to the west of the cloister at F on the +plan. From the Galilee access to the abbey church was obtained at +E, by means of a single doorway, which from descriptions seems to +have resembled the great door of the monastery church at Moissac in +arrangement and decoration. + + [Illustration: 135. ABBEY OF CLUNY. INTERIOR OF NARTHEX, WITH DOOR + LEADING INTO ABBEY CHURCH] + +The special characteristic of the Abbey Church of Cluny is its double +transept, an arrangement we shall find reproduced in the great abbey +churches of England, notably at Lincoln. According to a description +written in the last century, the Abbey Church of Cluny was 410 feet +long. It was built in the form of an archiepiscopal cross, and had +two transepts: the first nearly 200 feet long by 30 feet wide; the +second, 110 feet long and wider than the first. The basilica, 110 +feet in width, was divided into five aisles, with semi-circular +vaults supported on sixty-eight piers. Over three hundred narrow +round-headed windows, high up the wall, transmitted the dim light that +favours meditation. The high altar was placed immediately beyond the +second transept at G, and the retro-choir and altar at H. The choir, +which had two rood screens, occupied about a third of the nave. It +contained two hundred and twenty-five stalls for the monks, and in +the fifteenth century was hung with magnificent tapestries. A number +of altars dedicated to various saints were placed against the screens +and the piers of nave and side aisles. At a later period chapels were +constructed along the aisles and on the eastern sides of the two +transepts. + +Above the principal transept rose three towers roofed with slate; the +central, or lantern tower was known as the lamp tower, because from +the vaults of the crossing below it were suspended lamps, or coronas +of lights which were kept burning day and night over the high altar. + +To the south of the abbey, at F on the plan, was a great enclosure, +surrounded by a cloister, some vestiges of which still remain. K and +L mark the site of the abbatial buildings which were restored in the +fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; M and N the structures raised last +century over the primitive foundations. To the east lay the gardens +and the great fish-ponds which still exist, with portions of their +enclosures. Another surviving fragment is a building of the thirteenth +century, said to be the bakery, and marked O on the plan. + +The abbots who succeeded St. Hugh were unable to preserve the +primitive conditions of the foundation. The excessive luxury resulting +from over-prosperity brought about demoralisation, and by the end of +the eleventh century discord was rife at Cluny. + +Peter the Venerable, who was elected abbot in 1112, restored order +for a time, and established a chapter general, consisting of two +hundred priors and over twelve hundred other monks. In 1158, at the +time of Peter's death, these numbers had increased by more than four +hundred, and the order had founded monasteries in the Holy Land and at +Constantinople. + + +_The Abbey of Citeaux._--The reform of the Benedictine orders became +a pressing necessity, and St. Robert, Abbot of Solesmes, entered upon +the task about 1098. St. Bernard continued it, after having quitted +his abbey, with twenty-one monks of the order, to take refuge in +the forest of Citeaux, given him by Don Reynard, Vicomte of Beaune. +His main achievement was reorganisation of such a nature as to deal +effectually with the decay of primitive simplicity throughout the +order, which had completely lost touch with monastic sentiment. + +"Frequent intercourse with the outside world had demoralised the +monks, who attracted within their cloister walls crowds of sightseers, +guests, and pilgrims. The monasteries which, down to the eleventh +century, were either built in the towns, or had become centres of +population in consequence of the Norman and Saracen invasions, +retained their character of religious seclusion only for a certain +number of monks, who devoted themselves to intellectual labours. +Besides which, the brethren had become feudal lords, holding +jurisdiction side by side with the bishops, and St. Germain-des-Près, +St. Denis, St. Martin, Vendôme, and Moissac owned no over-lordships +but that of the Pope. Hence arose temporal cares, disputes, and even +armed conflicts, among them. The greed and vanity of the abbots at +least, if not of their monks, made itself felt even in religious +worship, and in the buildings consecrated thereto."[46] + +[46] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_. + +St. Bernard, in an address to the monks of his day, reproves their +degeneracy, and censures the exaggerated dimensions of the abbey +churches, the splendour of their ornamentation, and the luxury of +the abbots. O vanity of vanities! he exclaims, and folly great as +vanity! The Church is bedecked in her walls, but naked in her poor! +She overlays her stones with gold, and leaves her children without +raiment! The curious are given distractions, and the miserable lack +bread! It was to suppress such abuses that the Cistercian order was +founded by St. Robert and St. Bernard, and also to put an end to +the disputes arising from ecclesiastical jurisdiction by making the +new abbeys dependencies of the bishoprics. They were to be built in +solitary places, "and to nourish their inmates by agriculture. It +was forbidden to found them over the tombs of saints, for fear of +attracting pilgrims, who would bring worldly distractions in their +train. The buildings themselves were to be solid, and built of good +freestone, but without any sort of extraneous ornament; the only +towers allowed were small belfries, sometimes of stone, but more +usually of wood."[47] + +[47] _Ibid._ + +The Cistercian order was founded in 1119, and St. Robert imposed +the _Rule_ of St. Benedict in its primitive severity. To mark his +separation from the degenerate Benedictines, whose dress was black, he +gave his monks a brown habit. After determining their religious duties +he gave minute instructions as to the arrangement of the buildings. +The condition chiefly insisted upon was that the site of the monastery +should be of such extent and so ordered that the necessaries of life +could be provided within its precincts. Thus all causes of distraction +through communication with the outside world were removed. The +monasteries, whenever possible, were to be built beside a stream or +river; they were to contain, independently of the claustral buildings, +the church and the abbot's dwelling, which was outside the principal +enclosure, a mill, a bakehouse, and workshops for the manufacture of +all things requisite to the community, besides gardens for the use and +pleasure of the monks. + +The Abbey of Clairvaux was an embodiment of the reforms brought about +by St. Robert, and later by St. Bernard. The general arrangement and +the details of service were almost identical with those of Citeaux, +just as Citeaux itself had been modelled upon Cluny in all respects, +save that a severe observance of the primitive Benedictine rule +was insisted upon in the disposition of the later foundation. All +superfluities were proscribed, and the rules which enjoined absolute +seclusion as a means towards moral perfection were sternly enforced. + +The result is undoubtedly interesting as a religious revival; but we +may be permitted to regret that the intellectual impetus given to art +progress by the great Benedictine lords spiritual of Cluny should have +been checked by the frigid utilitarianism to which architecture--then +an epitome of all the arts--was reduced by the purists of Citeaux in +its application to the monasteries of the reform. + +The Cistercian monuments are not, however, wanting in interest. + +Of Clairvaux and Citeaux little remains but fragments embedded in +a mass of modern buildings, for the most part restorations of the +last century. As records these are less to be relied upon than the +historical and archæological documents which guided Viollet-le-Duc +in his graphic reconstruction of famous Cistercian abbeys, an essay +not to be bettered as a piece of lucid demonstration (see his +_Dictionary_, vol. i. pp. 263-271). + + + + + CHAPTER III + + ABBEYS AND CARTHUSIAN MONASTERIES + + +In the eleventh century a large number of monasteries had been built +throughout Western Europe by monks of various orders, in imitation +of the great monastic schools of Lérins, Ireland, and Monte Casino. +Among the famous abbeys of this period may be mentioned "Vézelay and +Fécamp, sometime convents for women, afterwards converted into abbeys +for men; St. Nicaise, at Rheims; Nogent-sous-Coucy, in Picardy; Anchin +and Annouain, in Artois; St. Étienne, at Caen; St. Pierre-sur-Dives, +Le Bec, Conches, Cerisy-la-Forêt,[48] and Lessay, in Normandy; La +Trinité, at Vendôme; Beaulieu, near Loches; Montierneuf, at Poitiers, +etc."[49] + +[48] _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer, chap. iii. part ii. + +[49] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_. + +The Abbeys of Fulda, in Hesse, and of Corvey, in Westphalia, the +latter founded by Benedictine monks from the Abbey of Corbie, in +Picardy, were in their day the chief centres of learning in Germany. + +In England St. Alban's Abbey, in Hertfordshire, was built in 1077 by a +disciple of Lanfranc, the illustrious abbot of the famous Abbey of Le +Bec, in Normandy. A large number of monasteries were founded later +on by various orders, notably the Benedictines--Croyland, Malmesbury, +Bury St. Edmund's, Peterborough, Salisbury, Wimborne, Wearmouth, +Westminster, etc., not to mention the abbeys and priories which had +existed in Ireland from the sixth century. + + [Illustration: 136. ABBEY OF ST. ÉTIENNE AT CAEN. FAÇADE] + +The mother abbey of Citeaux gave birth to four daughters--Clairvaux, +Pontigny, Morimond, and La Ferté. + +The importance of Clairvaux was much increased in the first years +of the twelfth century by the fame of her abbot, St. Bernard, that +most brilliant embodiment of mediæval monasticism. His influence was +immense, not alone in his character of reformer and founder of an +important order, but as a statesman whom fortune persistently favoured +in all enterprises tending to the increase of his great reputation. + +St. Bernard distinguished himself in the theological controversies +of his century at the Council of Sens in 1140, and in successful +polemical disputations with Abélard, the famous advocate of free will, +and other heterodox philosophers who heralded the Reformation of the +sixteenth century. Somewhat later he took an active part in promoting +the hapless second Crusade under Louis VII., and in 1147, a few years +before his death, he entered vigorously into the Manichæan controversy +as a strenuous opponent of the heresy which was then agitating the +public mind and preparing the way for the schism which, at the +beginning of the thirteenth century, brought about the terrible war of +the Albigenses, and steeped Southern France in blood. + +The monastic fame of St. Bernard was established not only by the +searching reforms he instituted at Clairvaux among the seceding monks +of Cluny and Solesmes, but by the success of the Cistercian colonies +he planted in Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Denmark, to the number of +seventy-two, according to his historians. + + [Illustration: 137. ST. ALBAN'S ABBEY (ENGLAND)] + + [Illustration: 138. ABBEY OF MONTMAJOUR (PROVENCE). CLOISTERS] + +During his lifetime the poor hermitage of the _Vallée d'Absinthe_ +(which name he changed to Claire-Vallée, Clairvaux) had become a vast +feudal settlement of many farms and holdings, rich enough to support +more than seven hundred monks. The monastery was surrounded by walls +more than half a league in extent, and the abbot's domicile had become +a seignorial mansion. As the fount of the order, and mother of all +the auxiliary houses, Clairvaux was supreme over a hundred and sixty +monasteries in France and abroad. Fifty years after the death of St. +Bernard the importance of the order had become colossal. During +the thirteenth century, and from that time onwards, the Cistercian +or Bernardine monks built immense abbeys, and decorated them with +royal magnificence. Their establishments contained churches equal in +dimension to the largest cathedrals of the period, abbatial dwellings +adorned with paintings, and boasting oratories which, as at Chaâlis, +were _Stes. Chapelles_ as splendid as that of St. Louis in Paris. The +very cellars held works of art in the shape of huge casks elaborately +carved. + + [Illustration: 139. CHURCH AT ELNE IN ROUSSILLON. CLOISTERS] + +Thus, by a strange recurrence of conditions, the settlements founded +on a basis of the most rigorous austerity by the ascetics who had +fled from the splendours of Solesmes and Cluny to the forest, became +in their turn vaster, richer, and more sumptuous than those the +magnificence of which they existed to rebuke. With this difference, +however: the ruin brought about by the luxury of the Cistercian +establishment was so complete that nothing of their innumerable +monasteries was spared by social revolution but a few archæologic +fragments and historic memories. + + [Illustration: 140. ABBEY OF FONTFROIDE (LANGUEDOC). CLOISTERS] + +The influence of the Cistercian foundation extended to various +countries of Europe. It was manifested in Spain, at the great Abbey of +Alcobaco, in Estramadura, said to have been built by monkish envoys +of St. Bernard; in Sicily, in the rich architectural detail of the +Abbey of Monreale; and in Germany, in the foundation of such abbeys +as those of Altenberg in Westphalia, and Maulbronn in Wurtemberg. In +1133 Everard, Count of Berg, invited monks of Citeaux to settle in +his dominions, and in 1145 they founded a magnificent abbey on the +banks of the Dheen, which was held by the Cistercian order down to the +period of the Revolution, when it shared the fate of other religious +houses. + +The Cistercian Abbey of Maulbronn is the best preserved of those +which owed their origin to St. Bernard throughout the twelfth and +thirteenth centuries. The abbey church, the cloister, the refectory, +the chapter-house, the cellars, the storerooms, the barns, and the +abbot's lodging, the latter united to the other buildings by a covered +gallery, still exist in their original condition. More manifestly +even than Altenberg does the Abbey of Maulbronn prove that simplicity +marked the proceedings of the Benedictines during the first years +of the twelfth century, under the rule or influence of St. Bernard. +From this period onward Cistercian brotherhoods multiplied with great +rapidity in the provinces which were to form modern France. + +In the Ile-de-France the ruins of Ourscamp, near Noyon, of Chaâlis, +near Senlis, of Longpont and of Vaux-de-Cernay, near Paris, bear +witness to the monumental grandeur of once famous and important +abbeys. The monasteries and priories of the twelfth century are +numerous in Provence; we may name Sénanque, Silvacane, Thoronet, and +Montmajour, near Arles, at the extremity of the valley of Les Baux. +Among the abbeys founded in the thirteenth century were Royaumont, +in the Ile-de-France; Vaucelles, near Cambrai; Preuilly-en-Brie; +La Trappe, in Le Perche; Breuil-Benoît, Mortemer, and Bonport, in +Normandy; Boschaud, in Périgord; l'Escale-Dieu, in Bigorre; Les +Feuillants, Nizors, and Bonnefont, in Comminges; Granselve and +Baulbonne, near Toulouse; Floran, Valmagne, and Fontfroide, in +Languedoc; Fontenay, in Burgundy, etc. + + [Illustration: 141. CISTERCIAN ABBEY OF MAULBRONN (WURTEMBERG). PLAN] + +Towards the close of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth +century other fraternities had been formed in the same spirit as +that of Citeaux; "in the first rank of these was the Order of the +Premonstrants, so named from the mother abbey founded in 1119 by St. +Norbert at Prémontré, near Coucy."[50] + +[50] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_. + +To this order the monastery of St. Martin at Laon, and others in +Champagne, Artois, Brittany, and Normandy owed their origin. + + [Illustration: 142. ABBEY OF FONTEVRAULT. KITCHEN] + + [Illustration: 143. CATHEDRAL OF PUY-EN-VELAY. CLOISTERS] + +In the early part of the twelfth century Robert d'Arbrisselles founded +several double monasteries for men and women, on the model of those +built in Spain in the ninth century; that of Fontevrault was not +more successful as a monastic experiment than the rest, but it gave +rise to a number of superb buildings. The abbey itself contributed +in no slight degree to the progress of architecture, which developed +in Anjou at the dawn of the twelfth century, and manifested itself +principally at Angers in works the supreme importance of which we have +dwelt upon in the early part of this volume. + +The episcopal churches also owned claustral buildings for the +accommodation of the cathedral clergy who lived together in +communities according to the ancient usage which obtained down to the +fifteenth century. The Cathedrals of Aix, Arles, and Cavaillon, in +Provence, of Elne, in Roussillon, of Puy, in Velay, of St. Bertrand, +in Comminges, still preserve their cloisters of the twelfth century. + +The Abbey of La Chaise Dieu, in Auvergne, founded in the eleventh +century, was one of the monastic schools which rose to great +importance, mainly through the talents of its monkish architect and +sculptor, Guinamaud, who established its reputation as an art centre. +By the close of the twelfth century La Chaise Dieu was turning out +proficients in sculpture, painting, and goldsmith's work. + +The buildings of La Chaise Dieu were reconstructed in the thirteenth +and fourteenth centuries. + +The order of preaching friars, founded by St. Dominic in the early +part of the thirteenth century, is noted rather for its intellectual +than for its architectural achievements; the fame of the Dominicans +rests upon their preaching and writings, not upon the number or +magnificence of their monasteries. + +About the same period St. Francis of Assisi founded the order of minor +friars, who professed absolute poverty--a profession which, however, +did not prevent their becoming richer at last than their forerunners. +These two orders--preaching and mendicant friars, apparently formed +in protest against the supremacy of the Benedictines--were strongly +supported by St. Louis, who also protected other orders, such as the +Augustinians and Carmelites, by way of balancing the power of the +Clunisians and Cistercians. + + [Illustration: 144. ABBEY OF LA CHAISE DIEU (AUVERGNE). CLOISTERS] + +To the preaching friars St. Louis granted the site of the Church of +St. Jacques, in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris--whence the name _Jacobin_ +as applied to monks of the Dominican order,--and here they built in +1221 the Jacobin monastery, the church of which, like those of Agen +and Toulouse, has the double nave peculiar to the churches of the +preaching friars. + +From the thirteenth century onwards the arrangement of the abbeys +diverges more and more from the Benedictine system in the direction +of secular models. The daily life of the abbots had come to +differ but little from that of the laymen of their time, and as a +natural consequence, monastic architecture lost its distinguishing +characteristics. + +The Rule of the Carthusian Order, founded towards the close of the +eleventh century by St. Bruno, was of such extreme austerity, and +was so persistently adhered to down to the fifteenth century, at +least, that we need not wonder to find no vestiges of buildings +erected by this community contemporaneously with those of other great +foundations. The Carthusians clung longer than any of their brethren +to the vows of poverty and humility which obliged them to live like +anchorites, though dwelling under one roof. Far from living in common, +on the cenobitic method, after the manner of the Benedictines and +Cistercians, they maintained the cellular system in all its severity. +Absolute silence further aggravated the complete isolation which +encouraged them to scorn all that might alleviate or modify the +rigours of their religious duties. + +In time, however, the Carthusians relaxed something of this extreme +asceticism in their monastic buildings, if not in their religious +observances. Towards the fifteenth century they did homage to art by +the construction of monasteries which, though falling short of the +Cistercian monuments in magnificence, are of much interest from their +peculiarities of arrangement. + +The ordinary buildings comprised the gate-house, giving access by a +single door to the courtyard of the monastery, where stood the church, +the prior's lodging, the hostelry for guests and pilgrims, the +laundry, the bakehouse, the cattle sheds, storerooms, and dovecote. +The church communicated with an interior cloister, giving access to +the chapter-house and refectory, which latter were only open to the +monks at certain annual festivals. The typical feature of St. Bruno's +more characteristic monasteries is the great cloister, on the true +Carthusian model--that is to say, rectangular in form, and surrounded +by an arcade, on which the cells of the monks open. Each of these +cells was a little self-contained habitation, and had its own garden. +The door of each cell was provided with a wicket, through which a lay +brother passed the slender meal of the Carthusian who was forbidden to +communicate with his fellows. + +The Rule of St. Bruno, as is commonly known, enjoins the life of an +anchorite; the Carthusian must work, eat, and drink in solitude; +speech is interdicted; on meeting, the brethren are commanded to +salute each other in silence; they assemble only in church for certain +services prescribed by the Rule, and their meals, none too numerous at +any time, were only taken in common on certain days in the year. + +The severity of these conditions explains the extreme austerity of +Carthusian architecture. It had, as we have already said, no real +development until the fifteenth century, and then only as regards +certain portions of the monastery, such as the church and its +cloister, which were in strong contrast with the compulsory bareness +of the great cloister of the monks. + +The ancient _Chartreuse_ of Villefranche de Rouergue, either built +or reconstructed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, still +preserves some remarkable features. The plan, and the bird's-eye view +(Figs. 145 and 146) from _L'Encyclopédie de l'Architecture et de la +Construction_, gives an exact idea of the monastery. Some of the cells +are still intact, also the refectory, and certain other portions of +the primitive structure. + + [Illustration: 145. CHARTREUSE OF VILLEFRANCHE DE ROUERGUE. PLAN] + +In spite of the rigidity of the _Rule_ of St. Bruno certain +foundations of his order became famous, notably the monastery +established by the Carthusians on the invitation of St. Louis in the +celebrated castle of Vauvert, beyond the walls of Paris, near the +_Route d'Issy_. The castle was regarded with terror by the Parisians, +who declared it to be haunted by the devil, whence the popular +expression: _aller au diable Vauvert_, which later was corrupted +into _aller au diable au vert_. The Carthusians, nevertheless, took +up their quarters in the stronghold, and enriched it with a splendid +church built by Pierre de Montereau, the foundation stone of which +was laid by St. Louis in 1260. The _Chartreuse_ of Vauvert developed +greatly, and became one of the most famous of the order. It was in +the lesser cloister of this monastery that the artist Eustache Le +Sueur painted his famous frescoes from the life of St. Bruno in the +beginning of the seventeenth century. + + [Illustration: 146. CHARTREUSE OF VILLEFRANCHE DE ROUERGUE. + BIRD'S-EYE VIEW] + + [Illustration: 147. GRANDE CHARTREUSE. THE GREAT CLOISTER] + +The most famous Carthusian monasteries of Italy are those of Florence, +which dates from the middle of the fourteenth century, and is +attributed in part to Orcagna, and of Pavia, founded at the close of +the fourteenth century by Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti. + + [Illustration: 148. GRANDE CHARTREUSE. GENERAL VIEW] + +The French Carthusian monasteries of greatest interest after Vauvert, +which had the special advantage of royal protection, are those of +Clermont, in Auvergne, Villefranche de Rouergue (Figs. 145 and 146), +Villeneuve-lez-Avignon, and Montrieux, in Var. The _Chartreuse_ of +Dijon is one of the most ancient, not only as to its buildings, which +are the work of the Duke of Burgundy's architects, but in respect of +its famous sculptures of the tomb of Philip the Bold, and his wife, +Margaret of Flanders, and those of the _Well of Moses_, carved by the +Burgundian brothers, Claux Suter, who flourished at the close of the +fourteenth century, and had much to do with the revival of art at that +period.[51] + +[51] See Part I., "Sculpture." + +But the most imposing of all, and the most famous, if not the most +beautiful, is that in the mountains near Grenoble, universally known +as _La Grande Chartreuse_. + +The original monastery is said to have been founded by St. Bruno. It +consisted merely of a humble chapel and a few isolated cells, which +are supposed to have occupied the site in the _Desert_, on which the +Chapels of St. Bruno and St. Mary now stand. The existing buildings +were reconstructed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in the +manner of the day, of which the arcades of the great cloister are good +examples. The present church, which is extremely simple in design, has +preserved nothing of its sixteenth-century decoration but the choir +stalls. The great cloister consists of an arcaded gallery, on which +the sixty cells of the monks open. It is arranged in strict accordance +with the Rule of St. Bruno as regards its connection with the main +buildings, the chief features of which we have already pointed out. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + FORTIFIED ABBEYS + + +The monasteries built throughout the twelfth century were provided +with outer walls, by means of which the claustral buildings, offices, +workshops, and even farms of the community were enclosed. Thus all +the necessaries of life were produced within the precincts, and all +communication with the outside world was avoided. + +But by the end of the century the great abbeys had become feudal +castles; and fortified walls were raised around them, often embracing +the town which had grown up under their protection and shared their +fortunes. This was the case at Cluny, and the town acknowledged its +obligations to the monks by the payment of tithes. + +In the reign of Philip Augustus and St. Louis the abbots were not +only the heads of their monasteries but feudal chieftains, vassals +of the royal power, and as such obliged to furnish the sovereign +with men-at-arms in time of war, and to maintain a garrison when +required.[52] + +[52] See Part III., "Military Architecture," Abbey of Mont St. Michel. + +The Abbey of Tournus was, like Cluny, surrounded by walls connected +with the city ramparts. + +The Abbey of St. Allyre, in Auvergne, near Clermont, was defended +by walls and towers, which seem to have been added to the original +structure of the ninth century at some period during the thirteenth, +when such fortification of religious houses became necessary. + + [Illustration: 149. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GENERAL VIEW FROM THE + ROCKS OF COUESNON, TAKEN IN 1878, BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE DYKE] + +In many other monasteries a system of defence more or less elaborate +was adopted; but the most famous of all the abbeys built by the +Benedictines was unquestionably Mont St. Michel, which, for boldness +and grandeur of design, is unique among military and monastic +monuments from the eleventh to the close of the fifteenth century. + + [Illustration: 150. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF THE + GUARD-ROOM, ALMONRY, AND CELLAR + + _Key to Plan._--A. Tower known as the _Tour Claudine_. Ramparts. + B. Barbican. Entrance to the abbey. B´. Ruin of the stairway + known as the _Grand Degré_. C. Gate-house. D. Guard-room known + as _Bellechaise_. E. Tower known as the _Tour Perrine_. F. + Steward's lodging and Bailey. G. Abbot's lodging. G´. Abbatial + buildings. G´´. Chapel of St. Catherine. H. Courtyard of the + church, great stairway. I. Courtyard of the _Merveille_. J, + K. Almonry, cellar (of the _Merveille_). L. Formerly the + abbatial buildings. M. Gallery or crypt known as the _Galerie + de l'Aquilon_ (of the North Wind). N. Hostelry (Robert de + Thorigni). O. Passages connecting the abbey with the hostelry. + P, P´. Prison and dungeon. R, S. Staircase. T. Modern wall of + abutment. U. Garden, terraces, and covered way. V. Body of rock.] + + [Illustration: 151. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF + THE LOWER CHURCH, THE REFECTORY, AND THE CHAPTER-HOUSE, OR KNIGHTS' + HALL.--_For Key to Plan see opposite page._ + + _Key to Plan._--A. Lower church. B, B´. Chapels beneath the + transepts. C. Substructure of Romanesque nave. C, C´, and C´´. + Charnel-house or burying-place of the monks, and substructure + of south platform. D. Formerly the cistern. E. Formerly the + claustral buildings. Refectory. F. Formerly the cloister or + ambulatory. G. Passage communicating with the hostelry. H, + I. Hostelry and offices (Robert de Thorigni). J. Chapel of + hostelry (St. Étienne). K, K´, L, M. Refectory. Tower known + as the _Tour des Corbins_ (Tower of Crows). Chapter-house, or + hall of the knights, Galilee or narthex (_Merveille_). N. Hall + of the military executive, or hall of the officers. O. Tower + known as the _Tour Perrine_. P. Battlements of the gate-house. + Q. Courtyard of the _Merveille_. R, S. Staircase and terrace + of the apse. T. Courtyard of the church. U. Fortified bridge + connecting the lower church with the abbey buildings. V, X. + Abbot's lodging. Accommodation for guests. Y, Y´. Cisterns of + the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Z. Body of rock.] + +The Abbey of Mont St. Michel was founded in 708 by St. Aubert, +according to tradition. At the close of the tenth century it was +restored by Richard Sans Peur, third Duke of Normandy, with the help +of the Benedictine monks from Monte Casino, whom he had installed at +St. Michel in 966. It increased greatly in wealth and extent in the +eleventh century, and by the end of the twelfth was in the full tide +of its prosperity. Its buildings, however had not yet that importance +to which they attained in the following century.[53] In the twelfth +century they consisted of the church, which was built between 1020 +and 1135[54] and the monastic buildings proper (_lieux réguliers_), +with lodgings for servants and guests to the north of the nave, at +G, G´, and F on the plan, Fig. 152. To these, which were restored +or reconstructed in a great measure by the Abbot Roger II. at the +beginning of the twelfth century, additions were made on the south and +south-east by Robert de Thorigni from 1154 to 1186. + +The monastery was not then fortified. + +[53] _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel_, by Ed. Corroyer; +Paris, 1877. This work was crowned by the Institute in 1879, at the +_Concours des Antiquités Nationales_. + +[54] See _L'Architecture Romane_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison +Quantin, 1888. + + [Illustration: 152. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF THE + UPPER CHURCH, THE CLOISTERS, AND THE DORMITORY + + _Key to Plan._--A, A´, A.´´ Church, choir, and transepts. B, + B´, B´´. Three first bays of nave, destroyed in 1776. C, C´, + C´´. Towers and porch (Robert de Thorigni). D. Tomb of Robert + de Thorigni. E. Formerly the terrace in front of the church. + F. Formerly the chapter-house. G, G´. Formerly the claustral + buildings. Dormitory. H. Platform at the southern entrance + of the church. I. Ruin of the hostelry (Robert de Thorigni). + J. Infirmary. K. Dormitories of the thirteenth century + (_Merveille_). K´. Tower, known as the _Tour des Corbins_ + (thirteenth century, _Merveille_). L, L´. Cloister and archives + (thirteenth century, _Merveille_). M. Vestry (thirteenth + century, _Merveille_). N. Abbot's lodging. O. Accommodation for + guests. P. Courtyard of the _Merveille_. P´. Terrace of the + apse. Q. Courtyard of the church and great staircase.] + +Built on the summit of a rock, the impregnable steepness of which +provided a natural rampart north and west, it depended solely upon +the advantages of its position for defence. Its situation in the +midst of a treacherous sandy plain--a position which gave rise to the +mediæval name, _Le Mont St. Michel au Péril de la Mer_--secured it +against attempts at investiture, and even to a great extent against +sudden assaults. Enclosures of stone or wooden fences surrounded it at +those points on the east where the less rugged nature of the surface +rendered access comparatively easy, and where stood the entrance, +with the various habitations which had grouped themselves round it. +The so-called _town_ had been founded in the tenth century by a few +families decimated by the Normans, in their raids upon Avranches and +its neighbourhood after the death of Charlemagne. In the thirteenth +century it consisted of a small number of houses which, by way of +security against the vagaries of the sea, were built upon the highest +point of the rock to the east. + +In 1203 the greater part of the abbey, the church excepted, was +destroyed during the wars between Philip Augustus, King of France, and +John, King of England. + +Historic records prove conclusively that the abbey had no defensive +works properly so-called in the twelfth and early part of the +thirteenth century. + +From this period onwards abbeys, more especially those of the +Benedictine orders, were transformed into regular fortresses capable +of sustaining a siege. The abbots, in their character of feudal lords, +fortified their monasteries to ensure them against disasters such as +had marked the early years of the thirteenth century. Mont St. Michel +is one of the most curious examples of such fortification. + +The original architects of the abbey seem to have been unwilling to +diminish the height of the mount by levelling. Resolving to detract in +no degree from the majesty of so splendid a base for their church, +they set about their work on the same principle as the pyramid +builders. Our illustrations show how the buildings were raised partly +on plateaux circumscribing the apex of the mount, partly on that apex +itself. The result is that the monastery, as we see it, has a core of +rock rising at its highest point to the very floor of the church. The +ring of lower stories rests upon walls of great thickness, and upon +piers united by vaults, the whole forming a substructure of perfect +solidity. + +The section made through the transept (Fig. 153) gives an exact idea +of the portion which dates from the eleventh and twelfth centuries, +and of the buildings which gradually grouped themselves round this +nucleus, such as the so-called _Merveille_ (Marvel) to the north, and +the abbot's lodging to the south. + + [Illustration: 153. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. TRANSVERSE SECTION, FROM + NORTH TO SOUTH[55]] + +[55] _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de ses Abords_, by +Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877. + + [Illustration: 154. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. LONGITUDINAL SECTION, + FROM WEST TO EAST] + +The longitudinal section (Fig. 154) shows the crypt, or lower church. +This was not, as has been frequently asserted, actually hollowed +out of the rock; it was, however, very ingeniously contrived in the +fifteenth century over the ruins of the Romanesque church in the +space between the declivity of the mount and the artificial plateau +of the earlier architects. The substructures of the Romanesque church +which were enlarged by Robert de Thorigni in the thirteenth century +are indicated in this diagram. They are of gigantic proportions, +especially towards the west. + +Fig. 155 shows the so-called _Galerie de l'Aquilon_ (Gallery of the +North Wind), one of the upper stories of the claustral buildings to +the north of the church constructed by Roger II., eleventh abbot +(1106-1122). + + [Illustration: 155. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GALERIE DE L'AQUILON + (GALLERY OF THE NORTH WIND)] + + [Illustration: 156. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL, NORTH FRONT. GENERAL + VIEW FROM THE SEA] + + [Illustration: 157. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. THE ALMONRY. PERSPECTIVE + VIEW LOOKING WEST. THE CELLAR BEYOND] + +After the fire of 1203, when the abbey had become a feof of the royal +domain, the Abbot Jourdain and his successors rebuilt it almost +entirely, with the exception of the church. + +As the peculiarities of the site made it impossible to adhere strictly +to the Benedictine system of direct communication between the main +buildings and the church, the _lieux réguliers_, or accommodation +reserved for the monks, were disposed above the magnificent building +to the north of the church, which, from the time of its foundation, +was known as _La Merveille_ (the Marvel). + + [Illustration: 158. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. NAMES OF THE ARCHITECTS + OR SCULPTORS OF THE CHOIR] + + [Illustration: 159. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CELLAR. PERSPECTIVE VIEW + FROM WEST TO EAST. THE ALMONRY BEYOND] + +This vast structure fairly takes rank as the grandest example of +combined religious and military architecture of the finest mediæval +period. + +The _Merveille_ consists of three stories, two of which are vaulted. +The lowest contains the almonry and cellar; the intermediate story +the refectory and the knights' hall; the third the dormitory and +cloister. The building consists of two wings running east and west; +the apartments are superposed as follows:--In the east wing the +almonry, the refectory, and the dormitory; in the west the cellar, the +knights' hall, and the cloister.[56] + +[56] _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de ses Abords_, by +Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877. + +This splendid structure is built entirely of granite. It was carried +out by one continuous effort, under the inspiration of an incomparably +bold and learned design of the Abbé Jourdain, to which his successors +religiously adhered. + +The undertaking was entered upon in 1203 and finished in 1228, the +final achievement being the cloister, the architects or sculptors of +which are commemorated by an inscription in the spandril of one of the +arcades in the south walk. + + [Illustration: 160. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. REFECTORY] + + [Illustration: 161. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CHAPTER-HOUSE, CALLED + THE HALL OF THE KNIGHTS] + +To fully appreciate this stupendous monument, we must realise the +extraordinary energy which enabled its architects to complete it in +the comparatively short space of twenty-five years. We must take +into account the conditions of its growth, its situation on the very +summit of a rugged cliff, cut off from the mainland at times by +the sea, at other times by an expanse of treacherous quicksand. We +must consider the enormous difficulties of transporting materials, +seeing that all the granite used was quarried by the monks from the +neighbouring coast. It is true that an unimportant quota of the stone +was dug from the base of the rock itself. But though the passage +across the sands was by this means avoided, the difficulties of +raising great masses of stone to the foot of the _Merveille_, the +foundations of which are over 160 feet above the sea-level, had still +to be met. It seems certain that the east and west buildings of which +the _Merveille_ consists were built at the same time, for though +certain differences are perceptible in the form of the exterior +buttresses, they evidently result from the interior formation of the +various apartments. A study of the plans, sections, and façades of the +buildings is convincing on this head, and the general arrangements, +notably that of the staircase, all point to the same conclusion. This +staircase is a spiral in the thickness of the buttress which, with its +crowning octagonal turret, forms the point of junction between the two +buildings. It winds from the almonry of the eastern ground-floor to +the knights' hall on the west, passing through the dormitory of the +eastern block to terminate in the northern embattlement above. + + [Illustration: 162. ST. MICHAEL'S MOUNT, CORNWALL] + +The eastern and northern façades of the _Merveille_ are models of +severe and virile beauty; a massive grandeur characterises them, +especially striking and impressive in the northern front as viewed +from the sea. The vast walls of granite (the material used throughout, +save in the inner walk of the cloister) are pierced with windows +varying in shape according to the character of the rooms they light. +Those of the dormitory are very remarkable. They are long and narrow, +and affect the aspect of loopholes, deeply splayed outwards; the +peculiar form of the honeycombed window-heads suggests a reminiscence +of Arab types seen by the French Crusaders in Palestine. The +thrusts of the interior vaulting are met on the exterior by massive +buttresses, the vigorous profiles of which contribute greatly to the +nobility of the general effect. + +These formidable façades were practically fortifications, but the +_Merveille_ was further defended to the north by an embattled wall, +flanked by a tower which served as a post for watchmen, to which the +covered ways running round the base of the western buildings converged. + +In the middle, on a level with the north-west angle of the +_Merveille_, a _châtelet_, or miniature keep, now destroyed, guarded +the rugged passage between embattled walls which led to the Fountain +of St. Aubert, and was known as the _Passage du Degré_ (passage of the +stairway). + +The various buildings of the abbey which were added in the fourteenth +century, after the construction of the _Merveille_, are: the abbot's +lodging, with its offices on the south, and certain military works +which completed the defensive system. In the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries these were gradually extended to the walls of the town, as +we shall see in Part III., "Military Architecture." + + + + + PART III + + MILITARY ARCHITECTURE + + + + + CHAPTER I + + CIRCUMVALLATION OF TOWNS + + +The distinctive character of military architecture in the Middle Ages +must be sought in defensive fortification. In all other respects +its constructive methods were identical with those employed in +architectural works generally. The few ornamental features of military +buildings, as, for instance, the interior vaults and the profiles of +consoles and cornices, diverge but slightly from the accepted types of +such features in the churches, monasteries, and domestic structures of +the period. + +The Latin, Roman, Gallo-Roman, Romanesque, and Gothic architects +were versed in every department of the art they practised. The same +architect was called upon to construct the church and the fortress, +the abbey, and the ramparts which were often its necessary complement, +the donjon, and castle, the town hall, the hospital, the rural +barn, and the urban dwelling. He was responsible not only for the +inception of every class and form of building, but for its successful +elaboration; on him alone the responsibility of its execution rested; +no scientific specialist checked his conclusions and verified his +calculations as in our own time. The system by which the architect and +the engineer have each their separate functions and responsibilities +in the construction of the same building was unknown. The builder, or +mason, as some would have him called, was an architect in the fullest +sense; he himself traced the diagrams of his conceptions, and directed +the execution of every detail, careful alike of stability and beauty. + + [Illustration: 163. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GATE-HOUSE] + +It is a curious and disheartening phenomenon that such a direct +contravention of the principles of mediæval art as the modern +system of divided responsibility implies, should obtain only +among the French, the very people to whom Western Europe owes its +initiation into those principles. In England, in Belgium, in Holland, +Switzerland, and Germany the architect is also the engineer; the +science and the art of his craft are inseparable. "This intimate +union of qualities gives an individuality to certain productions of +these nations which we might well lay to heart and make the subject +of serious comparative study. We must needs admit to begin with that +we ourselves have become disciples rather than pioneers in a great +movement."[57] + +[57] "L'Art à l'Exposition," _L'Architecture_, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris. +_L'Illustration_, for 25th May 1889. + +The one preoccupation of the modern engineer seems to be the +satisfaction of imperious necessity. He is inclined to neglect all +that mathematics cannot give him. And yet he has brought about a very +sensible progress by his mathematical application of modern science. +He has unquestionably excelled in industrial masterpieces perfectly +adapted to the needs of the moment, if wanting in the qualities +that make for immortality. We accept with qualified admiration +his marvellous bridges and kindred works in metal--marvellous yet +ephemeral; but we accept them merely as a temporary substitute for the +more solid if less showy stone bridges of our early architects. + +We would not have the servant of yesterday the master of to-morrow. +We protest against the degradation of the architect from his high +and noble estate to the rank of a mere decorator, however skilful. +We would not witness the extinction of the ancient French traditions +which inspired so many masterpieces, and to which we look as the +source of many yet to come. + +It appears, moreover, that the general acceptation of the word +_ingénieur_ (engineer) is a totally mistaken one. It is derived from +the mediæval term _engigneur_, which was very differently applied. + +The architect and the engineer of our own day are both _constructors_, +but with a difference. The architect loves and cultivates his art; the +engineer, with few exceptions, despises, or affects to despise, his. + +In the Middle Ages their functions were perfectly distinct. The +architect constructed what the _engigneur_ used his utmost cunning +to destroy. The architect built ramparts and strengthened them with +towers; the _engigneur_ undermined them if attacking, or countermined +them if defending. It was his business to invent or direct the use of +engines of war, such as rams, mangonels, arblasts, and machines for +the slinging of enormous projectiles, or grenades. He constructed the +portable wooden towers which the besieging party brought up against +the walls for an escalade, directed the sappers who undermined them, +and, in fact, superintended the manufacture of all such offensive +engines as were necessary in the conduct of a siege, a process +which, before the invention of firearms, necessitated preparations +as prolonged and tedious as they were complicated and uncertain. +In short, the architect was the constructor of fortifications, the +_engigneur_ their assailant or defender. It was not until the time +of Vauban that military engineers were called upon to exercise +functions so much more extensive. At an earlier period there were, +however, specialists in construction who undertook such works as the +circumvallation of Aigues-Mortes, but their labours had little in +common with those of modern engineers. + + [Illustration: 164. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. RAMPARTS TO THE SOUTH-EAST] + +Before the feudal period the fortifications of camps consisted +either of earthworks, of walls built of mud and logs, or of +palisades surrounded by ditches, in imitation of the Roman methods +of castrametation. The _enceintes_ of towns fortified by the Romans +were walls defended by round or square towers. These walls were built +double; a space of several yards intervened, which was filled up with +the earth dug from the moat or ditch, mixed with rubble. The mass was +levelled at the top and paved to form what is technically known as a +covered way, or terrace protected by an embattled wall rising from the +outer curtain. + +That portion of the _enceinte_ of Carcassonne which was built by the +Visigoths in the sixth century is thus constructed on the Roman model. +"The ground on which the town is built rises considerably above that +beyond the walls, and is almost on a level with the rampart. The +curtains[58] are of great thickness; they are composed of two facings +of dressed stones cut into small cubes, which alternate with courses +of bricks; the intervening space is filled not with earth, but with +a concrete formed of rubble and lime."[59] The flanking towers which +rise considerably above the curtains were so disposed that it was +possible to isolate them from the walls by raising drawbridges. Thus +each tower formed an independent stronghold against assailants. + +[58] The wall space between the towers. + +[59] Viollet-le-Duc, _La Cité de Carcassonne_. + +Fig. 165 shows a portion of the north-west ramparts of the city of +Carcassonne, with the first round tower; to the left of the drawing is +the Romano-Visigothic tower, flanking right and left the curtains of +the same period. + + [Illustration: 165. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. NORTH-WEST RAMPARTS. + ROMANO-VISIGOTHIC TOWER (FIRST ON THE LEFT)] + +In accordance with the Roman tradition the _enceinte_ of a town, +formed, as we have seen, of ramparts strengthened by towers, were +further defended by a citadel or keep, of which we shall have more to +say in the following chapter. This keep commanded the whole place, +which was usually situated on the slope of a hill above the bank of +a river. The bridge which communicated with the opposite bank was +fortified by a gate-house or _tête de pont_, to guard the passage. + +The circumvallation of towns often consisted of a double enclosure, +divided by a moat. By the close of the twelfth century architects had +caught the inspiration of the great military works of the Crusaders in +the East, and military architecture had progressed on the same lines +as religious and monastic architecture. + +The territories, conquered by the Crusaders in the course of +establishing the Christian supremacy in the East, had been divided +into feofs as early as the twelfth century. These soon boasted +castles, churches, and monastic foundations, of the Cistercian and +Premonstrant orders among others. + +According to G. Rey, the following abbeys and priories were built in +the neighbourhood of Jerusalem at this period:--The monasteries of +Mount Sion, Mount Olivet, Jehoshaphat, St. Habakkuk, and St. Samuel, +etc., and in Galilee, those of Mount Tabor and Palmarée. The military +organisation was regulated by the _Assises de la haute Cour_ (Assizes +of the Supreme Court), which determined the number of knights to be +furnished by each feof for the defence of the kingdom, and in like +manner, the number of men-at-arms required from each church and each +community of citizens.... The middle of the twelfth century was the +period at which the Christian colonies of the Holy Land were most +flourishing. Undeterred by the wars of which Syria was the theatre, +the Franks had promptly assimilated the Greek and Roman tradition as +manifested in Byzantine types of military architecture. The double +enclosure flanked by towers, one of the main features of Syrian +fortresses built by the Crusaders, was borrowed from the Greeks. +Many of their strongholds, notably Morgat, the so-called _Krak_ of +the knights, and Tortosa, were of colossal proportions. They may be +divided into two classes. In the first, the buildings are of the +Frankish type, and seem to be modelled on the French castles of the +eleventh and twelfth centuries. The flanking towers are nearly always +round; they contain a defensive story, while their summits and those +of the intervening curtains are crowned with battlements in the French +fashion. Other features subsequently introduced were: the double +_enceinte_, borrowed from the Byzantines, the inner line of which +commanded the outer, and was sufficiently near to allow its defenders +to engage, should assailants have carried the first barrier; +secondly, stone machicolations in place of the wooden _hourds_ or +timber scaffoldings which were retained in France till the close of +the thirteenth century; and finally, the talus, a device by which +the thickness of the walls was tripled at the base, thus affording +increased security against the arts of the sapper and the earthquake +shocks so frequent in the East. + + [Illustration: 166. FORTRESS OF KALAAT-EL-HOSN IN SYRIA (KRAK OF THE + KNIGHTS). SECTION, AS RESTORED BY M. G. REY.] + + [Illustration: 166A. FORTRESS DE KALAAT-EL-HOSN IN SYRIA (KRAK OF THE + KNIGHTS). AS RESTORED BY M. G. REY] + +The buildings of the second class belong to the school of the Knights +Templars. Their characteristic features are the towers, invariably +square or oblong in shape, and projecting but slightly from the +curtains. The fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn,[60] or _Krak_ of the +knights, commanded the pass through which ran the roads from Homs +and Hamah to Tripoli and Tortosa, and was a military station of +the first importance. Together with the castles of Akkar, Arcos, La +Colée, Chastel-Blanc, Areynieh, Yammour, Tortosa, and Markab, and the +various auxiliary towers and posts, it constituted a system of defence +designed to protect Tripoli from the incursions of the Mahometans, +who retained their hold on the greater part of Syria.... The _Krak_, +which was built under the direction of the Knights Hospitallers, has a +double _enceinte_, separated by a wide ditch partly filled with water. +The inner wall forms a reduct, and rising above the outer enclosure +commands its defences. It also encompasses the various dependencies of +the castle, the great hall, chapel, domestic buildings, and magazines. +A long vaulted passage, easy of defence, was the only entrance to the +place. To the north and west the outer line consisted of a curtain +flanked by rounded turrets, and crowned by machicolations, which +formed a continuous scaffolding of stone along the greater part of the +_enceinte_. + +[60] _Étude sur les Monuments de l'Architecture Militaire des croisés +en Syrie_, by G. Rey; Paris, 1871. + + [Illustration: 167. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. PLAN (THIRTEENTH CENTURY)] + +The action of the East upon the West was manifested in the thirteenth +and fourteenth centuries by the application to the fortification of +Carcassonne and Aigues-Mortes of methods in use among the Crusaders in +Syria. + +This oriental influence is apparent at Carcassonne in the double +_enceinte_ borrowed from Syrian fortresses. + +The city of Carcassonne stands upon a plateau commanding the valley +of the Aude, the site of an ancient Roman _castellum_. In the sixth +century it fell into the hands of the Visigoths, who fortified it. +It increased considerably in extent during the tenth, eleventh, and +twelfth centuries, but in the time of Simon de Montfort (1209) and of +Raymon de Trancavel (1240) the _enceinte_ was not nearly so important +as it became under St. Louis. By the middle of the thirteenth century +the king had begun the construction of defensive works on a vast +scale, and built the outer _enceinte_, which still exists, as may +be seen on the plan (Fig. 167) taken from Viollet-le-Duc's _Cité de +Carcassonne_. + + [Illustration: 168. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. RAMPARTS. SOUTH-WEST ANGLE] + +The primary object of the _enceinte_ was to secure the place against +a sudden attack during the completion or enlargement of its interior +defences. The additions of St. Louis, which were carried on by Philip +the Bold, rendered Carcassonne impregnable in the general estimation. +"As a fact, it was never invested, and did not open its gates to +Edward the Black Prince till 1355, when all Languedoc had submitted to +him."[61] + +[61] Viollet-le-Duc, _La Cité de Carcassonne_. + + [Illustration: 169. RAMPARTS OF AIGUES-MORTES, NORTH AND SOUTH] + +Oriental influences are equally evident at Aigues-Mortes. The Genoese +Guglielmo Boccanera, who constructed the _enceinte_, was apparently +familiar with the system of fortification adopted by the Crusaders in +Syria. The machicolations which here make their first appearance in +Languedoc (in the reign of Philip the Bold), proclaim the filiation +of Aigues-Mortes to the Syrian fortresses. Italian influences are +also perceptible in the square plan of the flanking towers. French +architects had always preferred the round tower, as more solid in +itself, and less open to attack from sappers, who, in advancing +against a building of this form, were fully exposed to the missiles of +the defenders from the curtains adjoining; while, on the other hand, +the angles of the square tower gave a certain protection to assailants +advancing against its front. + + [Illustration: 170. RAMPARTS OF AVIGNON. CURTAIN, TOWERS, AND + MACHICOLATIONS] + +The ramparts of Avignon, which date from the fourteenth century, seem +to have been constructed on Italian methods. The curtains are flanked +by square towers, open towards the town, and surmounted by embattled +parapets corbelled out from the walls, and machicolated so as to +command their bases. + +In the thirteenth century walls and towers were provided with movable +wooden scaffoldings, as shown at A in the figure. Spaces were left +in the masonry of the walls for the insertion of wooden beams, which, +projecting from the curtain, supported an overhanging gallery. This, +being pierced with traps or apertures in the flooring, commanded +the base of the wall, and was an important element in defensive +operations. But as it was found that these timber galleries were +easily set on fire by assailants, they were replaced in the fourteenth +century by stone machicolations, as shown at B, consisting of corbels, +supporting an embattled parapet. Between the inner face of the parapet +and the outer face of the curtain the supporting corbels alternated +with openings for the defence of the base, as already described. This +arrangement, among the earliest examples of which are the square +towers of Avignon, was soon generally adopted by architects in the +construction of city ramparts. + + [Illustration: 170A. MACHICOLATIONS] + +"The art of fortification, which had made great advances at the +beginning of the thirteenth century, remained almost stationary to +the end of it. During the Hundred Years' War, however, it received a +fresh impetus. When order had been restored in the kingdom, Charles +VII. set about the restoration or reconstruction of many fortresses +recaptured from the English. In the defensive works of such towns +and castles, and in various new undertakings of a like nature, +we recognise the method and regularity proper to an art based on +well-defined principles, and far advanced towards mastery."[62] + +[62] Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire_, vol. i. + +In the Abbey of Mont St. Michel the successive modifications applied +to military _enceintes_ from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, +are illustrated in the fullest and most interesting manner. + + [Illustration: 171. RAMPARTS OF ST. MALO (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)] + +Of the fourteenth century fortifications, which surrounded the +original town at the summit of the rock, connecting the ramparts with +the _Merveille_ on the north, and the abbey buildings on the south, +some fragments still remain. The tower on the north is intact. The +walls are crowned with machicolations, in accordance with the then +novel system of massing the defences at the top of the ramparts. +The gate of the _enceinte_ was to the south-east, judging from the +miniatures in the _livre d'heures_ of Pierre II., Duke of Brittany, +which show the arrangement of the original _enceinte_ at the close of +the fourteenth century. + +The abbey was at this time governed by Pierre Le Roy, one of its +ablest abbots and most famous constructors. He rebuilt the summit of +the _Tour des Corbins_ (_merveille_), restored, and re-roofed the +abbey buildings to the south of the church, which, begun by Richard +Justin in 1260, were carried on at intervals by his successors till +they were partially destroyed by the fire of 1374. He completed the +eastern defences by the addition of the square tower at O on the plan +(Fig. 151), in which he built several rooms for the accommodation of +his soldiers. The tower is known as the _Tour Perrine_, in memory of +its author. We have seen that the abbots gradually became great feudal +chieftains; the Abbot of Mont St. Michel was further commandant of the +place for the king; and he was empowered to bestow feofs on the nobles +of the province, who bound themselves in return to keep guard over the +mount in certain contingencies, enumerated in the following rendering +of a Latin text:--[63] + +[63] Ed. Corroyer, _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de +ses Abords_. + +"The tenure of these vavassories was by faith and fealty, and their +holders were bound to furnish relief and thirteen knights, each +of whom was to come in person to guard the gate of the abbey when +necessary--that is to say, in time of war; each to keep guard for +the space of the ebb and flow of the sea--that is to say, during +the rising and falling of the tide; and each to be provided with +gambeson, casque, gauntlets, shield, lance, and all requisite arms; +and further to present themselves thus armed yearly at the feast of +St. Michael in September." + +In the early years of the fifteenth century he built the gate-house +and crenellated curtain which connects it with the _Merveille_, to +the north of the guard-room, _Bellechaise_ (see Fig. 163, beginning +of this chapter). The gate-house was placed in front of the northern +façade of _Bellechaise_ (D, Fig. 150); an open space between this and +the south wall of the new structure formed a wide _machicoulis_ for +the protection of the north gate (that of _Bellechaise_), which, by +the erection of the new building, had been transformed into a second +interior entrance. The gate-house or _châtelet_ is a square structure, +flanked at the angles of the north front by two turrets, corbelled out +upon buttresses. In general appearance they resemble a pair of huge +mortars standing on their breeches. Between the pedestals of these +turrets was the doorway and the inclined vault over the staircase +leading to the guard-room. This entrance was defended by a portcullis +worked from within on the first story, and by three _machicoulis_ +at the top of the curtain, between the battlements of the turrets. +For the further protection of the gate-house Pierre Le Roy built the +barbican which covers it to the east and north, and also commands +the great staircase (_Grand Degré_) on the north. He modified the +ramparts by the addition of the tower known as the _Tour Claudine_ at +the north-east angle of the _Merveille_. In the lower story of this +tower he constructed a guard-room, the postern of which communicated +with the _Grand Degré_, and by a series of ingenious and unique +combinations was so contrived as to command all the approaches.[64] + +[64] Ed. Corroyer, _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel_, etc.; +Paris, 1877. + + [Illustration: 172. MONT ST. MICHEL. SOUTH FRONT (AS IT WAS IN 1875)] + +In 1411 the Abbot Robert Jolivet was nominated lord of the abbey by +Pope John XXIII. After his election by the monks he was made captain +of the garrison by the king, but continued to live in Paris. In +1416, however, he hastened to his abbey, which was threatened by the +English, who had possessed themselves of Lower Normandy after the +battle of Agincourt in 1415. Whilst the English were busy fortifying +Tombelaine, Robert Jolivet completed his walls and certain towers +round about the town, which still exist. To meet the expenses of +his undertaking the abbot obtained a grant from the king of fifteen +hundred _livres_ from the revenues of the Viscounty of Avranches, +besides a subsidy from the Master of the Mint at St. Lô. + + [Illustration: 173. MONT ST. MICHEL. FORTIFICATIONS OF THE FOURTEENTH + CENTURY (AS RESTORED BY ED. CORROYER)] + +At the time when Robert Jolivet was building the new ramparts, from +about 1415 to 1420, the town had greatly increased towards the south, +and even setting aside the dangerous proximity of the English at +Tombelaine, some more extensive system of defence than that afforded +by the fortifications of the fourteenth century was imperatively +needed to secure the place against attack. Robert Jolivet incorporated +his new walls on the east with those of the preceding century, which, +following the escarpments of the cliff, descend to the beach, and +are protected by the northern tower. These walls he flanked with an +additional tower projecting considerably from the surface, which was +destined to command the adjoining curtains and protect the main line +of his defences. He then carried his walls round to the south of the +rock and strengthened them by five other towers. The last of these, +known as the _Tour du Roi_, forms the south-eastern projection of the +place, and commands the western gate of the town. + +The walls and their sloping bases are defended by stone machicolations +above, the consoles of which support open crenellated parapets. +Several of the towers were roofed, and afforded shelter for the +defenders of the ramparts. After leaving the _Tour du Roi_ the +walls turn off at a right angle and unite themselves to the abrupt +declivities of the rock by means of a series of steps and covered +ways, commanded by a fortified guard-room. Even the inaccessible peaks +of the rock itself are fortified and connected with the defences of +the abbey on the south. + +At the beginning of the fifteenth century, and still more notably +towards its close, firearms had been successfully used in various +sieges, and had made such rapid progress that the whole system of +attack and defence was transformed. Towers gave way to bastions, the +terraces of which became batteries, while the battlements of the +earlier mode were replaced by epaulments. Machicolations which were +now merely a traditional decoration at last disappeared altogether, +and military science gradually took the place of architecture, for +which there was henceforth little scope in this particular field. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + CASTLES AND KEEPS, OR DONJONS + + +The first French castles of the mediæval period seem to have been +built for the purpose of arresting invasion and affording shelter to +communities decimated by the raids of the Normans. They consisted of +simple intrenchments more or less extensive. Surrounded by a _fossé_ +or ditch formed of earthworks, the scarp of which was defended by +a palisade, they had much in common with the camps of the ancient +Romans. In the centre of the enclosure rose the _motte_ (mote or +mound), a conical elevation, either natural to the ground, or +artificially formed on the model of the Roman _prætorium_. This was +surmounted by a building, generally of wood, which served as a post of +observation and a retreat less accessible than the _enceinte_ itself. + +In these rudimentary dispositions we recognise the germ of those +feudal keeps and castles which were such important features of +mediæval architecture, notably during the Gothic period. + + [Illustration: 174. CASTLE OF ANGERS] + +Defensive works of this nature sprang up at various points of the +royal domain which were exposed to the incursions of the Scandinavian +pirates; but the temporary concessions of Charles the Bald were +claimed as definitive by those to whom they had been made. "When, +therefore, that feeble monarch proclaimed the heredity of the feofs +at Quierzy-sur-Oise in 877, he did but sanction that which was +already an accomplished fact.... When the feudal system was firmly +established, the nobles turned their attention to the maintenance +of their usurpations alike against the kings of France, strangers, +and neighbours. To this end they carefully chose the best strategic +positions in their territories, and fortified them in the most durable +fashion at their command. The imposts they levied were considerable, +and their serfs were subject to endless exactions."[65] Stone castles +were accordingly built which, in general arrangement, adhered to +primitive models. In 980 Frotaire had raised no less than five around +Périgueux, his episcopal town. + +[65] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_. + +In 991 Thibault File-Étoupe built a fortress on the hill of Montlhéry, +near the royal residences of Paris and Étampes, which was very +formidable to the first five kings of the house of Capet. Later, when +it became a royal possession, it was one of the chief bulwarks of the +city. + + [Illustration: 175. CARCASSONNE; CITADEL. VIEW FROM THE NORTH-EASTERN + ANGLE. (SEE PLAN, FIG. 167)] + +In the Middle Ages the castle bore the same relation to the fortified +town as did the keep to the feudal castle, and the history of one is +bound up in that of the other. + +In a fortified town the castle was the lodging of the leader and his +soldiers. It was connected with the ramparts of the place, and had one +or more special outlets; it was further provided with defences on the +side of the town itself, so that upon occasion it became an isolated +stronghold. + +The Castle of Carcassonne is a famous example of such offensive and +defensive fortification. It was built in the first years of the +twelfth century, and is composed of various lodgings for the chief and +his garrison, defended east and north, on the side towards the city, +by towers and curtains (Fig. 175). At the south-west angle independent +reducts and towers guard the courtyards and approaches. The west front +overlooks the open country, and here was placed the gate, which was +defended by a series of formidable devices so ingenious as to preclude +all possibility of surprise. + + [Illustration: 176. LOCHES CASTLE. KEEP] + +During the Romanesque and Gothic periods the castle was a miniature +town, with its own fortified _enceinte_, composed of walls reinforced +by towers which served as refuges at various points of the +circumference, and formed so many reducts for the arrest of assailants. + +The keep was the citadel of this miniature town, the temporary +lodging of the lord whose vassals lived in the internal offices, and +whose soldiers occupied the gate-house buildings and the towers of +the ramparts. The noble sought to give his special habitation the +most formidable aspect possible, and thereby to strike terror to the +beholder, a very necessary device in those days of conflict when the +friend of night was often the implacable foe of morning. "In times of +peace the keep was the receptacle for the treasure, arms, and archives +of the family; but the lord did not lodge there; he only took up his +quarters in the keep with his wife and children in time of war. As +it was not possible for him to defend the place alone, he surrounded +himself with a band of the most devoted of his followers who shared +his dwelling. From thence he exercised a scrupulous surveillance over +the garrison and its approaches, for the keep was always placed at +the most vulnerable point of the fortress, and he and his bodyguard +held the horde of vassals and retainers in due subservience; as they +were able to pass in and out at all hours by secret and well-guarded +passages, the garrison was kept in ignorance of the exact means of +defence, the lord, as was natural, doing all in his power to make them +appear formidable."[66] + +[66] Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire_, vol. v. + +Castles and keeps of stone were generally built upon the natural scarp +of some spur commanding two valleys and near the banks of a river; the +primitive mounds of the feudal fortresses were abandoned; as we have +already remarked, these were in many cases artificial, and would have +been quite inadequate to the support of the huge masses of masonry of +the new architecture. + +"By the close of the tenth century and the opening years of the +eleventh, Foulques Nerra was raising castles throughout his own +territories in Anjou, and on every available point of vantage he could +wrest from his neighbour, the Count of Blois and Tours; the latter +built fortresses to resist the aggressor and complete the network of +strongholds begun by his father, Thibault the Trickster, one of the +most turbulent nobles of his day."[67] + +[67] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_. + +The keep of Langeais, on a precipitous hill overlooking the Loire, +was founded by Foulques Nerra at the close of the tenth century; +the walls, which are still standing on three sides, show traces of +Gallo-Roman methods of construction; the dressed stones are of small +size, and brick and stone are used conjointly for the voussoirs of the +window arches. + +A large number of castles and keeps were built in the eleventh and +twelfth centuries, among others those of Plessy, Grimoult, Le Pin, +and La Pommeraye, the last on a mound surrounded by deep moats +which separate three lines of circumvallation from each other; +Beaugency-sur-Loire, the vast keep of which was four stories high; +and Loches, which is ascribed to Foulques Nerra, but which seems +to belong rather to the twelfth century, at which period military +architecture had made a great advance. The keep of Loches is perhaps +the finest of all such structures in France; in height it is nearly +100 feet; the ramparts seem to date from the thirteenth century; the +form of the towers on plan is a pointed arch, a shape adopted as +offering greater resistance at the part most frequently attacked by +the sapper. + + [Illustration: 177. FALAISE CASTLE. KEEP] + +At Falaise, where the castle like that of Domfront is built on +a rugged promontory, the ramparts are later than the keep, the +architectural details of which point to the twelfth century. This +hypothesis is supported by a passage in the Chronicle of Robert du +Mont, quoted by M. de Caumont. In 1123 Henry II. rebuilt the keep and +ramparts of Arques, and carried out similar restorations at Gisors, +Falaise, Argentan, Exmes, Domfront, Amboise, and Vernon. + + [Illustration: 178. LAVARDIN CASTLE. KEEP] + + [Illustration: 179. KEEP OF AIGUES-MORTES. TOUR DE CONSTANCE] + +Other keeps of equal interest in point of situation, plan, or details +of construction are:--Ste. Suzanne, Nogent-le-Rotrou, Broue, L'Islot, +Tonnay-Boutonne, Pons, Chamboy, Montbazon, Lavardin, Montrichard, +and Huriet in the Bourbonnais. All these, in common with those first +described, are square or rectangular on plan. From the end of the +twelfth century onwards the cylindrical form predominates in the plan +of keeps and towers. On the whole, it offered the best resistance to +the mediæval assailant. The convex surface was of equal strength all +round, and as we have seen in the preceding chapter, the circular +trace for towers gave the garrison the best chance of defending their +bases from the curtain, and of opposing the work of sappers and miners. + + [Illustration: 180. PROVINS CASTLE. KEEP] + +The great advance made in architecture by the general adoption +of an expedient so simple and easy of execution as the vault on +intersecting arches manifested itself very strongly in military +structures. The heavy wooden floors of the earlier keeps, which were +so apt to catch fire, were replaced by less ponderous vaults, binding +the circular walls firmly together, and forming a flooring for the +various stories less unsteady and infinitely more durable than the +huge beams and joists of earlier days. + +A further improvement was the pointed roof, round on plan, now +generally adopted as better calculated to withstand projectiles or +combustibles which shattered the angles of the roof in the old square +towers, and set fire to the timbers. + +The form of keeps, however, varied considerably throughout the +twelfth century. At Houdan the keep is a great tower strengthened by +four turrets; at Étampes it is composed of four clustered towers, +forming a quatrefoil on plan; the vaulted stories are marked by many +curious features, among others a deep well, the opening of which is +in the second floor. Some historians date this building from the +eleventh century; there are indications, however, in the details of +the architecture and sculptures, which point to the early part of the +reign of Philip Augustus. + +The keep of Provins, which belongs to the twelfth century, has certain +very original features. It rises from a solid mound of masonry, and +has a circular _enceinte_. The base of the keep itself is square, and +is flanked at each angle by a turret. An octagonal tower surmounts +the square base, and is connected with the flanking turrets by flying +buttresses. The keep of Gisors is also octagonal in form, one of its +octagons being at a tangent to the circular _enceinte_ which crowns +the feudal _motte_ or mound. It was built in the twelfth century, and +was considerably augmented by the line of walls and square towers +which Philip Augustus drew round the mound. + +The _Château Gaillard_, built at the close of the twelfth century +on an eminence commanding the Seine at Les Andelys, has several +peculiarities of arrangement. The round keep is first enclosed by a +circular _enceinte_, or rather by a square, the angles of which have +been rounded. This in its turn is surrounded by an elliptic enclosure +connected with the defences of the castle, and consisting of a series +of segmental towers united by very narrow curtains. In this massive +structure the art of the architect manifests itself only in the +robust solidity of the masonry. It is the keep in its purely military +character. No trace of decoration mitigates its austerity. + + [Illustration: 181. CASTLE OF CHINON. SOUTH FRONT] + +Philip Augustus, having possessed himself of the Château Gaillard, +fortified Gisors on the same formidable scale, and proceeded to build +the castle of Dourdan as well as his own palace fortress of the +Louvre, in Paris. Upon the death of the king, Enguerrand III. began +to build a fortress at Coucy, which he completed in less than ten +years (1223-1230). Its grandiose proportions and formidable system of +defence surpassed everything that had gone before. Coucy was, in fact, +the architectural manifestation of that haughty ambition to which +Enguerrand is said to have given free expression during the minority +of his sovereign. + + [Illustration: 182. CASTLE OF CLISSON. KEEP] + +Next in importance to the castles and keeps of the thirteenth century, +already enumerated, are the following:--The White Tower of Issoudun; +the Tower of Blandy; the octagonal keep of Châtillon-sur-Loing, +Semur; the royal fortresses of Angers, built by St. Louis; +Montargis, Boulogne, Chinon, and Saumur; the _Tour Constance_ or +keep of Aigues-Mortes, ascribed to St. Louis; the castle of Najac, +built by his brother, Alphonse of Poitiers; the castles of Bourbon +l'Archambault and Chalusset, and the castle of Clisson, rebuilt or +begun by Olivier I., Lord of Clisson, after his return from the Holy +Land, etc. + + [Illustration: 183. VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON. CASTLE OF ST. ANDRÉ] + +In the fourteenth century military architecture developed chiefly +on reconstructive lines. Ancient fortresses were reorganised in +accordance with the new methods of attack and (consequently) of +defence, and the weak points brought to light by recent sieges +were dealt with. The same process was applied to the construction +of towers which had hitherto been furnished with several rows of +loopholes, an excellent expedient for the defence of curtains and +approaches, but subject to this drawback, that it directed attention +to the most vulnerable points. The first effect of the use of cannon +in warfare was to increase the thickness of the walls; subsequently, +such structural modifications were adopted as were required by the +novel method of massing all the defences at the summit of machicolated +walls. The principal castles of this period were Vincennes, near +Paris, built by Philip of Valois and Charles V., and the vast +fortified palace at Avignon, constructed by the Popes Benedict XII., +Clement VI., Innocent VI., and Urban V., of which we shall have more +to say in Part IV. Gaston Phœbus, Count of Foix and Béarn, built +square keeps in the _Bastide_ of Béarn, at Montaner, and at Mauvezin, +besides circular keeps at Lourdes and at Foix. + + [Illustration: 184. CASTLE OF TARASCON] + +Among keeps and castles completed or entirely built in the fourteenth +century, Anthyme St. Paul enumerates those of Roquetaillade, +Bourdeilles, Polignac, Briquebec, Hardelot, Rambures, Lavardin (the +foundations of which were laid in the twelfth century), Montrond, +Turenne, Billy, Murat, and Hérisson, the curious keep of Montbard, the +keeps of Romefort, Pouzauges, Noirmoutier, and many others. + +At the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth century +Louis of Orleans, son of Charles V., took advantage of the madness +of his brother Charles VI. to fortify various positions on which he +relied for the furtherance of his ambitious schemes. In 1393 and the +years immediately following he acquired various estates in Valois: +Montépilloy, Pierrefonds, and La Ferté-Milon, the castle of which he +rebuilt entirely. He also bought the domain of Coucy in 1400, after +the death of the last male descendant of Enguerrand III. + +Coucy, Pierrefonds, and La Ferté-Milon have been so exhaustively +described in special works, notably those of Viollet-le-Duc, that we +need not reproduce them here. We have cited them as characteristic +types of those colossal fortresses and keeps, admirable alike in +grandiose proportion and refinement of detail which are the supreme +expression of feudal power. + + [Illustration: 185. VITRÉ CASTLE] + +Several other castles were built in Albigeois, Auvergne, Limousin, +Guyenne, La Vendée, and Provence, notably at Tarascon. The keeps of +Trèves in Anjou also date from this period. + +Important castles sprang up all over Brittany in the fifteenth +century. Such were Combourg, Fougères, Montauban, St. Malo, Vitré, +Elven, Sucinio, Dinan, Tonquédec, etc. + +Many of these buildings which date from the close of the century +were remarkable for their ingenuity of arrangement and richness of +decoration. But though worthy of all attention from the artistic point +of view, they do not come within the scope of our present study--that +of _military_ architecture in the Gothic period. + + + + + CHAPTER III + + GATES AND BRIDGES + + +Though confining ourselves to a brief historical abstract of the +so-called Gothic period in architecture, without reference to Roman +examples, we have said enough in the foregoing studies on castles +and keeps, and the circumvallation of towns, to give some idea of +the importance attached by architects to the gates which secured the +_enceintes_, and the bridges which afforded an approach. + + +_Gates._--Following the example of those Frankish architects whose +works in Syria after the first Crusade seem to have exercised such +far-reaching influence, French builders of the reigns of Philip +Augustus and St. Louis reduced the entrances of fortresses and +fortified _enceintes_ to the smallest number practicable. Their +construction was based upon a system calculated to repulse any +ordinary attempt to carry the place by direct attack; as a rule, +fortresses were taken rather by ruse, surprise, or treason than by +regular siege. + + [Illustration: 186. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. GATE-HOUSE OF THE CASTLE] + +During the twelfth, and more especially the thirteenth century, the +gates were the points most strongly fortified. They were approached +over a bridge, by raising a movable portion of which, however, +entrance might be barred on the very threshold. The narrow gateway +passage was defended by two projecting towers pierced with loopholes, +and connected by a curtain. The whole structure formed a fortified +gate-house, known as a _châtelet_, which had to be carried before an +assailant could penetrate to the fortress beyond. The passage was +further defended by a single or double portcullis, a grated timber +framework like a harrow, cased with iron, the uprights of which were +spiked at the bottom. The passage was also defended by machicolations +or holes in the roof, through which the garrison could hurl down +missiles on the heads of their enemies, should the latter have forced +the gate. + +The castle-gate of Carcassonne which was built about 1120 still +exists, and is a good example of such arrangements. + +The minute precautions adopted by architects to guard against surprise +are very manifest in this example. A sudden attempt was often +successful, especially if favoured by traitors among the defenders +themselves. + +The difficulties of passage were increased by the multiplication of +portcullises, the windlasses of which were worked from different +stories of the tower, so as to prevent collusion between different +parties of the garrison, which was often composed largely of +mercenaries. In the gate-house of Carcassonne the first portcullis +was raised or lowered by means of chains and counter-weights worked +from a windlass on the second floor; the second portcullis was worked +in like manner from the first floor, in a place entirely cut off from +communication with that above, to which access could only be obtained +by a wooden staircase in the castle courtyard. + +In the thirteenth century military architects further provided +against surprises by defensive outworks. The gate of Laon, at Coucy, +so admirably described by Viollet-le-Duc, is a famous example. These +outworks, which were called barbicans, were designed to protect the +great gate and its approaches. + + [Illustration: 187. CARCASSONNE. GATEWAY OF THE LISTS, KNOWN AS THE + _PORTE DE L'AUDE_] + +Around the walls of the city of Carcassonne a second line of ramparts +had been drawn by St. Louis, in which only a single opening gave +access to the _lists_ (Fig. 187)--that is to say, the space between +the inner and outer enclosures. He afterwards built a huge tower, +known as the _Barbican_, to the west of the castle, with which it +was connected by crenellated walls, and by inner cross-walls, so +arranged in a kind of echelon that the open spaces on one side were +masked by the projections on the other (see plan, Fig. 167). The +tower was destined to cover sorties from the garrison, and to keep +open communication by the bridge across the Aude. It was rather an +outwork than a barbican such as Philip the Bold built before the +_Porte Narbonaise_, on the east of the city, towards the close of the +thirteenth century. + + [Illustration: 188. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. GATE KNOWN AS THE _PORTE + NARBONAISE_] + +The _Porte Narbonaise_ bears a general resemblance to the main +gate of the castle, subject, however, to the great advance made in +military architecture in the course of a century. The gateway towers +are provided with spurs, an invention directed against the attack of +miners, which had the further advantage of interfering with the action +of a battering-ram, by exposing those who worked it to missiles from +the adjacent parts of the curtain. The gate opened immediately upon +the lists; it was defended by the crenellated semi-circular barbican, +which was united on either side to the embattled parapet of the lists. +Access to the barbican was obtained only by a narrow passage preceded +by a bridge, the latter easily defended by a redan which adjoined the +postern of the barbican. + +The gate itself was provided with two portcullises like those of the +castle gate; behind the first were massive folding-doors, and over it +a wide machicolation. + +The constructive methods employed in the building of fortified gates +were modified as military architecture progressed on lines already +considered by us in the first chapter of this section, when dealing +with defensive methods generally, which, in the fourteenth century, +seem to have been in advance of those of attack. A steady improvement +in details went on until the invention of gunpowder came in to +profoundly modify the conditions alike of defence and assault. + + [Illustration: 189. RAMPARTS OF AIGUES-MORTES. GATE KNOWN AS THE + _PORTE DE LA GARDETTE_. DRAWBRIDGE. (TO THE RIGHT OF THE DRAWING THE + _TOUR CONSTANCE_, BUILT BY ST. LOUIS)] + +The gateways of fortified _enceintes_ were modified in the +fourteenth century not only by alterations in the plan of towers, +the substitution of stone machicolations for the wooden _hourds_ or +scaffoldings of parapets, the addition of portcullises, folding-doors, +and the _machicoulis_ of the vaulted passage, but further by the +invention of the drawbridge. A drawbridge, it may be hardly necessary +to say, consisted of a wooden platform suspended by chains to +cross-beams poised on uprights on the principle of a see-saw; when +lowered, the bridge afforded a passage across the moat. It was raised +by depressing the inner ends of the lever-beams which pivoted upon a +fulcrum, and thus brought the platform up vertically against the front +of the building, where it formed an outer door which an attacking +party had either to batter in or to bring down by cutting the chains. + + [Illustration: 190. RAMPARTS OF DINAN. GATE KNOWN AS THE _PORTE DE + JERZUAL_] + +It will be readily perceived that such a bridge was infinitely more +effectual and more to be depended upon than the portable bridge +mentioned in our description of the castle gate of Carcassonne. +The latter had to be raised piece by piece, a prolonged operation +impossible of execution in case of a sudden surprise. + +Aigues-Mortes seems to have been one of the first fortresses to +which the new methods were applied. The gates east, west, and south +are constructed on the twelfth-century system, as exemplified at +Carcassonne. But the northern gate, known as the _Porte de la +Gardette_, which was either made or altered in the fourteenth century, +still shows the grooves for the beams of the drawbridge, and the +pointed arch of the doorway is enframed by a square rebate destined +for the platform when raised. + +The use of drawbridges became very general in the fourteenth century, +and gave rise to various ingenious combinations. The gate at Dinan, +known as the _Porte de Jerzual_, which probably dates from the close +of the century, is a curious example. It is not placed between +two towers in the manner then usual, but is pierced through the +actual face of a tower. In this case, the inner prolongation of the +lever-beams formed a solid panel like the platform of the bridge +itself. It was worked through a hole in the roof of the entrance +archway, being raised with the help of a chain, and falling through +its own preponderant weight. The horizontal pivot on which it turned +rested on the brackets shown in Fig. 190; the external sections of the +lever-beams sank in the usual manner into the vertical grooves above +the arch, and when the bridge was up, the solid panel joining the +inner ends of the levers doubled the protection it gave. In case of +alarm, the chain had simply to be let go, and the panel falling by its +own weight, the bridge rose, and the barricade was complete. + + [Illustration: 191. VITRÉ CASTLE. GATE-HOUSE] + +By the fifteenth century drawbridges were in universal use; an +interesting development was the result. This was the introduction of a +smaller gate or postern in the curtain between the towers, by the side +of the great gateway. Each of the two apertures was furnished with its +own drawbridge. That of the centre, which was reserved for horsemen +and vehicles, was worked by two beams or arms, as we have seen, while +the smaller footbridge of the postern was raised by means of a single +beam, the chain of which was attached to a forked upright. + + [Illustration: 192. ENCEINTE OF GUÉRANDE. GATE OF ST. MICHEL] + +The castle of Vitré, which was built, or at least completed at the +close of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth century, +illustrates the system in the gateway of its _châtelet_. + +The gate-house, known as the _Porte St. Michel_, at Guérande, which +was built together with the _enceinte_ by John V., Duke of Brittany, +in 1431, still preserves the lateral grooves which indicate the shape +and arrangement of the postern drawbridge. + +When raised, the two drawbridges closed the apertures of gateway and +postern, while the open gulf of the great ditch, either empty, or full +of water, cut off the approach to the entrance. + +The Abbey of Mont St. Michel, which we have already studied under +various aspects, has further information to give us with regard to the +construction of fortified gateways. In accordance with contemporary +usage, the Abbot Pierre Le Roy built a gate-house or _bastille_ +(Fig. 163), the entrance of which was guarded by a portcullis and a +wide _machicoulis_; he masked this gate-house by a barbican, which +was connected north and south with the great stairway leading to +the abbey. The northern staircase is rendered specially interesting +by the ingenious arrangement of its gates, which opened within +the barbican. The apertures were filled by a panel which worked +horizontally, on a system necessitated by the exceptional situation of +the abbey, where the military, as well as the domestic buildings, were +superposed, communicating with each other only by an elaborate series +of staircases and inclines. The doors pivoted upon horizontal axes. +Resting upon salient jambs in the embrasures of the doorways, they +opened in a direction parallel with the slope of the steps, and could +be shut at the least alarm, being carried into place by their own +weight. They were kept fastened by lateral bolts, the slots of which +still exist in the jambs.[68] + +[68] Ed. Corroyer, _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de +ses Abords_; Paris, 1877. + + [Illustration: 193. RAMPARTS OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GATEWAY KNOWN AS THE + _PORTE DU ROI_] + +The main gate of the ramparts, which was built between 1415 and 1420, +is to the west of the place, in the curtain flanked by the tower +known as the _Tour du Roi_. This gate and the lateral postern gave +access to the town, their drawbridges forming a passage across the +moat when lowered, and when raised, an initial barrier to assailants. +Above the gates was the warder's lodging, beneath which the vaulted +passage and the postern communicated directly with an outer guard-room +in the ground-floor of the _Tour du Roi_. In addition to the first +barrier, formed by the raised platform of the drawbridge, the main +entrance was secured by double doors, and by an iron portcullis, which +still remains in its lateral grooves. The great arch is crowned by a +tympanum, on which the united arms of the king, the abbey, and the +town were carved. + +The works designed for the defence of rivers flowing through fortified +towns, or of the inlets of harbours, are closely allied to the +military architecture of gates. At Troyes the river arches in the +town ramparts were guarded by gratings or portcullises of iron. At +Paris the passage of the Seine was barred by chains stretched across +the river from wall to wall, and upheld in the middle of the stream +by piles or firmly anchored boats. At Angers the walls of the town +abutted on two towers known as the _Haute Chaîne_ and the _Basse +Chaîne_ (the Higher and Lower Chains), containing windlasses for the +chains, which at night were stretched across the Maine at its passage +through the _enceinte_. + +Seaports were defended at the mouth by towers on either shore, +between which chains, worked from within, could be stretched to bar +the passage. The harbour of La Rochelle is thus protected. According +to some archæologists of authority, the tower known as the _Tour +de la Chaîne_ (to the left of the drawing) is older than that of +St. Nicholas (on the right), which is supposed by them to have been +built in the sixteenth century on the foundations of an earlier tower +contemporary with that on the other side of the Channel. The piles +upon which these towers stand seem to have given way in part, and to +have caused a perceptible inclination of the Tower of St. Nicholas. + + [Illustration: 194. ENTRANCE TO THE PORT OF LA ROCHELLE. TOWER OF ST. + NICHOLAS, AND TOWER CALLED _TOUR DE LA CHAÎNE_. BEFORE THE + RESTORATION] + +The suggestion made in a very fanciful modern design, that the two +towers were once united by a great arch, is wholly without foundation. +Such a useless structure would have entailed defensive works equally +useless, seeing that a chain stretched from tower to tower at high +tide--at low tide the harbour was inaccessible--would have been +perfectly effectual against any vessels of that period attempting to +force a passage. + + +_Bridges._--As is the case with all other architectural buildings, +the origin of bridges dates back to the Romans, by whom they were +often decorated with triumphal arches. The bridge of St. Chamas in +Provence, known as the _Pont Flavien_ (Flavian Bridge), is an example +which seems to date from the first centuries of the Christian era. + +The triumphal arches were in later times replaced by fortifications; +they became _têtes de pont_, _bastilles_, or crenellated gate-houses, +the function of which was not, like that of the arches, the decoration +of the structure or the glorification of its founder, but the defence +of the passage across the river, and the protection of the fortress +with which it communicated. + + [Illustration: 195. BRIDGE AT AVIGNON. RUINS OF THE BRIDGE KNOWN AS + THE PONT DE ST. BÉNÉZET] + +Among the bridges constructed by mediæval architects, that of St. +Bénézet, the Bridge of Avignon, seems to be the most ancient. This +bridge, which was begun about 1180, and completed some ten years +later, is equally remarkable for its architectural details, and the +structural problems solved by its builders. It crosses, or rather +used to cross, the Rhone--for though the arm towards the _Rocher des +Doms_ is the narrower, it is the deeper--on nineteen arches, extending +from the foot of the Doms, on the Avignonese bank, to the Tower of +Villeneuve, on the right bank, after a slight deflection southward. + +The gate-house on the left bank, some fragments of which still remain, +is said to have been built by the Popes in the fourteenth century, for +the purpose of levying tolls, a perquisite shared by them with the +King of France. + +The Bridge of Avignon seems to have been one of the first constructed +by the fraternity of the _Hospitaliers pontifs_, which was founded +in the twelfth century for the double object of building bridges +and succouring travellers. The head of the order at the time of the +building of the Rhone bridge was St. Bénézet. It must have numbered +architects of ability among its members, for the construction of the +Bridge of Avignon is very remarkable. Each of the elliptical arches +is composed of four independent arches in simple juxtaposition one +with another. This device ensures elasticity, and as a consequence +stability. The solidarity of the whole is rendered complete by the +masonry of the spandrils, which recall the architectural portions of +the aqueduct, known as the _Pont du Gard_; its width is about 16 feet. +The arches spring from piers furnished on either face with acute spurs +designed to break the force of the stream and the impact of floating +ice in the winter. + +The spandril above each pier is pierced with a round arch, to +give free passage to the water during those floods which at times +completely submerge the piers. + +The bridge in its present ruined condition has only four arches. On +the pier nearest to the left bank the ancient chapel, dedicated to +St. Nicholas, is still standing. Access to it is obtained by means +of a flight of corbelled steps rising from the foundation to the +entrance, and by an overhanging landing-stage, resting at one end +against the pier, at the other against the flank of the arch. + + [Illustration: 196. BRIDGE OF MONTAUBAN, KNOWN AS THE _PONT DES + CONSULS_] + +The old bridge at Carcassonne seems to be contemporary with that of +Avignon, but its arches are semi-circular, their keystones are bound +into the intrados, and their piers are spurred to the level of the +platform, where they form recesses or refuges, which the narrowness of +the bridge rendered very necessary. + +Among bridges of the thirteenth century we may mention that at +Béziers, where the arches, both pointed and semi-circular, resemble +those of Carcassonne in construction; but here the piers only rise +above the summers of the arches by the height of two or three courses, +and their spandrils are pierced to give free passage to the current +during floods. + +The bridge which spanned the Rhone at St. Savournin du Port, known as +the _Pont St. Esprit_, was the work of a Clunisian abbot about 1265. +It resembled the Bridge of Avignon in the construction of the piers +with their pierced spandrils; the arches, however, were semi-circular. +The platform, which is some 16 feet across, was barred at either end +by toll-gates; that nearest to the little town was connected with +the _tête de pont_, which, in after times, was incorporated with the +fortress commanding the course of the Rhone above the bridge. + + [Illustration: 197. BRIDGE OF CAHORS, KNOWN AS THE PONT DE VALENTRÉ] + +The question of tolls was an important one in those days, and gave +rise to frequent disputes. The towers and gate-houses of bridges were +toll-bars as well as defensive outworks. + +The bridge at Montauban, known as the _Pont des Consuls_, which was +begun at the close of the thirteenth century, remained unfinished +till the beginning of the fourteenth, when Philip the Fair gave such +help as was needed for its completion, on condition that he should +be allowed to raise three towers on the bridge, with a view to the +appropriation of the tolls. + +The Bridge of Montauban is built entirely of brick. It consists of +seven pointed arches, resting on spurred piers, which are pierced +with arches, also pointed, and rising to the same height as the main +arches, to provide for the frequent floods of the Tarn. + +The Bridge of Cahors is one of the most beautiful of +fourteenth-century examples. It is still of great interest in spite of +the various restorations it has undergone, chiefly of late years. + + [Illustration: 198. BRIDGE OF ORTHEZ] + +This bridge, which is known as the _Pont de Valentré_, was begun in +1308 by Raymond Panchelli, Bishop of Cahors from 1300-1312, and cannot +have been finished before 1355. It consists of six slightly pointed +arches; the piers, which rise to the level of the parapet, forming +lateral refuges, are triangular above bridge and square below. At each +end the bridge was commanded by a crenellated structure, forming a +gate-house or _tête de pont_ on either bank. In the middle rose a +lofty tower with gates, by means of which passage might be barred and +assailants checked in the event of a surprise of either gate-house. + + [Illustration: 199. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. FORTIFIED BRIDGE + CONNECTING THE LOWER CHURCH WITH THE ABBEY] + +The Bridge of Orthez has strong affinities with that of Cahors. It +must date from about the same period, and there is every reason to +suppose it was defended, not only by the central tower, but by _têtes +de pont_, one of which at least must have been destroyed to make way +for the railroad from Bayonne to Pau. + +Bridges were of great importance in the Middle Ages, both as public +highways and military outworks. At certain points, notably at the +confluence of two rivers, they were strongly reinforced by very +considerable defences, as at Sens, Montereau, etc. + +At Paris, Orleans, Rouen, Nantes, and a large number of other towns +traversed by rivers, bridges were not only important as military +defences, but of great interest as architecture. + +Mont St. Michel shall furnish us with our last example, a bridge +of the fifteenth century. Though it spans no stream, it is none +the less remarkable. In the details of this bridge--its embattled +platform uniting the lower church to the abbey, its machicolated +parapet guarding the inner passages--we recognise an art consummate as +that which stirs our enthusiasm in the vast proportions and perfect +execution of the splendid choir, the whole proclaiming the versatile +genius of those great builders who welded into one noble monument a +triad of masterpieces--religious, monastic, and military. + + + + + PART IV + + CIVIL ARCHITECTURE + + + + + CHAPTER I + + BARNS, HOSPITALS, DWELLING-HOUSES, AND "HÔTELS" + OR TOWNHOUSES OF THE NOBILITY + + +Civil architecture could boast no special characteristics before +the close of the thirteenth century. Its earlier buildings bore the +impress of religious and monastic types, as was natural at a period +when architecture was practised almost exclusively by monks and by the +lay disciples trained in their schools. + +It was not until the following century that domestic architecture +threw off the trammels of religious tradition, and took on the +character appropriate to its various functions. Artists began to seek +decorative motives in the scenes and objects of daily life, no longer +borrowing exclusively from sacred themes, and convention in form and +detail was abandoned in some degree for the study of nature. + + +_Barns._--Throughout the Romanesque and Gothic periods, barns, +hospitals, and houses were constructed in the prevailing style. We +propose, of course, to deal only with buildings possessing real +architectural features. + + [Illustration: 200. TOWN-HALL AT ST. ANTONIN (TARN ET GARONNE). THE + UPPER PART OF THE BELFRY WAS REBUILT ABOUT 1860] + +The barns or granaries of mediæval times were rural dependencies of +the abbeys, but were built outside the enclosure of the monastery +proper, and formed part of the _priory_ or farm. The entrance of the +barn was a large door, opening upon the yard in the centre of the +front gable end; access was also obtained by means of smaller doors +in the side walls, and often a postern was constructed beside the +main entrance for ordinary use. The great central doors were then +only thrown open for the passage of carts, which, entering at the +front, passed out through a similar door in the opposite gable end, as +at the barn of Perrières, which, though situated in Normandy, was a +dependency of the Abbey of Marmoutier, near Tours. + + [Illustration: 201. BARN AT PERRIÈRES (CALVADOS). END OF TWELFTH + CENTURY. (AFTER CAUMONT)] + +Such barns were generally large three-aisled buildings, the central +aisle divided from those on either side by an arcade, or pillars of +wood or stone, which supported the pointed timber roof covering the +whole. + + [Illustration: 201A. BARN AT PERRIÈRES. SECTION] + +In some of these barns it was the practice to pile wheat, barley, or +rye in the centre and in one of the side aisles; in others the central +aisle was kept free for passage, and the grain was stored in the sides. + +The façades differ only in unimportant details. They consist of vast +gable ends, following the lines of the roof, and strengthened by +pilasters. A large doorway, with a small postern to the side of it, +occupies the centre of the base, and the apex is pierced with narrow +openings to light, or rather to ventilate, the interior. + + [Illustration: 201B. BARN AT PERRIÈRES. PLAN] + +Tithe-barns were very generally constructed on this plan. When large +and important they had two stories, as at Provins. + +These were not as a rule vaulted, but the granaries, or _greniers +d'abondance_, were often built with three stories, that of the +ground-floor, and even the one above it, being vaulted. The granary of +the Abbey of Vauclair, in the department of Aisne, built towards the +close of the twelfth century, is a very interesting example of such +structures. + + [Illustration: 202. TITHE-BARN AT PROVINS] + + [Illustration: 203. GRANARY OF THE ABBEY OF VAUCLAIR] + +Some idea of the importance of religious establishments at this period +may be gathered from the foregoing details. The great abbeys were +miniature towns, and their dependencies, the priories, consisted of +vast farms, round which large villages soon grew up. The cultivators +of these great holdings combined agricultural labours with their +religious exercises, and the priors in especial were not only priests, +but perhaps even in a greater degree stewards or bailiffs, whose duty +it was to collect payments in kind, such as tithes or other revenues, +to store these, together with the crops of their own raising, and +finally to administer the wealth of every description--lands, woods, +rivers, and ponds--belonging to the abbey. + + +_Hospitals._--A large number of charitable institutions, called in +the Middle Ages _maisons dieu_, _hôtels dieu_, hospices, hospitals, +and lazar-houses, were founded in the eleventh century, and greatly +developed in the twelfth and thirteenth. + +A hospital was attached to most of the large abbeys or their +dependencies. The cities also owned hospitals founded or served by +monks. + +Lazar-houses had multiplied throughout Western Europe by the end of +the twelfth century, from Denmark to Spain, from England to Bohemia +and Hungary; but these buildings gave little scope to the architect. +They consisted merely of an enclosure surrounding a few isolated +cells, and a chapel, attached to which were the lodgings of the monks +who tended the lepers. + + [Illustration: 204. HOSPITAL OF ST. JOHN AT ANGERS (TWELFTH CENTURY). + GREAT HALL, AS RESTORED BY A. VERDIER] + +But many of the hospices or hospitals built from the end of the +twelfth to the fourteenth century are magnificent buildings, in +general arrangement much resembling the great halls of the abbeys. + +It must be borne in mind that hospitality in the Middle Ages +was obligatory; each monastery, therefore, had its eleemosynary +organisation, which included special buildings for the accommodation +of monks whose business it was to tend the sick and to distribute alms +to them and other travellers and pilgrims. + + [Illustration: 205. ABBEY OF OURSCAMPS (OISE, THIRTEENTH CENTURY). + HOSPITAL. AS RESTORED BY A. VERDIER] + +We learn from Viollet-le-Duc that so early as the Carlovingian +period taxes were levied in aid of the poor, the sick, and pilgrims. +Charlemagne had enjoined hospitality in his ordinances and +capitularies, and it was forbidden to refuse shelter, fire, and water +to any suppliant. + + [Illustration: 206. LAZAR-HOUSE AT TORTOIR (AISNE, FOURTEENTH + CENTURY). FROM DRAWINGS BY A. VERDIER] + +The communes vied with kings, nobles, abbots, and citizens in the +discharge of such duties. Hospices and hospitals were founded on +every hand, either in deserted buildings, or in specially constructed +edifices. + +Refuges were also built on roads much frequented by pilgrims to +shelter belated travellers, and hospices were constructed outside the +walls and close to the city gates. + +Pilgrimages were much in vogue in the Middle Ages, especially +throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The sanctuaries +of St. Michael in Normandy, and of St. James of Compostella in Spain, +were the most frequented. At the beginning of the thirteenth century +a hospice was founded outside Paris, near the Porte St. Denis, which +was dedicated to St. James. This hospice, with its chapel, was served +by the confraternity of _St. Jacques aux Pèlerins_ (St. James of +Pilgrims), and offered gratuitous shelter each night to pilgrims bound +for Paris. Its buildings covered two acres; they included a great hall +of stone, vaulted on intersecting arches, and measuring some 132 feet +by 36, for the accommodation of the sick. + +In a file of accounts of the fifteenth century, concluding with +an appeal for funds, it is stated that, for the convenience of +pilgrims--_y a lieu pour ce faire XVIIJ liz qui depuis le premier jour +d'aoust MCCCLXVIIJ jusques au jour de Mons. S. Jacques et Christofle +ensuivant on estés logés et hebergés en l'hospital de céans_ XV^m VI^c +IIII^{xx}X _pèlerins qui aloient et venoient au Mont Saint Michel et +austres pèlerins. Et encore sont logés continuellement chascune nuict +de XXXVI à XL povres pèlerins et austres povres, pourquoy le povre +hospital est moult chargé et en grant nécessité de liz, de couvertures +et de draps._[69] + +In the first years of the fourteenth century several hundreds of +_hôtels dieu_, hospitals, and lazar-houses received help from the +King of France. St. Louis founded the _Hospice des Quinze-Vingts_ for +the blind, and in many towns hospitals were erected for the insane, +the old, and the infirm, in addition to the usual lazar-houses. +Special hospitals had already been established for women in labour, +and a chapel was founded for their benefit in the crypt of the _Ste. +Chapelle_ of Paris, dedicated to Our Lady of Travail, of Tombelaine, +in Normandy.[70] + +[69] "Eighteen beds have been in use, and from the first day of +August 1368 to the feast of SS. James and Christopher following (July +25, 1369) this hospital has lodged and sheltered 16,690 pilgrims +journeying to or from St. Michael's Mount, besides others. And it +has further given shelter each night to some thirty-six to forty +poor pilgrims and other needy persons, whereby the poor hospital is +heavily burdened and in sore straits for lack of beds, sheets, and +blankets."--Ed. Corroyer, _Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel +et de ses Abords_; Paris, 1877. + +[70] _Idem._ + + [Illustration: 207. HOSPITAL AT TONNERRE. SECTION OF THE GREAT HALL] + +Several hospitals of the Gothic period still exist. That of St. John +at Angers is one of the most remarkable. It comprises a great hall, +divided into three aisles, and vaulted on intersecting arches, and +a chapel dating from the close of the twelfth or beginning of the +thirteenth century. The fine barn at Angers is of the same period; +the plan and details of construction are very curious, and resemble +those of the barns and granaries already described. + +The _Hôtel Dieu_ of Chartres dates from about the same period. + +The hospital of Ourscamps, near Noyon, is very similar as to the +scheme of construction which seems to have been one generally adopted +by the religious architects of the twelfth, and more notably of the +thirteenth century. The grandiose proportions of the vast building +recall the great vaulted halls of contemporary abbeys, such as those +of St. Jean des Vignes at Soissons, and of the _merveille_ at Mont +St. Michel. Certain individual features characterise it as a hospice +specially designed for the sick, the poor, and pilgrims. + +The Hospice of Tonnerre appears to have been rebuilt in the fourteenth +century. The vast design is very impressively carried out. The great +hall, over 60 feet wide by some 300 long, is covered with an open +timber roof, boarded in so as to form a semi-circular vault, which is +singularly effective. + +The internal arrangements are very ingenious. A wooden gallery in the +half-story commanded a view into each unceiled cubicle, by means of +which it was possible to keep constant watch over the patients without +disturbing them. + +The hospital of Beaune has been so often described as to call for +little comment. The painted timber vault of the great hall seems to +have been imitated from that of Tonnerre. Its distinctive character +has unfortunately been destroyed by the construction of a ceiling, +the joists of which rest on the tie-beams of the original skeleton. +But the inner court is intact, with the arcade and well and wash-house +so familiar from descriptions and illustrations. Another picturesque +and often described feature is the great roof on the south side, with +its double row of dormer windows surmounted by a rich ornamentation of +hammered lead. + +In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the practice of vaulting the +great halls of hospitals with stone was abandoned. It became usual in +France and in Flanders to cover the vast aisles with timber roofs, the +boarded vaults of which were either pointed or barrel-shaped. + +The term _maladrerie_ was applied to the small lazar-houses, numbers +of which were built in France in the neighbourhood of abbeys or of +priories remote from towns and great religious centres. + +The _Maladrerie du Tortoir_, not far from Laon, on the _Route de la +Fère_, is a type of such rural hospitals. Both in plan and in the +details of construction it recalls the hospital of Tonnerre, more +especially in the ingenious arrangement of the interior. + +In the planning of these charitable institutions mediæval architects +exhibited the same skill and ingenuity which distinguished their +treatment of religious monuments. Viollet-le-Duc has pointed out +the strange illogicality of such a theory as that which would make +artists who showed extraordinary subtlety in religious buildings +responsible for so much coarseness in civil structures. We must not +hold them accountable for the destruction of their well-planned +hospitals from the sixteenth century onwards, and the substitution of +buildings, the main preoccupation of whose architects was to provide +accommodation for as many patients as possible. Louis XIV. endowed the +hospitals built in his reign with the revenues of the lazar-houses +and _maladreries_, for which there was no further occasion, leprosy +having disappeared from his dominions. But his hospitals leave much to +be desired from the hygienic point of view; the mediæval hospitals, +on the other hand, have a monumental simplicity of appearance, and +offer a liberal supply of light, air, and space to their patients. We +do not assert the superiority of the cellular system commonly adopted +in hospitals from the twelfth to the fifteenth century, over that of +the open wards of our own times, but we may be permitted to point out +its great moral advantages. And, as our learned authority remarks, the +system owed its adoption to a noble delicacy of charitable feeling in +the mediæval founders and builders of our _maisons dieu_. + + +_Houses and Hôtels, or Town-Houses of the Nobility._--The history +of human habitations is a subject of such interest that to treat it +adequately a special work would be necessary. Such an undertaking has, +moreover, been admirably carried out by a famous architect.[71] + +[71] Ch. Garnier, Member of the Institute, whose picturesque +embodiment of research, in his reconstruction of human habitations +from the lacustrine period to our own times, attracted so much +attention at the Exhibition of 1889. + +We must refrain from discussion of prehistoric or Merovingian +dwellings, or of those rural hovels, the typical variations of +which, in different countries and climates, offers so wide a field +for study. To keep within the limits assigned us by the arbitrary +term Gothic Architecture, we must confine our rapid sketch to the +architectural period which dates from the middle of the twelfth to the +close of the fifteenth century. + + [Illustration: 208. HOUSE AT CLUNY (TWELFTH CENTURY)] + +Nothing remains of habitations constructed in France before the +twelfth century, save the vague and scanty records of ancient texts, +manuscripts, and bas-reliefs. But we may reasonably infer that the +houses of the period were built of wood, as was natural in a country +containing great tracts of forest. We know that most of the important +buildings were timber structures, which explains the fact that numbers +of twelfth-century churches were founded on the sites of earlier +buildings destroyed by fire. + +Roman, Gallo-Roman, and Merovingian houses were arranged to suit the +habits of the times; they were lighted by windows opening upon an +inner courtyard, in accordance with the ancient custom of separating +the women's apartments from the rest of the habitation. + + [Illustration: 208A. HOUSE AT CLUNY (TWELFTH CENTURY)] + +But by the end of the twelfth century the urban dwelling was adapted +to the needs of a family. The doors and windows of the house were made +to overlook the street. The building consisted generally of a hall +or shop, in which a handicraft was carried on, or manufactured goods +were offered for sale. It was lighted by a wide arcade of round or +pointed arches, and was either on a level with the street, or raised +above it by the height of some few steps. A back room, opening upon +a courtyard, served for kitchen and dining-room. To the left of the +façade a little door gave access to a staircase which led to the +first floor, where was a large _solar_ or living-room and an apartment +overlooking the courtyard. Above these were the chambers occupied by +the inmates of the house. + + [Illustration: 209, 210. HOUSES AT VITTEAUX (CÔTE D'OR), AND AT ST. + ANTONIN (TARN ET GARONNE, THIRTEENTH CENTURY)] + +The architecture of such houses varies according to the climate, +the materials of the country, and the customs of the inhabitants. +The houses had no special individuality as long as the windows were +treated merely as apertures for the admission of light; but directly +these began to take on a certain elaboration, and such features as +mouldings or sculptures were introduced in the façades, a system of +decoration was borrowed from the neighbouring churches or abbeys of +monkish architects, a consequence either of the far-reaching influence +of monastic schools, or of the spirit of imitation and force of habit. + +Certain houses at Cluny, which date from the twelfth century, +exemplify the style. They are built almost entirely of stone. The +arcading recalls various details of monastic buildings which the +constructors very naturally took as models. + + [Illustration: 211. HOUSE AT PROVINS (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)] + + [Illustration: 212. HOUSE AT LAON (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)] + + [Illustration: 213. HOUSE AT CORDES. ALBIGEOIS (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)] + +The same may be said of the other houses, of which we give drawings +as illustrating the urban type of the thirteenth and fifteenth +centuries. It is easy to trace the successive developments of +religious and monastic architecture in the domestic buildings of the +period. + +It is not until the close of the fourteenth century, and more notably +in the fifteenth, that such influences gradually die out, and change, +if not progress, becomes evident in the altered form of the arcades, +which no longer resemble those of cloisters or churches, but have +elliptic or square apertures. These, in the windows, are no longer +subdivided by a stone tracery of ornamental cusps and foliations, but +merely by plain mullions and transoms, forming square compartments +which it was possible to fill with movable glazed sashes of the +simplest construction. + +The façades are generally of durable materials, such as stone or +brick, and the use of wood is restricted to the floors and the roofs. + +Houses of the fifteenth century in the Northern departments, where +stone is scarce, were built mainly of wood, the more solid material +being used only on the ground-floor. The overhanging upper stories +were of timbers, the interstices being filled in with brick. The +principal members, such as corbel tables, beams, ledges, and +window-frames, were decorated with mouldings and sculptures. The +façade usually terminated in a gable, the projecting pointed arch of +which followed the lines of the timber roof. In other cases it was +crowned by richly decorated dormer windows. In rainy districts the +roof was covered with slates or shingles. + + [Illustration: 214. HOUSE AT MONT ST. MICHEL (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)] + + [Illustration: 215. WOODEN HOUSE AT ROUEN (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)] + + [Illustration: 216. WOODEN HOUSE AT ANDELYS (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)] + +It was usual in the North to detach each house at the upper story, +even when it was not practicable to allow a narrow passage or space +between. This was not merely a concession to the vanity of the +citizen, to his desire to make his independent gable a feature of +the street. It was also a precautionary measure against fires, which +were frequent and disastrous in cities built mainly of wood, and +possessing but very rudimentary appliances wherewith to meet such a +catastrophe. + + [Illustration: 217. HÔTEL LALLEMAND AT BOURGES (END OF THE FIFTEENTH + CENTURY)] + +The fifteenth and notably the sixteenth centuries were marked by +the building of a new class of dwellings, the _maisons nobles_, +or town-houses of the nobles, who, down to this period, had lived +entirely in their fortified castles. These great seignorial mansions +differ essentially from the houses of the citizens. The _hôtel_ +occupied a considerable space, in which a courtyard and even gardens +were included. The house of the citizen or merchant was built flush +with the street, whereas the _hôtel_ was placed in an inner court, +often richly decorated, and the street-front was devoted to stables, +coach-houses, servants' lodgings, and the great entrance which gave +access to the court and the main building. + + [Illustration: 218. JACQUES CŒUR'S HOUSE AT BOURGES. VIEW FROM THE + PLACE BERRY (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)] + +The names at least of some famous Parisian _hôtels_ of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries have survived, such as the _hôtels_ des +Tournelles, de St. Pol, de Sens, de Nevers, and de la Trémoille, the +last destroyed in 1840. The Hôtel de Cluny, which dates from 1485, is +a very curious example, and of remarkable interest, as having been +preserved almost intact. + +Several great houses of the same period still exist at Bourges. Among +others, the Hôtel Lallemand, built towards the close of the fifteenth +century, the inner court of which is especially noteworthy, and the +still more famous _hôtel_ or _château_ of Jacques Coeur. + +This beautiful structure dates from the second half of the fifteenth +century, and is built in part on the ramparts of the town. It is so +well known that it will be unnecessary to describe or illustrate the +famous portals and inner court. But the façade on the Place Berry, +though less sumptuous, is hardly less interesting. Here we have the +two great towers of the fortified _enceinte_, with their Gallo-Roman +bases, and between them the _corps de logis_ or main buildings of the +mansion, which retain many features of the feudal castle, and bear +witness to the wealth and power of Charles VII.'s ill-used favourite, +the famous banker, whose splendid fortunes suffered such undeserved +eclipse. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + TOWN-HALLS, BELFRIES, PALACES + + +The social evolution which resulted in the enfranchisement of +the communes had its origin in the eleventh century, though the +consummation of this great political change was of much later date. + +Down to the fourteenth century the efforts of the communes to exercise +the rights conferred on them in charters wrung from their feudal lords +received incessant checks. The opposition they encountered is hardly +to be wondered at, seeing that every concession in their favour tended +to diminish the despotic authority of those from whom it had been won. +No sooner, therefore, was a charter rescinded and a commune abolished +than the instant demolition of the town-hall and belfry was demanded. +Hence very few town-halls of earlier date than the fourteenth century +have survived. + + +_Town-halls._--A few of the great Southern cities owned town-halls so +early as the twelfth century, among them Bordeaux, where the building +was of the Roman type, and Toulouse, whose town-hall was practically a +fortalice. + + [Illustration: 219. TOWN-HALL OF PIENZA, ITALY (END OF THE FOURTEENTH + CENTURY)] + +But by far the greater number of the infant communes were sunk in +poverty, and so overwhelmed with dues and taxes that they had no +margin for communal buildings. + +In the fourteenth century even the commune of Paris could boast only +the most modest of town-halls. In 1357 Étienne Marcel, provost of +the merchants, bought from the collector of the salt-tax a small +two-gabled building which adjoined several private dwellings. We may, +therefore, conclude that down to this period the town-hall was in +nowise distinguished from an ordinary habitation. + +At the close of the century Caen possessed a town-hall of four stories. + +During the thirteenth century many new towns and communes had been +founded by the Crown, the nobles, and the clergy, the depositaries of +power in the Middle Ages. + +In the North, Villeneuve le Roi, Villeneuve le Comte, and Villeneuve +l'Archevêque owed their existence, material and communal, to these +powers respectively. + +In the South the war of the Albigenses had devastated and even +destroyed many cities. The authorities recognised the necessity of +repeopling the districts so cruelly decimated. The great nobles, +spiritual and temporal, reconcentrated the scattered population by +grants of lands for the building of new towns, and sought to establish +them permanently by apparently liberal concessions in the form of +communal franchises. + +According to Caumont and Anthyme St. Paul, these new towns or +_bastides_ may be identified by their names, or by their regularity of +plan, or by both combined. + +Certain names indicate a royal foundation or dependency, as Réalville +or Monréal; others point to privileges conferred on the town, as +Bonneville, La Sauvetat, Sauveterre, Villefranche, or even La Bastide, +and Villeneuve. + + [Illustration: 220. TOWN-HALL AND BELFRY AT YPRES (BELGIUM)] + +A third class borrow the names of French and occasionally of foreign +provinces or towns. Anthyme St. Paul gives a list of such in the +_Annuaire de l'archéologie française_,--Barcelone or Barcelonnette, +Beauvais, Boulogne, Bruges, Cadix, Cordes (for Cordova), Fleurance +(for Florence), Bretagne, Cologne, Valence, Miélan (for Milan), La +Française and Francescas, Grenade, Libourne (for Leghorn), Modène, +Pampelonne (for Pampeluna), etc. + +A new town or _bastide_ is usually rectangular in plan, and measures +some 750 by 580 feet. Sauveterre d'Aveyron is an example. In the +centre is a square, into which a street debouches on each side, +thus dividing the town into four parts. The square is surrounded by +galleries or cloisters, of round or pointed arches, covered with a +timber roof or vault, with or without transverse arches, whence the +term _Place des Couverts_, still common in some Southern towns. + +In the centre of the square stood the town-hall, the ground-floor +of which was used as a public market. Montréjeau is one of the +towns in which this regularity of construction is observed, also +Montpazier, the streets of which are lined with wide arcades of +pointed arches. Other examples are to be found at Eymet, Domme, and +Beaumont, Libourne, Ste. Foy, and Sauveterre de Guyenne, Damazan, +and Montflanquin, Rabastens, Mirande, Grenade, Isle d'Albi, and +Réalmont, etc. Several _bastides_ in Guyenne were founded by the +English. Finally, the lower town of Carcassonne, founded in 1247, and +Aigues-Mortes, founded in 1248, also belong to the class of _bastides_ +or new towns.[72] + +[72] See Part III., "Military Architecture." + +"The series of Southern _bastides_, inaugurated in 1222 by the +foundation of Cordes-Albigeois, was brought to a close in 1344 by +a petition of the town-councillors of Toulouse, in answer to which +the king forbade any further settlements. Two hundred at least of +the _bastides_ still exist in Guyenne, Gascony, Languedoc, and the +neighbouring districts. Several of these were unprosperous, and are +still small villages. In some cases their close proximity tended +greatly to their mutual disadvantage."[73] + +[73] Anthyme St. Paul, _Histoire Monumentale de la France_. + + [Illustration: 221. MARKET AND BELFRY AT BRUGES (BELGIUM)] + + [Illustration: 222. TOWN-HALL OF BRUGES (BELGIUM)] + +It is worthy of remark that civil architecture had so greatly +developed by the fifteenth century as to react in its turn upon +the religious art to which it owed its birth. It gave to religious +architecture certain new forms, such as the elliptic arch, adopted at +the close of the fifteenth and throughout the following century, at +which period civil architecture reached its apogee. + +The Southern communes preserved their franchises till the sixteenth +century, that disastrous era of religious warfare which involved the +destruction of innumerable buildings. + +The town-hall of St. Antonin (Tarn et Garonne) is perhaps the only +surviving one of the period. With the exception of the belfry, it +is an almost perfect type of the architecture of this class in the +thirteenth century, to which date it may probably be assigned (Fig. +200). + +The little town of St. Antonin, which had obtained its communal +charter in 1136, suffered much for its fidelity to Raymond VI., Count +of Toulouse. During the war of the Albigenses it was twice taken by +Simon de Montfort, whose son, Guy de Montfort, sold it to St. Louis in +1226. It was at this period, no doubt, that the present building was +erected. It has the characteristic feature of the civic monument, the +_belfry_, which, in the Middle Ages, was the architectural expression +of municipal authority and jurisdiction. + +The building is a simple rectangular structure, over which the square +tower rises to the right. The ground-floor is a market, communicating +with an adjoining market-place, and with the narrow street which +passes under the belfry. The _grande salle_ or municipal hall +occupies the first story, together with a smaller apartment in the +tower. The second story is divided in the same manner. + + [Illustration: 223. TOWN-HALL AT LOUVAIN (BELGIUM)] + +We have already called attention to the far-reaching influence of +French art as manifested in religious architecture so early as the +close of the twelfth century. Such influences were no less paramount +in developments of civil architecture, and we find municipal +buildings of the fourteenth century in Italy--at Pienza and other +towns--in which not only analogies but points of identity with the +thirteenth-century example of St. Antonin are distinctly traceable. + +The municipal buildings of the North, the most perfect types of which +are those of Germany and Belgium, are nearly uniform in plan. A belfry +rises from the centre of the façade, flanked right and left on the +first story by the great civic halls. The ground-floor is a market for +the sale of merchandise. + +The cloth-hall of Ypres (so named since the construction of a new +town-hall in the seventeenth century) is one of the most beautiful of +such examples. The building was begun in 1202, but was not completed +till 1304. The façade measures 440 feet in length, and has a double +row of pointed windows. It terminates at each angle in a very graceful +pinnacle, and the centre is marked by a noble square belfry of vast +size, the oldest portion of the building, the foundation-stone of +which was laid by Baldwin IX. of Flanders in 1200. + +The belfry of Bruges, which was begun at the close of the thirteenth +century, and completed some hundred years later, is another most +interesting example of the civic buildings of its period. + +The structure consists of a market and the usual municipal halls, +crowned by the lofty belfry, the original height of which was 350 feet. + + [Illustration: 224. BELFRY OF TOURNAI (BELGIUM)] + + [Illustration: 225. BELFRY OF GHENT (BELGIUM)] + +The _hôtel de ville_ or town-hall of Bruges, which replaced an +earlier municipal building in the _Place du Bourg_, dates from +between 1376 to 1387. Its architectural character differs entirely +from that of the belfry. Its elegant design and the richness of its +ornamentation give it the appearance rather of a sumptuously decorated +chapel than of a civic building. + +We may close the list of Belgian town-halls of the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries with that of Louvain. The design and general +scheme of elaborate decoration are akin to those of the hall of +Bruges, and it bears the same ecclesiastical impress. + +It was built between 1448 and 1463 by _Mathieu de Layens, master +mason of the town and its outskirts_, and is a rectangular building +of three stories. The gable ends are pierced with three rows of +pointed windows, and adorned with a rich profusion of mouldings, +statues, and sculptured ornament. The steep roof has four tiers of +dormer-windows. The angles are flanked by graceful openwork turrets, +with delicate pinnacles, and similar turrets receive the ridge of the +roof at either end. The lateral façades are adorned with three rows of +statues and allegorical sculptures, covering the whole with a wealth +of exquisite tracery. Its lace-like delicacy has suffered considerably +from the action of weather, and it was found necessary to renovate a +considerable portion of the ornament in 1840. + + +_Belfries._--In the early days of the enfranchisement of the communes, +it became customary to call the community together by means of bells, +which at that period were confined to the church towers, and which it +was unlawful to ring without the consent of the clergy. It may easily +be conceived to what incessant broils the new order gave rise, the +clergy as a body being strongly opposed to the separatist tendency +of measures which attacked their feudal rights. The municipalities +finally put an end to internecine warfare in this connection by +hanging bells of their own over the town-gates, a custom which was +superseded towards the close of the twelfth and beginning of the +thirteenth century by the erection of towers for the civic bells. Such +was the origin of the _belfry_, the earliest material expression of +communal independence. + +The structure usually formed part of the town-hall, but was sometimes +an isolated building. The isolated belfry was a great square tower of +several stories, crowned by a timber roof protected either by slates +or lead. The great bells hung in one story, and above them the little +bells of the carillon. + +A lodging, opening upon a surrounding gallery, was constructed in the +upper story for the accommodation of the watchman, whose duty it was +to warn the inhabitants of approaching danger and to give notice of +fires. The bells rang at sunrise and curfew. + +The chimes (_carillon_) marked the hours and their subdivisions, and +at festival seasons mingled their joyous notes with the deep and +solemn voice of the great bell. + +The custom of tolling the great bell to give notice of a fire still +obtains in many villages of the North, the greater number of which +have preserved their belfries in spite of the modifications they have +undergone at different periods. + +The belfry tower usually contained a prison, a hall for the +town-councillors, a muniment room, and a magazine for arms. It was +long the only town-hall of a commune. + + [Illustration: 226. BELFRY AT CALAIS (FRANCE)] + +We shall find examples of these early municipal buildings among the +isolated belfries of Belgium, such as that at Tournai, founded in +1187, and rebuilt in part at the close of the fourteenth century, and +that of Ghent, the square tower of which dates from the end of the +twelfth century. Its spire is a modern addition. + +A few buildings of this particular class still exist in France. +Such is the belfry of Calais, the square tower of which was built +during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It is crowned by an +octagonal superstructure, begun at the close of the fifteenth century, +and completed in the early years of the seventeenth. The belfry of +Béthune, which dates from the fourteenth century, is another. It +consists of a square tower reinforced at three of its angles by a +hexagonal turret, corbelled out from the wall. The fourth turret is +of the same shape, but here the projection is carried up from the +ground-floor, and contains the spiral staircase which communicates +with the various stories of the tower, and terminates on the embattled +parapet above. The building is completed by a pyramidal spire of great +elegance, crowned by the watchman's tower. The plan and details of +this superstructure proclaim it the source whence the gable turrets +of Louvain were derived. The great bells hang in the uppermost story, +the smaller ones of the carillon in the story below. On each façade at +the summit of the tower a great dial marks the hours, as was customary +from the fourteenth century onwards, when town-clocks first came into +general use. + +The towns of Auxerre, Beaune, Amiens, Évreux, and Avignon still +possess their belfries. + +To the belfry of Amiens, which dates from the thirteenth century, a +square dome was added some hundred years ago. But the great bell of +the fourteenth century has been preserved. + + [Illustration: 227. BELFRY OF BETHUNE (FRANCE)] + + [Illustration: 228. BELFRY OF ÉVREUX] + +The belfry of Évreux retains its fifteenth-century character almost +in its entirety. That of Avignon, a monument of the close of the +fifteenth century, was happily spared when the town-hall was replaced +by a modern structure. + + [Illustration: 229. BELFRY OF AVIGNON] + +The gate-house of the _hôtel de ville_ at Bordeaux, known as the +_grosse cloche_, is an example of the more ancient usage. Here we +find the bell hung over the gateway, as already described. The belfry +of Bordeaux, which appears to date from the fifteenth century, is +very remarkable. It consists of two towers connected by a curtain +through which is an arched passage. A second arch protects the great +bell in the upper story, and the whole is surmounted by a central +roof, flanked right and left by the conical crowns of the lateral +turrets. + + [Illustration: 230. BELFRY GATE AT BORDEAUX, KNOWN AS _LA GROSSE + CLOCHE_] + +Markets, warehouses, and exchanges were often annexes of the +town-halls. A few examples of such buildings have been preserved, but +those of the third class are extremely rare. A specimen, remarkable +both for construction and decoration, which recall the Spanish +architecture of the fourteenth century, still exists at Perpignan. It +is a house known as _La Loge_, built in 1396, which originally served +as exchange to the cloth merchants of French Catalonia and Roussillon. + + +_Palaces._--In the Middle Ages the name palace was given to the +dwelling of the sovereign. Its chief feature was the basilica or +judgment-hall. + +The great nobles followed the royal example and constructed palaces in +the capitals of their feofs, as at Dijon, Troyes, and Poitiers, which +are the most important of such examples. + +The town-houses of archbishops and bishops were also called palaces. + +The courts, parliaments, and tribunals of the executive were held +in the palace of the suzerain or the bishop, where certain of the +buildings were open to the public. The important feature, the great +hall (_grand salle_), occupied a vast covered space in which the +plenary courts were held, the vassals assembled, and banquets were +given. It communicated with galleries or ambulatories. A chapel was +always included in the plan of the palace, which consisted of the +lodging of the lord and his followers; offices, often of great extent; +rooms for the storing of archives; magazines, prisons, and innumerable +auxiliary buildings, divided by courtyards, and in some cases by +gardens. + + [Illustration: 231. CLOTH HALL AT PERPIGNAN, KNOWN AS _LA LOGE_] + +In Paris the palace proper, which was in the Île de la Cité, consisted +of buildings constructed from the time of St. Louis to the reign of +Philip the Fair. From the reign of Charles V. it was specially devoted +to the administration of justice. + +The only remains of the buildings of St. Louis are the _Ste. +Chapelle_, the two great towers with their intervening curtain on the +_Quai de l'Horloge_, and the square clock tower at the angle of the +quay. + +The best examples of seignorial castles are: Troyes, which was built +by the Counts of Champagne, and inhabited by them till they removed +to Provins in the thirteenth century; and the palace of the Counts of +Poitiers at Poitiers, one of the most interesting of such buildings; +it was burnt by the English in 1346, and repaired or rebuilt at the +close of the fourteenth century by the brother of Charles V., Jean, +Duke of Berry, to whom we owe, among other architectural works, the +curious fireplace of the great vestibule, called the _Salle des Pas +Perdus_, in the _Palais de Justice_. + + [Illustration: 232. BISHOP'S PALACE AT LAON] + +The bishops' palaces were differently planned. They usually adjoined +the cathedrals, with which they communicated either on the north +or the south, according to the facilities afforded by the site. +The characteristic symbol of episcopal power which, in the earlier +centuries of the Middle Ages, claimed jurisdiction both in spiritual +and temporal matters, was the great hall, in later days the synod +house and the council chamber of the executive. The bishop's palace in +Paris, rebuilt by Maurice de Sully in 1160, preserved this mediæval +feature, which is even more conspicuous at Sens, in the magnificent +annexe known as the _salle synodale_ (synod house). + + [Illustration: 233. ARCHBISHOP'S PALACE AT ALBI. PLAN] + +The canons' lodgings were also in close proximity to the cathedral, +but on the side opposite to the bishop's palace. They were surrounded +by an enclosure, the gates of which were fastened at night. It was +the duty of the canons to aid the bishop in his ministrations. They +lived together in annexes which communicated with the cathedral by +means of galleries and cloisters.[74] + +[74] See Part II., "Monastic Architecture," the cloisters of +Puy-en-Velay and Elne in Roussillon. + +The bishops' palaces were often remarkable for their elaborate +construction. Fragments of the primitive buildings are still preserved +in the palaces of Beauvais, Angers, Bayeux, and Auxerre. + + [Illustration: 234. ARCHBISHOP'S PALACE AT ALBI. GENERAL VIEW] + +The ancient episcopal palace of Laon[75] marks a development in +thirteenth-century architecture. It is a good example of that system +of construction by which the palace was connected with the city +ramparts and formed a secondary line of defence. + +[75] The episcopate was transferred to Soissons in 1809. + +This system was also adopted at Narbonne. At the close of the +thirteenth and during the fourteenth century the palace was +transformed into a fortress, the importance of which bore witness +to the power of its bishops. After Avignon, it is perhaps the most +imposing of episcopal dwellings. + +From this time onward the bishops' palaces increased greatly in size, +their dimensions extending proportionately with those of the great +cathedrals of the period. The importance of the episcopal buildings +and their dependencies was on a par with the wealth and power of +their owners. Some idea of their magnificence may be gathered from +the private chapel of the archbishop at Rheims, which dates from the +middle of the thirteenth century. + + [Illustration: 235. PALACE OF THE POPES AT AVIGNON. PLAN] + +The archbishop's palace at Albi has all the character of a feudal +castle. Its buildings are protected by a keep, and encircled by walls +and towers connected both with the ramparts of the city, and with +that more important fortalice, the cathedral itself, the tower of +which is, in fact, a formidable keep.[76] + +[76] See Part I., Cathedral of Albi, Figs. 70-73. + +The transformation of church and palace into fortresses by an +elaborate system of defence was necessitated by the wars which ravaged +the district, and from which Albi suffered more cruelly than any other +town. + +The palace of the popes at Avignon which Pope Benedict XII. began to +build in the fourteenth century, and the bishop's palace at Narbonne, +are among the finest specimens of ecclesiastical fortification in the +Middle Ages.[77] + +[77] For the Palace of the Popes, see Albert Lenoir and Viollet-le-Duc. + +The Popes, having established themselves at Avignon in the fourteenth +century, built a huge mansion on the rock known as the _Rocher des +Doms_, which overlooks the Rhone. In 1336 Benedict XII., having +destroyed his predecessor's palace, laid the foundations of the +immense fortified pile now in existence. The plans were the work of +the French architect, Pierre Obrier. The building was added to by +the successors of Benedict XII., Popes Clement VI., Innocent VI., +and Urban V., and was completed, or at any rate made efficient for +defence, by 1398, when Pedro de Luna, who became pope under the title +of Benedict XIII., sustained a memorable siege therein. + +The whole building, which covers a very considerable area, was +completed in less than sixty years. Its formidable mass was further +strengthened by the fortified _enceinte_ of the town, some three +miles in circumference. + +In general conception, in the architectural skill of its construction, +and in its tasteful decoration, the Palace of the Popes at Avignon +bears away the palm from all contemporary buildings in Germany and +Italy, where French influences were paramount. + + [Illustration: 236. PALACE OF THE POPES AT AVIGNON. GENERAL VIEW] + +This noble monument is absolutely and entirely French. No finer +combination of religious, monastic, military, and civil types could +be desired in illustration of the art we have agreed to term _Gothic +Architecture_, but which might be more truly entitled: _Our National +Architecture in the Middle Ages_. + +Justice indeed demands this tardy homage. Our vast churches, our +superb cathedrals, our mighty castles and palace fortresses, the +masterpieces that fill our museums--manifestations of artistic +power which should move us, not to servile imitation but to fruitful +study,--all were the creations of _native_ architects. + +That expansive force which made our national art the great civilising +medium of the Middle Ages was derived from our own early architects, +civil and religious. The principles and practice of monumental art +were carried by French architects into all countries, though the +results of their teaching are more conspicuous in Italy and Germany +than elsewhere. Native builders and artists established the supremacy +of French art throughout Western Europe, and even in the East. And +though the foreign evolution, which marked the sixteenth century, did +indeed exercise a transient influence in France, it must be remembered +that the way had been prepared for this apparently novel movement by +those French artists who have carried the fame of our beloved country +throughout the civilised world. + + + THE END + + + _Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, _Edinburgh_. + + + + + _BY THE PRESENT EDITOR Price 21s., Cloth._ + + + THE SCOTTISH PAINTERS + + A CRITICAL STUDY + + + BY WALTER ARMSTRONG, B.A. OXON. + + AUTHOR OF "ALFRED STEVENS," ETC. + + _WITH MANY ILLUSTRATIONS_ + + PRESS OPINIONS + +"A valuable contribution towards that much needed work, the history of +British art.... Of the illustrations, reproducing many of the finest +specimens of Scottish art, it need only be said that they are in every +way worthy of the publishers of the 'Portfolio.'"--_Morning Post._ + +"We welcome the work with pleasure, and feel certain it will receive a +cordial reception at the hands of all interested in Scottish art. Much +might be said in praise of the manner in which the publishers have +issued the work from the press.... There are fifteen page etchings or +photogravures of pictures by the more famous of our Scottish artists, +each in itself a very desirable work of art, and greatly enhancing the +value of the volume."--_Scotsman._ + +"This part of Mr. Armstrong's study every lover of art will read +with pleasure, and every Scotsman with pride.... Mr. Armstrong's +study is deserving of a hearty welcome, not only for its literary +merit, not only for the soundness of its criticism, but also for its +refutation of those who would minimise the artistic powers of the +Scotch."--_Glasgow Herald._ + + + LONDON: SEELEY & CO., LIMITED, ESSEX STREET, STRAND. + + + + + _RECENTLY PUBLISHED_ + + +*THE COAST OF YORKSHIRE AND THE CLEVELAND HILLS AND DALES. By JOHN +LEYLAND. With Etchings and other Illustrations by LANCELOT SPEED and +ALFRED DAWSON. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 7s. 6d. + + "A pleasant description of a fascinating district."--_Times._ + +AN EXPLORATION OF DARTMOOR. By J. LL. W. PAGE. With Map, +Etchings, and other Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, +price 7s. 6d. + + "The book is well written, and abounds in practical descriptions + and old-world traditions."--_Western Antiquary._ + +AN EXPLORATION OF EXMOOR. By J. LL. W. PAGE. With Map, +Etchings, and other Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, +price 7s. 6d. + + "Mr. Page has evidently got up his subject with the care that + comes of affection, and the result is that he has produced a + book full of pleasant reading."--_Graphic._ + +*THE PEAK OF DERBYSHIRE. By JOHN LEYLAND. With Map, Etchings, +and other Illustrations, by HERBERT RAILTON and ALFRED +DAWSON. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 7s. 6d. + + "A delightful book on a delightful subject."--_Saturday Review._ + + +_A Limited large paper Edition (Roxburgh), price 12s. 6d., is still to + be had of the books marked with a star._ + + + LONDON: SEELY & CO., LIMITED, ESSEX STREET, STRAND. + +DEAN SWIFT; HIS LIFE AND WRITINGS. By GERALD MORIARTY, +Balliol College, Oxford. With Nine Portraits, 7s. 6d. Large Paper +Copies (150 only), 21s. + +HORACE WALPOLE AND HIS WORLD. Select Passages from his Letters. With +Eight Copper-plates, after Sir Joshua Reynolds and Thomas Lawrence. +Second Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 7s. 6d. + + "A compact representative selection with just enough connecting + text to make it read consecutively, with a pleasantly written + introduction."--_Athenæum._ + +FANNY BURNEY AND HER FRIENDS. Select Passages from her Diary. Edited +by L. B. SEELEY, M.A., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. With +Nine Portraits on Copper, after Reynolds, Gainsborough, Copley, and +West. Third Edition. Cloth, price 7s. 6d. + + "The charm of the volume is heightened by nine illustrations + of some of the masterpieces of English art, and it would + not be possible to find a more captivating present for any + one beginning to appreciate the characters of the last + century."--_Academy._ + +MRS. THRALE, AFTERWARDS MRS. PIOZZI. By L. B. SEELEY, M.A., +late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. With Nine Portraits on +Copper, after Hogarth, Reynolds, Zoffany, and others. Cloth, price 7s. +6d. Large Paper Edition (150 only), 21s. + + "Mr. Seeley had excellent material to write upon, and he has + turned it to the best advantage."--_Pall Mall Gazette._ + +LADY MARY WORTLEY MONTAGUE. Extracts from her Letters. Edited by +A. R. ROPES, late Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. With +Nine Portraits on Copper, after Sir Godfrey Kneller and others. Cloth, +7s. 6d. Large Paper Edition (150 only), 21s. + + "Embellished as it is with a number of excellent plates, we + cannot imagine a more welcome or delightful present."--_National + Observer._ + + + LONDON: SEELEY & CO., LIMITED, ESSEX STREET, STRAND. + + + + + EVENTS OF OUR OWN TIME. + + +A New Series of Volumes dealing with the more important events of +the last half-century. Published at 5s. With Portraits on Copper or +many Illustrations. Library Edition, with Proofs of the Plates, in +Roxburgh, 10s. 6d. + +THE REFOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. By Colonel MALLESON, C.S.I. With +Portraits and Plans, 5s. Large Paper Copies (200 only), 10s. 6d. + +THE WAR IN THE CRIMEA. By Sir EDWARD HAMLEY, K.C.B. With Portraits +on Copper, of Lord Raglan, General Todleben, General Pelissier, Omar +Pasha, and the Emperor Nicholas; and with Maps and Plans. + + "A well-written historical narrative, written by a competent + critic and well-informed observer of the scenes and events it + describes."--_Times._ + +THE INDIAN MUTINY OF 1857. By Colonel MALLESON, C.S.I. With +Portraits on Copper, of Sir Colin Campbell, Sir Henry Havelock, Sir +Henry Lawrence, and Sir James Outram; and with Maps and Plans. + + "Battles, sieges, and rapid marches are described in a style + spirited and concise."--_Saturday Review._ + +*ACHIEVEMENTS IN ENGINEERING. By L. F. VERNON HARCOURT. With +many Illustrations. + + "We hope this book will find its way into the hands of all + young engineers. All the information has been carefully + gathered from all the best sources, and is therefore perfectly + accurate."--_Engineering Review._ + +THE AFGHAN WARS OF 1839-1842 AND 1878-1880. By ARCHIBALD +FORBES. With Portraits on Copper, of Sir Frederick Roberts, +Sir George Pollock, Sir Louis Cavagnari and Sirdars, and the Ameer +Abdurrahman; and with Maps and Plans. + + "Gives a spirited account both of the earlier and later + campaigns in Afghanistan."--_St. James's Gazette._ + +*THE DEVELOPMENT OF NAVIES DURING THE LAST HALF-CENTURY. By Captain +EARDLEY WILMOT. With many Illustrations. + + "An admirable summary and survey of what is, perhaps, the + greatest series of changes in the methods and instruments of + naval warfare which the world has ever witnessed in a similar + period of time."--_Times._ + + + Of Volumes so * marked there will be no Library Edition. + + + LONDON: SEELEY & CO., LIMITED, ESSEX STREET, STRAND. + + +Transcriber's Notes: + + 1. All obvious spelling and punctuation errors have been corrected, also + hyphenation and accentuation. + + 2. Text in italics is shown as _text_. + + 3. Superscripts are represented using the caret character, e.g. D^r. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Gothic Architecture, by Édouard Corroyer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 54701-0.txt or 54701-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/7/0/54701/ + +Produced by deaurider, Karin Spence and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Gothic Architecture, by douard Corroyer
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
+other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
+the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
+to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
+
+Title: Gothic Architecture
+
+Author: douard Corroyer
+
+Editor: Walter Armstrong
+
+Release Date: May 10, 2017 [EBook #54701]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by deaurider, Karin Spence and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
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+ +

CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL FROM A DRAWING BY A. BRUNET-DEBAINES

+
+ +
+ +

GOTHIC
+
+ARCHITECTURE

+ +

BY

+ +

DOUARD CORROYER

+ +

ARCHITECT TO THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT AND INSPECTOR
+OF DIOCESAN EDIFICES

+ +

EDITED BY

+ +

WALTER ARMSTRONG

+ +

DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF IRELAND

+ + +

With Two Hundred and Thirty-Six Illustrations

+ + +

New York

+

MACMILLAN AND CO.

+ +

1893

+ +
+ +
+ +

[v]

+ +

EDITOR'S PREFACE

+ +

The following pages, which have been translated under my supervision +by Miss Florence Simmonds, give such an account of the birth and +evolution of Gothic Architecture as may be considered sufficient for +a handbook. Mons. Corroyer writes, indeed, from a thoroughly French +standpoint. He is apt to believe that everything admirable in Gothic +architecture had a Gallic origin. Vexed questions of priority, such as +that attaching to the choir of Lincoln, he dismisses with a phrase, +while the larger question of French influence generally in these +islands of ours, he solves by the simple process of referring every +creation which takes his fancy either to a French master or a French +example, here coming, be it said, into occasional collision with his +own stock authority, the late Mons. Viollet-le-duc. The Chauvinistic +tone thus given to his pages may be regretted, but, when all is +said, it does not greatly affect their value as a picture of Gothic +development. Mons. Corroyer confines himself in the main to broad[vi] +principles. He travels along the line of evolution, pointing out how +material conditions and discoveries, and their consequent social +changes, brought about one development after another in the forms +and methods of the architect. In a treatise so conceived, the fact +that the field of observation is practically restricted to France, +the few excursions beyond her frontier being made rather with a view +to displaying the extent of her influence than with any desire for +catholicity of grasp, is of no great moment. The English reader for +whom this translation is intended, will get as clear a notion of how +Gothic, as he knows it, came into being, as he would from a more +universal survey, while he has the advantage of some echo, at least, +of the vivacity, which inspires a Frenchman when his theme is "one of +the Glories of France."

+ +

W. A.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[vii]

+ +

CONTENTS

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
PAGE
Introduction1
PART I
RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
CHAP.
1.The Influence of the Cupola upon so-called Gothic Architecture11
2.The Origin of the Intersecting Arch16
3.The First Vaults on Intersecting Arches24
4.Buildings Vaulted on Intersecting Arches32
5.The Origin of the Flying Buttress41
6.Churches and Cathedrals of the Twelfth and Fourteenth Centuries51
7.Cathedrals of the Thirteenth Century67
8.Cathedrals and Churches from the Twelfth to the Fourteenth Century85
9.Churches of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries in France and in the East105
10.Towers and Belfries—Choirs—Chapels128
11.Sculpture153
12.Painting179
PART II
MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE[viii]
1.Origin205
2.Abbeys of Cluny, Citeaux, and Clairvaux215
3.Abbeys and Chartreuses or Carthusian Monasteries227
4.Fortified Abbeys247
PART III
MILITARY ARCHITECTURE
1.Ramparts of Towns269
2.Castles and Keeps291
3.Gates and Bridges309
PART IV
CIVIL ARCHITECTURE
1.Barns, Hospitals, Houses, and "Htels" or Townhouses of the Nobility333
2.Town-halls, Belfries, and Palaces360
+ +
+ +
+ +

[ix]

+ +

ILLUSTRATIONS

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Canterbury Cathedral. By A. Brunet-DebainesFrontispiece
FIG.PAGE
1.Plan of a cupola of the Abbey Church of St. Front at Prigueux17
2.Pendentive of a cupola of the Abbey Church of St. Front at Prigueux18
3.Diagonal section of a pendentive19
4.Plan of a cupola of Angoulme or Fontevrault20
5.Section of a bay of the cupolas of Angoulme20
6.Section of a bay in the Church of St. Avit-Snieur21
7.Plan of vault on intersecting arches21
8.Section of an intersecting arch22
9.Plan of a bay in the nave of St. Maurice at Angers24
10.Transverse section of the nave of St. Maurice at Angers25
11.Plan of a bay of the nave. Ste. Trinit, Laval26
12.Section of two bays of the nave. Ste. Trinit, Laval27
13, 14.Comparative sections of Churches of Angoulme and Angers28
15.View in perspective of nave vault. St. Maurice at Angers29
16.Plan of a summer of the nave vault. Ste. Trinit, Laval30
17.Plan of one of the nave piers. Ste. Trinit, Laval30
18.Plan of the nave, St. Maurice, Angers33
19.Plan of La Ste. Trinit, Angers34
20.Section of a bay. Ste. Trinit, Angers35
21.Transverse section of a bay. Ste. Trinit, Angers37
22.Section of a single-aisled Church vaulted on intersecting arches with buttresses38
23.Section of a three-aisled Church vaulted on intersecting[x] arches with flying buttresses39
24.Durham Cathedral. Transverse sections43
25.Abbey Church at Noyon. Plan44
26.Transverse section of Noyon Church45
27.Church of Tournai, Belgium. Exterior view of north transept towards the Scheldt46
28.Monastery Church at Moissac. Vault of the hall known as the Salle des Capitaines above the porch47
29.Church of Tournai, Belgium. Interior of north transept47
30.Soissons Cathedral, south transept. Section of flying buttress48
31.Perspective view of south transept, Soissons Cathedral49
32.Cathedral of Laon. Plan52
33.Cathedral of Laon. Interior of the nave54
34.Cathedral of Laon. Main faade55
35.Cathedral of Laon. The east end57
36.Cathedral of Laon. Section of the nave58
37.Notre Dame de Paris. Plan59
38.Notre Dame de Paris. Section of the nave60
39.Notre Dame de Paris. Flying buttresses and south tower61
40.Sens Cathedral. Plan of a bay62
41.Sens Cathedral. Section of a bay of the nave63
42.Sens Cathedral. Interior64
43.Bourges Cathedral. Section of the nave65
44.Rheims Cathedral. Plan68
45.Rheims Cathedral. Section of the nave70
46.Rheims Cathedral. Flying buttresses of the choir71
47.Amiens Cathedral. Plan72
48.Amiens Cathedral. Section through the nave73
49.Beauvais Cathedral. Apse75
50.Beauvais Cathedral. North front76
51.Beauvais Cathedral. Transverse section77
52.Chartres Cathedral. Rose window of north transept78
53.Mans Cathedral. Plan80
54.Mans Cathedral. Flying buttresses of the apse[xi]81
55.Mans Cathedral. Section of the choir82
56.Coutances Cathedral. North tower83
57.Rodez Cathedral. West front86
58.Bordeaux Cathedral. Choir and north front87
59.Lichfield Cathedral. West front88
60.Lincoln Cathedral. Plan91
61.Lincoln Cathedral. West front92
62.Lincoln Cathedral. Transept94
63.Lincoln Cathedral. Apse and chapter-house95
64.Brussels Cathedral (Ste. Gudule). West front97
65.Cologne Cathedral. South front99
66.Burgos Cathedral. West front101
67.Cathedral or Duomo of Siena. West front102
68.Church of St. Francis at Assisi. Apse and cloisters103
69.Church of St. Ouen at Rouen. Central tower and apse, south front106
70.Albi Cathedral. Plan108
71.Albi Cathedral. Section of the nave111
72.Albi Cathedral. Aps113
73.Albi Cathedral. Donjon tower and south front114
74.Church of Esnandes. A fortified church116
75.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Flying buttresses of the choir118
76.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan of the choir119
77.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Details of the apse120
78.Alenon Cathedral. West front122
79.Faade of the Cathedral of St. Sophia. Island of Cyprus123
80.Cathedral of St. Nicholas. Island of Cyprus124
81.Cathedral of St. Nicholas. Island of Cyprus126
82.Church of St. Sophia. Island of Cyprus. Ruins127
83.Steeple, Vendme129
84.Giotto's Tower at Florence130
85.Bayeux Cathedral. Towers of the west front132
86.Senlis Cathedral. South tower of west front133
87.Salisbury Cathedral. Steeple135
88.Church of Langrune (Calvados). Steeple[xii]136
89.Church of the Jacobins at Toulouse. Tower138
90.Church of St. Pierre at Caen. Tower140
91.Church of St. Michel at Bordeaux. Tower141
92.Cathedral of Freiburg-im-Breisgau142
93.Antwerp Cathedral143
94.Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front154
95.Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front155
96.Rheims Cathedral. Statues of west front156
97.Rheims Cathedral. Principal door. Statue and ornament157
98.Rheims Cathedral. Principal door. Statue and ornament158
99.Notre Dame de Paris. Principal door. Running leaf pattern159
100.Notre Dame de Paris. Principal door. Running leaf pattern160
101.Chartres Cathedral. Statues of north porch161
102.Chartres Cathedral. Statues of south porch162
103.Amiens Cathedral. Central porch of west front163
104.Amiens Cathedral. Statues in the south porch164
105.Amiens Cathedral. Choir stalls. Carved ornament165
106.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Ornament of cloisters166
107.Wooden Statuette (thirteenth century). Ateliers of La Chaise Dieu, Auvergne167
108, 108a.Two ivory statuettes. School of Paris168, + 169
109.Wooden Statuette (fourteenth century). School of Paris170
110, 110a.Two ivory diptychs (fourteenth century). School of the Ile-de-France171
111, 111a.Ivory diptych and plaque (fourteenth century). School of the Ile-de-France172, + 173
112.Head in silver gilt repouss. Ateliers of the Goldsmith's Guild of Paris174
113.Group carved in wood (fifteenth century). School of Antwerp175
114.Wooden statuette, painted and gilded (fifteenth century)176
115.Wooden statuette, painted and gilded (sixteenth century)177
116.Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. Horizontal projection of the cupola180
117.Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. One of the prophets in the cupola[xiii]182
118.Paintings in Cahors Cathedral. Fragment of central frieze of cupola184
119, 120.Painted windows of the early twelfth century. From St. Rmi, Rheims187
121.Painted window of the twelfth century. Church of Bonlieu, Creuse188
122.Painted window of the thirteenth century. Chartres Cathedral189
123.Painted window of the thirteenth century. Chartres Cathedral190
124.Painted window of the thirteenth century. Church of St. Germer, Troyes191
125.Painted windows of the fourteenth century. Church of St. Urbain, Troyes193
126.Painted glass of the fourteenth century. Cathedral of Chlons-sur-Marne194
127.Painted window of the fifteenth century. vreux Cathedral195
128.Enamel of the eleventh century. Plaque cover of a MS.196
129.Enamel of the thirteenth century. Plaque cover of an Evangelium198
130.Enamel of the twelfth century. Reliquary shrine of St. Thomas Becket199
131.Enamel of the sixteenth century. Our Lady of Sorrows200
132.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Cloister (thirteenth century)206
133.Abbey of Cluny. Gateway216
134.Abbey of Cluny. Plan219
135.Abbey of Cluny. Door of the Abbey Church221
136.Abbey of St. tienne at Caen. Faade228
137.St. Alban's Abbey (England)230
138.Abbey of Montmajour. Cloisters231
139.Abbey of Elne. Cloisters232
140.Abbey of Fontfroide. Cloisters233
141.Abbey of Maulbronn (Wurtemberg). Plan235
142.Abbey of Fontevrault. Kitchen236
143.Cathedral of Puy-en-Velay. Cloisters237
144.Abbey of La Chaise Dieu (Auvergne). Cloisters239
145.Chartreuse of Villefranche de Rouergue. Plan[xiv]242
146.Chartreuse of Villefranche de Rouergue. Bird's-eye view243
147.Grande Chartreuse. The Great Cloister244
148.Grande Chartreuse. General View245
149.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. General View248
150.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the entrance249
151.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the lower church250
152.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Plan at the level of the upper church252
153.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Section from north to south253
154.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Section from west to east254
155.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Crypt known as the Galerie de l'Aquilon256
156.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. North front257
157.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The almonry258
158.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. A tympanum of the cloisters259
159.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The cellar260
160.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Refectory262
161.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Hall of the knights263
162.St. Michael's Mount, Cornwall264
163.Abbey of Mont St. Michel. Gate-house270
164.City of Carcassonne. South-east ramparts273
165.City of Carcassonne. North-west ramparts274
166.Fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn. Section277
166a.Fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn. General view278
167.City of Carcassonne. Plan of the thirteenth century279
168.City of Carcassonne. Ramparts, south-west angle280
169.Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes, north and south281
170.Ramparts of Avignon. Curtain and towers282
170a.Machicolations283
171.Ramparts of St. Malo284
172.Mont St. Michel. South front287
173.Mont St. Michel. As restored on paper288
174.Castle of Angers292
175.Carcassonne. Citadel[xv]293
176.Loches Castle. Keep294
177.Falaise Castle. Keep297
178.Lavardin Castle. Keep298
179.Keep of Aigues-Mortes299
180.Provins Castle. Keep300
181.Castle, Chinon302
182.Castle, Clisson. Keep303
183.Castle. Villeneuve-les-Avignon304
184.Castle of Tarascon305
185.Vitr Castle307
186.City of Carcassonne. Castle gate310
187.City of Carcassonne. Gate of the Lists312
188.City of Carcassonne. Gate known as the Porte Narbonaise313
189.Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes. Drawbridge314
190.Ramparts of Dinan. Gate known as the Porte de Jerzual315
191.Vitr Castle. Gate-house317
192.Ramparts of Gurande. Gate known as the Porte St. Michel318
193.Ramparts of Mont St. Michel. Gateway known as the Porte du Roi320
194.Entrance to the Port of La Rochelle322
195.Bridge at Avignon323
196.Bridge of Montauban325
197.Bridge of Cahor326
198.Bridge of Orthez327
199.Fortified bridge. Mont St. Michel328
200.Town-hall at St. Antonin (Tarn et Garonne)334
201.Barn at Perrires (Calvados)335
201a.Barn at Perrires (Calvados). Section336
201b.Barn at Perrires (Calvados). Plan336
202.Tithe-barn at Provins337
203.Granary of the Abbey of Vauclair338
204.Hospital of St. John, Angers339
205.Abbey of Ourscamps (Oise)340
206.Lazar-house at Tortoir (Aisne)341
207.[xvi]Hospital at Tonnerre. Section343
208, 208a.Houses at Cluny347, + 348
209, 210.Houses at Vitteaux and at St. Antonin349
211, 212.Houses at Provins and at Laon350, + 351
213.House at Cordes. Albigeois352
214.House at Mont St. Michel354
215, 216.Wooden houses at Rouen and at Andelys355, + 356
217.Htel Lallemand at Bourges357
218.Jacques Cœur's house at Bourges358
219.Town-hall of Pienza, Italy361
220.Town-hall and belfry at Ypres363
221.Market and belfry at Bruges365
222.Town-hall of Bruges366
223.Town-hall at Louvain368
224.Belfry of Tournai (Belgium)370
225.Belfry of Ghent (Belgium)371
226.Belfry at Calais (France)374
227.Belfry of Bthune (France)376
228.Belfry of vreux (France)377
229.Belfry of Avignon (France)378
230.Belfry gate known as La Grosse Cloche, Bordeaux379
231.Cloth hall known as La Loge, Perpignan381
232.Bishop's Palace at Laon382
233.Archbishop's Palace at Albi. Plan383
234.Archbishop's Palace at Albi. General view384
235.Palace of the Popes at Avignon. Plan385
236.Palace of the Popes at Avignon. General view387
+ +
+ +
+ +

[1]

+ +

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

+ +

INTRODUCTION

+ +

The term Gothic, as applied to the architectural period dating from +the middle of the twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century, is +purely conventional.

+ +

The expression is clearly misleading as indicating the architecture +of the Goths or Visigoths; for these tribes were vanquished by Clovis +in the sixth century, and left no monumental trace of their invasion. +Hence, their influence upon art was nil. The term is radically +false both from the historical and the archological point of view, +and originates in an error which demands the strenuous opposition +due to persistent fallacies. By a strange irony of fate the term +Gothic, used in the last century merely as the opprobrious synonym +of barbaric, has been specialised within the last sixty years in +connection with that polished epoch of the Middle Ages which sheds +most lustre upon our national art. And this, in spite of its Germanic +origin.

+ +

Romanesque architecture, or to be exact, that[2] architecture which, +by virtue of the archologic convention of 1825, we agree to label +Romanesque, undoubtedly borrowed its essential elements from the +Romans and Byzantines, modifying and perfecting them by the genius +of Western Europe; but the architectural period which began in the +middle of the twelfth century, and is so unjustly dubbed Gothic, was +of purely French birth; its cradle was the nucleus of modern France. +Aquitaine, Anjou, and Maine were the provinces in which it first took +root. The royal domain, and notably the Ile-de-France, witnessed its +most marvellous developments, and it was from the very heart of France +that its splendour radiated throughout Europe.

+ +

But the tyranny of usage leaves us no choice as to the title of this +volume. We are compelled to style it Gothic Architecture, though we +would gladly have registered our protest by naming it French Medival +Architecture.[1]

+ +
+ +

[1] This idea, which has recently found support in quarters +which might have been considered free from such chauvinism, is based +upon a narrow and peculiarly modern view of art. Art activities in +the Middle Ages were as instinctive and unconscious as speech. The +forms of architecture were invented and elaborated much in the same +way as language. For the purpose of the historian of architecture, +the northern half of France, the three southern quarters of Great +Britain, and the districts threaded by the Rhine, form a single +country, a single foyer of art. They all pressed on from similar +starting-points to similar goals; and if the French went ahead in +one direction, they fell astern in another. It may be allowed that, +on the whole, the architects of the Ile-de-France did better than +their rivals. Gothic architecture is pre-eminently logical, and +logic is pre-eminently the artistic gift of the Frenchman. So that +its more scientific development in the "French royal domain" was +only to be expected. That success of this kind gives a right to +call the whole development "French medival architecture" cannot be +allowed.—Ed.[3]

+ +

The term Gothic is, however, purely arbitrary, as is also that +of pointed, which has been introduced by writers who admit the +principle of the broken arch as the characteristic of so-called Gothic +architecture.

+ +

The broken or pointed arch, which is formed by the intersection of +two opposite curves at an angle more or less acute, was known to +architects long before its systematic application. It occurs in +buildings of the ninth century in Cairo, and was used prior to this +in Armenia, and still earlier in Persia, where indeed it superseded +all other forms of span from the times of the last of the Sassanides +onwards. It is an expedient which gives increased power of resistance +to the arch by diminishing its lateral thrusts.

+ +

The pointed arch is a form which admits of infinite variations. The +one law which governs its construction is expediency. It frankly +abandons those rules of classic proportion which are the canons, so +to speak, of the round-headed arch. Thus we shall find the pointed +approximating to the round-headed form in the twelfth century, only +to diverge from it more widely than before, till, towards the close +of the thirteenth and throughout the fourteenth century, it took on +the acute proportions necessitated by a perilous disposition to prefer +loftiness to solidity.

+ +

Fundamentally, it is of little moment whether the architecture of the +twelfth to the sixteenth century be termed Gothic or pointed, when +we recognise these terms as equally inexact. The point to be really +insisted upon is that the filiation we have already demonstrated in +our book on Romanesque Architecture continued slowly, but surely, in +the[4] wake of civilisation, of which architecture is ever one of the +most striking manifestations.

+ +

So-called Gothic architecture was not the product of a single +generation; it was the continuous logical development of the +Romanesque movement, just as the latter in its time had been the +outcome of a gradual adaptation of old traditions to new-born +exigencies. Thus our Aquitainian forbears, by their successful +translation into stone of the eastern cupola, prepared the way for +the groined vault, the embryo of which is clearly traceable in the +pendentives of the dome at St. Front.

+ +

The great churches which, towards the middle of the twelfth century, +rose throughout the rich Western provinces that cluster about +Aquitaine, were all constructed with groined vaults. In these examples +we can discern no halting, tentative application of newly adopted +principles. The work is that of consummate architects, who brought +to their labours the assurance born of experienced skill, and in the +later part of the twelfth century, the new system had replaced all +others for the construction of vaults throughout Western Europe.

+ +

The architects of the royal domain, and notably those of the +Ile-de-France, had been the first to adopt the groined vault. Towards +the close of the twelfth century their assimilation of the new +principles, their native ingenuity, and professional hardihood alike +urged them to its further development. They became the inventors of +the flying buttress.

+ +

The substitution of the groined vault for its parent, the cupola, +was the direct consequence of the old tradition. The development +was merely a stage in[5] the march of ideas, a consummation logically +arrived at in the track which the Romans, constructors not less +bold though more prudent than their artistic progeny, had marked +out for them. The groined vault, in short, is simply the growth +of Roman principles perfected by continuous experiment. But the +flying buttress, or rather the system of construction based on its +use, caused a radical change in the art of building of the twelfth +century. Stability, which in the ancient buildings was ensured by +solid masses at the impost of vaults and arches, was replaced by the +balance of parts. From this daring system some of the most marvellous +of architectural effects have been won; but the innovation had a +dangerous inherent weakness, inasmuch as it involved the exterior +position of those essential vital organs for whose preservation the +ancients had wisely provided, by keeping them within the building.

+ +

It is therefore not surprising that though fifty years after its +introduction the groined vault was generally adopted throughout +Western Europe, and even in the East, the success of the flying +buttress was infinitely more gradual and restricted. Thus, in the +North, the multiplication of great religious monuments built, or even +rebuilt on the new lines, was simultaneous with the construction in +the South of vast churches on the old principles. The adventurous +builders of the North had eagerly adopted the new division of churches +into several aisles, all with groined vaults, the vault of the great +central nave relying upon exterior flying buttresses for resistance to +its thrust.

+ +

In the South, on the other hand, architects were prudent, either +through instinctive resistance to, or[6] deliberate reaction from, the +innovating influence, or by way of fidelity to an ancient tradition. +They built with a single aisle, wide and lofty; the vaults were +indeed supported by ribs, but their thrusts were received by powerful +buttresses inside the walls, the projections thus formed being further +utilised for the construction of chapels in the intervals.

+ +

This latter system, which has the incontestable merit of perfect +solidity, recalls the construction of the Basilica of Constantine, +or of the tepidarium in the Baths of Caracalla. The stability of the +edifice was ensured by the resistance of masses at the imposts, and +the whole principle of construction formed, as it were, a protest +against the miracles of equilibrium so much in favour among the +Northerners.

+ +

The new system of vaults supported by flying buttresses made +very slight way in the South. It appears but rarely, and in the +few instances where it is used has entirely the air of a foreign +importation. Even in the cradle of its origin, it took root slowly +and with difficulty, for its first applications were not without +disaster. Lacking that mathematical knowledge which is the mainstay +of the modern architect, the experimental skill shown by the +thirteenth-century builder in constructing his vaults, and then +in neutralising their thrusts by flying buttresses reduced to +the legitimate function of permanent struts, was little short of +miraculous. For it must be borne in mind that the thrust of these +vaults, and the strength of the flying buttresses, varied of necessity +according to their span, and the resisting powers of their materials. +It was only by dint of long gropings in the dark that the necessarily +empirical formul[7] of the innovators were gradually transformed into +recognised rules, and this knotty problem of construction received +no positive solution till the last years of the thirteenth, or more +emphatically, the first years of the fourteenth century. While even +then the solution could claim no universal acceptance, for what was +comparatively easy in countries where stone abounds became difficult, +if not impossible, in districts where such a material as brick was the +sole resource of builders.

+ +

Nevertheless, the growth of Gothic architecture was rapid, so rapid +that even in the fourteenth century it began to show symptoms of that +swift decadence which is the Nemesis of facile success. The abuse of +equilibrium, the excessive diminution of points of support—defects +often aggravated by insecurity of foundation and exaggerated loftiness +of structure—the poor quality of materials, and the faulty setting +thereof due to empirical methods, the over-rapidity of execution +caused by mistaken emulation, the dearth of funds consequent on +social and political convulsions complicated by the miseries of +war,—all these things joined hands for the extinction of a once +resplendent art. But the initial cause of its ruin must be sought in +its abandonment of antique traditions. These traditions had persisted +uninterruptedly throughout the so-called Romanesque period, only to +pave the way for a seductive art in novel form, which, casting aside +the trammels of the past in obedience to the dictates of the moment, +fell on decay as rapidly as it had risen to eminence. Dawning in the +France of Louis the Fat, it reached its apogee under St.[8] Louis, and +was in full decadence before the close of the fifteenth century.

+ +

The narrow limits assigned to us forbid not only detailed discussion +of our great monuments, but even a summary of the most famous. We must +be content to work out that theory of evolution already put forward by +us in L'Architecture Romane. We propose merely to offer a synthesis +of that architectural development which succeeded the so-called +Romanesque epoch, from its birth in the twelfth to its extinction in +the fifteenth century.

+ +

And as the groined vault is, broadly speaking, the essential +characteristic of so-called Gothic architecture, and the flying +buttress one of its most interesting manifestations, we shall make +a special study of their origin, their modifications, and their +principal applications in connection with religious, monastic, +military, and civil architecture. We shall dwell more particularly +upon religious architecture as presenting the grandest and most +obvious evidences of artistic progress, not in its admirable buildings +alone, but in those masterpieces of painting and sculpture to which it +gave birth in France.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[9]

+ +

PART I
+ RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

+ +
+ +
+ +

[10]
[11]

+ +

CHAPTER I
+ +THE INFLUENCE OF THE CUPOLA UPON SO-CALLED GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE

+ +
+ +

The cupola, in its symbolic aspect, was the germ, whence sprang +an architectural system the revolutionary action of which upon +art can scarcely be over-estimated.[2]

+ +
+ +

[2] L'Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer; Quantin, Paris, +1888.

+ +

So-called Gothic architecture was no spontaneous and miraculous +manifestation. Like all human activities, its end is easy to +determine; but it is difficult to fix even an approximate date for +its beginning. The traces of its origin are lost in that period of +architectural activity which preceded it, and prepared its way by a +train of unbroken evolution.

+ +

The cupola of St. Front, which we may reasonably call the mother +cupola of France, was not an imitation of that of St. Mark at +Venice, for both were based upon the church built by Justinian at +Constantinople, in honour of the Holy Apostles. But the form thus +imported into Aquitaine received such modification and development, as +to make it virtually an original achievement. One of the knottiest of +architectural problems was solved in the[12] process, and that admirable +constructive principle was established which consists in concentrating +the thrust of a vault upon four points of support strengthened by +pendentives.

+ +

The construction of such a cupola as that of St. Front in dressed +stone was an event of great moment in a district which still preserved +the Gallo-Roman tradition in its integrity, and was commonly reputed +the fatherland of our architecture. Its immediate consequences were +shown before the close of the eleventh century by the erection of +large abbey churches on the model of St. Front in various neighbouring +provinces.

+ +

But while accepting the new principle, the architects of the period +directed their energies to its perfectibility. Their efforts, and +even their successes, in this direction are manifest so early as the +first years of the twelfth century. The churches of Angoulme and +of Fontevrault may be cited in proof. "We here recognise the main +preoccupation of the Romanesque builders—namely, how best to reduce +the immense masses of churches built with the primitive cupola by a +more deliberate and judicious distribution of thrust and resistance. +We further see how the adoption of these principles led to the +emphasising of critical points by buttresses, which now began to +project from the exterior walls."[3]

+ +
+ +

[3] L'Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer; Quantin, Paris, +1888.

+ +

The new system spread rapidly, notably in Anjou and Maine, its growth +being marked by an ever-increasing refinement and perfection. The +architects of the rich abbeys of these provinces, the[13] importance of +which was aggrandised by their strong attachments to the all-powerful +religious organisation of the period, gave a further development +to the Aquitainian method. They transformed the pendentives of the +cupolas into independent arches which performed exactly the same +functions, thus logically working out an architectonic principle of +amazing simplicity, the success of which was so rapid that, by the +middle of the twelfth century, it was systematically applied to the +construction of great churches at Angers, Laval, and Poitiers.

+ +

The works of the Angevin architects were of course known to their +Northern brethren, who, in common with all the builders of the day, +had long been seeking the final solution of the great problem of +the vault. The architects of the Ile-de-France at once appropriated +the Angevin system with that special professional ingenuity which +characterised them, and applied it to the construction of innumerable +churches, large and small, all of them built on the basilican +plan—that is to say, with three, or even five aisles.

+ +

Thus the Aquitainian cupola of dressed stone exercised an absolutely +direct influence upon Gothic architecture, since it gave birth to the +intersecting arch, which is the main feature of so-called Gothic. +This influence was first manifested in the general arrangement of +single-aisled churches vaulted upon intersecting ribs, the earliest +departure from the original cupola. It was then more grandiosely +demonstrated in vast abbey or cathedral churches, built in accordance +with the basilican tradition, and all vaulted on the new principle.

+ +

[14]

+ +

Angers and Laval are primitive examples of churches whose square +compartments carry groined vaults, which thenceforth took the place of +cupolas with pendentives.

+ +

The abbey church of Noyon shows the application of this principle, +novel in the twelfth century, to the several-aisled churches of the +Northern architects. The original vaults of Noyon[4] were planned in +square. The intersecting arches united the principal piers diagonally, +the strain being relieved by a subordinate or auxiliary arch which +rested upon secondary piers, indicated on the exterior by buttresses +less salient than those of the main piers, and on the interior by a +column receiving the lateral archivolts which united the chief piers.

+ +
+ +

[4] The original disposition of the vaults built about +1160 is indicated by the spring of the arches above the capitals, +and by the base plan of the principal piers. The present vaults on +rectangular plan were built after the fire of 1238, in accordance with +prevailing fashions.

+ +

This system of construction, the principle of which was logically +developed at Noyon, for instance, no longer exists, save in its +traditional state in the great churches of Laon, and in the cathedrals +of Paris, Sens, and Bourges, to name but the principal, without regard +to the innumerable churches built on these principles throughout +Western Europe. In these great buildings the vaults were all square on +plan down to the adoption in the first half of the thirteenth century +of equal bays, vaulted on a rectangular plan, and marked inside and +out by equal piers and projections, as at Amiens, Rheims, and many +other churches of the period.

+ +

Hence we see how incontestable was the influence[15] of the cupola +upon so-called Gothic architecture. This truth is demonstrated by +monuments yet in existence, lapidary documents above suspicion. It +cannot be insisted upon too strongly, not merely for the satisfaction +of archeologic accuracy, but more especially as yet another proof +that the filiation between the art of the ancients and that of the +so-called Romanesque architects is no less evident than that which +links together the Romanesque and the so-called Gothic. Of this latter +filiation we have a direct proof in the Aquitainian cupola, the parent +of those of Angoumois, which in their turn gave birth to the Angevin +intersecting arch, and so prepared the way for the flying buttress, +which again was to mark a new departure.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[16]

+ +

CHAPTER II
+ +THE ORIGIN OF THE INTERSECTING VAULT

+ +

So early as the eleventh century churches were built with one or +several aisles, and in this latter case the side aisles only had +ribbed vaults, the nave being covered by a timber roof. The next step +was to vault all three aisles, buttressing the barrel-vaulted nave by +continuous half-barrel vaults or ribbed vaults over the aisles, and +further strengthening it by projecting transverse arches, or arcs +doubleaux, the whole being crowned by a roof which embraced the side +aisles. These cumbrous and timidly constructed buildings were merely +imitations of the Roman basilicas. To ensure their solidity they had +perforce to be narrow; and the necessary abolition of top lighting +made them gloomy. We find then that, before the appearance of the +cupola, medival architects were perfectly acquainted both with the +barrel vault and the ribbed vault, the latter formed, on traditional +principles, by the interpenetration of two demi-cylinders. They had +even attempted to improve upon the construction by strengthening the +line of penetration with a salient rib, giving an elliptic arch. But +this rib was purely decorative, for[17] in the Roman vault the stones +at the line of intersection, whether ribbed or not, were in complete +solidarity with the filling on either side in which they were buried.

+ +

It follows that we shall seek in vain in the Roman ribbed vault the +germ of the intersecting arch, with its essentially active functions.

+ +

For the origin of the intersecting arch we must turn to the eleventh +century. We shall find it in the dressed stone cupola of St. Front, +and more especially in its pendentives.

+ +

Fig. 1 gives the plan of one of the cupolas of St. Front. It is +composed of four massive transverse arches, the thrusts of which are +received upon four piers united by pendentives (Figs. 2 and 3) passing +from the re-entering angles at the spring of the arches to the base +of the circular dome itself, each of the concentric courses bearing +upon the keys of the arcs-doubleaux, and transmitting to them, and +therefore to the piers by which they are supported, the weight of the +cupola itself.

+ +
+ +

1. PLAN OF A CUPOLA OF THE ABBEY CHURCH OF ST. FRONT AT PRIGUEUX

+
+ +
+ +

2. PENDENTIVE (MARKED A) OF A CUPOLA OF THE ABBEY CHURCH OF ST. FRONT

+
+ +

Fig. 3 is a section through one of the pendentives of St. Front, +following the line A B in Fig. 1. It[18] shows that the first six courses +are cut so as to make what is called a tas de charg; the upper +surfaces are horizontal, the faces curved to the radius of the dome +itself. After the sixth course the voussoirs are cut normally to the +curve of the arch. The vaulting of religious buildings having long +been the crux of medival architects, the construction of[19] the St. +Front cupolas must have been an event much noised abroad, for towards +the close of the eleventh century a large number of churches with +cupolas were built in imitation of the mother church at Prigueux.

+ +
+ +

3. SECTION OF A PENDENTIVE ON THE DIAGONAL A TO B IN PLAN, FIG. 1

+
+ +

The construction of the churches of Angoulme and Fontevrault in the +first years of the twelfth century shows that the architects were +attempting to cover spaces of ever-increasing span on the Aquitainian +model, while at the same time they set themselves to lighten their +vaults, and consequently to reduce their points of support.

+ +

Fig. 4 gives the plan of one of the cupolas of Angoulme or of +Fontevrault, both being built on precisely similar plan, with the +exception of the number of bays to the nave.

+ +
+ +

4. PLAN OF A CUPOLA OF ANGOULME OR FONTEVRAULT

+
+ +

Fig. 5 gives the section of a bay in one of these churches, and +illustrates the considerable difference[20] already existing between +the mother cupola of St. Front and its offspring. The cupola on +pendentives begins to show a certain attenuation, and we shall +presently note a fresh step forward towards the solution of that +problem so persistently grappled with by the medival architect—how +to reduce the weight of the vault.

+ +
+ +

5. SECTION OF A BAY OF THE CUPOLAS OF ANGOULME

+
+ +

The Church of St. Avit-Snieur furnishes a most instructive example.

+ +

The cupola of this building is strengthened by stiffening ribs. It +becomes an annular vault, formed of almost horizontal keyed courses, +sustained by transverse and diagonal ribs, which act the part of a +permanent centering.

+ +

[21]

+ +

The Church of St. Pierre at Saumur marks a further step onwards in the +construction of vaults derived from the cupola.[5]

+ +
+ +

[5] L'Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer.

+ +
+ +

6. SECTION OF A BAY IN THE CHURCH OF ST. AVIT-SNIEUR

+
+ +

Finally, the architects of Maine and Anjou achieved the long-desired +consummation. Under their treatment the pendentives resolved +themselves into their actively useful elements, the visible signs of +which were diagonal or intersecting arches, salient and independent, +set in precisely the same manner as the pendentives of the cupola +(Fig. 3), and performing identical functions (Fig. 8).

+ +
+ +

7. PLAN OF VAULT ON INTERSECTING ARCHES

+
+ +

The vault proper is no longer formed of concentric courses, as in the +mother cupola. It consists thenceforward of voussoirs cut normally[22] to +the curve, and filling the triangles (A, B, C, D, Fig. 7) determined +by the longitudinal, the diagonal or intersecting, and the transverse +arches. These arches form a stone skeleton, no less solid though far +less ponderous than the cupola pendentives, and sustain the vault by +distributing its thrusts over four points of support.

+ +

The triangular fillings no longer imprison the ribs, or, more exactly +speaking, the intersecting arches, nor do they any longer neutralise +their active functions. These fillings, on the other hand, have, like +the intersecting arch, gained a new independence. They now contribute +to the elasticity of the divers organs of the vault, a most essential +element in its solidity. The peculiar arrangement of the intersecting +arches in the nave of Angers gives incontrovertible proof of the +direct filiation of this building to the Aquitainian cupola. The +voussoirs of the intersecting arches are about equal in horizontal +section to those of the transverse arches, while their vertical +section equals the thickness of the filling plus the internal salience +which marks their function. They look in fact like slices cut from +the pendentives of a cupola (A, Fig. 8).[23] It must be remarked, too, +that at Angers the stones of the filling do not yet rest upon the +extrados of the ribs, in the fashion adopted some years later in the +Ile-de-France and elsewhere (see B, Fig. 8), but embrace them (as at +A).

+ +
+ +

8. SECTION OF AN INTERSECTING ARCH

+
+ +

The identity of function in the pendentive and in the Gothic +intersecting arch, both constructed, as they are, of stones dressed +normally to their curves, shows that they sprang from a common origin, +which is as much as to say that the Aquitainian cupola begat the +intersecting vault.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[24]

+ +

CHAPTER III
+ +THE FIRST GROINED VAULTS

+ +

The first application of the system of intersecting vaults appears in +the great churches of Angers and Laval.

+ +

It is probable that the new methods propagated by the religious +architects of Aquitaine and neighbouring provinces had excited the +emulation of the Northern builders, more especially those of the +Ile-de-France. Evidences to this effect are to be found in certain +subordinate portions of their buildings at this period, such as side +aisles or apsidal chapels. Their timid arrangement seems, however, +reminiscent of the Roman system of ribbed vaulting, with a slightly +increased prominence of the ribs superadded, rather[25] than of the +revolution that had been effected in church vaulting generally.

+ +
+ +

9. PLAN OF A BAY IN THE NAVE OF ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS

+
+ +
+ +

10. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS

+
+ +

But, if we except perhaps Laval, nowhere shall we find the new system +of vaulting upon intersecting arches more mightily demonstrated than +at Angers, the aisles of which measure 54 feet across. The[26] grandeur +of the architectural composition, no less than the admirable technical +skill shown in the details, gives proof of the consummate mastery +arrived at by the builders of these noble structures so early as the +middle of the twelfth century. The plan of these churches resembles +that of Angoulme and Fontevrault. It is in no way allied to the +Northern buildings.

+ +
+ +

11. PLAN OF A BAY OF THE NAVE IN THE CHURCH OF LA STE. TRINIT AT LAVAL

+
+ +

They are constructed with single aisles, like the cupola churches, +with a series of bays, square on plan; but the arrangement of the +vaults has been perfected by the logical use of intersecting arches in +the place of pendentives, the architects of the day having realised +by this time the progress we have explained and demonstrated in the +preceding chapter.

+ +

These vast aisles, vaulted on intersecting arches, are of course +allied to the cupolas; they recall their general outline, but the +arrangement of the vaulting is different. The intersecting ribs are +no longer merely decorative features; they have taken on all the +active functions of the arc-doubleau and the formeret. Their union +constitutes an elastic ossature, the weight being concentrated upon +four points of support, which receive the impost of the arches, and[27] +compose a stone skeleton, each unit of which has been cut and dressed +to fill the exact place it occupies in the whole.

+ +
+ +

12. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF TWO BAYS IN THE NAVE OF LA STE. TRINIT AT LAVAL

+
+ +

If we compare the sections (Figs. 13 and 14) of the churches of +Angoulme and Angers, we may clearly trace the filiation between these +buildings, the one dating from the first years of the twelfth century, +the other from some thirty or even forty years later. We shall also +note the advance made by the Angevin architects in the construction of +groined vaults in the[28]
[29] place of domes with pendentives, a development +worked out by the more perfect and reasoned application of the same +architectural principle.

+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +

13 AND 14. COMPARATIVE SECTIONS OF THE CHURCHES OF ANGOULME AND ANGERS

+
+ +
+ +

15. VIEW IN PERSPECTIVE OF THE NAVE VAULT OF ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS

+
+ +

The Church of Laval, built simultaneously with[30] that of Angers, +or only a few years later, shows a further advance, not merely in +the matter of form, but in the increased science and ingenuity of +combinations, and the methodical accuracy of the execution.

+ +
+ +

16. PLAN OF A SUMMER OF THE NAVE VAULT OF LA STE. TRINIT AT LAVAL

+
+ + +
+ +

17. PLAN OF ONE OF THE PIERS OF THE NAVE OF LA STE. TRINIT AT LAVAL

+
+ +

The arches which compose the ossature of the vaults become independent +in their functions, as at Angers, immediately upon leaving the abacus, +an essential characteristic of the new system. The lateral points of +support are composed of piers proper and of clustered columns, crowned +by corbelled capitals, which, by prolonging them, mark the formerets, +the diagonal, and the transverse arches as they fall upon the abaci. +It is easy to see in this arrangement the origin of those clustered +shafts so generally and even excessively used in the thirteenth and +fourteenth centuries, the main object of which was to conceal as far +as possible the points of support.

+ +

[31]

+ +

These details, and the section (Fig. 12) showing the mode of +construction in the vaults, demonstrate sufficiently that at Laval, no +less than at Angers, a direct filiation exists between the dome upon +pendentives and the groined and ribbed vault.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[32]

+ +

CHAPTER IV
+ +BUILDINGS VAULTED UPON INTERSECTING ARCHES

+ +

The new system derived from the domes upon pendentives, so brilliantly +applied in Anjou and Maine in the first half of the twelfth century, +was thenceforth the normal method of the religious architect. The +admirable simplicity of the new method and its adaptability to every +class of building, from the great abbey church to the modest chapel, +sufficiently accounts for its rapid dissemination throughout Western +Europe, where religious bodies had founded innumerable abbeys, large +and small, of varying rules and orders, but all welded together by one +mighty organisation.

+ +

A long array of churches on the Angevin model rose, not only in the +neighbouring provinces—as Ste. Radegonde at Poitiers, Notre Dame de +la Coulture and the nave of St. Julien at Mans,—but farther afield +towards the south. To name only the most important—the charming +Church of Thor, dedicated to Ste. Marie du Lac, between Avignon and +the fountain of Vaucluse; that of St. Sauveur at St. Macaire, near +Bordeaux; the nave of St. Andr at Bordeaux, begun in 1252 on the +cupola plan, but modified and finally[33] crowned with a groined and +ribbed vault; St. Caprais at Agen, which shows the same modifications, +and lastly, the immense brick nave of St. tienne at Toulouse, +which measures 64 feet—all demonstrate the progression of the new +principles in the second half of the twelfth century.

+ +
+ +

18. PLAN OF THE NAVE, ST. MAURICE AT ANGERS

+
+ +

Towards the North the advance was no less general. Various buildings +show to what excellent account contemporary architects had turned the +system of vaults on intersecting arches, recognising[34] its admirable +adaptability to different climates, and to the most diverse materials. +But it was reserved for Angers, the cradle of its birth, to give an +added perfection to this ingenious system.

+ +

The Church of the Ste. Trinit, on the right bank of the Maine, built +by the sons or pupils of those architects who had planned St. Maurice +for the hill on the opposite shore, marks a fresh advance in the +construction of these vaults. Like St. Maurice, it has but a single +aisle, which is divided into three bays, each as nearly as possible +square on plan. The system of vaulting takes on a greater elegance by +the insertion of a transverse arch, with its supporting shafts, in the +centre of each bay. This divides the bay into two equal parts, and, +cutting the diagonal ribs at their intersection, supports them at the +critical point.

+ +

Fig. 19 gives the plan of these vaults, the system of which was +eagerly seized upon by the Northern architects, and the great abbey +church of Noyon[35]
[36] appears to have been the first-fruits of this new +development of the Angevin idea.

+ +
+ +

19. PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF LA STE. TRINIT AT ANGERS

+
+ +
+ +

20. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A BAY OF LA STE. TRINIT AT ANGERS

+
+ +

The great abbey churches and immense cathedrals which were built from +the second half of the twelfth to the middle of the thirteenth century +attest the importance of the development carried out at Angers by +the arrangement of their own vaults in square compartments. For we +now find this system adopted in the construction of the churches or +cathedrals of Noyon, Laon, Notre Dame at Paris, Sens, and Bourges, to +name only acknowledged masterpieces of so-called Gothic.

+ +
+ +

21. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A BAY OF LA STE. TRINIT AT ANGERS

+
+ +

The influence of the cupola, which we established in our first +chapter, was both direct and consecutive. It was direct in churches +built with one aisle and vaulted on intersecting arches, and +consecutive in the so-called Romanesque churches, which were either +completed or modified on the new lines by the substitution of vaults +on intersecting arches of dressed stone for timber roofs. A large +number of buildings in England, Normandy, Germany, Northern Italy, +Switzerland, the Rhine Provinces, and those of Northern France bear +testimony of the highest interest to the transformations consequent on +the invention of the groined vault and its universal application.

+ +

Architects who had been trained in the great abbey schools, emboldened +by the successes of their forerunners and their own individual +experience, raised on every hand vast cathedrals, in which every known +development of the system was essayed with unequalled daring. Going +on from strength to strength, they eventually abandoned the antique[37] +traditions, and disregarding the statical conditions which ensured +the solidity of the ancient buildings,[38] they invented a system of +construction which is, as it were, merely a skeleton in stone, a stone +version of the timbered roof; its characteristic expression was[39]
[40] the +permanent strut known as the flying buttress; its governing idea +was equilibrium, for which it provided by architectural stratagems +ingenious in the highest degree, but also extremely precarious. Its +existence or stability depends for the most part on the quality of the +materials and their degrees of resisting power, the essential organs, +by which I mean those vital weight-carrying portions, the failure +of which would involve the ruin of the whole, being outside the +building, and therefore exposed to all those deteriorating influences +from which the load they bear, that is to say, the vaults, are +protected by walls and roof.

+ +
+ +

22. SECTION OF A SINGLE-AISLED CHURCH VAULTED ON +INTERSECTING ARCHES WITH BUTTRESSES

+
+ +
+ +

23. SECTION OF A THREE-AISLED CHURCH VAULTED ON INTERSECTING ARCHES WITH FLYING BUTTRESSES

+
+ +

The great buildings constructed on these new principles consisted of +a central nave with two, or even four side aisles. The huge structure +depended for its light first upon low windows in the collateral +portions, secondly, upon windows at a much higher level. Hence it +became necessary to raise the vault of the central nave, and to +give it an abutment in the form of detached semi-arches or flying +buttresses. The crowns of these semi-arches impinged the piers at the +planes of greatest pressure and received the collective thrust of +all the ribs, formerets, transverse and diagonal arches. Their bases +rested upon abutments, the strength of which was calculated according +to the thrust they had to meet.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[41]

+ +

CHAPTER V
+ +ORIGIN OF THE FLYING BUTTRESS

+ +

The primitive method of vaulting adopted in the central provinces of +France in the construction of churches with three aisles rendered such +buildings of necessity low and heavy. The main aisle being covered by +a barrel vault, supported on either side by a continuous half-barrel +vault, the sole means of lighting lay in the windows of the side +aisles, so that the nave was always gloomy in the extreme. The +Norman architects had avoided this difficulty, first in their native +province, and afterwards in England, by vaulting the subordinate +aisles only, and by raising the lateral walls of the nave high enough +to allow a line of windows to be introduced between the lean-to roofs +of the side aisles and the nave roof, the latter being an open timber +construction instead of a vault.

+ +

The lateral gallery in the first story of Norman churches built on the +basilican model is merely a development of the ancient tradition.[6] +It bears the name of triforium because—or so we are told—each[42] +compartment of such an interior gallery between the main piers of the +nave was originally divided into three by pillars supporting lintels +or by small columns supporting an arcade.

+ +
+ +

[6] See L'Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer; Maison +Quantin, Paris, 1888, chaps. i. iii. and iv.

+ +

Towards the close of the eleventh century Norman architects on both +sides of the Channel were raising vast churches, the side aisles of +which bore above their ribbed vaults galleries after the fashion +of the primitive basilicas. These galleries in their turn were +covered by open timber roofs like that of the nave. The bays were +emphasised in the nave and in the side aisles by transverse arches, +or arcs-doubleaux, which served as buttresses to those of the main +vault. But after the adoption, towards the middle of the twelfth +century, of the Angevin method of vaulting for religious buildings, +the functions of the lateral walls and of the supporting arches became +better defined, for these walls and arches had now to meet the thrusts +of the transverse as well as that of the diagonal arches, which, +meeting in bundles, as it were, at each pier, gathered their energies +at well-marked points.

+ +

It was thus that the cross walls or arcs-doubleaux of the side +aisles were gradually modified till they became detached semi-arches +concealed beneath the outer roof of the side aisles.

+ +

We have traced this modification in the Abbaye aux Dames at Caen.[7]

+ +
+ +

[7] L'Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison +Quantin, 88, chap. xvii.

+ +

Fig. 24 shows us an English example. It may be followed out in a +number of other churches in England, at Pavia in Italy, at Zurich in +Switzer[43]land, and at Basle on the Rhine, to name but a few of the +churches in which the modification of the vaults was long posterior to +the construction of the building itself.

+ +
+ +

24. DURHAM CATHEDRAL. TRANSVERSE SECTIONS

+
+ +

In France we shall find no example more deeply interesting than +Noyon, which at the date of its construction (the last quarter of +the twelfth century) formed, as it were, an epitome of the advance +so far made by the architects of the Ile-de-France. In this curious +building we find a fusion of the antique tradition developed by the +Normans in their triforiums, and of the Angevin methods, as manifested +in the groined vaults derived from domes: methods further perfected +by the example of La Ste. Trinit[44] at Angers; in other words, by the +adoption of intersecting arches planned on a square, the thrusts of +all being received on the main piers, reinforced by an[45] intermediate +transverse arch. And we note the appearance of the detached semi-arch +beneath the roofing of the inferior aisles merging at its springing +into the lateral arc-doubleau, and so resisting the thrust of the +intersecting arches and transverse arches of the nave.

+ +
+ +

25. ABBEY CHURCH AT NOYON. PLAN

+
+ +
+ +

26. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF NOYON CHURCH

+
+ +

It has been said that Noyon was suggested by Tournai, doubtless on +account of their superficial affinities. But the likeness is merely in +general aspect, the methods of construction being wholly different. At +Tournai the apsidal transepts are vaulted upon transverse arches of +great strength, and upon radiating semi-arches united where they meet +by a ring of voussoirs set horizontally, and at their springing by +vaults keyed into their mass, an ingenious arrangement which recalls +the vaulting of the Salle des Capitaines over the porch of the +monastery church at Moissac.

+ +

The combination of these arcs-doubleaux, which, in addition to the +solidity of their independent structure, are strongly reinforced by +the massive circular courses of the walls, is very peculiar, for it +dispenses altogether both with auxiliary arches and[46] with abutments. +Tournai, therefore, cannot be held to have begotten Noyon, for here +we have groined vaults, the intersecting arches of which demand the +reinforcement of abutments either concealed or apparent to sustain +the thrust of these vaults over the lateral arcs-doubleaux. The +ingenious arrangement above cited had in no sense modified the methods +of abutment followed by the architects of[47] the twelfth century even +after the adoption of the vault on intersecting arches. These, as will +be remembered, consisted in buttressing the walls and piers of the +nave by cross walls or by arches concealed beneath the roofing of the +side aisles.

+ +
+ +

27. CHURCH OF TOURNAI, BELGIUM. EXTERIOR VIEW OF THE +NORTH TRANSEPT TOWARDS THE SCHELDT

+
+ +
+ +

28. MONASTERY CHURCH AT MOISSAC. VAULT OF THE HALL KNOWN +AS THE HALL OF THE CAPTAINS ABOVE THE PORCH

+
+ +
+ +

29. CHURCH OF TOURNAI, BELGIUM. INTERIOR OF THE NORTH TRANSEPT

+
+ +

We find at Soissons the first application of an architectural system, +the special feature of which is the flying buttress.

+ +

The south transept of Soissons Cathedral was evidently suggested by +Noyon. This is apparent in the adoption of the two-storied side aisle +and in the semi-circular plan. But the method of vaulting common to +both churches has a greater refinement at[48] Soissons. Reduced to its +simplest expression of strength by the attenuation of its skeleton, +the vault still exercises its full thrust on those parts which rise +above the upper gallery.

+ +

The architect of Soissons was not content, like his brother of Noyon, +to support the vault laterally by interior arches collaborating with +the arcs-doubleaux of the triforium, and reinforced by an abutment +impinging on the wall of the central nave. To him the idea occurred of +detached semi-arches in open air, springing from above the roof of the +triforium and its buttresses and marking each bay. Thus was born the +flying buttress, a feature frankly emphasising its special aim and +function, namely, to meet the thrust of the main vault at its points +of concentration.

+ +
+ +

30. SOISSONS CATHEDRAL. SOUTH TRANSEPT. SECTION OF FLYING BUTTRESS

+
+ +
+ +

31. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF SOUTH TRANSEPT, SOISSONS +CATHEDRAL[8]

+
+ +
+ +

[8] These flying buttresses, in themselves insufficient for +the task laid upon them, and worn by the destructive action of the +weather, were pushed entirely out of shape by the constant pressure +from within, the thrust of the vault being aggravated by the circular +plan of the building, while the vaults themselves became dislocated +by reason of their insufficient abutments. It became necessary to +reconstruct the buttresses in 1880, to avert the total collapse of the +south transept. +

+

+The reconstruction of these flying buttresses, and of many others of +the same period, furnishes us with a criticism ad hominem upon the +system.

+ +

The flying buttress, in combination with the intersecting arch, +gave[49] birth to a new system of construction, a system on which +were raised vast buildings which compel our admiration and demand +our careful study, but should not invite our imitation. They are +monuments to the ingenuity of the twelfth and thirteenth century[50] +architect, but no less are they beacons warning against the perils of +a rationalism—more apparent than real—which their authors carried to +its extreme limits, casting to the winds all traditional principles, +and consequently all authority.

+ +

It would seem as though the architects of this period, emboldened by +such achievements as the churches of Noyon, Soissons, Laon, Paris, +Sens, and Bourges, and spurred by professional emulation, went on from +one feat of daring to another, passing from the triumphs of Rheims, +Amiens, and Mans to the supreme architectural folly of Beauvais, and +creating monuments no less amazing in dimension than in the statical +problems grappled with, if not always solved.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[51]

+ +

CHAPTER VI
+ +CHURCHES AND CATHEDRALS OF THE TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES

+ +

The study of medival architecture is one of the most fascinating of +pursuits, but it is one beset with difficulties. The obscurity in +which the origin of our great monuments is buried is profound and +often impenetrable.

+ +

A fertile cause of error is the confusion which in many cases has +arisen between the dates of foundation and of consecration. Very often +a church was built and afterwards considerably modified, rather than +actually reconstructed, on the same consecrated site.

+ +

Lightning was the most frequent cause of the destruction, total or +partial, of medival churches. Striking the steeple, the tower, or the +roof, it fired the timber superstructure of the nave. This in itself +would not have been an irreparable disaster; but as the timbers gave +way the calcined beams charred the piers, and so prepared the downfall +of the whole building, which was then either restored or reconstructed +in the fashion of the day. Hence, whether we base our deductions upon +more or less[52] trustworthy records or upon contemporary readings of +existing data, the result is too often a confusion among vanished +monuments, or a contradiction between the buildings as they now exist +and the historic records which relate to them.

+ +
+ +

32. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. PLAN

+
+ +

[53]

+ +
+ +

33. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. INTERIOR OF THE NAVE

+
+ +

Nothing is easier for interested theorists than to post-or ante-date +the structure of a building. They have nothing to fear from the +testimony of writers, and, with very few exceptions, it is difficult +to assign a precise date to the construction of great churches and +cathedrals or to point with certainty to their architects. The +obscurity of these great artists is perhaps to be accounted for by +the fact that they were ecclesiastics. As such the honour of their +achievements belonged not to the individual, but to the corporate +body, the order of which they were members, and members moreover who +had, in most cases, taken the vow of humility.

+ +

Modern science, architectural and archological, has failed to throw +much positive light on this subject. It contents itself for the most +part with ingenious hypotheses and learned deductions which leave +us still in doubt as to precise dates. But we shall at least find +some sort of foothold in a careful architectural survey of buildings +themselves. This should be, of course, supplemented by study of +historic records, and such a study will convince us that art in the +Middle Ages, as in all epochs, obeyed the immutable laws of filiation +and transformation. We shall follow the artist step by step, observing +his research, his hesitation, his errors, and even his corrections.

+ +

These are trustworthy documents in which to study the origin of a +building and to note its successive transformations, which latter were +far more frequent than total reconstructions. For it was not until the +beginning of the thirteenth century that great cathedral churches in +any con[54]siderable numbers were conceived and continuously executed.[9]

+ +
+ +

[9] It is possible, if not easy, to trace the architectural +development of the Middle Ages in a good many cathedrals and +churches of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. We have, however, +confined ourselves, for the purposes of our present synthesis, to +the churches and cathedrals of the royal domain, and more especially +of the Ile-de-France, not only because they served as models for the +architects of their day, but because they illustrate in a remarkable +degree the various transitions we desire to study.

+ +

[55]

+ +
+ +

34. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. MAIN FAADE

+
+ +

[56]

+ +

The great abbey churches founded towards the close of the twelfth +century in the royal domain, but continued and finished in the early +years of the thirteenth, still preserved a more ancient tradition.

+ +

Laon, which is derived from Noyon and from the south transept of +Soissons, consists of a nave with transepts, and of two-storied side +aisles vaulted upon intersecting arches, above which, as at Soissons, +rise flying buttresses, which meet the thrust of the main vault.

+ +

This arrangement of the side aisles proves the continuity of the +Norman formul, just as the method of construction adopted in the main +vault demonstrates the persistent influence of the dome.[10]

+ +
+ +

[10] See chap. i., "The Influence of the Cupola on Gothic +Architecture."

+ +

The admirably constructed main vault is square on plan, each square +containing two transverse compartments, after the Angevin method as +derived from the Aquitainian dome. Here we find indications that, +if the builders of the Church of Laon had fully assimilated this +method, their minds were nevertheless not altogether at rest as to +the functions of the flying buttress. This was, of course, essential +to the piers which received the united thrust of both transverse +and diagonal arches. But it was far from logical to reinforce the +intermediate piers supporting nothing but the auxiliary transverse +arches by abutments identical with those of the main piers.

+ +

The illogicality so striking at Laon is absent from Noyon. There, +on the contrary, the architects—of the original construction—had +emphasised the functions of the main piers by buttresses of greater +projection and solidity than those accorded to the secondary piers.

+ +

[57]

+ +
+ +

35. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. THE EAST END

+
+ +

[58]

+ +
+ +

36. CATHEDRAL OF LAON. SECTION OF THE NAVE

+
+ +

Notre Dame de Paris was begun towards the close of the twelfth +century, and finished, save for the chapels, in the first half of +the thirteenth. As at Laon, the Norman tradition is observed in the +arrangement of the upper galleries of the side aisles, while the +influence of the dome is again to be traced[59] in the sex-partite +groining. The same illogical system of abutments obtains as at Laon.

+ +

This vast building, consisting of a nave and double side aisles of +equal height sweeping round the semi-circular choir, seems to be one +of the first five-aisled cathedrals; its grandiose arrangement, the +boldness of its combinations, and the perfection of its detail mark +the considerable progress made by the architects of the Ile-de-France.

+ +
+ +

37. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. PLAN

+
+ +

The method of construction here adopted has a peculiar significance. +The upper internal galleries, vaulted on diagonal arches, and raised +considerably above the level of the second side aisle, the boldness of +the flying buttress, which at one span embraces the two side aisles +and forms the abutments of the main vault—alike prove that the +architects of Notre Dame de Paris had adopted the newly discovered +systems even to excess, and were applying them with unparalleled skill +and ingenuity.

+ +

[60]

+ +
+ +

38. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. SECTION OF THE NAVE

+
+ +

The Norman tradition which had obtained in the Ile-de-France +passed away in the first years of the[61] thirteenth century. At +Chlons-sur-Marne the nave is flanked by two-storied side aisles. But +the upper gallery, vaulted and greatly reduced in size, shows that the +conventional arrangement was fast dying out.

+ +

The influence of the dome was longer lived, as is shown in the +construction of vaults at this period. We may still trace it at +Langres in the domed form of the vaults, which, in spite of their +rectangular plan, seem to be a reduced copy of the Angevin naves.

+ +
+ +

39. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. FLYING BUTTRESSES AND SOUTH TOWER

+
+ +

The naves of Sens and of Bourges are also vaulted in square +compartments. The thrust of the vaults is carried by the diagonal +arches to each alternate pier, the intermediate one receiving only the +auxiliary transverse arch already[62] fully described. Yet here again the +exterior flying buttresses are all of equal solidity in spite of the +varying strain. This arrangement, prudent if illogical, shows once +more with what distrust architects had adopted that system of exterior +abutment, the characteristic of which is a detached arch exposed to +all the vicissitudes of weather, and yet responsible for the stability +of the whole edifice.

+ +

The Cathedral of Sens marks a new phase of development by its +suppression of the upper gallery over the side aisles. These are now +vaulted and covered by a lean-to roof; a flying buttress of single +span receives the thrust of the main vault. The building is perfectly +solid; its construction shows research, though it is as illogical as +that of Laon or of Paris; for the exterior flying buttresses are all +of equal strength, and so fail to proclaim their true functions, the +interior thrusts varying considerably.

+ +
+ +

40. SENS CATHEDRAL. PLAN OF A BAY. VAULT IN SQUARE +COMPARTMENTS OF TWO BAYS

+
+ +
+ +

41. SENS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF A BAY OF THE NAVE

+
+ +
+ +

42. SENS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR VIEW OF LATERAL BAYS

+
+ +

The arrangement at Bourges, which appears to have been mainly built, +if not actually finished, in[63] the first half of the thirteenth +century, differs from that of Sens. The structure is one of five +aisles,[64] and in plan recalls Notre Dame de Paris, but the details are +very dissimilar. The inner side aisles no longer support a gallery, +nor are they of equal height with the outer aisles; they are raised +so as to afford space for lighting (see Fig. 43). The main vault is +sex-partite planned on squares; but the same illogicality exists +here which we have already pointed out, and in connection with which +we will risk appearing somewhat insistent, in the hope of directing +special attention to it. It is more glaring here than elsewhere, the +flying buttresses[65] themselves being of exaggerated dimensions and of +double span, embracing the two side aisles.

+ +
+ +

43. BOURGES CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE

+
+ +

[66]

+ +

Both at Bourges and Sens the space between the summit of the +archivolts and the bases of the upper windows, known as the frieze, +or, in modern parlance, the triforium, becomes a purely decorative +feature. It consists of a narrow arcaded corridor, occupying in the +interior of the building that portion of the wall space which in the +exterior has been appropriated by the lean-to roof of the side aisles. +At Sens there is merely a single gallery; at Bourges it becomes +double, through the stepped arrangement of the side aisles (see Fig. 43), +a variation in which we may trace an ingenious blending of the +systems of Anjou and Poitiers with those of the Ile-de-France.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[67]

+ +

CHAPTER VII
+ +THE CATHEDRALS OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY

+ +

The Cathedral of Rheims, which was begun soon after the destruction of +the original building by the fire of 1211, is a supreme expression of +the fusion of the three systems—those of Aquitaine, of Anjou, and of +the Ile-de-France. It may be taken as the most perfect manifestation +of persistent efforts to establish a method of construction based on +equilibrium—the equilibrium, that is to say, of a building vaulted +on intersecting arches, the thrusts of which are received by exterior +flying buttresses.

+ +

The temerity, and even the dangers of such a system, are sufficiently +demonstrated in the wonderful works of the thirteenth-century +architects themselves. For, notwithstanding the skill and beauty of +their many admirable combinations, they were unable to reduce their +methods to scientific formul. The statical power of their structures +remained an uncertain quantity, determined by the durability of the +material and its exposure or non-exposure to the weather, the interior +skeleton being formed of the same material as the exterior.

+ +
+ +

44. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. PLAN

+
+ +

The perils inherent in such a system are more[68] apparent at Rheims than +elsewhere, because of the colossal proportions of the building. The +arrangement of the flying buttresses, however, is more logical than +at Laon, Paris, Sens, and Bourges, by reason of the quadripartite +arrangement of the main vault. The thrusts being equally distributed +among the supporting piers, each flying buttress performs an identical +office; their equal strength and solidity is therefore perfectly +appropriate and logical. But though theoretically correct in its +disposition of flying buttresses of equal strength to meet thrusts of +equal strength, the method is vitiated by its inherent weakness as a +system of abutment. The fragility of the flying buttress exposed it +to two grave dangers, active and passive; active, taking into account +the constant strain upon it as an abutment; passive, in regard to the +gradual reduction of its solidity by exposure to weather. In support +of this statement,[69] it is only necessary to refer to the restorations +which it has been found necessary to make within the last few years, +to preserve the nave. The flying buttresses have been strengthened +from below, a proceeding without which the collapse of the huge +building would have been inevitable.

+ +

But we shall find much to call for unqualified admiration at Rheims in +the grandiose conception of the work and in its powerful execution, in +the magnificent arrangement of its eastern faade, and in the perfect +harmony of the ornamentation, where sculpture, capitals, friezes, +crockets, and floriations are so many types of medival decorative art +at its best.

+ +

The Cathedral of Amiens, which dates from about 1220, and is one of +the largest as well as one of the most admired of Gothic masterpieces, +is directly founded upon that of Rheims. The plan is on the same +lines, with this exception, that at Amiens the choir is of greater +importance relatively to the nave, and that the piers and points of +support are weaker and much more lofty.

+ +
+ +

45. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE

+
+ +
+ +

46. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE CHOIR

+
+ +

The Rmois architects, while exercised by the problems of equilibrium +which their system involved, sought to minimise its dangers, which +they recognised no less fully than their predecessors, by prudently +avoiding all false bearings. It will be easily seen by a comparison +of the two sections (Figs. 45 and 48) that the builders of Amiens +were troubled by no such misgivings, or that they were at least more +venturesome if not more accomplished. They did not hesitate to base +the columns which received the crowns of the flying buttresses on a +corbel arrangement which had no solid bearing, as may be seen by[70] +following the direction of the dotted line X in Fig. 48. The boldness, +or rather the imprudence of such[71]
[72] an arrangement is patent, for the +failure of anyone of the courses, or the decay of any part of the pier +into which the corbels are keyed, would necessarily involve a rupture +in the flying buttresses, on which the stability of the main vault +depends. The disintegration of the whole building and its total ruin +could be the only result. The perils of such combinations, or rather +such tours de force of equilibrium, are exemplified at Beauvais. +The architects who built the choir, about the year 1225, basing it on +that of Amiens, determined to raise a monument which should surpass, +both in plan and elevation, all the structures of their epoch. They +increased the breadth of the choir and of its bays, raising, in the +latter, intermediate piers on the crowns of the lower archivolts, thus +dividing the upper[73] bays, and at the same time strengthening the vault +by auxiliary transverse arches. They exaggerated the height of the +archivolts and of the large windows,[74] and diminished their thickness, +in order to give greater elegance and lightness, and the main vault +rose to a height of more than 160 feet above the ground level. This +tremendous elevation, the exaggeration of which in proportion to the +width of the nave is striking, necessitated a complicated system of +flying buttresses surpassing in boldness all that had gone before. +The section in Fig. 51 will give some idea of what has been justly +described as an architectural folly. It is astonishing that the +structure should have stood as it has done, taking into account the +false bearings of the intermediate piers, here again shown by the +dotted line X (Fig. 51).

+ +

These rest for half of their thickness on off-sets from the piers, +which, proving unequal to the strain, have been temporarily stayed, +and must eventually be consolidated.

+ +
+ +

47. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. PLAN

+
+ +
+ +

48. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. SECTION THROUGH THE NAVE

+
+ +

The choir, however, was finished about 1270, and stood for several +years. But dislocations then declared themselves. The forces so +elaborately balanced lost their equilibrium, and on the 29th November +1284 the vault fell, dragging down with it the flying buttresses, and +carrying havoc through the rest of the building. In the reconstruction +which followed it was thought imperative to double the points of +support in the arcades both of the main and side aisles, and to +reinforce the flying buttresses by iron chains.

+ +

During the thirteenth century a number of cathedrals were raised all +over Europe on the model of the great buildings of Northern France, +and more especially of Amiens, which seems to have roused a great +enthusiasm; these were, however, of far[75] more modest dimensions. They +had neither the exaggerated height nor the structural audacities +of their exemplars. Few of these churches and cathedrals, the +reconstruction of which on the new system generally began with the +choir, which was[76]
[77] added to the primitive nave, were completed by +those who initiated their erection. The most highly favoured in this +respect were finished in the course of the fourteenth century; but in +the greater number[78] of cases the work dragged slowly on, and reached +its end some two centuries after its inauguration. Reconstructive +undertakings were constantly impeded[79] by wars or social convulsions, +which either hampered or entirely cut off the resources of bishops and +architects, their promoters. Such interruptions were of great service +to modern archological study, offering as they do distinct evidence +of the various transformations which were successively accomplished +from the so-called Romanesque period to the Gothic.

+ +
+ +

49. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. APSE

+
+ +
+ +

50. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. NORTH FRONT

+
+ +
+ +

51. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL. TRANSVERSE SECTION

+
+ +
+ +

52. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. ROSE WINDOW OF NORTH TRANSEPT

+
+ +

The majority of these great buildings, which show traces of the +vicissitudes through which they passed, bear a strong likeness to +each other, and vary only in detail, according to the skill of their +constructors.

+ +

The peculiar interest of Chartres centres in its remarkable statuary; +it has, however, other features which command attention, such as +the rose window of the north, transept and the design of the flying +buttresses. These consist of three arches, one above the other, the +two lower ones being connected by colonnettes, radiating from a +centre, so that the lower arch is related to the upper, as the nave of +a wheel is to the felloes, the colonnettes forming the spokes.

+ +

At Mans the arrangement of the choir is so far more remarkable in that +it is extremely unusual, or indeed, in its way unique. The flying +buttresses are planned in the form of a Y (see A on the plan Fig. 53), +thus affording space for windows in the exterior wall, to light the +vast circular ambulatory, which at Mans is of unusual importance, and +surrounds the choir with a double aisle. The flying buttresses which +rise above the arcs-doubleaux, bi-furcated (B on the plan), are +over-attenuated in section; their exaggerated height and proportionate +slenderness threaten to make them spring, so that it has been found +necessary to bind them together by ties and[80]
[81] iron chains. Such +expedients are a sufficient criticism of the ingenious but precarious +system adopted by the architects of Mans.

+ +
+ +

53. MANS CATHEDRAL. PLAN

+
+ +
+ +

54. MANS CATHEDRAL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE APSE

+
+ +
+ +

55. MANS CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE CHOIR

+
+ +

The influence of the Ile-de-France in Normandy is manifest in the +arrangement of choirs and apsidal chapels in Norman cathedrals of +the thirteenth century. The Cathedral of Coutances, a monument +of the eleventh century, was rebuilt in the early[82]
[83] years of the +thirteenth century under the impulse given by Northern France to the +architecture of the period. It is in the choir that we clearly trace +this influence, in the double columns of the apse, and the ingenious +disposition of its collateral vaults. But the faade is purely Norman, +not merely in general design, but in the details of the composition, +facsimiles of which may be found in England.

+ +
+ +

56. COUTANCES CATHEDRAL. NORTH TOWER

+
+ +

The Cathedral of Dol in Brittany, one of the great churches of the +thirteenth century, seems to have escaped the influences of the +Northern innovation. Its general plan, its square apse lighted by +large windows, the details of its architecture and ornamentation, +all proclaim its affinity to the great churches which rose +contemporaneously with it on either side of the Channel, in Normandy, +and in England. It is very probable that it was built by the same +architects or their immediate disciples, working on the more ancient[84] +methods of the Norman schools founded by Lanfranc at Canterbury +towards the close of the eleventh century, on the model of those he +had established in France at the famous Abbaye du Bec.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[85]

+ +

CHAPTER VIII
+ +CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES OF THE THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES

+ +

The Cathedrals of Rheims, Amiens, and Beauvais excited extraordinary +enthusiasm in their time, not only in the provinces of France, but +among neighbouring nations, notably in England, Belgium, Germany, +Sweden, Spain, and Italy.

+ +

This enthusiasm was less fervid in the provinces farthest from +the royal domain; but even in these outlying districts several +remarkable buildings rose in the first half of the thirteenth century, +constructed on the new lines.

+ +

In 1233 the Cathedral of Bazas was begun, and, unlike the majority of +such undertakings, was carried through and finished in a comparatively +short time.

+ +
+ +

57. RODEZ CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT

+
+ +
+ +

58. BORDEAUX CATHEDRAL. CHOIR AND NORTH FRONT

+
+ +
+ +

59. LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT

+
+ +

The Cathedral of Bayonne, a contemporary building, shared the fate +of Meaux, Troyes, and Auxerre. It was completed, with one tower +only, in the sixteenth century. In 1248 the foundations of Clermont +Cathedral were laid. The plan provided for six or seven towers, but +the choir was the only portion finished in the thirteenth century. The +transept and four towers, together with a portion of[86] the nave, were +completed in the following century, and the work was then abandoned +until the reign of Napoleon III., who caused it to be again taken +up. The Cathedral of Limoges was begun in 1273, under the direct +inspiration of Notre Dame at Amiens. Down to our own times it has had +to content itself with a choir, a transept, and the suggestions of a +nave, the last of which has lately been completed. At Rodez a greater +perseverance was shown, and the work went steadily on from 1277 until +the Renascence, at which period, however, the two western towers were +left unfinished, notwithstanding[87] a contemporary description of their +magnificence, which, in a truly Gascon vein, compares them to the[88] +Egyptian pyramids, among other world-renowned marvels.

+ +

"In 1272 Toulouse and Narbonne entered the lists against Amiens, +imitating its plan, and proposing to at least equal it in dimensions. +Neither of these undertakings proved happy. Archbishop Maurice of +Narbonne died the same year the works were begun; his successors took +but a lukewarm interest in their progress. In 1320 the sea re[89]treated, +leaving the port on which the wealth of the inhabitants mainly +depended high and dry. Fortunately the choir with its noble vault 130 +feet high was already completed, but the transept walls were left to +fall into ruins. At Toulouse Bishop Bertrand de l'Isle-Jourdain lived +just long enough to carry the work above the triforium of the choir; +it was then abandoned till the fifteenth century. His successors +squandered the revenues of their vast diocese so shamelessly in +pleasures and display that Popes Boniface VIII. and John XXII., +scandalised at their disorders, dismembered their territory and +subdivided it into four bishoprics, granting to the Bishop of Toulouse +the title of archbishop by way of compensation. But this compensation +was of small avail to future zealous prelates for the carrying out of +Bertrand's projects, and the choir of Toulouse was never finished. +It falls short of its predestined height of 130 feet by 90, and the +transept was not even begun.

+ +

"The Cathedrals of Lyons, of St. Maurice at Vienne, and of St. +tienne at Toul have affinities more or less direct with the great +architectural movement. At Bordeaux the building of a great cathedral +was contemplated at the time of the English occupation; but the choir +would never have been finished but for the liberality of King Edward +I. and of Pope Clement V., who had formerly been archbishop of the +town."[11]

+ +
+ +

[11] Anthyme St. Paul, Histoire Monumentale de la France; +Paris Hachette and Co., 1884.

+ +

The great cathedrals constructed in England in the thirteenth century +bear witness to the expansion[90] of French art on the lines already laid +down in the preceding century by the teaching and achievements of the +Norman monkish architects who had followed William the Conqueror to +Great Britain.[12]

+ +
+ +

[12] This is a very summary way of dismissing the vexed +question of French influence upon English architecture. The +undeniable fact that wherever a French architect can be identified +as the author of an English building—William of Sens at Canterbury, +for instance—the work he did differs entirely in character from +contemporary English work is enough to refute much of the claim made +for France. The principles of Gothic architecture were the common +property of the two countries, and by each were developed according to +their lights.—Ed.

+ +

English builders assimilated the constructive principles of the +architects of Anjou and of the Ile-de-France. In the numerous +cathedrals they raised from the thirteenth to the close of the +fifteenth century it is easy to trace the original characteristics of +French art throughout all the transformations or adaptations by which +its methods were modified in accordance with British usages and ideas.

+ +

This influence is very apparent in the Cathedrals of York, Ely, +Wells, Salisbury, and Canterbury, the last of which was constructed +from the plans of an architect or master-mason, known as William of +Sens; in that of Lichfield, where the spires of the faade recall +those of Coutances in Normandy, and above all, at Lincoln, one of +the most beautiful of English cathedrals. Here we have perhaps the +most strongly-marked instance of the steady and continuous filiation +between the buildings of France and England during the so-called +Gothic period. It is quite possible that they were the work of the[91] +same architects, as they certainly were carried out by pupils or +disciples of the same master-builders.[13]

+ +
+ +

[13] It is difficult to believe that Mons. Corroyer +is in earnest in comparing the spires of Lichfield to those of +Coutances, or the central tower of Lincoln to that of the same +French cathedral. Mons. Corroyer appears to be unacquainted with the +line of filiation between English spires and towers, and so looks, +as a matter of course, for a French mother to such as strike his +fancy.—Ed.[92]
[93]

+ +

Lincoln Cathedral, founded in the eleventh century, and finished in +1092, shared the fate of so many other timber-roofed buildings of +the period. The greater part of it was destroyed by fire in 1124. +It was rebuilt and enlarged by St. Hugh in accordance with the new +ideas he had brought with him from France, a very natural consequence +of his supervision, when we take into account that as mandatory of +Pope Gregory VII. he had been Bishop of Grenoble. The church was +again partly destroyed by an earthquake in 1185. It was then rebuilt, +enlarged, and completed by Bishop Grossette, an Englishman by birth, +who had, however, been educated and brought up in France in the early +part of the thirteenth century, and had carried over with him to his +native land the essence of the grand and noble inspirations which +marked that marvellous era.

+ +
+ +

60. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. PLAN

+
+ +
+ +

61. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT

+
+ +

The lantern-tower at the intersection of the western transept, +which had fallen in 1235, was either rebuilt or finished by Bishop +Grossette about 1240. In its general outline and in detail it recalls +the great lantern-tower of Coutances in Normandy, which seems also to +have served as model for that of St. Ouen at Rouen in the fourteenth +century.

+ +

The vast and magnificent Cathedral of Lincoln is an admirable subject +for comparative study. Its architecture combines most strikingly the +characteristics of the two nations. It blends in one harmonious whole +the massive solidity of English structure overlaid with detail, formed +by lines vertical, rigid, dry, and hard as iron, and the mingled[94] +grace and strength of French architecture, which may fitly be compared +with gold, in its union of[95] the supple and the durable, of solidity +and power of resistance equal to those of the less precious metal, +with an adaptability to artistic ends far greater.

+ +
+ +

62. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. TRANSEPT

+
+ +
+ +

63. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. APSE AND CHAPTER-HOUSE

+
+ +

In the faade and the west towers English characteristics predominate, +but the choir and the apse[96] are French in composition, and most +probably in execution, as is also the presbytery, in which both the +arrangement and the details of the bays recall those of the lateral +faades of Bourges.[14] All three are veritable masterpieces, worthy +of the most brilliant period of French medival architecture.

+ +
+ +

[14] Here Mons. Corroyer directly traverses the opinion +of Viollet-le-duc, who could see no ground whatever for ascribing +a French origin to the choir of Lincoln. Indeed, the conception of +that choir, and nearly all its details, are not only unlike, they are +opposed to those of French contemporary examples. Here are the words +of the great French architect: "After the most careful examination I +cannot find, in any part of the Cathedral of Lincoln, neither in the +general design, nor in any part of the system of architecture adopted, +nor in the details of ornament, any trace of the French school of +the twelfth century (the lay school, from 1170 to 1220), so plainly +characteristic of the Cathedrals of Paris, Noyon, Senlis, Chartres, +Sens, and even Rouen.... The construction is English, the profiles of +the mouldings are English, the ornaments are English, the execution of +the work belongs to the English school of workmen of the beginning of +the thirteenth century."—Gentleman's Magazine for May 1861—Letter +to "Sylvanus Urban." The date of Lincoln choir is known. It belongs to +the last years of the twelfth century, and so anticipates such French +work as can show analogies with it, Le Mans, for instance, where the +work in question dates from 1210-1220.—Ed.

+ +

In Belgium French influence manifested itself so early as the first +half of the thirteenth century in the building of the remarkable +Church of Ste. Gudule at Brussels. Up to this period the methods +of the Rhenish schools had obtained in the Low Countries, and the +setting aside of these methods in favour of the new system of France +is significant of the high repute of the latter throughout Western +Europe. Further evidence to this effect is to be found in the great +churches of Ghent, Tongres, Louvain, and Bruges among others, which +were[97] either built between 1235 and 1300, or at any rate begun during +this period, to be completed in the fourteenth century and even later.

+ +
+ +

64. BRUSSELS CATHEDRAL (STE. GUDULE). WEST FRONT

+
+ +

Ste. Gudule at Brussels was begun about 1226; but only the choir +and the transept were[98] finished by 1275. The nave was built in the +fourteenth century, together with the towers of the west front, which, +however, were not finally completed till the following century, or +perhaps the sixteenth. Several chapels, the windows of which are +filled with magnificent painted glass, date from the same period as +these towers.

+ +

French influence is no less patent at Cologne, which is undoubtedly +the daughter of Amiens. The opinion of a German writer is of special +interest on this point.

+ +
+ +

65. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. SOUTH FRONT

+
+ +

"The famous Cathedral of Cologne, one of the masterpieces of the +German School, is a direct emanation from French tradition. The choir +is a replica of that of Amiens; it was dedicated in 1322, after which +the work of nave and transepts was carried on continuously; the nave +measures 43 feet in width, and 140 in height; the total length of +the church is 503 feet. The two towers of the west front have been +completed in our own times—from the original designs, it is said. +The general effect, whether of interior or exterior, is certainly not +equal to that of the finest French cathedrals, but the style is rich +and pure, and touches perfection in the treatment of details."[15]

+ +
+ +

[15] W. Lbke, Essai d'Histoire de l'Art.

+ +

In Scandinavian countries French art, which had already manifested +itself at Ripen in Jutland during the so-called Romanesque period, +gives us a fresh instance of its expansive power in an important +Swedish building which dates from the end of the thirteenth century. +The Cathedral of Upsala has this peculiarity, that it was designed and +even begun by a French architect, one Estienne de Bonneuil,[99]
[100] who, on +30th August 1287, received the royal authority to betake himself to +Upsala to construct the cathedral.[16]

+ +
+ +

[16] Charles Lucas, Les Architectes franais l'tranger +(from the journal, L'Architecture).

+ +

In Spain the chief monuments of thirteenth-century Gothic architecture +which betray the influence of France are the great five-aisled Church +of Toledo, the cathedral at Badajoz, and the front of St. Mark's +at Seville. French influence again is manifest in the cathedrals +of Lon, of Palencia, of Oviedo, of Pampeluna, of Valencia, and of +Barcelona, founded at the end of the thirteenth century and continued +in the fourteenth, as well as in the churches of Torquemado, Bilbao, +Bellaguer, Monresa, and Guadalupe, all dating partly from the +fourteenth century.

+ +

The Cathedral of Burgos, begun in the first half of the thirteenth +century, shows a striking analogy with French buildings of about the +same period in the plan and construction of its flying buttresses +and windows as well as in the decorative sculpture of its portals. +The lower stories of the west front seem to date from the fourteenth +century, but the openwork spires which crown it were not finished +until the fifteenth. In this curious building we find elements taken +from France, mingled with decorative passages of pure Italian, and +with others characteristically Spanish in their use of motives only to +be explained by the vitality of the Saracenic traditions.

+ +
+ +

66. BURGOS CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT

+
+ +

Innumerable churches were built in Italy during the so-called Gothic +period, principally towards its[101]
[102] conclusion. Not to speak of the +famous Cathedrals of Milan and Florence, nor of S. Anthony, nor of +the Cathedral of Padua, the Cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto seem +especially to lean away from antique and Lombard traditions towards +those of France, a characteristic especially notable in the decorative +details of their west fronts, which recall in many ways the work of +French architects during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.

+ +
+ +

67. CATHEDRAL OR DUOMO OF SIENA. WEST FRONT

+
+ +

[103]

+ +
+ +

68. CHURCH OF ST. FRANCIS AT ASSISI. APSE AND CLOISTERS

+
+ +

It is the opinion of some archologists that the true parent of +the Cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto was the Church of St. Francis +at Assisi, which is not far distant. Now St. Francis of Assisi is +undeniably French in origin. This church, which[104] was founded in 1228 +to receive the remains of St. Francis who died in 1226, was possibly +completed as to the lower structure in the thirteenth century; but it +is improbable, to say the least, that this completion should have been +the work of a German, for at this period Gothic architecture was still +in embryo in Germany, while in France it had reached its most glorious +development. The upper church seems to be later in date by a century; +we may clearly trace its affinities with French art in the system of +construction, which has all the characteristics peculiar to that which +prevailed in the south of France at the close of the thirteenth and +the beginning of the fourteenth century. Of this system the Church +of Albi is the most finished type.[17] Assisi, in its single aisle, +in its buttresses, both as to their interior projections and their +exterior half-turreted forms, shows a complete analogy with the French +Albigeois church.

+ +
+ +

[17] See chap. ix. "Albi," etc.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[105]

+ +

CHAPTER IX
+ +CHURCHES OF THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES IN FRANCE AND IN +THE EAST

+ +

"The thirteenth century was so prolific in religious architecture as +to leave little scope to those which followed. But even had the growth +of great religious monuments been less rapid at this period, the wars +which convulsed France in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries would +have paralysed such undertakings as the building of great cathedral +churches. The religious buildings actually completed in the fourteenth +century are rare; still rarer are those which date from the fifteenth. +In those stormy days enterprise was confined to the completion of +unfinished churches, and the modification, restoration, or enlargement +of twelfth and thirteenth century buildings. It was not until the +close of the fifteenth and opening of the sixteenth century, when +France was beginning to recover its former power, that a fresh impulse +was given to religious architecture; even then, however, the Gothic +tradition persisted, though in a corrupt and bastard form. Many of the +great cathedrals were finished, and a number of small churches, which +had been destroyed[106] during the wars, or had fallen into decay through +long neglect, consequent on the poverty of the community, were either +rebuilt or restored. The movement was, however, presently arrested +by the[107] Reformation, when war, fire, and pillage again destroyed or +mutilated most of the newly completed religious buildings. The havoc +wrought by this last upheaval was in its nature irrevocable, for when +order once more reigned at the close of the sixteenth century, the +Renascence had swept away the last traces of the national art; and +though superficially the system of construction which prevailed in +French churches of the thirteenth century still obtained, the genius +which had presided at their construction was extinct and its memory +despised."[18]

+ +
+ +

[18] Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonn de l'Architecture +franaise, etc., vol. i.

+ +
+ +

69. CHURCH OF ST. OUEN AT ROUEN. CENTRAL TOWER AND +APSE, SOUTH FRONT

+
+ +

The Church of St. Ouen at Rouen, except for the west front and its +towers, which are modern, is a typical example of the rare religious +buildings constructed in the north of France during the fourteenth +century. The arrangement of these churches varies, inasmuch as, +while in general they follow the methods of construction adopted by +the Northern architects of the thirteenth century, their special +characteristic is a refinement or rather an attenuation of the piers, +less by actual reduction of their section than by a diminution of +their apparent bulk. This was effected by multiplying the clustered +shafts, the slenderness of which was still further exaggerated by +the prodigality of the mouldings, and the over-hollowness of their +profiles. These profiles and mouldings rise from the base to the +summit, and in the fourteenth century mark the spring of the arches +by rings of sculpture, crowned with rudimentary abaci. These latter +details were the last traces of a tradition which was to finally[108] +disappear in the fifteenth century. Thenceforward the lines of +the intersecting arches of the vault, as of the longitudinal and +transverse arches, run down without interruption to the base of the +piers, where we find a complex faggot of mouldings crossing and[109] +recrossing, and showing little beyond the technical dexterity of the +carver.

+ +

The main preoccupation of the architects of this period seems to +have been the reduction of solid surfaces so as to give full play +to the soaring effect of their airy shafts and vaults. The walls +disappear, save below the windows, which now occupy the entire space +of each bay. The triangular divisions of the vault are concealed by +a serried network of supplementary ribs, for the most part useless +save as decorations. But it must in justice be remembered that to this +exaggeration of the window spaces we owe the growth of the beautiful +art of painting on glass. This art, the admirable fitness of which +for decorative purposes can hardly be over-estimated, had already +manifested itself in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In the +interval from that period to the Renascence it produced its grandest +masterpieces.[19]

+ +
+ +

[19] See chap. xii. "Decorative Painting on Walls and Glass."

+ +

It must be borne in mind that the great constructive and +reconstructive movement which had manifested itself throughout Western +Europe, and notably in the north of France, by great buildings, the +distinguishing characteristics of which are vaulted roofs and flying +buttresses, had made little progress in Southern France. The few +exceptions of importance are—Bazas, Bayonne, Auch, Toulouse, and +Narbonne. The Southern architects, as we have already stated, adhered +to the ancient tradition, whether influenced by impulses of reaction, +resistance, or defiance. Their conservatism is comprehensible +enough in view of the strong Gallo-Roman[110] tendencies which governed +architectural activity throughout the district. The builders of the +thirteenth and fourteenth centuries did indeed accept the Angevin +intersecting arch, an invention the admirable simplicity of which was +its own recommendation. But this concession was without prejudice to +their broad principles. In the general arrangement of their religious +buildings they still adhered to Roman usage, and to such models +as the Basilica of Constantine and the tepidarium of the Baths of +Caracalla.[20]

+ +
+ +

[20] L'Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison +Quantin, chaps. iii. and vii.

+ +

Towards the close of the thirteenth, and throughout the fourteenth +century, a large number of churches were built in the South, +consisting of a single wide and lofty aisle, vaulted on intersecting +arches, the thrusts of which were received by buttresses of great bulk +and prominence in the interior of the building, but very slightly +indicated on the exterior. The spaces between the massive interior +buttresses, on either side of the aisle, were occupied by a series of +chapels, supporting disconnected tribunes or a continuous corridor. +The two great churches of the Cordeliers and of the Jacobins at +Toulouse were built in the brick of the country in the second half +of the thirteenth century. These have two aisles, according to the +Dominican usage of the period, but the exterior arrangement is the +same as in the one-aisled churches. The Churches of St. Bertrand +at Comminges, and those of Lodve, Perpignan, Condom, Carcassonne, +Gaillac, Montpezat, Moissac, etc., were built in the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries on the single-aisled plan. That of Perpignan has[111]
[112] +this peculiarity; its vaults, though supported on intersecting arches, +are built in accordance with Roman methods, which further prevail +both in the forms of the terra-cotta materials, and in the manner of +their application. The reins of the vault, which measures some 53 feet +across, are ornamented by terra-cotta jars embedded in an admirably +prepared lime mortar of great durability. The actual roof lies without +the support of any intervening structure of timber upon the extrados +of the vault. This consists of voussoirs of Roman brick, retained +by a layer of terra-cotta upon which the tiles, also of the antique +Roman form, are laid. This arrangement protects the vault from any +infiltration of water due to the rupture of the tiles, an absolutely +necessary precaution, if the former was to retain its stability.

+ +
+ +

70. ALBI CATHEDRAL. PLAN

+
+ +
+ +

71. ALBI CATHEDRAL. SECTION OF THE NAVE

+
+ +

The Cathedral of Ste. Ccile at Albi is a monumental type of the +single-aisled system. It is one of the largest and most important of +Southern buildings constructed on the traditional principles of the +ancient Romans. The vast single aisle, some 60 feet wide, is built +entirely of brick, with the exception of the window tracery, the choir +screen, and the south porch. Here we may study constructive principles +no less simple than sagacious, combining all the necessary conditions +of stability. The points of support and abutments of the vault on +intersecting arches are all enclosed by the outer wall; they are thus +protected from the accidents of climate, and their durability is +almost indefinitely assured.

+ +
+ +

72. ALBI CATHEDRAL. APSE

+
+ +
+ +

73. ALBI CATHEDRAL. DONJON TOWER AND SOUTH FRONT

+
+ +

The foundations of the cathedral, which was dedicated to St. Cecilia, +were laid in 1282, on the ruins of the ancient Church of Ste. Croix. +The[113] main building was finished towards the close of the fourteenth +century, and the whole as it now stands was completed in the last +years of the fifteenth and[114] early part of the sixteenth century, by +the addition of the baldacchino of the southern porch, or principal +entrance, of the stone rood loft, and choir screen, the stalls +of carved wood, and the fresco decorations which adorn the whole +building. This varied workmanship renders Albi one of the most +instructive of studies in connection with French decorative art, +the successive developments being[115] marked by monumental examples of +the highest order, inspired or created by divers influences. The +architecture is of the Southern French type, as far as the main +building is concerned; in essentials, the same type prevails in the +magnificent porch known as the baldaquin, in the choir screen, +and in the rood loft; but in these later additions the inspiration +of Northern art at the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the +sixteenth century is also perceptible. The statuary and sculptured +ornaments of wood and stone are Flemish; the paintings indicate their +Italian origin by their crudity of colour and vulgarity of motive.

+ +

The Cathedral of Albi has a special interest as being one of the most +curious examples of Southern Gothic architecture in the fourteenth +century. It has a further peculiarity, inasmuch as it was not only a +church, as it still is, but a fortress. Such a combination is readily +accounted for by a study of the epoch following on the fierce struggle +which ended in the extermination of the Albigenses, and of the social +and political events resulting therefrom.

+ +

The interior is purely ecclesiastical, of the most beautiful type of +its time; the grandeur of its dimensions, its structural perfection, +and the magnificence of its decoration, are unsurpassed in their way.

+ +

The exterior is that of a fortress. Its intention is proclaimed by the +buttresses rising from the glacis of the base to form, as it were, +flanking towers; by the arrangement of the bays, or rather curtains, +crowned by an embattled machicolated parapet, which unite these +towers, and by the grandiose[116] military character of the architecture. +The formidable aspect of the building is much enhanced by the western +tower, in effect a donjon keep, completing the system of defence by +its connection with the fortifications of the archbishop's palace, +which in[117] their turn are carried on to ramparts, crowning the +escarpments which, to the north, rise from the Tarn.[21]

+ +
+ +

[21] See "Civil Architecture," Part IV. chap. ii.

+ +

A few fortified churches still exist—such, for example, as Les Stes. +Maries (Bouches du Rhone), which dates from the thirteenth century. +Albi was not a solitary instance of this usage. The Churches of +Bziers, Narbonne, and many others of the thirteenth and fourteenth +century had been surrounded by defensive outworks rendered necessary +by religious strife. The buildings thus transformed into strongholds +served the further purpose of sheltering fugitive populations in times +of panic.

+ +

One of the most interesting of such examples is the Church of +Esnandes, not far from Rochelle, on the creek of Aiguillon, a building +which dates from the twelfth century. It was fortified at the +beginning of the fifteenth century to resist the incursions of the +English.

+ +
+ +

74. CHURCH OF ESNANDES (CHARENTE INFRIEURE). A +FORTIFIED CHURCH OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

+
+ +

As we have already remarked on the authority of a learned writer, +the buildings of the fifteenth century are less numerous than those +of the fourteenth. Those concerned in such undertakings were content +to finish churches begun at an earlier period, or to attempt their +reconstruction, frequently on plans which it was impossible to carry +out, so that many buildings were left incomplete. We may instance a +very famous monument, the Abbey of Mont St. Michel. The Romanesque +choir fell into ruins in 1421, during the Hundred Years' War. In 1452 +Cardinal Guillaume d'Estouteville undertook the reconstruction of the +church on a scale so considerable that the choir only was completed +during the[118]
[119] first years of the sixteenth century.[22] This part of +the church shows the effect of the decadence of which there had been +indications so early as the close of the thirteenth century. Certain +of the arrangements are very ingenious, notably that of the triforium, +which rests on the reins of the lower vault, and forms, as seen from +outside, a series of small apses standing out from the main wall. But +the mason's work is negligent, especially in the flying buttresses, +which were so carefully treated by the architects of the thirteenth +century. The lines are attenuated by a multiplicity of mouldings to an +almost threadlike slenderness; the spring of the arches is undefined +by capitals, and the complicated network of the fenestration adds to +the wire-drawn effect, and further diminishes the proportions of the +building. There is little to admire but the extreme manual dexterity +of the carvers. The carving of the granite, the only stone used at +Mont St. Michel[23] save for the arcadings of the cloister, is very +remarkable, as is also the ornamental sculp[120]
[121]ture; this is executed +with extreme skill, in spite of the excess of detail with which it is +loaded.

+ +
+ +

[22] Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et des ses +Abords, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877.

+ +
+ +

[23] See Part II., "Monastic Architecture."

+ +
+ +

75. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. FLYING BUTTRESSES OF THE +CHOIR (LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY). FROM A DRAWING BY THE AUTHOR

+
+ +
+ +

76. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN OF THE CHOIR ABOVE +THE LOWER CHAPEL

+
+ +
+ +

77. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. DETAILS OF THE APSE +(LATE FIFTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

The decadence of Gothic architecture was manifest even at the close of +the thirteenth century in such tours de force as the choir of St. +Peter at Beauvais, and the Church of St. Urbain at Troyes. During the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries buildings or parts of buildings +were constructed with remarkable skill, but the noble simplicity which +was the strength of thirteenth-century architecture was no more. By +the close of the fifteenth century a studied mannerism had taken +its place. The western doorway of Alenon Cathedral is a typical +example of this development, the defects of which were still further +accentuated in the following century.

+ +
+ +

78. ALENON CATHEDRAL. WEST FRONT (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

"The qualities of the architecture of the decadence must be sought +not in the construction, but in the decoration of churches; here we +may freely admire the happy detail and patient execution which mark +the work of carvers and limners during the last two centuries of the +Middle Ages."[24]

+ +
+ +

[24] Anthyme St. Paul, Histoire Monumentale de la France; +Paris, 1884.

+ +

Gothic architecture put forth its expansive force at the close of the +twelfth and during the thirteenth century, not only throughout Western +Europe, but even in Eastern countries, where monuments still survive +of the highest interest to us as the work of monkish architects who +came from France in the wake of the first Crusaders. The modifications +and enlargements of famous buildings in the Holy Land towards the +close of the twelfth century show evident traces of their influence, +which is further[122]
[123] manifested in certain structures of Rhodes and +Cyprus from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, in which Western +and more especially French types have served as models.

+ +
+ +

79. FAADE OF THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. SOPHIA AT NICOSIA +(ISLAND OF CYPRUS)

+
+ +

"It will hardly be disputed that the prolonged sojourn of the +Crusaders in the Levant, the teachings of their architects, and +the contemplation of their works, were considerable factors in the +development of Arab art. There was a reaction of the West upon the +East; sometimes indeed such a direct influence is perceptible as to +astound and perplex the observer. To understand the part played by the +Crusaders in the East, and to appreciate its Western and independent +character, we must cast a rapid glance at the monuments constructed by +them in Cyprus and Rhodes after their expulsion from[124] Syria. We shall +find the movement which originated in the twelfth century progressing +throughout the following centuries on the same lines; in other words, +drawing a continuous inspiration from France.[25]

+ +
+ +

[25] Melchior de Vog, Les glises de la Terre Sainte.

+ +

"The island of Cyprus was conquered in 1191[125] by Richard Cœur de +Lion; in the following year it was ceded to Guy de Lusignan, in whose +family it remained until the close of the fifteenth century. Catherine +Cornaro, the widow of the last of the Lusignans, gave it in 1489 to +the Venetians, who retained possession of it till its conquest by +the Turks in 1571. Throughout the thirteenth century Cyprus was a +refuge for successive remnants of the Christian colonies of Syria. +French predominance was at its height in the fourteenth century. +The religious monuments of this period are very numerous and of +great variety of structure. Art had emerged from the cloister, and +had ceased to be the monopoly of monastic bodies. In Cyprus we no +longer find that scholastic uniformity which characterises the Latin +churches of the Holy Land. The new blood of secularism had entered +into Romanesque architecture and led to a fresh development of the +art in Cyprus as in France Architects applied the thirteenth-century +methods, fully recognising their consequences. They sacrificed to +local exigencies by the substitution of flat roofs for timber ones, +but this modification in nowise affected the general arrangement of +their buildings.

+ +
+ +

80. CATHEDRAL OF ST. NICHOLAS AT FAMAGUSTA (ISLAND OF +CYPRUS). FAADE

+
+ +
+ +

81. CATHEDRAL OF ST. NICHOLAS AT FAMAGUSTA (ISLAND OF +CYPRUS)

+
+ +

"The most considerable monument of the thirteenth century is the +Cathedral of Nicosia, built between 1209 and 1228, and dedicated to +St. Sophia (see Fig. 79). This large three-aisled church has all the +characteristics of French cathedrals of the period."[26]

+ +
+ +

[26] Melchior de Vog, Les glises de la Terre Sainte.

+ +

The Churches of St. Catherine and of the Armenians, the mosques +of Emerghi and of Arab[126] Achmet also date from the close of the +thirteenth century. Among the more numerous buildings of the +fourteenth century the most noteworthy are the Cathedral of St. +Nicholas at Famagusta (Figs. 80 and 81), with its three portals +and two towers; the Church of St. Sophia at Famagusta (Fig. 82), +the Premonstrant Monastery of Lapas, remarkable for the beauty +and nobility of its abbatial buildings, which comprise a large +three-aisled chapel, and several religious buildings at Paphos and +at Limasol. At Rhodes there are a number of churches built in the +fifteenth century after French models, which had no less a vogue +for dwelling-houses than for religious and military architecture; +in a word, architecture—civil, religious, or military—was French +in all its manifestations. "The guns of the order still point from +the embrasures of the towers, Soliman's[127] stone cannon balls strew +the neighbouring ground; sculptured on the house fronts are the +blazons, and in many cases the French names, of their bygone owners. +Involuntarily the mind travels back by the space of three centuries, +reincorporating these forgotten worthies, and repeopling their +dwelling-places. One half expects to see the emblazoned doors thrown +open, to give egress to knightly owners, mustering for the last time +under the banner of St. John."[27]

+ +
+ +

[27] Melchior de Vog, Les glises de la Terre Sainte.

+ +
+ +

82. RUINS OF THE CHURCH OF ST. SOPHIA AT FAMAGUSTA +(ISLAND OF CYPRUS)

+
+ +
+ +
+ +

[128]

+ +

CHAPTER X
+ +TOWERS AND STEEPLES—CHOIRS—CHAPELS

+ +

The first steeples were round, on the model of the Greek and Byzantine +cupolas, and modest in diameter, so that the bells they contained can +only have been small ones. These bells were suspended from the summit +of the tower, the portion of wall surrounding them being pierced by +arcaded openings, and crowned by a long pyramidal roof.[28]

+ +
+ +

[28] Encyclopdie de l'Architecture et de la Construction, +article "Clocher," by Ed. Corroyer.

+ +

Such towers were very frequently isolated from the body of the church. +A large number of Italian churches, dating from all periods of the +Middle Ages, have steeples at a considerable distance from the main +building.

+ +

Force of habit determined the application of the round form to towers +of the twelfth century; but it is evident that a square plan was +preferred, even so early as the tenth century, and such a form was in +course of time rendered necessary by the development of the founder's +art, and the increase in the dimensions of bells at the beginning of +the twelfth century. Besides the great bells which proclaimed[129] the +hour of prayer to a distant flock, small bells were in use to regulate +the religious exercises of the clergy. They are called in the Latin +texts signum, schilla, nola; in French sin, esquielle, +eschelitte; from the beginning of the tenth century they were placed +in the campaniles which crowned the domes.

+ +

The Italian word campanile has the force of the French terms tour, +clocher, beffroi (or the English tower, steeple, belfry). But the +denomination clocher has a general application to all pyramidal +structures rising above the roof of a church.

+ +

The belfry was a tower, in most cases isolated, which contained the +bell destined to sound the curfew and tocsin, and to call the burghers +to civic assemblies.

+ +

Like the belfry, the Italian campanile is generally an isolated +building, but it is usually placed in the near neighbourhood of a +church. Among the most famous campanili are those of Florence—begun +in the fourteenth century, on the plans of Giotto,—of Padua, of +Ravenna, and the famous leaning tower of Pisa.

+ +
+ +

83. STEEPLE, VENDME (TWELFTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

In France the term campanile has a more general application, and is +given to the little pierced[130] arcaded turrets which, in many churches, +crown the walls of the faade and shelter small bells.

+ +
+ +

84. GIOTTO'S TOWER AT FLORENCE

+
+ +

The most ancient belfries of the original provinces of France have +great analogies with Byzantine monuments as to form, even when +differing in detail. One of the most remarkable of these is the tower +of St. Front at Prigueux, which seems to date from the first years +of the eleventh century. It marked the sepulchre of the Saint, and +apparently embraced two bays of the original three-aisled Latin church +of the sixth century, evident traces of which have been discovered to +the west of the great domed building of later times.

+ +

The tower of St. Front is composed of three square stories, +diminishing on plan as they rise, and crowned[131] by a conical dome, +resting upon a circular colonnade, the columns of which vary in +height and diameter, and owe their origin to Roman examples in the +neighbourhood.[29]

+ +
+ +

[29] L' Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison +Quantin, 1887.

+ +

The influence of this remarkable building was very considerable. It +served as a model to architects of the neighbouring provinces. The +type was improved upon in the tower of the Abbey Church of Brantme +by the avoidance of the false bearings which mar the structure of St. +Front, while at St. Lonard, near Limoges, a very original feature was +superadded in the octagonal form of the crown or roof. The Auvergnat +architects further perfected the construction by introducing internal +piers for the support of the recessed walls of the upper stories, as +at Puy.[30]

+ +
+ +

[30] Ibid. 1888.

+ +

It is worthy of note that, in spite of the importance given to +these buildings, the space allotted to the bells themselves was +comparatively limited, which seems to indicate that the towers were +destined for other purposes than the reception of bells. In the +eleventh century the tower bore the same relation to the cathedral or +abbey as did the donjon to the feudal castle. It was, in fact, the +symbol of power. As abbots and bishops enjoyed the same rights as the +nobles, it will be readily understood that the costliness of such +emblems would be governed solely by the resources of their authors. +The number of towers built at about the same period in connection with +cathedrals and abbeys, and the importance of such as were attached +even to simple parish[132]
[133] churches may be explained if we consider +them mainly as denoting the status of an enfranchised[134] commune. The +rivalries in connection with neighbouring towers undoubtedly had their +origin in conditions such as these.

+ +
+ +

85. BAYEUX CATHEDRAL. TOWERS OF THE WEST FRONT

+
+ +
+ +

86. SENLIS CATHEDRAL. SOUTH TOWER OF WEST FRONT

+
+ +

Towards the close of the eleventh century and throughout the twelfth +many towers were built at an angle with the door, or in front of it, +so as to form a porch, as at St. Benot-sur-Loire and Poissy; or above +it, as in the Churches of Ainay and of Moissac.

+ +

Later on immense towers with spires were built at each angle of the +western faade, the gable of the nave rising between them.

+ +

At the Abbey Church of Jumiges a large projecting porch filled the +central bay of the ground story between the bases of the towers, but +more frequently the towers were in one plane with the chief porch, and +were themselves pierced with lateral porches, the three doors, with +their richly sculptured voussoirs, forming one vast decorative whole.

+ +

The architects of the so-called Romanesque period built their towers +at the intersection of the transepts; but avoiding the constructive +audacities of the tower of St. Front, which was one of the most +generally accepted models of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, they +ensured the solidity of their central tower by placing the more or +less conical cupola which crowned the structure upon a square base, +carefully loaded and abutted at each angle.

+ +

At the close of the twelfth century the architects of the +Ile-de-France adopted a square form for the body of the tower, and in +imitation of Oriental and Rhenish builders, reserved the octagonal +plan for[135] the spire, ensuring the solidity of the angles by a variety +of ingenious combinations.

+ +

The great central towers of the Norman churches built in England and +Normandy from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century were not always +merely belfries, as at Salisbury or Langrune, for instance; in many +cases they were lanterns, their functions being to light the centre +of the church and to form a magnificent decorative feature at the +intersection of transepts, nave, and choir in cruciform structures, +such as St. Georges, Bocherville, Coutances, etc. Of all the French +provinces Normandy clung most persistently to the lantern tower, and +that of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of the most interesting examples.

+ +
+ +

87. SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. STEEPLE

+
+ +
+ +

88. CHURCH OF LANGRUNE (CALVADOS). STEEPLE

+
+ +

In other provinces, notably Picardy, Champagne, Burgundy, and the +Ile-de-France, lantern towers[136] were superseded by timber flches +cased in lead, which rose at the intersection of the roofs of nave and +transepts.

+ +

[137]

+ +

Among the most remarkable towers of the twelfth century in the +Northern provinces we may mention those of Tracy-le-Val (Oise), of +the Abbey Church of the Ste. Trinit at Vendme, and of Bayeux; those +of the Abbaye-aux-Hommes at Caen; the old tower of the Cathedral of +Chartres, and that of St. Eusbe at Auxerre.

+ +

In the thirteenth century the height and decorative richness of these +structures had increased to an extraordinary degree. The tower of +Senlis (Fig. 86) is a most elegant example of the first years of a +century which witnessed the birth of so many marvels of architecture.

+ +

In Burgundy several remarkable towers were built by the monks of +Cluny, who were free from the asceticism introduced by St. Bernard +among their brethren of Citeaux. The most notable of their structures +are perhaps the towers of the Church of St. Pre, near Vzelay, built +about 1240.

+ +

In the South various original developments in Gothic architecture were +logically brought about by a judicious use of the materials of the +country, such as brick. Most interesting examples of such development +are to be found in the tower of the Jacobin Church at Toulouse, which +dates from the close of the thirteenth century, and the donjon tower +of Albi, the characteristics of which we have already discussed.

+ +
+ +

89. CHURCH OF THE JACOBINS AT TOULOUSE. TOWER

+
+ +

Examples of isolated towers are hardly to be found of later date than +the thirteenth century. Bordeaux perhaps offers an exception. But +the general usage after this period was to include the towers in the +composition of the faade; their actual[138] functions as belfries became +apparent only above the level of the vaults. A beautiful example of +this[139] treatment may be studied in the noble composition of Notre Dame +de Paris.

+ +

Its contemporary, the Cathedral of Laon, has four towers, terminating +in octagonal belfries, the angles of which are flanked by two-storied +openwork pinnacles; on the second of these stories are placed colossal +bulls, the effect of which is very striking.

+ +

The towers of Rheims, which date from the second half of the +thirteenth century, are of secondary importance in the splendid +faade; but they are marked by a feature which was a novelty at +the time. The interior of the belfry is built with a cage to allow +free play to the bells, and space for the timbers by which they are +supported, while the exterior forms an octagonal tower flanked by +important pinnacles.

+ +

Rheims may be said to mark in Gothic architecture the boundary which +separated its period of perfection from that of exaggeration and +mannerism. The mania for lightness and the desire to dazzle and +astound soon seduced its artists into a dangerous path which led +inevitably to decadence. Such effects first manifested themselves more +especially in the provinces of the German frontier, and the spire of +Strasburg, built in the fourteenth century, is a famous example of +these mistaken tendencies.

+ +

Throughout the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries towers adhered to +the plan and general arrangement adopted by the later architects of +the thirteenth century, diverging chiefly in the marvellous profusion +of detail and of sculpture, and in the excessive lightness of design. +The points of support were attenu[140]ated, and the mass of ornament +seemed designed to conceal them as far as possible. In France the +misfortunes of the times tended largely to perpetuate these dangerous +foibles; for a number of churches which were founded at the close of +the thirteenth century remained unfinished till the fifteenth and +sixteenth, when Gothic art was in full decadence.

+ +
+ +

90. CHURCH OF ST. PIERRE AT CAEN. TOWER

+
+ +

But we must not pass over unmentioned certain buildings famous for +boldness of construction and magnificence of decoration, if not for +purity of style. The following are perhaps the most important:—In +France the tower of St. Pierre at Caen, which shows strong traces +of that analogy, or family likeness, so to speak, uniting Norman +edifices; and the[141] tower of St. Michel at Bordeaux, the spire of which +was destroyed by a hurricane in 1768, and has lately been restored +to its primitive height of 365 feet; in Austria the tower of St. +Stephen, one of the most important of such buildings in that country, +finished in 1433; the tower of the Cathedral of Freiburg-im-Breisgau +(grand-duchy of Baden), one of the most beautiful and important +examples. It was mainly constructed towards the close of the +fourteenth century, but the openwork spire was added about the middle +of the following century.

+ +
+ +

91. CHURCH OF ST. MICHEL AT BORDEAUX. TOWER

+
+ +

The Cathedral of Antwerp in Belgium was begun in the middle of the +fourteenth century; the nave and the four side aisles were not +completed till a century[142] later. The faade is said to have been begun +in 1406 by a Boulognese master-mason, one Pierre Amel; but of the +two belfry towers only that on the north was completed in 1518. Its +principal merit lies in its boldness of construction and its unusual +height of 410 feet, rather than in purity of style or beauty of +detail, the latter being a conglomerate made up from every period of +Gothic.

+ +
+ +

92. CATHEDRAL OF FREIBURG-IM-BREISGAU (GRAND-DUCHY OF +BADEN). TOWER

+
+ +

Choirs.—In Christian churches the choir[31] +proper was an institution long before the chapels.[32]

+ +
+ +

[31] L' Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison +Quantin, 1888.

+ +
+ +

[32] Encyclopdie de l'Architecture et de la Construction, +article "Chœur-Chapelle," by Ed. Corroyer.

+ +
+ +

93. ANTWERP CATHEDRAL

+
+ +

At the extremity of the basilica, in the centre of the chalcidium or +transept which gave to the basilican plan the form of a T or Tau—a +figure venerated by the Christians as symbolising the Cross—were +placed the altar, the[143]
[144] sanctuary, and the precincts occupied by the +deacons and sub-deacons. The altar stood in the midst, between the +hemicycle or apse and the nave arch. The hemicycle or apse which +formed the Pagan tribunal was by the Christians reserved for ordained +priests, hence its name, presbyterium. A semi-circular bench +(consistorium), interrupted in the middle by a seat higher than the +rest, on either side of which sat the inferior clergy, surrounded the +apse, the raised seat (suggestus) being the throne of the bishop or +his representative.

+ +

This portion of the basilica underwent a later modification; from +the presbyterium it became the martyrium, or shrine in which was +placed the body of the patron saint of the basilica or the relic to +which the devotion of the faithful was specially addressed. This usage +had been established even before the year 500 in the first basilica of +St. Martin at Tours.

+ +

The primitive apse was lighted only from the nave or transept. After +its transformation into the martyrium it was not only pierced with +windows, but, according to some authors, was provided with openings +along its base, or even arcaded, so as to give access to a low gallery +running round it. If this be so, the characteristic arrangement of +medival churches dates from the fifth century.

+ +

In later times when it became customary to place the altar at the +back, against the wall of the apse, seats for the bishops, priests, +and choristers—the choir—were arranged between the altar and the +nave. In monastic churches, built after the Latin tradition, the choir +was generally in the crossing, or[145] where there were no transepts, +in the nave itself. It was separated from the congregation by a low +enclosure of stone or marble. There are a few examples of churches +with two choirs, one at the east, the other at the west.

+ +

In the first churches of the Romanesque epoch the choir was confined +to the space between the piers of the crossing; it soon, however, made +considerable advances. In monastic churches the choir or sanctuary was +cut off from the surrounding spaces by barriers of stone or wood, and +towards the nave was closed by a jub, or rood screen and loft, the +upper part of which was accessible to the monks for the reading of the +epistle and gospel. Bishops, on the other hand, being free from the +necessity of closing the choirs of their cathedrals, made a point of +providing their flocks with wide spaces, in which ceremonies could be +afforded a liberal development.

+ +

At the end of the twelfth century and beginning of the thirteenth +these ideas governed the construction of important churches. Changes +continued to be made, however, and from the reign of St. Louis we find +the choirs of great cathedrals arranged on the exclusive principles +of the monastic churches. The arcades surrounding them were filled +with high stone walls, against the inner sides of which the stalls of +the clergy, with their lofty and richly carved wooden canopies, were +securely fixed.

+ +

Among the more famous choirs we may quote those of Notre Dame de +Paris, of Amiens, of Beauvais, of Auch, of Lincoln, of Canterbury, of +Spires, of Worms, of Burgos, etc. In order to satisfy the laymen whose +view of the ceremonies[146] performed in the choir was intercepted by +these enclosures, the sanctuary was surrounded by chapels contrived in +the wall of the apse, and in the side aisles of the nave.

+ +

Chapels.—From the end of the tenth century, +according to M. de Caumont, we shall sometimes find aisles running +entirely round the choir or sanctuary and communicating with it by an +arcade. Even at this early period there must have been chapels in such +aisles. In the twelfth century the disposition to elongate the choirs +of important churches became general, and brought with it certain +modifications of the plan. The Church of Vignori, which dates from the +tenth century, has an apse divided into three chapels, recalling in +its arrangement that of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem.

+ +

The Church of St. Servan, built in the eleventh century, has five +chapels round the choir, and the Auvergnat churches—Notre Dame du +Port at Clermont, and St. Paul at Issoire among others,—which date +from the beginning of the twelfth century, also show in this respect +some interesting peculiarities. The importance given to the apse by +these rings of chapels can scarcely be too much insisted on.

+ +

On plan these apsidal chapels are, for the most part, round-ended. +They are pierced with one or more round-headed windows, and have +segmental vaults. On the outside they are often ornamented by +mouldings, modillions, and even by variations in the colour of their +stones. Chapels between the buttresses of the nave are rare in several +aisled[147] churches of the Romanesque period, but in many such buildings +they were added at a later time.

+ +

The great revolution which took place in the art of building towards +the end of the twelfth century had, for one of its results, the +multiplication of chapels in the numerous great churches dating from +that epoch. The principle of that revolution being to replace the +inert masses which had previously resisted the various thrusts by +comparatively slender points of support upon which those thrusts could +be collected, stability being secured by a scientific calculation +of forces, it led, as a natural consequence, to a considerable +augmentation of disposable surfaces in the interior. These surfaces, +mere curtains between the points of support, were ornamented with +vast networks of stone, embracing panels of painted glass, on which +the principal events of the Old and New Testaments, and the scenes +so vividly outlined in the traditions of the time, were traced with +admirable art. Room was found for chapels of considerable size, not +only in the walls, or rather between the piers of the apse, but also +in those of the side aisles, the bounding walls of which were carried +out to the external faces of the buttresses receiving the thrust of +the main vault, which buttresses now formed the lateral walls of a +continuous line of chapels.

+ +

The veneration paid to the relics of saints increased greatly after +the year 1000, in consequence of the pilgrimages to the Holy Land +which preceded the Crusades. Each religious community established a +patron, and demanded a special oratory dedicated to him, and it was a +point of honour to[148] make such a shrine excel that of the neighbouring, +and, in most cases, rival corporation. The demand for these shrines +increased to such an extent at the close of the fourteenth and +throughout the fifteenth century that, though chapels were constructed +in all the available spaces of the vast cathedrals, they were found +insufficient, and sanctuaries, which in earlier times had been +the special property of particular bodies, were shared by several +confraternities.

+ +

The Lady Chapel, or chapel dedicated to the Virgin, was generally in +the apse, and in the thirteenth century, especially at its close, had +been so considerably developed as to give great importance to the +portion of the apse allotted to it. Very curious examples of this +development are to be studied in the Cathedrals of Bourges, Amiens, +Meaux, and Rouen, among others.

+ +

In many cathedrals and churches of the Middle Ages lateral chapels +or annexes were built to serve some subsidiary purpose; such were +chapter-houses, muniment rooms, treasuries, or even mortuaries, as +the presbytery of Lincoln, the circular chapel at Canterbury, known +as Becket's Crown, containing the tomb of Thomas Becket, and Henry +VII.'s chapel at Westminster.

+ +

A most interesting example of this species of structure dating from +the end of the twelfth century is to be seen at Soissons Cathedral; a +two-storied vaulted building is connected by openings with the upper +galleries of the round-ended south transept, and contains a funeral +chapel, with a vaulted chamber above for a treasury.

+ +

In many countries small ancient buildings are to be[149] found, known +as baptisteries or chapels; these latter are doubtless the little +rural churches which were built in great numbers in the first +centuries of the Christian era, and are designated capella in texts +of the time of Charlemagne, or perhaps oratories, such as it was +customary to attach to the charnel-houses of towns or great religious +establishments.[33]

+ +
+ +

[33] L'Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, Maison +Quantin, 1888.

+ +

The use of private chapels dates from the earliest days of +Christianity; great personages who had embraced the new faith followed +the example of the Romans who constructed private basilicas in their +palaces. The custom was perpetuated, and the splendid Palatine Chapel +of Aix is one of the most magnificent of its results. In later times +kings and great nobles built themselves sanctuaries within their +castles. In the time of Charles V. the Louvre owned an important +chapel; the feudal castles of Coucy and Pierrefonds, among others, +contained large chapels, the arrangement of which is very curious. +Archologists cite as of special beauty among seignorial chapels +the ancient oratory of the Dukes of Bourbon at Moulins, the Chapels +of Chenonceaux, Chambord, and Chaumont, and the Chapel of Jacques +Cœur's htel at Bourges. Many episcopal palaces have very +remarkable chapels, such as that of the archbishop's palace at Rheims.

+ +

Refuges, hospitals, madhouses, and prisons also had chapels more or +less important.

+ +

The term Sainte Chapelle[34] was applied in the[150] Middle Ages to +buildings raised over spots sanctified by the martyrdom of a saint, or +destined to enshrine relics of peculiar holiness. The most famous was +the royal oratory, built by Pierre de Montereau between 1242 and 1248 +on the south side of the royal palace, now the Palais de Justice, +Paris, to receive the Crown of Thorns, the pieces of the true Cross, +and other relics brought by the royal founder, St. Louis, from the +Holy Land.

+ +
+ +

[34] The plans and elevations of these chapels are so well +known, and have been so frequently published, that we abstain from +reproducing them in the present work.

+ +

The distinguishing feature of the Ste. Chapelle of Paris is its +division into two stories—the upper chapel, which communicated with +the royal apartments, and the lower chapel on the ground floor, which +may have been open to the public. Its construction is remarkable no +less for the happy boldness with which the whole of the spaces between +the buttresses were utilised for the introduction of immense painted +windows, than for the perfection of execution and the beauty of the +sculptures, and this in spite of the rapidity with which the work was +carried out. An annexe, which has now disappeared, adjoined the apse +on the north, and consisted of three stories serving as sacristies and +muniment rooms. The spire, a wooden structure cased in lead, dating +from the time of Charles VII., was destroyed by fire in 1630; it was +shortly restored, only to be again demolished at the close of the +eighteenth century, and was finally replaced by the architect Lassus, +who restored the building.

+ +

The Ste. Chapelle of St. Germain-en-Laye must have been built some +years before that of the royal palace of Paris. It is remarkable for +certain peculiarities of structure which show a greater[151] architectural +skill; the piers which sustain the vault have a greater interior +projection; the formerets are disengaged from the wall, and the square +windows occupy the whole space between the buttresses, and rise to +close beneath the cornice. This most original and learned arrangement +gives the building a very graceful aspect, and brings out its elegant +proportions.

+ +

The Ste. Chapelle of Vincennes, begun by Charles VI., was not +completed until the reign of Henry II. In construction it is akin to +that of Paris. The two-storied annexes which formed the sacristies and +treasury were finished towards the close of the fifteenth century.

+ +

After the example of kings and princes the great abbeys began to +raise important oratories independent of their conventual churches. +The Abbey of St. Martin des Champs at Paris founded two large chapels +about the middle of the thirteenth century,—one dedicated to the +Virgin, and the other to St. Michael.

+ +

Pierre de Montereau was commissioned to build, in addition to the +Ste. Chapelle of the palace, a chapel dedicated to the Virgin, +within the precincts of the Abbey of St. Germain des Prs; the plan +of the vaults differs here from that of the Ste. Chapelle of the +palace. According to a drawing by Alexander Lenoir, made before the +destruction of this chapel of the Virgin, the pointed arches comprised +two bays, in imitation of the vaults on intersecting arches in Notre +Dame of Paris, the origin of which we discussed in chapter vi.

+ +

The Abbey of Chalis, near Senlis, founded by[152] Louis the Fat in 1136, +which was one of the most important abbeys of the Cistercian order +in the thirteenth century, possessed an abbey church of five aisles, +over 330 feet long. Towards the middle of the thirteenth century +it nevertheless founded a Ste. Chapelle, known as the Chapelle +de l'Abb. The building has undergone various vicissitudes, and +the ribbed vaults which date from the reign of St. Louis were once +decorated with frescoes, attributed to Primaticcio. The building +still exists, however, almost in its entirety. It illustrates the +considerable influence exercised by the Ste. Chapelle of Paris from +its very foundation on the great nobles, more especially the heads of +rich abbeys eager to parade their immense power and wealth.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[153]

+ +

CHAPTER XI
+ +SCULPTURE

+ +

In the Middle Ages all the arts were auxiliary to architecture. The +architect traced the details of his conception in the workshop, and +superintended the construction; he directed stone-carvers, masons, +sculptors, illuminators, painters, and glass-stainers, and laid his +imprimatur on every branch of the work of which he was the creator.

+ +

Thus the connection between the allied arts was very close. The +history of sculpture is that of architecture, for the diverse +influences which marked their origin and modifications were common to +both. Each reached its apogee in the brilliant manifestations of the +thirteenth century, and each followed the same path to decadence less +than two centuries later.

+ +

Statuary and ornamental sculpture were inseparable, being executed by +the same artists in pursuance of the same idea: the study of nature.

+ +

In obedience to the law of increasing development they abandoned the +hieratic forms imposed by religious tradition, but only to give a new +expression to these very traditions, which were still preserved and +venerated.

+ +

[154]

+ +

Roman inspiration, and even direct imitation of Roman sculpture, +is clearly traceable in the first half of the thirteenth century. +Rheims, which may be accepted as the masterpiece, the last word, so to +speak, of Gothic architecture, illustrates this influence in certain +magnificent examples of the western porch.

+ +
+ +

94. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT. CENTRAL PORCH

+
+ +
+ +

95. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT

+
+ +
+ +

96. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF WEST FRONT

+
+ +

The architects of the thirteenth century were pre-eminently the +children of their generation. Ignoring their Latin descent they +followed in the paths of the innovators so far as monumental structure +was concerned; but they in their turn inaugurated a new departure +by abandoning the Byzantine convention in statuary and sculptured +ornament which[155]
[156]
[157] had prevailed throughout the preceding century, in +favour of the more ancient Roman tradition. In this one respect they +made a salutary return upon those antique principles which they +afterwards definitively abandoned.

+ +
+ +

97. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF PRINCIPAL DOOR. +STATUE AND ORNAMENT

+
+ +
+ +

98. RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. INTERIOR OF PRINCIPAL DOOR. +STATUE AND ORNAMENT

+
+ +

The influence of Roman art upon French medival sculpture is +unquestionable. Its course may be traced through the relations +existing between North and South long before the Crusades, principally +by means of the great religious communities, and even more manifestly +in the countless monuments raised in Gaul on Roman models, or in those +constructed by Gallo-Romans for several centuries. Many of these +survived the incursions of the barbarians.

+ +

The origin of orna[158]mental sculpture is no less venerable. +Superficially, it would seem to have drawn its inspiration mainly from +the Romanesque epoch; but according to modern savants[35] its source +must be looked for in much remoter periods. Oriental art, imported +into Scandinavia, and there barbarised, was introduced into Ireland +in the early centuries of our era. The Irish monks, whose power was +very great, and who seem to have been the principal agents in the +Renascence of the days of Charlemagne, created, or at any rate greatly +influenced Carlovingian art by their manuscripts and miniatures. From +Carlovingian art that of the so-called Romanesque period was born, and +this was[159] in its turn the parent of the ornamental sculpture of the +thirteenth century. In the admirably decorative character of this +art we recognise the influence of an ancient tradition handed on from +generation to generation, to be finally rejuvenated, invigorated, and +transformed as to detail by a close study of nature,[160] precisely as had +happened in the allied development of statuary.

+ +
+ +

[35] M. A. de Montaiglon, Professor at the cole des +Chartes.

+ +

[161]

+ +

The architects of the Ile-de-France, like those of Rheims, +assimilated the principles of the new art with the supple skill which +characterised them, such assimilation bearing rich fruit at Notre Dame +de Paris in the sculptured figures of the west porch, and no less in +their accessory ornaments.

+ +
+ +

99. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. PRINCIPAL DOOR. RUNNING LEAF +PATTERN

+
+ +
+ +

100. NOTRE DAME DE PARIS. RUNNING LEAF PATTERN ON +ARCHIVOLTS OF NORTH DOOR

+
+ +

A most instructive comparative study is furnished by the north and +south porches of Chartres Cathedral. Here we find, in one[162] building, +examples of sculptures inspired by the hieratic tradition of +Byzantium, and of those which had been transformed and naturalised by +a return to antique ideals.

+ +
+ +

101. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF THE NORTH PORCH

+
+ +

At Amiens again certain of the sculptures were influenced by the new +principles. But in the greater part there is a prodigality of motive +and looseness of execution which indicate decline no less surely than +the mistaken ingenuity of the structural details.

+ +
+ +

102. CHARTRES CATHEDRAL. STATUES OF THE SOUTH PORCH

+
+ +

Medival sculpture followed the fortunes of architecture, both in +its rise and fall. In its first beginnings it was characterised by +a purity of style not unworthy of Rome in her most glorious days, +but rapidly losing touch with the antique ideal, it lost measure and +proportion in its development. The wise laws of simplicity, essential +to[163]
[164] all greatness in art, were set aside in favour of an unruly +exuberance which ran riot in details, and was the immediate cause of +a decline perceptible even in the fourteenth century, and absolute +in the fifteenth. "Sculpture was at its zenith. We are astounded by +the activity and fertility of thirteenth-century artists, who peopled +faades and embrasures with figures from seven to ten feet in height, +and animated every tympanum with countless statuettes. The faade of +Notre Dame, by no means one of the richest, has[165] sixty-eight colossal +statues, for the most part of the highest excellence; at Chartres and +at Amiens there are over a hundred to each porch. The famous figure of +Christ at Amiens is a masterpiece; bas-reliefs work out the details of +the main subject, and enrich the story with innumerable pictures of +amazing vigour and originality."

+ +
+ +

103. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. CENTRAL PORCH OF WEST FRONT

+
+ +
+ +

104. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. STATUES IN THE SOUTH PORCH

+
+ +
+ +

105. AMIENS CATHEDRAL. CHOIR STALLS. CARVED ORNAMENT

+
+ +

[166]
[167]

+ +

The favourite themes of the thirteenth century had something in +common with those of the Romanesque epoch, though there is a sensible +difference of treatment and considerable progress in composition, +which exhibited more of taste and learning and less of eccentricity. +But the satiric power and delight in caricature of our forefathers +still demanded an outlet. These found expression in many a caustic +gibe at clergy, princes, and rich burghers, and took substance in many +a quaint gargoyle. A luxuriant system of ornamentation, adapted from +the vegetable kingdom, was auxiliary to statuary. The main subject was +enframed by it, or relieved against it; while often the composition +itself was enriched[168] by its introduction to complete the decorative +effect. Or such a system of decoration was the only sculpturesque +motive employed; it was then used with the utmost elaboration, and +developed at the expense of statuary. Such was the case in Burgundy +and Normandy, in which provinces the latter art was of slow growth. +The Byzantine character of the scrolls, carved bands, and fantastic +foliage of Romanesque art disappeared; ornament took on a new +independence, and began to seek its types among native plant forms.

+ +

The carved leafage (Fig. 106) of the cloister arcades in the Abbey of +Mont St. Michel strikingly illustrate this departure. The very plants +which inspired the thirteenth[169]-century sculptors still flourish at the +foot of the ancient abbey walls.

+ +
+ +

106. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CLOISTERS OF THE +THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CARVED ORNAMENT OF INTERIOR SPANDRILS

+
+ +
+ +

107. WOODEN STATUETTE (HEIGHT 23⅝ IN.) THIRTEENTH +CENTURY. ATELIERS DE LA CHAISE DIEU, AUVERGNE

+
+ +
+ +

108. IVORY STATUETTE (HEIGHT 9⅞ IN.) THIRTEENTH +CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS

+
+ +

Thus the flora of our own fields was applied in lithic form to the +elements of our church architecture. But the breadth proper to +architectural sculpture was still preserved by means of ingenious +combinations.

+ +

It was not until the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that the +imitation of natural forms became servile, tedious, and over-minute, +and that the beauty of the whole was sacrificed to exaggerated +faithfulness of detail.[36]

+ +
+ +

[36] Anthyme St. Paul, Histoire Monumentale de la France; +Paris, Hachette and Co., 1884.

+ +
+ +

108A. IVORY STATUETTE (HEIGHT 9½ IN.) FIFTEENTH +CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS

+
+ +

It should be noted that the decadence which manifested itself in +monumental sculpture was far less rapid in the more intimate art which +may be distinguished as imagery. In the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries all sculptors were image-makers; but towards the close of +the latter, and during the fifteenth, the term was specially applied +to carvers of images in wood, ivory, etc.[170] Art still flourished in +their ateliers in all its beauty, notably that of the goldsmiths, +who carved images in high or low relief in precious metals, and who, +thanks to the severely paternal regulations of the matrise, were +enabled to bring French decorative art to the highest degree of +perfection. The beautiful carved wooden stalls of Amiens, Auch, and +Albi, to name[171]
[172] but the most famous, testify to the vigorous talent of +the fourteenth and fifteenth-century image-carvers.

+ +
+ +

109. WOODEN STATUETTE (HEIGHT 10 IN.) FOURTEENTH +CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS

+
+ +
+ +

110. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 6⅜ IN.) FOURTEENTH +CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS

+
+ +
+ +

110A. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 2¾ IN.) FOURTEENTH +CENTURY. SCHOOL OF THE ILE-DE-FRANCE

+
+ +
+ +

111. IVORY DIPTYCH (HEIGHT 4¾ IN.) FOURTEENTH +CENTURY. SCHOOL OF PARIS

+
+ +

Flemish ateliers, which were kept up by the severe rules of the +guilds, exercised a salutary influence upon the Burgundian craftsmen. +This is more especially true of the great workshops of Antwerp +and of Brussels, and perhaps also of those of Southern Germany. +Burgundian influences reacted in their turn upon the artists of the +Ile-de-France, notably in Paris (that brilliant centre of all artistic +activities in the fourteenth century), and stirred them to emulation. +The union of these various elements brought about the revival of the +fine tradition of the thirteenth century, and towards[173]
[174] the close of +the fifteenth century paved the way for a French Renascence, which +heralded that more famous movement of the sixteenth, the credit of +which is usually given to the Italians, who, however, such was the +infatuation of the times, contributed rather to the debasement than to +the regeneration of French national art.

+ +
+ +

111A. IVORY PLAQUE (HEIGHT 611/16 IN.) COVER OF AN +EVANGELIUM. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF THE ILE-DE-FRANCE (SOISSONS)

+
+ +
+ +

112. HEAD IN SILVER GILT REPOUSS. HALF-LIFE SIZE. +THIRTEENTH CENTURY. ATELIERS OF THE GOLDSMITH'S GUILD OF PARIS

+
+ +

[175]

+ +
+ +

113. GROUP CARVED IN WOOD (HEIGHT 10¼ IN.) FIFTEENTH +CENTURY. SCHOOL OF ANTWERP

+
+ +

The remarkable sculptures that owe their origin to the ateliers of +Antwerp are distinguished by one of the quarterings of the civic arms, +a severed hand burnt in with a red-hot iron. Those of Brussels are +branded in like fashion. The images of wood, ivory, and vermeil, +that we figure as illustrating the art of the image-carvers from the +thirteenth to the fifteenth century, show that the old tradition was +still cherished in this community. Their artists were so far swayed +by iconographic convention that a certain hieratic[176] sentiment is +perceptible in their works; but this is never allowed to outweigh +fitness of action and expression, and their masterpieces are so +instinct with taste and delicacy, composed with so much skill and +executed with such freedom, that they are the admiration of modern +artists.[37]

+ +

[177]

+ +
+ +

[37] The statuettes, diptychs, etc., in wood, ivory, and +vermeil, or silver-gilt, figured from No. 107 to No. 115, belong to +the author.

+ +

[178]

+ +
+ +

114. WOODEN STATUETTE, PAINTED AND GILDED (HEIGHT +1911/16 IN.) FIFTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF BRUSSELS

+
+ +
+ +

115. WOODEN STATUETTE, PAINTED AND GILDED (HEIGHT +1911/16 IN.) SIXTEENTH CENTURY. SCHOOL OF MUNICH

+
+ +

These essentially French qualities they owe, primarily, of course, +to the genius of their creators, but in a scarcely inferior degree +to the fostering care of the matrises, institutions which only +require a certain modification by the progressive leaven of today, to +become models for the imitation of all whose function it is to develop +national art.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[179]

+ +

CHAPTER XII
+ +PAINTING

+ +

The origin of painting dates from remote antiquity, and the art had +already passed through many developments before it was applied by +Gothic architects to the decoration of their buildings.

+ +

"In the thirteenth century the architectonic painting of the Middle +Ages reached its apogee in France. The painted windows, the vignettes +of manuscripts, and the mural decorations of this period all denote +a learned and finished art, and are marked by a singular harmony of +tones, and a corresponding harmony with architectural forms. It is +beyond question that this art was developed in the cloister, and was a +direct product of Grco-Byzantine teachings."[38]

+ +
+ +

[38] Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonn, vol. vii.

+ +

From the archological point of view, however, it is important to bear +in mind the considerable influence exercised upon continental art by +the manuscripts and miniatures of Irish monks, so early as the reign +of Charlemagne.

+ +
+ +

116. PAINTINGS IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. HORIZONTAL +PROJECTION OF THE CUPOLA WITH FORESHORTENED FIGURES AND THEIR +ARCHITECTURAL FRAMEWORK

+
+ +

Towards the close of the twelfth century sculpture and painting alike +entered on a new phase,[180] resulting from that process of architectural +evolution we have been considering. The hieratic tradition was set +aside for the direct teaching and inspiration of nature. But as the +mastery of the painter increased, the mural spaces available for +the application of his new methods diminished rapidly, till, by the +thirteenth century, the only wall surfaces left to him were those +beneath the windows, and some few[181] triangular spaces in the vault, +where the interlacing network of arches became gradually closer and +closer. Finding themselves thus practically excluded from the new +Gothic buildings, the painters of the day turned their attention with +entire success to the decoration of ancient monuments by the new +naturalistic methods. The domes of great abbey churches such as St. +Front (Prigueux) offered immense bare surfaces, the concave forms +of which they utilised with extraordinary skill, adorning them with +compositions in which figure and ornament are so adroitly combined, +that they seem to be of normal proportions, in spite of their really +colossal size (Fig. 117).

+ +
+ +

117. PAINTING IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. FRAGMENT OF ONE OF +THE EIGHT SECTORS OF THE CUPOLA. THE PROPHET EZEKIEL

+
+ +

Thanks to a discovery of mural paintings made in the Cathedral of +Cahors in 1890, of the greatest archological importance, we are able +to verify these statements.

+ +

During the progress of certain works undertaken for the preservation +of the two domes, some paintings of great interest were laid bare on +the removal of several coats of whitewash from the western cupola. +Traces of similar decoration were found on the eastern cupola and its +pendentives, but these it was found impossible to preserve, the action +of the air causing them to peel at once from the surfaces. But the +western composition is intact, and though the brilliance of the colour +has no doubt suffered from time, we can still appreciate the learning, +vigour, and firmness of hand perceptible in the design, which is +outlined in black.

+ +

This western cupola, which is ovoid, and some fifty-three feet in +diameter, like that of the east, is[182]
[183] divided by its pictorial scheme +into eight sectors, separated by wide bands of boldly-designed fruits +and flowers. Fig. 116 gives an exact idea of the general arrangement. +Eight colossal figures of prophets, varying in height from fifteen to +sixteen feet approximately, form the chief motives of the decoration. +David, the prophet king, and the four great prophets: Daniel to +the left of David; then in order, Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Ezekiel on +the right, towards the choir of the church, and the three minor +prophets—Jonah, Esdras, and Habakkuk—are painted in modulated tones, +the dark outline forming a setting, on a background varying from tawny +to deep red. The figures are enframed in a firmly-drawn architectural +setting. This architecture is painted in gray against the masonry, +the courses of which are indicated by double lines of brown upon the +pale ochre of the general surface. Each prophet holds a phylactery +or banderole inscribed with his name in beautiful thirteenth-century +characters.

+ +

The floriated bands which divide the sectors terminate above in a +circular frieze surrounding the crown of the cupola. The latter +represents a starry sky, the centre painted with the apotheosis of +St. Stephen, the patron of the cathedral. The frieze is painted +with scenes from the trial and stoning of the Saint; the life-size +figures are full of expression and grouped with great variety. In +these paintings there are evident leanings towards the naturalistic +evolution; and though the figures of the prophets are still hieratic +in certain respects, the poses, heads, and details all point to +evident research in the matter of physiognomy. This research is +carried very far in[184] the figures of the circular frieze, where the +hands have evidently been carefully studied from nature.

+ +
+ +

118. PAINTINGS IN CAHORS CATHEDRAL. FRAGMENT OF THE +CENTRAL FRIEZE OF THE CUPOLA

+
+ +

Technically speaking, these paintings are not frescoes. "The medium +employed seems to have been egg, the white and yolk mixed, and the +method very analogous to that of water-colour painting.... The red +tones were laid over a bed of deep orange, the effect being one of +extraordinary vigour and brilliance, taking into account the means at +command. The use of a prepared ground was systematic, and was resorted +to whenever intensity of the tones or colour effects was desired. +Evident efforts in the[185] direction of modelling are noticeable, +though these have been neutralised to a great extent by a lack of +concentration in the lights, and if it were not for the thick outline +in which each figure is set, there would be much in common between +the methods of these paintings and those renderings of diffused light +affected by our modern plein-airistes. The general tone is that of +the simpler paintings of the thirteenth century, that is to say, of +those in which no gold was used. The effect is warm and brilliant, the +dominant hue orange, heightened by reds of various tints."[39]

+ +
+ +

[39] From the technical notes of M. Gada.

+ +

According to the archological records derived from various works of +the historians of Le Quercy, these paintings in the west cupola of +Cahors were carried out under the direction of the Bishops Raymond de +Cornil, 1280-93, Sicard de Montaigu, 1294-1300, Raymond Panchelli,[40] +1300-1312, or Hugo Geraldi, 1312-16, the friend of Pope Clement V. and +of Philip IV. of France, who was burnt alive at Avignon, or perhaps +even of Guillaume de Labroa, 1316-24, whose residence was at Avignon, +and who governed the diocese of Cahors through a procurator. From this +period onwards there was no further question of decorative works, the +successors of these bishops being fully occupied in maintaining the +struggle against the English invaders.

+ +
+ +

[40] Raymond Panchelli, or Raymond II., who in 1303 began to +build the Bridge of Valentr at Cahors.

+ +

It seems reasonable therefore to infer that the Cahors paintings +date either from the end of the thirteenth century or the beginning +of the fourteenth.[186] In any case, these decorations are of very great +artistic merit, and of the highest interest as an unique example of +French decorative art at the finest period of the thirteenth century, +when Gothic architecture had reached its apogee, and was producing +masterpieces which served as models for contemporary artists, and even +more notably, for those of the early fourteenth century.

+ +

That vigilant guardian of our beautiful cathedrals and historic +monuments, the Administration des Cultes, has taken measures which +do it infinite honour in this matter. No attempt has been made to +restore the paintings, but all necessary steps have been taken to +ensure their preservation as they stand, so as to leave intact the +archological value of these convincing witnesses to the genius of our +French medival painters.

+ +

The mural spaces available for fresco decoration having been gradually +suppressed, and decorative painting limited to the illumination of +certain subordinate members of the structure, the medival artists +began to apply themselves to the decoration of the great screens of +glass which, with their sculptured framework of stone, now filled +the entire spaces between the piers. In this new art, or rather this +incarnation of the spirit of decoration under a new form, we find a +fresh illustration of that supple assimilative genius which already +distinguished the French artist.

+ +
+ +

119, 120. PAINTED WINDOWS OF THE EARLY TWELFTH CENTURY. +FROM ST. RMI AT RHEIMS[41]

+
+ +
+ +

[41] Drawings lent by M. Ed. Didron, painter upon glass.

+ +

"It is in the nature of the material used, that painted windows +should greatly affect the character of the building they decorate. +If their treatment is injudicious, the intended architectural +effect may be[187]
[188] greatly modified; if, on the other hand, they +are intelligently applied, they tend to bring out the beauty of +structural surroundings.... As is the case with all architectonic +painting, stained glass demands simplicity in composition, sobriety +in execution, and an avoidance of naturalistic imitation. It should +aim neither at illusion nor perspective. Its scheme of colour should +be frank, energetic, comprising few tints, yet producing a harmony +at once sumptuous and soothing, which should compel attention, but +seeks not to engross it to the detriment of the setting. Like a mural +mosaic, an Eastern carpet, or the enamelled goldsmith's work of the +twelfth and thirteenth centuries, a truly decorative window has no +affinities with a picture, a scene or landscape gazed at from an open +window, where the interest concentrates itself upon a particular +point, and where the illumination is not equally diffused throughout. +The fundamental law of decorative painting rests on a convention the +aim of which is the satisfaction of the eye, which finds its pleasure +to a far greater degree in the logical decoration of some structural +or useful object than in its realisation of[189] natural phenomena. +Between painted windows and pictures a great gulf is fixed; and the +modern school, the heir of the Italian Renascence, seeking to bridge +it over, has seduced decorative art from the safe paths of sound +judgment."[42]

+ +
+ +

[42] Le Vitrail l'Exposition de 1889, by Ed. Didron; +Paris, 1890.

+ +
+ +

121. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. CHURCH OF +BONLIEU (CREUSE)

+
+ +
+ +

122. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CHARTRES +CATHEDRAL

+
+ +

The true functions of stained glass were never more admirably +understood than in the twelfth[190] century. The artists of that day +had a perfect comprehension of those colour-harmonies, the subdued +splendour of which best accorded with the simple and vigorous forms +of Romanesque architecture. Upon his glass of various tints the +painter first outlined his figure or ornament in black. This outline +he supported with a flat half-tint which supplied a rough modelling +and allowed the forms expressed to make their fullest effect from a +distance.[191] When, in the thirteenth century, the extreme austerity +of religious buildings began to relax, the splendour of the painted +windows increased proportionately; but the coloration, though it +increased[192] in glow and vigour, still preserved its complete harmony +with its surroundings. An additional richness is perceptible in +work of the fourteenth century, at which period red glass began to +be used with a certain prodigality. The system of execution remains +unchanged so far; but the black outline is considerably attenuated, +and the half-tone which emphasises it loses much of its importance. +The figures, in place of the hieratic repose of an earlier period, +affect a certain grace and animation which herald a tendency towards +realistic imitation. These germs of naturalism soon bore fruit. At +the close of the fourteenth century the discovery of how to obtain +yellow from salts of silver, and the facility with which it could be +used to warm the grayer tones of glass by the help of the muffle, +caused a revolution in the art of glass-painting, and prepared the way +for polychromatic enamelling. This discovery, eminently useful when +discreetly applied, was to lead to regrettable exaggerations.

+ +
+ +

123. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. +CHARTRES CATHEDRAL

+
+ +
+ +

124. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. CHURCH +OF ST. GERMER, TROYES

+
+ +

In the fifteenth century the figures of saints were usually drawn +upon glass so tinted as to be of a soft white tone; the hair, beards, +head-dresses, jewels, trimmings, and embroideries were painted in +yellow. The figures stood out in bold relief against a background +of blue or red, and were divided by a damasked drapery of green or +purple. Vast architectural motives were introduced enframing the +figures and filling up the immense window spaces of the latest period +of medival art. The transformation was radical. It is of interest to +note that the final development of the Gothic style ought logically +to have brought about a recrudescence of vigour in the[193]
[194] coloration +of stained glass; but the exact reverse was the case; and a marked +modification took place in the glowing effects won by a diversity of +strong tints. The sort of camaeu which was the result obliged the +painter to insist more strongly on the modelling of the figures, and +to give less importance to the black outline, which was eventually +suppressed altogether.

+ +
+ +

125. PAINTED WINDOWS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. CHURCH +OF ST. URBAIN AT TROYES

+
+ +

In the sixteenth century painted glass became to a certain extent +translucent pictures, in which architectural fitness was no longer +respected. Composition lost its simplicity. A subject spread from +panel to panel, regardless of the intervening tracery. Nevertheless, +we forget the defects of this luxuriant development, and cease to +wonder at its popularity, in view of that broad and vigorous execution +and beauty of colour which give it a special decorative value of its +own.

+ +
+ +

126. PAINTED GLASS OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. HEAD OF +ST. PETER. CATHEDRAL OF CHLONS-SUR-MARNE

+
+ +

Enamelling is so closely allied to glass-painting as to claim a +word for itself. Here, again, the decorative art of the Middle Ages +was characteristic[195]ally displayed, and though the process is more +specially applicable to the ornamentation of goldsmith's work than to +the decoration of large surfaces, it is one of the most brilliant and +exquisite of the auxiliary arts.

+ +
+ +

127. PAINTED WINDOW OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. VREUX +CATHEDRAL

+
+ +

The earliest enamels are champlev and cloisonn. By the +champlev process a hollow, the edges of which outlined the +figures or ornaments, was cut in the field or ground of metal for +the reception of the fusible enamel; for cloisonn, cloisons, or +slender walls of metal were fixed upon the field to separate flesh +from draperies, and one tint generally from another. The background, +the cloisons, and the flesh were gilt and burnished; details were +defined by[196] engraved lines, so that the draperies only were enamelled.

+ +
+ +

128. ENAMEL OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. PLAQUE COVER OF A +MS. HEIGHT 4¾ IN., WIDTH 29/16 IN.

+
+ +

[197]

+ +

Fig. 128 reproduces an enamel of the close of the eleventh century, in +which these various characteristics may be studied. The inscriptions +on either side of the cross are formed by letters vertically +superposed, which read downwards.

+ +

From the beginning of the thirteenth century enamels were executed by +the process known as taille d'pargne. By this method the ground +was cut out, as described above, for the reception of the various +ingredients which, after undergoing the process of firing, formed +the enamel; the draperies, hands, and feet of the figures which were +pargns (spared or left) were modelled and chased in very low +relief; but the central figure, such as the Christ, and the heads of +the subordinate personages or attendant angels, were always in high +relief, vigorously modelled, and chased.

+ +

Fig. 129, a plaque forming the cover of an evangelium, is a +characteristic example of this class of enamel. It dates from the +early thirteenth century, and is a production of the ateliers +founded at Limoges by the monks of Solignac.

+ +
+ +

129. ENAMEL OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. PLAQUE COVER OF +AN EVANGELIUM. HEIGHT 72/16 IN., WIDTH 611/16 IN.

+
+ +

The reliquary figured No. 130 is also a work of the Limousin +enamellers. The methods employed are identical, but the carving of the +figures is less delicate, indeed almost rudimentary, the modelling +being replaced by hasty strokes of the graver. The lower panel of this +reliquary represents the martyrdom of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of +Canterbury, the upper part his apotheosis. It is crowned by a ridge +roof of two sides.

+ +
+ +

130. ENAMEL OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. RELIQUARY SHRINE +OF ST. THOMAS BECKET

+
+ +

As is well known, Thomas Becket was canonised two years after his +tragic death, which had[198] aroused general reprobation throughout +Christendom. The universal feeling expressed itself at Limoges by +the manufacture of a great number of reliquaries destined to receive +relics of the sainted martyr.

+ +

In the details of the draperies and hands of those portions of +Fig. 129 which are carved in low relief, we may trace the germs of +those low-relief enamels known as translucent, or to be more exact, +transparent enamels. This process originated in Italy, and was +commonly employed in France, and[199]
[200] even in Germany throughout the +fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, more especially the latter. +These enamels could only be executed on gold and silver. The method +consisted in modelling the design in very low relief on the face of +the plate, which was then covered with a transparent enamel of few +colours. The process was a slow and difficult one;[201] the pieces were +consequently very costly, and the demand for them proportionately +restricted.

+ +
+ +

131. ENAMEL OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. OUR LADY OF +SORROWS

+
+ +

The enamellers of the sixteenth century, especially those who +flourished at its beginning, were evidently inspired by these +low-relief enamels to seek the same brilliant opalescence of effect +by more scientific and less costly methods. But the simplification of +the process degenerated into vulgarisation, and its original qualities +gradually faded out. Fig. 131, representing Our Lady of Sorrows, and +signed I. C. (Jehan Courteys or Courtois), gives some idea of the +design, at least, of the painted enamels executed by the Limousin +artists of the early sixteenth century.

+ +

Gothic architecture, more especially in its religious manifestations +from the twelfth to the fifteenth century, made its prolific influence +felt, not only by the structural qualities of its vast and numerous +buildings, but by those various arts created, perfected, or at least +developed, for their decoration. We have traced a bare outline of +its activities, regretting that space fails us to make an exhaustive +study of their various manifestations. The priceless fragments which +illustrate these offshoots of an art essentially French are now the +chief ornaments not only of French, but of all European museums. +They take rank as factors of the first importance in art education, +pointing the way to fresh masterpieces of French genius.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[202]
[203]

+ +

PART II
+ +MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE

+ +
+ +
+ +

[204]
[205]

+ +

CHAPTER I
+ +MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE: ITS ORIGIN

+ +

The origin of monastic architecture is of no greater antiquity than +the fourth century of the Christian era. The hermits and anchorites of +the earliest period made their habitation in the caves and deserts of +the Thebad; their sole monument is the record of their virtues, which +have outlived any buildings they may have raised during their years +of solitude. But the first Christians who banded themselves together +under a common rule, and discarded anchoritism for the cenobitic life, +marked their worldly pilgrimage by monuments, traces of which are +still to be found in historic records or fragmentary remains.

+ +

The history of abbey churches is identical with that of +cathedrals.[43] The architectural evolutions and transformations +which succeeded each other in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries +manifested themselves in both. Like the cathedrals, the abbey churches +were the creation of monkish architects, and were carried out either +under their immediate direction or that of their pupils.

+ +
+ +

[43] See Part I., "Religious Architecture."

+ +

But a kindred field of study offers itself in the[206]
[207] abbeys themselves, +their organisation and adaptation to the domestic needs of their +be-frocked inmates.

+ +
+ +

132. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CLOISTER (THIRTEENTH +CENTURY. FROM A DRAWING BY ED. CORROYER)

+
+ +

Monastic institutions date from the Roman era. The first abbeys were +those established in France in the fourth century, by St. Hilary of +Poitiers and St. Martin of Tours. These religious associations or +corporations, which eventually became so powerful, by reason not only +of their numbers, but of the spirit which animated them, must be +reckoned as among the most beneficent forces of the Middle Ages. Even +from the philosophical side alone of the religious rule under which +they flourished, by virtue of which enlightened men wielded supreme +power, they were admirable institutions.

+ +

To instance one among many, the so-called Rule of St. Benedict +is in itself a monument, the basis of which is discipline, the +coping-stone labour. These are principles of undying excellence, for +they are the expression of eternal truths. And from them our modern +economists, who so justly exalt the system of co-operation, might even +in these latter days draw inspiration as useful and as fruitful as +that by which men were guided in the days of Benedict.

+ +

Three great intellectual centres shed their light on the first +centuries of the Middle Ages. These were Lrins, Ireland, and Monte +Casino. Their most brilliant time was from the fourth century to +the reign of Charlemagne, by which period they may be said to have +prepared the way for successive evolutions of human knowledge, by +assiduous cultivation of the sciences and arts, more especially +architecture, in accordance with the immutable laws of development and +progress.

+ +

[208]

+ +

Lrins.—St. Honoratus and his companions, when +they landed in the archipelago, built on the principal island a chapel +surrounded by the cells and buildings necessary for a confraternity. +This took place about 375-390 A.D. The members of the budding +community were learned monks, who had accepted the religious rule +which had now become their law. They instructed neophytes sent them +from the mainland, and their reputation grew so rapidly that Lrins +soon took rank as a school of theology, a seminary or nursery whence +the medival church chose the bishops and abbots best fitted to govern +her.

+ +

The school of Lrins was so esteemed for learning that it took +an active part in the great Pelagian controversy which agitated +Christendom at the time,[44] and zealously advocated the doctrines of +semi-pelagianism, but this tendency was finally subdued by St. Vincent +of Lrins, whose ideas were more orthodox. The theological teaching of +Lrins seems to have dominated, or at least to have directed religious +opinion in Gaul down to the sixth century.

+ +
+ +

[44] Pelagianism was the heresy of the monk Pelagius, +who flourished in the fourth century. He contested the doctrine of +original sin, as imputed to all mankind from the fall of Adam, and +taught that the grace of God is accorded to us in proportion to our +merits. Semi-pelagianism taught that man may begin the work of his +own amelioration, but cannot complete it without Divine help.

+ +

Ireland.—So early as the sixth century Ireland +was the centre of art and science in the West. The Irish monks had +followed the oriental tradition as modified by its passage through +Scandinavia; they exercised a considerable influence on continental +art by their manuscripts and illuminations, and prepared the way for +the renascence of the days of Charle[209]magne, to which such importance +was given by the monuments of the Romanesque movement.

+ +

St. Columba was a monk of the seminary of Clonard in Ireland, +whence towards the close of the sixth century he passed over to +the continent, founding the Abbeys of Luxeuil and Fontaine, near +Besanon, and later that of Bobbio, in Italy, where he died in 615. +His principal work was the Rule prescribed to the Irish monks who +had accompanied him, and those who took the vows of the monasteries he +had founded. In this famous work he did not merely enjoin that love of +God and of the brethren on which his Rule is based; he demonstrated +the utility and beauty of his maxims, which he built upon Scriptural +precepts, and upon fundamental principles of morality. The school +of Luxeuil became one of the most famous of the seventh century, +and, like that of Lrins, the nursery of learned doctors and famous +prelates.

+ +

Monte Casino.—In the sixth century St. Benedict +preached Christianity in the south of Italy, where, in spite of +Imperial edicts, Paganism still prevailed among the masses. He built a +chapel in honour of St. John the Baptist on the ruins of a temple of +Apollo, and afterwards founded a monastery to which he gave his Rule +in 529. This was the cradle of the great Benedictine order.

+ +

The number of St. Benedict's disciples grew apace. He had imposed on +them, together with the voluntary obedience and subordination which +constitute discipline, those prescriptions of his Rule, which +demanded the partition of time between prayer and work. He proceeded +to make a practical[210] application of these principles at Monte Casino, +the buildings of which were raised by himself and his companions. +Barren lands were reclaimed and transformed into gardens for the +community; mills, bakehouses, and workshops for the manufacture of +all the necessaries of life were constructed in the abbey precincts, +with a view to rendering the confraternity self-supporting; auxiliary +buildings were reserved for the reception of the poor and of +travellers. These, however, were so disposed that strangers were kept +outside the main structure, which was reserved exclusively for the +religious body.

+ +

The great merit of St. Benedict, apart from his philosophical +eminence, lies in his comprehension of the doctrine of labour. He was +perhaps the first to teach that useful and intelligent work is one +of the conditions, if not indeed the sole condition, of that moral +perfection to which his followers were taught to aspire. If he had no +further title to fame, this alone should ensure his immortality.

+ +

"The apostles and first bishops were the natural guides of those who +were appointed to build the basilicas in which the faithful met for +worship. When at a later stage they carried the faith to distant +provinces of the empire, they alone were able to indicate or to mark +out with their own hands the lines on which buildings fitted for +the new worship should be raised.... St. Martin superintended the +construction of the oratory of one of the first Gallic monasteries +at Liguj, and later of that of Marmoutier, near Tours, on the banks +of the Loire. In the reign of Childebert, St. Germain directed the +building of the Abbey of St. Vincent—afterwards[211] re-named St. +Germain-des-Prs—in Paris. St. Benedict soon added to his Rule a +decree providing for the teaching and study of architecture, painting, +mosaic, sculpture, and all branches of art; and it became one of the +most important duties of abbots, priors, and deans to make designs for +the churches and auxiliary buildings of the communities they ruled. +From the early centuries of the Christian era down to the thirteenth +century, therefore, architecture was practised only by the clergy, and +came to be regarded as a sacred science. The most ancient plans now +extant—those of St. Gall and of Canterbury—were traced by the monks +Eigenhard and Edwin.... During the eleventh and twelfth centuries +there rose throughout Christendom admirable buildings due to the art +and industry of the monks, who, bringing to bear upon the work their +own researches, and the experience of past generations, received a +fresh stimulus to exertion in this age of universal regeneration, by +the enthusiasm with which their kings inspired them for the vast ruins +of the ninth century."[45]

+ +
+ +

[45] Albert Lenoir, L'Architecture Monastique; Paris, 1856.

+ +

From the earliest centuries of the Christian era communities both male +and female had been formed with the object of living together under +a religious rule; but it seems evident that the greater number of +monasteries owed their fame and wealth, if not their actual origin, +to the reputation of their relics. These attracted the multitude. +Pilgrimages became so frequent, and pilgrims so numerous, that it was +found necessary to build hospices, or night-refuges, in various towns +on their routes. A confraternity[212] of the Pilgrims of St. Michael was +formed in the beginning of the thirteenth century in Paris, where the +confraternity of St. James of Pilgrims had already built its chapel +and hospital in the Rue St. Denis, near the city gate.

+ +

From the seventh to the ninth century important abbeys flourished +in nearly all the provinces now comprised in modern France. Later, +under the immediate successors of Charlemagne, great monasteries were +founded in all the countries which made up his dominions. Charlemagne +himself had greatly contributed to the development of religious +institutions by his reliance on the bishops, and more especially the +monks who represented progress, supported his policy, and enforced +his civilising mission. But after his death the study of art and +science declined so rapidly that a radical reform became necessary in +the tenth century, a reform which seems to have had its birth in the +Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, established in Burgundy about the year 930.

+ +

From this hasty sketch of monastic organisation some idea may be +gathered of the importance of religious institutions in the eleventh +and twelfth centuries, and of the immense services they had rendered +the State by diligent and useful toil, among the chief fruits of which +must be reckoned the revival of agriculture, and the development of +the sciences and arts, more especially architecture.

+ +

Monastic architecture exercised a great and decisive influence upon +national art by its vast religious buildings, the precursors of our +great cathedrals.

+ +

[213]

+ +

Until the middle of the twelfth century science, letters, art, +wealth, and above all, intelligence—in other words, omnipotence on +earth—were the monopoly of religious bodies. It is bare historic +justice to remember that the Middle Ages derived their chief title to +fame, and all their intellectual enlightenment, from the abbeys, and +that the great religious houses were in fact schools, the educational +influence of which was immense. It must be borne in mind that if the +great cathedrals of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were not +actually constructed by the monks, their architects were nevertheless +the pupils of monks, and that it was in the abbey schools, so +generously opened to all, that they imbibed the first principles of +the art they afterwards turned to such marvellous account.

+ +

The study of architecture in particular was not merely theoretical. It +was demonstrated by the monks in their important monastic buildings, +the crowning point of which was the abbey church, a structure often +larger and more ornate than contemporary cathedrals.

+ +

On the plan commonly adopted, the cloister, a spreading lawn adorned +with plants, adjoined the church on the north, and sometimes on the +south. An open arcade surrounded the cloister, by means of which +communication with all the necessary domestic offices was provided. +Of these the principal were: the refectory, generally a fine vaulted +hall, close to the kitchens; the chapter-house, a building attached +to the church, the upper story of which was the dormitory of the +monks; the vaulted cellars and granaries, above which were the +lodgings[214] provided for strangers; the storerooms were connected with +stables, cattle-stalls, and various outdoor offices, often of great +extent. All these dependencies for the service of the community were +kept strictly separate one from another, thus all necessary measures +were taken to provide for the needs and duties of hospitality without +any disturbance of the religious routine.

+ +

The abbeys of the Romanesque period were largely used as models in +their day. They were modified by lay architects or monkish builders +who, however, were careful to abate nothing of their perfection; they +partook of the developments which marked the middle of the thirteenth +century, and were subjected to that progressive transformation, the +great feature of which was the adoption of the Angevin intersecting +arch, the distinguishing characteristic of Gothic architecture.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[215]

+ +

CHAPTER II
+ +THE ABBEY OF CLUNY—CISTERCIAN ABBEYS

+ +

The Benedictines, the Cistercians, the Augustinians, the +Premonstrants, and notably the congregation of Cluny were all +energetic builders, and the vast and magnificent structures of their +creation were reckoned the most perfect achievements of their day. The +study of their buildings—the church, the dwelling-places of abbot and +monks, with all their dependencies—is most instructive. It fills us +with admiration for the learning and judgment of the monkish builders +who, accepting the limitations imposed by climate, locality, material, +the numbers of their inmates, and the resources of their order, turned +them all to account as elements of beauty and harmony.

+ +

The architects of the first abbeys undoubtedly adopted the +constructive methods of the period, and built in the Latin, Roman, +or Gallo-Roman manner. The double gateway of the Abbey of Cluny, the +architect of which was probably Gauzon, sometime Abbot of Beaune, +who laid the foundations of the famous monastery, is an interesting +proof of this assertion. But monastic architecture underwent the same +modifications to which ecclesiastical architecture[216] had been subjected +under those various influences which manifested themselves in the +glorious monuments built from the eleventh to the thirteenth century, +when Gothic architecture reached its apogee.

+ +

The abbots of the many abbeys of various orders built throughout +this period were too enlightened to disregard the progress of their +contemporaries, and they promptly applied the new principles to the +construction or embellishment of their monasteries.

+ +
+ +

133. ABBEY OF CLUNY. GATEWAY

+
+ +

The Abbey of Cluny was founded in 909 by William, Duke of Aquitaine, +and declared independent by Pope John XI., who in 932 confirmed +the duke's charter. Its rapid development and growth in power is +sufficiently explained by the social and political circumstances of +its origin. At the begin[217]ning of the tenth century Norman invasions +and feudal excesses had destroyed the work of Charlemagne. Western +Christendom seemed to lapse into barbarism after the havoc made by +the Saracens and Northern pirates among towns and monasteries. Civil +society and religious institutions had alike fallen into the decay +born of a conflict of rights and a contempt of all authority.

+ +

Cluny rapidly became a centre round which all the intelligence which +had escaped submersion in the chaos of the ninth century grouped +itself. Its school soon attained a distinction equal to that which +marked the first great seats of learning at the beginning of the +Middle Ages. Thanks to the Rule of St. Benedict, on which the +Benedictines of Cluny had grounded their community, the abbey +developed greatly in extent and wealth. Throughout the eleventh and +twelfth centuries it seems to have been the prolific nursery-ground +whence Europe drew not only teachers for other monastic schools, +but specialists in every branch of science and of letters, notably +architects, who aided in the expansion of Cluny and its dependencies, +and further practically contributed to the construction of the +numerous abbeys founded by the Benedictines throughout Western Europe, +and even in the East, the cradle of Christianity.

+ +

While this struggle of intelligence against ignorance was in progress, +a social revolution had accomplished itself by the enfranchisement of +the communes, a development of the utmost importance in its relation +to science, art, and material existence, in a word, to the whole +social system.

+ +

[218]

+ +

Architecture, that faithful expression of the social state which had +its origin in Pagan civilisation, became Christianised by its culture +in the abbeys, and in its new development rose to that pre-eminence +the marvels of which we have already studied in the first part of this +work. But though the successes achieved by the architecture of this +period were rapid and dazzling, its decadence was profound, for it was +induced by too radical an emancipation from antique principles, the +superiority of which had been established in the first centuries of +the Middle Ages.

+ +

The Abbey of Cluny soon became too small for the increasing number of +monks. St. Hugh undertook its reconstruction in the closing years of +the eleventh century, and the monk Gauzon of Cluny began the works in +1089 on a much more extensive plan, indeed on a scale so magnificent +that the church of the new abbey was esteemed the first in importance +among Western buildings of the kind.

+ +

The plan (Fig. 134) shows the arrangement of the abbey at the close +of the eleventh century, when the monastic buildings had been +reconstructed some time previously. The ancient church was intact; the +choir had been begun in the time of St. Hugh, but the building had not +been consecrated till 1131. The chapel which precedes it on the west +was completed so late as 1228 by Roland I., twentieth abbot of Cluny.

+ +
+ +

134. ABBEY OF CLUNY. PLAN

+
+ +

At A on the plan stood the entrance, the Gallo-Roman gateway which +still exists. At B, in front of the church, a flight of steps led +up to a square platform, from which rose a stone cross; a flight of +broad steps gave access to the chapel entrance at C,[219] an open space +between two square towers. The northern tower was built to receive the +archives; that on the south was known as the Tower of Justice. The +ante-church or narthex at D seems to have been set apart for strangers +and penitents, who were not[220] allowed to enter the main building. Their +place of worship was distinct from the abbey church, just as their +lodging was separated from the buildings reserved for the brotherhood, +who were permitted no intercourse with the outer world. At E was the +door of the abbey church, which was only opened to admit some great +personage whose exceptional privilege it was to enter the sanctuary.

+ +

At Cluny, as at Vzelay, one of the dependencies of Cluny, the +Galilee, which is found in all Benedictine abbeys, was built +with aisles and towers on the same scale as an ordinary church. +It communicated with the buildings set apart for guests over the +storehouses of the abbey to the west of the cloister at F on the +plan. From the Galilee access to the abbey church was obtained at +E, by means of a single doorway, which from descriptions seems to +have resembled the great door of the monastery church at Moissac in +arrangement and decoration.

+ +
+ +

135. ABBEY OF CLUNY. INTERIOR OF NARTHEX, WITH DOOR +LEADING INTO ABBEY CHURCH

+
+ +

The special characteristic of the Abbey Church of Cluny is its double +transept, an arrangement we shall find reproduced in the great abbey +churches of England, notably at Lincoln. According to a description +written in the last century, the Abbey Church of Cluny was 410 feet +long. It was built in the form of an archiepiscopal cross, and had +two transepts: the first nearly 200 feet long by 30 feet wide; the +second, 110 feet long and wider than the first. The basilica, 110 +feet in width, was divided into five aisles, with semi-circular +vaults supported on sixty-eight piers. Over three hundred narrow +round-headed windows, high up the wall, transmitted the dim light that +favours meditation. The high altar was[221]
[222] placed immediately beyond the +second transept at G, and the retro-choir and altar at H. The choir, +which had two rood screens, occupied about a third of the nave. It +contained two hundred and twenty-five stalls for the monks, and in +the fifteenth century was hung with magnificent tapestries. A number +of altars dedicated to various saints were placed against the screens +and the piers of nave and side aisles. At a later period chapels were +constructed along the aisles and on the eastern sides of the two +transepts.

+ +

Above the principal transept rose three towers roofed with slate; the +central, or lantern tower was known as the lamp tower, because from +the vaults of the crossing below it were suspended lamps, or coronas +of lights which were kept burning day and night over the high altar.

+ +

To the south of the abbey, at F on the plan, was a great enclosure, +surrounded by a cloister, some vestiges of which still remain. K and +L mark the site of the abbatial buildings which were restored in the +fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; M and N the structures raised last +century over the primitive foundations. To the east lay the gardens +and the great fish-ponds which still exist, with portions of their +enclosures. Another surviving fragment is a building of the thirteenth +century, said to be the bakery, and marked O on the plan.

+ +

The abbots who succeeded St. Hugh were unable to preserve the +primitive conditions of the foundation. The excessive luxury resulting +from over-prosperity brought about demoralisation, and by the end of +the eleventh century discord was rife at Cluny.

+ +

Peter the Venerable, who was elected abbot in 1112, restored order +for a time, and established a chapter general, consisting of two +hundred priors[223] and over twelve hundred other monks. In 1158, at the +time of Peter's death, these numbers had increased by more than four +hundred, and the order had founded monasteries in the Holy Land and at +Constantinople.

+ +

The Abbey of Citeaux.—The reform of the +Benedictine orders became a pressing necessity, and St. Robert, Abbot +of Solesmes, entered upon the task about 1098. St. Bernard continued +it, after having quitted his abbey, with twenty-one monks of the +order, to take refuge in the forest of Citeaux, given him by Don +Reynard, Vicomte of Beaune. His main achievement was reorganisation +of such a nature as to deal effectually with the decay of primitive +simplicity throughout the order, which had completely lost touch with +monastic sentiment.

+ +

"Frequent intercourse with the outside world had demoralised the +monks, who attracted within their cloister walls crowds of sightseers, +guests, and pilgrims. The monasteries which, down to the eleventh +century, were either built in the towns, or had become centres of +population in consequence of the Norman and Saracen invasions, +retained their character of religious seclusion only for a certain +number of monks, who devoted themselves to intellectual labours. +Besides which, the brethren had become feudal lords, holding +jurisdiction side by side with the bishops, and St. Germain-des-Prs, +St. Denis, St. Martin, Vendme, and Moissac owned no over-lordships +but that of the Pope. Hence arose temporal cares, disputes, and even +armed conflicts, among them. The greed and vanity of the abbots at +least, if not of their monks, made itself[224] felt even in religious +worship, and in the buildings consecrated thereto."[46]

+ +
+ +

[46] Anthyme St. Paul, Histoire Monumentale de la France.

+ +

St. Bernard, in an address to the monks of his day, reproves their +degeneracy, and censures the exaggerated dimensions of the abbey +churches, the splendour of their ornamentation, and the luxury of +the abbots. O vanity of vanities! he exclaims, and folly great as +vanity! The Church is bedecked in her walls, but naked in her poor! +She overlays her stones with gold, and leaves her children without +raiment! The curious are given distractions, and the miserable lack +bread! It was to suppress such abuses that the Cistercian order was +founded by St. Robert and St. Bernard, and also to put an end to +the disputes arising from ecclesiastical jurisdiction by making the +new abbeys dependencies of the bishoprics. They were to be built in +solitary places, "and to nourish their inmates by agriculture. It +was forbidden to found them over the tombs of saints, for fear of +attracting pilgrims, who would bring worldly distractions in their +train. The buildings themselves were to be solid, and built of good +freestone, but without any sort of extraneous ornament; the only +towers allowed were small belfries, sometimes of stone, but more +usually of wood."[47]

+ +
+ +

[47] Ibid.

+ +

The Cistercian order was founded in 1119, and St. Robert imposed +the Rule of St. Benedict in its primitive severity. To mark his +separation from the degenerate Benedictines, whose dress was black, he +gave his monks a brown habit. After determining their religious duties +he gave minute[225] instructions as to the arrangement of the buildings. +The condition chiefly insisted upon was that the site of the monastery +should be of such extent and so ordered that the necessaries of life +could be provided within its precincts. Thus all causes of distraction +through communication with the outside world were removed. The +monasteries, whenever possible, were to be built beside a stream or +river; they were to contain, independently of the claustral buildings, +the church and the abbot's dwelling, which was outside the principal +enclosure, a mill, a bakehouse, and workshops for the manufacture of +all things requisite to the community, besides gardens for the use and +pleasure of the monks.

+ +

The Abbey of Clairvaux was an embodiment of the reforms brought about +by St. Robert, and later by St. Bernard. The general arrangement and +the details of service were almost identical with those of Citeaux, +just as Citeaux itself had been modelled upon Cluny in all respects, +save that a severe observance of the primitive Benedictine rule +was insisted upon in the disposition of the later foundation. All +superfluities were proscribed, and the rules which enjoined absolute +seclusion as a means towards moral perfection were sternly enforced.

+ +

The result is undoubtedly interesting as a religious revival; but we +may be permitted to regret that the intellectual impetus given to art +progress by the great Benedictine lords spiritual of Cluny should have +been checked by the frigid utilitarianism to which architecture—then +an epitome of all the arts—was reduced by the purists of Citeaux in +its application to the monasteries of the reform.

+ +

[226]

+ +

The Cistercian monuments are not, however, wanting in interest.

+ +

Of Clairvaux and Citeaux little remains but fragments embedded in +a mass of modern buildings, for the most part restorations of the +last century. As records these are less to be relied upon than the +historical and archological documents which guided Viollet-le-Duc +in his graphic reconstruction of famous Cistercian abbeys, an essay +not to be bettered as a piece of lucid demonstration (see his +Dictionary, vol. i. pp. 263-271).

+ +
+ +
+ +

[227]

+ +

CHAPTER III
+ +ABBEYS AND CARTHUSIAN MONASTERIES

+ +

In the eleventh century a large number of monasteries had been built +throughout Western Europe by monks of various orders, in imitation +of the great monastic schools of Lrins, Ireland, and Monte Casino. +Among the famous abbeys of this period may be mentioned "Vzelay and +Fcamp, sometime convents for women, afterwards converted into abbeys +for men; St. Nicaise, at Rheims; Nogent-sous-Coucy, in Picardy; Anchin +and Annouain, in Artois; St. tienne, at Caen; St. Pierre-sur-Dives, +Le Bec, Conches, Cerisy-la-Fort,[48] and Lessay, in Normandy; La +Trinit, at Vendme; Beaulieu, near Loches; Montierneuf, at Poitiers, +etc."[49]

+ +
+ +

[48] L'Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer, chap. iii. +part ii.

+ +
+ +

[49] Anthyme St. Paul, Histoire Monumentale de la France.

+ +

The Abbeys of Fulda, in Hesse, and of Corvey, in Westphalia, the +latter founded by Benedictine monks from the Abbey of Corbie, in +Picardy, were in their day the chief centres of learning in Germany.

+ +

In England St. Alban's Abbey, in Hertfordshire, was built in 1077 by a +disciple of Lanfranc, the illustrious abbot of the famous Abbey of Le +Bec, in Normandy. A large number of monasteries were[228]
[229] founded later +on by various orders, notably the Benedictines—Croyland, Malmesbury, +Bury St. Edmund's, Peterborough, Salisbury, Wimborne, Wearmouth, +Westminster, etc., not to mention the abbeys and priories which had +existed in Ireland from the sixth century.

+ +
+ +

136. ABBEY OF ST. TIENNE AT CAEN. FAADE

+
+ +

The mother abbey of Citeaux gave birth to four daughters—Clairvaux, +Pontigny, Morimond, and La Fert.

+ +

The importance of Clairvaux was much increased in the first years +of the twelfth century by the fame of her abbot, St. Bernard, that +most brilliant embodiment of medival monasticism. His influence was +immense, not alone in his character of reformer and founder of an +important order, but as a statesman whom fortune persistently favoured +in all enterprises tending to the increase of his great reputation.

+ +

St. Bernard distinguished himself in the theological controversies +of his century at the Council of Sens in 1140, and in successful +polemical disputations with Ablard, the famous advocate of free will, +and other heterodox philosophers who heralded the Reformation of the +sixteenth century. Somewhat later he took an active part in promoting +the hapless second Crusade under Louis VII., and in 1147, a few years +before his death, he entered vigorously into the Manichan controversy +as a strenuous opponent of the heresy which was then agitating the +public mind and preparing the way for the schism which, at the +beginning of the thirteenth century, brought about the terrible war of +the Albigenses, and steeped Southern France in blood.

+ +

The monastic fame of St. Bernard was established[230] not only by the +searching reforms he instituted at Clairvaux among the seceding monks +of Cluny and Solesmes, but by the success of the Cistercian colonies +he planted in Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Denmark, to the number of +seventy-two, according to his historians.

+ +
+ +

137. ST. ALBAN'S ABBEY (ENGLAND)

+
+ +
+ +

138. ABBEY OF MONTMAJOUR (PROVENCE). CLOISTERS

+
+ +

During his lifetime the poor hermitage of the Valle d'Absinthe +(which name he changed to Claire-Valle, Clairvaux) had become a vast +feudal settlement of many farms and holdings, rich enough to support +more than seven hundred monks. The monastery was surrounded by walls +more than half a league in extent, and the abbot's domicile had become +a seignorial mansion. As the fount of the order, and mother of all +the auxiliary houses, Clairvaux was supreme over a hundred and sixty +monasteries in France and abroad. Fifty years after the death of St. +Bernard the importance of the order[231]
[232] had become colossal. During +the thirteenth century, and from that time onwards, the Cistercian +or Bernardine monks built immense abbeys, and decorated them with +royal magnificence. Their establishments contained churches equal in +dimension to the largest cathedrals of the period, abbatial dwellings +adorned with paintings, and boasting oratories which, as at Chalis, +were Stes. Chapelles as splendid as that of St. Louis in Paris. The +very cellars held works of art in the shape of huge casks elaborately +carved.

+ +
+ +

139. CHURCH AT ELNE IN ROUSSILLON. CLOISTERS

+
+ +

Thus, by a strange recurrence of conditions, the settlements founded +on a basis of the most rigorous austerity by the ascetics who had +fled from the splendours of Solesmes and Cluny to the forest,[233] became +in their turn vaster, richer, and more sumptuous than those the +magnificence of which they existed to rebuke. With this difference, +however: the ruin brought about by the luxury of the Cistercian +establishment was so complete that nothing of their innumerable +monasteries was spared by social revolution but a few archologic +fragments and historic memories.

+ +
+ +

140. ABBEY OF FONTFROIDE (LANGUEDOC). CLOISTERS

+
+ +

The influence of the Cistercian foundation extended to various +countries of Europe. It was manifested in Spain, at the great Abbey of +Alcobaco, in Estramadura, said to have been built by monkish envoys +of St. Bernard; in Sicily, in the rich architectural detail of the +Abbey of Monreale; and in Germany, in the foundation of such abbeys +as those of Altenberg in Westphalia, and Maulbronn in[234] Wurtemberg. In +1133 Everard, Count of Berg, invited monks of Citeaux to settle in +his dominions, and in 1145 they founded a magnificent abbey on the +banks of the Dheen, which was held by the Cistercian order down to the +period of the Revolution, when it shared the fate of other religious +houses.

+ +

The Cistercian Abbey of Maulbronn is the best preserved of those +which owed their origin to St. Bernard throughout the twelfth and +thirteenth centuries. The abbey church, the cloister, the refectory, +the chapter-house, the cellars, the storerooms, the barns, and the +abbot's lodging, the latter united to the other buildings by a covered +gallery, still exist in their original condition. More manifestly +even than Altenberg does the Abbey of Maulbronn prove that simplicity +marked the proceedings of the Benedictines during the first years +of the twelfth century, under the rule or influence of St. Bernard. +From this period onward Cistercian brotherhoods multiplied with great +rapidity in the provinces which were to form modern France.

+ +

In the Ile-de-France the ruins of Ourscamp, near Noyon, of Chalis, +near Senlis, of Longpont and of Vaux-de-Cernay, near Paris, bear +witness to the monumental grandeur of once famous and important +abbeys. The monasteries and priories of the twelfth century are +numerous in Provence; we may name Snanque, Silvacane, Thoronet, and +Montmajour, near Arles, at the extremity of the valley of Les Baux. +Among the abbeys founded in the thirteenth century were Royaumont, +in the Ile-de-France; Vaucelles, near Cambrai; Preuilly-en-Brie; +La Trappe, in Le[235] Perche; Breuil-Benot, Mortemer, and Bonport, in +Normandy; Boschaud, in Prigord; l'Escale-Dieu, in Bigorre; Les +Feuillants, Nizors, and Bonnefont, in Comminges; Granselve and +Baulbonne, near Toulouse; Floran, Valmagne, and Fontfroide, in +Languedoc; Fontenay, in Burgundy, etc.

+ +
+ +

141. CISTERCIAN ABBEY OF MAULBRONN (WURTEMBERG). PLAN

+
+ +

Towards the close of the eleventh and the beginning of the twelfth +century other fraternities had been formed in the same spirit as +that of Citeaux; "in the first rank of these was the Order of the +Premonstrants, so named from the mother abbey founded in 1119 by St. +Norbert at Prmontr, near Coucy."[50]

+ +
+ +

[50] Anthyme St. Paul, Histoire Monumentale de la France.

+ +

[236]

+ +

To this order the monastery of St. Martin at[237] Laon, and others in +Champagne, Artois, Brittany, and Normandy owed their origin.

+ +
+ +

142. ABBEY OF FONTEVRAULT. KITCHEN

+
+ +
+ +

143. CATHEDRAL OF PUY-EN-VELAY. CLOISTERS

+
+ +

In the early part of the twelfth century Robert d'Arbrisselles founded +several double monasteries for men and women, on the model of those +built in Spain in the ninth century; that of Fontevrault was not +more successful as a monastic experiment than the rest, but it gave +rise to a number of superb buildings. The abbey itself contributed +in no slight degree to the progress of architecture, which developed +in Anjou at the dawn of the twelfth century, and manifested itself +principally at Angers in works the supreme importance of which we have +dwelt upon in the early part of this volume.

+ +

[238]

+ +

The episcopal churches also owned claustral buildings for the +accommodation of the cathedral clergy who lived together in +communities according to the ancient usage which obtained down to the +fifteenth century. The Cathedrals of Aix, Arles, and Cavaillon, in +Provence, of Elne, in Roussillon, of Puy, in Velay, of St. Bertrand, +in Comminges, still preserve their cloisters of the twelfth century.

+ +

The Abbey of La Chaise Dieu, in Auvergne, founded in the eleventh +century, was one of the monastic schools which rose to great +importance, mainly through the talents of its monkish architect and +sculptor, Guinamaud, who established its reputation as an art centre. +By the close of the twelfth century La Chaise Dieu was turning out +proficients in sculpture, painting, and goldsmith's work.

+ +

The buildings of La Chaise Dieu were reconstructed in the thirteenth +and fourteenth centuries.

+ +

The order of preaching friars, founded by St. Dominic in the early +part of the thirteenth century, is noted rather for its intellectual +than for its architectural achievements; the fame of the Dominicans +rests upon their preaching and writings, not upon the number or +magnificence of their monasteries.

+ +

About the same period St. Francis of Assisi founded the order of minor +friars, who professed absolute poverty—a profession which, however, +did not prevent their becoming richer at last than their forerunners. +These two orders—preaching and mendicant friars, apparently formed +in protest against the supremacy of the Benedictines—were strongly +supported by St. Louis, who also protected other[239] orders, such as the +Augustinians and Carmelites, by way of balancing the power of the +Clunisians and Cistercians.

+ +
+ +

144. ABBEY OF LA CHAISE DIEU (AUVERGNE). CLOISTERS

+
+ +

To the preaching friars St. Louis granted the site of the Church of +St. Jacques, in the Rue St. Jacques, Paris—whence the name Jacobin +as applied to monks of the Dominican order,—and here they built in +1221 the Jacobin monastery, the church of which, like those of Agen +and Toulouse, has the double nave peculiar to the churches of the +preaching friars.

+ +

From the thirteenth century onwards the arrangement of the abbeys +diverges more and more from[240] the Benedictine system in the direction +of secular models. The daily life of the abbots had come to +differ but little from that of the laymen of their time, and as a +natural consequence, monastic architecture lost its distinguishing +characteristics.

+ +

The Rule of the Carthusian Order, founded towards the close of the +eleventh century by St. Bruno, was of such extreme austerity, and +was so persistently adhered to down to the fifteenth century, at +least, that we need not wonder to find no vestiges of buildings +erected by this community contemporaneously with those of other great +foundations. The Carthusians clung longer than any of their brethren +to the vows of poverty and humility which obliged them to live like +anchorites, though dwelling under one roof. Far from living in common, +on the cenobitic method, after the manner of the Benedictines and +Cistercians, they maintained the cellular system in all its severity. +Absolute silence further aggravated the complete isolation which +encouraged them to scorn all that might alleviate or modify the +rigours of their religious duties.

+ +

In time, however, the Carthusians relaxed something of this extreme +asceticism in their monastic buildings, if not in their religious +observances. Towards the fifteenth century they did homage to art by +the construction of monasteries which, though falling short of the +Cistercian monuments in magnificence, are of much interest from their +peculiarities of arrangement.

+ +

The ordinary buildings comprised the gate-house, giving access by a +single door to the courtyard of the monastery, where stood the church, +the prior's[241] lodging, the hostelry for guests and pilgrims, the +laundry, the bakehouse, the cattle sheds, storerooms, and dovecote. +The church communicated with an interior cloister, giving access to +the chapter-house and refectory, which latter were only open to the +monks at certain annual festivals. The typical feature of St. Bruno's +more characteristic monasteries is the great cloister, on the true +Carthusian model—that is to say, rectangular in form, and surrounded +by an arcade, on which the cells of the monks open. Each of these +cells was a little self-contained habitation, and had its own garden. +The door of each cell was provided with a wicket, through which a lay +brother passed the slender meal of the Carthusian who was forbidden to +communicate with his fellows.

+ +

The Rule of St. Bruno, as is commonly known, enjoins the life of an +anchorite; the Carthusian must work, eat, and drink in solitude; +speech is interdicted; on meeting, the brethren are commanded to +salute each other in silence; they assemble only in church for certain +services prescribed by the Rule, and their meals, none too numerous at +any time, were only taken in common on certain days in the year.

+ +

The severity of these conditions explains the extreme austerity of +Carthusian architecture. It had, as we have already said, no real +development until the fifteenth century, and then only as regards +certain portions of the monastery, such as the church and its +cloister, which were in strong contrast with the compulsory bareness +of the great cloister of the monks.

+ +

[242]

+ +

The ancient Chartreuse of Villefranche de Rouergue, either built +or reconstructed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, still +preserves some remarkable features. The plan, and the bird's-eye view +(Figs. 145 and 146) from L'Encyclopdie de l'Architecture et de la +Construction, gives an exact idea of the monastery. Some of the cells +are still intact, also the refectory, and certain other portions of +the primitive structure.

+ +
+ +

145. CHARTREUSE OF VILLEFRANCHE DE ROUERGUE. PLAN

+
+ +

In spite of the rigidity of the Rule of St. Bruno certain +foundations of his order became famous, notably the monastery +established by the Carthusians on the invitation of St. Louis in the +celebrated castle of Vauvert, beyond the walls of Paris, near the +Route d'Issy. The castle was regarded with terror by the[243] Parisians, +who declared it to be haunted by the devil, whence the popular +expression: aller au diable Vauvert, which later was corrupted +into aller au diable au vert. The Carthusians, nevertheless, took +up their quarters in the stronghold, and enriched it with a splendid +church built by Pierre de Montereau, the foundation stone of which +was laid by St. Louis in 1260. The Chartreuse of Vauvert developed[244] +greatly, and became one of the most famous of the order. It was in +the lesser cloister of this monastery that the artist Eustache Le +Sueur painted his famous frescoes from the life of St. Bruno in the +beginning of the seventeenth century.

+ +
+ +

146. CHARTREUSE OF VILLEFRANCHE DE ROUERGUE. +BIRD'S-EYE VIEW

+
+ +
+ +

147. GRANDE CHARTREUSE. THE GREAT CLOISTER

+
+ +

[245]

+ +

The most famous Carthusian monasteries of Italy are those of Florence, +which dates from the middle of the fourteenth century, and is +attributed in part to Orcagna, and of Pavia, founded at the close of +the fourteenth century by Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti.

+ +
+ +

148. GRANDE CHARTREUSE. GENERAL VIEW

+
+ +

The French Carthusian monasteries of greatest interest after Vauvert, +which had the special advantage of royal protection, are those of +Clermont, in Auvergne, Villefranche de Rouergue (Figs. 145 and 146), +Villeneuve-lez-Avignon, and Montrieux, in Var. The Chartreuse of +Dijon is one of the most ancient, not only as to its buildings, which +are the work of the Duke of Burgundy's architects, but in respect of +its famous sculptures of the tomb of Philip the Bold, and his wife, +Margaret of Flanders, and those[246] of the Well of Moses, carved by the +Burgundian brothers, Claux Suter, who flourished at the close of the +fourteenth century, and had much to do with the revival of art at that +period.[51]

+ +
+ +

[51] See Part I., "Sculpture."

+ +

But the most imposing of all, and the most famous, if not the most +beautiful, is that in the mountains near Grenoble, universally known +as La Grande Chartreuse.

+ +

The original monastery is said to have been founded by St. Bruno. It +consisted merely of a humble chapel and a few isolated cells, which +are supposed to have occupied the site in the Desert, on which the +Chapels of St. Bruno and St. Mary now stand. The existing buildings +were reconstructed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in the +manner of the day, of which the arcades of the great cloister are good +examples. The present church, which is extremely simple in design, has +preserved nothing of its sixteenth-century decoration but the choir +stalls. The great cloister consists of an arcaded gallery, on which +the sixty cells of the monks open. It is arranged in strict accordance +with the Rule of St. Bruno as regards its connection with the main +buildings, the chief features of which we have already pointed out.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[247]

+ +

CHAPTER IV
+ +FORTIFIED ABBEYS

+ +

The monasteries built throughout the twelfth century were provided +with outer walls, by means of which the claustral buildings, offices, +workshops, and even farms of the community were enclosed. Thus all +the necessaries of life were produced within the precincts, and all +communication with the outside world was avoided.

+ +

But by the end of the century the great abbeys had become feudal +castles; and fortified walls were raised around them, often embracing +the town which had grown up under their protection and shared their +fortunes. This was the case at Cluny, and the town acknowledged its +obligations to the monks by the payment of tithes.

+ +

In the reign of Philip Augustus and St. Louis the abbots were not +only the heads of their monasteries but feudal chieftains, vassals +of the royal power, and as such obliged to furnish the sovereign +with men-at-arms in time of war, and to maintain a garrison when +required.[52]

+ +
+ +

[52] See Part III., "Military Architecture," Abbey of Mont +St. Michel.

+ +

[248]

+ +

The Abbey of Tournus was, like Cluny, surrounded by walls connected +with the city ramparts.

+ +

The Abbey of St. Allyre, in Auvergne, near Clermont, was defended +by walls and towers, which seem to have been added to the original +structure of the ninth century at some period during the thirteenth, +when such fortification of religious houses became necessary.

+ +
+ +

149. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GENERAL VIEW FROM THE +ROCKS OF COUESNON, TAKEN IN 1878, BEFORE THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE DYKE

+
+ +

In many other monasteries a system of defence more or less elaborate +was adopted; but the most famous of all the abbeys built by the +Benedictines was unquestionably Mont St. Michel, which, for boldness +and grandeur of design, is unique among military and monastic +monuments from the eleventh to the close of the fifteenth century.

+ +
+ +

150. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF THE +GUARD-ROOM, ALMONRY, AND CELLAR

+

Key to Plan.—A. Tower known as the Tour Claudine. Ramparts. +B. Barbican. Entrance to the abbey. B′. Ruin of the stairway +known as the Grand Degr. C. Gate-house. D. Guard-room known +as Bellechaise. E. Tower known as the Tour Perrine. F. +Steward's lodging and Bailey. G. Abbot's lodging. G′. Abbatial +buildings. G′. Chapel of St. Catherine. H. Courtyard of the +church, great stairway. I. Courtyard of the Merveille. J, +K. Almonry, cellar (of the Merveille). L. Formerly the +abbatial buildings. M. Gallery or crypt known as the Galerie +de l'Aquilon (of the North Wind). N. Hostelry (Robert de +Thorigni). O. Passages connecting the abbey with the hostelry. +P, P′. Prison and dungeon. R, S. Staircase. T. Modern wall of +abutment. U. Garden, terraces, and covered way. V. Body of rock.

+
+ +
+ +

151. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF +THE LOWER CHURCH, THE REFECTORY, AND THE CHAPTER-HOUSE, OR KNIGHTS' +HALL.

+

Key to Plan.—A. Lower church. B, B′. +Chapels beneath the transepts. C. Substructure of Romanesque +nave. C, C′, and C″. Charnel-house or burying-place of the +monks, and substructure of south platform. D. Formerly the +cistern. E. Formerly the claustral buildings. Refectory. F. +Formerly the cloister or ambulatory. G. Passage communicating +with the hostelry. H, I. Hostelry and offices (Robert de +Thorigni). J. Chapel of hostelry (St. tienne). K, K′, L, M. +Refectory. Tower known as the Tour des Corbins (Tower of +Crows). Chapter-house, or hall of the knights, Galilee or +narthex (Merveille). N. Hall of the military executive, or +hall of the officers. O. Tower known as the Tour Perrine. P. +Battlements of the gate-house. Q. Courtyard of the Merveille. +R, S. Staircase and terrace of the apse. T. Courtyard of the +church. U. Fortified bridge connecting the lower church with +the abbey buildings. V, X. Abbot's lodging. Accommodation +for guests. Y, Y′. Cisterns of the fifteenth and sixteenth +centuries. Z. Body of rock.

+
+ +

The Abbey of Mont St. Michel was founded in 708 by St. Aubert, +according to tradition. At the[249]
[250]
[251] close of the tenth century it was +restored by Richard Sans Peur, third Duke of Normandy, with the help +of the Benedictine monks from Monte Casino, whom he had installed at +St. Michel in 966. It increased greatly in wealth and extent in the +eleventh century, and by the end of the twelfth was in the full tide +of its prosperity. Its buildings, however had not yet that importance +to which they attained in the following century.[53] In the twelfth +century they consisted of the church, which was built between 1020 +and 1135[54] and the monastic buildings proper (lieux rguliers), +with lodgings for servants and guests to the north of the nave, at +G, G, and F on the plan, Fig. 152. To these, which were restored +or reconstructed in a great measure by the Abbot Roger II. at the +beginning of the twelfth century, additions were made on the south and +south-east by Robert de Thorigni from 1154 to 1186.

+ +

The monastery was not then fortified.

+ +
+ +

[53] Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel, by Ed. +Corroyer; Paris, 1877. This work was crowned by the Institute in 1879, +at the Concours des Antiquits Nationales.

+ +
+ +

[54] See L'Architecture Romane, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, +Maison Quantin, 1888.

+ +

[252]

+ +
+ +

152. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. PLAN AT THE LEVEL OF THE +UPPER CHURCH, THE CLOISTERS, AND THE DORMITORY

+

Key to Plan.—A, A, A. Church, choir, and transepts. B, +B, B. Three first bays of nave, destroyed in 1776. C, C, +C. Towers and porch (Robert de Thorigni). D. Tomb of Robert +de Thorigni. E. Formerly the terrace in front of the church. +F. Formerly the chapter-house. G, G. Formerly the claustral +buildings. Dormitory. H. Platform at the southern entrance +of the church. I. Ruin of the hostelry (Robert de Thorigni). +J. Infirmary. K. Dormitories of the thirteenth century +(Merveille). K. Tower, known as the Tour des Corbins +(thirteenth century, Merveille). L, L. Cloister and archives +(thirteenth century, Merveille). M. Vestry (thirteenth +century, Merveille). N. Abbot's lodging. O. Accommodation for +guests. P. Courtyard of the Merveille. P. Terrace of the +apse. Q. Courtyard of the church and great staircase.

+
+ +

[253]

+ +

Built on the summit of a rock, the impregnable steepness of which +provided a natural rampart north and west, it depended solely upon +the advantages of its position for defence. Its situation in the +midst of a treacherous sandy plain—a position which gave rise to the +medival name, Le Mont St. Michel au Pril de la Mer—secured it +against attempts at investiture, and even to a great extent against +sudden assaults. Enclosures of stone or wooden fences surrounded it at +those points on the east where the less rugged nature of the surface +rendered access comparatively easy, and where stood the entrance, +with the various habitations which had grouped themselves round it. +The so-called town had been founded in the tenth century by a few +families decimated by the Normans, in their raids upon Avranches and +its neighbourhood after the death of Charlemagne. In the thirteenth +century it consisted of a small number of houses which, by[254] way of +security against the vagaries of the sea, were built upon the highest +point of the rock to the east.

+ +

In 1203 the greater part of the abbey, the church excepted, was +destroyed during the wars between Philip Augustus, King of France, and +John, King of England.

+ +

Historic records prove conclusively that the abbey had no defensive +works properly so-called in the twelfth and early part of the +thirteenth century.

+ +

From this period onwards abbeys, more especially those of the +Benedictine orders, were transformed into regular fortresses capable +of sustaining a siege. The abbots, in their character of feudal lords, +fortified their monasteries to ensure them against disasters such as +had marked the early years of the thirteenth century. Mont St. Michel +is one of the most curious examples of such fortification.

+ +

The original architects of the abbey seem to have been unwilling to +diminish the height of the mount by levelling. Resolving to detract in +no degree from the majesty of so splendid a base for[255] their church, +they set about their work on the same principle as the pyramid +builders. Our illustrations show how the buildings were raised partly +on plateaux circumscribing the apex of the mount, partly on that apex +itself. The result is that the monastery, as we see it, has a core of +rock rising at its highest point to the very floor of the church. The +ring of lower stories rests upon walls of great thickness, and upon +piers united by vaults, the whole forming a substructure of perfect +solidity.

+ +

The section made through the transept (Fig. 153) gives an exact idea +of the portion which dates from the eleventh and twelfth centuries, +and of the buildings which gradually grouped themselves round this +nucleus, such as the so-called Merveille (Marvel) to the north, and +the abbot's lodging to the south.

+ +
+ +

153. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. TRANSVERSE SECTION, FROM +NORTH TO SOUTH[55]

+
+ +
+ +

[55] Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de ses +Abords, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877.

+ +
+ +

154. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. LONGITUDINAL SECTION, +FROM WEST TO EAST

+
+ +

The longitudinal section (Fig. 154) shows the crypt, or lower church. +This was not, as has been frequently asserted, actually hollowed +out of the rock; it was, however, very ingeniously contrived in the +fifteenth century over the ruins of the Romanesque church in the +space between the declivity of the mount and the artificial plateau +of the earlier architects. The substructures of the Romanesque church +which were enlarged by Robert de Thorigni in the thirteenth century +are indicated in this diagram. They are of gigantic proportions, +especially towards the west.

+ +

Fig. 155 shows the so-called Galerie de l'Aquilon (Gallery of the +North Wind), one of the upper stories of the claustral buildings to +the north of the church constructed by Roger II., eleventh abbot +(1106-1122).

+ +
+ +

155. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GALERIE DE L'AQUILON +(GALLERY OF THE NORTH WIND)

+
+ +
+ +

156. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL, NORTH FRONT. GENERAL +VIEW FROM THE SEA

+
+ +
+ +

157. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. THE ALMONRY. PERSPECTIVE +VIEW LOOKING WEST. THE CELLAR BEYOND

+
+ +

After the fire of 1203, when the abbey had become a feof of the royal +domain, the Abbot[256]
[257]
[258] Jourdain and his successors rebuilt it almost +entirely, with the exception of the church.

+ +

As the peculiarities of the site made it impossible to adhere strictly +to the Benedictine system of direct communication between the main +buildings and the[259] church, the lieux rguliers, or accommodation +reserved for the monks, were disposed above the magnificent building +to the north of the church, which, from the time of its foundation, +was known as La Merveille (the Marvel).

+ +
+ +

158. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. NAMES OF THE ARCHITECTS +OR SCULPTORS OF THE CHOIR

+
+ +
+ +

159. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CELLAR. PERSPECTIVE VIEW +FROM WEST TO EAST. THE ALMONRY BEYOND

+
+ +

This vast structure fairly takes rank as the grandest example of +combined religious and military architecture of the finest medival +period.

+ +

[260]

+ +

The Merveille consists of three stories, two of which are vaulted. +The lowest contains the almonry[261] and cellar; the intermediate story +the refectory and the knights' hall; the third the dormitory and +cloister. The building consists of two wings running east and west; +the apartments are superposed as follows:—In the east wing the +almonry, the refectory, and the dormitory; in the west the cellar, the +knights' hall, and the cloister.[56]

+ +
+ +

[56] Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel et de ses +Abords, by Ed. Corroyer; Paris, 1877.

+ +

This splendid structure is built entirely of granite. It was carried +out by one continuous effort, under the inspiration of an incomparably +bold and learned design of the Abb Jourdain, to which his successors +religiously adhered.

+ +

The undertaking was entered upon in 1203 and finished in 1228, the +final achievement being the cloister, the architects or sculptors of +which are commemorated by an inscription in the spandril of one of the +arcades in the south walk.

+ +
+ +

160. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. REFECTORY

+
+ +
+ +

161. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. CHAPTER-HOUSE, CALLED +THE HALL OF THE KNIGHTS

+
+ +

To fully appreciate this stupendous monument, we must realise the +extraordinary energy which enabled its architects to complete it in +the comparatively short space of twenty-five years. We must take +into account the conditions of its growth, its situation on the very +summit of a rugged cliff, cut off from the mainland at times by +the sea, at other times by an expanse of treacherous quicksand. We +must consider the enormous difficulties of transporting materials, +seeing that all the granite used was quarried by the monks from the +neighbouring coast. It is true that an unimportant quota of the stone +was dug from the base of the rock itself. But though the passage +across the sands was by this[262] means avoided, the difficulties of +raising great masses of stone to the foot of the Merveille, the +foundations of which are over 160 feet above the sea-level, had still +to be met. It seems certain that the east and west buildings of which +the Merveille consists were built at the same time, for though +certain differences[263] are perceptible in the form of the exterior +buttresses, they evidently result from the interior formation of the +various apartments. A study of the plans, sections, and faades of the +buildings is convincing on this head, and the general arrangements, +notably that of the staircase, all point to the same conclusion.[264] This +staircase is a spiral in the thickness of the buttress which, with its +crowning octagonal turret, forms the point of junction between the two +buildings. It winds from the almonry of the eastern ground-floor to +the knights' hall on the west, passing through the dormitory of the +eastern block to terminate in the northern embattlement above.

+ +
+ + +

162. ST. MICHAEL'S MOUNT, CORNWALL

+
+ +

The eastern and northern faades of the Merveille are models of +severe and virile beauty; a massive grandeur characterises them, +especially striking and impressive in the northern front as viewed +from the sea. The vast walls of granite (the material used throughout, +save in the inner walk of the cloister) are pierced with windows +varying in shape according to the character of the rooms they light. +Those of the dormitory are very remarkable. They are long and narrow, +and affect the aspect of loopholes, deeply splayed outwards; the +peculiar form of the honeycombed window-heads suggests a reminiscence[265] +of Arab types seen by the French Crusaders in Palestine. The +thrusts of the interior vaulting are met on the exterior by massive +buttresses, the vigorous profiles of which contribute greatly to the +nobility of the general effect.

+ +

These formidable faades were practically fortifications, but the +Merveille was further defended to the north by an embattled wall, +flanked by a tower which served as a post for watchmen, to which the +covered ways running round the base of the western buildings converged.

+ +

In the middle, on a level with the north-west angle of the +Merveille, a chtelet, or miniature keep, now destroyed, guarded +the rugged passage between embattled walls which led to the Fountain +of St. Aubert, and was known as the Passage du Degr (passage of the +stairway).

+ +

The various buildings of the abbey which were added in the fourteenth +century, after the construction of the Merveille, are: the abbot's +lodging, with its offices on the south, and certain military works +which completed the defensive system. In the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries these were gradually extended to the walls of the town, as +we shall see in Part III., "Military Architecture."

+ +
+ +
+ +

[266]
[267]

+ +

PART III + +MILITARY ARCHITECTURE

+ +
+ +
+ +

[268]
[269]

+ +

CHAPTER I
+ +CIRCUMVALLATION OF TOWNS

+ +

The distinctive character of military architecture in the Middle Ages +must be sought in defensive fortification. In all other respects +its constructive methods were identical with those employed in +architectural works generally. The few ornamental features of military +buildings, as, for instance, the interior vaults and the profiles of +consoles and cornices, diverge but slightly from the accepted types of +such features in the churches, monasteries, and domestic structures of +the period.

+ +

The Latin, Roman, Gallo-Roman, Romanesque, and Gothic architects +were versed in every department of the art they practised. The same +architect was called upon to construct the church and the fortress, +the abbey, and the ramparts which were often its necessary complement, +the donjon, and castle, the town hall, the hospital, the rural +barn, and the urban dwelling. He was responsible not only for the +inception of every class and form of building, but for its successful +elaboration; on him alone the responsibility of its execution rested; +no scientific specialist checked his conclusions and verified his[270] +calculations as in our own time. The system by which the architect and +the engineer have each[271] their separate functions and responsibilities +in the construction of the same building was unknown. The builder, or +mason, as some would have him called, was an architect in the fullest +sense; he himself traced the diagrams of his conceptions, and directed +the execution of every detail, careful alike of stability and beauty.

+ +
+ +

163. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GATE-HOUSE

+
+ +

It is a curious and disheartening phenomenon that such a direct +contravention of the principles of medival art as the modern +system of divided responsibility implies, should obtain only +among the French, the very people to whom Western Europe owes its +initiation into those principles. In England, in Belgium, in Holland, +Switzerland, and Germany the architect is also the engineer; the +science and the art of his craft are inseparable. "This intimate +union of qualities gives an individuality to certain productions of +these nations which we might well lay to heart and make the subject +of serious comparative study. We must needs admit to begin with that +we ourselves have become disciples rather than pioneers in a great +movement."[57]

+ +
+ +

[57] "L'Art l'Exposition," L'Architecture, by Ed. +Corroyer; Paris. L'Illustration, for 25th May 1889.

+ +

The one preoccupation of the modern engineer seems to be the +satisfaction of imperious necessity. He is inclined to neglect all +that mathematics cannot give him. And yet he has brought about a very +sensible progress by his mathematical application of modern science. +He has unquestionably excelled in industrial masterpieces perfectly +adapted to the needs of the moment, if wanting in the[272] qualities +that make for immortality. We accept with qualified admiration +his marvellous bridges and kindred works in metal—marvellous yet +ephemeral; but we accept them merely as a temporary substitute for the +more solid if less showy stone bridges of our early architects.

+ +

We would not have the servant of yesterday the master of to-morrow. +We protest against the degradation of the architect from his high +and noble estate to the rank of a mere decorator, however skilful. +We would not witness the extinction of the ancient French traditions +which inspired so many masterpieces, and to which we look as the +source of many yet to come.

+ +

It appears, moreover, that the general acceptation of the word +ingnieur (engineer) is a totally mistaken one. It is derived from +the medival term engigneur, which was very differently applied.

+ +

The architect and the engineer of our own day are both constructors, +but with a difference. The architect loves and cultivates his art; the +engineer, with few exceptions, despises, or affects to despise, his.

+ +

In the Middle Ages their functions were perfectly distinct. The +architect constructed what the engigneur used his utmost cunning +to destroy. The architect built ramparts and strengthened them with +towers; the engigneur undermined them if attacking, or countermined +them if defending. It was his business to invent or direct the use of +engines of war, such as rams, mangonels, arblasts, and machines for +the slinging of enormous projectiles, or grenades. He constructed the +portable wooden towers which[273] the besieging party brought up against +the walls for an escalade, directed the sappers who undermined them, +and, in fact, superintended the manufacture of all such offensive +engines as were necessary in the conduct of a siege, a process +which, before the invention of firearms, necessitated preparations +as prolonged and tedious as they were complicated and uncertain. +In short, the architect was the constructor of fortifications, the +engigneur their assailant or defender. It was not until the time +of Vauban that military engineers were called upon to exercise +functions so much more extensive. At an earlier period there were, +however, specialists in construction who undertook such works as the +circumvallation of Aigues-Mortes, but their labours had little in +common with those of modern engineers.

+ +
+ +

164. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. RAMPARTS TO THE SOUTH-EAST

+
+ +

Before the feudal period the fortifications of camps consisted +either of earthworks, of walls built of mud and logs, or of +palisades surrounded by ditches, in imitation of the Roman methods +of castrametation. The enceintes of towns fortified by the Romans +were walls defended by round or square towers. These walls were built +double; a space of several yards intervened, which was filled up with +the earth dug from the moat or ditch, mixed with[274] rubble. The mass was +levelled at the top and paved to form what is technically known as a +covered way, or terrace protected by an embattled wall rising from the +outer curtain.

+ +

That portion of the enceinte of Carcassonne which was built by the +Visigoths in the sixth century is thus constructed on the Roman model. +"The ground on which the town is built rises considerably above that +beyond the walls, and is almost on a level with the rampart. The +curtains[58] are of great thickness; they are composed of two facings +of dressed stones cut into small cubes, which alternate with courses +of bricks; the intervening space is filled not with earth, but with +a concrete formed of rubble and lime."[59] The flanking towers which +rise considerably above the curtains were so disposed that it was +possible to[275] isolate them from the walls by raising drawbridges. Thus +each tower formed an independent stronghold against assailants.

+ +
+ +

[58] The wall space between the towers.

+ +
+ +

[59] Viollet-le-Duc, La Cit de Carcassonne.

+ +

Fig. 165 shows a portion of the north-west ramparts of the city of +Carcassonne, with the first round tower; to the left of the drawing is +the Romano-Visigothic tower, flanking right and left the curtains of +the same period.

+ +
+ +

165. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. NORTH-WEST RAMPARTS. +ROMANO-VISIGOTHIC TOWER (FIRST ON THE LEFT)

+
+ +

In accordance with the Roman tradition the enceinte of a town, +formed, as we have seen, of ramparts strengthened by towers, were +further defended by a citadel or keep, of which we shall have more to +say in the following chapter. This keep commanded the whole place, +which was usually situated on the slope of a hill above the bank of +a river. The bridge which communicated with the opposite bank was +fortified by a gate-house or tte de pont, to guard the passage.

+ +

The circumvallation of towns often consisted of a double enclosure, +divided by a moat. By the close of the twelfth century architects had +caught the inspiration of the great military works of the Crusaders in +the East, and military architecture had progressed on the same lines +as religious and monastic architecture.

+ +

The territories, conquered by the Crusaders in the course of +establishing the Christian supremacy in the East, had been divided +into feofs as early as the twelfth century. These soon boasted +castles, churches, and monastic foundations, of the Cistercian and +Premonstrant orders among others.

+ +

According to G. Rey, the following abbeys and priories were built in +the neighbourhood of Jerusalem[276] at this period:—The monasteries of +Mount Sion, Mount Olivet, Jehoshaphat, St. Habakkuk, and St. Samuel, +etc., and in Galilee, those of Mount Tabor and Palmare. The military +organisation was regulated by the Assises de la haute Cour (Assizes +of the Supreme Court), which determined the number of knights to be +furnished by each feof for the defence of the kingdom, and in like +manner, the number of men-at-arms required from each church and each +community of citizens.... The middle of the twelfth century was the +period at which the Christian colonies of the Holy Land were most +flourishing. Undeterred by the wars of which Syria was the theatre, +the Franks had promptly assimilated the Greek and Roman tradition as +manifested in Byzantine types of military architecture. The double +enclosure flanked by towers, one of the main features of Syrian +fortresses built by the Crusaders, was borrowed from the Greeks. +Many of their strongholds, notably Morgat, the so-called Krak of +the knights, and Tortosa, were of colossal proportions. They may be +divided into two classes. In the first, the buildings are of the +Frankish type, and seem to be modelled on the French castles of the +eleventh and twelfth centuries. The flanking towers are nearly always +round; they contain a defensive story, while their summits and those +of the intervening curtains are crowned with battlements in the French +fashion. Other features subsequently introduced were: the double +enceinte, borrowed from the Byzantines, the inner line of which +commanded the outer, and was sufficiently near to allow its defenders +to engage, should assailants have carried the first[277] barrier; +secondly, stone machicolations in place of the wooden hourds or +timber scaffoldings which were retained in France till the close of +the thirteenth century; and finally, the talus, a device by which +the thickness of the walls was tripled at the base, thus affording +increased security against the arts of the sapper and the earthquake +shocks so frequent in the East.

+ +
+ +

166. FORTRESS OF KALAAT-EL-HOSN IN SYRIA (KRAK OF THE +KNIGHTS). SECTION, AS RESTORED BY M. G. REY

+
+ +
+ +

166A. FORTRESS DE KALAAT-EL-HOSN IN SYRIA (KRAK OF THE +KNIGHTS). AS RESTORED BY M. G. REY

+
+ +

The buildings of the second class belong to the school of the Knights +Templars. Their characteristic features are the towers, invariably +square or oblong in shape, and projecting but slightly from the +curtains. The fortress of Kalaat-el-Hosn,[60] or Krak of the +knights, commanded the pass through which ran the roads from Homs +and Hamah to Tripoli and[278] Tortosa, and was a military station of +the first importance. Together with the castles of Akkar, Arcos, La +Cole, Chastel-Blanc, Areynieh, Yammour, Tortosa, and Markab, and the +various auxiliary towers and posts, it constituted a system of defence +designed to protect Tripoli from the incursions of the Mahometans, +who retained their hold on the greater part of Syria.... The Krak, +which was built under the direction of the Knights Hospitallers, has a +double enceinte, separated by a wide ditch partly filled with water. +The inner wall forms a reduct, and rising above the outer enclosure +commands its defences. It also encompasses the various dependencies of +the castle, the great hall, chapel, domestic buildings, and magazines. +A long vaulted[279] passage, easy of defence, was the only entrance to the +place. To the north and west the outer line consisted of a curtain +flanked by rounded turrets, and crowned by machicolations, which +formed a continuous scaffolding of stone along the greater part of the +enceinte.

+ +
+ +

[60] tude sur les Monuments de l'Architecture Militaire des +croiss en Syrie, by G. Rey; Paris, 1871.

+ +
+ +

167. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. PLAN (THIRTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

The action of the East upon the West was manifested in the thirteenth +and fourteenth centuries by the application to the fortification of +Carcassonne and Aigues-Mortes of methods in use among the Crusaders in +Syria.

+ +

This oriental influence is apparent at Carcassonne in the double +enceinte borrowed from Syrian fortresses.

+ +

The city of Carcassonne stands upon a plateau commanding the valley +of the Aude, the site of an[280] ancient Roman castellum. In the sixth +century it fell into the hands of the Visigoths, who fortified it. +It increased considerably in extent during the tenth, eleventh, and +twelfth centuries, but in the time of Simon de Montfort (1209) and of +Raymon de Trancavel (1240) the enceinte was not nearly so important +as it became under St. Louis. By the middle of the thirteenth century +the king had begun the construction of defensive works on a vast +scale, and built the outer enceinte, which still exists, as may +be seen on the plan (Fig. 167) taken from Viollet-le-Duc's Cit de +Carcassonne.

+ +
+ +

168. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. RAMPARTS. SOUTH-WEST ANGLE

+
+ +

The primary object of the enceinte was to secure the place against +a sudden attack during the completion or enlargement of its interior +defences. The additions of St. Louis, which were carried on by Philip +the Bold, rendered Carcassonne impregnable[281] in the general estimation. +"As a fact, it was never invested, and did not open its gates to +Edward the Black Prince till 1355, when all Languedoc had submitted to +him."[61]

+ +
+ +

[61] Viollet-le-Duc, La Cit de Carcassonne.

+ +
+ +

169. RAMPARTS OF AIGUES-MORTES, NORTH AND SOUTH

+
+ +

Oriental influences are equally evident at Aigues-Mortes. The Genoese +Guglielmo Boccanera, who constructed the enceinte, was apparently +familiar with the system of fortification adopted by the Crusaders in +Syria. The machicolations which here make their first appearance in +Languedoc (in the reign of Philip the Bold), proclaim the filiation +of Aigues-Mortes to the Syrian fortresses. Italian influences are +also perceptible in the square plan of the flanking towers. French +architects had always preferred the round tower, as more solid in +itself, and less open[282] to attack from sappers, who, in advancing +against a building of this form, were fully exposed to the missiles of +the defenders from the curtains adjoining; while, on the other hand, +the angles of the square tower gave a certain protection to assailants +advancing against its front.

+ +
+ +

170. RAMPARTS OF AVIGNON. CURTAIN, TOWERS, AND +MACHICOLATIONS

+
+ +

The ramparts of Avignon, which date from the fourteenth century, seem +to have been constructed on Italian methods. The curtains are flanked +by square towers, open towards the town, and surmounted by embattled +parapets corbelled out from the walls, and machicolated so as to +command their bases.

+ +

In the thirteenth century walls and towers were provided with movable +wooden scaffoldings, as[283] shown at A in the figure. Spaces were left +in the masonry of the walls for the insertion of wooden beams, which, +projecting from the curtain, supported an overhanging gallery. This, +being pierced with traps or apertures in the flooring, commanded +the base of the wall, and was an important element in defensive +operations. But as it was found that these timber galleries were +easily set on fire by assailants, they were replaced in the fourteenth +century by stone machicolations, as shown at B, consisting of corbels, +supporting an embattled parapet. Between the inner face of the parapet +and the outer face of the curtain the supporting corbels alternated +with openings for the defence of the base, as already described. This +arrangement, among the earliest examples of which are the square +towers of Avignon, was soon generally adopted by architects in the +construction of city ramparts.

+ +
+ +

170A. MACHICOLATIONS

+
+ +

"The art of fortification, which had made great advances at the +beginning of the thirteenth century, remained almost stationary to +the end of it. During the Hundred Years' War, however, it received a +fresh[284] impetus. When order had been restored in the kingdom, Charles +VII. set about the restoration or reconstruction of many fortresses +recaptured from the English. In the defensive works of such towns +and castles, and in various new undertakings of a like nature, +we recognise the method and regularity proper to an art based on +well-defined principles, and far advanced towards mastery."[62]

+ +
+ +

[62] Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire, vol. i.

+ +

In the Abbey of Mont St. Michel the successive modifications applied +to military enceintes from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, +are illustrated in the fullest and most interesting manner.

+ +
+ +

171. RAMPARTS OF ST. MALO (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

Of the fourteenth century fortifications, which surrounded the +original town at the summit of the rock, connecting the ramparts with +the Merveille on the north, and the abbey buildings on the south, +some fragments still remain. The tower on the north is intact. The +walls are crowned with machicolations, in accordance with the then +novel system of massing the defences at the top of the ramparts. +The gate of the enceinte was to the south-east,[285] judging from the +miniatures in the livre d'heures of Pierre II., Duke of Brittany, +which show the arrangement of the original enceinte at the close of +the fourteenth century.

+ +

The abbey was at this time governed by Pierre Le Roy, one of its +ablest abbots and most famous constructors. He rebuilt the summit of +the Tour des Corbins (merveille), restored, and re-roofed the +abbey buildings to the south of the church, which, begun by Richard +Justin in 1260, were carried on at intervals by his successors till +they were partially destroyed by the fire of 1374. He completed the +eastern defences by the addition of the square tower at O on the plan +(Fig. 151), in which he built several rooms for the accommodation of +his soldiers. The tower is known as the Tour Perrine, in memory of +its author. We have seen that the abbots gradually became great feudal +chieftains; the Abbot of Mont St. Michel was further commandant of the +place for the king; and he was empowered to bestow feofs on the nobles +of the province, who bound themselves in return to keep guard over the +mount in certain contingencies, enumerated in the following rendering +of a Latin text:—[63]

+ +
+ +

[63] Ed. Corroyer, Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. +Michel et de ses Abords.

+ +

"The tenure of these vavassories was by faith and fealty, and their +holders were bound to furnish relief and thirteen knights, each +of whom was to come in person to guard the gate of the abbey when +necessary—that is to say, in time of war; each to keep guard for +the space of the ebb and flow of the sea—that is to say, during +the rising and falling of[286] the tide; and each to be provided with +gambeson, casque, gauntlets, shield, lance, and all requisite arms; +and further to present themselves thus armed yearly at the feast of +St. Michael in September."

+ +

In the early years of the fifteenth century he built the gate-house +and crenellated curtain which connects it with the Merveille, to +the north of the guard-room, Bellechaise (see Fig. 163, beginning +of this chapter). The gate-house was placed in front of the northern +faade of Bellechaise (D, Fig. 150); an open space between this and +the south wall of the new structure formed a wide machicoulis for +the protection of the north gate (that of Bellechaise), which, by +the erection of the new building, had been transformed into a second +interior entrance. The gate-house or chtelet is a square structure, +flanked at the angles of the north front by two turrets, corbelled out +upon buttresses. In general appearance they resemble a pair of huge +mortars standing on their breeches. Between the pedestals of these +turrets was the doorway and the inclined vault over the staircase +leading to the guard-room. This entrance was defended by a portcullis +worked from within on the first story, and by three machicoulis +at the top of the curtain, between the battlements of the turrets. +For the further protection of the gate-house Pierre Le Roy built the +barbican which covers it to the east and north, and also commands +the great staircase (Grand Degr) on the north. He modified the +ramparts by the addition of the tower known as the Tour Claudine at +the north-east angle of the Merveille. In the lower story of this +tower he constructed a guard-room, the postern of which[287] communicated +with the Grand Degr, and by a series of ingenious and unique +combinations was so contrived as to command all the approaches.[64]

+ +
+ +

[64] Ed. Corroyer, Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. +Michel, etc.; Paris, 1877.

+ +
+ +

172. MONT ST. MICHEL. SOUTH FRONT (AS IT WAS IN 1875)

+
+ +

In 1411 the Abbot Robert Jolivet was nominated lord of the abbey by +Pope John XXIII. After his election by the monks he was made captain +of the garrison by the king, but continued to live in Paris. In +1416, however, he hastened to his abbey, which was threatened by the +English, who had possessed themselves of Lower Normandy after the +battle of Agincourt in 1415. Whilst the English were busy fortifying +Tombelaine, Robert Jolivet completed his walls and certain towers +round about the town, which still exist. To meet the expenses of +his undertaking the abbot obtained a grant from the king of fifteen +hundred livres from the revenues of the Viscounty of Avranches, +besides a subsidy from the Master of the Mint at St. L.

+ +
+ +

173. MONT ST. MICHEL. FORTIFICATIONS OF THE FOURTEENTH +CENTURY (AS RESTORED BY ED. CORROYER)

+
+ +

At the time when Robert Jolivet was building[288]
[289] the new ramparts, from +about 1415 to 1420, the town had greatly increased towards the south, +and even setting aside the dangerous proximity of the English at +Tombelaine, some more extensive system of defence than that afforded +by the fortifications of the fourteenth century was imperatively +needed to secure the place against attack. Robert Jolivet incorporated +his new walls on the east with those of the preceding century, which, +following the escarpments of the cliff, descend to the beach, and +are protected by the northern tower. These walls he flanked with an +additional tower projecting considerably from the surface, which was +destined to command the adjoining curtains and protect the main line +of his defences. He then carried his walls round to the south of the +rock and strengthened them by five other towers. The last of these, +known as the Tour du Roi, forms the south-eastern projection of the +place, and commands the western gate of the town.

+ +

The walls and their sloping bases are defended by stone machicolations +above, the consoles of which support open crenellated parapets. +Several of the towers were roofed, and afforded shelter for the +defenders of the ramparts. After leaving the Tour du Roi the +walls turn off at a right angle and unite themselves to the abrupt +declivities of the rock by means of a series of steps and covered +ways, commanded by a fortified guard-room. Even the inaccessible peaks +of the rock itself are fortified and connected with the defences of +the abbey on the south.

+ +

At the beginning of the fifteenth century, and still[290] more notably +towards its close, firearms had been successfully used in various +sieges, and had made such rapid progress that the whole system of +attack and defence was transformed. Towers gave way to bastions, the +terraces of which became batteries, while the battlements of the +earlier mode were replaced by epaulments. Machicolations which were +now merely a traditional decoration at last disappeared altogether, +and military science gradually took the place of architecture, for +which there was henceforth little scope in this particular field.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[291]

+ +

CHAPTER II
+ +CASTLES AND KEEPS, OR DONJONS

+ +

The first French castles of the medival period seem to have been +built for the purpose of arresting invasion and affording shelter to +communities decimated by the raids of the Normans. They consisted of +simple intrenchments more or less extensive. Surrounded by a foss +or ditch formed of earthworks, the scarp of which was defended by +a palisade, they had much in common with the camps of the ancient +Romans. In the centre of the enclosure rose the motte (mote or +mound), a conical elevation, either natural to the ground, or +artificially formed on the model of the Roman prtorium. This was +surmounted by a building, generally of wood, which served as a post of +observation and a retreat less accessible than the enceinte itself.

+ +

In these rudimentary dispositions we recognise the germ of those +feudal keeps and castles which were such important features of +medival architecture, notably during the Gothic period.

+ +
+ +

174. CASTLE OF ANGERS

+
+ +

Defensive works of this nature sprang up at various points of the +royal domain which were exposed to the incursions of the Scandinavian +pirates;[292] but the temporary concessions of Charles the Bald were +claimed as definitive by those to whom they had been made. "When, +therefore, that feeble monarch proclaimed the heredity of the feofs +at Quierzy-sur-Oise in 877, he did but sanction that which was +already an accomplished fact.... When the feudal system was firmly +established, the nobles turned their attention to the maintenance +of their usurpations alike against the kings of France, strangers, +and neighbours. To this end they carefully chose the best strategic +positions in their territories, and fortified them in the most durable +fashion at their command. The imposts they levied were considerable, +and their serfs were subject to endless exactions."[65] Stone castles +were accordingly built[293] which, in general arrangement, adhered to +primitive models. In 980 Frotaire had raised no less than five around +Prigueux, his episcopal town.

+ +
+ +

[65] Anthyme St. Paul, Histoire Monumentale de la France.

+ +

In 991 Thibault File-toupe built a fortress on the hill of Montlhry, +near the royal residences of Paris and tampes, which was very +formidable to the first five kings of the house of Capet. Later, when +it became a royal possession, it was one of the chief bulwarks of the +city.

+ +
+ +

175. CARCASSONNE; CITADEL. VIEW FROM THE NORTH-EASTERN +ANGLE. (SEE PLAN, FIG. 167)

+
+ +

In the Middle Ages the castle bore the same relation to the fortified +town as did the keep to the feudal castle, and the history of one is +bound up in that of the other.

+ +

In a fortified town the castle was the lodging of the leader and his +soldiers. It was connected with the ramparts of the place, and had one +or more[294] special outlets; it was further provided with defences on the +side of the town itself, so that upon occasion it became an isolated +stronghold.

+ +

The Castle of Carcassonne is a famous example of such offensive and +defensive fortification. It was built in the first years of the +twelfth century, and is composed of various lodgings for the chief and +his garrison, defended east and north, on the side towards the city, +by towers and curtains (Fig. 175). At the south-west angle independent +reducts and towers guard the courtyards and approaches. The west front +overlooks the open country, and here was placed the gate, which was +defended by a series of formidable devices so ingenious as to preclude +all possibility of surprise.

+ +
+ +

176. LOCHES CASTLE. KEEP

+
+ +

[295]

+ +

During the Romanesque and Gothic periods the castle was a miniature +town, with its own fortified enceinte, composed of walls reinforced +by towers which served as refuges at various points of the +circumference, and formed so many reducts for the arrest of assailants.

+ +

The keep was the citadel of this miniature town, the temporary +lodging of the lord whose vassals lived in the internal offices, and +whose soldiers occupied the gate-house buildings and the towers of +the ramparts. The noble sought to give his special habitation the +most formidable aspect possible, and thereby to strike terror to the +beholder, a very necessary device in those days of conflict when the +friend of night was often the implacable foe of morning. "In times of +peace the keep was the receptacle for the treasure, arms, and archives +of the family; but the lord did not lodge there; he only took up his +quarters in the keep with his wife and children in time of war. As +it was not possible for him to defend the place alone, he surrounded +himself with a band of the most devoted of his followers who shared +his dwelling. From thence he exercised a scrupulous surveillance over +the garrison and its approaches, for the keep was always placed at +the most vulnerable point of the fortress, and he and his bodyguard +held the horde of vassals and retainers in due subservience; as they +were able to pass in and out at all hours by secret and well-guarded +passages, the garrison was kept in ignorance of the exact means of +defence, the lord, as was natural, doing all in his power to make them +appear formidable."[66]

+ +
+ +

[66] Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire, vol. v.

+ +

[296]

+ +

Castles and keeps of stone were generally built upon the natural scarp +of some spur commanding two valleys and near the banks of a river; the +primitive mounds of the feudal fortresses were abandoned; as we have +already remarked, these were in many cases artificial, and would have +been quite inadequate to the support of the huge masses of masonry of +the new architecture.

+ +

"By the close of the tenth century and the opening years of the +eleventh, Foulques Nerra was raising castles throughout his own +territories in Anjou, and on every available point of vantage he could +wrest from his neighbour, the Count of Blois and Tours; the latter +built fortresses to resist the aggressor and complete the network of +strongholds begun by his father, Thibault the Trickster, one of the +most turbulent nobles of his day."[67]

+ +
+ +

[67] Anthyme St. Paul, Histoire Monumentale de la France.

+ +

The keep of Langeais, on a precipitous hill overlooking the Loire, +was founded by Foulques Nerra at the close of the tenth century; +the walls, which are still standing on three sides, show traces of +Gallo-Roman methods of construction; the dressed stones are of small +size, and brick and stone are used conjointly for the voussoirs of the +window arches.

+ +

A large number of castles and keeps were built in the eleventh and +twelfth centuries, among others those of Plessy, Grimoult, Le Pin, +and La Pommeraye, the last on a mound surrounded by deep moats +which separate three lines of circumvallation from each other; +Beaugency-sur-Loire, the vast keep of which was four stories high; +and Loches,[297] which is ascribed to Foulques Nerra, but which seems +to belong rather to the twelfth century, at which period military +architecture had made a great advance. The keep of Loches is perhaps +the finest of all such structures in France; in height it is nearly +100 feet; the ramparts seem to date from the thirteenth century; the +form of the towers on plan is a pointed arch, a shape adopted as +offering greater resistance at the part most frequently attacked by +the sapper.

+ +
+ +

177. FALAISE CASTLE. KEEP

+
+ +

At Falaise, where the castle like that of Domfront is built on +a rugged promontory, the ramparts are later than the keep, the +architectural details of[298] which point to the twelfth century. This +hypothesis is supported by a passage in the Chronicle of Robert du +Mont, quoted by M. de Caumont. In 1123 Henry II. rebuilt the keep and +ramparts of Arques, and carried out similar restorations at Gisors, +Falaise, Argentan, Exmes, Domfront, Amboise, and Vernon.

+ +
+ +

178. LAVARDIN CASTLE. KEEP

+
+ +
+ +

179. KEEP OF AIGUES-MORTES. TOUR DE CONSTANCE

+
+ +

Other keeps of equal interest in point of situation, plan, or details +of construction are:—Ste. Suzanne, Nogent-le-Rotrou, Broue, L'Islot, +Tonnay-Boutonne, Pons, Chamboy, Montbazon, Lavardin, Montrichard, +and Huriet in the Bourbonnais. All these, in common with those first +described, are square or rectangular on plan. From the end of the +twelfth century onwards the cylindrical form[299] predominates in the plan +of keeps and towers. On the whole, it offered the best resistance to +the medival assailant. The convex surface was of equal strength all +round, and as we have seen in the preceding chapter, the circular +trace for towers[300] gave the garrison the best chance of defending their +bases from the curtain, and of opposing the work of sappers and miners.

+ +
+ +

180. PROVINS CASTLE. KEEP

+
+ +

The great advance made in architecture by the general adoption +of an expedient so simple and[301] easy of execution as the vault on +intersecting arches manifested itself very strongly in military +structures. The heavy wooden floors of the earlier keeps, which were +so apt to catch fire, were replaced by less ponderous vaults, binding +the circular walls firmly together, and forming a flooring for the +various stories less unsteady and infinitely more durable than the +huge beams and joists of earlier days.

+ +

A further improvement was the pointed roof, round on plan, now +generally adopted as better calculated to withstand projectiles or +combustibles which shattered the angles of the roof in the old square +towers, and set fire to the timbers.

+ +

The form of keeps, however, varied considerably throughout the +twelfth century. At Houdan the keep is a great tower strengthened by +four turrets; at tampes it is composed of four clustered towers, +forming a quatrefoil on plan; the vaulted stories are marked by many +curious features, among others a deep well, the opening of which is +in the second floor. Some historians date this building from the +eleventh century; there are indications, however, in the details of +the architecture and sculptures, which point to the early part of the +reign of Philip Augustus.

+ +

The keep of Provins, which belongs to the twelfth century, has certain +very original features. It rises from a solid mound of masonry, and +has a circular enceinte. The base of the keep itself is square, and +is flanked at each angle by a turret. An octagonal tower surmounts +the square base, and is connected with the flanking turrets by flying +buttresses. The keep of Gisors is also octagonal in form, one of its +octagons being at a tangent to the circular enceinte[302] which crowns +the feudal motte or mound. It was built in the twelfth century, and +was considerably augmented by the line of walls and square towers +which Philip Augustus drew round the mound.

+ +

The Chteau Gaillard, built at the close of the twelfth century +on an eminence commanding the Seine at Les Andelys, has several +peculiarities of arrangement. The round keep is first enclosed by a +circular enceinte, or rather by a square, the angles of which have +been rounded. This in its turn is surrounded by an elliptic enclosure +connected with the defences of the castle, and consisting of a series +of segmental towers united by very narrow curtains. In this massive +structure the art of the architect manifests itself only in the +robust solidity of the masonry. It is the keep in its purely military +character. No trace of decoration mitigates its austerity.

+ +
+ +

181. CASTLE OF CHINON. SOUTH FRONT

+
+ +

Philip Augustus, having possessed himself of the Chteau Gaillard, +fortified Gisors on the same formidable scale, and proceeded to build +the castle of Dourdan as well as his own palace fortress of the[303] +Louvre, in Paris. Upon the death of the king, Enguerrand III. began +to build a fortress at Coucy, which he completed in less than ten +years (1223-1230). Its grandiose proportions and formidable system of +defence surpassed everything that had gone before. Coucy was, in fact, +the architectural manifestation of that haughty ambition to which +Enguerrand[304] is said to have given free expression during the minority +of his sovereign.

+ +
+ +

182. CASTLE OF CLISSON. KEEP

+
+ +

Next in importance to the castles and keeps of the thirteenth century, +already enumerated, are the following:—The White Tower of Issoudun; +the Tower of Blandy; the octagonal keep of Chtillon-sur-Loing, +Semur; the royal fortresses of Angers, built by St. Louis; +Montargis, Boulogne, Chinon, and Saumur; the Tour Constance or +keep of Aigues-Mortes, ascribed to St. Louis; the castle of Najac, +built by his brother, Alphonse of Poitiers; the castles of Bourbon +l'Archambault and Chalusset, and the castle of Clisson, rebuilt or +begun by Olivier I., Lord of Clisson, after his return from the Holy +Land, etc.

+ +
+ +

183. VILLENEUVE-LES-AVIGNON. CASTLE OF ST. ANDR

+
+ +

In the fourteenth century military architecture developed chiefly +on reconstructive lines. Ancient fortresses were reorganised in +accordance with the new methods of attack and (consequently) of +defence, and the weak points brought to light by recent sieges +were dealt with. The same process was[305] applied to the construction +of towers which had hitherto been furnished with several rows of +loopholes, an excellent expedient for the defence of curtains and +approaches, but subject to this drawback, that it directed attention +to the most vulnerable points. The first effect of the use of cannon +in warfare was to increase the thickness of the walls; subsequently, +such structural modifications were[306] adopted as were required by the +novel method of massing all the defences at the summit of machicolated +walls. The principal castles of this period were Vincennes, near +Paris, built by Philip of Valois and Charles V., and the vast +fortified palace at Avignon, constructed by the Popes Benedict XII., +Clement VI., Innocent VI., and Urban V., of which we shall have more +to say in Part IV. Gaston Phœbus, Count of Foix and Barn, built +square keeps in the Bastide of Barn, at Montaner, and at Mauvezin, +besides circular keeps at Lourdes and at Foix.

+ +
+ +

184. CASTLE OF TARASCON

+
+ +

Among keeps and castles completed or entirely built in the fourteenth +century, Anthyme St. Paul enumerates those of Roquetaillade, +Bourdeilles, Polignac, Briquebec, Hardelot, Rambures, Lavardin (the +foundations of which were laid in the twelfth century), Montrond, +Turenne, Billy, Murat, and Hrisson, the curious keep of Montbard, the +keeps of Romefort, Pouzauges, Noirmoutier, and many others.

+ +

At the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth century +Louis of Orleans, son of Charles V., took advantage of the madness +of his brother Charles VI. to fortify various positions on which he +relied for the furtherance of his ambitious schemes. In 1393 and the +years immediately following he acquired various estates in Valois: +Montpilloy, Pierrefonds, and La Fert-Milon, the castle of which he +rebuilt entirely. He also bought the domain of Coucy in 1400, after +the death of the last male descendant of Enguerrand III.

+ +

Coucy, Pierrefonds, and La Fert-Milon have[307] been so exhaustively +described in special works, notably those of Viollet-le-Duc, that we +need not reproduce them here. We have cited them as characteristic +types of those colossal fortresses and keeps, admirable alike in +grandiose proportion and refinement of detail which are the supreme +expression of feudal power.

+ +
+ +

185. VITR CASTLE

+
+ +

Several other castles were built in Albigeois, Auvergne, Limousin, +Guyenne, La Vende, and Provence, notably at Tarascon. The keeps of +Trves in Anjou also date from this period.

+ +

Important castles sprang up all over Brittany in the fifteenth +century. Such were Combourg, Fougres, Montauban, St. Malo, Vitr, +Elven, Sucinio, Dinan, Tonqudec, etc.

+ +

[308]

+ +

Many of these buildings which date from the close of the century +were remarkable for their ingenuity of arrangement and richness of +decoration. But though worthy of all attention from the artistic point +of view, they do not come within the scope of our present study—that +of military architecture in the Gothic period.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[309]

+ +

CHAPTER III
+ +GATES AND BRIDGES

+ +

Though confining ourselves to a brief historical abstract of the +so-called Gothic period in architecture, without reference to Roman +examples, we have said enough in the foregoing studies on castles +and keeps, and the circumvallation of towns, to give some idea of +the importance attached by architects to the gates which secured the +enceintes, and the bridges which afforded an approach.

+ +

Gates.—Following the example of those Frankish +architects whose works in Syria after the first Crusade seem to have +exercised such far-reaching influence, French builders of the reigns +of Philip Augustus and St. Louis reduced the entrances of fortresses +and fortified enceintes to the smallest number practicable. Their +construction was based upon a system calculated to repulse any +ordinary attempt to carry the place by direct attack; as a rule, +fortresses were taken rather by ruse, surprise, or treason than by +regular siege.

+ +
+ +

186. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. GATE-HOUSE OF THE CASTLE

+
+ +

During the twelfth, and more especially the thirteenth century, the +gates were the points most strongly fortified. They were approached +over a[310] bridge, by raising a movable portion of which, however, +entrance might be barred on the very threshold. The narrow gateway +passage was defended by two projecting towers pierced with loopholes, +and connected by a curtain. The whole structure formed a fortified +gate-house, known as a chtelet, which had to be carried before an +assailant could penetrate to the fortress beyond. The passage was +further defended by a single or double portcullis, a grated timber +framework like a harrow, cased with iron, the uprights of which were +spiked at the bottom. The passage was also defended by machicolations +or[311] holes in the roof, through which the garrison could hurl down +missiles on the heads of their enemies, should the latter have forced +the gate.

+ +

The castle-gate of Carcassonne which was built about 1120 still +exists, and is a good example of such arrangements.

+ +

The minute precautions adopted by architects to guard against surprise +are very manifest in this example. A sudden attempt was often +successful, especially if favoured by traitors among the defenders +themselves.

+ +

The difficulties of passage were increased by the multiplication of +portcullises, the windlasses of which were worked from different +stories of the tower, so as to prevent collusion between different +parties of the garrison, which was often composed largely of +mercenaries. In the gate-house of Carcassonne the first portcullis +was raised or lowered by means of chains and counter-weights worked +from a windlass on the second floor; the second portcullis was worked +in like manner from the first floor, in a place entirely cut off from +communication with that above, to which access could only be obtained +by a wooden staircase in the castle courtyard.

+ +

In the thirteenth century military architects further provided +against surprises by defensive outworks. The gate of Laon, at Coucy, +so admirably described by Viollet-le-Duc, is a famous example. These +outworks, which were called barbicans, were designed to protect the +great gate and its approaches.

+ +
+ +

187. CARCASSONNE. GATEWAY OF THE LISTS, KNOWN AS THE +PORTE DE L'AUDE

+
+ +

Around the walls of the city of Carcassonne a second line of ramparts +had been drawn by St. Louis, in which only a single opening gave +access to[312] the lists (Fig. 187)—that is to say, the space between +the inner and outer enclosures. He afterwards built a huge tower, +known as the Barbican, to the west of the castle, with which it +was connected by crenellated walls, and by inner cross-walls, so +arranged in a kind of echelon that the open spaces on one side were +masked by the projections on the other (see plan, Fig. 167). The +tower was destined to cover sorties from the garrison, and to keep +open communication by the bridge across the[313] Aude. It was rather an +outwork than a barbican such as Philip the Bold built before the +Porte Narbonaise, on the east of the city, towards the close of the +thirteenth century.

+ +
+ +

188. CITY OF CARCASSONNE. GATE KNOWN AS THE PORTE +NARBONAISE

+
+ +

The Porte Narbonaise bears a general resemblance to the main +gate of the castle, subject, however, to the great advance made in +military architecture in the course of a century. The gateway towers +are provided with spurs, an invention directed against the attack of +miners, which had the further advantage of interfering with the action +of a battering-ram, by exposing those who worked it to missiles from +the adjacent parts of the curtain. The gate opened immediately upon +the lists; it was defended by the crenellated semi-circular barbican, +which was united on either side to the embattled parapet of the lists. +Access to the barbican was obtained only by a narrow passage preceded +by a bridge, the latter[314] easily defended by a redan which adjoined the +postern of the barbican.

+ +

The gate itself was provided with two portcullises like those of the +castle gate; behind the first were massive folding-doors, and over it +a wide machicolation.

+ +

The constructive methods employed in the building of fortified gates +were modified as military architecture progressed on lines already +considered by us in the first chapter of this section, when dealing +with defensive methods generally, which, in the fourteenth century, +seem to have been in advance of those of attack. A steady improvement +in details went on until the invention of gunpowder came in to +profoundly modify the conditions alike of defence and assault.

+ +
+ +

189. RAMPARTS OF AIGUES-MORTES. GATE KNOWN AS THE +PORTE DE LA GARDETTE. DRAWBRIDGE. (TO THE RIGHT OF THE DRAWING THE +TOUR CONSTANCE, BUILT BY ST. LOUIS)

+
+ +

The gateways of fortified enceintes were modified in the +fourteenth century not only by alterations in[315] the plan of towers, +the substitution of stone machicolations for the wooden hourds or +scaffoldings of parapets, the addition of portcullises, folding-doors, +and the machicoulis of the vaulted passage, but further by the +invention of the drawbridge. A drawbridge, it may be hardly necessary +to say, consisted of a wooden platform suspended by chains to +cross-beams poised on uprights on the principle of a see-saw; when +lowered, the bridge afforded a passage across the moat. It was raised +by depressing the inner ends of the lever-beams which pivoted upon a +fulcrum, and thus brought the platform up vertically against the front +of the building, where it formed an outer door which an attacking +party had either to batter in or to bring down by cutting the chains.

+ +
+ +

190. RAMPARTS OF DINAN. GATE KNOWN AS THE PORTE DE +JERZUAL

+
+ +

It will be readily perceived that such a bridge was infinitely more +effectual and more to be depended[316] upon than the portable bridge +mentioned in our description of the castle gate of Carcassonne. +The latter had to be raised piece by piece, a prolonged operation +impossible of execution in case of a sudden surprise.

+ +

Aigues-Mortes seems to have been one of the first fortresses to +which the new methods were applied. The gates east, west, and south +are constructed on the twelfth-century system, as exemplified at +Carcassonne. But the northern gate, known as the Porte de la +Gardette, which was either made or altered in the fourteenth century, +still shows the grooves for the beams of the drawbridge, and the +pointed arch of the doorway is enframed by a square rebate destined +for the platform when raised.

+ +

The use of drawbridges became very general in the fourteenth century, +and gave rise to various ingenious combinations. The gate at Dinan, +known as the Porte de Jerzual, which probably dates from the close +of the century, is a curious example. It is not placed between +two towers in the manner then usual, but is pierced through the +actual face of a tower. In this case, the inner prolongation of the +lever-beams formed a solid panel like the platform of the bridge +itself. It was worked through a hole in the roof of the entrance +archway, being raised with the help of a chain, and falling through +its own preponderant weight. The horizontal pivot on which it turned +rested on the brackets shown in Fig. 190; the external sections of the +lever-beams sank in the usual manner into the vertical grooves above +the arch, and when the bridge was up, the solid panel joining the +inner ends of the levers[317] doubled the protection it gave. In case of +alarm, the chain had simply to be let go, and the panel falling by its +own weight, the bridge rose, and the barricade was complete.

+ +
+ +

191. VITR CASTLE. GATE-HOUSE

+
+ +

By the fifteenth century drawbridges were in universal use; an +interesting development was the result. This was the introduction of a +smaller gate or postern in the curtain between the towers, by the side +of the great gateway. Each of the two apertures was furnished with its +own drawbridge.[318] That of the centre, which was reserved for horsemen +and vehicles, was worked by two beams or arms, as we have seen, while +the smaller footbridge of the postern was raised by means of a single +beam, the chain of which was attached to a forked upright.

+ +
+ +

192. ENCEINTE OF GURANDE. GATE OF ST. MICHEL

+
+ +

The castle of Vitr, which was built, or at least completed at the +close of the fourteenth or beginning of the fifteenth century, +illustrates the system in the gateway of its chtelet.

+ +

The gate-house, known as the Porte St. Michel, at Gurande, which +was built together with the enceinte by John V., Duke of Brittany, +in 1431, still[319] preserves the lateral grooves which indicate the shape +and arrangement of the postern drawbridge.

+ +

When raised, the two drawbridges closed the apertures of gateway and +postern, while the open gulf of the great ditch, either empty, or full +of water, cut off the approach to the entrance.

+ +

The Abbey of Mont St. Michel, which we have already studied under +various aspects, has further information to give us with regard to the +construction of fortified gateways. In accordance with contemporary +usage, the Abbot Pierre Le Roy built a gate-house or bastille +(Fig. 163), the entrance of which was guarded by a portcullis and a +wide machicoulis; he masked this gate-house by a barbican, which +was connected north and south with the great stairway leading to +the abbey. The northern staircase is rendered specially interesting +by the ingenious arrangement of its gates, which opened within +the barbican. The apertures were filled by a panel which worked +horizontally, on a system necessitated by the exceptional situation of +the abbey, where the military, as well as the domestic buildings, were +superposed, communicating with each other only by an elaborate series +of staircases and inclines. The doors pivoted upon horizontal axes. +Resting upon salient jambs in the embrasures of the doorways, they +opened in a direction parallel with the slope of the steps, and could +be shut at the least alarm, being carried into place by their own +weight. They were kept fastened by lateral bolts, the slots of which +still exist in the jambs.[68]

+ +
+ +

[68] Ed. Corroyer, Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. +Michel et de ses Abords; Paris, 1877.

+ +

[320]

+ +
+ +

193. RAMPARTS OF MONT ST. MICHEL. GATEWAY KNOWN AS THE +PORTE DU ROI

+
+ +

The main gate of the ramparts, which was built between 1415 and 1420, +is to the west of the place, in the curtain flanked by the tower +known as the Tour du Roi. This gate and the lateral postern[321] gave +access to the town, their drawbridges forming a passage across the +moat when lowered, and when raised, an initial barrier to assailants. +Above the gates was the warder's lodging, beneath which the vaulted +passage and the postern communicated directly with an outer guard-room +in the ground-floor of the Tour du Roi. In addition to the first +barrier, formed by the raised platform of the drawbridge, the main +entrance was secured by double doors, and by an iron portcullis, which +still remains in its lateral grooves. The great arch is crowned by a +tympanum, on which the united arms of the king, the abbey, and the +town were carved.

+ +

The works designed for the defence of rivers flowing through fortified +towns, or of the inlets of harbours, are closely allied to the +military architecture of gates. At Troyes the river arches in the +town ramparts were guarded by gratings or portcullises of iron. At +Paris the passage of the Seine was barred by chains stretched across +the river from wall to wall, and upheld in the middle of the stream +by piles or firmly anchored boats. At Angers the walls of the town +abutted on two towers known as the Haute Chane and the Basse +Chane (the Higher and Lower Chains), containing windlasses for the +chains, which at night were stretched across the Maine at its passage +through the enceinte.

+ +

Seaports were defended at the mouth by towers on either shore, +between which chains, worked from within, could be stretched to bar +the passage. The harbour of La Rochelle is thus protected. According +to some archologists of authority, the tower known as the Tour +de la Chane (to the left of the drawing) is[322] older than that of +St. Nicholas (on the right), which is supposed by them to have been +built in the sixteenth century on the foundations of an earlier tower +contemporary with that on the other side of the Channel. The piles +upon which these towers stand seem to have given way in part, and to +have caused a perceptible inclination of the Tower of St. Nicholas.

+ +
+ +

194. ENTRANCE TO THE PORT OF LA ROCHELLE. TOWER OF ST. +NICHOLAS, AND TOWER CALLED TOUR DE LA CHANE. BEFORE THE RESTORATION

+
+ +

The suggestion made in a very fanciful modern design, that the two +towers were once united by a great arch, is wholly without foundation. +Such a useless structure would have entailed defensive works equally +useless, seeing that a chain stretched from tower to tower at high +tide—at low tide the harbour was inaccessible—would have been +perfectly effectual against any vessels of that period attempting to +force a passage.

+ +

Bridges.—As is the case with all other +architectural buildings, the origin of bridges dates back to the +Romans, by whom they were often decorated with triumphal arches. +The bridge of St. Chamas[323] in Provence, known as the Pont Flavien +(Flavian Bridge), is an example which seems to date from the first +centuries of the Christian era.

+ +

The triumphal arches were in later times replaced by fortifications; +they became ttes de pont, bastilles, or crenellated gate-houses, +the function of which was not, like that of the arches, the decoration +of the structure or the glorification of its founder, but the defence +of the passage across the river, and the protection of the fortress +with which it communicated.

+ +
+ +

195. BRIDGE AT AVIGNON. RUINS OF THE BRIDGE KNOWN AS +THE PONT DE ST. BNZET

+
+ +

Among the bridges constructed by medival architects, that of St. +Bnzet, the Bridge of Avignon, seems to be the most ancient. This +bridge, which was begun about 1180, and completed some ten years +later, is equally remarkable for its architectural details, and the +structural problems solved by its builders. It crosses, or rather +used to cross, the Rhone—for though the arm towards the Rocher des +Doms is the narrower, it is the deeper—on nineteen arches, extending +from the foot of the Doms, on the[324] Avignonese bank, to the Tower of +Villeneuve, on the right bank, after a slight deflection southward.

+ +

The gate-house on the left bank, some fragments of which still remain, +is said to have been built by the Popes in the fourteenth century, for +the purpose of levying tolls, a perquisite shared by them with the +King of France.

+ +

The Bridge of Avignon seems to have been one of the first constructed +by the fraternity of the Hospitaliers pontifs, which was founded +in the twelfth century for the double object of building bridges +and succouring travellers. The head of the order at the time of the +building of the Rhone bridge was St. Bnzet. It must have numbered +architects of ability among its members, for the construction of the +Bridge of Avignon is very remarkable. Each of the elliptical arches +is composed of four independent arches in simple juxtaposition one +with another. This device ensures elasticity, and as a consequence +stability. The solidarity of the whole is rendered complete by the +masonry of the spandrils, which recall the architectural portions of +the aqueduct, known as the Pont du Gard; its width is about 16 feet. +The arches spring from piers furnished on either face with acute spurs +designed to break the force of the stream and the impact of floating +ice in the winter.

+ +

The spandril above each pier is pierced with a round arch, to +give free passage to the water during those floods which at times +completely submerge the piers.

+ +

The bridge in its present ruined condition has only four arches. On +the pier nearest to the left[325] bank the ancient chapel, dedicated to +St. Nicholas, is still standing. Access to it is obtained by means +of a flight of corbelled steps rising from the foundation to the +entrance, and by an overhanging landing-stage, resting at one end +against the pier, at the other against the flank of the arch.

+ +
+ +

196. BRIDGE OF MONTAUBAN, KNOWN AS THE PONT DES +CONSULS

+
+ +

The old bridge at Carcassonne seems to be contemporary with that of +Avignon, but its arches are semi-circular, their keystones are bound +into the intrados, and their piers are spurred to the level of the +platform, where they form recesses or refuges, which the narrowness of +the bridge rendered very necessary.

+ +

Among bridges of the thirteenth century we may mention that at +Bziers, where the arches, both pointed and semi-circular, resemble +those of Carcassonne in construction; but here the piers only rise +above the summers of the arches by the height of two or three courses, +and their spandrils[326] are pierced to give free passage to the current +during floods.

+ +

The bridge which spanned the Rhone at St. Savournin du Port, known as +the Pont St. Esprit, was the work of a Clunisian abbot about 1265. +It resembled the Bridge of Avignon in the construction of the piers +with their pierced spandrils; the arches, however, were semi-circular. +The platform, which is some 16 feet across, was barred at either end +by toll-gates; that nearest to the little town was connected with +the tte de pont, which, in after times, was incorporated with the +fortress commanding the course of the Rhone above the bridge.

+ +
+ +

197. BRIDGE OF CAHORS, KNOWN AS THE PONT DE VALENTR

+
+ +

The question of tolls was an important one in those days, and gave +rise to frequent disputes. The towers and gate-houses of bridges were +toll-bars as well as defensive outworks.

+ +

The bridge at Montauban, known as the Pont des Consuls, which was +begun at the close of the thirteenth century, remained unfinished +till the beginning of the fourteenth, when Philip the Fair gave such +help as was needed for its completion, on condition that he should +be allowed to raise three towers on the bridge, with a view to the +appropriation of the tolls.

+ +

[327]

+ +

The Bridge of Montauban is built entirely of brick. It consists of +seven pointed arches, resting on spurred piers, which are pierced +with arches, also pointed, and rising to the same height as the main +arches, to provide for the frequent floods of the Tarn.

+ +

The Bridge of Cahors is one of the most beautiful of +fourteenth-century examples. It is still of great interest in spite of +the various restorations it has undergone, chiefly of late years.

+ +
+ +

198. BRIDGE OF ORTHEZ

+
+ +

This bridge, which is known as the Pont de Valentr, was begun in +1308 by Raymond Panchelli, Bishop of Cahors from 1300-1312, and cannot +have been finished before 1355. It consists of six slightly pointed +arches; the piers, which rise to the level of the parapet, forming +lateral refuges, are triangular above bridge and square below. At each +end the bridge was commanded by a crenellated[328] structure, forming a +gate-house or tte de pont on either bank. In the middle rose a +lofty tower with[329] gates, by means of which passage might be barred and +assailants checked in the event of a surprise of either gate-house.

+ +
+ +

199. ABBEY OF MONT ST. MICHEL. FORTIFIED BRIDGE +CONNECTING THE LOWER CHURCH WITH THE ABBEY

+
+ +

The Bridge of Orthez has strong affinities with that of Cahors. It +must date from about the same period, and there is every reason to +suppose it was defended, not only by the central tower, but by ttes +de pont, one of which at least must have been destroyed to make way +for the railroad from Bayonne to Pau.

+ +

Bridges were of great importance in the Middle Ages, both as public +highways and military outworks. At certain points, notably at the +confluence of two rivers, they were strongly reinforced by very +considerable defences, as at Sens, Montereau, etc.

+ +

At Paris, Orleans, Rouen, Nantes, and a large number of other towns +traversed by rivers, bridges were not only important as military +defences, but of great interest as architecture.

+ +

Mont St. Michel shall furnish us with our last example, a bridge +of the fifteenth century. Though it spans no stream, it is none +the less remarkable. In the details of this bridge—its embattled +platform uniting the lower church to the abbey, its machicolated +parapet guarding the inner passages—we recognise an art consummate as +that which stirs our enthusiasm in the vast proportions and perfect +execution of the splendid choir, the whole proclaiming the versatile +genius of those great builders who welded into one noble monument a +triad of masterpieces—religious, monastic, and military.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[330]
[331]

+ +

PART IV
+ +CIVIL ARCHITECTURE

+ +
+ +
+ +

[332]
[333]

+ +

CHAPTER I
+ +BARNS, HOSPITALS, DWELLING-HOUSES, AND "HTELS" OR TOWN-HOUSES OF THE +NOBILITY

+ +

Civil architecture could boast no special characteristics before +the close of the thirteenth century. Its earlier buildings bore the +impress of religious and monastic types, as was natural at a period +when architecture was practised almost exclusively by monks and by the +lay disciples trained in their schools.

+ +

It was not until the following century that domestic architecture +threw off the trammels of religious tradition, and took on the +character appropriate to its various functions. Artists began to seek +decorative motives in the scenes and objects of daily life, no longer +borrowing exclusively from sacred themes, and convention in form and +detail was abandoned in some degree for the study of nature.

+ +

Barns.—Throughout the Romanesque and Gothic +periods, barns, hospitals, and houses were constructed in the +prevailing style. We propose, of course, to deal only with buildings +possessing real architectural features.

+ +

[334]

+ +
+ +

200. TOWN-HALL AT ST. ANTONIN (TARN ET GARONNE). THE +UPPER PART OF THE BELFRY WAS REBUILT ABOUT 1860

+
+ +

The barns or granaries of medival times were rural dependencies of +the abbeys, but were built outside the enclosure of the monastery +proper, and formed part of the priory or farm. The entrance of the +barn was a large door, opening upon the yard[335] in the centre of the +front gable end; access was also obtained by means of smaller doors +in the side walls, and often a postern was constructed beside the +main entrance for ordinary use. The great central doors were then +only thrown open for the passage of carts, which, entering at the +front, passed out through a similar door in the opposite gable end, as +at the barn of Perrires, which, though situated in Normandy, was a +dependency of the Abbey of Marmoutier, near Tours.

+ +
+ +

201. BARN AT PERRIRES (CALVADOS). END OF TWELFTH +CENTURY. (AFTER CAUMONT)

+
+ +

Such barns were generally large three-aisled[336] buildings, the central +aisle divided from those on either side by an arcade, or pillars of +wood or stone, which supported the pointed timber roof covering the +whole.

+ +
+ +

201A. BARN AT PERRIRES. SECTION

+
+ +
+ +

201B. BARN AT PERRIRES. PLAN

+
+ +

In some of these barns it was the practice to pile wheat, barley, or +rye in the centre and in one of the side aisles; in others the central +aisle was kept free for passage, and the grain was stored in the sides.

+ +

The faades differ only in unimportant details. They consist of vast +gable ends, following the lines of the roof, and strengthened by +pilasters. A large doorway, with a small postern to the side of it, +occupies the centre of the base, and the apex is pierced with narrow +openings to light, or rather to ventilate, the interior.

+ +

[337]

+ +

Tithe-barns were very generally constructed on this plan. When large +and important they had two stories, as at Provins.

+ +

These were not as a rule vaulted, but the granaries, or greniers +d'abondance, were often built with three stories, that of the +ground-floor, and even the one above it, being vaulted. The granary of +the Abbey of Vauclair, in the department of Aisne, built towards the +close of the twelfth century, is a very interesting example of such +structures.

+ +
+ +

202. TITHE-BARN AT PROVINS

+
+ +
+ +

203. GRANARY OF THE ABBEY OF VAUCLAIR

+
+ +

Some idea of the importance of religious establishments at this period +may be gathered from the foregoing details. The great abbeys were +miniature towns, and their dependencies, the priories, con[338]sisted of +vast farms, round which large villages soon grew up. The cultivators +of these great holdings combined agricultural labours with their +religious exercises, and the priors in especial were not only priests, +but perhaps even in a greater degree stewards or bailiffs, whose duty +it was to collect payments in kind, such as tithes or other revenues, +to store these, together with the crops of their own raising, and +finally to administer the wealth of every description—lands, woods, +rivers, and ponds—belonging to the abbey.

+ +

Hospitals.—A large number of charitable +institutions, called in the Middle Ages maisons dieu, htels dieu, +hospices, hospitals, and lazar-houses, were founded in the eleventh +century, and greatly developed in the twelfth and thirteenth.

+ +

A hospital was attached to most of the large abbeys or their +dependencies. The cities also owned hospitals founded or served by +monks.

+ +

[339]

+ +

Lazar-houses had multiplied throughout Western Europe by the end of +the twelfth century, from Denmark to Spain, from England to Bohemia +and Hungary; but these buildings gave little scope to the architect. +They consisted merely of an enclosure surrounding a few isolated +cells, and a chapel, attached to which were the lodgings of the monks +who tended the lepers.

+ +
+ +

204. HOSPITAL OF ST. JOHN AT ANGERS (TWELFTH CENTURY). +GREAT HALL, AS RESTORED BY A. VERDIER

+
+ +

But many of the hospices or hospitals built from the end of the +twelfth to the fourteenth century are magnificent buildings, in +general arrangement much resembling the great halls of the abbeys.

+ +

It must be borne in mind that hospitality in the Middle Ages +was obligatory; each monastery, therefore, had its eleemosynary +organisation, which included[340] special buildings for the accommodation +of monks whose business it was to tend the sick and to distribute alms +to them and other travellers and pilgrims.

+ +
+ +

205. ABBEY OF OURSCAMPS (OISE, THIRTEENTH CENTURY). +HOSPITAL. AS RESTORED BY A. VERDIER

+
+ +

[341]

+ +

We learn from Viollet-le-Duc that so early as the Carlovingian +period taxes were levied in aid of the poor, the sick, and pilgrims. +Charlemagne had enjoined hospitality in his ordinances and +capitularies, and it was forbidden to refuse shelter, fire, and water +to any suppliant.

+ +
+ +

206. LAZAR-HOUSE AT TORTOIR (AISNE, FOURTEENTH +CENTURY). FROM DRAWINGS BY A. VERDIER

+
+ +

The communes vied with kings, nobles, abbots, and citizens in the +discharge of such duties. Hospices and hospitals were founded on +every hand, either in deserted buildings, or in specially constructed +edifices.

+ +

[342]

+ +

Refuges were also built on roads much frequented by pilgrims to +shelter belated travellers, and hospices were constructed outside the +walls and close to the city gates.

+ +

Pilgrimages were much in vogue in the Middle Ages, especially +throughout the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The sanctuaries +of St. Michael in Normandy, and of St. James of Compostella in Spain, +were the most frequented. At the beginning of the thirteenth century +a hospice was founded outside Paris, near the Porte St. Denis, which +was dedicated to St. James. This hospice, with its chapel, was served +by the confraternity of St. Jacques aux Plerins (St. James of +Pilgrims), and offered gratuitous shelter each night to pilgrims bound +for Paris. Its buildings covered two acres; they included a great hall +of stone, vaulted on intersecting arches, and measuring some 132 feet +by 36, for the accommodation of the sick.

+ +

In a file of accounts of the fifteenth century, concluding with +an appeal for funds, it is stated that, for the convenience of +pilgrims—y a lieu pour ce faire XVIIJ liz qui depuis +le premier jour d'aoust MCCCLXVIIJ jusques au jour +de Mons. S. Jacques et Christofle ensuivant on ests logs et +hebergs en l'hospital de cans XVm VIc +IIIIxxX plerins qui aloient et venoient au Mont +Saint Michel et austres plerins. Et encore sont logs continuellement +chascune nuict de XXXVI XL povres plerins et +austres povres, pourquoy le povre hospital est moult charg et en +grant ncessit de liz, de couvertures et de draps.[69]

+ +

[343]

+ +

In the first years of the fourteenth century several hundreds of +htels dieu, hospitals, and lazar-houses received help from the +King of France. St. Louis founded the Hospice des Quinze-Vingts for +the blind, and in many towns hospitals were erected for the insane, +the old, and the infirm, in addition to the usual lazar-houses. +Special hospitals had already been established for women in labour, +and a chapel was founded for their benefit in the crypt of the Ste. +Chapelle of Paris, dedicated to Our Lady of Travail, of Tombelaine, +in Normandy.[70]

+ +
+ +

[69] "Eighteen beds have been in use, and from the first day +of August 1368 to the feast of SS. James and Christopher following +(July 25, 1369) this hospital has lodged and sheltered 16,690 pilgrims +journeying to or from St. Michael's Mount, besides others. And it +has further given shelter each night to some thirty-six to forty +poor pilgrims and other needy persons, whereby the poor hospital is +heavily burdened and in sore straits for lack of beds, sheets, and +blankets."—Ed. Corroyer, Description de l'Abbaye du Mont St. Michel +et de ses Abords; Paris, 1877.

+ +
+ +

[70] Idem.

+ +
+ +

207. HOSPITAL AT TONNERRE. SECTION OF THE GREAT HALL

+
+ +

Several hospitals of the Gothic period still exist. That of St. John +at Angers is one of the most remarkable. It comprises a great hall, +divided into three aisles, and vaulted on intersecting arches, and +a chapel dating from the close of the twelfth or beginning of the +thirteenth century. The fine barn at[344] Angers is of the same period; +the plan and details of construction are very curious, and resemble +those of the barns and granaries already described.

+ +

The Htel Dieu of Chartres dates from about the same period.

+ +

The hospital of Ourscamps, near Noyon, is very similar as to the +scheme of construction which seems to have been one generally adopted +by the religious architects of the twelfth, and more notably of the +thirteenth century. The grandiose proportions of the vast building +recall the great vaulted halls of contemporary abbeys, such as those +of St. Jean des Vignes at Soissons, and of the merveille at Mont +St. Michel. Certain individual features characterise it as a hospice +specially designed for the sick, the poor, and pilgrims.

+ +

The Hospice of Tonnerre appears to have been rebuilt in the fourteenth +century. The vast design is very impressively carried out. The great +hall, over 60 feet wide by some 300 long, is covered with an open +timber roof, boarded in so as to form a semi-circular vault, which is +singularly effective.

+ +

The internal arrangements are very ingenious. A wooden gallery in the +half-story commanded a view into each unceiled cubicle, by means of +which it was possible to keep constant watch over the patients without +disturbing them.

+ +

The hospital of Beaune has been so often described as to call for +little comment. The painted timber vault of the great hall seems to +have been imitated from that of Tonnerre. Its distinctive character +has unfortunately been destroyed by the construction of[345] a ceiling, +the joists of which rest on the tie-beams of the original skeleton. +But the inner court is intact, with the arcade and well and wash-house +so familiar from descriptions and illustrations. Another picturesque +and often described feature is the great roof on the south side, with +its double row of dormer windows surmounted by a rich ornamentation of +hammered lead.

+ +

In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the practice of vaulting the +great halls of hospitals with stone was abandoned. It became usual in +France and in Flanders to cover the vast aisles with timber roofs, the +boarded vaults of which were either pointed or barrel-shaped.

+ +

The term maladrerie was applied to the small lazar-houses, numbers +of which were built in France in the neighbourhood of abbeys or of +priories remote from towns and great religious centres.

+ +

The Maladrerie du Tortoir, not far from Laon, on the Route de la +Fre, is a type of such rural hospitals. Both in plan and in the +details of construction it recalls the hospital of Tonnerre, more +especially in the ingenious arrangement of the interior.

+ +

In the planning of these charitable institutions medival architects +exhibited the same skill and ingenuity which distinguished their +treatment of religious monuments. Viollet-le-Duc has pointed out +the strange illogicality of such a theory as that which would make +artists who showed extraordinary subtlety in religious buildings +responsible for so much coarseness in civil structures. We must not +hold them accountable for the destruction of their well-planned +hospitals from the sixteenth century onwards, and[346] the substitution of +buildings, the main preoccupation of whose architects was to provide +accommodation for as many patients as possible. Louis XIV. endowed the +hospitals built in his reign with the revenues of the lazar-houses +and maladreries, for which there was no further occasion, leprosy +having disappeared from his dominions. But his hospitals leave much to +be desired from the hygienic point of view; the medival hospitals, +on the other hand, have a monumental simplicity of appearance, and +offer a liberal supply of light, air, and space to their patients. We +do not assert the superiority of the cellular system commonly adopted +in hospitals from the twelfth to the fifteenth century, over that of +the open wards of our own times, but we may be permitted to point out +its great moral advantages. And, as our learned authority remarks, the +system owed its adoption to a noble delicacy of charitable feeling in +the medival founders and builders of our maisons dieu.

+ +

Houses and Htels, or Town-Houses of the +Nobility.—The history of human habitations is a subject of such +interest that to treat it adequately a special work would be +necessary. Such an undertaking has, moreover, been admirably carried +out by a famous architect.[71]

+ +
+ +

[71] Ch. Garnier, Member of the Institute, whose picturesque +embodiment of research, in his reconstruction of human habitations +from the lacustrine period to our own times, attracted so much +attention at the Exhibition of 1889.

+ +

We must refrain from discussion of prehistoric or Merovingian +dwellings, or of those rural hovels, the typical variations of +which, in different countries[347] and climates, offers so wide a field +for study. To keep within the limits assigned us by the arbitrary +term Gothic Architecture, we must confine our rapid sketch to the +architectural period which dates from the middle of the twelfth to the +close of the fifteenth century.

+ +
+ +

208. HOUSE AT CLUNY (TWELFTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

Nothing remains of habitations constructed in France before the +twelfth century, save the vague and scanty records of ancient texts, +manuscripts, and bas-reliefs. But we may reasonably infer that the +houses of the period were built of wood, as was natural in a country +containing great tracts of forest. We know that most of the important +buildings were timber structures, which explains the fact that numbers +of twelfth-century churches were founded on the sites of earlier +buildings destroyed by fire.

+ +

[348]

+ +

Roman, Gallo-Roman, and Merovingian houses were arranged to suit the +habits of the times; they were lighted by windows opening upon an +inner courtyard, in accordance with the ancient custom of separating +the women's apartments from the rest of the habitation.

+ +
+ +

208A. HOUSE AT CLUNY (TWELFTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

But by the end of the twelfth century the urban dwelling was adapted +to the needs of a family. The doors and windows of the house were made +to overlook the street. The building consisted generally of a hall +or shop, in which a handicraft was carried on, or manufactured goods +were offered for sale. It was lighted by a wide arcade of round or +pointed arches, and was either on a level with the street, or raised +above it by the height of some few steps. A back room, opening upon +a courtyard, served for kitchen and dining-room. To the left of the +faade[349] a little door gave access to a staircase which led to the +first floor, where was a large solar or living-room and an apartment +overlooking the courtyard. Above these were the chambers occupied by +the inmates of the house.

+ +
+ +

209, 210. HOUSES AT VITTEAUX (CTE D'OR), AND AT ST. +ANTONIN (TARN ET GARONNE, THIRTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

The architecture of such houses varies according to the climate, +the materials of the country, and the customs of the inhabitants. +The houses had no special individuality as long as the windows were +treated merely as apertures for the admission of light; but directly +these began to take on a certain elaboration, and such features as +mouldings or sculptures were introduced in the faades, a system of +decoration was borrowed from the neighbouring churches or abbeys of +monkish architects, a consequence either of the far-reaching influence +of monastic schools, or of the spirit of imitation and force of habit.

+ +

Certain houses at Cluny, which date from the[350] twelfth century, +exemplify the style. They are built almost entirely of stone. The +arcading recalls[351] various details of monastic buildings which the +constructors very naturally took as models.

+ +

[352]

+ +
+ +

211. HOUSE AT PROVINS (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +
+ +

212. HOUSE AT LAON (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +
+ +

213. HOUSE AT CORDES. ALBIGEOIS (FOURTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

The same may be said of the other houses, of which we give drawings +as illustrating the urban[353] type of the thirteenth and fifteenth +centuries. It is easy to trace the successive developments of +religious and monastic architecture in the domestic buildings of the +period.

+ +

It is not until the close of the fourteenth century, and more notably +in the fifteenth, that such influences gradually die out, and change, +if not progress, becomes evident in the altered form of the arcades, +which no longer resemble those of cloisters or churches, but have +elliptic or square apertures. These, in the windows, are no longer +subdivided by a stone tracery of ornamental cusps and foliations, but +merely by plain mullions and transoms, forming square compartments +which it was possible to fill with movable glazed sashes of the +simplest construction.

+ +

The faades are generally of durable materials, such as stone or +brick, and the use of wood is restricted to the floors and the roofs.

+ +

Houses of the fifteenth century in the Northern departments, where +stone is scarce, were built mainly of wood, the more solid material +being used only on the ground-floor. The overhanging upper stories +were of timbers, the interstices being filled in with brick. The +principal members, such as corbel tables, beams, ledges, and +window-frames, were decorated with mouldings and sculptures. The +faade usually terminated in a gable, the projecting pointed arch of +which followed the lines of the timber roof. In other cases it was +crowned by richly decorated dormer windows. In rainy districts the +roof was covered with slates or shingles.

+ +
+ +

214. HOUSE AT MONT ST. MICHEL (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +
+ +

215. WOODEN HOUSE AT ROUEN (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +
+ +

216. WOODEN HOUSE AT ANDELYS (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

It was usual in the North to detach each house at the upper story, +even when it was not practic[354]able to allow a narrow passage or space +between. This was not merely a concession to the vanity of the +citizen, to his desire to make his independent gable a feature of +the street. It was also a pre[355]
[356]cautionary measure against fires, which +were frequent and disastrous in cities built mainly of wood, and[357] +possessing but very rudimentary appliances wherewith to meet such a +catastrophe.

+ +
+ +

217. HTEL LALLEMAND AT BOURGES (END OF THE FIFTEENTH +CENTURY)

+
+ +

The fifteenth and notably the sixteenth centuries were marked by +the building of a new class of dwellings, the maisons nobles, +or town-houses of the nobles, who, down to this period, had lived +entirely in their fortified castles. These great seignorial mansions +differ essentially from the houses of the citizens. The htel +occupied a considerable space, in which a courtyard and even gardens +were included. The house of the citizen or merchant was built flush +with the street, whereas the htel was placed in an inner court, +often richly decorated, and the street-front was devoted to stables, +coach-houses, servants'[358] lodgings, and the great entrance which gave +access to the court and the main building.

+ +
+ +

218. JACQUES CŒUR'S HOUSE AT BOURGES. VIEW FROM THE +PLACE BERRY (FIFTEENTH CENTURY)

+
+ +

The names at least of some famous Parisian htels of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries have survived, such as the htels des +Tournelles, de St. Pol, de Sens, de Nevers, and de la Trmoille, the +last destroyed in 1840. The Htel de Cluny, which dates from 1485, is +a very curious example, and of remarkable interest, as having been +preserved almost intact.

+ +

Several great houses of the same period still exist at Bourges. Among +others, the Htel Lallemand,[359] built towards the close of the fifteenth +century, the inner court of which is especially noteworthy, and the +still more famous htel or chteau of Jacques Cœur.

+ +

This beautiful structure dates from the second half of the fifteenth +century, and is built in part on the ramparts of the town. It is so +well known that it will be unnecessary to describe or illustrate the +famous portals and inner court. But the faade on the Place Berry, +though less sumptuous, is hardly less interesting. Here we have the +two great towers of the fortified enceinte, with their Gallo-Roman +bases, and between them the corps de logis or main buildings of the +mansion, which retain many features of the feudal castle, and bear +witness to the wealth and power of Charles VII.'s ill-used favourite, +the famous banker, whose splendid fortunes suffered such undeserved +eclipse.

+ +
+ +
+ +

[360]

+ +

CHAPTER II
+ +TOWN-HALLS, BELFRIES, PALACES

+ +

The social evolution which resulted in the enfranchisement of +the communes had its origin in the eleventh century, though the +consummation of this great political change was of much later date.

+ +

Down to the fourteenth century the efforts of the communes to exercise +the rights conferred on them in charters wrung from their feudal lords +received incessant checks. The opposition they encountered is hardly +to be wondered at, seeing that every concession in their favour tended +to diminish the despotic authority of those from whom it had been won. +No sooner, therefore, was a charter rescinded and a commune abolished +than the instant demolition of the town-hall and belfry was demanded. +Hence very few town-halls of earlier date than the fourteenth century +have survived.

+ +

Town-halls.—A few of the great Southern cities +owned town-halls so early as the twelfth century, among them Bordeaux, +where the building was of the Roman type, and Toulouse, whose +town-hall was practically a fortalice.

+ +
+ +

219. TOWN-HALL OF PIENZA, ITALY (END OF THE FOURTEENTH +CENTURY)

+
+ +

But by far the greater number of the infant[361] communes were sunk in +poverty, and so overwhelmed with dues and taxes that they had no +margin for communal buildings.

+ +

[362]

+ +

In the fourteenth century even the commune of Paris could boast only +the most modest of town-halls. In 1357 tienne Marcel, provost of +the merchants, bought from the collector of the salt-tax a small +two-gabled building which adjoined several private dwellings. We may, +therefore, conclude that down to this period the town-hall was in +nowise distinguished from an ordinary habitation.

+ +

At the close of the century Caen possessed a town-hall of four stories.

+ +

During the thirteenth century many new towns and communes had been +founded by the Crown, the nobles, and the clergy, the depositaries of +power in the Middle Ages.

+ +

In the North, Villeneuve le Roi, Villeneuve le Comte, and Villeneuve +l'Archevque owed their existence, material and communal, to these +powers respectively.

+ +

In the South the war of the Albigenses had devastated and even +destroyed many cities. The authorities recognised the necessity of +repeopling the districts so cruelly decimated. The great nobles, +spiritual and temporal, reconcentrated the scattered population by +grants of lands for the building of new towns, and sought to establish +them permanently by apparently liberal concessions in the form of +communal franchises.

+ +

According to Caumont and Anthyme St. Paul, these new towns or +bastides may be identified by their names, or by their regularity of +plan, or by both combined.

+ +

Certain names indicate a royal foundation or[363] dependency, as Ralville +or Monral; others point to privileges conferred on the town, as +Bonneville, La Sauvetat, Sauveterre, Villefranche, or even La Bastide, +and Villeneuve.

+ +
+ +

220. TOWN-HALL AND BELFRY AT YPRES (BELGIUM)

+
+ +

A third class borrow the names of French and occasionally of foreign +provinces or towns. Anthyme St. Paul gives a list of such in the +Annuaire de l'archologie franaise,—Barcelone or Barcelonnette, +Beauvais, Boulogne, Bruges, Cadix, Cordes (for Cordova), Fleurance +(for Florence), Bretagne, Cologne, Valence, Milan (for Milan), La +Franaise and Francescas, Grenade, Libourne (for Leghorn), Modne, +Pampelonne (for Pampeluna), etc.

+ +

A new town or bastide is usually rectangular in[364] plan, and measures +some 750 by 580 feet. Sauveterre d'Aveyron is an example. In the +centre is a square, into which a street debouches on each side, +thus dividing the town into four parts. The square is surrounded by +galleries or cloisters, of round or pointed arches, covered with a +timber roof or vault, with or without transverse arches, whence the +term Place des Couverts, still common in some Southern towns.

+ +

In the centre of the square stood the town-hall, the ground-floor +of which was used as a public market. Montrjeau is one of the +towns in which this regularity of construction is observed, also +Montpazier, the streets of which are lined with wide arcades of +pointed arches. Other examples are to be found at Eymet, Domme, and +Beaumont, Libourne, Ste. Foy, and Sauveterre de Guyenne, Damazan, +and Montflanquin, Rabastens, Mirande, Grenade, Isle d'Albi, and +Ralmont, etc. Several bastides in Guyenne were founded by the +English. Finally, the lower town of Carcassonne, founded in 1247, and +Aigues-Mortes, founded in 1248, also belong to the class of bastides +or new towns.[72]

+ +
+ +

[72] See Part III., "Military Architecture."

+ +

"The series of Southern bastides, inaugurated in 1222 by the +foundation of Cordes-Albigeois, was brought to a close in 1344 by +a petition of the town-councillors of Toulouse, in answer to which +the king forbade any further settlements. Two hundred at least of +the bastides still exist in Guyenne, Gascony, Languedoc, and the +neighbouring districts. Several of these were unprosperous, and are +still small villages. In some cases their close[365] proximity tended +greatly to their mutual disadvantage."[73]

+ +
+ +

[73] Anthyme St. Paul, Histoire Monumentale de la France.

+ +

[366]

+ +
+ +

221. MARKET AND BELFRY AT BRUGES (BELGIUM)

+
+ +
+ +

222. TOWN-HALL OF BRUGES (BELGIUM)

+
+ +

It is worthy of remark that civil architecture had[367] so greatly +developed by the fifteenth century as to react in its turn upon +the religious art to which it owed its birth. It gave to religious +architecture certain new forms, such as the elliptic arch, adopted at +the close of the fifteenth and throughout the following century, at +which period civil architecture reached its apogee.

+ +

The Southern communes preserved their franchises till the sixteenth +century, that disastrous era of religious warfare which involved the +destruction of innumerable buildings.

+ +

The town-hall of St. Antonin (Tarn et Garonne) is perhaps the only +surviving one of the period. With the exception of the belfry, it +is an almost perfect type of the architecture of this class in the +thirteenth century, to which date it may probably be assigned (Fig. +200).

+ +

The little town of St. Antonin, which had obtained its communal +charter in 1136, suffered much for its fidelity to Raymond VI., Count +of Toulouse. During the war of the Albigenses it was twice taken by +Simon de Montfort, whose son, Guy de Montfort, sold it to St. Louis in +1226. It was at this period, no doubt, that the present building was +erected. It has the characteristic feature of the civic monument, the +belfry, which, in the Middle Ages, was the architectural expression +of municipal authority and jurisdiction.

+ +

The building is a simple rectangular structure, over which the square +tower rises to the right. The ground-floor is a market, communicating +with an adjoining market-place, and with the narrow street which +passes under the belfry. The grande salle or[368] municipal hall +occupies the first story, together with a smaller apartment in the +tower. The second story is divided in the same manner.

+ +
+ +

223. TOWN-HALL AT LOUVAIN (BELGIUM)

+
+ +

[369]

+ +

We have already called attention to the far-reaching influence of +French art as manifested in religious architecture so early as the +close of the twelfth century. Such influences were no less paramount +in developments of civil architecture, and we find municipal +buildings of the fourteenth century in Italy—at Pienza and other +towns—in which not only analogies but points of identity with the +thirteenth-century example of St. Antonin are distinctly traceable.

+ +

The municipal buildings of the North, the most perfect types of which +are those of Germany and Belgium, are nearly uniform in plan. A belfry +rises from the centre of the faade, flanked right and left on the +first story by the great civic halls. The ground-floor is a market for +the sale of merchandise.

+ +

The cloth-hall of Ypres (so named since the construction of a new +town-hall in the seventeenth century) is one of the most beautiful of +such examples. The building was begun in 1202, but was not completed +till 1304. The faade measures 440 feet in length, and has a double +row of pointed windows. It terminates at each angle in a very graceful +pinnacle, and the centre is marked by a noble square belfry of vast +size, the oldest portion of the building, the foundation-stone of +which was laid by Baldwin IX. of Flanders in 1200.

+ +

The belfry of Bruges, which was begun at the close of the thirteenth +century, and completed some hundred years later, is another most +interesting example of the civic buildings of its period.

+ +

The structure consists of a market and the usual[370] municipal halls, +crowned by the lofty belfry, the original height of which was 350 feet.

+ +
+ +

224. BELFRY OF TOURNAI (BELGIUM)

+
+ +
+ +

225. BELFRY OF GHENT (BELGIUM)

+
+ +

The htel de ville or town-hall of Bruges, which[371] replaced an +earlier municipal building in the Place du Bourg, dates from +between 1376 to 1387. Its architectural character differs entirely +from that of[372] the belfry. Its elegant design and the richness of its +ornamentation give it the appearance rather of a sumptuously decorated +chapel than of a civic building.

+ +

We may close the list of Belgian town-halls of the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries with that of Louvain. The design and general +scheme of elaborate decoration are akin to those of the hall of +Bruges, and it bears the same ecclesiastical impress.

+ +

It was built between 1448 and 1463 by Mathieu de Layens, master +mason of the town and its outskirts, and is a rectangular building +of three stories. The gable ends are pierced with three rows of +pointed windows, and adorned with a rich profusion of mouldings, +statues, and sculptured ornament. The steep roof has four tiers of +dormer-windows. The angles are flanked by graceful openwork turrets, +with delicate pinnacles, and similar turrets receive the ridge of the +roof at either end. The lateral faades are adorned with three rows of +statues and allegorical sculptures, covering the whole with a wealth +of exquisite tracery. Its lace-like delicacy has suffered considerably +from the action of weather, and it was found necessary to renovate a +considerable portion of the ornament in 1840.

+ +

Belfries.—In the early days of the +enfranchisement of the communes, it became customary to call the +community together by means of bells, which at that period were +confined to the church towers, and which it was unlawful to ring +without the consent of the clergy. It may easily be conceived to what +incessant broils the new order gave rise, the clergy as a body being +strongly opposed to the separatist tendency of measures which attacked +their feudal[373] rights. The municipalities finally put an end to +internecine warfare in this connection by hanging bells of their own +over the town-gates, a custom which was superseded towards the close +of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century by the erection +of towers for the civic bells. Such was the origin of the belfry, +the earliest material expression of communal independence.

+ +

The structure usually formed part of the town-hall, but was sometimes +an isolated building. The isolated belfry was a great square tower of +several stories, crowned by a timber roof protected either by slates +or lead. The great bells hung in one story, and above them the little +bells of the carillon.

+ +

A lodging, opening upon a surrounding gallery, was constructed in the +upper story for the accommodation of the watchman, whose duty it was +to warn the inhabitants of approaching danger and to give notice of +fires. The bells rang at sunrise and curfew.

+ +

The chimes (carillon) marked the hours and their subdivisions, and +at festival seasons mingled their joyous notes with the deep and +solemn voice of the great bell.

+ +

The custom of tolling the great bell to give notice of a fire still +obtains in many villages of the North, the greater number of which +have preserved their belfries in spite of the modifications they have +undergone at different periods.

+ +

The belfry tower usually contained a prison, a hall for the +town-councillors, a muniment room, and a magazine for arms. It was +long the only town-hall of a commune.

+ +

[374]

+ +
+ +

226. BELFRY AT CALAIS (FRANCE)

+
+ +

We shall find examples of these early municipal buildings among the +isolated belfries of Belgium, such as that at Tournai, founded in +1187, and[375] rebuilt in part at the close of the fourteenth century, and +that of Ghent, the square tower of which dates from the end of the +twelfth century. Its spire is a modern addition.

+ +

A few buildings of this particular class still exist in France. +Such is the belfry of Calais, the square tower of which was built +during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It is crowned by an +octagonal superstructure, begun at the close of the fifteenth century, +and completed in the early years of the seventeenth. The belfry of +Bthune, which dates from the fourteenth century, is another. It +consists of a square tower reinforced at three of its angles by a +hexagonal turret, corbelled out from the wall. The fourth turret is +of the same shape, but here the projection is carried up from the +ground-floor, and contains the spiral staircase which communicates +with the various stories of the tower, and terminates on the embattled +parapet above. The building is completed by a pyramidal spire of great +elegance, crowned by the watchman's tower. The plan and details of +this superstructure proclaim it the source whence the gable turrets +of Louvain were derived. The great bells hang in the uppermost story, +the smaller ones of the carillon in the story below. On each faade at +the summit of the tower a great dial marks the hours, as was customary +from the fourteenth century onwards, when town-clocks first came into +general use.

+ +

The towns of Auxerre, Beaune, Amiens, vreux, and Avignon still +possess their belfries.

+ +

To the belfry of Amiens, which dates from the[376] thirteenth century, a +square dome was added some hundred years ago. But the great bell of +the fourteenth century has been preserved.

+ +
+ +

227. BELFRY OF BETHUNE (FRANCE)

+
+ +

[377]

+ +
+ +

228. BELFRY OF VREUX

+
+ +

The belfry of vreux retains its fifteenth-century character almost +in its entirety. That of Avignon, a monument of the close of the +fifteenth century, was[378] happily spared when the town-hall was replaced +by a modern structure.

+ +
+ +

229. BELFRY OF AVIGNON

+
+ +

The gate-house of the htel de ville at Bordeaux, known as the +grosse cloche, is an example of the[379] more ancient usage. Here we +find the bell hung over the gateway, as already described. The belfry +of Bordeaux, which appears to date from the fifteenth[380] century, is +very remarkable. It consists of two towers connected by a curtain +through which is an arched passage. A second arch protects the great +bell in the upper story, and the whole is surmounted by a central +roof, flanked right and left by the conical crowns of the lateral +turrets.

+ +
+ +

230. BELFRY GATE AT BORDEAUX, KNOWN AS LA GROSSE +CLOCHE

+
+ +

Markets, warehouses, and exchanges were often annexes of the +town-halls. A few examples of such buildings have been preserved, but +those of the third class are extremely rare. A specimen, remarkable +both for construction and decoration, which recall the Spanish +architecture of the fourteenth century, still exists at Perpignan. It +is a house known as La Loge, built in 1396, which originally served +as exchange to the cloth merchants of French Catalonia and Roussillon.

+ +

Palaces.—In the Middle Ages the name palace +was given to the dwelling of the sovereign. Its chief feature was the +basilica or judgment-hall.

+ +

The great nobles followed the royal example and constructed palaces in +the capitals of their feofs, as at Dijon, Troyes, and Poitiers, which +are the most important of such examples.

+ +

The town-houses of archbishops and bishops were also called palaces.

+ +

The courts, parliaments, and tribunals of the executive were held +in the palace of the suzerain or the bishop, where certain of the +buildings were open to the public. The important feature, the great +hall (grand salle), occupied a vast covered space in which the +plenary courts were held, the vassals assembled, and banquets were +given. It communicated with galleries or ambulatories. A chapel was[381] +always included in the plan of the palace, which consisted of the +lodging of the lord and his followers; offices, often of great extent; +rooms for the storing of archives; magazines, prisons, and innumerable +auxiliary buildings, divided by courtyards, and in some cases by +gardens.

+ +
+ +

231. CLOTH HALL AT PERPIGNAN, KNOWN AS LA LOGE

+
+ +

In Paris the palace proper, which was in the le de la Cit, consisted +of buildings constructed from the time of St. Louis to the reign of +Philip the Fair. From the reign of Charles V. it was specially devoted +to the administration of justice.

+ +

The only remains of the buildings of St. Louis are the Ste. +Chapelle, the two great towers with their intervening curtain on the +Quai de l'Horloge, and the square clock tower at the angle of the +quay.

+ +

[382]

+ +

The best examples of seignorial castles are: Troyes, which was built +by the Counts of Champagne, and inhabited by them till they removed +to Provins in the thirteenth century; and the palace of the Counts of +Poitiers at Poitiers, one of the most interesting of such buildings; +it was burnt by the English in 1346, and repaired or rebuilt at the +close of the fourteenth century by the brother of Charles V., Jean, +Duke of Berry, to whom we owe, among other architectural works, the +curious fireplace of the great vestibule, called the Salle des Pas +Perdus, in the Palais de Justice.

+ +
+ +

232. BISHOP'S PALACE AT LAON

+
+ +

[383]

+ +

The bishops' palaces were differently planned. They usually adjoined +the cathedrals, with which they communicated either on the north +or the south, according to the facilities afforded by the site. +The characteristic symbol of episcopal power which, in the earlier +centuries of the Middle Ages, claimed jurisdiction both in spiritual +and temporal matters, was the great hall, in later days the synod +house and the council chamber of the executive. The bishop's palace in +Paris, rebuilt by Maurice de Sully in 1160, preserved this medival +feature, which is even more conspicuous at Sens, in the magnificent +annexe known as the salle synodale (synod house).

+ +
+ +

233. ARCHBISHOP'S PALACE AT ALBI. PLAN

+
+ +

The canons' lodgings were also in close proximity to the cathedral, +but on the side opposite to the bishop's palace. They were surrounded +by an en[384]closure, the gates of which were fastened at night. It was +the duty of the canons to aid the bishop in his ministrations. They +lived together in annexes which communicated with the cathedral by +means of galleries and cloisters.[74]

+ +
+ +

[74] See Part II., "Monastic Architecture," the cloisters of +Puy-en-Velay and Elne in Roussillon.

+ +

The bishops' palaces were often remarkable for their elaborate +construction. Fragments of the primitive buildings are still preserved +in the palaces of Beauvais, Angers, Bayeux, and Auxerre.

+ +
+ +

234. ARCHBISHOP'S PALACE AT ALBI. GENERAL VIEW

+
+ +

The ancient episcopal palace of Laon[75] marks a development in +thirteenth-century architecture. It is a good example of that system +of construction by which the palace was connected with the city +ramparts and formed a secondary line of defence.

+ +
+ +

[75] The episcopate was transferred to Soissons in 1809.

+ +

[385]

+ +

This system was also adopted at Narbonne. At the close of the +thirteenth and during the fourteenth century the palace was +transformed into a fortress, the importance of which bore witness +to the power of its bishops. After Avignon, it is perhaps the most +imposing of episcopal dwellings.

+ +

From this time onward the bishops' palaces increased greatly in size, +their dimensions extending proportionately with those of the great +cathedrals of the period. The importance of the episcopal buildings +and their dependencies was on a par with the wealth and power of +their owners. Some idea of their magnificence may be gathered from +the private chapel of the archbishop at Rheims, which dates from the +middle of the thirteenth century.

+ +
+ +

235. PALACE OF THE POPES AT AVIGNON. PLAN

+
+ +

The archbishop's palace at Albi has all the character of a feudal +castle. Its buildings are protected by a keep, and encircled by walls +and towers[386] connected both with the ramparts of the city, and with +that more important fortalice, the cathedral itself, the tower of +which is, in fact, a formidable keep.[76]

+ +
+ +

[76] See Part I., Cathedral of Albi, Figs. 70-73.

+ +

The transformation of church and palace into fortresses by an +elaborate system of defence was necessitated by the wars which ravaged +the district, and from which Albi suffered more cruelly than any other +town.

+ +

The palace of the popes at Avignon which Pope Benedict XII. began to +build in the fourteenth century, and the bishop's palace at Narbonne, +are among the finest specimens of ecclesiastical fortification in the +Middle Ages.[77]

+ +
+ +

[77] For the Palace of the Popes, see Albert Lenoir and +Viollet-le-Duc.

+ +

The Popes, having established themselves at Avignon in the fourteenth +century, built a huge mansion on the rock known as the Rocher des +Doms, which overlooks the Rhone. In 1336 Benedict XII., having +destroyed his predecessor's palace, laid the foundations of the +immense fortified pile now in existence. The plans were the work of +the French architect, Pierre Obrier. The building was added to by +the successors of Benedict XII., Popes Clement VI., Innocent VI., +and Urban V., and was completed, or at any rate made efficient for +defence, by 1398, when Pedro de Luna, who became pope under the title +of Benedict XIII., sustained a memorable siege therein.

+ +

The whole building, which covers a very considerable area, was +completed in less than sixty years. Its formidable mass was further +strengthened by[387] the fortified enceinte of the town, some three +miles in circumference.

+ +

In general conception, in the architectural skill of its construction, +and in its tasteful decoration, the Palace of the Popes at Avignon +bears away the palm from all contemporary buildings in Germany and +Italy, where French influences were paramount.

+ +
+ +

236. PALACE OF THE POPES AT AVIGNON. GENERAL VIEW

+
+ +

This noble monument is absolutely and entirely French. No finer +combination of religious, monastic, military, and civil types could +be desired in illustration of the art we have agreed to term Gothic +Architecture, but which might be more truly entitled: Our National +Architecture in the Middle Ages.

+ +

Justice indeed demands this tardy homage. Our vast churches, our +superb cathedrals, our mighty castles and palace fortresses, the +masterpieces that[388] fill our museums—manifestations of artistic +power which should move us, not to servile imitation but to fruitful +study,—all were the creations of native architects.

+ +

That expansive force which made our national art the great civilising +medium of the Middle Ages was derived from our own early architects, +civil and religious. The principles and practice of monumental art +were carried by French architects into all countries, though the +results of their teaching are more conspicuous in Italy and Germany +than elsewhere. Native builders and artists established the supremacy +of French art throughout Western Europe, and even in the East. And +though the foreign evolution, which marked the sixteenth century, did +indeed exercise a transient influence in France, it must be remembered +that the way had been prepared for this apparently novel movement by +those French artists who have carried the fame of our beloved country +throughout the civilised world.

+ + +

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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Gothic Architecture, by douard Corroyer
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE ***
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